CARDIFF STUDIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVALUATION
OF THE EXTRAMURAL
MONUMENTAL COMPLEX
(‘THE SOUTHERN CANABAE’)
AT CAERLEON, 2011
An Interim Report
By
P. Guest, M. Luke & C. Pudney
CARDIFF STUDIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
SPECIALIST REPORT NUMBER 33
33
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF THE
EXTRAMURAL MONUMENTAL COMPLEX
(‘THE SOUTHERN CANABAE’)
AT CAERLEON, 2011
Interim Report
by
P. Guest, M. Luke & C. Pudney
with contributions by
P.Webster, M.Lewis & A.Powell
CARDIFF STUDIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
SPECIALIST REPORT NUMBER 33
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVALUATION OF THE
EXTRAMURAL MONUMENTAL COMPLEX
(‘THE SOUTHERN CANABAE’)
AT CAERLEON, 2011
Cardiff Studies in Archaeology Specialist Report 33
© The authors 2012
P. Guest, M.Luke and C.Pudney,
ISBN 978-0-9568398-2-4
Published by the Department of Archaeology & Conservation
School of History Archaeology and Religion
Cardiff University,
Humanities Building,
Colum Drive,
Cardiff,
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Contents
Introduction
1
Background
3
Project Aims & Objectives
9
Methodology
11
Results of the excavations
13
Trench 1
15
Trench 2
25
Trench 3
29
Trench 4
33
Trench 5
39
Trench 6
51
Trench 7
57
Trench 8
61
Trench 9
67
Artefact & Environmental Assemblages
73
Pottery - preliminary observations
79
Discussion and interpretation
87
Bibliography
95
Appendix 1 - Trench Matrices
97
Appendix 2 - Community Engagement
107
Appendix 3 - Project Team
113
Introduction
Excavations were undertaken across the area of the newly
discovered complex of monumental buildings to the
southwest of the legionary fortress of Isca at Caerleon
between the 4th of August and the 1st of September 2011.
This work was intended to evaluate the nature of the
archaeological remains in this part of Caerleon and to
provide important new information on the history and
role of Isca in the Roman period, which, as one of only
three permanent legionary fortresses in Britain, is a site of
signiicant international importance. Greater knowledge
of the extramural complex of monumental buildings
will lead to a better appreciation of Caerleon’s part in
the conquest, paciication and acculturation of Britain,
and improve understanding of the River Usk’s role in
connecting the fortress with the network of auxiliary
forts in southern Wales, as well as other parts of Roman
Britain and the Empire. The project was directed by Dr
Peter Guest of Cardiff University and Mike Luke of
Albion Archaeology, and the core project team consisted
of 13 staff and 23 student archaeologists from Cardiff
University.
From the outset the Caerleon excavations have linked
internationally signiicant research with undergraduate
training and a broad mission to engage with the public.
The engagement strategy this year was to continue to
raise the public’s awareness of, and participation in,
archaeological ieldwork and the remains of Roman
Britain. The excavation also provided an excellent
opportunity to involve 23 undergraduate students and
numerous young volunteers in knowledge transfer and
community engagement activities that will provide them
with signiicant employability skills.
The ields containing the Southern Canabae complex
are privately owned and we are grateful to Mr Michael
Haines of Broadway Farm for permission to carry out
the excavations. The area is also a Scheduled Ancient
Fig. 1. Aerial photograph of the 2011 Caerleon Southern Canabae trenches, the River Usk and the legionary amphitheatre
1
Introduction
Monument and Scheduled Monument Consent was
granted by Cadw. Funding for the excavations was
provided by Cardiff University, the Roman Research
Trust, the Haverield Bequest (University of Oxford),
Time Team, Newport City Council, and the Caerleon
Tourist Forum. Cadw provided funding for the initial
post-excavation archiving work and preparation of this
interim report and we are grateful to Jonathan Berry
and his colleagues at Cadw for their continued support.
Finally, we would like to thank the staff at the National
Roman Legion Museum (National Museum Wales) for
their encouragement and assistance.
while Adrienne Powell completed the assessment of
the animal bone assemblage. We are pleased to include
summaries of their reports in this interim, which begins
the process of integrating the stratigraphic narrative and
the related inds evidence. A summary of the community
engagement activities devised for the 2011 season is also
provided here (a full report is available from the authors).
Professor Bill Manning kindly commented on a draft
and we are very grateful to him for helping to remove
the inconsistencies and glitches in the text. We would
also like to thank Tim Young for providing images of the
geophysical survey results as well as his interpretations.
Ian Dennis of Cardiff University prepared this report for
publication with his usual skill and patience.
This report summarises the results of the evaluation
and includes the stratigraphic sequences recorded in
each of the nine trenches, an overview of the inds
assemblages, and a discussion of the excavation’s
signiicance for understanding the legionary fortress at
Caerleon. Mark Lewis and Peter Webster undertook the
preliminary analysis of the pottery from the excavations,
Fig. 2. Almost the complete Caerleon Southern Canabae 2011 excavation team, 31st August.
2
Background
The site of Roman Isca, which lies beneath the town of
Caerleon near Newport in South Wales, is one of the best
known legionary fortresses from the Empire - a result of
the intensive accumulation of knowledge obtained over
a century-and-a-half of antiquarian and archaeological
exploration at Caerleon which enables the fortress’
layout and history to be described in some detail. The
signiicance of the site has been understood for centuries
and Isca’s ruins were conspicuous enough in the medieval
landscape of South Wales to merit comment in the work
of chroniclers such as Gerald of Wales and Geoffrey of
Monmouth in the twelfth century.
The irst antiquarian work was undertaken by John
Edward Lee in the 1840s, though the framework of
understanding of the fortress really only really began
to be established during the course of several important
excavations carried out by the National Museum of
Wales from the 1920s to the 1980s (Boon 1972; Boon
1987; Jones 2001; Knight 2001: 48). These revealed
many of the buildings inside and around the fortress,
including the amphitheatre, various barrack blocks (of
which the most important are those in Prysg Field), the
headquarters building, a possible hospital, the fortress
CAERLEON
CARDIFF
CAERLEON
0
100km
EXCAVATIONS
2011
Fig. 3. Location of Caerleon, South Wales (maps reproduced by permission of Ordnance Survey on behalf of
HMSO. © Crown Copyright. All rights reserved.)
3
Background
modern city of Newport. Isca was founded in c. A.D.
74 or 75 probably by Legio Secunda Augusta during,
or perhaps in advance of, the inal campaigns of the
governor of Britannia Julius Frontinus against the Silures
and other native tribes of this western part of Britain. The
Usk allowed the legion to be supplied by sea and also to
provision the auxiliary units based in the upstream forts
at Abergavenny and Brecon, while the road that crossed
the Usk at Caerleon led to the major Roman settlements
at Gloucester and Wroxeter in the east (both of which had
been earlier legionary bases), and westwards towards the
fort at Cardiff and beyond to Carmarthen.
baths, a tribune’s house, various supposed workshops,
and a quay on the right bank of the Usk. From the 1980s
numerous watching-briefs, evaluations and large-scale
excavations have been undertaken by the GlamorganGwent Archaeological Trust and other commercial units
at Caerleon, of which the most signiicant were those on
the Roman Gates site (Evans and Metcalf 1992) and the
extramural settlement to the east of the fortress on Mill
Street (Evans 2000). The insightful accounts published
by George Boon summarised the state of knowledge in
the 1970s and 1980s (Boon 1972; Boon 1987), while
up-to-date summaries and discussions of speciic themes
relating to Caerleon have appeared more recently (Brewer
2002; Manning 2004; Evans 2010).
Initially many of the buildings within the fortress
would have been built in timber, though the techniques
employed by excavators in Caerleon during much of the
twentieth century means that any evidence for timber
structures would not have been recognised in their narrow
trenches. The amphitheatre was irst constructed in about
90 by which time the decision had probably been taken
to make Isca the Second Augustan Legion’s permanent
base in Britain, and most buildings appear to have been
Isca lies on a spur of gently rising ground between the
meandering River Usk and its loodplain to the east and
south, the Afon Lwyd stream to the north, and Lodge Hill
to the northwest (Fig. 3). Oriented almost exactly southeast to north-west, the fortress covers 20.3 hectares (some
50 acres) on the right bank of the Usk at the river’s lowest
bridging point before it enters the Severn Estuary at the
Fortress North
Compass North
Fig. 4. Plan of the legionary fortress of Isca at Caerleon as known in 2002
4
Background
rebuilt in stone between the late irst and early second
centuries. Soon afterwards the legion was redeployed
to northern Britain where it assisted in the construction
of irst Hadrian’s Wall and, subsequently, the Antonine
Wall. For the succeeding decades of the second century it
is likely that the legion would have left only a small force
at Caerleon while the majority of its men were occupied
with the various demolitions and renovations of the Walls
that took place up to c. 160 before it was inally decided
that Hadrian’s Wall was to be the northern frontier of the
Roman Empire. Epigraphic evidence points to several
rebuilding events in Caerleon during the third century unsurprising given the age of the original buildings and
the extended period of semi-abandonment during the
second century.
century, notably from the southern and eastern parts.
The identity of these late-Roman inhabitants has been
a matter of considerable debate with some suggesting a
reduced military garrison, while others have imagined
civilians living in abandoned barracks and other military
buildings until the end of the Roman period when, like
most places in Britain, the archaeological evidence for
occupation disappears (Gardner 2007).
In 2003 Cadw grant-aided the Glamorgan-Gwent
Archaeological Trust to produce a research framework for
Caerleon (Evans 2004). This document set out how much
was known about fortress, but also highlighted the areas
where knowledge was lacking and suggested measures
that could be taken to provide valuable information to ill
in those gaps. The research framework emphasised the
plan of the canabae and the development of the River Usk
as research priorities, and also highlighted the potential
of modern excavations to produce important information
relating to the society and culture of the inhabitants
of Caerleon and its environs (particularly inds and
environmental evidence). This initiative set in motion a
It is thought that the military occupation at Isca ended c.
300 when the legion was redeployed, possibly to a new
fort at Cardiff before appearing as the garrison of the
Saxon Shore fort at Richborough in the early ifth-century
Notitia Dignitatum. The fortress, however, has produced
evidence for occupation during much of the fourth
Fortress North
Compass North
Fig. 5. Updated plan of Isca after geophysical surveys from 2006 to 2008 (newly-discovered buildings shown in red)
5
Background
number of research projects at Caerleon, including the
programme of geophysical surveys of all the remaining
areas of open ground within the fortress undertaken by
GeoArch and Cardiff University between 2006 and 2008
(Fig. 5. See also Guest and Young 2007; Guest and Young
2010), and the major excavations by Cardiff University
and UCL of a legionary store-building in Priory Field in
2008 and 2010 (Guest and Gardner 2008; Gardner and
Guest 2010).
area, as well as a more extensive series of anomalies on
the eastern side of the courtyard aligned on a different
orientation to the surrounding building or the fortress.
The magnetic gradiometer recorded the strongest readings
from this building along the incomplete southern range
closest to the right bank of the Usk. The eastern range of
the building appears to be wider than the western side and
seems to have been subdivided longitudinally into four
or perhaps ive parallel, though narrow, rows of rooms.
The northern range furthest from the river is apparently
as wide as the eastern side, but the internal area here
seems to be divided into large rectangular spaces with
their narrow sides facing the courtyard and ambulatory
(although there are also indications of smaller rooms too).
In 2008 a gradiometer survey was undertaken of open
ields around the amphitheatre to the southwest of the
fortress. These continued until 2011 and ultimately
revealed a previously unknown complex of large publicstyle buildings extending over an area of about 5 hectares
outside the fortress (Figs 6 and 7). Previous work in the
1950s hinted at the presence of large Roman buildings
in this part of Caerleon, including a bath-house and
a building with a monumental entranceway, yet the
scale and nature of the newly-discovered suburb was
nevertheless surprising. Elsewhere on this side of the
fortress, civilian occupation seems to be conined to fairly
rural-looking structures along either side of the main road
leading out of Isca’s west gate (Chapman 2011, 324-26;
Young 2012).
Zone 2) The large courtyard building lies on the
loodplain of the Usk and the land to the north rises up to
the low promontory on which the amphitheatre and the
fortress are sited. The second area of buildings located on
the gradiometer survey lies on the upper part of this slope
and the top of the higher ground, apparently connected
to the back of the main courtyard building. The higher
geophysical readings in this area suggest a complicated
picture of walls criss-crossing this part of the complex.
There are also several very high anomalies in this ield
that might be related to recent agricultural activity such
as the digging of pits and post-holes, or possibly the
excavation of the amphitheatre in the 1920s (particularly
the dumping of spoil). At this stage it is dificult to discern
the layout of discrete buildings or internal walls, although
these certainly followed the same alignment as the rest of
the complex.
The monumental complex that comprises the Southern
Canabae includes one of the largest buildings known from
Roman Britain fronting onto the Usk (the courtyard alone
enclosed an area into which Caerleon’s amphitheatre
would have itted with room to spare). Other buildings
extending northwards from the river included further
courtyards and possible basilica-like buildings. The
whole complex appears to have been built as a single
entity and was orientated approximately west-northwest
to east-southeast and, therefore, on a different alignment
to the fortress itself. This part of Caerleon has long been
under rough pasture and the evidence for relatively
recent activity is limited to a few discrete areas of metal
dumping, lines of old fences and relict ield boundaries.
The detailed examination and interpretation of these
geophysical surveys is available elsewhere (Chapman
2011, 324-26; Young 2012), but in light of the 2011
excavations the Southern Canabae complex is described
here as consisting of at least three major buildings or
groups of buildings:
Zone 3) Immediately north of this indistinct middleground lies a northern zone of two courtyards and
associated buildings aligned on the same orientation. The
irst courtyard measures 45-50m square and is apparently
enclosed on three sides by a narrow corridor, possibly an
ambulatory, while the eastern side is bounded by what
seems to be a major aisled building. This building, or
perhaps another adjoining building, continues eastwards
towards the amphitheatre and the bath-building revealed
by the Wheelers in the 1920s (Bath A) , though today it
is obscured by farm-buildings (Evans 2000, 492-5). On
the opposite western side of the courtyard, and apparently
built up against the western ambulatory, is a row of six or
seven large rectangular rooms whose narrow ends face
towards the courtyard and the Usk loodplain.
Zone 1) The southernmost building closest to the Usk
is also the largest. Measuring 140m from east to west
and at least 120m from north to south, it consists of a
large square courtyard covering an area of approximately
1 hectare, possibly provided with a covered portico or
ambulatory, and surrounded by ranges on all four sides.
The courtyard itself contains two features that are likely
to be buildings or structures of some kind. Both show as
positive white anomalies (in contrast to the ranges whose
walls produce negative readings), and include a small
square structure on the main north-south axis of the open
Although the second courtyard is imaged less clearly on
the magnetometer results, it is possible to make out the
main features of the structures that occupied this most
northerly part of the complex. It seems to consist of an
irregular square or rectangular open space bounded on its
southern side by the courtyard just described, its western
and northern sides by walls, or possibly roads, and on
its eastern side by another long north-south building that
6
Background
Fortress North
Compass North
Fig. 6. Combined results of the gradiometer surveys to the south of Caerleon 2008-11 (© GeoArch)
Fortress North
Zone 3
Compass North
Zone 2
Zone 1
Fig. 7. Interpretation of the geophysical results 2008-11, showing the Southern Canabae complex (© GeoArch)
7
Background
appears to be subdivided into internal rooms. There are
clearly buildings continuing from this point eastwards
towards the amphitheatre though they also lie beneath
modern farm-buildings. During excavation in advance of
the construction of these agricultural buildings, however,
Nash-Williams revealed a large courtyard structure
with hypocausted rooms and a monumental porticoed
entranceway (Building D) that is almost certainly a
continuation of this northernmost series of buildings
identiied during the geophysical surveys (Evans 2000,
492-6).
Large extramural courtyard buildings similar to the
Zone 1 example at Caerleon described above have been
identiied at the legionary fortresses at Carnuntum,
Nijmegen, Mirebeau and Vindonissa on the continent
(though only at Nijmegen in the Netherlands has one been
excavated), yet Isca seems to be unusual in not otherwise
having developed a signiicant civilian settlement outside
its walls (Goguey and Reddé 1995; Hartmann 1986;
Willems and van Enckevort 2009). The immediate
questions posed by the results of the geophysical surveys
concerned the dating and function of the complex of
monumental buildings. Was it associated with the military
occupation of the site, or was the intention for Caerleon
to become a centre of civilian administration for western
Britain like York in the North? The alignment of the
complex suggests either that it is earlier than the fortress,
or contemporary but somehow separate (possibly not
‘military’).
Two small trial trenches excavated in 2010 over the
southern range of the very large courtyard building
closest to the Usk (Zone 1), revealed a wall constructed
from deliberately broken and relaid tegulae (roof tiles),
which was thought to be part of Roman Caerleon’s main
quay on the Usk. Material dumped outwards from this
wall was interpreted as the remains of landing stages or
jetties projecting out into the river to allow larger ships
to dock at Caerleon. The 2010 trial trenches suggested
that the Roman remains survive very well in this part of
Caerleon’s outskirts, and there was little evidence for
extensive medieval and modern disturbance (Gardner
and Guest 2010).
Fig. 8.Test pits 1 and 2 excavated in 2010 close to the right bank of the river Usk
8
Project Aims & Objectives
Geophysical surveys carried out between 2008 and
2010 identiied an extensive complex of public-style
monumental buildings between the amphitheatre and the
Usk. This part of the fortress canabae includes several
large courtyard structures, one of which measures
approximately 140m by 120m. The precise layout, date
and function of these buildings are not known at the
present time, but their ground plans suggest it is possible
that they could have been either associated with the
legionary command or part of a formal civil settlement,
and it seems likely that the complex included parts of a
port on the River Usk.
•
•
•
•
•
Layout of the buildings identiied by the gradiometer
surveys
Date of the buildings’ abandonment and, potentially,
some indication of when they were constructed
Function of these buildings and, therefore, the
purpose of the monumental complex
Remains of the suggested quayside wall and landing
stages, including their construction and histories
Extent of erosion to the remains caused by the River
Usk, and if the river continues to erode this important
archaeological resource.
Another objective of the 2011 excavation was to
increase the public’s awareness of, and participation
in, archaeological ieldwork and the rich historic
environment of Wales. The 2011 project aimed to
contribute to many of the ambitions set out in the Welsh
Historic Environment Strategy published in 2009 by
offering the opportunity to participate in archaeological
discovery and increasing awareness of Britain’s Roman
past. This promoted heritage tourism in South Wales and
beneitted the local economy.
The discovery of these buildings is a remarkable addition
to the fortress at Caerleon, but many questions remained
about their dating and functions. The 2011 evaluation
trenches were located to investigate the full extent of
the monumental complex that comprises the Southern
Canabae, speciically aiming to improve our knowledge
and understanding of the following research topics:
9
Methodology
The 2011 evaluation consisted of nine trenches exposing
a total area of 410 m2, or less than 1% of the extent of the
Southern Canabae (Fig. 9). The trenches were located so
as to ground truth the geophysical results and to provide
as much information as possible on the plans, functions
and dating of the buildings comprising the monumental
complex:
•
•
•
•
•
Trenches 1, 2, 3 and 4 investigated different parts of
the very large courtyard building closest to the Usk
(zone 1)
Trench 5 was positioned to the rear of the centre of
the northern range of the same courtyard building
and extended upslope into the indistinct area of
buildings in the centre of the complex (zone 2)
Trench 6 examined the eastern part of zone 2 lying
adjacent to the amphitheatre
Trenches 7 and 8 were located at the eastern
and western sides of the southern courtyard and
adjoining aisled building in zone 3
Trench 9 was positioned over the probable aisled
building to the east of the most northerly courtyard
also in zone 3.
Seven of the trenches measured 20m by 2m, Trench 3
measured 10m by 5m, and Trench 1 also 10m by 5m
but with a 15m by 2m extension to the north. All were
excavated to the irst signiicant archaeological deposits,
except for Trench 1 where Scheduled Monument Consent
allowed excavation to the full depth of the surviving
stratigraphy.
•
A dedicated project page for the excavations in
Caerleon on the Council for British Archaeology’s
Community Archaeology Forum website where the
dig blog was updated daily as the season progressed.
People could also follow the latest discoveries on
Facebook and Twitter.
•
Volunteers could work on the excavation where they
gained experience of excavation, archaeological
recording and inds work (cleaning and recording).
•
All visitors to the site were given a tour of the
excavation where they found out more about the
background to the project, the excavation techniques
being used, and the archaeological remains in the
trenches. Objects from the excavation were on
display in the Finds Tent where visitors could see a
range of artefacts uncovered during the season.
•
A 3-day Open Weekend was held during the Summer
Bank Holiday when visitors could visit the site
throughout the day and take part in various handson activities. The engagement element of the project
involved Cardiff University’s dedicated Community
Archaeologist and Community Engagement Team.
Channel 4’s Time Team ilmed the excavation over three
days for a programme dedicated to Caerleon that was
broadcast in March 2012. Trench 3 was excavated by Phil
Harding with Cardiff University students and volunteers,
and the programme promoted the archaeology of Roman
Caerleon to a mainstream audience across the UK.
The topsoil and any overburden were removed by machine
after which the trenches were entirely hand-excavated (all
machined spoil was metal-detected). On site recording
was completed according to Cardiff University standards
and bulk and small inds were processed and recorded
on site. Samples were taken from deposits where it was
considered that surviving environmental remains will
make a contribution to the understanding of a building’s
functions or dating. The trenches were backilled by
machine at the end of the excavation.
Building on the success of the Priory Field excavations in
2008 and 2010, the Southern Canabae project encouraged
the public to explore Roman antiquity by becoming
involved with the archaeological ieldwork at Caerleon.
The following resources and opportunities were available
during the 2011 season:
11
Methodology
Fortress North
Compass North
Fig. 9. Caerleon Southern Canabae 2011, trench location plan
12
Excavation
Results
The following sections describe the archaeological remains encountered in the nine evaluation trenches excavated
in 2011. The results are compared to the gradiometer survey results and the trench narratives attempt to arrange the
stratigraphy into a sequence of phased episodes of construction, use, disuse and dereliction. The trenches are described
in some detail with summary plans and photographs, while the accompanying stratigraphic matrices can be found in
Appendix 1. Walls and negative features such as pits, foundation trenches and post-holes, are indicated with square
brackets [123], while layers and ills are shown within round brackets (123). Common abbreviations include ORS
(Old Red Sandstone) and CBM (ceramic building material).
The preliminary analysis of the inds and environmental evidence is included after the site narratives. The metal
and other registered small inds are due to be cleaned and conserved in the near future, but it is possible to discuss
the pattern of small inds between the nine trenches. The bulk inds, including brick and tile and the animal bone
assemblage, are also described, while the extensive work on the pottery assemblage has important implications for the
dating of the Southern Canabae and the identiication of the activities that took place there.
Trench 1
Trench 1 was located to investigate the geophysical
anomalies that run parallel to the River Usk. The area
closest to the river produced higher gradiometer readings
than other parts of the Southern Canabae and it is thought
that the buildings exposed in the trench included part
of Caerleon’s port facilities as well as the southeastern
range of the large courtyard building. The trench was
positioned at the eastern end of the building’s south-north
axis, looking towards the building in the courtyard (partly
excavated in Trench 3) and in line with the middle of the
building’s northern range where Trench 5 was located
(Fig. 9). The provisional stratigraphic matrix for Trench
1 can be found in Appendix 1.
11). The main part of the trench was 5m wide, while the
15m long extension was 2m wide.
The latest Roman deposits in Trench 1 lay some 0.30.4m below the modern ground surface and were sealed
by layers of alluvial silts deposited during more recent
looding events. Other evidence for post-Roman activity
was restricted to a ditch and revetted bank at the west
end of the trench. The River Usk is likely to be actively
eroding the eastern side of the buildings identiied in
Trench 1, although the modern lood defences may well
be reducing the rate of this destruction.
After the 2010 season the tegula wall was interpreted
as part of a quayside structure on the edge of Usk’s
riverbank, though the 2011 excavation showed that this
was almost certainly not the case and that the river during
the Roman period must have lowed some distance to the
east of its current course. Instead it is believed that the
tegula wall separated a row of buildings of some kind
on its riverward side from a roadway running parallel
Two 5m by 2m test pits excavated in this area in 2010
revealed the upper courses of a wall constructed of broken
roof tiles that appears to have produced the positive
magnetic linear anomaly that extended for at least 80m
alongside the modern riverbank. Trench 1 included the
northernmost of these test pits (TP1) and extended for a
distance of 25m from southeast to northwest (Fig 10 and
es
tr
or
th
or
sN
F
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
0
10m
Fig. 10. Trench 1 showing main walls superimposed over gradiometer results. Numbers refer to 'Areas' as described
in the trench discussion.
15
Excavation results, Trench 1
118
107
149
Areas 1.1
and 1.2
114
148
114
116
149
115
115
105
124
125
Areas 1.3
128
132
132
Roadway 1.4
133
1
Trench
N
133
168
0
Fig. 11. Trench 1 from east to west as excavated
to these buildings. Two northeast-to-southwest aligned
walls on the other side of the roadway appear to belong
to the main courtyard building, probably marking the
position of its narrow front wing and the boundary with
the courtyard itself (see Fig. 12). The spaces separated by
these various walls in Trench 1 are number 1.1 to 1.6 in
the following discussion.
2m
Building 1.5
188
189
177
126
CONSTRUCTION AND USE
The earliest deposits exposed in the trench consisted of
alluvial clays (194) and (198) in the northern part of the
trench. These sloped gradually down towards the river,
though the shallowness of the gradient indicates that the
river bank in the Roman period must have been some
distance further east of this point.
171
176
120
127
122
The tegula wall [115] passed through the full 5m width
of the trench (Fig. 13). The wall was built over cobbled
footings (190), offset on the wall’s western side by 0.4m,
which seem to have been constructed on top of the
underlying surface rather than within a foundation trench
(Fig. 14). A line of large stones (175) above the remains
of a wooden plank/beam (193) on the eastern side of
the wall possibly represent revetting against which the
footings had been piled in order to stop these slipping
down the natural slope (Fig. 15).
170
Courtyard 1.6
Fig. 12. Final plan of Trench 1 showing walls and
main features
16
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig. 13. East end of Trench 1 showing tegula wall [115] and associated structures in Areas 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3
Fig. 14. West face of tegula wall [115] and underlying cobbled foundations (190)
17
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig 15. East face of tegula wall [115], showing underlying burnt wooden beam (193) and large stones (175)
against the wall’s face
Eleven courses of tegulae survived forming a wall that
was 0.6m wide. The tiles had been deliberately broken
lengthways and each half set slightly apart to create a
central space that was illed with smaller pieces of broken
brick and tile. The langes of the broken tegulae formed
the wall’s faces and the entire structure was bonded with
solidly packed clay. The langes of the uppermost tegula
course had been carefully chipped away to leave a lat
surface, on top of which sat a twelfth course of faced
stones at the northern end of the trench and broken bricks
at the southern end. It is possible, therefore, that this wall
was not built much higher than it survives today and
that it acted as a sleeper wall for a timber or colonnaded
superstructure.
(157) could be the remains of a temporary partition or an
attempt to drain the area during construction.
After the tegula wall had been built, the footings and
the lowest courses of tegulae were sealed by extensive
deposits of clay intermixed with other material that raised
and levelled the ground to either side of the wall.
Surface (149) within the southern Area 1.1 consisted of
an intermittent layer of large ORS slabs with smaller
angular stones, as well as pieces of brick and tile in
between and patches of pebbled metalling (Fig. 17). This
surface continued beyond the southern edge of the trench
and was not excavated.
Areas 1.1 and 1.2
The footings of an east-west wall were identiied in the
southeastern corner of the trench (excavated in the 2010
test pit). The wall had been robbed but the 0.6m wide
foundations survived, comprising closely packed angular
stones [148]. The sequence of clay make-up deposits to
the north and south of the foundations were different and
the wall must have been upstanding when the ground
was raised. The surfaces either side of the wall were also
different indicating that it separated different buildings,
or separate rooms within a single building (Fig. 17).
East of the tegulae wall the lowest clay dump (179)
contained a dark deposit (192) including large lumps
of slag and charcoal (Fig. 16). Further clay and silty
levelling material (173/161/155/160/156/154), lay
below a north-south arrangement of stones, brick and
tiles (153) that probably formed a temporary division
or revetment to control the dumping. This was sealed
by further clay deposits (146/145). The sequence
of material on the western side of the tegulae wall
(186/180/184/185/183/157/151) indicates that the wall
was already upstanding when the levelling dumps were
deposited against its faces. A shallow gully [159] within
In Area 1.2 north of wall [148], the levelling deposits
were overlain by a series of surfaces, the earliest of
which consisted of patches of angular ORS slabs and
crushed CBM fragments (130) and metalling (129). A
shallow semi-circular structure (116) butting against the
east face of tegula wall [115] was constructed on top of
these primary surfaces (Fig. 18). This unusual feature
consisted of a crude surface of roughly hewn ORS blocks
with intermittent patches of crushed tile, while a row of
smaller stones and broken brick on its eastern side seemed
18
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig. 16. North section of Trench 1 showing natural clays and levelling deposits on the
riverward side of tegula wall [115]
Fig. 17. East-facing view of foundations [148] and surface 149 in Area 1.1 (on left of photograph)
Area 1.3
West of the tegula wall in Trench 1 was a narrow strip of
ground that appears either to have been part of a lean-to
building against the wall, or a pavement of some kind
between the buildings described above and the roadway
to the west (Fig. 19). This area included the remains
of a 2.3m long wall [128] projecting perpendicularly
from the west face of the tegula wall. Only the upper
surviving course was exposed and, therefore, the level
from which it was constructed is not known. It was built
using roughly-hewn ORS blocks and was clay bonded,
and it seems most likely that it was part of an open-ended
to create a narrow gap or groove on its front face. The
purpose of this structure is unclear, but the surface around
it within Area 1.2 was relaid and repatched several times
with mortar (135) and brick and tile (130/138), possibly
incorporating a crude drainage channel (141). Eventually,
most of these deposits were overlain by a inal more
substantial stone and CBM surface (123/136), associated
with a mixed charcoal deposit containing iron and copper
objects as well as metalworking slags (118) that indicate
some of the activities that took place in this building at
the end of its life (though it could also have been dumped
here after the building was abandoned).
19
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig.18. Semi-circular feature (116) in Area 1.2 (bottom) and surface 149 in Area 1.1 (top)
building of some kind constructed against the tegula wall
(against which it butted), whose entrance faced directly
onto the road.
brick, tile and two pieces of a rotary quern set in a clay
bedding (132) (Fig. 20). The roadway petered out on its
western side where it met wall [168].
The surfaces either side of wall [128] consisted of sandy
silts with occasional pieces of brick, tile and stone. These
were darker and more mixed (125) north of the wall, and
lighter to the south where a patch of crushed tile (124)
against the wall’s south face suggests that this is most
likely to have been the interior of a building with which
it was associated. The interior and exterior surfaces were
both at a higher level than the road surface to the west and
appear to have partly encroached over it.
Building 1.5
The extension of Trench 1 extended across the full width
of a narrow corridor-like building identiied on the
gradiometer survey results. This structure was aligned
on the same orientation as the riverside building, the
tegula wall and the roadway. It is likely that this was the
courtyard building’s front wing facing the river and the
port.
Building 1.5 was deined by north-south walls [168]
and [120] on its eastern and western sides respectively,
creating a space between them of slightly more than 6m.
Wall [168] was 0.55m wide and consisted of crudely
faced clay-bonded ORS blocks with a rubble core (Fig.
21). At just under 1m wide, wall [120] was broader
than [168] and the short length of this wall exposed
in the trench showed that it had been built using two
different techniques (Figs. 22 and 23). The northern part
consisted of faces of stones of various sizes and a rubble
core bonded with earth, while the southern part was
constructed with triangular bricks and a core of CBM and
rubble that were bonded together with orange clay. That
the two parts are clearly bonded together demonstrates
that the different constructions were part of the original
build, and it is likely that this difference suggests that
one part of the wall was the end of an entranceway. The
Road 1.4
The roadway ran between the possible lean-to structure
or pavement against the riverside building and the long
corridor-like building to the west (Fig. 19). It was between
3.5m and 3.75m wide and was partly excavated in the
northern part of the trench. The lowest layer associated
with the road was a possible metalled surface (162)
above the uppermost levelling deposit, which in turn was
overlain by a darker deposit with fewer stones (124) that
continued into the area of the later lean-to building. The
latest substantial surface of the road probably consisted
of lagstones, which only survived in one area. The
lagstones were heavily worn and fragmented and had
been extensively patched and relaid with clay, stone,
brick and tile (133). The eastern edge of the roadway
was raised with a roughly laid surface of large lat stones,
20
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig. 19. Area 1.3, including wall [128], and the patched roadway 1.4 west of tegula wall
Fig. 20. Quern stones reused in patching of roadway 1.4 (132)
21
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig. 21. North-south wall [168] separating roadway 1.4 (on left) from building 1.5 (on right)
Fig. 22. North-south wall [120] separating building 1.5 (on left) from courtyard 1.6 (on right). The two east-west
walls in the trench edge ([171] to left and [127] on right) possibly mark the southern side of an entranceway into
the courtyard.
22
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig. 23. West face of wall [120] and the latest cobbled surface in courtyard 1.6. Note the two different methods of
construction and wall [127] projecting into the courtyard area
geophysical survey results indicate that the middle the
courtyard building’s front wing lay just to the north of
Trench 1, in which case the stone-built part of wall [120]
exposed in the trench was most probably the southern end
of the main entranceway from the corridor building into
the courtyard itself.
wall had been robbed and that (167) was part of the ill
of the robber trench that was not recognised during the
excavation.
Courtyard 1.6
The geophysical results suggest the western end of Trench
1 extended into courtyard of the very large building on
the southern side of the Southern Canabae. A later ield
boundary truncated or covered a large part of the end of
the extension, but it was possible nevertheless to reveal
the inal surfaces of the open area next to the building’s
east wing (see Figs. 22 and 23).
An east-west oriented wall [171] on the very southern
edge of Trench 1 butted against the inside faces of walls
[168] and [120]. Only its northern face was visible in
the trench and it is not known how wide this wall would
have been, although enough was exposed to show that it
had been crudely faced with earth-bonded ORS blocks
of varying sizes (Fig. 22). The western end of this wall
butted up to the brick-built part of wall [120] and it is
possible, therefore, that it marked the south side of the
putative entranceway.
A short brick wall [127] projected into the open area from
external wall the wing’s [120]. This continued beyond
the southern edge of the trench and how wide the wall
was is therefore unknown, but, like the southern part
of [120] (against which it butted) it was built of claybonded courses of triangular bricks and a CBM core. The
wall extended for some 1.4m into the courtyard and its
western end was squared. Wall [127] lies on the same
alignment as wall [171] inside the corridor building 1.5
and it is probably a continuation of the southern side of
the entranceway through the building’s front wing from
the riverside roadway. It seems likely that this short wall
would have served as a buttress, plinth or base of some
kind to monumentalise the southern side of this entrance
when viewed from the courtyard. The latest surface of
the courtyard butted against wall [127] and consisted of
large river cobbles and some stones bedding onto clay
(182/191).
A possible early stone surface in the corridor /
entranceway (176/177) was found between walls [120]
and [171], although the surviving stones blocks were
irregularly shaped and could also be part of a construction
deposit. This area was subsequently illed by various
layers of rubble (174), silts (172/121) and then more
rubble (126/187/188/189). The uppermost of these rubble
deposits lay at the same height as the roadway further east
and they probably represent the latest loor surfaces in the
corridor / entranceway.
The eastern wall [168] appeared to have be sealed by
a layer of silt (167), although it seems likely that the
23
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig. 24. West end of the Trench 1 extension showing the
oblique medieval or post-medieval ield boundary and
Roman structures beyond
DISUSE, DECAY AND ROBBING
In the corridor building 1.5, possible evidence for
demolition/collapse deposits consisted of rubble and
CBM (119/126) which were in turn overlain by a very
compact clay (111). These were similar to layers (107)
and (108) in the eastern half of the trench. In general,
however, the deposits that seem to be related to the decay
and abandonment of the buildings in Trench 1 are much
shallower than comparable layers in the other trenches.
This might be explained if these buildings had been
abandoned and dismantled earlier than elsewhere, or if
this part of the Southern Canabae closest to the River
Usk had been subjected to extensive looding which led
to these buildings’ abandonment and also carried away
much of the material that remained after their demolition.
The effects of the looding experienced in this part of
Caerleon are shown in the thickness of alluvial clay (106)
that overlies all of Trench 1 (Fig. 16).
ORS blocks and pieces of Roman brick and tile. The
bank and ditch were part of an unusual semi-circular ield
boundary and it is possible that they could have served as
a lood defence.
FIELD BOUNDARY
A substantial Medieval or post-Medieval boundary was
located at the very western end of the trench extension.
It consisted of a ditch [102], which was still visible on
the surface, and an adjacent wall [170] and bank (178) to
the east (Fig. 24). The wall had been built using reused
24
Trench 2
Trench 2 was intended to examine how the central open
area of the Southern Canabae’s main courtyard building
was surfaced, as well as to investigate the geophysical
anomalies in the courtyard’s northwestern corner which
it was thought could be of post-Roman origin (Figs 25
and 26).
A thin (c. 0.05m thick) charcoal-rich layer (223) overlay
the natural geology in the western sondage, though
nothing similar was found at the east end of the trench.
This was sealed by a series of thick clay deposits that
extended across the entire trench, including (214/221/222)
at the eastern end and (226-230) in the western sondage.
It is possible that the charcoal layer is derived from the
clearance of vegetation in advance of construction work
in the early Roman period, the irst stage of which is
represented by the succeeding clay levelling layers.
Analysis of the few sherds of pottery from these layers
will conirm if these indicate Roman activity or pre-date
the arrival of the legion in Caerleon.
It was found that the courtyard surface consisted of open
ground upon which cobbles and stones had been thrown
down as hard standing. These had been cut by a post-hole
and a shallow pit. The geophysical anomalies seem to
correlate with a substantial rubble structure that appeared
to have been deliberately laid. The only evidence for
post-Roman activity in Trench 2 was a post-Medieval
ield boundary. The provisional stratigraphic matrix for
Trench 2 can be found in Appendix 1.
STONE STRUCTURE
An area of large angular blocks of stones was revealed in
the central part of the trench that appears to have formed
part of a structure of some kind (Figs 28 and 29). These
stones extended between 3.25m and 3.8m from east to
west, and the lowest layers of blocks (207) were probably
laid directly on top of the underlying clay levelling
deposits. The western edge of the feature was straight and
here the stones gave the impression of having been laid
with their lat sides facing upwards to form a face of at
least two courses. The largest stones were found on this
western side, while smaller blocks and large cobbles were
more prevalent to the east where the feature’s edge was
diagonal to the trench. The upper layers of stone (208)
were all large and there did not appear to be any internal
CLEARANCE AND LEVELLING
After hand excavation had conirmed no sensitive or
signiicant archaeological remains were present, and
with permission from Cadw, a sondage was dug by
mini-digger at the eastern end of the trench. The natural
geology, consisting of a light grey-blue clay containing
river-borne cobbles (231), was located at a depth of
1.00-1.15m (Fig. 27). A hand-excavated sondage at the
western end of the trench discovered similar grey-blue
clay at a similar depth, demonstrating that the underlying
geology in this part of the loodplain is relatively level.
r
Fo
0
sN
s
tre
th
or
10m
Fig. 25.Trench 2 superimposed over gradiometer results and showing extent of
stone feature (207)
25
Excavation results, Trench 2
Fig. 26.Trench 2 from east as excavated
Fig. 27. Machined-excavated sondage at east end of Trench 2, showing clay and river cobbles (231)
26
Excavation results, Trench 2
Fig. 28. Stone feature (207) from east (upper stone layer (208) visible in the section)
Fig. 29. Stone feature (207) from north
27
Excavation results, Trench 2
The surfaces, pit and posthole were sealed by deposits
comprising thin pink clay (209) and then a compact
yellow-grey silt with pebble inclusions (205) and (206).
It is uncertain if these represent later ground levels or
post-Roman alluvial deposits.
arrangement to the structure at this level (a dark soft
silt (215) was tentatively identiied separating the lower
stones from those above).
It is possible that this structure might contain the remains
of a collapsed north-south earth-bonded wall, though its
existence and dating need to be conirmed.
POST-MEDIEVAL FIELD BOUNDARIES
The two shallow north-south ditches [203] and [212] that
passed through the centre of the trench are the remnants
of relict ield boundaries. These cut layer (204) that, in
turn, sealed the top of the rubble structure (207). The
course of ditch [212] was observed as a slight undulation
in the ield to the south of Trench 2 and fragments of clay
pipe were recovered from its ill.
COURTYARD SURFACES AND ASSOCIATED
ACTIVITY
Thin layers of silty clay with occasional small stones
(210/213/216) overlay the clay levelling deposits and
appeared to butt against the stone structure (207). These
layers were very irm in places and appear to have been
deliberately compacted. Although the presence of iron
pans could indicate the effects of natural processes too,
the presence of charcoal, fragments of CBM, pottery
and slag suggests these layers that are probably the
remnants of the earliest Roman-period ground levels
in the courtyard (Fig. 30). The discovery of a posthole
[219] and a shallow circular pit [225] cut into these layers
supports the interpretation of these as open ground.
The post had been packed with pieces of ORS and clay
(218/217), while the ill of the pit included what appeared
to be metalworking debris (224).
Fig. 30. Trench 2 from west, showing latest cobbled ground
level cut by post-hole [219] and pit [225] in foreground
28
Trench 3
NATURAL AND SUBSOIL
After hand excavation had conirmed no sensitive or
signiicant archaeological remains were present, and with
permission from Cadw, a sondage was dug by mini-digger
at the northern end of the trench. The natural geology was
located at approximately 1.4m below the modern ground
surface and consisted of horizontal pinkish clay overlain
by river cobbles and gravel (309).
Trench 3 was located within the internal open area of
the main courtyard building of the Southern Canabae
to investigate an apparently square positive anomaly
identiied during the gradiometer surveys. The structure
lies on the courtyard’s main north-south axis towards its
northern side and the trench was positioned to expose
this possible building’s northeastern corner as well as a
substantial area of the courtyard itself (Figs 31 and 32).
Trench 3 was supervised by Time Team and excavated in
three days towards the end of the 2011 season.
The natural was sealed by some 0.75m of clay subsoils,
the uppermost of which might have been brought in to
level the area prior to construction of the courtyard
building (308/313/323).
The geophysical anomaly turned out to be a rectangular
structure consisting of low clay-bonded brick walls.
These were not rendered or plastered and no evidence
for a loor was found inside the structure. The courtyard
appears to have been open ground, while several large
lat stones set into the yard surface were identiied as
possible post-pads for other more supericial buildings.
The provisional stratigraphic matrix for Trench 3 is
located in Appendix 1.
rtr
s
es
Fo
CONSTRUCTION AND USE
Structure 3.1
Two walls were located in the southern part of the trench
(Fig. 33). The east-west wall (303/304) was 0.8m wide
and was bonded to the end of a north-south wall (302)
that was 0.6m wide. Wall (303/304) was the outer wall of
th
N
or
3.2
3.1
0
3.1
5m
Fig. 31. Trench 3 showing main walls superimposed over gradiometer results. Numbers
refer to ‘Areas’ as described in the trench discussion.
29
Excavation results, Trench 3
308
Trench
N
309
315
308
319
317
318
316
310
307
307
320
304
303
321
323
322
311
313
314
302
306
305
0
2m
Fig. 32 Final plan of Trench 3 showing walls and main features
the structure (this continued beyond the trench to the east
and west), while (302) appears to have been an internal
wall dividing the inside of the structure into two parts
(this continued beyond the southern edge of the trench).
either wall were observed and it is possible either that
they had been built directly onto the existing ground
surface, or that the cobbles (321/322) observed in a small
sondage against walls (304/302) were footings contained
in a trench whose edges were not recognised during the
excavation.
Both walls were clay-bonded and consisted of faces of
triangular bricks on either side of a core of large pieces
of broken brick. The walls were bonded together and had
therefore clearly been constructed as part of the same
build. Up to six courses survived of the outer wall and
ive of the narrower internal wall. No foundations for
Trench 3 showed that the anomaly on the magnetometer
results was a rectangular brick-built structure some
9m wide and aligned southeast to northwest. It is more
dificult to be certain about its length but it must have
30
Excavation results, Trench 3
Fig. 33. Structure 3.1 from south
Fig. 34. Rubble spread (310) and possible post-pads
(315-319) in Area 3.2
31
Excavation results, Trench 3
extended for at least 13m in total and was divided into two
parts, of which the northwestern was possibly the largest.
Excavation of the interior of the structure produced no
evidence for an internal loor of any kind and the deposits
encountered here (311/312) were very similar to those
found outside the building in the north of the trench.
The deposits associated with the structure produced very
few inds of any kind and the absence of bricks and tiles
from the vicinity of the structure suggests either than
any superstructure had been extensively robbed, or that
the walls supported a timber building. It is also possible,
however, that these walls had never supported a building
at all in which case the structure could have functioned as
the base of a platform of some kind.
Area 3.2 Courtyard surface and possible post-pads
There was no indication that the courtyard had been paved
in the area of the trench and it appears that the subsoils
served as the contemporary ground levels.
Several individual and groups of large lat stones
(315/316/317/318/319) were found embedded in the top
of the clay subsoil (Fig. 34). The stones were irregularly
32
shaped and individually measured c. 0.3m by 0.2m
(315/316), while some seem to have been placed together
to form roughly semi-circular groups c. 0.6m by 0.6m in
extent. These were found close to the brick structure and
they are tentatively interpreted as post-pads (although
was no obvious spatial patterning and similar lat stones
(314) were found within the brick structure too).
A larger area of ORS blocks (310) also lay above the clay
subsoil on the north side of the brick structure. These
possibly butted against the face of the brick wall and
appear to have been thrown down rather than laid.
ABANDONMENT
Deposits of silty clay extended across the entire trench
illing the areas inside structure 3.1 as well as outside
(305/306/307). It is likely that these were laid down here
during looding events after structure 3.1 and probably
the entire courtyard building had been abandoned, though
how long afterwards is not certain. There was little
evidence for Medieval or modern activity in the trench.
Trench 4
Trench 4 was positioned to investigate the southern end
of the range of rooms on the northwestern side of the
very large courtyard building in the east of the Southern
Canabae (Fig. 34). The gradiometer results suggest
that this northwestern range possibly was divided into
large rectangular spaces with their narrow sides facing
the courtyard, while a long narrow area adjoining the
courtyard could have been a corridor or ambulatory.
Trench 4 cut diagonally across the Roman buildings in
this area and, according to the geophysical results, it
included parts of perhaps two of the large spaces within
the range, as well as parts of the possible ambulatory and
another room or building at its southern end.
evaluation trench, several possible walls and at least two
phases of construction were identiied. The main walls
had been partly robbed, although one stretch of a wall in
the south of the trench was still standing several courses
high (Fig. 35). The Roman archaeology in Trench 4
was undisturbed by later activity and survived only a
few centimetres below the modern ground level. The
provisional stratigraphic matrix for Trench 4 is located
in Appendix 1.
EARLIEST SURFACE AND STONE STRUCTURE
The earliest deposit within the trench was a surface (431)
located approximately 1.2m below the modern ground
level (6.75m over datum). Stones and cobbles had been
laid lat within a clay bedding layer that extended over the
northern part of the trench (Fig. 36). The southern edge
of this surface appeared to begin approximately 1.4m
from the adjacent rubble structure (430) and was aligned
parallel to it on a northeast-southwest orientation. The
The walls and surfaces exposed within Trench 4 were
aligned approximately north-south or east-west and
several separate buildings or rooms were revealed.
Although the archaeology in this part of the Southern
Canabae was dificult to understand in a 2m wide
th
ss
e
rtr
N
416
Fo
425
4.4
r
No
431
419
4.3
421
419
419
430
420
429
4.2
430
418
434
435
0
4.1
10m
Fig. 34. Trench 4 showing wall and surfaced areas superimposed over the gradiometer
results. Numbers refer to ‘Areas’ as described in the trench discussion
33
Excavation results, Trench 4
Trench
N
surface continued beyond the trench to the east and west,
while it also extended beneath a later stone surface at the
northern end of the trench.
416
425
To the south of the surface was an area of packed rubble
and medium-to-large cobbles (430) that extended for a
distance of 7m across the southern half of the trench. On
its northern edge the angular stones appear to have been
deliberately laid lat to form at least ive rough courses,
while the southern part of the structure was more mixed
with cobbles, some of which were very large, and there
was no hard edge on this side (Fig. 37). The rubble was
between 0.7m and 0.8m thick and the stone blocks and
cobbles were densely packed throughout, except in the
centre where a narrow stone-free channel might have
formed a drain (429). The northern edge of faced blocks
suggests that the area exposed in the trench was part of
a wide linear platform of some kind on a northeast-tosouthwest alignment.
Area 4.4
431
419
Area 4.3
421
419
Structure (430) was not excavated and, although its
relationship with surface (431) is not certain, it is possible
that they were in use at the same time. The packed rubble
and cobble platform could be the explanation for the
darker linear anomaly on the gradiometer results that it
was believed might be the courtyard’s ambulatory.
419
LEVELLING AND SECOND PHASE
CONSTRUCTION
A short length of a wall [418], revealed in the southern
end of Trench 4, was aligned east-west. This appears
to correspond with a negative linear anomaly on the
geophysical survey results and it separated a cobbled
surfaced area to the north from a different room, or more
likely building, to the south. The wall had been partially
robbed, though six courses survived close to the western
trench edge (Fig. 38).
430
Area 4.2
420
429
The wall’s construction trench [434] was 0.76m wide and
contained footings of packed angular stones in a loose
brown-yellow sand (435). The lowest course of faced
stone was as wide as the footings, but the upper courses
were only 0.66m wide. White mortar bonded the wall’s
stone faces with its core of rubble and CBM pieces, and
a string course of bricks and lat stones sat between the
third and ifth courses of squared stones. The lowest stone
courses were abutted by the levelling deposits to either
side, indicating that it was built from a lower level before
the spaces to the north and south were subsequently
raised and surfaced.
430
418
Area 4.1 - southern room or building
The gradiometer results suggest that the space to the
south of wall [418] was situated towards the centre of
an east-west row of rooms or adjoining buildings in this
part of the courtyard building. Although only a very
small area of the interior of this room was included in
the southwestern corner of the trench, it was possible to
433
434
Area 4.1
435
0
2m
Fig. 35. Final plan of Trench 4 showing wall and main
features
34
Excavation results, Trench 4
Fig. 36. Earliest stone and cobbled surface (431) in the northern part of Trench 4. Stone and white mortar layer
(416) is visible in the top right-hand corner
Fig. 37. Crudely faced northern edge of rubble structure (430)
35
Excavation results, Trench 4
Fig. 38. Southern edge of Trench 4 showing stoney surface (415) and white mortar surface (433) in the foreground,
with wall [418] and footings (435) beyond, and the sequence of deposits in Area 4.1 in the corner
Area 4.3 - northern (open?) area.
The early stone and cobble surface (431) was sealed at
the northern end of the trench by a thin dark accumulation
or occupation layer (427), while immediately to the
south of this some 0.6m of compact grey clay (432) had
been dumped against the north face of rubble structure
(430). These layers were overlain by redeposited natural
(424/426), mixed together with quantities of domestic
debris that appear to have been dumped deliberately to
raise the height of the area in the north of the trench to the
same level as the top of the rubble platform (430) to the
south. There was no indication of any cobbling equivalent
to (415/420) here and it is possible that the dumps of
redeposited natural would have served as surfaces in this
part of the central area (in which case the ground here
was lower than the cobbled surface to the south).
observe the sequence of deposits here in the side of the
trench that had robbed the wall (Fig. 38).
The lowest deposit (439), possibly natural or redeposited
natural from the digging of the wall trenches, lay beneath
a layer of light brown orange silty sand with frequent
small stones and occasional CBM inclusions (438), that
is likely to have been levelling for a loor. No actual loor
surface was visible, however, and overlying (438) was a
charcoal rich layer (437) that possibly originates from the
use of the room or its abandonment.
Area 4.2 - central cobbled area
To the north of wall [418], the earlier rubble (430) was
sealed by a series of layers (412/422/428), deeper in the
south than the north, that seem to have served to level the
original uneven platform before a new cambered surface
was laid. This consisted of small pebbles (420) and small
angular stones (415) bedded in silty-clay (Fig. 39). The
northern side of this surface followed precisely the same
northeast-southwest alignment as the underlying rubble
(430), while in the south the surface butted against the
third course of wall [418] suggesting that the cambered
surface illed the same long narrow space as rubble
(430). In the southeastern corner of the trench white
mortar (433) seems to have been poured on top of the
levelling layers, forming a separate but adjoining surface
to (415/420). The sharp northeast-southwest boundary
between surfaces (433) and (415/420) indicates the
presence of a partition of some kind that is likely to have
butted against the north face of wall [418].
Area 4.4
The northern side of this apparently unsurfaced space
was demarcated by an area of packed ORS blocks mixed
with large quantities of white mortar aligned northeastsouthwest (416). Only a small part of this was exposed
in the corner of Trench 4 and, although in plan this
stoney deposit gave the impression of being the ill of a
robber trench, after the area to the south in the trench was
excavated it became clear that this feature was only one or
two stones deep (Fig. 36). It is likely, therefore, that (416)
is part of another rubble surface extending northwards,
or perhaps the remains of a collapsed wall. Nevertheless,
the clear differentiation between this deposit and the
stone–free area to the south indicates that these were
36
Excavation results, Trench 4
Fig. 39. Trench 4 looking north, showing stone surface (415) and white mortar surface (433) in the foreground,
pebbled surface (420) in the middle ground, and possible rubble surface (421) beyond
rubble across the trench, but it was not possible determine
if this was the result of deliberate selection to create
building platforms or other factors.
distinct spaces, separated by a partition of of some kind.
It is possible that a shallow trench [410] adjacent to (416)
marks the location of such a wall, though no trace of
footings was found in this putative robber trench.
Trench [408] to rob wall [418], like with cut [410] in the
northern part of Trench 4, was dug from the level of these
rubble deposits. This indicates that the robbing activity
occurred after the buildings in this area had fallen down,
though the fact that part of wall [418] survived suggests
that this was not undertaken systematically.
ACCUMULATION AND POSSIBLE
RESURFACING
The northern edge of cobbled surface in Area 4.2 (420)
was overlain by a series of mixed silty sand layers
(414/419/425), possibly natural accumulations of soil,
which also sealed the levelling layers and possible clay
surfaces in Area 4.3 to the north (424/426). Two adjacent
areas of rubble above (419) on the eastern side of the
trench could be the remains of later surfaces, or platforms
of some kind, at the same height as the cobbled area (420)
to the south (Fig. 39). Layer (421) consisted of large
lat blocks of ORS that appeared to form a very uneven
surface, while an area of smaller stones in a sandy clay
matrix (417) extended southwards from (421) where it
almost joined cobbled surface (420).
DECAY, COLLAPSE AND ROBBING
Extensive deposits of rubble and CBM fragments covered
the latest Roman levels in Trench 4. These included
(403/405/406/407/436), presumably derived from the
abandonment and collapse of this part of the courtyard
building. There was some variation in the density of
37
Trench 5
Trench 5 was located at the centre of the rear range of
rooms on the northern side of the very large courtyard
building alongside the River Usk (zone 1), and continued
up the hillside into the middle part of the Southern
Canabae complex (zone 2). The trench cut diagonally
across the Roman buildings and was positioned at the
northern end of the courtyard building’s main north-south
axis, overlooking the building in Trench 3 and also in line
with the middle of the building’s southern range closest
to the Usk where Trench 1 was located. The gradiometer
results suggested that this spot could mark the position of
a narrow entranceway leading northwards from the large
courtyard building into the buildings of zone 2 (Fig. 40).
slope allowing the construction of the various corridors
and rooms of the Roman buildings along the edge of the
higher ground (Figs 41 and 42). The long walls exposed
within Trench 5 were aligned approximately east to west
and several separate rooms or spaces were revealed,
which for the purposes of this discussion are numbered
5.1 to 5.6 (from south to north).
The archaeology in this part of the Southern Canabae
was very complicated and the northern part of the
trench produced possible evidence for several phases
of rebuilding and major structural alterations. The main
walls had been robbed, but several others in the northern
part of the trench were still standing several courses high
above the internal loors with which they were associated.
Other than one pit that cut through a wall, the Roman
As the ground in this area rose gently upwards from east
to west, a series of shallow terraces had been cut into the
th
ss
e
rtr
Fo
5.6
r
No
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
0
10m
Fig. 40. Trench 5 showing main walls superimposed over gradiometer
results. Numbers refer to ‘Areas’ as described in the trench discussion
39
Excavation results, Trench 5
518
Area 5.6
563
561
562
561
511
532
Trench
N
545
Area 5.5
560
558
557
546
556
555
533
533
505
553
554
533
550
552
550
551
Room 5.4
550
530
Room 5.3
549
543
548
516
Fig. 41. Trench 5 from south as excavated
515
archaeology in Trench 5 was undisturbed by later activity
and survived only a few centimetres below the modern
ground level. This remarkable level of preservation is
partly explained by the unrobbed walls at the top of the
slope creating spaces that became illed with hillwash
after the abandonment of the Roman buildings. The
provisional stratigraphic matrix for Trench 5 can be
found in Appendix 1.
509
516
537
524
Area 5.2
523
CONSTRUCTION AND USE
The main wall that separated the large courtyard building
(zone 1) from the buildings in the centre of the Southern
Canabae complex (zone 2) would have passed through
the centre of Trench 5. The wall and its foundations,
however, had been completely robbed and all that
remained was the east-west robber cut [516] and its ills.
The robbing trench was some 0.95m wide and the bottom
lay between 0.45m and 0.55m below the level of the
earliest Roman loors to either side, suggesting that the
original wall foundations had been relatively wide but
shallow. It is unusual for wall foundations to have been
so extensively robbed and it could be that, unlike all other
wall foundations observed in the 2011 trenches, this main
wall was provided with masonry rather than cobbled
foundations that were worth the effort of removing. The
lowest deposits contained within the cut were both very
clean, including what appears to be redeposited natural
564
509
529
517
528
Area 5.1
0
2m
Fig. 42. Final plan of Trench 5
40
Excavation results, Trench 5
clay (536/567), and it is possible that these could be
the base for foundations at the bottom of a construction
trench rather than inilling of the robber cut.
base for a timber wall. It seems more likely that [523]
supported a colonnade and that the narrow c. 1.6m-wide
space between this wall and the robbed main rear wall
was a corridor or passageway at the back of courtyard
building’s rear range (Area 5.2). The surviving surface
of this passageway consisted of patches of worn and
degraded compact white mortar or plaster (544) that
could have been the bedding for lagstones of some other
type of durable looring.
Area 5.1 and Passageway 5.2
The part of Trench 5 to the south of the robbed main
wall most likely lay at the very back of the zone 1 large
courtyard building’s northern rear range and consists of
two spaces separated by a low brick north-south wall
surviving at least ive course high [523]. The wall’s two
faces were built using triangular bricks (the apex of each
brick pointed inwards) and the core was composed of
smaller pieces of broken brick, all of which were bonded
together with clay (Fig. 43). It is certain that this wall did
not rise any higher because the sloping capstones of a
drain (564) along its southern side rested on the top edge
of the wall’s uppermost course of bricks. The other side
of the drain was formed by a row of irregular blocks of
ORS placed on their ends between 0.5m and 0.8m from
the wall. The bottom of the drain was unlined and the
capping was formed by a row of complete bricks and
irregular slabs of ORS laid at an angle (possibly in groups
of three), with their bottom edges resting on the top of
the lining stones and their upper edges on the wall itself.
The ill of the drain was a loose dark silt that contained
no inds (566).
On the south side of the brick wall [523] was Area 5.1,
which extended beyond the trench edge to the east,
south and west. The geophysical results suggest that this
lay within the range on the northern side of the main
courtyard in zone 1, but it is not clear if it was roofed
or an open space. No traces of loors were found here
and it appears that this area was bare earth perhaps with
cobbles thrown down to form crude surfaces. The earliest
of these was a compacted clay layer (541) and a large lat
stone set within it (547) might have served as a post-pad
for a structure of some kind. The clay, however, was very
clean and lies below the capped drain against wall [523],
suggesting that if it was a surface then the wall and drain
(as well as other features described below) must post-date
its use.
A more convincing surface in this area was a layer of
compacted silty-clay mixed with small fragments of
CBM and cobbles (517) above a thick levelling deposit
It is uncertain if the brick courses continued further
down and it is possible that they formed, however, a
Fig. 43. Wall [523] and adjacent drain with sloping capstones in situ. Looking northwards from Areas 5.1 to 5.2
41
Excavation results, Trench 5
Fig. 44. Drain [529] in Area 5.1, from west
Fig. 45. Flagstone feature (528) in Area 5.1, from east. Drain [529] cuts across the trench from the near edge
42
Excavation results, Trench 5
(540). This was some 0.3m higher than (541) and gave
the appearance of a rough yard surface that had seen
considerable use. Set within bedding layer (540) and
sealed by the surface (517) was a second stone-lined
drain (529), this time not on the same alignment as the
buildings. The edges of the drain were formed by two
courses of unmortared irregular ORS, blocks and one
large lat ORS capstone was found in situ at its eastern
end (Fig. 44). The drain did not extend across the full
width of the trench, but instead terminated some 1.10m
in from the eastern trench edge (the western end of the
drain ends obliquely with its southern side extending only
0.9m into the trench). Like the previous drain, no stones
lined the bottom but, unlike the irst drain, the ill (542)
produced quantities of pottery, animal bone and small
inds.
possible that it was intended to hold water or some other
liquid. At irst glance the absence of a rim on its northern
side is problematic, but there is some indication that this
end originally would have butted against a wall in which
case a rim on this side might not have been necessary.
The geophysical survey suggested that an north-south
wall ran through this part of Area 5.1 and, even though
the excavations did not identify the remains of a wall, it
is possible that it had been completely robbed and was
simply missed in the narrow conines of the evaluation
trench. Circumstantial evidence for the existence of a 0.40.5m wide wall against which feature (528) could have
butted is provided by the drain (529), whose western end
terminates obliquely about half way into the trench and,
therefore, on the other side of a possible robbed out wall
to the lagstone trough or tank.
Also set within bedding layer (540) in Area 5.1 was part
of an unusual structure composed of horizontal rows of
large rectangular ORS slabs, with a raised bevelled rim on
its southern side formed by upright narrower ORS slabs
(528). This was aligned parallel to the east-west brick
wall [523] between this area and passageway 5.2 and, as
it extended beyond the western edge of the trench (and
there was no sign of a second rim on its northern side),
it seems safe to assume that a third row of lagstones and
rim would have taken it close to, if not butting against, the
brick wall or its adjoining drain (Fig. 45). The function
of this structure is uncertain, though the lagstones from
which its base was made had been carefully laid and it is
Rooms 5.3 and 5.4
The rooms exposed in the northern part of Trench 5 are
different to the northern range of the main courtyard
building. The main wall robbed out by trench [516]
separated the lower areas to the south from a series of
raised rooms to the north (the loors were some 0.4m
higher than the passageway 5.2), of which parts of two
were excavated. The sequence of walls is extremely
complex here and it is possible that there had been
several episodes of structural alterations in this part of
the complex, though it was not always possible to fully
untangle this complexity.
Fig. 46. Room 5.3 from southeast, showing latest loor (548), internal dividing wall [530], and beam slot (543)
43
Excavation results, Trench 5
Fig. 47. Room 5.4 from east, showing latest loor (551)
Fig. 48. Brick end of wall [555/556] from room 5.3. Butted against by wall [505] on left and [533] in the
foreground
44
Excavation results, Trench 5
The two rooms upslope of the main wall were separated
by an internal north-south partition wall [530] and a slot
(543). Wall [530] was some 0.5m wide and had been built
with roughly faced ORS blocks set in a friable silty-sand
mortar. The face of this wall in room 5.3 was unrendered
and the southern end of the wall appears to sit directly
on top of an earlier surface without any foundations
(explaining the uneven nature of the wall’s courses).
The slot (543) was some 0.2m wide and extended for a
distance of 1.1m from the southern end of wall [530] to
the robber trench for the main wall (which formed the
eastern side of the room). Originally the slot would have
been illed by a wooden beam at the base of a doorframe
between rooms 5.3 and 5.4. Concrete was poured into
the rooms thereby preserving the position of the original
beam, which was either removed or had simply rotted
away. The loor in room 5.3 consisted of a yellow-brown
concrete mixed with small pebbles but no crushed tile
(548), which butted against the lowest course of wall
[530] (Fig. 46). This loor was not excavated, but the
sequence of deposits beneath it was observed in the side
of robber trench [516], which showed that it had been
laid on top of a bedding layer consisting of stones, broken
brick and tile, as well as a thin deposit of burnt material in
the area of the beam slot (upon which the beam itself had
originally sat). There was no evidence for an earlier loor
in this room, suggesting that the dividing wall [530] was
an original feature.
that these and the piece of wood came from the collapsed
lath and plaster ceiling in this room.
Room 5.4, some 2m wide and 4m deep, was adjacent to
room 5.3 and was formed by walls [530] to the south, [533]
to the north, [505] to the west, and robber trench [516] to
the east (Fig. 47). Wall [533] was more substantial than
the others, measuring 0.9m wide and built with mortared
courses of large neatly faced blocks either side of a rubble
core (it’s northern face had been partially robbed). Painted
plaster was found adhering to the surviving face of this
wall in room 5.4, decorated with horizontal and vertical
red lines above the loor (552). Wall [505] butted up to
the continuation of [533] and was clearly a later addition.
Although only a short length of this wall was exposed in
the trench, it survived to a height of eight or perhaps nine
courses above the loor. Some 0.4m wide at the top, it
seems to have been built in two episodes: the lowest six
or seven courses use small neatly cut and faced stones,
while the uppermost two courses do not appear to have
been bonded with mortar and were made with larger more
roughly-hewn stones and a brick (it is not certain whether
the upper part of this wall is Roman or post-Roman reuse
of a truncated wall). The face of this wall in room 5.4 had
been rendered with course plaster, as was the north face
of the southern wall [530], though in neither case was
there any indication that they had been decorated.
Room 5.4 was separated from area 5.5 by wall [533]
and its continuation [555/6], and the architecture of
these adjoining spaces appears to have been entirely
different. During the excavation this main dividing wall
was thought to have consisted of three separated phases
of construction, though it more likely that the length
of walling contained in the trench included a blocked
doorway 1.05m wide (the northern part of [533]), between
jambs built of alternating courses of stone and brick,
of which only the northern side [555] was completely
exposed (Figs 48 and 49).
The latest loor in room 5.4 consisted of a thin layer
of crushed tile set in a degraded mortar matrix (551).
Originally this might have looked like opus signinum
but it had become worn in several places, particularly
near to the walls and close to the doorway into room
5.3, revealing either areas of mixed burnt material (550)
or large pieces of brick upon which the loor had been
laid (and similar to the sequence observed beneath the
concrete loor in room 5.3).
Area 5.5
The area of Trench 5 to the north and east of room 5.4
was packed with the remains of two parallel east-west
walls and, although the excavation continued to a depth
of 1.2m, no substantial loors were discovered here.
The western wall of the narrow building comprising
areas 5.3-5.5 [562] lay at the northern end of the trench.
Measuring 1.2m it was wider than the opposite wall of
this building [516] to the south and had been robbed to
the top of its foundations of mortared cobbles (563). It is
possible to conirm, therefore, that this building adjacent
to the main courtyard building to the east was just under
7m wide, and that there must have been another space
equivalent to 5.5m some 2.5m wide behind room 5.4 (and
also probably 5.3).
The corner of area 5.5 between east-west wall [562]
and north-south wall [533/555] contained two further
east-west wall-like structures, [560] and [557]. Wall
[560] was not fully exposed, but it is likely that it had
been built up against the inside of main wall [562] and,
therefore, must have been about 0.7m wide. It seems
to have consisted of two abutting courses of bricks and
stones without a core, and its southern face comprised at
least three courses of lat bricks, then a course of neatly
cut ORS blocks, followed by two courses of rectangular
tufa blocks all bonded with a very solid pinkish-red sandy
mortar. The two visible stones of the ORS course were
laid as stretchers, while the tufa blocks of the surviving
upper courses appear to have been laid as headers (Figs
49 and 50).
A thin piece of wood with the remains of three iron nails
through it was discovered at the base of the wall in a pile
of collapsed plaster (SF 5072). Some of the loose pieces
of plaster bore grooves on their inner faces and it is likely
45
Excavation results, Trench 5
Fig. 49. Area 5.5 from east, showing walls (from left to right) [533], [505], [555/556], [557] and [560]. Note
the possible illed doorway in [533] (below left-hand ranging rod)
which in turn was overlain by several collapsed courses
of degraded tufa blocks set in a similar yellow mortar,
some of which had been cut into voussoirs and were
mixed with ORS voussoirs (513) (Fig. 52). Two adjoining
complete box lue tiles were also incorporated into this
collapsed structure. The coursing of the stones within
(513) was very clear and the collapsed roof retained part
of its original curvature when excavated (Fig. 53). The
box lues had been laid end-on-end and were built within
the tufa coursing (they showed no signs of sooting). It
is thought that rows of box tile were used to form ribs
supporting the vaulted ceiling that was constructed
mainly of tufa, but with ORS courses perhaps to give
extra strength.
Lying only 0.4m south of this wall was another parallel
east-west wall [557], although this was faced only on its
southern side. Wall [557] butted against wall [556] and
consisted of nine irregular courses of narrow ORS blocks
bonded with a loose sandy mortar that sat upon a wide
rubble foundation observed beneath its south face (see
Figs 49 and 50). The space between the face of wall [560]
and the core of [557] was illed with a loose red sand and
mortar deposit (558) very similar to the bonding of [560].
The space on the other side of wall [557], in the corner
between it and wall [533/555/556], was packed with
rubble and broken brick and tile within a loose mortary
matrix (546) and (554).
The walls in this small part of area 5.5 and the material
iling the spaces between them were overlain by several
deposits that must be the collapsed remains of the
superstructure of wall [560] (Figs. 50 and 51). The irst
of these overlay [558] and consisted of a tangled mass of
wedge-shaped tufa blocks within a matrix of only slightly
less solid pinkish-red sandy mortar (545), and bonded
on its northern side to three courses of triangular bricks
(532).
Wall [557] possibly formed an additional support or
bracing wall for the vaulted ceiling. If this interpretation
of these walls in this area is correct, the loor this ceiling
covered is probably the clay surface beneath the rubble
deposits (546) and (554) that illed the space between
walls [557] and [533]. If so, the plain loor suggests that,
despite the elaborate roof arrangement, this space was not
intended to be as impressive as the neighbouring rooms
5.4 and 5.3 (whose loors were considerably higher too).
These deposits appear to be the remains of part of the
lower courses of a barrel vault, of which [558] was the
northern supporting wall from which it sprung. How far
this roof or ceiling extended is unknown as the opposite
supporting wall to [560] lay beyond the trench, but it
is clear from its collapsed remains that this had been a
substantial structure. Against and on top of (545) lay a
row of shaped ORS voussoirs in a yellow mortar (559),
Room 5.6
The northwestern corner of Trench 5 exposed a small
part of a room in the building beyond wall [562], which
had been covered with a tessellated pavement (518).
Unfortunately disturbed by the robbing of the wall, the
tesserae were all black or white and presumably formed
the border of a large mosaic (Fig. 54).
46
Excavation results, Trench 5
Fig. 50. Area 5.5 from west, showing wall [560] on left and wall [557] bottom right,
sealed by collapsed deposits (545) and (513)
NW
SE
9.60
9.60
532
513
539
545
559
546
558
560
557
Top of wall stone, lower
courses made of tile
0
1m
Fig. 51. Section through Area 5.5
47
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig. 52. Tufa and Old Red Sandstone voussoirs from
Area 5.5
DISUSE, DECAY AND ROBBING
Area 5.1 and Passageway 5.2
The deposits overlying the latest surfaces in area 5.1
consisted of thin mixed silty accumulations (514/517).
The last loor in passageway 5.2 was sealed by a thicker
deposit of light brown silty material (537) and an area
of rubble that could possibly have been intentionally laid
(524). Although this is far from certain, the fact that these
stones extended over the top of brick wall [523] indicates
that this wall was no longer in use. Above (537) and (524),
a thick layer of mid white-brown sandy silt with degraded
mortar, plaster and concrete lumps (509) extended across
the passageway area. Containing quantities of pottery,
animal bone and oyster shell, this deposit appeared very
midden-like and suggests a combination of building
decay and rubbish dumping.
earliest of these is a mixed deposit of mortar, decayed
plaster and broken roof tile in room 5.4 (527), which
was overlain by more compact layers with more tile and
less mortar (526) that also illed room 5.3. The main
episode of roof collapse is represented by (522), which
also included three intact, or near intact, box lue tiles,
perhaps from the collapsed vaulted ceiling in area 5.5
(that this material also overlay wall [530] indicates that
the dividing wall between these rooms was not longer
standing above ground at this time). Layer (522) was
probably part of the same roof collapse event as (507) in
area 5.1 and 5.2, but these had been cut by [516], thereby
conirming that the main wall of the building was robbed
some time after the roof had collapsed. The other walls
that formed rooms 5.3 and 5.4 were not robbed, probably
because the rooms became illed with building debris and
rubbish that covered their lower courses until they were
no longer visible above ground. This suggests that the
building’s main load bearing walls must have continued
to support the building’s roof for some time after the
internal walls had fallen down.
Layer (509) in area 5.2 was overlain by large quantities of
densely packed broken roof tiles covering much of area
5.1 as well (507). The southern edge of the fragmented
tiles was marked by a line of more intact tegulae and
broken imbrices aligned southeast to northwest across
the trench (508). It is not clear if these were tiles that had
simply slipped from a nearby roof or had been deliberately
placed here during a later period of occupation (see Figs.
55 and 56).
Area 5.5
As described in the previous section, the vaulted ceiling
in this part of the building seems to have fallen down into
the room below, probably as a single event rather than
gradually over time and sealing rubble deposits (539) and
(546) dumped on top of the latest loor. The survival of the
remains of the tufa and stone ceiling is explained partly
by the very solid mortar with which it had been bonded
and perhaps the shape of the stones from which it was
constructed, many of which had been cut into voussoirs
that would have been less useful to those looking to
recycle building stone.
Rooms 5.3 and 5.4
The last concrete and crushed tile loors in rooms 5.3
and 5.4 were sealed by thin layers of silty material that
produced animal bone, pottery and several metal small
inds (531 / 535). In turn these were overlain by a series of
deposits that illed the rooms, particularly room 5.4 where
these reached a depth of 0.5m. These layers consisted
of dumps of sandy silt mixed with decayed plaster and
mortar, pieces of concrete looring, as well as very large
quantities of brick and tile fragments, animal bone, oyster
shells, pottery and numerous glass and metal inds (534 /
538). These appear to have originated from the discarding
of rubbish in these, presumably abandoned, rooms.
Cut [561] marks the robbing of wall [562] between area
5.5 and room 5.6. The lowest ills of this trench were
similar to some of the collapse deposits further south,
suggesting that the wall could have been robbed relatively
early after the abandonment of this part of the Southern
Canabae complex.
The next layers in the rooms are associated with the decay
and collapse (or perhaps demolition) of the building. The
48
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig. 53. Northern end of Trench 5, showing remains of collapsed vault - brick and tile coursing (545) in the
foreground,, with courses of tufa and ORS voussoirs (513) beyond. Note the two intact box-lue tiles
The remains of the collapsed ceiling in area 5.5 and the
tessellated loor in room 5.6 were sealed by a layer of
mixed stone and CBM (506), similar to layers (503 / 504)
further south in Trench 5 where they became gradually
thicker towards the bottom of the slope. The latest
activity in Trench 5 was feature [520] cut from the level
of context (503/4), which could be a very late trench or pit
to rob wall (556), although only part of it was contained
within the trench. Above this and extending across the
entire trench was topsoil (501/502).
Fig. 54. Half-sectioned robber trench [561] of wall
[562]. Note the small piece of tessellated pavement on
the right (Area 5.6)
49
Excavation results, Trench 5
Fig. 55. Stacked (laid?) tegulae and imbrices (508) in Area
5.1
Fig. 56. Deposit of broken roof tiles and box lue tiles (507) in Areas 5.1 and 5.2
50
Trench 6
Trench 6 was positioned diagonally across the
northeastern part of the middle zone 2 of the Southern
Canabae complex, close to the amphitheatre. The
gradiometer results suggest that the southern end of the
trench lay within a rectangular structure, possibly an open
area, and extended into a narrower rectangular building to
the northwest (Fig. 57). The uneven topography of this
area today was believed to be a result of the dumping
of spoil from the Wheeler’s work in the amphitheatre
in the 1920s, and aerial photographs of the excavations
show narrow-gauge railed trackways leading out from the
amphitheatre’s south entrance. It was thought, therefore,
that large quantities of redeposited spoil from these
relatively recent excavations might cover any remains of
Roman buildings in this trench.
lagstone looring, all of which is believed to date to the
Roman period. The walls divide the area exposed in the
trench into three areas (6.1-6.3), which appear to have
belonged to two adjoining buildings (Figs 58 and 59).
The provisional stratigraphic matrix for Trench 6 can be
found in Appendix 1.
CONSTRUCTION AND OCCUPATION
Area 6.1
The southern east-west wall in Trench 6 [637] was some
0.95m wide and consisted of a rubble core between two
courses of facing stone, and it appears to have been
clay rather than mortar bonded. Understanding the
construction of wall [637] was complicated by the fact
that a lead water-pipe had been built across it and that a
later phase of robbing had removed the courses overlying
the pipe within the trench (Fig. 60). The water-pipe (634)
ran from north to south at right angles to wall [637] and
had been built into it so that it would have buried beneath
the loor surfaces. The main pipe had a diameter of 0.12m
and a bulge showed where two lengths had been joined
As it turned out, however, the evidence for twentiethcentury spoil dumping in this part of the ield was
limited to a layer of stone in the northern part of Trench
6. Below this two east-west walls were revealed, as well
as a stone-lined drain, a lead water pipe and an area of
th
or
e
rtr
Fo
N
ss
6.3
6.2
6.1
0
10m
Fig. 57. Trench 6 showing walls and surfaced areas
superimposed over gradiometer results. Numbers refer to
‘Areas’ as described in the trench discussion
51
Fig. 58. Trench 6 as excavated, from south
Excavation results, Trench 6
613
Trench
N
632
Area 6.3
BAULK
Opus Signinum
631
622
624
Area 6.2
629
629
Fig. 60. Water-pipe (634) crossing wall [637] and
sealed by cobble core ((628), from northwest
605
together in the centre of the wall. The pipe continued
beyond the eastern edge of the trench, but its western
end ended just within the trench with a round collar or
plate pierced by iron nails (Fig. 61). This must be where
the lead-pipe had been attached to a wooden tank (or
pipe) from which water was drawn down slope. On the
southern side of wall [637] the main pipe was tapped
by a narrower branch heading in a more southeasterly
direction. Presumably both pipes fed fountains or other
water-features somewhere within the large courtyard
building.
626
637
634
637
628
628
619
The lead-pipes do not appear to have been laid within
a trench, but sat on stone bedding before being covered
over by large cobbles [628] and the make-up deposits in
area 6.1. The geophysical results suggest that this was the
western side of a wide rectangular space that had been
made-up and levelled by some 0.2m before a stone loor
was laid (604) (Fig. 62). This surface, possibly open to
the elements, was exposed in the southern part of the
trench and consisted of four rows of large ORS lagstones
on the same alignment as wall [637] (though there is
some indication that the northern part of the surface had
617
604
0
Area 6.1
2m
Fig. 59. Final plan of Trench 6
52
Excavation results, Trench 6
tile (612/625) on top of a clay bedding layer (624/626),
both of which lay around and on top of the lead pipe. A
stone drain (629) passing down the centre of room 6.2
presumably lay beneath this loor, though subsequent
robbing activity within the trench (possibly to take away
the capstones) has removed the relationship between
these surfaces and the drain itself (Fig. 64). The drain
was oriented on the same alignment as the building and
its sides were built from courses of lat stone and large
pieces of broken brick. A layer of compacted clay formed
its bottom surface (636), while a lat stone capping the
drain was observed in the east side of the trench.
been laid in the opposite direction). The lagstones lie
directly below the topsoil and during the excavation it
was suggested that they could have been laid during the
1920’s amphitheatre excavations, perhaps the bedding
for a trackway to remove spoil. While this is possible,
the lagstones exactly follow the alignment of the Roman
building and it seems more likely that they represent the
latest Roman surface, most likely a courtyard, in this part
of the Southern Canabae.
Rooms 6.2 and 6.3
From wall [637] northwards Trench 6 seems to have
extended into the interior of a single building, divided
into two rooms by the second north-south wall [622].
Only one course of this wall was revealed but it did not
appear to have been particularly well built. Some 0.55m
wide, it was earth bonded and even within the narrow
conines of the trench it was clear that it had been
constructed slightly off straight (Fig. 63). It is assumed
that this was an internal wall dividing a building into two
rooms. There was no indication that this wall had been
robbed, suggesting either that it supported a timber wall
or that it was dismantled during or soon after the Roman
period.
A similar sequence of bedding (623) and degraded
tile surface (631) was uncovered in room 6.3 north of
wall [622], though here compact clay (650) had been
introduced to patch the worn loor.
DECAY AND ROBBING
Room 6.3 was illed with 0.08-0.2m thick deposits of
burnt material, consisting of numerous dumps of charcoal
and possibly metalworking waste (616 and 608), while the
last Roman loor in rooms 6.2 was sealed by a variety of
deposits including a patch of broken roof tiles (607) and
decayed mortar mixed with crushed tile fragments (614).
Presumably these indicate a period of abandonment and
decay followed by collapse or demolition as evidenced
The latest loor in the southern room 6.2 (i.e. between
walls [637] and [622]), consisted of a thin layer of crushed
Fig. 61. Northwestern end of water-pipe (634) showing collar and iron nail heads
53
Excavation results, Trench 6
Fig. 62. Southern end of Trench 6, showing lagstone
surface (604)
Fig. 63. Internal wall [622], from west
54
Excavation results, Trench 6
Fig. 64. Drain (629) in Area 6.2, from west
by the substantial silty layers containing larger pieces
of brick and tile as well as rubble in these rooms
(609/610/615). A small possible posthole [613] in the
northern end of the trench suggests limited activity in this
area after the building had collapsed or been demolished,
though it is not possible at this time to offer a precise date
for this feature.
A wide V-shaped trench was cut seemingly along the
line of drain in the middle of room 6.2 [640], possibly
to remove the drain’s capstones. The linear cut [619] in
the southern part of the trench was for the robbing of the
substantial wall [637] between rooms 6.1 and 6.2. It is
fortunate that the robbers were not interested in the wall’s
cobble core which lay on top of and covered the leadpipe.
The robber cuts and lagstone loor were all sealed
by layers of rubble that covered the entire trench. A
concentration of rubble in the northern part of Trench 6
might be spolia from the amphitheatre excavations in the
1920s, although if this is the correct interpretation of this
material it suggests that dumping here was less intensive
than previously thought. This lay directly beneath the
subsoil and topsoil (602 and 601).
55
Trench 7
The gradiometer survey results indicate that the western
side of the irst courtyard in zone 3 of the Southern
Canabae comprised a series of large rooms or adjoining
buildings that were built against the southwestern wall
of the courtyard. These structures lay on the edge of the
higher ground overlooking the loodplain of the River
Usk as it meandered towards the Severn Estuary, and they
would have been the irst buildings at Caerleon visible
from boats and ships as they sailed upstream. Trench 7
was positioned across two rooms on the southern side of
this range and it also included the area to the south of this
courtyard at the western end of the Southern Canabae’s
central zone 2 (Figs 65 and 66).
lie immediately below the modern ground surface and
survive very well indeed. There was very little evidence
for post-Roman activity in this part of the ield. The
provisional stratigraphic matrix for Trench 7 can be
found in Appendix 1.
CONSTRUCTION AND OCCUPATION
Rooms 7.1 and 7.2
The two walls in Trench 7 had both been robbed, the
external wall down to its foundations some 2m below the
modern ground surface. This wall’s foundations consisted
of large river cobbles (716) tightly packed and bonded
with mortar in the 1.30m wide wall trench [719], while
the internal wall [722] between rooms 7.1 and 7.2 (some
0.8m wide) had been reduced to a layer of sandy mortar
between stone courses below the rooms’ loors but still
above its foundations.
The interior of the rooms had been raised with large
quantities of make-up material and were considerably
higher than the ground to the east. The excavations
discovered that the end room had been furnished with
a hypocausted loor and elaborately decorated walls.
No traces of loors or surfaces were found in the area
beyond the rooms to the south and it is thought that this
could have been open during the Roman period (Fig.
67). The archaeological remains of these structures
In room 7.2 a thick make-up deposit (723) of pinkish
clean clay raised the loor level by some 1.15m above
the original ground surface from which the foundation
trench had been cut (724). Overlying this and across the
entire room was a levelling layer of stones and brick and
10m
0
rth
es
tr
or
F
7.1
o
sN
7.2
7.3
Fig. 65. Trench 7 showing walls and surfaced areas superimposed over gradiometer results. Numbers refer to ‘Areas’ as described in the trench discussion
57
Excavation results, Trench 7
Trench
N
726
Area 7.3
732
702
734
731
707
707
712
719
720
708
708
716
Fig. 66. Trench 7 fully excavated, from west
tile fragments (738), which also acted as bedding for the
concrete surface (714) that was part of the only loor that
this room had been provided with. Several pilae from a
hypocaust were arranged in rows on top of the concrete,
which sloped downwards from north to south and was
covered by a patchy layer of burnt material, presumably
from the iring of the underloor heating system (Fig. 68).
The concrete extended to the eastern wall of the room,
but stopped some 0.6m short of the western wall and
it is possible that this space would have been illed by
columns of box lue tiles running up the inside face of
the wall.
718
718
717
718
714
Room 7.2
714
At total of 24 pilae and mortar bases for seven more were
uncovered in the exposed part of room 7.2 (718), while
the material that subsequently illed the room contained
numerous bricks and stones from other disturbed pilae.
The pilae had been arranged in rows of nine across the
room and each surviving pila consisted of a square brick
on a small mortar spread, some of which had an irregular
lat piece of stone mortared on top. None of the second
tier of stones had mortar on their upper surfaces and it
is not certain how high the pilae originally would have
been. It seems unlikely that the space beneath the raise
loor was only some 0.12m deep, but the absence of
mortar on the stone is certainly intriguing. The inilling
deposits also contained fragments of large square or
rectangular ORS slabs that presumably had been laid
725
705
722
705
Room 7.1
709
0
709
2m
Fig. 67. Final plan of Trench 7
58
Excavation results, Trench 7
Fig. 68. Hypocaust in room 7.2 showing bases of pilae (718) on concrete bedding (714). Photograph taken from
south
Fig. 69. Painted plaster overlying the hypocaust pilae in room 7.2
59
Excavation results, Trench 7
Fig. 70. Half-section through room 7.1 from east, showing levelling deposit (730), stone and brick bedding layer
(729), followed by an opus signinum surface (709)
over the pilae (the largest piece had bevelled edges and
mortar adhering on one side). The loose bricks and slabs
were found among large quantities of decayed mortar that
must have formed the loor’s surface when laid over the
slabs, but which had been broken up when the slabs were
later removed. These deposits also produced numerous
pieces of plaster painted with various colours, including
red, yellow and blue, and the heated room’s walls seem
to have been decorated with diamond patterns and loral
motifs (Fig. 69).
though whether this occurred while the buildings were in
use is not certain.
The interior of room 7.1 also had been raised above the
existing ground surface (layers (737) and (730)), though
exactly by how much is unknown as it was not possible to
examine the deposits to their full depth in this part of the
trench. Again a mixed layer of stones and brick and tile
fragments (729) lay above these and below the room’s
loor surface, which this time consisted of opus signinum
(709) (Fig. 70).
As previously described, the in situ pilae in room 7.2 were
covered by the disturbed remains of the hypocaust loor
(717), including mortar, plaster (some painted), broken
bricks and pieces of ORS slabs, which presumably had
to be broken up in order to remove the underlying slabs.
This was overlain by a layer of broken roof tiles and
stone that suggest decay or the demolition of the building
(710), after which the eastern external wall was robbed
(trench [720]). Stones (703) on top of the loor in room
7.1 (709) indicate a period of decay before the building
collapsed or was demolished, though the western internal
wall appears to have been robbed at a later date.
Later activity in 7.3 is evidenced by a north-south linear
stone feature (731) that partly overlay some of these
rubbish dumps and might be a poorly constructed drystone wall. It was dificult, however, to understand the
nature of this arrangement of stones in a narrow evaluation
trench and it could be that the feature derives from the
decay or demolition of the neighbouring building.
Area 7.3
Area 7.3 covered half of the trench from the robbed
eastern external wall. The latest surface here was
approximately 0.9m below the loor in room 7.2 and
consisted of compacted cobbles (736), which suggests
that this part of the trench lay outside a building, perhaps
a road or alley through the Southern Canabae. Above the
cobbles a series of rubble layers interspersed with deposits
containing animal bone, pottery and oyster shells appears
to indicate the dumping of rubbish against the eastern
wall of the courtyard buildings (712/726/732/739/740),
In area 7.3 outside the building, the rubbish dumps on top
of the last surface and the possible wall were all sealed
by a series of silty deposits (primarily 728/726/727),
containing pieces of brick, tile and stone, that eventually
raised the level of ground here almost to the same height
as further west. Thin topsoils covered Trench 7 beneath
the turf (701/702).
60
Trench 8
Trench 8 was oriented northwest to southeast across the
large apparently aisled building on the eastern side of the
irst courtyard in zone 3 (Fig. 71). The trench revealed
three internal areas of the building, at least one of which
had been furnished with an opus signinum loor, while
two underwent later alterations. An extensive external
area was exposed at the southern end of the trench. The
Roman period deposits were found between 0.15m and
0.45m below the modern ground surface and were very
well preserved (Figs 72 and 73).
adjacent building. It was assumed before the excavation
that these were either internal ‘aisles’ of the building
or possibly porticoes around the courtyard to the south,
yet no sign of the presumed east-west masonry wall
separating the two corridors was identiied during the
excavation. This is possibly because a wall lies deeper
than Trench 8 was excavated, though it is more likely that
the geophysical anomaly was caused by a concentration
of charcoal and other burnt material that might represent
the upper ill an unexcavated linear feature (perhaps the
remains of a timber wall).
The building had been raised above the surrounding
ground level and the discovery of a possible step on its
southern side indicates the building was accessed from
the large courtyard in this direction. There was little
evidence for signiicant post-Roman activity in Trench 8.
The provisional stratigraphic matrix for Trench 8 can be
found in Appendix 1.
Instead, the entire southern part of Trench 8 consisted
of a series of compacted mixed orange-brown silty clay
layers, primarily (846) and (856), that appear to be the
latest ground level in this part of the complex (see Fig.
72). There is no indication that this space was paved or
provided with any form of durable surface, while water
from a drain that ran beneath the adjacent building seems
to have lowed directly out onto this area where it would
have simply soaked into the ground. On the basis of the
excavated evidence it is suggested that this part of the
complex was an external area and was connected to the
courtyard rather than the aisled building, though only
further excavation will conirm this.
CONSTRUCTION AND OCCUPATION
Area 8.1 – possible open area with step and drain
The southernmost 7.5m of Trench 8 appears to have been
part of a single external space, though at irst glance the
archaeology within the trench does not appear to coincide
with the gradiometer results that suggested this area
included two wide corridor-like structures parallel to the
8.4
8.3ii
rth
es
rtr
Fo
o
sN
8.3i
8.2ii
8.2i
8.1
0
10m
Fig. 71. Trench 8 showing walls and surfaced areas superimposed over gradiometer
results. Numbers refer to ‘Areas’ as described in the trench discussion
61
Excavation results, Trench 8
Trench
N
836
802
Room 8.4
820
821
820
Room 8.3ii
842
840
838
802
853
840
813
Room 8.3i
853
811
812
811
835
805
832
Room 8.2i
Room 8.2ii
Fig. 72. Trench 8 from south, fully excavated
815
The building’s southern external wall was 0.50m wide
and had been surprisingly badly constructed [815]
(Fig. 74). Only two courses of this wall were visible in
the trench and there was no sign that the masonry had
been bonded with mortar (the mortar of the other walls
survived reasonably well so it is unlikely that the bonding
in [815] had simply eroded away). Butting up against
the southern face of this wall was a 1.1m - 1.2m wide
stone platform consisting of a single course of large lat
stones and also seemingly unmortared [826/829]. This
was probably a step allowing access from the courtyard
into the interior of the building and it is possible that
this feature ran along the full length of the front wall.
A curved stone-lined drain [825] had been built into
both the wall [815] and platform [826] which channel to
water, presumably from the eastern end of the building,
into the adjacent open space via a V-shaped outlet made
from fragments of broken tegula (possibly part of a single
tile). The tegula pieces had been carefully selected and
deliberately positioned to reduce splashing, while crude
sloping faces of stones and tile were found to either side
of the drain opening (Fig. 75).
826
844
825
829
825
844
845
827
854
852
Area 8.1
846
865
859
808
847
851
The poor quality of the construction of these features
suggests that wall [815] was not intended to be load-
0
2m
Fig. 73 Final plan of Trench 8
62
Excavation results, Trench 8
Fig. 74. Southern narrow external wall of building [815] and broad step (826/829) from external Area 8.1
(left). Drain (825) cuts through both the wall and step. Taken from the east
Fig. 75. Outlet of drain (825), consisting of broken tegula. Taken from the south
63
Excavation results, Trench 8
bearing and it is dificult to imagine that this wall and
the step formed the building’s main entrance. Later decay
or demolition deposits from Areas 8.2 and 8.3 produced
a number of segmented bricks, each one quarter of a
circle, that indicate the presence of brick-built columns
somewhere in this part of the building. While the original
location of these columns is not known, the external
wall [815] is perhaps the best candidate in Trench 8 for a
colonnaded wall. The presence of the rudimentary drain
that would have deposited large quantities of water from
the step directly into the courtyard suggests that this was
most likely a utilitarian area where ornamentation was
not a major concern.
an existing surface without foundations, again suggesting
a later alteration to the layout of the building. Only a
short length of this wall was exposed in the trench and
it appears to have been originally bonded to, or butted
against, a similarly shallow north-south wall that has
since been completely removed but whose presence is
shown by the robber cut [853] along the eastern trench
edge (Fig. 77). This cut was only found in 8.3i indicating
that in its later phases this part of the building’s central
‘aisle’ consisted of rooms perhaps accessed from a narrow
corridor (8.3ii). The geophysical results have identiied
other possible internal divisions in this ‘aisle’ further
west. The latest surfaces in both excavated areas of 8.3
consisted of thin deposits of compacted pinkish clay (813
and 842) suggesting that these spaces were provided with
rudimentary beaten clay loors. Area 8.3ii was excavated
to a level below the latest phase and here a series of lat
stones, possibly deliberately laid, might suggest an earlier
stone loor (842).
Areas 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4 - the aisled building
The part of the building contained in the central and
northern parts of Trench 8 included three internal spaces
separated by east-west walls, all of which had been robbed
to below the levels of the latest loors. The southern space
8.2, bounded to the south by wall [815] and to the north
by the wall [812], was 2.75m wide, the central space 8.3
between [812] and the next wall [821] was 5.5m wide, and
only 1.2m of the most northerly space 8.4 was exposed
in the trench (the geophysical results suggest that this
part of the building was probably as wide as 8.3). Walls
[812] and [821] were more solidly built than [815] with
neatly dressed facing stones of ORS bonded with durable
mortars (the cores of both walls contained fragments of
CBM). It is noteworthy that the middle wall [812] was
wider than the walls to either side (0.7m compared to
0.55-0.60 m), and it is possible that the weight of the roof
was supported on this wall or that this part of the building
was taller.
DECAY AND ROBBING
Overlying the uppermost clay surfaces in area 8.1 was
a thick layer of clayey silt containing large quantities
of broken roof tiles and some rubble (824/827), which
presumably derives from the removal of the adjoining
building’s roof. Within this deposit was a curvilinear
arrangement of faced stones (823) abutted by stacks of
possibly deliberately placed broken bricks and roof tiles
(828) (Fig 78), perhaps indicating activity of some kind in
this area during the period of the building’s abandonment
(it is also possible that this feature relates to the drain
mentioned previously). Above this were various rubble
deposits related to the collapse or demolition of the
building (there was more roof tile in this part of the trench
that above the building to the north) and topsoil.
Area 8.2 was divided into two by a slightly crooked northsouth mortared wall [805] that ran between walls [815]
and [812], but was not bonded to them (Fig. 76). The wall
was 0.46m wide and consisted of a core of rubble and
large pieces of broken roof tile between faces of roughly
cut ORS, some of which still had lime mortar adhering
to them. The wall was not constructed with foundations,
but was simply built on top of an existing surface and it
appears that it was was a later addition to the building
inserted to create separate rooms 8.2i and 8.2ii (the
geophysical results suggest that this southern part of the
building could have consisted of a row of rooms). The
wall was associated with poorly-preserved opus signinum
loors in the two rooms (832/835), while the presence of
patches of lime mortar on both faces of [805] suggests
that both rooms were rendered (no evidence of painted
plaster was recovered).
The loors in Areas 8.2 and 8.3 were overlain by a series
of deposits containing quantities of degraded plaster,
mortar and CBM fragments that must have originated
from the building’s abandonment and dereliction. It was
from this level that cut [853] to rob the later wall dividing
8.3 was noted, which if correct indicates that some of the
building’s internal walls were being dismantled while the
superstructure was still standing.
Thick layers of dark silty soil with large quantities
of building rubble and broken roof tiles (the tile was
concentrated in the central and southern parts of the
trench) lay on top of these deposits, including (839),
(804/806) and (808/822). These rubble deposits were
cut by lat-bottomed and vertical-sided trenches for
the robbing of the major east-west walls ([820], [811]
and [814] ran along walls [821], [812] and ([815]
respectively). The fact that wall [805] was not robbed
suggests that it had been partly dismantled already (or
had collapsed) and was not visible when the robbing took
place. This, combined with the absence of large quantities
of building stone in the upper parts of the trench, indicates
To the north the wider Area 8.3 had also been subdivided
into two, though here the additional wall [838] ran
parallel to the direction of the building (i.e. east-west)
creating smaller spaces some 2.9m and 2.2m wide (8.3i
and 8.3ii respectively). This wall was 0.83m wide with a
rubble and tile core and also had been built directly onto
64
Excavation results, Trench 8
ig. 76. Wall [805] separating rooms 8.2i (top) from 8.2ii (bottom). Taken from the east
Fig. 77. Section of wall [838] from the east. The wall separated rooms 8.3i (left) from 8.3ii (right), and probably
butted against a north-south wall that has been robbed (edge of robber trench [353] cuts the clay surface in 8.3i)
65
Excavation results, Trench 1
Fig. 78. Arrangement of stones and CBM in Area 8.1
perhaps that the major robbing event occurred sometime
after the building’s demolition. A rubble layer with CBM
inclusions (807) post-dated this robbing event in the
southern end of the trench, which lay beneath the topsoil
(801).
66
Trench 9
Trench 9 was the most northerly of the trenches
excavated in 2011 and was positioned across the full
width of the narrow northwest-southeast aligned building
that lay between the western courtyard of the Southern
Canabae (zone 3), and Building D excavated by NashWilliams in the 1950s. The trench exposed two raised
rooms or corridors, provided with opus signinum loors
and walls decorated with painted plaster, between two
probable external areas (Figs 79 and 81). The deposits
associated with the building’s use and demolition lay no
more than 0.3m below the modern ground surface and
were remarkably well preserved (Fig. 80). Ruts caused by
modern agricultural vehicles passing over this part of the
ield were shown to be actively cutting into the Roman
archaeology in the southern part of the trench. The rooms
or corridors of the building were considerably higher
than the surrounding ground level and had been clearly
raised with substantial quantities of levelling material.
The absence of steps or other means of entering the
building from the north and south indicates that access
into and through the building itself was gained from its
short eastern and western sides. The excavated evidence
combined with the gradiometer results suggests that the
narrow building could have been the rear wing of the
monumental Building D whose entrance opened onto the
amphitheatre.
Trench 9 produced very little Medieval or modern
material, suggesting that the Roman building was the irst
and last phase of signiicant occupation in this part of
Caerleon. The provisional stratigraphic matrix for Trench
9 is located in Appendix 1.
CONSTRUCTION AND OCCUPATION
Rooms 9.2 and 9.3 - the ‘corridor’ building.
The east-west walls of the 12m wide building had been
robbed either to their lowest courses or their foundations.
Although the southern external wall [931] had been
completely robbed to its cobbled footings, these showed
that it was considerably wider than the northern external
rth
s
tre
9.4
r
Fo
o
sN
9.3
9.2
9.1
0
10m
Fig. 79. Trench 9 showing walls and surfaced areas superimposed over gradiometer results. Numbers
refer to ‘Areas’ as described in the trench discussion
67
Excavation results, Trench 9
Trench
N
939
934
952
945
965
946
958
932
956
Area 9.4
952
957
945
962
960
902
932
962
963
947
949
917
919
924
940
Room 9.3
Fig. 80. Trench 9 fully excavated, from south
wall [917] (0.98m compared to 0.60 m), and it is possible
that this was the main (rear) wall of the Building D
complex. A third wall [918], 0.75m wide, divided the
building longitudinally into two long internal spaces (at
some 5m the southern, or rear, internal area 9.2 was wider
than the northern internal area 9.3 which measured 3.7m
wide). The lower courses of walls [917] and [918] had
not been robbed and consisted of rubble cores between
faces of roughly cut blocks of ORS bonded with orange
sandy mortars.
918
922
914
Room 9.2
Several unexcavated mortary deposits visible in the
sides of the later robber trenches possibly relate to the
construction phases of these walls. The robber trenches
also showed that a series of substantial deposits had been
dumped between the walls, particularly (936) in 9.2 and
(940) in 9.3, to raise the interior of the building before
the irst the loors were laid. These deposits were up to
0.4m deep in 9.2, but decreased in depth from south to
north within the trench as the builders worked with the
natural slope of the ground on which the building was
constructed.
941
943
951
950
923
931
916
Area 9.1
916
The make-up in room 9.2 was overlain by a layer of
medium-sized angular blocks of ORS (943), over
which the concrete for the irst opus signinum loor
0
2m
Fig. 81. Final plan of Trench 9
68
Excavation results, Trench 9
Fig. 82. Room 9.2 from south, showing earliest opus signinum loor (941) beneath second opus signinum loor
(907/914
(941) was poured and levelled (Fig. 82). This loor had
been intensively used and the surface shown signs of
considerable wear-and-tear. A possible accumulation
layer consisting of ine brown silts (932) lay on top of
this loor, which in turn was sealed by a second and inal
opus signinum surface (907/914). The same construction
sequence was observed in area 9.3 where a layer of ORS
(930/925) levelled the make-up deposits (940/926) and
formed the base for an opus signinum loor (910). Unlike
in 9.2, however, the loor in this internal area was not
replaced and the original surface was used throughout the
duration of the building’s life (Fig. 83).
from wall [917] it must predate the decay or demolition
of the building. Furthermore, the pit had been illed with
dumps of sandstone and tufa before being deliberately
levelled with deposits of sand and decayed mortar (929),
as if the pit had been dug and illed while 9.3 was still in
use within the standing building.
Area 9.1 - southern ‘yard’
The southern end of the Trench 9 included a small part
of what is likely to have been an open area behind the
rear wall of the corridor building just described (the
geophysical results identiied a probable courtyard, some
25-30m wide and potentially up to 40m long, immediately
to the southwest of the building).
The evidence provided by the building’s walls and the
dimensions of its two internal spaces suggests that the
narrower northern area 9.3 possibly served as a corridor,
while the wider southern area 9.2 might have have been
subdivided by lateral internal walls (outside the 2m wide
evaluation trench) to form a range of rooms with doorways
from the corridor. Further excavation would conirm the
precise layout of this building, but the geophysical results
suggest that such an arrangement of corridor leading to
rooms is certainly possible.
Although the trench [923] that robbed wall [931]
extended to a depth of more than a metre below the loors
inside the building, no surfaces of this external area
were visible in the southern face of the trench. Instead
the sequence of deposits in area 9.1 consisted of a mixed
layer of sandy silt (916) with large quantities of pottery,
animal bone and occasional glass fragments, below a
similar deposit containing numerous small inds as well
as rubble and CBM fragments (908). These probably
represent episodes of rubbish dumping followed by the
accumulation of debris from the building’s decay and
demolition. Therefore, the ground level of the courtyard
must lie beneath these, although how much lower is
uncertain. This demonstrates the extent of the terracing
in this part of the Southern Canabae that was required to
In area 9.3 most of the opus signinum loor (910) and its
underlying rubble bedding (930/925) had been cut away
by a large shallow pit [924] whose western side lay just
within the trench and which extended for an unknown
distance beyond the trench to the east. The purpose of
this pit is unclear, but as it was sealed by fallen plaster
69
Excavation results, Trench 9
Fig. 83. Room 9.3 from east, showing half-sectioned pit [924], and opus signinum loor (910) on right
create a platform for the corridor building, and the height
difference and the absence of steps must mean that the
building was not accessed from the southern courtyard.
[960] may have run perpendicularly eastwards from wall
[932], though only a short length of it was included in the
trench and the evidence for this wall is less convincing.
Area 9.4 - northern area
The area to the northeast of the corridor building in the
northern part of Trench 9 was also considerably lower
than the corridor building. The trench was excavated to a
depth of 1.2m below the modern ground level and as no
substantial surfaces had been observed at this point it is
uncertain, therefore, if this part of the trench was inside
another building or had been an external area.
A series of brown and orange sandy layers – including
(945/946/947/949/95/965) - butted up to the lower
courses on both sides of walls [932] and [958], and these
must have been deposited while the structures formed
by these walls were standing. These layers gradually
became shallower to the north as the pre-existing ground
surface sloped upwards, though whether they represent
construction activity or surfaces is unclear.
Three connected walls were discovered in area 9.4 that
were part of a structure of some kind (Fig. 84). These
were narrower and more poorly constructed than the
building’s walls, consisting of ORS blocks of various
sizes bonded with a yellow sandy mortar, but without a
consistent rubble core. A north-south wall [932] extended
from the north wall [917] of the corridor building and
continued northwards beyond the end of the trench. This
wall varied in width from 0.5m to 0.6m and was not
quite straight along its observed length. Unusually, it was
bonded into the lower courses of [917] but not the wall’s
two uppermost surviving courses, suggesting either that
it had supported a timber superstructure or, perhaps
more likely, that it was a sleeper wall for a colonnade or
portico. A second wall [958] at right angles to wall [932]
extended for an uncertain distance eastwards, and the fact
that these walls were bonded together shows that they had
been constructed at the same time. A possible third wall
The north-south wall [932] continued beyond the northern
end of Trench 9 towards the monumental Building D
excavated by Nash-Williams. Lying immediately west of
the amphitheatre, this building was oriented on the same
alignment as the Southern Canabae and its northwestern
side included a row of rooms that apparently head
directly towards Trench 9. It is possible, therefore, that
walls [932] and [958] are a continuation of this range of
rooms and that Building D extended as far as the corridor
building described previously. If this is indeed the case,
the position of wall [958] suggests that the rooms, were
they of equal size, would have been approximately 4.3m
wide.
DECAY AND ROBBING
Rooms 9.2 and 9.3
Dumps of painted wall plaster (909) in the northern
part of room 9.3 lay on top of the opus signinum loor
70
Excavation results, Trench 9
Fig. 84. Area 9.4 from north, showing walls [932] and [958]
(910) as well as the in-illed pit [924] (Fig. 85). Red
and white were the predominant colours on the plaster
and, although fragmentary, it appears that the decorative
scheme comprised red lines forming squares or rectangles
on a white background. It is most likely that this had
decorated the internal face of wall [917], but it is not
certain whether the plaster fell while the building was
still standing (presumably no longer in use and partially
derelict), or during the robbing of the building. Similarly
fragmentary deposits of painted wall plaster (913) were
found overlying the loor (914) in room 9.2 close to wall
[918], indicating that this space had been decorated too.
foundations in trenches [919] and [922] respectively. The
ills of these robber trenches contained large quantities
of building debris as well as other material including
pottery, and the building was overlain by shallow silt
deposits including concentrations of medium-sized ORS
rubble mixed with quantities of rooing material and
decayed mortar.
Area 9.4
In the northern part of the trench dark silt deposits
(929/934) overlay the sandy layers around the walls,
and they also appear to overly the uppermost surviving
courses of north-south wall [932] (possibly supporting
the observation that this had been a low sleeper wall that
was no longer in use when these silts were deposited).
Layers of mixed ORS and tufa rubble (some blocks with
mortar still adhering to them) in a dark sandy matrix
overlay the dumps of collapsed wall plaster in both rooms
9.2 and 9.3 (904 and 906 respectively). These were then
cut by robber trenches that removed the lower courses of
the building’s two external walls [917] and [931] as well
as its internal wall [918]. All of the lower courses of the
southern external wall [931] had been removed and the
robber cut for this wall [923] bottomed on its cobbled
foundations at just over 1m below the latest Roman loor
surfaces. Walls [917] and [918] had not been completely
robbed and the lowest courses survived above their
Although the evidence is not entirely clear, it appears that
a shallow cut [952] along the wall [932] closest to the
corridor building indicates that even this low wall had
experienced some robbing, though this activity must
have occurred before deposits (935/920) and (902) were
laid down as these seal the uppermost ill of the robber
trench. No evidence for robbing was noted for the short
section of wall [958] within the trench. Layers (935/920)
produced large quantities of animal bone, pottery, shell
71
Excavation results, Trench 9
and charcoal, suggesting that the area immediately north
of the corridor building was used for the disposal of
rubbish after the structures formed by walls [932/958]
had gone out of use or been robbed away. Trench [919],
associated with the robbing of the corridor building’s
northern wall [917], was cut from the level of layer
(902) indicating that the structures in the northern part of
Trench 9, whatever form these took, went out of use and
were robbed earlier than the building itself.
The uppermost layers in the northern part of the trench
consisted of thick deposits of ORS rubble with some
fragments of CBM lying directly below the topsoil. The
stones here were generally much larger than those found
overlying the corridor building where more roof material
was recovered.
Fig. 85. Area 9.3 from west, showing collapsed wall
plaster (909) above the opus signinum loor (910). The
foundations of wall [917] are visible on the left of the
photo
72
Artefact & Environmental
Assemblages
The 2011 excavations produced a typically large and
varied range of material culture and environmental
evidence. At the time of writing the work of conserving,
identifying and describing this material is on-going;
Adrienne Powell has completed the and assessment of
the animal bone, Drs Peter Webster and Mark Lewis
have inished the preliminary identiication of the pottery
assemblage, while the metal and other small inds are
scheduled to undergo conservation in the laboratories at
Cardiff University from the Autumn of 2012. The pottery
assemblage is presented in the next section, while the
following discussion summarises the extent and nature of
the various categories of non-ceramic inds, including an
initial examination of the patterns of deposition between
the nine trenches.
Trenches 1 and 5 produced the largest collections of
small inds, though probably for different reasons. In
Trench 1 the majority of artefacts came from deposits
used to raise and level the buildings on the east side of
the tegula wall (rooms 1.1 and 1.2), while in Trench 5
the rubbish deposits overlying the latest Roman loors
in rooms 5.3 and 5.4 produced the greatest quantity of
small inds from this building. Although the processes
that led to the deposition of large numbers of objects in
Trenches 1 and 5 were different, it is likely in both cases
that these artefacts were not directly associated with the
functions of these buildings. Iron, lead and glass inds
were particularly common from Trench 1, whereas glass
and copper allow objects were found more frequently in
Trench 5. Elsewhere, a surprisingly large assemblage of
glass was recovered from Trench 2 (though not all of it
was Roman), Trenches 3 and 4 produced very few inds,
while the objects from Trench 9 included relatively large
quantities of iron as well as coins.
SMALL FINDS / REGISTERED ARTEFACTS
A total of 475 objects classiied as small inds were
recovered, including a wide range of artefacts of copper
alloy, iron, lead, glass, worked bone, ceramic, and jet
or shale. All stratiied ind spots were recorded in three
dimensions and the distribution of small inds between
the nine trenches is shown on Table 1 and Fig. 86.
Coins
Copper alloy*
Iron
Lead
Glass **
Anteixa
Ceramic ***
Bone
Jet / shale
Stone
Intaglio
Total
Total
20
94
83
92
134
4
10
10
2
25
1
475
Trench 1
4
24
32
40
34
T2
1
1
1
5
14
Although the small inds are yet to be cleaned and
conserved, it is apparent that the assemblage includes
far fewer military inds that was the case in Priory
Field. Instead, the majority of registered artefacts from
T3
T4
2
7
4
7
10
2
1
1
4
9
10
10
11
1
32
94
1
6
145
24
1
9
Table 1. Distribution of small inds / registered artefacts (by count)
* non-numismatic objects
** beads and vessel glass
*** decorated samian and grafiti
73
T6
23
14
11
30
1
3
5
1
6
5
1
1
T5
T7
2
7
4
4
19
3
T8
2
12
3
11
7
T9
9
9
14
3
5
1
1
1
3
1
6
3
1
42
48
39
42
Artefact & Environmental Assemblages
50
coins
copper alloy (non-numismatic)
40
iron
lead
glass (beads and vessels)
Quantity
30
20
10
0
Trench 1
Trench 2
Trench 3
Trench 4
Trench 5
Trench 6
Trench 7
Trench 8
Trench 9
Fig 86 . Distribution of small inds from the Southern Canabae
the Southern Canabae seem to be personal, domestic
and craft items. This perhaps relects the activities that
took place in the complex, or possibly the domestic
and industrial nature of the rubbish dumped into the
abandoned buildings in Trench 5 and possibly elsewhere.
buildings produced greater quantities of such material,
although even here there were signiicant differences
between the material recovered. Trenches 1, 4 and 5, for
instance, produced large assemblages of animal bone and
pottery, while Trenches 6, 8 and 9 did not.
BULK FINDS
The material classiied as bulk inds, and therefore not
registered in the same way as small inds, includes pottery,
animal bone, iron nails, non-vessel glass, metallurgical
and glass slags, tesserae and clay-pipe. The distribution
of these inds is shown on Table 2 and Fig 87, where
it is apparent that different quantities of material were
recovered from the nine trenches. In part this relects
the depth to which the trenches were excavated, but
these patterns must also relect the intensity and type of
occupation in different parts of the Southern Canabae
too. For example, Trenches 2 and 3 in the centre of the
main courtyard building produced very little material at
all, suggesting that this large open area was not used in a
way that resulted in the loss of iron nails, broken ceramic
vessels or animal bone. The trenches located within other
It likely that this is an effect of the various processes
that formed the stratigraphic deposits within which this
material was contained, such as the dumping of rubbish
in rooms and spaces in Trenches 4 and 5 when these
buildings were no longer in use. It is important to bear
in mind, therefore, that the material recovered from the
trenches could have originated elsewhere and does not
necessarily refer to the original functions of the excavated
buildings themselves. In Trench 1, however, much of
the ceramic assemblage was recovered from levelling
deposits within the buildings closest to the River Usk and
this will be important when understanding the chronology
of these buildings’ construction and use. It is noteworthy
that these deposits in Trench 1 produced similarly large
quantities of metallurgical slags but relatively little
animal bone, indicating perhaps that the material used to
Total
Trench 1
T2
Animal bone
4674
168
3
Ceramics
Iron nails
6882
785
1582
169
363
17
Glass*
1806
15472
259
Slag **
Tesserae**
Clay-pipe
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
751
1810
227
1182
157
376
116
6
1472
82
2063
170
309
32
436
112
239
73
302
124
581
8
235
329
38
143
66
147
6978
616
687
25
1670
851
3195
1480
1030
8
57
741
1099
140
1
11
7
8
2
1
17
47
3105
94
T3
Table 2. Distribution of bulk inds
* window and modern glass, by weight (g)
** by weight (g)
74
Artefact & Environmental Assemblages
2500
2000
animal bone
ceramics
iron nails
Quantitiy
1500
1000
500
0
Trench 1
Trench 2
Trench 3
Trench 4
Trench 5
Trench 6
Trench 7
Trench 8
Trench 9
8000
6000
glass (window and modern)*
weight (g)
slag (metal and glass)*
tesserae*
4000
2000
0
Trench 1
Trench 2
Trench 3
Trench 4
Trench 5
Trench 6
Trench 7
Trench 8
Trench 9
Fig. 87. Distribution of bulk inds from the Southern Canabae
raise the interior of these buildings may well have been
brought here from an area were metalworking took place.
from Trenches 5 and 8, while almost non-existent from
Trenches 2 and 3. In the latter cases the absence of roof
tiles is presumably because the structures located in the
open area of the main courtyard building either did not
have tiled roofs or were not roofed at all. It is interesting
to note, however, that smaller quantities of roof tiles were
recovered from Trenches 1, 4, 6, 7 and 9, all of which
exposed parts of Roman buildings that must have been
roofed with terracotta tiles like those in Trenches 5 and
8. The differential recovery of tegulae and imbrices is
likely, therefore, to be in part the result of some roofs
being salvaged (Trenches 1, 4, 6, 7 and 9), while others
appear to have remained in place until they collapsed and
became part of the archaeology of the buildings they had
once covered (Trenches 5 and 8).
The discovery of tesserae from mosaic loors was limited
to Trenches 4, 5 and 7. Those from 5 and 6 were small
and predominantly black or white, which in the case of
Trench 5 must have come from the disturbed tessellated
loor partly revealed in the northern end of the trench. The
two rooms exposed in Trench 7 were not tessellated (the
hypocaust loor in room 7.1 was opus signinum), and it is
likely that a mosaic existed in one of the adjacent rooms.
In contrast, the tesserae from Trench 4 were larger, crudely
fashioned, and all white or light grey. Again there was no
trace of a mosaic in the trench, but the concentration of
tesserae towards the northern end suggests a relatively
unsophisticated tessellated loor close by.
CERAMIC BUILDING MATERIAL
Over three tonnes of brick and tile was recovered during
the evaluation excavations. The distribution of this
material by type between the nine trenches is shown on
Table 3 and Fig. 88. Assuming that bricks and tiles will
not have moved very far from where they had been used
in walls and roofs, these reveal details of the buildings’
original architecture as well as indicating the different
histories of buildings once they were abandoned.
Tegulae and imbrices from roofs were most common
75
Bricks were recovered from seven of the nine trenches,
but are most common from Trench 7 where many of the
examples found there must have been used in the pilae to
support the heated loor. Trench 7 also produced several
pieces of box lues that presumably were also used in the
hypocaust, though box lue tiles were most common from
Trench 5 where they appear to have been used to reinforce
the barrel vault at the north end of the trench (the single
complete box lue from Trench 5 was 0.39m long, 0.19m
wide, 0.13m deep and with sides 0.02m thick).
Artefact & Environmental Assemblages
Tegula
Imbrex
Brick / pila
Box lue
Segmented
circular tiles
Unidentiied
Total
Total
Trench 1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
1090
396
99
26
11
3.5
1
0.5
49.5
15.5
40
0.5
399.5
218
32
20.5
125.5
22.5
2
69
13
96
2.5
295
86
22
41
11.5
24
0.5
3.5
25.5
4
109.5
215.5
501
1174.5
141
569.5
42.5
123
217
23.5
33.5
1285.5
3045.5
146
271
11.5
27
33.5
34
163.5
313.5
137
317.5
Table 3. Distribution of ceramic building material by weight (kg)
500
tegula
imbrex
brick (incl. pila)
400
box flue
segmented circular tiles
Weight (kg)
300
200
100
0
Trench 1
Trench 2
Trench 3
Trench 4
Trench 5
Trench 6
Trench 7
Trench 8
Trench 9
Fig 88. Distribution of ceramic building materials from the Southern Canabae
Several trenches also produced examples of segmented
circular tiles, though they were most frequent in Trench
8. Each tile formed one quarter of a circle and they would
have been laid in courses to build columns or engaged
(half) columns. Trench 8 showed that at least two sizes of
brick-built column were used in the Southern Canabae:
the smallest had a radius of 0.175m and the bricks were
0.05m thick, while the largest had a radius of 0.24m and
the bricks were 0.07m thick. Such segmented bricks are
not a common feature of Romano-British architecture,
military or civilian, and only a few are known from
within the legionary fortress at Caerleon.
ANIMAL BONE1
All bone was scanned and counted and the presence of
ageing, sexing, and butchery data was noted, as were
measurable specimens. Most of the bone was unwashed
at the time of evaluation and hence some surface features
such as shallow gnawmarks and ine cutmarks may
1 The following is an abridged version of Adrienne
Powell’s assessment of the animal bone assemblage
(analysis was undertaken in the Osteoarchaeology
Laboratory at Cardiff University).
have been obscured. Vertebrae and ribs were counted
as unidentiiable. Phasing and context information were
not available at the time of evaluation hence all bone is
treated as single phase.
There is a total of 4674 fragments in the assemblage
(Table 4), excluding bone from the topsoil, of which 2159
fragments are identiiable. Most of the material comes
from Trench 5 (39%), Trench 7 (25%) and Trench 4
(15%); these trenches also contained greater proportions
of identiiable bone than the other trenches. The overall
level of identiication, at 46%, is quite high and suggests
some retrieval bias.
The main taxonomic groups present are shown in Table
5. The major domestic species, cattle, sheep/goat and
pig, comprise 49% of the identiiable assemblage. Of
these, the most frequent species overall is pig (61%),
although the frequency varies between trenches. No
systematic recording of anatomical elements was made
during evaluation, although foot bones, particularly
metapodials, are notably common. Cattle is the next most
abundant taxon overall (24%) and is particularly frequent
in Trenches 8 and 9, even outnumbering pig in the latter.
Sheep/goat makes a relatively minor contribution overall
76
Artefact & Environmental Assemblages
Trench
Identiied Bone
Unidentiied Bone
Total
% ID
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
Total
25
143
3
391
901
148
584
107
238
2515
168
3
751
1810
227
1182
157
376
4674
15
0
48
50
35
51
32
37
46
360
909
79
598
50
138
2159
Table 4. Summary of the animal bone from the Caerleon Southern Canabae evaluations
(15%) and includes two goat specimens. A group of 46
sheep/goat bones from context (534) appear to be mostly
from the same, juvenile, individual. Small numbers of
equid, cat and dog bones are also present. The dog bones
from Trench 5 include a partial skeleton of a dwarf dog
comparable with a modern corgi reference skeleton, as
well as an isolated tibia from a dwarf animal. Remains
from a small, non-dwarf, canid either fox (Vulpes vulpes)
or small dog are also present.
Butchery evidence is infrequent but may have been
obscured by the unwashed state of most of the material.
There a few examples of worked bone in the form of
sawn antler segments, a deer metacarpal with the distal
end sawn through and a sawn segment of large mammal
bone. Measurable elements are frequent as are ageable
bones and jaws: the assemblage includes neonatal bones
from cattle, pig and dog. Sexable fowl tarsometatarsi
are frequent, sexable pig canines are present but less
frequent. Some evidence of pathological conditions has
survived. There is both charred and calcined bone present,
and much bone has a dark colour, although it is unclear
whether this is due to charring of staining. Carnivore and
rodent gnawing damage was present.
Wild mammals present include red/fallow deer (Cervus/
Dama), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), fox, hare (Lepus
sp.), hedgehog (Erinaceus europaeus), water vole
(Arvicola terrestris) and unidentiied small mammal. Bird
bones are unusually numerous, as a group outnumbering
the pig remains; they are most abundant in Trenches 5
(43% of total identiied) and 6 (46%). Bones of domestic
fowl are the most prevalent, however, other species
present include goose, duck, pigeon (Columba sp.), raven
(Corvus corax) and medium and small passerines. A small
amount of ish bone is present, concentrated in Trenches
5 and 6. Other species present include frog (Rana sp) and
toad (Bufo sp), most of which occurred in a large (ca. 250
bones) concentration in context (706).
Trench
Cattle
1
15
Sheep/
goat
3
4
49
29
159
2
5
52
76
300
1
6
1
2
31
1
2
Pig
Equid
Comparison of this Southern Canabae evaluation
animal bone assemblage with previously published
groups from Caerleon (Hamilton-Dyer 1993, O’Connor
1986) highlights several interesting features. Firstly, the
predominance of pig bones in contrast to the assemblages
from the Scamnum Tribunorum and the Legionary
Fortress Baths where cattle predominate (save for the
smaller samples from drains in the latter where sheep/
goat bones are more numerous). Cattle bones were also
the most frequent in the unpublished material from the
Dog
7
Other
mammal
Bird
27
93
1
57
394
6
5
36
3
50
93
1
4
9
9
152
32
657
Fish
Other
Total
25
0
2
7
65
30
97
8
17
3
17
9
Total
48
247
10
153
32
643
2
8
20
5
3
28
Table 5. Animal taxa present in the Caerleon Southern Canabae assemblage
77
360
3
909
79
255
598
50
1
12
1
259
138
2159
Artefact & Environmental Assemblages
recent excavations in Golledges Field. Perhaps related
to the species proile is the low incidence of observed
butchery in the evaluated bone: in both published
assemblages cattle butchery is indicated primarily by
chopmarks, whereas knife cuts are more prevalent in
the sheep/goat and pig remains and these are more
likely than chopmarks to have been obscured by the
unwashed state of the current assemblage. Secondly, the
frequency of wild mammal bones (7%) is greater than
in the published material. Thirdly, the frequency of bird
bone is remarkably high. Fourthly, the presence of dwarf
dog bones: bones from small dogs were also noted in the
Legionary Baths assemblage and at Caerwent (Noddle
1983), however, beyond describing them as lap-dogs
little information about their morphology was provided
and it would be interesting to compare these bones to see
if different types can be identiied.
78
Pottery1
INTRODUCTION
All pottery (approximately 93.25kg) from the 2011
excavations has been examined and an archive list
produced dividing the material by context and source
and, where possible, giving ‘spot dates’ to individual
vessels (quantiication has been by estimated vessel
numbers and by weight). The comments below are based
on this archive list and a brief summary by context has
also been produced (the quantiied archive and synopsis
are available from the authors on request).
century loruit. This is apparent if we show in histogram
form all vessels to which more than a generalised date
can be given (Fig. 89).
There are, however, differences between the trenches
and we have, therefore, included a separate histogram for
each trench below. When considering these it is important
to remember that the yield per trench will vary according
to its size and the depth of stratigraphy investigated. The
total number of vessels speciically dated from each trench
is as follows: Trench 1: 175; Trench 2: 51; Trench 3: 10;
Trench 4: 156; Trench 5: 178; Trench 6: 40; Trench 7:
59; Trench 8: 28; Trench 9: 41. It will be clear, therefore,
that Trenches 1, 4 and 5 are likely to provide the best
indications of the pattern on the site as a whole and that
Trench 3 can do little more than provide a glimpse of
what may be there.
Before making speciic comments it must also be pointed
out that the nature of a preliminary excavation imposes
limits on the amount of information which can be
deduced from the pottery recovered. The various trenches
were not all of equal size making direct comparison
between them dificult. Not all were excavated down to
70
60
Vessel loss per decade
50
40
30
20
10
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
0
Fig. 89. Roman pottery from the 2011 Southern Canabae excavations
Taken as a whole, the pottery includes some pieces
from the very beginning of the Roman occupation of the
fortress including examples both of the samian form 29
and the ‘Hofheim’ lagon type, both of which could have
appeared with the irst construction of the fortress and
are unlikely to have been current much after the early
90s AD. However, all trenches show a preponderance
the natural subsoil, a factor which must have bearing on
the chronological comments below. Nevertheless, a fairly
consistent pattern does seem to emerge.
CHRONOLOGY
In general all trenches show a spread of pottery from the
later irst century to the early/mid fourth and with a second
POTTERY1
1 The following is an abridged version of the authors’ pottery assessment. These are preliminary comments based on
a review of the entire pottery assemblage and the next step will be to consider the material in relation to the stratiied
grouping of contexts.
79
The Pottery
of late irst and second century vessels and, thereafter, a
diminution. Most areas have some vessels which belong
to the later third to fourth centuries but the number of
fourth century pieces is not such as to suggest occupation
beyond the early to mid century and this is backed up
by the absence of pieces which certainly belong to the
second half of the century.
mid fourth century pieces (only Trench 7 shows a similar
pattern). Trench 6 shows a clear early to mid 2nd century
peak and a marked decline in activity after c. A.D. 200.
Trench 7 shows a similar pattern to Trench 5 but with a
more even distribution of types between the early second
and the early/mid fourth centuries (Fig. 93a). Trench 8
igures are again based on a small sample, but show a
late irst to mid second century peak tailing off across the
remainder of the second century and with little thereafter
(Fig. 93b). Trench 9 has comparatively more later pieces
than most areas. The main loruit is again in the second
century and, as with all areas, there is a third century dip.
The increase in late third and fourth century pieces is,
however, noticeable here (Fig. 93c).
Looked at on a trench by trench basis we can see some
variation across the extramural complex. Trench 1 has a
preponderance of types from the period between the very
late irst century and the very end of the second (Fig. 90a).
Thereafter, there appears to be some activity on or near
the area up to the early/mid 4th century. Trench 2 igures
are based on a much smaller sample, but there is an even
greater concentration of late irst to mid 2nd vessels and
very little from any later period (Fig. 90b).
Trench 3 igures are based on a very small sample indeed
but seem to mirror those from the nearby Trench 2 (Fig.
91a). The almost total absence of third century pottery
from either trench is notable. Trench 4 igures are based
on a more extensive collection but are almost entirely
concentrated on the period from the late irst to the very
end of the second centuries (Fig. 91b).
We may note that the trenches are numbered across the
site from east to west and it looks as if the main courtyard
building and port (i.e. Trenches 1 to 4) saw little activity
after the very end of the second century. Many sherds
appear to have been moved around in the ground and only
a few contexts appear to have produced near complete
vessels. However, Trench 5 contexts (534-5) appear to
be an exception and contain large fragments of vessels
freshly broken when they entered the ground.
Trench 5 yielded the largest collection of pottery and the
most later (third and fourth century) material (Fig. 92a).
There is again a late irst to late second century peak but
there are also signiicant amounts of third and early to
The shallow depth of topsoil produced, as one might
expect, a number of contexts which look as if they may
be disturbed. However, this is mitigated by the small
quantity of Medieval and later pottery (far less than in
20
5
A
B
Vessel loss per decade
4
12
8
3
2
1
0
0
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
4
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
Vessel loss per decade
16
Fig. 90. Roman pottery from Trench 1 and Trench 2
20
2.5
A
B
16
Vessel loss per decade
1.5
1
12
8
4
0
0
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
0.5
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
Vessel loss per decade
2
Fig. 91. Roman pottery from Trench 3 and Trench 4
80
The Pottery
6
15
A
Vessel loss per decade
Vessel loss per decade
B
5
12
9
6
3
4
3
2
1
0
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
0
Fig. 92. Roman pottery from Trench 5 and Trench 6
5
4
A
4
B
Vessel loss per decade
Vessel loss per decade
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
0
4
C
Vessel loss per decade
3
2
1
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
250
260
270
280
290
300
310
320
330
340
350
360
370
380
0
Fig. 93. Roman pottery from Trench 7, Trench 8 and Trench 9
the light railway system leading in the general direction
of the 2011 site and some spillage of amphitheatre spoil
over the site cannot be entirely ruled out. There are a
number of layers with suspiciously low numbers of rims,
for instance, making the presence of pottery ‘weeded’
from the amphitheatre assemblage at least a possibility.
It will be worthwhile to examine the contexts of these
layers in due course.
the Priory Field excavations of 2008 an 2010). One may
suggest that medieval disturbance was probably slight,
perhaps because the area was rough grazing and not used
for arable farming. There is no evidence of late medieval
and early post-medieval activity but some for the period
between the mid 17th and the 19th centuries, although it
may be noted that this seems to concentrate in the area
of the more northerly Trenches 8 and 9. The spreading
of material from middens over this part of the site seems
possible.
SOURCES
With a few exceptions, the sources of Roman pottery
from the 2011 excavations are as one would expect for a
Caerleon site. There are some signiicant differences with
the Priory Field material and some interesting presences
and absences, so that a brief resumé of the main sources
of pottery is worthwhile.
Prior to the 2011 season it was thought likely that the area
being excavated had acquired its uneven appearance due
to the spreading of spoil from the nearby amphitheatre
excavations. This was clearly not the case but it remains
true that photographs of the Wheeler excavations show
81
The Pottery
Finewares
As one would expect from a site with a second century
loruit, samian forms a major component of the inewares.
There are some South Gaulish pieces including a couple
of form 29s, but only one Les Martres piece (Table 6).
The remainder are mainly Central Gaulish but there are a
few pieces of East Gaulish ware also.
the numbers of decorated vessels seem low and
disproportionately weighted in favour of Trench 1, as the
breakdown on Table 7 makes clear.
The greater incidence of the early South Gaulish form 29
over the somewhat later South Gaulish form 37 in Trench
1 is unusual on any Caerleon site with occupation through
into the second century and may indicate some early
building in the vicinity. A representation of samian as a
percentage of all pottery again makes clear that Trench 1
is exceptional, while the percentage of samian from the
more westerly trenches seems low (Table 8).
Samian forms are, of course, more easily identiiable
from very small fragments than most other pottery shapes
and the igure of 189 vessels may be disproportionately
high (approximately 25% of all vessels to which a irm
date could be given). Within the samian assemblage
SOURCE
SG
LMdV
CG
EG
TOTALS
FORM
18
18R
18 or 18/31
18/31
27
29
36
37
67
78
C.11
cup
bowl
18/31
33
bowl
18/31
18/31 or 31
27
31
31R
33
36
37
38
45
46
72
C11
C15
C21
Cup
Bowl
Beaker
Flagon
31
31R
45
C11
Lud.Sb
Bowl
T1
2
T2
4
1
3
5
5
1
4
1
2
2
T3
T4
T5
T6
1
T7
T8
T9
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
3
3
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
6
3
3
1
1
1
6
3
3
5
1
2
3
1
12
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
6
1
1
1
2
4
6
2
3
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
3
1
1
2
3
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
68
17
3
30
31
Table 6 Samian ware from the 2011 excavations
82
11
16
6
1
7
TOTALS
7
1
2
9
11
8
6
11
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
4
2
1
20
6
14
3
27
7
1
2
4
1
1
1
1
17
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
189
The Pottery
SOURCE
SG
SG
SG
SG
CG
CG
TOTALS
FORM
29
37
67
78
37
72
T1
5
4
1
12
1
23
T2
T3
3
1
1
T4
1
2
T5
T6
T7
T8
1
1
T9
1
5
2
3
5
4
2
1
1
4
2
3
2
1
4
2
8
TOTALS
8
11
1
2
27
4
53
Table 7 Decorated samian from the 2011 excavations
source is unknown. Examples in a thin red fabric come
from contexts (208), (311), and (426).
The impression gained from sorting the pottery is that
samian ware, and particularly decorated ware, is underrepresented and one might postulate both that the nearby
quays were not those over which samian was imported
and that higher status residential structures were at some
distance from the areas excavated. There is a certain
preponderance of later forms also, with more Central
Gaulish pieces (114) than South Gaulish (64).
Probably also dating from the later irst or early second
century is the roughcast ware from the Argonne or nearby
areas of north Gaul. This fabric is found in Britain between
the Flavian and mid- Antonine periods but, in the Caerleon
area, there is a notable absence of Gaulish roughcast ware
from levels later than the early second century as, by
then, the local Caerleon Ware kilns were in production.
The only known Caerleon kilns are on the raised ground
at Abernant above Bulmore, but others are likely to have
existed. Among their products were roughcast beakers
which, although technically less competent than the north
Gaulish examples, were produced in large numbers and
were, no doubt, a good deal cheaper and thus drove the
competition from the market place. The range of pottery
produced by these local kilns was probably extensive.
Certainly the Caerleon Ware kilns supplied our site with
red slipped vessels imitating samian and metal shapes
and red slipped mortaria.
Other inewares tend to relect the late irst to late second
century activity on the site as the Table 9 shows. There
are a number of pieces of local green glazed pottery
which was probably manufactured at or near Caerleon
in the later irst to early second century and might, on
the basis of the known inds of wasters, have been made
in the western civil settlement. Although there are no
pieces comparable to the green glazed wasters from
Nash-Williams’ extramural building VII (Boon 1966,
Pl.III.5) there are a few pieces of grey ware with vitreous
accretions (eg. from 502) which may repay further
examination. Substantial fragments of a langed bowl
in this fabric came from Trench 1 context (157), which
is closely paralleled by other vessels from the western
Canabae (Greep in Zienkiewicz 1986b, Fig.38, 3.2-3.3).
all pottery
samian
samian %
In Table 10 we have recorded those Caerleon Ware vessels
for which a form can be determined. The 97 Caerleon
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
TOTALS
175
68
38.9
51
17
33.3
10
3
30
156
30
19.2
178
31
17.4
40
11
27.5
59
16
27.1
28
6
21.4
41
7
17.1
738
189
25.61
Table 8 Samian as a proportion of the pottery from the 2011 excavations
Also probably of local manufacture (and of late irst to
early second century date) is mica dusted ware. Although
not plentiful (and liable to have lost its surface in the
prevalent soil conditions) a small number of examples
were noted. Of probably similar date are a couple of
vessels in thin off-white eggshell ware from Trench 6
(605). This fabric appears in small quantities throughout
the fortress and civil settlement and has obvious afinities
with the eggshell ware found at Holt. A common (and at
present unknown) source for both is possible. The 2011
site also yielded a number of small thin-walled cups and
small bowls which are in a variety of fabrics and almost
equal to the white egg-shell ware in thickness. Again, the
Ware vessels amount to some 13% of all recovered
vessels, a remarkable total given the comparatively short
lifespan of the Caerleon Ware kilns (c. A.D. 110-160/70).
What is also clear from the table is that Caerleon mortaria
are surprisingly scarce on the site. This seems to relect
a general dearth of mortaria (with the possible exception
of the later white Oxford vessels) and may relect a nondomestic character for the buildings sampled.
The second half of the second century saw the appearance
of a number of colour coated wares. The 2011 site produced
examples of colour coated beakers imported from Lezoux
and from the Mosel (Moselkeramik). These were current
from the mid second to the mid third century. In addition
83
The Pottery
FABRIC
Red Eggshell
White Eggshell
Terra Nigra
Pompeiian Red
Mica dusted
London type
Green Glaze
N.Gaul Roughcast
Lezoux colour coated
Mosel colour coated
Nene Valley colour coated
Oxford colour coated
?New Forest
TOTAL
T1
2
T2
1
T3
1
T4
1
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
1
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
4
3
1
2
1
1
2
3
17
2
1
9
1
2
7
7
7
1
1
25
1
1
1
3
1
1
4
5
3
3
2
7
TOTALS
5
1
4
1
5
1
7
8
9
13
13
5
1
73
Table 9 Non-samian inewares from the 2011 excavations
produced by the Caerleon Ware potters, but need not, of
course, be restricted to the narrow c. 110-160 date range
of the red slipped ware.
there were colour coated beakers from the Nene Valley
which are probably later second to third century in date.
Later British colour coated wares are, however, scarce.
There are no examples of the Nene Valley colour coated
versions of kitchen ware bowls and dishes popular in the
fourth century (although one possible ‘Castor Box’ may
be noted) and very few Oxford colour coated beakers or
bowls. A single beaker fragment possibly from the New
Forest was present, but, unlike the Oxford ware, this is
a ware on the very edge of its range in South Wales and
one would not expect larger numbers. A few pieces of
ineware of unknown source were also noted. These will
require further work and the possibility of vessels brought
in as make-weights in cargo delivered at the quays or in
the luggage of troops or merchants cannot be excluded.
All except mortaria
Mortaria
T1
10
4
T2
5
0
T3
0
0
A number of contexts in Trench 5 (and one in Trench 1)
included substantial fragments of more than one casserole
and lid of a type identiied with an African style of cuisine
by Vivien Swan. She has identiied a number of vessels
of this type on legionary sites and on the Antonine Wall
and postulated the presence of African troops recruited
into the legions, especially in the Severan period, as
a reason for the sudden appearance of these vessels.
While this remains a possibility, it must be pointed out
that the spread of a particular style of cooking requiring
specialised equipment does not necessarily relect the
T4
34
4
T5
15
0
T6
7
0
T7
5
2
T8
2
0
T9
9
0
TOTALS
87
10
Table 10 Caerleon ware forms from the 2011 excavations
Other Kitchen and Table Wares
A series of local sources are apparent. The local potteries
which produced the green glazed and mica dusted
inewares probably also produced more mundane ware.
There are a few examples of white slipped ware (including
mortaria but mainly lagons) which are probably local
to Caerleon and late irst to early second century in
date. The few examples of everted rim jars and langed
and carinated bowls of the Flavian to Trajanic period
undoubtedly include examples from local greyware and
oxidised ware sources. All Caerleon sites yield both
Caerleon Ware and oxidised wares which on occasion are
simply Caerleon Ware without the slip but which may be
coarser and unslipped versions of Caerleon Ware forms
or other forms in these coarser fabrics. All are likely to be
ethnicity of the cook using those utensils (as many
modern users of a wok will attest). One may also point to
the use of these distinctive casseroles in other areas of the
western Mediterranean seaboard. The case for Africans at
Caerleon is, therefore, unproven, but the appearance of
a speciic style of cooking using specially (and locally)
made casseroles is clear on a number of Caerleon sites
both inside and outside the fortress.
Other local wares include the common South Wales
Reduced (or Grey) Ware found throughout the region. It
is less common at Caerleon than elsewhere, presumably
because of the presence of local potteries producing
oxidised wares, but, nevertheless, in the 2011 trenches,
as elsewhere in and around the fortress, we ind examples
84
The Pottery
particularly of jars, wide mouthed jars and bowls in this
regional fabric.
and perhaps of Oxfordshire colour coated ware may also
be signiicant. This is not a ‘grand house’ collection.
The small number of mortaria present must also have
a signiicance and perhaps points to a non-domestic
emphasis in the area. We may note a crucible fragment
from context (423) and a few waste tiles but this does
not seem to be an industrial area either. But the variety,
particularly of earlier inewares does not really support a
service or storage function. At present it is dificult, on
the evidence of the pottery when considered in isolation
to arrive at any clear indication of the usage of the area. In
part this may be due to the small scale of the excavations
when compared with the large area examined. It may,
however, be that when the material is linked to the
stratiied sequence, clearer trends will be apparent. One
suspects, however, that it is the nature of such exploratory
excavations to raise more questions than they answer and
that more extensive work on speciic buildings will hold
the key to unravelling the function of the site (or sites).
Among the coarse wares which have been imported onto
the site from elsewhere in Britain, the most common
is Black-Burnished Ware. This is present in South
Wales from the conquest period onwards but becomes
the pre-eminent cooking ware from the early to midsecond century to the late fourth century or beyond.
Unsurprisingly, therefore, it is present in most contexts
on the 2011 site with the possible exception of a few
which may be irst century in date. We may also note a
single example of Severn Valley Ware (a jar which might
presumably have arrived as a container) and several white
mortaria from the Oxfordshire kilns. In general mortaria
are scarce on the 2011 site, although a stamped vessel in
South West White Slipped Ware may be noted.
We have already noted a number of pieces of ineware
from unidentiied sources which may have appeared
with other cargoes or in luggage. To these we should add
four pieces from contexts (535), (902), (920) and (939)
of Black-Burnished Ware category 2 (BB2), a fabric
which rarely appears in the west of Britain. It was made
in the South-East and exported up the eastern seaboard.
Our pieces could, therefore, have come from anywhere
within the normal exporting range of the ware but they
are perhaps best seen as having come in the luggage of
legionaries returning from construction duties on the
Antonine Wall where BB2 is common.
Despite the obvious range of the assemblage there are a
number of ceramics notable for their scarcity. There are,
for instance very few amphorae sherds (just a handful
of Dressel 20 oil amphora sherds, a ish sauce amphora
and some South Gaulish wine amphora fragments)
suggesting that these bulk commodities did not enter
the civil settlement through this part of the riverside – a
point probably supported by the scarcity of amphorae on
the nearby Priory Field site. The scarcity of mortaria has
already been noted and may also relect the usage of the
area sampled. The presence of a few items of over-ired
tile, perhaps wasters (from 425 and 515) is intriguing.
SOCIAL & ECONOMIC IMPLICATIONS
Comments on the implications of the assemblage must
be tempered by the partial nature of the collection – an
exploratory sample from a large area, clearly covering
several buildings. Even with this in mind, the pottery is
noticeably more varied that that from the recent Priory
Field excavations and draws on most, though not all, of
the sources of pottery available to Roman Caerleon. Both
presences and absences may be signiicant. The dearth of
amphorae has been noted and this was clearly not an area
over which amphorae were moved. Neither is it likely
that the buildings on the site used many amphora-born
commodities – or if they did then their service and storage
areas were not sampled. The dearth of decorated samian
85
Discussion
The excavations at Caerleon in 2011 revealed some
remarkable archaeological remains that will make a
signiicant contribution to our understanding of the
legionary fortress of Isca and, in turn, the early history
of western Roman Britain. The conquest and paciication
of the native tribes of the west, particularly the Silures,
play a major role in the sequence of events described by
Roman historians and it is possible that the complex of
buildings known here as the Southern Canabae would
have been familiar to the Roman soldiers and their
commanders who took part in the campaigns against
these most obdurate of opponents of Roman imperial
ambitions in Britain.
Medieval and modern occupation seems to be limited to
ield boundaries and the occasional pits and post-holes,
most of which are likely to be agricultural in nature.
Other major Roman centres in Britain invariably were
occupied in one form or another in later centuries and
in many instances, particularly the two other permanent
legionary fortresses at York and Chester, these sites
became important urban centres from the Medieval period
onwards. In these places the actions of their post-Roman
inhabitants caused considerable damage to the underlying
Roman archaeology or led to the Roman remains being
covered by complex archaeological remains that need
to be carefully excavated before the Roman levels are
reached.
The deinitive discussion of the excavations and their
signiicance will be possible only after the inds have
been conserved and the respective specialists’ reports
have been written. This will allow the integration of the
excavated stratigraphy and the inds information, but the
purpose of this interim report is to present an outline of the
archaeological sequences identiied in the nine evaluation
trenches and to explore, at least in part, whether or not
we might be in a position to present provisional answers
to the research questions that provided the original
motivation for the 2011 excavations.
In the area of the Southern Canabae, however, this
did not happen. For whatever reasons the post-Roman
successor to Isca grew up within the walls of the fortress
and never expanded into the extramural complex that
otherwise might have obscured or disturbed the Roman
archaeology we now know is so well preserved in these
ields. We are also fortunate that this land has been under
pasture for many years and that any ploughing has been
sporadic and relatively shallow. No plough marks were
noted in the evaluation trenches, although, because the
archaeology lies so close to the surface, the movement of
tractors and other vehicles across the ields, particularly
in wet weather, is causing some damage to the uppermost
remains in the western part of the complex.
The project’s aims and objectives were grouped into a
series of related themes and topics, including:
• Layout of the buildings identiied by the gradiometer
surveys
• Date of the buildings’ abandonment and, potentially,
some indication of when they were constructed
• Function of these buildings and, therefore, the
purpose of the monumental complex
• Remains of the suggested quayside wall and landing
stages, including their construction and histories
• Extent of erosion to the remains caused by the River
Usk, and if the river continues to erode this important
archaeological resource.
Outreach was an important element of the 2011 season
and encouraging public participation and community
engagement were written into the original project design.
A separate summary of the successful engagement work
is provided at the end of this report, but interestingly the
questions asked by members of the public were often
the same as those we set ourselves: What have you
found? How old is it? What were the buildings for? The
archaeological remains in the nine trenches have provided
us with the means to answer these questions and, as is
always the case, ask others that could form the basis for
future work on the site.
Before exploring these in more detail however, it is
worth summarising the nature and extent of the surviving
archaeology that lies beneath the ields to the south of the
amphitheatre at Caerleon. In all trenches it was found that
the remains of the Roman buildings survive very well and
the uppermost deposits associated with the occupation
and subsequent abandonment of the Southern Canabae
lie very close to the modern ground surface, in places only
just below the turf. The explanation for this extraordinary
level of survival is the absence of any signiicant postRoman activity in this part of Caerleon – the evidence for
LAYOUT AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE
SOUTHERN CANABAE
The evaluations conirmed that the Southern Canabae
complex consists of at least three major elements, each
comprising separate buildings distinguishable by their
layout and architecture. The trenches also found that the
outlines of the buildings as imaged by the geophysical
surveys were generally borne out archeologically, so
87
Discussion and Interpretation
that magnetic anomalies coincided with walls and other
features such as drains. It is now possible to state with
certainty that the major buildings identiied during the
surveys are all Roman. Whether these were built as a
single episode or were added to over time remains to be
conirmed, though the architecture of the main elements
suggests either that they were built at different times
or that they were contemporary but served different
functions.
Fortress North
This unusual form of tile wall seems to have divided a
series of buildings that extended towards the river (areas
1.1 and 1.2), from a parallel roadway running alongside
their landward sides. The presence of a stone course
capping the eleven tegula courses perhaps indicates
that this wall was a stylobate intended to support a
colonnaded superstructure of some kind, and the interiors
of the buildings were levelled before being provided with
rudimentary stone and brick loors. The roadway consisted
Zone 3
Compass North
Zone 2
Zone 1
Fig. 94 Interpretation of the geophysical results showing the Southern Canabae complex and the 3 ‘zones’ of buildings that comprise it.
Zone 1 – the quayside
The main part of Trench 1 exposed a cross section of
the courtyard building’s southern range closest to the
River Usk. The 2010 test-pits suggested that this area
might have included the quayside wall which was part of
Caerleon’s port, though the 2011 excavations showed that
this was not the case and the situation is somewhat more
complicated than initially thought. It is now clear that the
Usk has moved westwards since the Roman period and
that any remains of a port and quay that once existed here
have been eroded away by the river. Instead, the gently
sloping pre-Roman ground surface shows that the ancient
riverbank, although close, must have been further east of
the Trench and that the wall constructed from deliberately
broken tegulae [115] was not the quay.
of a narrow pavement (1.3) which, within Trench 1, was
divided by a short wall perhaps to create lean-to buildings
or covered entrances, as well as the road itself (1.4) which
clearly separated the structures along the riverbank from
the southern range of the main courtyard building to the
west. The road surface had been intensively used over
time and was patched using brick and building stone, as
well as complete and broken querns. It is not known if
the buildings closest to the river were part of a port, but
it is possible that these were warehouses or similar that
fronted the quay that has since been eroded away.
Zone 1 – the courtyard building: the courtyard
The very large courtyard building on the southern side
of the Southern Canabae was explored in Trenches 1, 2,
3, 4 and part of 5. The 1 ha courtyard was shown to have
been left as open ground, perhaps intermittently surfaced
88
Discussion and Interpretation
with cobbles and pebbles most of which have worn away.
The two possible buildings identiied on the geophysical
surveys proved to be walled structures, although if these
were indeed both Roman buildings is debateable. The
stone wall and associated collapse in Trench 2 could
have been part of a building, though it is not certain that
it is Roman in date and it is possible that it was part of
a substantial Medieval ield boundary. The structure on
the courtyard’s east-west axis, part of which was exposed
in Trench 3 is certainly Roman, although like the tegula
wall in Trench 1 the method of construction is unusual in
a Romano-British context.
from brick to stone courses in the centre of this wall
probably marks the position of the main entranceway
into the courtyard from the port-side road. The southern
side of the entranceway appears to have been marked by a
transverse wall separating it from the corridor, and in the
courtyard this was perhaps embellished by a brick-built
base for a plinth or pilaster.
The courtyard building: the northern range
Trenches 4 and 5 were positioned to investigate what was
believed to be the wide northern range of the courtyard
building that the geophysical results suggested could
have been divided into large rectangular spaces whose
narrow sides faced the courtyard. It is dificult however,
always to reconcile the geophysical anomalies with
the excavated archaeology in this part of the building,
primarily because the southern end of Trench 4 contained
at least two phases of occupation that are conlated on
the gradiometer results. The irst of these consisted of a
laid, possibly linear, dry-stone platform whose function
is unclear (area 4.2). This was overlain by a well-made
cambered cobble and stone surface that might have
formed a wide corridor or portico on this side of the
courtyard. The adjacent space to the north of this cobbled
area does not appear to have been surfaced at all, while a
layer of stone and mortar at the northern end of Trench 4
suggests another space with a hard-wearing loor surface
(areas 4.3 and 4.4). How these areas were separated is
not clear as no remains of dividing walls were identiied,
and it is not certain if these spaces were part of a single
building or entirely separate buildings.
The use of ired bricks, in this case triangular, in structure
3.1 is reminiscent of Roman buildings on the continent
particularly, though certainly not exclusively, in Italy.
Opus testaceum (also known as opus latericium), was a
common building technique from the irst century B.C.
and this method of construction, in which courses of
bricks were used to face a cement core, remained popular
throughout the Roman period especially for imperial
buildings in the western provinces (the Constantinian
Aula Palatina in Trier is one of the best known examples
of a brick-built building from the fourth century). The
use of bricks to construct buildings however, is very
unusual in Roman Britain where mortared stone was
the universally-favoured building technique in forts and
fortresses, towns, cities and villa buildings (see below).
The wall of ired bricks in Trench 3 explains why this
structure produced positive readings on the gradiometer
results (imaged as white rather than black), although it is
not certain that these walls were ever part of a building
in the centre of the courtyard. The absence of foundations
and the use of clay rather than mortar or cement to bond
the bricks would have meant that the walls were not strong
enough to support a substantial superstructure and roof.
The absence of loose bricks and roof tiles suggests that
these walls were never built to full height and covered.
Instead of a building, the structure in Trench 3 perhaps
should be seen a base for a platform of some kind, or an
enclosure demarcating this space in the wider courtyard.
The rear of the courtyard building’s northern range was
also exposed in the southern end of Trench 5. A low
brick-built opus testaceum wall appears to have separated
a narrow corridor (area 5.2), probably colonnaded, from
an unsurfaced area to the south. The presence of a drain
along the outside of the stylobate wall suggests perhaps
that the southernmost area in the trench was an external
open space bounded on its northern side by a covered
corridor. The lagstone structure in the southern part of
Trench 5 appears to be a water trough or tank, perhaps
indicating that industrial activities took place in this part
of the courtyard building’s northern range, or that animals
were kept here (area 5.1).
The area of the courtyard seems to have been the location
for other, more supericial, structures. The identiication
of possible post-pads and a post-hole might have been
part of timber buildings or enclosures, while the shallow
pit in Trench 2 illed with metalworking debris hints at
the nature of the activities that might have taken place
here.
The geophysical survey suggests that a narrow
passageway or corridor passed though the centre of the
northern range, providing access from the main courtyard
to the buildings of zone 2 to the northwest. The northern
range on the other side of this corridor is unfortunately
obscured by magnetic noise, though it is possible a
similar arrangement of open spaces and coarse surfaced
areas lay beyond this passageway too.
The courtyard building: the southern range
The main courtyard building’s southern, probably front,
range seems to have consisted of a 6m wide corridor (area
1.5) that gave access from the riverside road (see above)
into the courtyard itself. The corridor and courtyard were
separated by another low opus testaceum wall, again
possibly for a colonnade that could have extended around
three or four sides of the central open area. A change
Zone 2 – central buildings and spaces
The buildings on the higher ground overlooking the main
courtyard building and the Usk loodplain were exposed
89
Discussion and Interpretation
in Trench 6 and parts of Trenches 5 and 7. Trench 5
showed that the Roman buildings constructed against the
rear wall of the courtyard building’s northern range had
been terraced into the sloping ground. It seems likely that
a series of long structures would have risen up the low
promontory, perhaps with a monumental entranceway
of some kind in the centre leading from the port and
courtyard. The northern part of Trench 5 contained
two adjoining rooms provided with concrete loors and
painted plaster (rooms 5.3 and 5.4), east of which was a
space with a vaulted ceiling that is in the correct location
for an entranceway. A doorway between the two rooms
suggests that this corridor building could not be accessed
from the courtyard building to the south and that the only
way to reach this part of the building was from the north,
possibly via an integral corridor running along its rear
wall. The vaulted ceiling over the possible entrance (area
5.5) was constructed from tufa and masonry voussoirs,
with the frame of the vault perhaps provided by ribs
of box lue tiles. There is no suggestion that the vault
was decorated in any way, and the presence of such an
unusual and complicated architectural feature suggests
perhaps that this part of the building was intended to be
two storeys or more high. Only a small area of the vaulted
space was exposed in the trench and further excavation is
needed to conirm whether the collapsed ceiling is indeed
the remains of a barrel vault rather than, for instance, an
archway.
central square courtyard with narrow corridors on three
sides and what appears to be a major aisled building on
the fourth, northern, side. In plan the central part of this
building is reminiscent of a forum, but the absence of
rooms beyond the corridors means that it is unlikely to
have been built as a marketplace. The courtyard is similar
to buildings known as quadriportici, deined as nearly
square peristyle courtyards surrounded by colonnaded
porticoes. Trenches 7 and 8 examined buildings on the
southern and northern sides of courtyard 1 respectively.
The two rooms exposed in Trench 7 were at the east end
of a row of large rooms that ran alongside the courtyard’s
southern portico. These had been raised in height by at
least 1m over the surrounding ground surfaces. One of the
rooms was provided with an opus signinum loor (room
7.1), while the adjoining corner room was built with an
underloor heating system and elaborately painted walls
(room 7.2). These rooms appear to have been part of a
small bath suite and the geophysics suggests that the
praefurnium, where air was heated before passing into
the hypocaust, was located in a small adjacent room
accessed from the portico.
On the other side of the southern zone 3 courtyard,
Trench 8 found that the two wide corridors running
along the courtyard’s north side were not provided with
internal loors as anticipated, but instead seem to have
consisted of beaten earth surfaces. The remains of a large
aisled building were found beyond these open corridors
and a step-like structure against the southern external
wall shows that this building could be accessed from the
direction of the central courtyard. A drain built into the
wall terminated with an outlet on the outside face of the
step from which water must have poured into the adjacent
open corridor.
The discovery of part of a tessellated pavement at the
northern end of Trench 5 demonstrates that at least one
room on the crest of the higher ground was provided
with a mosaic loor (area 5.6), though only the edge was
exposed and it is not known how well the rest survives or
if it was decorated.
The northern part of zone 2 was explored in Trench
6, where a well preserved lagstone surface may well
indicate a small open courtyard between neighbouring
buildings (area 6.1). The geophysical results suggest that
a narrow rectangular building with a coarse crushed tile
loor lay to the northwest of this possible courtyard, and
the discovery of metalworking suggests that industrial
activities took place here. The discovery of a lead waterpipe shows that water from a tank of some kind located in
this building was fed downslope to fountains or suchlike
further east. The southern end of zone 2 was investigated
in the eastern end of Trench 7, which showed that, in this
area at least, an external cobbled area lay between the
buildings of zones 2 and 3 (area 7.3). This might have
been a road or alleyway, though the geophysical results
suggest that these surfaces could have been part of a more
extensive open space.
The aisled building seems to have consisted of a series
of parallel rooms and internal corridors covered either
with lagstone or opus signinum loors (rooms 8.28.4). Although some walls were rendered there was
no evidence that any of the rooms had been more than
white-washed. It is possible that this building was part of
a complex that included the bath-house excavated in the
1920s next to the amphitheatre (known as Bath A).
The northern courtyard complexes: courtyard 2
The northernmost courtyard building was examined in
Trench 9. Although the geophysical results are less clear
here, it is likely that it composed a second quadriporticus
with an adjoining building on its northeastern side. The
full width of this building was exposed in the trench,
which showed that it was long and narrow and, like the
aisled building in Trench 8, had been raised in height
above the surrounding ground surfaces. The interior was
divided into two parallel spaces, probably a corridor and
a row of room with opus signinum loors and painted
walls (rooms 9.2 and 9.3). The absence of any evidence
for a step to overcome the difference in height between
Zone 3 – the northern courtyard complexes: courtyard 1
Trenches 7, 8 and 9 examined the two courtyards
and associated buildings in the north of the Southern
Canabae. The southernmost of these consisted of a
90
Discussion and Interpretation
the courtyard to the south and the interior of the building
suggests that this building was accessed from its narrow
ends, and possibly was part of the large courtyard
structure excavated in the 1950s known as Building D
(also known as Building IX), that included a monumental
entranceway and hypocausted rooms.
tessellated, at least in its latest phase. Most trenches
produced evidence for internal decoration in the zones
2 and 3 buildings, ranging from fairly rough whitewashed render to elaborate wall paintings in rooms 7.2
and 9.3. The discovery in Trench 8 of segmented tiles of
two different sizes indicates that a colonnade, possibly
around the outside of the southernmost courtyard in zone
3 was constructed from brick-built columns. Segmented
tiles are known from only a few excavations in Caerleon
(Zienkiewicz 1993, 126-7) and a handful of other sites
in Roman Britain, notably the temple to Claudius at
Colchester where brick built columns may have formed
the main portico of the temple when it was rebuilt after
the Boudiccan destruction, if not before (Hull 1953;
Crummy 1980; Drury 1984, 41).
The northern part of Trench 9 may well have exposed
part of the central courtyard of Building D, which again
was much lower than the internal loors of the corridor
building (area 9.4). If this turns out to be the case, perhaps
two major bath complexes seem to have been located on
the northern side of the Southern Canabae closest to the
amphitheatre and the road leading into the fortress’ west
gate.
Building methods
The Southern Canabae can be divided into two parts
that seem to have been built using different methods of
construction. The remains of the courtyard building in
zone 1 are more supericial than the other buildings in
the suburb and many of the walls located in Trenches 1,
2, 3, 4 and 5 were built without foundations and bonded
with earth or clay rather than mortar. Furthermore, the
presence of at least three CBM-built walls in the courtyard
building is very unusual in Caerleon. Opus testaceum,
the use of bricks or tiles to face a wall’s concrete core,
is more common on the continent than Roman Britain
where mortared stone was the favoured building
technique (Ward-Perkins 1981, 21-121; Adams 1994,
145-51). Many buildings constructed entirely of brick
and tile can be found in Rome, Ostia and Pompeii, as well
as elsewhere on the Roman continent, although the CBM
walls at Caerleon are not strictly opus testaceum as their
faces are clay bonded and clay or earth was also used
to pack the walls’ cores. This suggests that these were
never intended to be load-bearing walls and that they
would have supported arcades or colonnades instead of
solid superstructures, although why bricks and tiles were
used is unclear. The internal rooms and spaces of the zone
1 courtyard building were provided with hard-wearing
loor surfaces made of cobbles, pebbles, beaten earth and
scatters of crushed tile. These give a functional impression
to these areas that is supported by the general absence of
wall plaster from the courtyard building where the walls
of rooms must have been entirely unembellished.
Layout of the Southern Canabae
The suburb of monumental buildings between the
amphitheatre and the River Usk appears to have consisted
of at least 3 separate elements, all of which were built
on a different orientation to the fortress. The very large
courtyard building in zone 1 lies next to the port facilities
on the Usk, only part of which survives, and comprises
an extensive central courtyard surrounded by corridors
and ranges of rooms. The building measures at least
140m from east to west and 120m from north to south
and is one of the largest structures known from Roman
Britain. It is not certain if similar buildings existed in
the canabae of the other permanent British fortresses at
Chester and York (for example Mason 1987, 149-51),
though there are several instances of large buildings
located outside the walls of legionary fortresses on the
continent comparable with the Caerleon example, notably
at Carnuntum, Nijmegen, Mirebeau and Vindonissa. It is
perhaps interesting that, like at Caerleon, the courtyard
buildings at Mirebeau and Vindonissa were located in
close proximity to amphitheatres, while at Carnuntum
and Nijmegen the courtyard structures are on the opposite
sides of the fortresses to their amphitheatres (van
Enckevort 2002; Goguey and Reddé 1995; Hartmann
1986; Jobst 1983, 98-100.).
The building complexes in zone 3 of the Southern
Canabae would appear to consist of at least two perisytle
courtyards and associated buildings. In plan these are
reminiscent of quadriportici, a form of courtyard building
that was common in Roman cities of the late republican
and early imperial periods. Quadriportici from Rome,
Pompeii and Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli are among the best
known examples from Italy (Berry 2007, 143-7; Coarelli
2002, 178-81; McDonald and Pinto 1995, 95-99; WardPerkins 1981). In the urban examples the quadriportici
were located next to theatres (Pompey’s theatre in Rome
and the Large Theatre in Regio VIII at Pompeii), or
amphitheatres (the 141m by 107m palaestra in Regio II
at Pompeii), while at Tivoli the courtyard known as the
Water Court or Piazza d’Oro served as an ornamental
garden next to a grand nymphaeum with six fountains.
The buildings in zones and 2 and 3 were generally
constructed using mortared masonry walls and they were
more solidly built that the zone 1 courtyard building. In
the northern zone 3 the buildings appear to have been
long narrow corridor-like structures ranged around open
peristyle yards, while in the central zone 2 the paved
area discovered in the southern end of Trench 6 could
have been an open yard between surrounding buildings.
The loors in these parts of the Southern Canabae
were usually opus signinum, although room 7.2 was
provided with a hypocaust and room 5.6 must have been
91
Pompey’s quadriporticus in Rome also performed a
decorative function and the courtyard was illed with a
formal garden, including statues and fountains. Although
the Pompeian quadriporticus in Regio VII is best known
as a gladiator school and barracks, the gladiators moved
here only after the earthquake of A.D. 62 and it is not
certain what function the building originally was intended
to fulil. The presence of a long pool in the centre of the
Pompeian palaestra reinforces the importance of water
in these buildings, something that is worth bearing in
mind when considering the drain and outlet in the irst
courtyard of zone 3 excavated in Trench 8.
DATING OF THE SOUTHERN CANABAE:
CONSTRUCTION, ABANDONMENT AND POSTROMAN ACTIVITY
The inal statement regarding the dating of the Southern
Canabae must wait for the identiication and analysis of
the artefacts recovered from the excavated deposits, but it
is already possible to put forward some ideas at this stage
of the post-excavation work regarding the construction
and abandonment of this important new addition to
Roman Caerleon.
It is clear from the material produced during the
excavation that the Southern Canabae was built very
early in the Roman period and there is no reason to
suggest that the suburb was later than the construction
of the fortress in the mid 70s. It is unclear at this stage if
the various different buildings were all built at the same
time, though the similar proportions of late irst and early
second-century pottery identiied from all nine trenches
suggests that they could have been broadly contemporary
(in which case the use of different building techniques in
zone 1 compared to zones 2 and 3 should be related to
these buildings’ functions rather than their dating).
Clarifying the nature of the relationship between the
amphitheatre and the Southern Canabae is essential if we
are to understand the early development of the fortress’
civil settlement. The construction of the amphitheatre c.
90 (or possibly its reconstruction c. 140) appears to have
led to the partial demolition of at least one bath-house on
its western side. It is possible that this building and the
adjacent monumental building D were part of the Southern
Canabae buildings discovered by the geophysical surveys
and evaluated in 2011. If this turns out to be the case, it
demonstrates that the Southern Canabae was certainly in
existence before the reconstruction of the amphitheatre,
and it could pre-date the amphitheatre’s construction
in 90. It would seem likely that Isca would have been
provided with a port as soon as it was established in 74/75,
from which the legion could be supplied from the sea and
also send provisions to the auxiliary forts upstream from
Caerleon.
From the pottery evidence it appears that much of the
Southern Canabae was no longer in use from possibly
as early as the late second century. While most trenches
produced some third and fourth century pottery, this was
less prevalent than in most excavated sites at Caerleon
and suggests that several of the buildings in the suburb
had been abandoned by the beginning of the third century
at the latest. It is clear, however, that the buildings must
have remained standing for some time and several
rooms and spaces were later used to discard rubbish.
Trenches 5, 7 and 9 produced signiicant quantities of
pottery from the third to mid-fourth centuries and this
material from various rubbish deposits dumped into
rooms and against walls outside buildings is evidence
of continued occupation nearby in the period after the
Southern Canabae was no longer in use. The preliminary
inspection of the small coin assemblage from the 2011
excavations did not identify any fourth century coins and
only a handful of late-third century issues. If this picture
is borne out in the inal analysis of all the inds, the
Southern Canabae would appear to have been abandoned
perhaps 75-100 years before the legion was withdrawn
from Caerleon in c. 300, after which some parts were
used for the deliberate disposal of rubbish by occupants
living and working in the vicinity.
Some of the buildings of the Southern Canabae were
deliberately demolished and most appear to have been
robbed of their building stone before those inside the
fortress. Only the buildings in Trenches 5 and 8 seem to
have collapsed leaving much of their roofs in situ, whereas
Trenches 1, 6, 7 and 8 produced far smaller quantities of
tile indicating that the roofs of these buildings had been
removed prior to the robbing of their walls. The robber
trenches in all of the 2011 trenches did not contain the
later Medieval and modern material that dates much
of the robbing within the fortress and it would appear,
therefore, that the Southern Canabae was reduced before
the fortress, almost certainly in large part between the
late Roman period and the reappearance of pottery in the
twelfth century.
Post-Roman occupation in this part of Caerleon is limited.
Possible structures of reused Roman roof tiles were
identiied in Trenches 5 and 8 (though these could be
Roman), while the upper courses of wall [505] in Trench
5 could be evidence of a standing wall reused at some
point after the Roman period. Otherwise, the few signs of
post-Roman activity in the area of the Southern Canabae
consist of medieval ield boundaries in Trenches 1 and 2,
all of which were in use until relatively recently.
FUNCTION, STATUS AND PURPOSE OF THE
SOUTHERN CANABAE
The 2011 excavations have conirmed that the buildings
of the Southern Canabae date to the early Roman
period in Britain, while the layout of the monumental
surburb suggests its construction was part of a wider
plan to develop the fortress at Caerleon in the years
during the conquest and paciication of the Silures. The
Discussion and Interpretation
The northern part of the Southern Canabae (zone 3)
consisted of extensive unpaved open areas with corridors
and long narrow buildings around their sides. The two
largest courtyards had large buildings on their eastern
sides that seem to have been divided into small rooms
accessed from long corridors. These were provided with
robust opus signinum or lagstone loors and some of
these rooms’ walls were painted. A small decorated bathsuite on the south-western side of one of these courtyards
had been raised by a considerable height above the
surrounding land and it is tempting to think that this was
done in order to improve the view towards the River Usk.
It is also possible that the structures in zone 3 continued
to the northeast and were connected to the buildings
excavated close to the amphitheatre (Baths A and H, and
Building D or IX). The extent of these buildings to the
northwest however, is uncertain and it is also possible
that the bath-houses (if these were indeed separate)
and monumental building D were not part of the zone 3
complexes, though this will only be resolved by further
investigation. For the time being it seems likely that
the buildings in the northernmost part of the Southern
Canabae were not domestic spaces, but could have been
used as ofices, shops or stalls, or that somewhere in this
area lay a mansio, perhaps with a central garden, to serve
the needs of the many oficial visitors to Isca (Black
1995, 20-1; Evans 2000, 496).
scale of the buildings with their opus signinum loors
and simply decorated walls are reminiscent of Roman
‘public’ military and urban architecture, and there seems
little reason to doubt that this part of Isca’s extramural
settlement was a state-sponsored foundation - the
canabae legionis. The excavations discovered tantalising
evidence for the activities that took place in the Southern
Canabae and, although it should be remembered that the
nine evaluation trenches between them revealed less than
1% of the total area of the monumental building complex,
it is possible to consider what took place inside these
buildings.
Large rectangular or square courtyard buildings outside
legionary fortresses in the Roman Empire have been
interpreted as fora, macella, mansiones, and a waggon
yard (van Enckevort 2002; Goguey and Reddé 1995,
26-9; Jobst 1983, 98-100; von Petrikovits 1981, 170),
and from its ground plan alone any of these functions
are possible for the building complex in zone 1 of the
Southern Canabae. Only one of the known examples,
however, has been excavated and at Nijmegen 50,000
posts were found covering the central 1 ha courtyard,
which have been interpreted as supports for a raised
wooden loor or fences that would have been needed to
corral large numbers of animals, especially cattle (van
Enckevort 2002, 388-9; Willems and van Enckevort
2009, 61-4). The Caerleon building was not well built and
it is unlikely that many of its low walls bonded with earth
and clay would have been able to support a substantial
superstructure or a second storey. It is not certain if the
brick-built walls of the structure towards the rear of the
open courtyard supported a covered building or were the
base of a platform or enclosure, but its positioning on
the courtyard’s main axis was deliberate. The courtyard
itself was left open and there is no evidence that it had
been paved, as might be expected if the building served
as a marketplace or civic area. It is however, one of
the few open spaces within the canabae large enough
to accommodate the thousands of men in the Second
Augustan Legion and it is also possible that the courtyard
and surrounding buildings were a gathering place for
people, as well as animals and equipment, arriving from
the river port before heading off to other parts of the
canabae or the fortress.
At Caerleon we are now in the fortunate position of being
able to draw on the evidence of the excavated inds as
well as building plans when thinking about the functions
performed in the Southern Canabae. Final analysis will
take place in due course, but initial observations of the
various categories of artefacts have identiied some
interesting patterns that have an important contribution to
make to this discussion. In fact, different parts of the site
have produced very different inds assemblages. Pottery
and other inds are scarce from the area of the courtyard
of the zone 1 building, the port area in Trench 1 produced
many metal objects as well as metalworking debris, while
pottery and animal bones were common from Trenches 5
and 7 yet less frequent in Trenches 8 and 9. Some of this
material will be derived from deposits overlying the last
Roman loors and, therefore, belong to a late period of
activity when parts of the Southern Canabae were used to
dispose of rubbish, though other artefacts will have been
incorporated in deposits associated with the buildings’
construction and use.
The area of the Southern Canabae on the higher ground
overlooking zone 1 produced very complex geophysical
results and it is dificult to untangle the buildings’ remains
in this part of the surburb. The excavations indicate
however, that a long narrow building divided into a series
of corridors and small rooms sat on the slope above zone
1, perhaps with a monumental entranceway allowing
access through it. Other buildings nearby included a room
with a tessellated loor and a possible metalworking area
from which water was fed through a lead pipe to water
features of some kind in the courtyard.
Peter Webster and Mark Lewis have noted the absence
of amphorae and mortaria from across the Southern
Canabae where decorated tableware is also unexpectedly
uncommon. Roman legionaries are well known for
consuming large quantities of beef and pork, but
Adrienne Powell’s animal bone report highlights the
unusually numerous remains of pigs and birds from
particular trenches (see King 1999 and King 2005).
For the time being it is clear that the pottery and animal
93
Discussion and Interpretation
bone assemblages from the Southern Canabae are
both distinctively different from the material produced
elsewhere within the fortress or outside. The age at which
the animals were slaughtered will be one of many themes
to be pursued when selected material is examined for the
inal report, as will the types and sources of the pottery
recovered during the excavations.
Whatever the functions performed in the various
buildings it is evident that, together with the
amphitheatre, the Southern Canabae formed the centre
of the oficial settlement around the legionary fortress –
the best candidate for a canabae legionis in Britain. Isca,
however, did not develop into a major city and, unlike
other fortresses, the domestic part of the ‘town’ seems
to have remained relatively small and unsophisticated.
This apparently stunted development suggests that the
civil administration of south-east Wales in the Roman
period was located elsewhere, possibly in the civitas
capital of Venta Silurum at Caerwent some 9 miles
away. The Southern Canabae seems to have fallen into
disuse and abandonment during the early third century,
clearly demonstrating that the legion at Caerleon was not
responsible for administering the canton of the Silures
by this time, or that the structures of Roman imperial
authority in this part of Britannia needed military
protection. These and other questions will be the focus of
the remaining post-excavation work and we look forward
to presenting the inal analysis of this remarkable site in
the full excavation report.
94
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96
Trench Matrices
Appendix 1 Trench Matrices
Trench 1 Stratigraphic Matrix
7. Topsoil
101
105
106
6. Alluvium and
Medieval Boundary
112
103
109
170
110
104
178
5. Disuse and Robbing
113
114
117
142 165
122
164
181
167
131
141 123
116
118
133
125
135
130
145
146
153
191
151
150
152
162
154
159
156
157
169
161
121
176
180 184 185
179 192
189
188
172
174
183
173
187
143
144
158
155
1. Natural
163
149
160
2. Walls
124
134
129
3. Levelling
126
132
136 137 138 139
140
182
166
119
4. Surfaces and
Patching
102
111
108
107
177
186
115
148
175
190
147
193
195
198
194
97
128
168
171
120
127
Trench Matrices
Trench 2 Stratigraphic Matrix
7. Topsoil
201
6. Post-Medieval Boundaries
202
211
203
212
204
205
5. Second Phase Surfaces/
Alluvium
209
206
207
4. Post-Courtyard
Activity
218
224
217
219
3. Courtyard Surfaces
2. Clearance and Levelling
225
214
223
232
231
98
216
229
228
227
226
230
221
1. Natural
208
213
210
222
215
Trench Matrices
Trench 3 Stratigraphic Matrix
5. Topsoil
301
4. Alluvium /
Abandonment
306
305
311
312
307
3. Structure
303
302
304
2. Rubble Spread and
Possible Post-pads
314
1. Natural and Subsoil /
Surfaces
320
322
321
323
310 315 316 317 318 319
313
309
99
308
Trench Matrices
Trench 4 Stratigraphic Matrix
401
9. Topsoil
8. Robbing
411
409
440
410
408
7. Decay / Collapse
436
6. Surfaces
437
403
417
5. Accumulation /
Levelling
413
4. Surfaces
3. Levelling /
Construction
2. Earliest Surface &
Stone Structure
1. Natural
406
405
433
415
438
434
439
100
414 425
420
423
429
421
419
412
418
435
407
430
416
428 424
426
422 432
427
431
Trench Matrices
Trench 5 Stratigraphic Matrix
501
5. Modern Pit
and Topsoil
502
521
506
520
504
503
515
4. Robbing and
Accumulation
519
512
565
510
567
511
536
561
516
508
507
522 525
514
509
526
527
524
3. Disuse /
Collapse
537
542
566
513
559
534
538
531 535
545
539
558
546 554
517
544
550
540
529
2. Levelling &
Floors
518
551 543 548
528 564
549
541 547
552
553
563
1. Walls
523
530
101
533
505
555 556
557
560
562
Trench Matrices
Trench 6 Stratigraphic Matrix
601
602
5. Topsoil
603
4. Robbing
641
647
640
619
611
613
3. Decay and
Demolition
609
607
615
610
608
614
605
616
2. Floors/Surfaces
and Drain
650
631
612
623
624
625
604
626
648
617
635
633
636
629
627 628
634
1. Walls
622
637
102
Trench Matrices
Trench 7 Stratigraphic Matrix
5. Topsoil
701
704
705
4. Robbing
702 706
708
711
720
3. Decay and
Demolition
703
710
728 726
717 721
733
731
713
707
735 712
709
2. Floors/Surfaces
and
levelling
718
736
714
729
738
730
723 725
737
715
716
1. Walls
722
719
103
732 734
740
739
Trench Matrices
Trench 8 Stratigraphic Matrix
801
5. Topsoil
4. Robbing
841
843
820
837
803
807
810
809
811
814
806
804
802
808
822
3. Decay and
Demolition
824 827
840
853
858
817
816
818
836
819
839
828
830 831 833 834
823
2. Floors/Surfaces
842
813
832
835
859
846
845
857 854
847 851
855
1. Walls
821
838
812
805
104
815
844
856
825
829
826
Trench Matrices
Trench 9 Stratigraphic Matrix
901
9.6 Topsoil
915
903
921
919
9.5 Decay
and Robbing
922
923
902
904
920 935
909
961
905
906
913
928
953
962
952
912
929
959
9.4 Second Surface
930
940
924
907
937
941
910
9.3 First Surface
930
964
944
956
955
945
946
943
925
950
940
914
926
936
938
951
9.2 Levelling
and
Construction
947
963
949
9.1 Walls
960
958
932
105
917
931
918
Appendix 2 Public Participation & Community Engagement
An important element of the Southern Canabae project
was the aspiration to bring the results of the excavation
to as wide an audience as possible, and to allow members
of the public the opportunity to participate in the
process of archaeological ieldwork and discovery. The
outreach strategy for 2011 included providing places for
volunteers on site, running twice-daily tours for visitors,
holding special Open Days during the Summer Bank
Holiday weekend (27-29 August), and using the internet
and social media to communicate with people across the
world.1
Several TV companies ilmed the excavation in 2011 and
the work at Caerleon featured in two of the BBC’s new
series - The Story of Wales with Huw Edwards and The
Great British Story: A People’s History with Michael
Wood. The excavation was also ilmed for the Channel
4’s Time Team, which brought the Southern Canabae
project to an estimated 1.5 million viewers.
Under the title ‘The Lost City of the Legion’, the 2011
excavations were a hugely successful public engagement
event attracting thousands of visitors to the site and
generating interest in archaeological research at this
internationally important site from across the world.
Volunteering at Caerleon
A total of 61 volunteers (approximately 20 per day)
joined the team to take part in the excavations. This was
very successful and feedback was extremely positive.
The volunteers were from a diverse range of ages and
backgrounds, from school pupils interested in careers
in archaeology, local history enthusiasts, experienced
amateurs, metal detectorists, local shopkeepers, teachers,
and retired nurses. The volunteers included groups from
sixth form colleges in Colchester and Cirencester who
each camped with the team for a week. The volunteer
scheme was heavily over-subscribed and enquiries about
volunteering continued until the last day of the dig.
Site Visits and Open Days
Through tours and a variety of family-centred interactive
activities with tangible learning outcomes, the excavators
sought to increase public awareness of the archaeological
ieldwork that was being undertaken. Visitors during
the Open Days were welcomed by students dressed
in authentic Roman costumes and were given guided
tours of the site, thereby experiencing an archaeological
excavation at irst hand. Members of the public were
encouraged to examine the many types of inds recovered
Volunteers
2011*
61
2010**
41
2008**
36
Total
138
Visitors total
Open Days
6,225
3,292
3,904
1,643
3,090
934
13,219
8,969
Dig blog hits
Facebook ‘Interactions’
Twitter followers
19,315
41,102
471
24,188
104
13,103
-
37,291
41,102
585
Table 11 Summary of outreach activities at Caerleon 2011
* 4 weeks ** 6 weeks
1
1. Dr Paula Jones co-ordinated the volunteer programme and the schedule of engagement events on site. Cardiff University’s Community Engagement Team helped organise the engagement strategy and also arranged a series of family
centred activities for the Open Days. Staff from the National Roman Legion Museum provided signiicant resources
and support for the Open Days including Roman costumes, small suits of Roman armour for children and a range of
literature for display.
107
Community Engagement
Fig. 95. Volunteers young & younger joyfully help uncover the archaeology
108
Community Engagement
Fig. 96. The hustle and bustle of the busy open days
109
Community Engagement
during the excavation, and they could take part in various
archaeological and fun activities devised and arranged by
the students and volunteers. These included
• make your own Roman pot workshop
• Finds handling activity – learning about pottery and
animal bone
• authentic Roman food - cookery display (with Edith
Evans of the Gwent Glamorgan Archaeological
Trust)
• childrens’ Roman dig
• a ‘gallery’ of colouring sheets & colouring
competition for younger children.
• trying on Roman armour for younger children
visit historic sites. In 2011 we welcomed special group
visits by the charities Fairbridge and Scope.
In terms of attendance the excavation was a huge success
with a 6,225 people visiting during the 4 week season in
2011 - an average of 1,556 people per week. Over 3,200
visitors came to the site during the bank holiday weekend
- 1,611 visitors attended on the Monday alone.
Scope work with adults with a range of learning
dificulties and disabilities, providing care, support, and
enjoyable activities. A group from Scope visited the
excavations on two occasions, helping out in the trenches
as well as cleaning inds. All of the individuals involved
are now researching the Roman period in their spare time
and have become committed voluntary diggers.
Almost 1,400 copies of the commemorative Lost City of
the Legion booklet were taken away during the excavation
season by members of the public as souvenirs of their
visits.
Special Visits
The Southern Canabae project aimed to engage all
sections of society with archaeological research,
including people from disadvantaged backgrounds, those
with disabilities, and ethnic minorities who tend not to
Fairbridge work with ‘disengaged’ young people (between
13-25 years old) and help them to gain the motivation,
self-conidence and skills they need to change their lives.
Two young people accompanied by Fairbridge staff came
to site and spent the day working in the trenches alongside
the archaeologists and also having an extended tour of
the site and lunch with the team. It was clear that the
experience was enjoyed by all, but particularly inspiring
to one of the participants who would now like to go on to
pursue a course in archaeology in the future.
Dig Blog and the Internet
The internet allowed the Southern Canabae project to build
on the successes of previous seasons and to communicate
the results of the archaeological excavations to as wide an
audience as possible. The project generated interest from
across the world and the team used a variety of means to
satisfy the demand for updates about how the excavation
was getting on and news of the latest inds as they came
Fig. 97. Reconstruction of Isca and the Southern canabae (©7reasons)
110
Community Engagement
out of the ground. The 2011 internet resources included:
• Project pages on Cardiff University’s website
• Dig Blog
• Animated digital reconstruction of the legionary
fortress
• Facebook page
• Twitter feed
• Youtube channel for dig videos
The 2011 Dig Blog, hosted on the Council for British
Archaeology’s ‘Community Archaeology Forum’, was
updated daily with illustrated archaeological and social
stories written by students and volunteers as well as staff.
In total the blog received over 19,000 hits during the 4
weeks of the excavation (an increase of some 20% over
the previous year).
The new animated digital reconstruction of the legionary
fortress, including a 90 second ly-thru over Roman
buildings and roads, was released to coincide with a new
webpage describing some of the spectacular discoveries
made in the irst 3 weeks of the excavation. This received
extensive coverage and the animation was featured in
newspapers, television, radio and online in the UK and in
many countries all over the world
The Facebook page was new in 2011 while the Twitter
account built on the success of the irst trial in 2010.
Both were very popular and members of the excavation
team updated both sites throughout the day with the latest
news from the trenches. The Facebook site received over
40,000 interactions during the month-long season, and
471 people followed the dig tweets. Also new this year
was the Youtube channel where 3 videos were uploaded.
These described the excavation, showed a hypocaust
underloor heating system being dug, and an interview
with 2 retired volunteers.
The success of the engagement strategy at Caerleon in
2011 is evidenced by the constructive feedback from
volunteers and the enormous popularity of the project
in terms of visits and positive evaluation. The South ern
Canabae excavation shows how archaeology has the
power to provoke and inspire people from all over the
world to get involved with archaeological ieldwork and
cutting-edge university research in the UK.
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Appendix 3 Excavation Team
Ninety people in total worked on the excavations at Caerleon in 2011. Many of the project’s core staff have worked
together on previous excavations in Caerleon and elsewhere, though this year we were pleased to welcome Paula Jones,
Becky Smith, Meg Tudor and Scott Williams as new members of the team. The excavators were either undergraduate
archaeologists from Cardiff University or volunteers in various guises. The students and volunteers did not just dig they also gave tours to the hundreds of visitors to the site, organised and set up various activities during the open day
weekend, and coped admirably with the presence of numerous tv crews throughout the season. The small army of
volunteers were of all ages and backgrounds, and came to Caerleon from all parts of the UK and beyond – some for a
day here-and-there, while others camped with us for several weeks. Many volunteers had worked on the Priory Field
excavations in 2008 and 2010, and several former students from these seasons returned during their holidays in 2011
(James Goodsell, for instance, is a veteran of Priory Field who was persuaded to help supervise Trench 2 during his
vacation in Caerleon). Time Team spent three days with the project at the end of our third week and we would like to
thank Phil Harding, Raksha Dave, Matt Williams and Alex Langlands for their hard work in the trenches.
The team camped in Priory Field and we are indebted to Cadw for allowing us to use the ield again. Many people
provided the excavation with assistance during our time in Caerleon, but we are particularly grateful to Miguel
Santiago of the Priory Hotel for the loan of his generator and for letting us use his hotel’s garden to celebrate Elizabeth
Guest’s 8th and Rachael Sarson’s 21st birthdays (including a memorable performance from our special friends The
Widders). Sustenance this year was provided by Steve Waite who, ably assisted by Archie Gillespie (and Rob Riddett
in the ‘breakfast tent’), did a fantastic job of feeding dozens of hungry archaeologists every day, while somehow
maintaining a semblance of civilisation in the camp and keeping spirits up even in wet boots.
Thank you to everyone who helped dig Caerleon’s Southern Canabae in 2011 and for making our month on site once
again such a rewarding and enjoyable experience.
CAERLEON SOUTHERN CANABAE 2011 EXCAVATION TEAM
Core staff
Peter Guest - Director
Anna Gow - Site assistant
Mike Luke - Director
Robert Riddett - Site assistant
Ian Dennis - Site supervisor
Rebecca Smith - Site assistant
Caroline Pudney - Site supervisor
Megan Tudor - Site assistant
Chris Waite - Finds supervisor
Scott Williams - Site assistant
Paula Jones – Community Archaeologist
Steve Waite - Cook
Archie Gillespie - Site assistant
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Guest, Luke, & Pudney
Student archaeologists
Kelsie Armstrong
Luke Green
Kai Lumber
Daevid Bedwell
Matthew Gwynn
Ana Lutescu
Emmelia Booth
Jade Hanley
Christopher Matthews
Emily Bowyer
Elliot Heade
Rachael Sarson
Gwion Dafydd
Michelle Humphreys
Hollymae Steane Price
Cassandra Davis
Owen Jones
Emma Stephens
Nicholas Dawson
Rebecca Lewis
Rebecca Trower
Jonathan Durman
Daniel Lovelace
Pre-university taster students
Jacob Ball
Lucy Hannam
Marie Wall
Dominic Chorney
Charlotte Haywood
Hannah White
Jess Evans
James Lorimer
Alex Fallows
Radu Pitis
Roman Society Fieldwork Bursary holders
Jack Donnelly (Colchester Sixth Form College)
Rebecca Jenkinson (Colchester Sixth Form College)
Eleanor Merry (Colchester Sixth Form College)
Martha Page (Cirencester College)
Oliver Swindall (Cirencester College)
Volunteers
Sue Adams
Morgan Jones
Linda Stanton
Jane Ashwell
Freya Knowles
Anne Sterry
Amanda Chadburn and
Torin MacDonald
Jonathan Lambert
Greg Tasker
Ryan Linton
Sally-Anne Taylor
David Chapman
Phillip Mills
Dawn Thomas
Kelsey Dronield
Warren Moore
Lisa Venables
Lynn Earley
Jennifer Nye
Neil Whatley
Keith Edger
Kate Pannel
Sarah Jayne Evans
Lesley Parratt
Catherine Ferguson
Kia Perryman
James Goodsell
Alex Raymond
Sam Grainger
Elliot Rees
Tony Hearn
Babs Roberts
Verdun Howells
Amelia Schafer-Rutherford
Angelo Italiano
David Standing
David James
Hywel Stanton
Time Team
Phil Harding
Matt Williams
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Raksha Dave
Alex Langlands
33
CARDIFF STUDIES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
The excavations at Caerleon in the summer of 2011 were focused on the complex of monumental buildings
outside the fortress of Isca. Discovered during recent geophysical surveys between the amphitheatre and the
River Usk, this impressive suburb extended over about 5 hectares and included some very large Roman
buildings. The Caerleon Southern Canabae 2011 season of evaluation excavation produced the first glimpses
of these ancient structures’ remains, which lie close to the surface of the fields around Broadway Farm and are
very well preserved. This report presents the preliminary results of the nine trenches opened across the full
extent of the complex, beginning with the stratigraphic narratives and followed by summaries of the finds and
environmental evidence. The preliminary study of the pottery assemblage indicates the suburb could have
been first constructed at about the same time as the fortress (i.e. A.D. 70s), but that the majority of the
buildings would seem to have been abandoned perhaps as soon as the early-third century. They were possibly
used for the disposal of rubbish during the late Roman period, including the remains of unusually large
quantities of pigs and birds, after which the buildings were stripped of their stone and tile before disappearing
for 1,500 years. The final discussion looks to provide possible answers to the project’s original research
questions, concluding with some observations regarding the layout and architecture of the Southern Canabae
and its relationship with the fortress and the legionary command in this part of Britannia.
Peter Guest is Senior Lecturer in Roman Archaeology at Cardiff University, Mike Luke is Senior Project
Manager at Albion Archaeology, and Caroline Pudney undertook the initial archiving and post-excavation
work at Cardiff University after supervising during the 2011 season. Caroline currently works at Cadw.