The Sound of Suspense The emotional effect and influence of sound and music in Hitchcock’s cinema David Sherrit Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of BMus (Hons). Word count: 10,428 Department of Music and Drama University of Huddersfield 14th of April 2016 Table of Contents Abstract – p.iii Acknowledgements – p.iv 1. Introduction – p.1 2. Literature Review 2.1 The use of music as an emotional device within Hitchcock’s cinema – p.3 2.2 Treatment of sound as an emotional and narrative tool – p.9 2.3 Sound psychology and emotional perception of film sound and music – p.14 2.4 Hitchcockian cinema: influence and the soundtrack – p.20 3. Methodology - Reception Test 3.1 Introduction – p.24 3.2 Research Strategy – p.24 3.3 Data Analysis – p.26 3.4 Limitations and Reliability – p.27 4. Findings 4.1 The Reception Test – p.28 4.2 Observations of entrainment – p.28 4.3 Observations of association – p.30 4.4 The audio-visual illusion: The minds eye and mental imagery – p.31 5. Conclusions – p.34 6. Appendices 6.1 Reception test: catalogued table – p.37 6.2 Table of VAs – p.39 6.3 Table of ARs – p.40 6.4 Table of individual keywords – p.42 6.5 Ethnographic Data – p.45 7. References 7.1 Bibliography – p.46 7.2 Filmography – p.49 Abstract This dissertation examines the use of music and sound in the films of Alfred Hitchcock to achieve a dramatic emotional effect, and how its effectiveness has influenced the use of sound and music in post-Hitchcock cinema. It examines the specific compositional devices used by composers such as Bernard Herrmann and Miklos Rosza, and approaches to sound design present in these works. By looking at these features: it discerns the true significance of these aural features and the importance of these methods to enhance the cinematic experience constructed under Hitchcock. This work also explores how the effectiveness of these techniques, and the success of these films, has influenced cinema and soundtracks from other directors, composers, and sound designers to the modern day. In order to obtain a greater understanding of the influence that these aural techniques have on the audience of such films; a number of psychological and biomusicological concepts are explored: such as entrainment (Sonnenschien, 2001, p.97-99), listening modes (Chion, 1994, p.25-34), and the ideas of meaning and communication (Tagg, 2012, p.155-192). The research displays how the sound designers and engineers, and musical directors: such as Bernard Herrmann and Miklos Rozsa, involved in some of Hitchcock’s most renowned productions helped to achieve an effective emotional response from the audience, and also shape the use of sound and music in cinema of similar genres through the 20th and 21st centuries. iii Acknowledgements Firstly: I would like to thank my family, friends, and fellow students for their consistent and exceptional support of my work, and myself, over the course of this year; motivating me and keeping me on track, proofreading my work, and helping to expand the reach of the reception test. I would also like to thank the 24 people who volunteered their time and participated in the reception test. The data provided proved to be fascinating, and their contributions have been instrumental in the progress of this dissertation. A special thank you to the staff and lecturers at the University of Huddersfield for teaching me what I know, offering guidance whenever possible, and inspiring me to take on this project. Finally: a huge thank you to Dr Elizabeth Dobson: for her fantastic guidance and feedback on this project from its first stages to its finish, and for teaching me a great deal about the subject and good research practice. This knowledge was invaluable not only to this project, but for any future endeavours I choose to pursue. iv 1 Introduction This dissertation examines the distinct treatment, emotional and psychological effectiveness, and creative influence of sound and music within a collection of Hitchcock’s most celebrated films: with specific focus on works such as: Spellbound (1945), Vertigo (1958), Psycho (1960), and The Birds (1963). Firstly, through studying existing sources on the subject: this dissertation discusses compositional strategies, and how film music affects certain aspects of narrative and emotional values within a work. Drawing on theoretical content from established literature by musicologists and music and film theorists such as Tagg, Lissa and Sonnenschien: it considers the relationship between musical and visual content, and the more unconventional ways, such as technological innovation and non-specific musical functions, in which an effective synchronization of the audiovisual material is achieved. The musical content discussed has been chosen due to the relative originality and avant-garde characteristics most commonly examined within established literature. The terms used to discuss these musical devices are based upon Lissa’s musical functions (1965, p.115-256). The second chapter examines the handling of sound within Hitchcock’s cinematic style. This section discusses the topics of sound, and sound design by examining ideas such as sound fidelity, extension, and subjectivity within sound scoring. In the third chapter of the literature review: the previously discussed concepts and examples are compared with the nature of music and sound in films from other directors and studios in order to better understand the legacy and influence of these works on other films since, and correlate the intertextual relationships between these works. Considering scores from films such as Jaws (1975), Halloween (1978) and Friday the 13th (1980) reveals potential points of Hitchcockian influence and reinforces ideas discussed regarding semiotics, and emotional effectiveness. The final chapter of the literature review discusses the psychology of sound and music in film, making use of terms from the 1 fields of musicology, and biomusicology such as the concepts of entrainment, listening modes, and psychological associations with linguistics. These theories are implemented into an independent study based on Tagg’s reception test methodology (2012, p.200-215). The study observes a group of volunteers emotional reactions to a set of stimuli chosen from the discussion of musical and sonic techniques present within Hitchcock’s works, such as: Spellbound (1945), Vertigo (1958), Psycho (1960), and The Birds (1963). These reactions, when analyzed and categorized within Tagg’s reception test taxonomy (2012, p.209-222) present common similarities and disparities within the reactions and thusly provide an insight into the psychology of listening and audience associations with film music and sound. These findings are related to the concepts discussed in established literature, and conclusions are drawn regarding the significance of such concepts within film. These findings also explore the legacy of the music and sound Hitchcock’s films, and how different people may generate diverse associations because of intertextual inconsistencies. 2 2 Literature Review 2.1 The use of music as an emotional device within Hitchcock’s cinema This chapter examines the use of music as an emotional device in Hitchcock’s films. Hitchcock is one of the most renowned directors of the 20th century for the unique use of cinematography and creative visuals within his work. It could be argued that the true power of his films stems from the musical accompaniment, and the effective audiovisual coordination of each work; provided by the composers involved in these works: such as Miklos Rosza, and Bernard Herrmann. Haeffner observes: “A typical viewer of a Hitchcock movie expects suspense and moments of psychological terror. The camera and soundtrack work in tandem to conjure this for the audience. Hitchcock deliberately presses buttons.” (2005, p.49) When considering the emotional effect and sense of narrative direction in film, it is worth considering the importance of music and the versatility of musical devices to further the depth and significance of the on-screen action. Hitchcock himself stated: “The basis of cinema’s appeal is emotional. Music’s appeal is to a great extent emotional, too. To neglect music, I think, is to surrender, willingly or not, a chance to progress in filmmaking” (1933). From the conventional Hollywood use of music, to more abstract uses of music to convey particular actions, emotions and ideas, it is undeniably an essential tool in a filmmaker’s arsenal. Sonnenschien (2001, p.169) discusses the effect of music in film: The addition of music to a scene can add empathetic value, reinforcing the filmmaker’s intended emotion for either the character or spectator. The shifts of intention can be extreme, depending on the type of music used and the relation it has to the other sounds in the mix. Composer and musical director Bernard Herrmann, who worked on the majority of Hitchcock’s most successful films, often approached scoring from less of a literal, 3 narrative-driven standpoint and more from an intimate, psychological intent. Arguably, the most iconic example of this is situated within the scoring for ‘Psycho’ (1960). In an early scene, we see the character Marion Crane (Janet Leigh) driving her car on a quiet country road, fleeing her previous life after stealing a large amount of money. The scene, although visually straightforward, holds a great deal of significance to the narrative due to how music and sound are presented throughout; the relentless 2/4 feel and harsh-sounding string section accompaniment of Herrmann’s Psycho Prelude signifies danger, and alludes to the feeling of a pursuit. Figure 1 – ‘Psycho’ Prelude Opening bars (Husarik, 2007, p.143) Tagg describes Herrmann’s scoring here as a “screeching, stabbing sound‐motion of extraordinary viciousness” (2012, p.264). However, the audience can clearly see that there is no literal chase, or ‘extraordinary viciousness’ occurring at this time. Instead, we are undergoing what Sonnenschien (2001, p.178) refers to as a “subjective character experience”: a distinct aspect or section of the film in which the audience is made to perceive the narrative from the viewpoint or emotional state of a specific character. This is often achieved through the exploitation of musical devices, and how music can be contrasted against the visual: “Focusing on something away from the obvious allows distinction of the character’s point of view from what everyone else might notice” (Sonnenschien, 2001, p. 178). The deliberate separation of image and sound here exhibits sound and music’s ability to carry the narrative almost independently. 4 A similar use of this technique is present within the opening scene of ‘Vertigo’ (1958), in which we see the protagonist John Ferguson (James Stewart) and his partner chasing a criminal over the San Francisco rooftops. The music here is dissonant and exhilarating, reaching a thematic crescendo as Stewart falls, forcing him to hang precariously from the guttering. As he looks down, the audience experiences subjective cinematography via a point-of-view shot of Hitchcock’s famous ‘vertigo effect’: a camera technique in which the camera is ‘pushed’ or ‘pulled’ on a dolly whilst being zoomed in or out, creating a sense of spatial distortion which generates a feeling of dizziness or altered perspective. The mood of the music changes suddenly from depicting the chase, to underscoring Stewart’s terror and nauseating distress. A long dissonant poly-chord of D major/Eb minor played by the horns dominates the score and is decorated by a cascading chromatic glissando on harp, creating a sound that implies the psychological impression of vertigo. Schneller (2005) compares the chordal shape with a recurring triplet motif found throughout the Vertigo score, and observes how creating a vertical presentation of this motif, which he refers to as the ‘Vertigo Chord’, creates a feeling of height and clashing emotions. Figure 2 - The 'Vertigo Chord’ (Schneller, 2005, p.192) The ‘Primal Cell’ is a motif that makes up the foundation of all of the variations that reflect Stewart’s changing emotional state: accompaniment for his feelings excitement, love, and his acrophobia are all variants on this one simple theme. The main motif is a consistent representation of a character’s personality, and each 5 variation implies a different emotion or mental state while maintaining the character theme, in order to maintain the connection between emotion and character. The music within Hitchcock’s films is often composed from this rather intimate perspective. In order to achieve this: the composers, under Hitchcock’s directions, approached musical composition from an unconventional standpoint, and pushed the boundaries of conventional film music. Hitchcock himself was constantly testing the boundaries of what was conventionally acceptable within a film in terms of narrative and visuals. Todd Hitchcock states: “Hitchcock pushed the boundaries of what was then being attempted technically and aesthetically” (2013). The commissioned music was employed to further that aim and effectively relate to the intended visual ambiance. One of the most effective ways that he achieved this was through the use of contemporary instrumentation and avant-garde compositional approaches. Spellbound (1945) is recognizable for the inclusion of a Theremin in the score, chosen specifically to reflect the wavering sanity of the films leading man, portrayed by Gregory Peck. “Hitchcock needed music both claustrophobic and soaring, sinister and transcendent” (Sullivan, 2006, p.108). The signature, haunting tone of the Theremin and its versatility in regards to pitch, dynamics, and timbre made it the perfect instrument of choice. This combined with musical director Miklos Rozsa’s stark scoring for the film created something that Hollywood did not expect. “As Royal S. Brown points out, its refreshing non-melodic style broke away from standard Hollywood melodic lushness” (Sullivan, 2006, p.108). It is undeniable that Hitchcock and Rozsa were looking to break away from the Hollywood convention. Brand states: “Hitchcock told Rozsa he wanted something special: a ‘new sound’ to reflect the disturbed mind of Peck’s character” (2013). The Theremin, a somewhat recent invention which was relatively unheard in this specific genre of cinema of the time, was an abstract enough instrument to cut through the films soundtrack and toy with the audiences emotions as they came to terms with such a mysterious sound. 6 Another significant soundtrack device used by Hitchcock and Herrmann is the exploitation of diegesis. Devices of this nature, such as source scoring can be seen as an ambiguous musical device. Kassabian offers a definition of ‘source scoring’: “Source scoring combines aspects of source music and dramatic scoring in terms of both its relationship to the film’s narrative world and its coincidence with onscreen events” (2002, p.45). A non-diegetic score is most commonly used to guide the audience’s emotions, but when this score becomes diegetic within the narrative: it acts similarly to a fourth wall break, altering the audience’s perception of reality and the narrative but doing so subtly enough as to not shatter the illusion of the film. Music that finds itself diegetically present within a scene, whether in the form of a live performance or a song playing on a radio, can be incredibly effective at advancing the emotional and narrative direction of a scene. For example, in the final concert scene of The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) where an orchestra, conducted by Herrmann himself, performs Arthur Benjamin’s “Storm Cloud Cantata”. This is presented as diegetic sound toward the beginning of the scene, but as the narrative progresses, the music seamlessly appears to reflect the on-screen action as if it were an external score of non-diegetic music. After a few minutes the orchestra is out of shot, yet the music remains: apparently mapped to Ben McKenna’s (James Stewart) actions and emotions. The two sonic universes Hagen discusses how source scoring can be considered an amalgamation of both source music and non-diegetic scoring: This kind of music is like source in its content, but tailored to meet scoring requirements...this kind of cue can start as pure source music and change over to source scoring...the main difference between source and source scoring is that source scoring takes on a much closer relationship to the film. It follows the framework of the scene more critically and matches the nuances 7 of the scene musically. (1971, p.190) This same technique is also observable in Rear Window (1954), as there are points where music is heard throughout certain scenes acting like a score, with a more ironic narrative function. The opening credits feature a grand cinematic score, but as the scene progresses and the camera pans to establish the setting: we can see a man listening to the music on a radio. The illusion is shattered as the man leans over and begins to tune through various other radio frequencies and revealing to the audience that the intro score was technically diegetic. “The soundtrack of Rear Window is almost entirely diegetic-composed of incidental sounds...There is some music, but it emanates mainly from the composer’s piano across the courtyard or from radio broadcasts and phonograph recordings” (Boyd and Palmer, 2006, p.160). An audience would normally seem to relate non-diegetic music to the progress of emotional themes within a scene, whereas diegetic music is commonly seen solely as a means of contextualizing a scene. It instead provides the audience with the emotional guide that they expect whilst simultaneously maintaining the ambience and aural environment of the scene. Composers such as Herrmann and Rozsa seemed compelled to delve deeply into an intimate, psychological compositional perspective in order to accompany Hitchcock’s dramatic visual and narrative practices effectively. As Sullivan reveals: “Music is an alternate language in Hitchcock, sounding his characters’ unconscious thoughts as it engages our own” (2006, p.xiii) This compositional approach is more atypical of music within European art cinema and was rather unusual in the eyes of Hollywood sensibilities; yet, these works attained great commercial success and brought expressionist film music into the mainstream. Despite many of the techniques discussed in this chapter being fairly commonplace in modern cinema (even films which do not fall into the same genres as discussed), the psychological tone of these 8 musical ideas seemed to popularize the intimate style of film music composition and opened the door for modern expressionism within film scores. 2.2 Treatment of sound as an emotional and narrative tool This chapter studies the creative use of sound to achieve an emotional effect, even beyond simply contextualizing the narrative and visual material. Sound is most commonly used in film to further the on-screen action whether through diegetic or non-diegetic means. Hitchcock’s films featured uses of sound that projected more emotional and psychological connotations into the works. This effect is observable by studying an assortment of sound design techniques, and methods of audiovisual treatment such as sound fidelity (Bordwell and Thompson, 1985), extension (Chion, 1994, p.87), and deliberate uses of silence. Some of the techniques that the vast array of sound designers Hitchcock worked with implemented under his direction were more effective than others; but the experimental nature, and intimate quality, of such sound work was an efficient and pioneering step toward moving cinema away from pre-conceived conventions and encouraged a more personal, artistic approach to working with sound. Film does not necessarily require a solid sense of reality in order to be effective, and the exploitation of devices such as sound fidelity is one of the most efficient mediums with which a director can manipulate their created reality to enhance the cinematic experience. Audiences are rather tolerant of exaggerated, synthesized, and unrealistic sound in film and do not always seem to have expectations of reality in terms of the soundscape. This grants sound designers the freedom to work with more creative uses of sound; it also gives directors like Hitchcock a powerful tool for producing a unique and very effective soundscape. Bordwell and Thompson (1985) discuss this meaning behind the idea of sound fidelity: “By fidelity we don’t mean “hifi” in the sense of the quality of recording. Here we are speaking of whether the 9 sound is faithful to the source as we conceive it”. The full effect of this ‘infidelity’ is apparent in The Birds (1963). The bird sounds were created using a synthesizer, not natural bird sounds. Scovell (2014) states: “Instead of relying on Herrmann’s music to heighten and embellish the drama and the horror, he uses Herrmann’s sense of dynamics to program in a constant gushing of strangely affecting diegetic sound.” The birds swarm the screen and dominate much of the films visuals, and likewise: the horrific synthesized bird calls dominate the soundtrack. This technique completely overpowers the audiovisual content and immerses the audience in a hugely dramatic and terrifying experience. These synthesized bird sounds, though based upon the true sounds of birds, come across as quite unnatural and unnerving. As Sonnenschien (2001, p.169) states: The combining of sound with image in the filmmaking process has nothing to do with our psychological mechanisms, unless we choose to imitate the consciously. The sound designer has freedom to create added value to the scene through the unlimited possibilities of juxtaposition of image and sound. There are many sounds that, however real they may be, do not sound emotionally effective as required for a film, and need to be substituted or accentuated with some form of created sound: whether this is achieved by use of Foley, sound manipulation or synthesis. In an interview with Francois Truffaut (1962), Hitchcock discusses his intent with the sound of the birds: To describe a sound accurately, one has to imagine its equivalent in dialogue. What I wanted to get in the attack is as if the birds were telling Melanie, “Now, we’ve got you where we want you. Here we come. We don’t have to scream in triumph or in anger. This is going to be a silent murder.” That’s what the birds were saying, and we got the technicians to achieve that effect through electronic sound. 10 The intention of using synthesized bird sounds, in the place of natural bird sounds, was to gain a greater control of the tone and personify the birds as being vicious killers. Drawing influence from the timbre of dialogue, the credited sound designers under the direction of Herrmann: Remi Gassmann and Oskar Sala, attach an unnervingly malicious and human tone to the sounds of the birds. This same treatment of applying certain characteristics of an alternative sound to the diegetic sound within a film can achieve a multitude of different effects and semiotic implications. Hitchcock also achieved a great deal of dramatic effect by manipulating the audiences’ curiosity and withdrawing sound from a scene that the audience expects to hear. Bays states: “Since he was known for his manipulation of viewer expectations, it is not surprising that Hitchcock intentionally withheld sound information to heighten curiosity.” (2011) For example, in Rear Window (1954), as protagonist L.B Jefferies (James Stewart) spies on his neighbours through a pair of binoculars. The audience can see what his neighbours are doing, but they cannot quite hear the full extent of this action. Despite being the active action depicted within the scene: the sound that accompanies it seems muffled and distant, and does not meet the audiences expectations for clarity of communication, instead it has the capacity to frustrate or mislead the audience and thusly intensify the suspense as the viewer hangs on for every shred of audible detail. This technique granted Hitchcock control over the presentation of narrative information, allowing for an amplified emotional value through the exploitation of voyeuristic fetishism. Fawell discusses the effect that Rear Window has on the audience: “Far from sending us back out into the world chastened, far from sobering us up and taking us to task for our voyeurism, Rear Window is more likely to accentuate our voyeurism, to make us more alert and sensitive to the sights and sounds of our own world” (2001, p.14) 11 Instead of simply gratifying the audiences: Rear Window constantly teases the audience and encourages a heightened sense of intrigue. In the same way that withholding sound can heighten curiosity and lead, or mislead the narrative: Hitchcock often withheld visual content to a similar effect. This is achieved by applying the ‘offscreen effect’: presenting a sound without seeing the source, although this source is implied by a reference to what we do see or know about the film scene. Off-screen sound can be classified as either passive or active. Chion defines passive off-screen sound as “sound which creates an atmosphere that envelops and stabilizes the image, without in any way inspiring us to look elsewhere or anticipate seeing its source” (2001, p.85). Looking at Rear Window, we can examine the effectiveness of off-screen passive sound as it provides the audience with more information as to where the film is located, and immerses the audience in the film’s otherwise claustrophobic setting. The sounds of busy streets, barking dogs, general city noise and even semi-audible external dialogue can be heard throughout: attentively arranged and mixed to construct a realistic environmental soundscape that does not overpower the sonic setting of the apartment in which the audience finds themselves trapped for the films entirety. Instead, as Chion states: this passive off-screen sound “cued the ear into the contextual setting of the scene without raising questions or calling the visualization of their sources” (1994, p.86). Chion also discusses how Hitchcock uses the off-screen effect to enhance active sound and manipulate the audience: “Films like Psycho are based entirely on the curiosity aroused by active offscreen sound: this mother we keep hearing, what does she look like?” (1994, p.85) The presence of Mrs Bates’ ‘voice’ in the film guides expectations of the narrative. It can only be assumed that she is alive as she can be heard but never seen. 12 This treatment of active and passive offscreen sound can be discussed using Chion’s term: acousmatic. Sonnenschien defines this as “listening for the sounds one hears without seeing their originating cause” (2001, p.153). These sounds can be present throughout a film, and reveal a great deal about the environment, the time period, and events surrounding the narrative. However, taking into consideration the fact that the audience cannot see the origin of these sounds: there will always be ambiguity regarding specific nature of the sound sources. To highlight the effectiveness of the dramatic exploitation of this concept, we can examine the effect of ‘deacousmatizing’ a sound. Sonnenschien discusses this: “A classic example occurs when Dorothy pulls back the curtain to reveal the little man making the big voice in the smoke in The Wizard of Oz. The dramatic impact of this is to disempower the previously unidentified sound, taming and draining it of its mystery.” (2001, p.153). Hitchcock, keeping with his method of constructing much of the films sound and visuals around specific character experiences and perspectives, employs a creative use of acousmatic sound for the full effect of its ambiguous nature. Sound is an extremely effective medium for adding significant emotional value to an image. Looking back on The Birds, for example, the anthropomorphic nature of the bird sounds embodied a much more visceral, vocalized tone that evoked intense terror in the audience: something that natural sound could not accomplish. Therefore, it can be ascertained that the sound devices discussed in this chapter are all substantial factors in creating this impression, and Hitchcock relied upon the audiovisual illusion to further the emotional value and narrative profoundness of his works. 13 2.3 Sound psychology and emotional perception of film sound and music To further the understanding of how sound and music are perceived: consideration must be made to how an audience listens to such devices. Michel Chion (1994, p.2534) classifies three different listening modes: causal, reduced and semantic. Sonnenschien (2001, p.77-78) went on to introduce a fourth listening mode: referential. Sonnenschien (2001, p.77) provides a clear definition of what Chion means by listening modes: “Our ability to hear is multi-focused, which means we can glean information through several different psychological and perceptual perspectives.” Briefly outlining the meaning behind each of these listening modes: causal listening, as Chion (1994, p.25) discusses: “consists of listening to a sound in order to gather information about its cause (or source)”. Examples of this can include listening for material qualities to the sound, which would indicate its structure and nature. When film sound encourages causal listening, especially for a sound without a visual onscreen source, the audience is given vast freedom of interpretation based on their logical perspective of other sounds and events occurring within the scene. This freedom, however, can act deceptively and defy the audience’s expectations and logical conclusions about the sound source. It can also influence the viewer’s mindset and lead them to make a specific interpretation of the sound. Referring back to the use of the term ‘acousmatic’, this listening mode relates to the effectiveness of a technique called ‘de-acousmatization’. A technique often practiced in films genres with a focus on mystery, such as horrors or thrillers; ‘deacousmatization’ can offer the filmmaker an opportunity to occupy the audience’s curiosity before exposing the true (and often ironic or unexpected) source of the sound. Chion (1994, p.72) states: “A sound or voice that remains acousmatic 14 creates a mystery of the nature of its source, its properties and its powers, given that causal listening cannot supply complete information about the sound’s nature and the events taking place.” To ‘de-acousmatize’ this sound or voice would shatter the mystery of the acousmatic sound and break from a potentially fantastical or enigmatic moment created by this unknown sound, quickly changing the mood and forcing the audience to see things once again from the films constructed reality, or whichever reality the filmmaker decides to immerse the audience in. Reduced listening refers to the act of listening to a sound to observe its specific sonic characteristics, instead of constructing meaning or considering the context and nature of the sound as a medium or a contributing factor to another non-aural expression. Whilst this listening mode requires a particular focus and awareness of the observation of sound to be effective, and is more commonly applied to the study of musique concrete and acousmatic sound than film sound, this listening mode can be applied loosely to the consideration of sound within cinema. In the absence of visual contextualization the brain would commonly fall into a state of causal listening. “Schaeffer acknowledged that reduced listening necessitates not only a choice on the part of the listener but practice, since listeners are conditioned to speculate on the origins of sound” (Demers, 2010, p.28). However, if the sound is unnatural or quite abstract, or the brain is distracted by other media, it is possible that the audience will to begin to process the sound in regards to its aural characteristics rather than its contextual setting, due to the absence of any such information. Reduced listening being one of the least common listening modes; leading an audience to experience reduced listening within a film can be difficult and often ineffective. Chion (1994, p.31) debates the presence of any opportunity for reduced listening within audiovisual media: “it would seem that film and television use sounds solely for their figurative, semantic, or evocatory value, in reference to real or suggested causes, or to texts – but only rarely as formal raw materials in 15 themselves.” Despite the rarity of such an occurrence within film it is worth suggesting the potential significance of this listening mode (provided the audience takes on, or is led to this state of mind). Chion (1994, p.31) continues by affirming: “just as directors and cinematographers – even those who will never make abstract films – have everything to gain by refining their knowledge of visual materials and textures, we can similarly benefit from disciplined attention to the inherent qualities of sounds.” This outlines the potential effect of a concerted effort to include moments of prompted reduced listening from sound designers. Whether this effect is achieved in any existing cinema is highly dependent on the listener, rather than the actual sounds produced. Semantic listening refers mainly to spoken language and other linguistic or communicative codes. This mode of listening is fairly complex, and applies prominently to the field of linguistics. However, the human brain tends to find more meaning within spoken word than the base message that is being communicated. In combination with causal listening, this listening mode illustrates how effectively a listener can perceive speech beyond the linguistic qualities. Sonnenschien (2001) states: “coupled with causal listening, we can understand so much more about a person and the message than simply linguistic meaning.” Considering the origin, meaning, and qualities of certain speech within film: the audience can find more meaning than simply the message being spoken (or communicated in whichever way the filmmaker wishes). The fourth listening mode, as introduced by Sonnenschien (2001, p.78), is referential listening. This mode involves associations with a sounds context beyond causal listening, and considers the dramatic and emotional meaning of the sound rather than simply discovering the sound origin. Sonnenschien (2001, p.78) elaborates: 16 This can be on an instinctual or universal level for all humans (e.g., a lion’s roar), culturally specific to a certain society or period (e.g., a horse and buggy on cobblestones), or within the confines of sound coding of a specific film (e.g., Jaws’ famous dah-Dah…dah Dah). This listening mode could indeed be the source of much of the emotional and dramatic effect found in cinema, and a valid rationalization of the effect of imitation and intertextuality between various films treatment of sound and music. The source of this listening mode can be attributed to instinctive responses to sound as a part of human evolution and universal human psychology. This may be due to previous aural experiences of film that have taken on a certain emotional resonance with audiences, or the effect could be connected to a deeper evolutionary traits such as the concept of entrainment. Sonnenschien (2001, p.97) elaborates on the concept of entrainment: As we react in resonance with the vibrations and fluctuations in our surroundings, it follows that our physiological functioning may be altered by the impact of sound waves, from the digesting activity of intestines, lungs breathing, heart beating, to the rapid firing of neurons in the brain. While this concept falls into several fields of study, the effect of rhythmic and tonal entrainment in the terms of biomusicology bears many similarities with the broader chronobiological use of the term. The reality of this concept can be observed when considering the human tendency to dance, and entrain to an external rhythm. This action has its own particular effects on the human body, such as elevated heart rate and raised dopamine levels. Wilson (2012) writes: Rhythm, gesture, dance and music may have been the first forms of language, the first attempts at building culture and bonding groups of humans 17 together, and the foundation on which religion, myth, and art sprung. This ability then, is perhaps central to our development of society, culture, and civilization. In following the theory: this phenomenon, when exploited in specific ways, can prove invaluable in adding an emotional and somewhat physical depth to a film narrative through the medium of sound. With special consideration from composers and directors to control the pace of the narrative and sonic elements: successful entrainment can be achieved. Sonnenschien (2001, p.99) states: “We seem to be wired for imposing order on our perceptions, as the brain will pull out patterns from chaos even if none objectively exist.” This psychological tendency can lead many to try and find meaning in a sound within film, when the sound can be relatively inconsequential or deliberately placed within the soundscape as a sort of red herring. Sonnenschien (2001, p.99) continues: “This natural tendency can be manipulated consciously, working in conjunction or in counterpoint – by pulling our organic system to its limits and then breaking into new realities”. It is this manipulation that grants sound designers and composers such power over the emotional and narrative direction of a scene. Placing the theory of entrainment within the works of Hitchcock: its effect can be experienced in a large number of his films. Applying the theory to a musical analysis of the Psycho shower scene score, for example, reveals that the effect the music has on the audience could indeed be, at least in part, attributed to entrainment. The sharp high frequency percussive violin ‘stabs’ are played at a brisk 144bpm tempo in a straight but somewhat uneven sounding ¾ crotchet rhythm. This unevenness within the rhythmic qualities of the piece seems to force a sense of discomfort in the audience as their brain is working to impose a steady beat and order to the music. This, in combination with the use of dissonant harmony elicits a negative emotional response: potentially because of entrainment. 18 Another outlook on this analysis involves examining the concept of ‘destructive sounds’. Sonnenschien (2001, p.77) offers a brief explanation of this term: We can just as likely be invaded by destructive sounds, such as a chalk screech, that can vibrate in our brains like fragile glass on the verge of shattering. This is an international sound phobia, excruciating even at low volume, and the only conjecture of its cause is some form of neurological entrainment. The dissonant piercing violins in the Psycho score seem to behave as destructive sounds, and considering them as such illustrates the potential link between the horrifying effect of the sounds and entrainment as a major contributing factor for it. Regardless of a sound designer or composer’s awareness of this concept, it is possible that some form of subconscious response to entrainment affects the compositional process: the effective result of which being a reflection of the composer/designer’s own experience of entrainment. The application of the concepts discussed in this chapter to the use of sound and musical devices within Hitchcock’s films offers an insight into how an audience perceives these devices. Hypotheses regarding the source of the audience’s emotional responses, and what evokes such reactions can be drawn when considering these ideas. For example: comparisons can be made between the concept of ‘destructive sounds’ and the scoring of the shower scene in Psycho to explain the significance of its semiotic connotations and dramatic ability. By also studying how an audience listens to such devices, utilizing Chion’s listening modes, observations can be made concerning the emotional effect of sound and music when applied to each mode. It is also interesting to consider how different people perceive sound differently, and how this can be related to listening modes, entrainment, and subliminal mental associations. 19 2.4 Hitchcockian cinema: influence and the soundtrack With Hitchcock being one of the most cinematically iconic directors of 20th century: his influence is still seen, and heard, in more recent works from around the world. The term ‘Hitchcockian’ can be used to label films that draw upon the signature cinematographic style. The treatment of sound and music in these productions does not necessarily always reflect the soundtracks of Hitchcock’s films, and is also observed outside of Hitchcockian cinema. The influence of Herrmann’s music, specifically, is more widely observable in mainstream cinema and established literature than the particular sound devices discussed previously. This chapter examines the influence of devices used in the films of Hitchcock’s zenith. A number of scores from Hitchcock’s films, many of which composed by Bernard Herrmann, broke free of the commercially accepted Hollywood compositional norm. It was Herrmann’s aim to compose music that would impact on the audience’s raw psychological state, rather than to create a score that conformed to the conventions and expectations of the period. den Hartog, 2010 talks about this distinct compositional style: Herrmann created a personal style that is at once instantly iconic and yet wholly contemporary. In short, Herrmann put the human element, so important for every film he composed for, back into the equation while retaining it’s underlying sense of unease. It was a style he was given free range by Hitchcock to fully exploit. The master of suspense was, after all, not seeking music that would necessarily please his audience. Typically, Hollywood films of this period were scored with conventional orchestral or jazz music. Herrmann, wanting to achieve something deeper and more emotionally compelling, found himself facing a lot of scrutiny regarding his compositional approach: “Movie scores were turning to jazz, pop and rock music and striving to 20 include a hit tune. Herrmann's orchestral scoring of Hitchcock's film "Torn Curtain" struck the studio as antiquated. It was rejected and replaced.” (Siegel, 2012) It was not until several years later that Herrmann’s work began receiving recognition for its originality and creative quality. As den Hartog, 2010 states: “With his musical approach to that shower scene of the classic thriller Psycho, Bernard Herrmann would change horror film scoring forever.” The harsh, stabbing violins in Psycho have terrified audiences since the films initial release in 1960. This score became something of an icon, not only displaying the creative might of Herrmann, but also dramatically influencing the horror and thriller genres for years to come. “The violins wailing away during Psycho's shower murder scene have achieved the status of cultural shorthand - denoting imminent violent insanity”(Robb, 2010). Elements of the iconic motif can be found in films such as Jaws (1975), Friday the 13th (1980) and Halloween (1978). Alongside many claims that Psycho spawned the slasher genre, it is not ridiculous to suggest that the visceral sound of the score had a profound effect on directors and film composers working to achieve the same deep-rooted sense of primal terror. Siegel (2012) states: ““imitation being the sincerest form of movie music, his inventive use of strings became a cliché for cinematic horror. Also, his music inspired younger film composers.” Looking closely at the musical devices that made this score so distinguished, it is easy to draw points of similarity and intertextual connections. Kalinak discusses these devices: “Hermann exploited a number of musical conventions for invoking terror: the absence of melody, unpredictable rhythms, strident and dissonant harmonies, violins at the very top and basses at the very bottom of their ranges played with techniques that inhibit lyricism.” (2010, p.15) These distinct musical characteristics have remained at the heart of horror film scores since Psycho. When broken down in such a way and compared to a plethora of film scores, particularly those of horror and thriller films, a vast number seem to 21 bear remarkable similarities. Looking specifically at John Williams’ composition of the Jaws theme, for example: there is an absence of a defined melody, dissonant harmonies, and a focus on the extreme use of tessitura to drive the score and plays with the audiences emotions just as effectively as the score of Psycho. “He [Williams] pushes the strings to play so fast and violently, similar to Bernard Herrmann’s fast attack on strings in Psycho’s shower scene, that they sound percussive.” (Lincoln, 2011, p.13) The chilling ‘ki ki ki, ma ma ma’imotif of Friday the 13th (1980) is a more modern computerized take on this approach utilized by Herrmann and Williams, and it just as effectively as the score of Psycho. “He [Williams] pushes the strings to play so fast and violently, similar to. The impact of Hitchcock’s soundtracks on cinema is a topic that is well documented by theorists, directors, and composers alike. With the success of films such as Psycho and Vertigo, and the critical acclaim these works received: it is undeniable that Herrmann’s scoring inspired the work of modern day composers like Danny Elfman and John Williams. Elfman discusses the importance of Herrmann’s work to his own craft: “if I saw Bernard Herrmann’s name in the beginning of a movie, I knew there was something special, something extra, and I think that’s where my love of film music began.” (Beek, 2011). This influence seems to have paved the way for the future of film scoring with a multitude of horror and thriller releases, as well as a plethora of films of many genres from around the world. As Beek states: “Hermann’s influence, not just on those around him, but on those who followed in his footsteps extends to the present day as composers set to work on film scores in the Herrmann mould and with varying degrees of success” (2011). Music and sound were arguably vital factors in the success of Hitchcock’s films, and the combination of iconic visual content and narrative qualities created by Hitchcock forms an effectual eclectic synergy: highlighting these works against other 22 mainstream cinema of the era. There is a vast array of theories regarding the emotional and semiotic significance of both musical and sound devices located within Hitchcock’s works. His films were created with the intention of affecting the audience’s psychological state, and encouraging them to constantly question themselves and the narrative: with the eventual goal of shocking the audience with dramatic plot twists, intense visual moments and unanticipated revelations. In order to guarantee the audience’s emotional investment in his films, through which he could easily manipulate them, Hitchcock gave great consideration to the effect that sound and music could have on his work. By advising his composers to write music that appealed to his characters mental state, an approach that provoked an emotional association within the audience, he could influence the audiences experience through the medium of his characters. Hitchcock also seemed to understand the significance of what Chion refers to as the ‘audiovisual illusion’, and made sure that his films paid close attention to the treatment of sound alongside his images in order to create this illusion and achieve an intense, and deeply personal, depth to his narratives. Psychological concepts such as entrainment and association reveal many potential reasons for why these techniques are so effectual: and through investigation of these ideas much can be discerned concerning the source and nature of the audience’s reactions. The contextualization of such sounds may form much of their mental association, which points at the possible significance of intertextuality and how instances of Hitchcock-inspired sound or music may carry forward a meaning or semiotic value. 23 3 Methodology: Reception Test 3.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the methodology used to conduct research into the psychological associations of some of the music and sounds discussed in the literature review. The study is a reception test (see Tagg, 2012, p.200-228) on reactions to a set of audio stimuli from Hitchcock films. The participants of the study consist of 18-60 year olds, of varying levels of musical aptitude and knowledge of sound theory. The study documents how the audio is perceived, and why the participants believe that they perceive the audio in such a way. The data gathered outlines the psychological constructs and perceptions that the listener experiences, the nature of their mental associations, and also highlights the potential presence of aural inter-textual relationships between the chosen stimuli and any music and sound from secondary sources. These results determine, to an extent, the effect that film music and sound have on an audience. Also, the awareness that audiences have regarding the way that music and sound, isolated from a visual or narrative context, guides their particular experience and emotional direction with a film. 3.2 Research strategy An online questionnaire has been employed for this study: featuring five excerpts of sound and music from Hitchcock films (which will now be referred to as analysis objects or AOs). The test participants are asked to provide a short freeform description of their immediate reaction to the AO (these responses will be referred to as visual-associations, or VAs). The participants are then requested to try and specify the features or qualities of the AO that they believe triggers such a response (analytic responses or ARs). The questionnaire states the following instructions for each AO: 24 1. “Please provide a description of your reaction to the audio clip” (VA) 2. “Briefly specify features of the clip which make you feel this way, and if possible, why” (AR) These instructions are relatively simple, and allow the test subject to express their VA as an unguided association, without any bias or supervision. The test is written to be completed by a wide demographic of varying ages and genders, and the participants have the option to disclose information regarding their age and gender, in order to highlight trends or disparities in the results dependent on these factors and reveal points of relevance within the field of ethnography. The AOs used in the questionnaire are audio samples of: 1. Main Theme from Spellbound (1945) 2. Prelude for Strings from Psycho (1960) 3. ‘Vertigo Effect’ accompaniment from Vertigo (1958) 4. Shower Suite from Psycho (1960) 5. Sound sample of synthesized birds from the final scene of The Birds (1963) These AOs have been specifically chosen due to their clear emotional intent when presented within the context of a film narrative. Each AO has a different intention and potential emotional effect, and the effectiveness of these intended effects can be seen when observing the specific VAs each received (see appendix 3). Outstanding correlations in the data indicate a point of significance to the study, as this reveals common VAs to observe against the relevant ARs. These correlations of similar responses indicates points of significance to the study as the VAs are then compared against parallel ARs in order to draw conclusions regarding the source and full nature of the reaction. The results display how these AOs are perceived when removed from the accompanying visual context, and expose any dissimilarity between the intended emotional reactions and the reactions recorded in the questionnaire. By 25 then asking the subjects to specify what precisely they believe brought about such a reaction: the subjects are more likely to re-evaluate how they have listened to the clip and perhaps try to think more analytically about the music, regardless of any existing musical knowledge or lack thereof. This also allows the subjects to voice their own opinion on matters discussed in the literature review: which may support or disagree with these theories. 3.3 Data Analysis The analysis of the results follows an adaptation of Tagg’s reception test taxonomy (2012, p. 209-215) in order to reach a valid and cohesive understanding of the VAs received. The taxonomy works by categorizing specific keywords and phrases and assigning numerical references to keywords. Every key word and term has been, counted, categorized, and grouped with any other synonymous terms within the study. The categories under which these terms have been classified are: 1. Positive Emotional Response 2. Negative Emotional Response 3. Neutral Emotional Response 4. Locations and Settings 5. Actions and Events 6. Media and Pop Culture 7. Objects and Specifics 8. Living Creatures 9. Other Observations This approach allows for any related and synonymous wording to be considered under an equal or similar reference number: enabling accurate and quantifiable data to be presented, and statistical information to be explored. This treatment allows the data to be treated more quantitatively, and permits for more concise data 26 organization. The analysis of the data in such a way highlights common similarities and disparities between responses. 3.4 Limitations and Reliability Due to the nature of the research methodology: there are several potential issues regarding the reliability of the study, and limitations as to what the study can achieve. The questionnaire is anonymous and unsupervised, meaning that anyone can take the test and are free to input their own VAs: regardless of their validity. Tagg discusses the issues that can arise from Internet reception tests: “One obvious drawback is that some individuals may listen more times or more attentively than others. Such variation of listening attitude and situation can generate data that may be irrelevant to what you want to test.” (2012, p.201) All responses must be assumed as honest and valid, unless explicitly presented otherwise. In order to maximize the number of responses; the test has been deliberately designed to be short and simple. This means that subjects are more likely to give up their time, and commit to taking the questionnaire to it’s completion. However, this does limit the study to only five AOs whereas a more accurate result could be achieved by including a larger quantity, and wider range of AOs. The ethnographic data gathered by the test is also limited. The test has been released and shared across a variety of online platforms, but has mostly been completed locally (within the UK) and very little data has been gathered from other parts of the world. This makes the study a limited study of the topic within the UK. 27 4 Findings 4.1 The Reception Test The test was taken by 24 participants between the age ranges of 18-25 and 60+ over the course of one month. 66.67% of these participants were female against 33.34% male participation; with 54.16% being 18-25, 29.16% being 40-60, and 16.67% being over 60 (see appendix 5). This chapter examines points of relevant data to the study, and discusses cases of frequent terminology and particular correlations of VAs and ARs that support theories previously explored in the literature review. The reception test received a wide range of responses: ranging from explicit recognition of the AOs, to more inventive and ‘out-of-the-box’ responses. Many of the received VAs and ARs strongly support established theories, and some form new potential theories and disparities between the study and established literature. 4.2 Observations of entrainment The theory of entrainment refers to the way in which particular rhythms, timbres, and sounds encourage particular emotion responses within a listener. Arguably attributed to early human communication; entrainment holds vast potential when considering the emotional effect of sound and music upon a listener. For example: the majority of counted responses fell into category 2: Negative Emotional Response, making up 35.34% of all 249 categorized responses; the most common terms used being within group 2.3: words synonymous with suspense [2.3D], tense [2.3E], and uncomfortable [2.3F] (see appendix 1). Specifically: the word tense or tension was the most commonly used single word in the study, occurring 9 times, 5 times of which being 28 within AO2 (see appendix 2). Of these 5 occurrences: 3 of the associated ARs indicate rhythm and tempo as the origin of such a reaction. Further to this: the word chase [5.4A] appears 7 times within this AO, with 6 of these responses being consciously attributed to features regarding rhythm and tempo, and changes in these features. Looking closer at this effect of rhythm and tempo in regards to the whole AO: 18 of 24 participants associated their various reactions with the rhythm and tempo of the audio clip (see appendix 3). Looking at other AOs: AO4 (Shower suite from Psycho, 1960) received 11 ARs identifying the rhythm, tempo, or note lengths as the origin of their VA. This information supports the concept of rhythmic entrainment as being an outstanding motivation of the psychological associations with the AO. Some ARs, despite identifying the same devices, do vary somewhat in their associated VAs. For example: AO2 received 2 VAs identifying running [5.9A] and rushing [5.9B], both of which identifying changing tempo in their ARs. Other VAs such as rolling movement [5.14A] and girl walking down alleyway [4.1A, 8.3A] appear to be relatively inconsistent with the majority theme of suspense, chase, danger, and running. This is particularly interesting as both of the VAs also attribute their reaction to rhythm and/or tempo, implying that; despite entrainment appearing to be a key motive of the VAs, the emotional connotations of the device are not universal and appear to have different effects on some people. The effect of destructive sounds can be observed in the same way: AO4 (Shower suite from Psycho, 1960) received 11 APs pointing toward the high pitch and ‘shrieking tone’ of the violin instrumentation as being linked to the relative VAs. AO3 (‘Vertigo Effect” accompaniment from Vertigo, 1958) received a VA that explicitly states that the music makes them feel annoyed [2.2A] and pained [2.5B]. These responses were accredited to “staccato beats” and “piercing screech”. Another more 29 extreme description of the AO stated that it made one participant feel dizzy [2.7A], disorientated [2.7B], and nauseous [2.7C]. This VAs AR discloses that this response stemmed from the dissonance of the music, implying the effect of a destructive sound. This data supports the idea of destructive sounds and the effect that this holds over audiences and listeners of film music such as this. 4.3 Observations of association Associations made within the VAs to exterior media, or pop culture tropes (category 6) reveal points of potential influence in other media, or how the participant relates their emotional response specifically to the film it originated from. There were 6 explicit recognitions of the AOs source: 4 recognitions of AO4 as Psycho [6.8A] or shower scene [6.8B], 2 VAs recognizing AO5 as The Birds [6.11A], and the word iconic [6.7A] appears twice: in AO4 and AO5, respectively. These recognitions indicate the participant is well aware of the intended purpose of the music, and that their response in potentially biased by previous experience of the AO. This raises several concerns regarding the validity of the study, however it could also suggest that the contextualization of the AO influenced their response to the music in a more emotional aspect: presenting itself as a semiotic association. Interestingly: these 6 recognitions were made by: two participants in the 40-60 age group, and two participants in the 60+ age group. No respondents from the 18-25 age group recorded any recognition of the source material. This is likely due to the age of the films, in which they would refer to in order to form recognition, and the lack of prevalence that these films has amongst younger generations. 30 Some VAs displayed associations to external media: such as 1950s science fiction B movies [6.1A], Hammer Horror [6.5A], and James Bond [6.6A]. This implies a particular instance of influence or intertextuality between Hitchcock’s films and other cinema. The ARs of these VAs reveal that a variety of different factors influenced their responses, such as: James Bond being attributed to the use of drums, percussion, and textural changes; yet Hammer Horror is observed as being such due to the use of ‘effective strings’. This insinuates that the musical devices used in Hammer Horror films or the James Bond franchise each possess certain devices which influence the audiences perception, upon contextualization. This guided association of sound and context may then manifest itself in responses to music with similar features and narrative intentions. Other less specific VAs like Halloween [6.4A] and Alien [6.1B] also connote an association to external media. The VA Halloween is clearly stated within AO1 (Main theme from Spellbound, 1945) to have been influenced by previous associations, yet these associations seemed to be unclear to the participant. The ARs for the 2 mentions of Alien denote that the instrumentation, and the ‘unusual’ texture and structure of the music encourage this particular response. 4.4 The audiovisual illusion: the minds eye and psychological images Many of the VAs depict particular situations, events, and locations. Interestingly, the nature and themes of these psychological images vary widely across several AOs. AO5 (sound sample from The Birds, 1963) particularly, evoked imagery such as apocalypse [4.9A], dock [4.2A], sea [4.2B], jungle [4.5A], and rainforest [4.5B]. These VAs all describe distinct settings and locations; many of which do not reflect the original intent and context of the sounds. However, the sources of these responses are commonly attributed to animal sounds such as birds, cats, and monkeys: with 8 ARs within the AO referring specifically to birds: two of which pointing out how the 31 birds sounded unnatural, and questioning the fidelity of the bird sounds. It appears that the sounds do project the original audio-visual intention to multiple people, whereas others have imposed differing meanings to the AO, yet still mostly related to the theme of animals. This implies that the infidelity of the sounds shrouds many listeners’ perceptions in ambiguity when removed from the visual and narrative context. The sound is close enough to a bird sound to create an effective audiovisual illusion within the film, but the isolated sounds project an unclear image and intention: with 4 VAs even responding to the clip with the word confused/confusing [3.3A]. Considering the effect that removing sound from images has on the effect of the visual aspect of a film, the same effect is observed when removing visuals from sound: suggesting that both sound and visuals are equally significant to the construction of the audiovisual illusion, and that an even balance between these devices is required in order to achieve an effective illusion. This same ambiguity is observed within AO1 (Main theme from Spellbound, 1945) as the unconventional use of a Theremin within the instrumentation sounded to 6 of the participants as a female voice. One VA and AR goes so far as to suggest that they hear an opera singer, and two ARs observe this sound to be like an ‘inner scream’ and ‘distant howling’. These participants VAs commonly use words such as eerie [2.6B], creepy [2.6A], ghostly [6.15D], and haunting [6.15E]. This personification of the Theremin sound insinuates that the audience, through causal listening, imposes an origin to a sound that they are not familiar with, and draws emotional observations from the sound, as they perceive it. Only 2 participants actively identified the Theremin as the primary instrument in this AO, 2 others simply identifying it as a synthesizer or ‘unusual instrument’. 3 of these 4 described their VAs in terms such as suspense [2.3D], tense [2.3E], and uncomfortable [2.3F]. One of these 4 stated that the ‘unusual instrument’ encouraged an image of a fantastic world [4.3A] and suggested that the sound held alien [6.1B] connotations. The differences between 32 the content of these VAs, and of those who identified the Theremin as a voice, imply that the perceived origin of the sound can influence the emotional response in a number of ways. 33 5 Conclusions The data gathered from the reception test revealed multiple points of interest, which are in agreement with topics discussed in the literature review: such as the existence of entrainment, the effect of semiotic association, and the significance of the audiovisual illusion. The five audio clips used as AOs each presented evidence of these concepts, and some interesting points of discussion regarding disparities in data. Looking closely at how subconscious and instinctive reactions to the AOs affected the test respondents, and their indication of entrainment and destructive sounds as the source of this, it seems conclusive to suggest that these theories are major factors in how audiences perceive the music of Hitchcock’s films. This does not suggest that the composers, or even Hitchcock himself, had any distinct awareness of these theories. Instead, it seems valid to presume that these devices had a subliminal effect on the composers: in the same way that they have a subliminal emotional effect on audiences. The music would have been written from an intent that the composer assumed to deem the music emotionally effective: such as the subjective character experience, exploitation of the audiences audio-visual associations of musical motives, or use of instrumentation and timbre to encourage the effect of destructive sounds. The most successful film composers will be fluent in exploiting these devices; whether aware of them or not. Chion’s (1994, p.5) theory of the audiovisual illusion holds great significance to audience perception of both music and sound. Hitchcock’s films rely on forming a delicate balance of music or sound, and visual content to create the effective synergetic emotional result intended. For example: the ‘stabbing’ quality of the violins in Psycho enhances the visceral images that accompany the music, however the visuals alone are substantially less emotionally effective. Similarly: the synthesized 34 bird sounds in The Birds appear to provoke feelings of confusion and inexplicable fear, and also conjure a wide variety of mental images when isolated from the visual context. This is presumably due to the infidelity of the sounds; regardless of the similarities they bear to real birds. However, when these sounds are present with the film: the dramatic effect of these sounds is again enhanced synergistically by the shocking imagery. Also, when sounds are presented in connection to image: causal listening becomes obsolete as the audience has a sound origin presented to them visually. The audience is more likely to listen referentially, or even semantically to sounds in order to draw meaning from them. Observing how sound and image come together to enhance one another can also indicate the effect of calculated silence and sound withdrawal. By exploiting sound and image’s synergetic effect and suddenly contrasting, essentially ‘deacousmatizing’, the soundtrack in order to lay more focus on image: Hitchcock had the opportunity to dramatically change the tone of the narrative and lead the audience on a dramatic emotional detour and deceive their expectations. In a sense, this same effect is achieved in The Man Who Knew Too Much by treating the music as both diegetic and non-diegetic through source scoring. This technique constantly interrupts the audience’s perception of the narrative reality: breaking the audiovisual illusion, to an extent, and somewhat affecting their emotional perception of the scene. The multitude of associations with image, source material, and external media found within the reception test VAs and ARs suggest that much of what makes up an audience’s unguided response stems from previous experiences of similar sounds or musical characteristics. Whether these come from specific sources, or a culmination of sources, is unclear; though, it does appear that other films, over other forms of media, have more of a profound effect on a listener’s perception of film scores and 35 soundtracks. For example: the occurrence of the term James Bond within the reception test reveals the possibility that Herrmann’s music influenced the compositional approach used in one or more of the James Bond films1. It also suggests that the similarities of musical ideas, whether through influence or not, causes the audience to generate connections between the contextual understanding they have for one instance of sound or music and another work of a similar style. In conclusion, Hitchcock’s films were emotionally effective and commercially successful: and much of this can be attributed to sound and music; and how these sonic and musical devices assist in creating an audiovisual illusion. This is achieved through the exploitation, conscious or not, of psychological and biomusicological theories such as entrainment, destructive sound, and semiotic association. It is clear that every person perceives sound and music differently; yet common perceptions do exist, suggesting that: although everyone may perceive sound or music in different ways, every response originates from the stimulation of the same psychological tendencies within each person. It appears that the only way to alter someone’s perception of an audio source is to encourage a different listening mode and force the brain to reconsider its perception of the material. Hitchcock, his musical directors, and sound crew achieved their distinct emotional effectiveness and control through considerate manipulation of such tendencies, and accrued a great deal of influential power as a result. 1 This assumption has been made due to the fact that the first James Bond film, Dr. No, was released in 1962: four years after the release of the discussed AO source material, from Vertigo (1958). 36 6 Appendices 6.1 Reception Test: catalogued table of terms A B C Peaceful D E F G Total 1 Positive Emotion 1.1 Calm Mellow 1.2 Exciting Thrill 1.3 Laugh (made me) 1.4 Happy 2 Negative Emotion 2.1 Afraid Fear 2.2 Annoyed Irritating 2.3 Anxious Apprehension Suspicious Suspense Tense Uncomfortable 2.4 Uneasy On edge Threatened Danger Wary Paranoid 2.5 Cringe Pained 3 2.6 Creepy Eerie 8 2.7 Dizzy Disorientated Nauseous 2.8 Evil Sinister Menacing 2.9 Lonely 2.1 1 2.1 2 2.1 3 Shock 4 2 1 Resolved 2 Scared Freaked out Terror 14 4 Worried 11 Unsettling 8 4 1 Urgency 6 Unhappy Frenzy 26 1 Frantic 2 Held attention 3 3 Neutral Emotion 3.1 Anticipation 3.2 Surprise 3.3 Confused 3.4 Curious 2 3.5 Familiar 1 3.6 Sneaky 1 3.7 Ordinariness 1 3.8 Weird Strange 3 3.9 Powerful Loud 2 4 Locations or Settings 4.1 Alleyway 4.2 Dock Sea 2 4.3 Fantastical world Dream-like 2 4.4 Stage show Opera 2 4.5 Jungle Rainforest 3 4.6 Nightmare Dark 2 4.7 Rural 1 4.8 Foreign land 1 4.9 Apocalypse 1 4.1 1 Futuristic 1 3 Clueless 6 2 37 4.1 2 4.1 3 Zoo Trapped 1 Surrounded 2 5 Actions or Events 5.1 Getting shot 5.2 Attacking 5.3 Car crash 5.4 Chase Run away Followed 10 5.5 Cutting Slashing Stabbing 7 5.6 Discovering a dead body 5.7 Death 5.8 Feeding time (at the zoo) 5.9 Running 5.1 1 5.1 2 5.1 3 5.1 4 5.1 5 5.1 6 6 6.1 6.2 6.3 1 Battle Action Fighting 5 1 1 Going to die Murder Left for dead 4 1 Rushing 4 Escape 1 Unseen violence Struggle in vain Rolling movement 1 1 1 Sawing Someone behind me Media and Pop Culture 1950s ScienceFiction B Movies Classical Music Ending of old film 6.4 Halloween 6.5 Hammer Horror 6.6 James Bond 6.7 Iconic 1 Something bad coming Something bad happening 5 Alien 3 1 1 1 Horror film 8 1 2 Shower scene 6.8 Psycho 6.9 Muzak 1 The Birds 2 6.1 1 6.1 2 6.1 3 6.1 4 6.1 5 Plot twist Climax 4 Mystery unfolds Reveal Drama 8 Video game 1 Thriller 2 Supernatural Paranormal Spooky Ghostly Haunting 8 7 Objects and Specifics 7.1 Car 1 7.2 Carts 1 7.3 Helicopter 1 7.4 Gun 1 7.5 Water Mist 2 38 8 Living Creatures 8.1 Birds 8.2 Cats 8.3 Girl 8.4 Animals 2 Wings 1 8.5 9 Crows Squawking 7 3 Man (with gun) 2 Other observations 9.1 Too late 1 9.2 Not real birds 1 6.2 Table of VAs Age 6. VA Gender VA 12. AO 01 11. 7. 8. 9. 10. AO 02 AO 03 AO 04 AO 05 sneaky, suspicious iconic, something bad happening paranoid, laugh (ending) two cats fighting, confused scared scared, horror, stabbing anxious suspense, paranormal tension, on edge anxious, on edge, running, chase, thriller horror, on edge chase, nightmare shocking reveal weird, resolved (ending) hammer horror, irritating, loud surprising, big reveal, plot twist fear, anticipation murder confused, lonely, near the sea confused, crows, freaked out menacing, psycho [R] fear, menace, ordinariness, the birds [R], powerful evil, stabbed, left for dead birds (surrounded by), unsettling, not real birds? anxious, pained, worried, waiting for climax psycho [R] irritated 1 18-25 F classical music, mellow, weird, alien landing scary, spooky 2 18-25 F 3 18-25 F 4 18-25 M 5 60+ F irritating, eerie, suspense exciting, held attention 6 18-25 M fantastical world, aliens 7 18-25 F eerie, haunting 8 60+ M 9 40-60 F 1950s science fiction B movies eerie tense, chased through house, followed worried, something bad coming, frantic mind rolling movement 10 40-60 F eerie 11 40-60 F disorientat ed, dreamlike, dizzy suspense, horror film suspense, anticipation urgency, sinister, need to flee (chase), threatening annoyed, pained horror, terror someone being stabbed end of old film dizzy, disorientated , nauseous N/A creepy, scared run away, something bad coming, trapped, too late, struggle in vain muzak, video game, carts, birds strange, animal nosies, squawking, wings fear of birds, cringe unsettling, unnatural, familiar 39 12 18-25 F confused, uneasy uncomforta ble scary, horror film tense uneasy uncomfortable rainforest 13 18-25 M tense unsettled, surprised tense, on edge worried, tense, afraid N/A confused, unhappy 14 18-25 F 15 18-25 F spooky shock uncomfortable, "like someone is behind me" apocalypse, rural 16 40-60 F 17 60+ M 18 40-60 F ghostly, haunting, futuristic apprehensi on spooky approaching train psycho [R] alley, dock shock thrill, shock uncomfortable discovering a dead body mystery unfolds, scene revealed iconic, psycho shower scene [R], terrifying sawing, cutting, stabbing, death chased by birds, feeding time at zoo, cat tied to back of car frenzy of birds, car crash 19 60+ F supernatur al, water, mist, suspense 20 40-60 F 21 40-60 F scary, opera, halloween calm, eerie, suspense james bond stabbing the birds [R], attacking rushing, running, chase battle, fighting jungle, car, disturbing the animals freaked out tense curious on edge (beginning), intro of stage show tense 22 18-25 M 23 18-25 M creepy, eerie excited, apprehensi ve suspense, curiosity, clueless happy, calm, peaceful M uneasiness urgency, danger suspense, about to get shot, man drawing gun horror, surprise 24 18-25 horror stranger in a foreign land girl walking down alleyway, something bad happening something bad happening, going to die suspense, chase, escape tension, drama thriller, climax, suspense action, dark, running, slashing, unseen violence suspense, chase cats, helicopter, jungle wary 6.3 Table of ARs AR Age Gender 1 1825 F 2 1825 F 3 1825 4 1825 M 5 60+ F F AO 01 Sounds deteriorate, become unusual (ending) Up and down tone of voice*, sounds ghostly AO 02 AO 03 AO 04 Music speeds up Everything The pace of the music High pitches, depth of music Laughed at the ending. Anticlimactic. Short, sharp notes. Sounds like stabbing. Synth sounds Staccato strings Drumroll to outburst of loud sounds Staccato, high pitch. Sounds like shrieking. Dissonant pads, theremin High pitch, no breaks, ups and Staggered strings Strings and rhythm surprising dissonance effective strings Staggered strings creeping up in velocity rhythm, repetition, escalation AO 05 Number of sounds present Sounds like an action/fight scene Birds sound like the sea side, someone leaving. Loud bird sounds, sounded like an attack Mix of ordinary sounds, 40 downs dynamics, pitches Short, sharp notes. Varying pitches. 6 1825 M Instrument used, alien connotations 7 1825 F Pitch, moaning voice Repetition, fast pace 8 60+ M Sounds spooky Beat, waves of sound 9 4060 F 10 4060 F High pitch High pitch, no words, no rhythm F Sound ebbs and builds, lack of control, high pitch harsh dissonance, urgent tempo Painful pitch Staccato beats, piercing screech High pitch, then dramatic ending Old fashioned way to end a thriller pulsating, out of control, dissonance, crashing percussion unusual timbre dissonance, fast pace, repetition dissonance high pitch strings, change to lower register, heart stopping (ending) shrieking violins, repetition, memories of psycho [R] high pitch, dissonance, chromatic chord, loudness lower sounds toward ending stabbing sounds, contrasted with low bass. Swirling sounds quick, jumpy sounds quiet to loud, quick change high pitch, sounds like something approaching animal sounds, rustling trees psycho shower scene [R] cats, rats, seagulls 11 4060 12 1825 F 14 1825 1825 15 1825 F wavering pitch, theremin ghostly, high pitched sounds like an upset woman, old film style, vocal tone 16 4060 F echo, tempo, distant howling 17 60+ M scary movie music 18 4060 F up and down pitches 13 19 60+ 20 4060 21 4060 22 1825 M F Tone goes up and down Rhythm quick, repetitive, dissonance everything stabbing notes fade and pulse slows at end rapid string sounds violin tone, "take a breath" pace, irregular heartbeat, quick, pulsing, stabbing F pitch, "inner scream" opera singer, ghostly, perhaps previous associations F intense voice, echoey dark sound contrasting fast and slow builds in intensity and texture thickens M strange background noise quickening pace F Sudden musical changes signal, alert prolonged notes, horror film Short, stabbing notes. Then long, low notes. Chaotic feel, contrasting musical ideas Unsure whether real birds or not. Knowledge of the film [R] The sounds present Mixed up noises, confusing Imagine birds attacking. Fear of birds. N/A High sharp tone Pitch and repetition high pitch, sounds like birds, but not natural animal sounds uncertain whether gunshots or wings. Screeching sounds. everything unsure of birds intent everything rapid notes high pitch, contrast with low notes toward end dynamics, crescendo, long slow fade use of silence birds, car, cat, confusion familiar, mass crows and gulls, fever pitch of anger, fear, violence hammer pounding sound, frenzied sounds Wouldn't want to be there uncomfortable high pitched sound monkeys screeching short intervals bird noises drums, percussion, builds up then builds down the ending sounds like something has happened sounds like something happened, main body of music 41 23 24 1825 1825 M change of tone throughout, womans voice, scary film M echo, flowing high pitch note, ominous undertone fast pace, intro ? slow moving, timpani percussion creating suspense short, sharp strings ? everything scraping, screeching strings contrasting noises and sounds, unfamiliarity 6.4 Table of individual keywords Word 1950s Sci-Fi B Movies AO 1 AO 2 AO 3 1 1 1 1 Afraid 1 1 2 Alley(way) 2 1 Animal(s) Annoyed 1 2 2 2 1 1 Anticipation 1 1 Anxious 1 1 Apocalypse 2 1 3 1 1 1 1 Attack(ing) 1 Battle 1 1 1 Birds Calm Total 1 Action Apprehension AO 5 1 About to get shot Alien AO 4 1 5 5 1 2 Car 1 1 Car crash 1 1 Carts 1 1 Cats 3 3 1 8 Chase Classical music 7 1 Climax 1 1 Clueless Confused 1 Creepy 1 1 2 1 1 4 5 1 2 Cringe 1 1 Crows 1 1 Curious/Curiosity 1 Cutting 1 2 1 1 Danger 1 1 Dark 1 1 Death Discovering a dead body 1 1 1 1 42 Disorientated 1 1 2 Dizzy 1 1 2 Dock 1 Drama 1 1 1 Dream-like 1 1 Eerie 6 6 End of old film 1 Escape 1 1 1 Evil 1 Exciting 1 1 Familiar Fantastical world 1 1 1 1 1 Fear 1 Feeding time Fighting 1 2 3 1 1 1 2 Followed 1 1 Frantic 1 1 Freaked out 1 Frenzy 1 2 1 1 Futuristic 1 1 Ghostly 1 1 Girl Going to die Halloween 1 1 1 1 1 1 Hammer Horror 1 1 Happy Haunting 1 Held attention 2 1 1 Helicopter Horror 1 1 Iconic 2 1 James Bond 2 7 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 Left for dead 1 1 Made me laugh 1 1 Man (with gun) 1 1 1 1 Menace/Menacing Muzak 1 1 Loud Murder 2 1 Lonely Mist 3 1 Jungle Mellow 1 2 Intro of stage show Irritating 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 43 Mystery unfolds 1 1 Nauseous 1 1 Nightmare 1 1 Not real birds 1 On edge 1 Opera 1 1 1 4 1 Ordinariness 1 Pained 1 Paranoid Paranormal 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 Peaceful 1 Plot Twist 1 1 1 Powerful 1 Psycho/shower scene [R] 1 4 Rainforest 4 1 1 Resolved 1 1 Reveal 3 3 Rolling movement 1 1 Run away 1 Running 3 Rural 1 Rushing 1 1 1 Sawing Scary/Scared 1 3 3 1 1 1 2 6 Sea (near the) 1 Shock 3 1 1 4 Sinister 1 1 Slashing 1 1 Sneaky 1 1 Someone behind me Something bad coming 1 Something bad happening Spooky 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 Squawking 1 Stabbed/Stabbing 1 1 4 5 Strange 1 1 Stranger in a foreign land 1 1 Struggle in vain Supernatural 1 1 1 Surprise 3 3 Surrounded Suspense 1 4 Suspicious Tense/Tension Terror/Terrifying The Birds [R} 1 1 1 5 1 1 5 1 1 2 9 1 1 2 2 2 44 Threatening 1 1 Thrill 1 Thriller 1 2 2 Too late 1 1 Trapped 1 1 Uncomfortable 1 Uneasy(iness) 2 2 1 4 1 3 Unhappy 1 Unseen violence 1 1 Unsettling 1 1 Urgency 2 3 2 2 Video game 1 1 Wary 1 1 Water 1 Weird 1 1 1 2 Wings 1 Worried 1 1 2 Zoo 3 1 Gun 1 1 1 6.5 Ethnographic information Female Male Under 18 0 0 0 18-25 7 6 13 25-40 0 0 0 40-60 7 0 7 60+ 2 2 4 16 8 Gender Total Age Total 45 7 References 7.1 Bibliography Bays, J. M. (2011, June). Sound: hitchcock's third dimension. Retrieved from http://borgus.com/hitch/sound.htm Beek, M. (2011, May). Contradictions and ostinatos. Retrieved from http://www.watershed.co.uk/dshed/contradictions-and-ostinatos Bordwell, D., & Thompson, K. (1985). Fundamental aesthetics of sound in the cinema. In E. Weis, & J. Belton (Eds.), Theory and practice: film sound (pp. 181200). New York: Columbia University Press. Boyd, D., & Palmer, R. (Eds.). (2006). After Hitchcock: influence, imitation, and intertextuality. Austin: University of Texas Press. Chion, M. (1994). Audio-vision: sound on screen. New York: Columbia University Press. Demers, J. (2010). Listening through the noise: the aesthetics of experimental electronic music. New York: Oxford University Press. den Hartog, B. (2010). Bernard Herrman - a tribute. Retrieved January 12, 2016 from Film Music Critics: http://filmmusiccritics.org/ifmca-legends/bernard-herrmann/ Fawell, J. (2001). Hitchcock's rear window: the well made film. Carbondale & Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press. Gabriel, G. (2011). Altered states, altered sounds: an investigation of how 'subjective states' are signified by the soundtrack in narrative fiction cinema. (PhD Thesis). Cardiff University, Cardiff. Haeffner, N. (2005). Alfred Hitchcock. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. Hagen, E. (1971). Scoring for films: a complete text. New York: E.D.J Music. Hitchcock, A. (1962, August). Hitchcock. (F. Truffaut, Interviewer, & H. Scott, Translator) Hitchcock, T. (2013, July). Hitchcock: why people are still talking about silent movies. Retrieved from http://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/hitchcock-9-whypeople-are-still-talking-about-silent-movies Husarik, S. (2007, March). Transformation of "the psycho theme" in Bernard Herrmann's music for psycho. Retrieved from http://www.bernardherrmann.org/legacy/site/articles/misc/transformation_of_the_psy cho_theme/transformation_of_the_psycho_theme.pdf Kalinak, K. (2010). Film music: a very short introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. Kassabian, A. (2002). Hearing film: tracking identifications in contemporary hollywood film music. Routledge. Larsen, P. (2005). Film music. London: Routledge. 47 Lincoln, D.A. (2011). The art and craft of John Williams. (Degree dissertation). Oregon State University. Lissa, Z. (1965). Aesthetics of film music. Berlin: Henschelverlag. Robb, S. (2010, April 1). How psycho changed cinema. Retrieved January 22, 2016 from BBC news magazine: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8593508.stm Schneller, T. (2005). Death and love: Bernard Herrmann's score for vertigo. Journal of Music, Visual and Performing Arts, 1 (2), 189-200. Retrieved from http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=297023446002 Scovell, A. (2014, May 26). Sounds of the city - defining the metropolis in Alfred Hitchcock's rear window. Retrieved December 19, 2015 from Celluloid Wicker Man: http://celluloidwickerman.com/tag/rear-window-1954/ Sharrett, C. (1933). Alfred Hitchcock on music in films. Cinema Quarterly , 2 (2), 8083. Siegel, R. (2012, March 8). Bernard Herrmann's score to 'psycho'. Retrieved January 24, 2016 from NPR music: http://www.npr.org/2000/10/30/1113215/bernardherrmanns-score-to-psycho Smith, S.C. (1991). A heart at fire's center; the life and music of Bernard Herrmann. Berkeley: University of California Press. Sonnenschien, D. (2001). Sound design: the expressive power of music, voice and sound effects in cinema. Michael Weise Productions. 48 Sullivan, J. (2008). Hitchcock's music. Yale University Press. Tagg, P. (2012). Music's meanings: a modern musicology for non-musos. New York; Huddersfield: The Mass Media Music Scholars' Press. Wilson, D. (2012). The biology of music. Retrieved January 24, 2016 from Zapharatu: http://www.zapharatu.com/the-biology-of-music.html 7.2 Filmography Carpenter, J. (Director). (1978). Halloween [Motion picture]. United States: Compass Internation Pictures. Cunningham, S. (Director). (1980). Friday the 13th [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures; Warner Bros.; Georgetown Productions Inc.; Sean S. Cunningham Films. Hitchcock, A. (Director). (1934). The man who knew too much [Motion picture]. United Kingdom: Gaumont-British Picture Corporation. Hitchcock, A. (Director). (1945). Spellbound [Motion picture]. United States: Selznick International Pictures; Vanguard Pictures. Hitchcock, A. (Director). (1954). Rear window [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures. 49 Hitchcock, A. (Director). (1958). Vertigo [Motion picture]. United States: Paramount Pictures. Hitchcock, A. (Director). (1960). Psycho [Motion picture]. United States: Shamley Productions; Paramount Pictures. Hitchcock, A. (Director). (1963). The birds [Motion picture]. United States: Universal Pictures. Spielberg, S. (Director). (1975). Jaws [Motion picture]. United States: Zanuck/Brown Productions. 50