MUSIC AND MUSIC EDUCATION FROM OTTOMAN EMPIRE TO MODERN TURKEY..pdf

Edited by William Sayers & Hasan Tahsin Sümbüllü AGP MUSIC AND MUSIC EDUCATION FROM OTTOMAN EMPIRE TO MODERN TURKEY Edited By William Sayers & Hasan Tahsin Sümbüllü ISBN 978-605-83281-2-9 All parts of this publication are protected by copyright law. © AGP 2016 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the publisher. Published by AGP Research. AGP Research is an Imprint of Mayaa Education. London & Istanbul AGP Academic Research. Cover Photo: Diogo Alexandre 86-90 Paul Street, London, EC2A 4NE, UK. www.uagp.org All rights reserved. I © 2016 AGP ALL RIGHTS RESERVED II History, Literature, and Society Turkish academic scene has experienced remarkable growth since the 1990s. This volume of AGP is intended as a finger on the pulse of the history and literary corpus as we enter a new era. The articles in this volume have been chosen with an eye to giving the reader an idea of the current state of the mainstream of contemporary Turkish Academia. Therefore, we have not included any hackwork. We hope that this will be an important contribution to the growing field of humanities in Turkey and elsewhere. The editors’ corrections are limited to the expunction of typos and to changes for the sake of consistency. Except for these superficial changes, the text is always that of the author. William Sayers, London III Turkish Music from a Conceptual Stance Barış Karaelma Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gazi University Music Education Department karaelma@gazi.edu.tr Abstract. Music art among the most important Turkish culture is called “Turkish Music”. However, this concept is perceived in different ways by different people. Among the factors affecting such a misperception are educational level and type of perceiving people, musical preference, professional field etc. In Turkish culture history, the art of music has been used under different names from past to date. Before Turks accepted Islam as religion, they named music “Küğ” and with Islam it turned out to be musiki (music) and it was used until the end of Ottoman Empire. The name “Turkish Music or Turkish Musikisi” was used for the first time by European historians, travellers and itineraries by showing that this music type is different from European Music. When western music entered and spread in Ottoman territory, this name was used again for the same purpose and need with the previous experience. With the foundation of Modern Turkish Republic, a new period started for music where new denominations like Turkish Art Music and Turkish Folk Music began to be used. These terminologies are still used to determine and differentiate sub-divisions in Turkish music. Keywords: Turkish music, Turkish Art Music, Classical music, Western Music 1. Introduction There are general living music terminologies in Turkey belonging to various music types and accepted and known by great majority of society. In addition to this, some sociologists and music researchers produced new names for the music types they like. Additionally, new concepts were produced for the new names and so a conceptual conflict was experienced in music types. New names belonging to music types are criticized by some sides of society. Before mentioning about these names and criticisms, it may be better to look at the place of music in Turkish culture and how it was named in the past. 2. Music in Turks Art of music as old as human history is an important cultural element for most nations. Music is important also for Turkish nation and preserved its situation from past to present by undergoing some changes due to the interaction of various cultures. This art is called generally Turkish Music. Turks used different names for music in different periods until today’s common name. 2.1. Naming music in pre-Islamic period Music had an important place in Turkish culture in that period. In Turkish culture, where Dede Korkut tales come together with kopuz (traditional Turkish string instrument), Şaman with treatment with rhythm-dance, symbol of the state with tuğ and drum, it can be understood how important music is. In pre – Islamic period, melody with words (şarkı= song) was named “ır” while instrumental music was “Küğ”, which is still used for melodies without words in Turkic countries like Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. 1 2.2. The use of the term “Musiki” in Arabic culture The term “musika” originating from Ancient Greek culture is the etymologic root of music in many languages e.g. music in English, Musik in German, Musique in France, Musiki in Arabic and Muzyka in Russian. The role of Alexander the Great (336-323 BC) and his campaign to the east are thought to have been effective in the use of this name in Arabic. In a 13 – year ruling period, he conquered important places in Asia, Africa and Europe and extended his territory. The locations like İskenderun and Iskenderiye (Alexandria) were named after him. Especially the cities of Alexandria and Babylonia turned into important cultural centres and the libraries in these cities had the copies of Ancient Greek’s famous works. With the rise of Islam, such cities with important cultural and science potentials were taken over by Muslims. Muslim statesmen giving importance to sciences financially supported to scholars of the day to translate the references in Ancient Greek to Arabic. In this respect, the first Islamic philosopher, El-Kindi’s (796-874) music booklets is accepted to be also the first author whose works reached today related to music. It is understood that the name musiki was seen from the time point when translation of Greek works was completed. 2.3. Music terms in Turks after Islam After Turks adopted Islam, scholars like Farabi and İbni Sina produced works on medicine, astronomy and music. Farabi’s Arabic work Kitab-ı Musiki El Kebir (Great Music Book) is the most important music book of the history. After the adoption of Islam, Turks founded great states like Karahans, Gazneliler, Great Seljuk’s and Anatolian Seljuk’s. In especially Seljuk’s time military music developed. The name “musiki” was also used in that times. Hafız Abdulkadir Meragi, musician of palace in an important Turkish state, Timur Empire, used the term musiki in his theoretical works. 2.4. The term music in Ottoman Empire period In Ottoman period (1299-1923) the term “musiki” was also used and in this period, the number of theoretical works increased, military music, Mehter, was introduced and developed, sultans could perform ince saz music. In Ottoman period, when Mehter music was played in the body of army, (Yeniçeri ocağı), and fortresses, ince saz music in the palace (Enderun school) and institutionally at Mevlevi houses, many European voyagers acquisitioned these music types, found opportunities to watch and study them, represented them on gravures and tried to play them in notes. At the time when the term music was used in Europe and “musiki” in Ottoman, European musicologists, orientalists, historians and voyagers used the term “Turkish Musikisi” for the first time in their works [1]. Because the music they listened in Ottoman territory was different from that they listened in Europe, they believed that they should have different names from each other. Western music appeared in Ottoman period in 19th century with military bad officially. However, even in this period, European and Ottoman music types were named as “musiki”. Rauf Yekta Bey, famous Turkish music theoretician, used the name Turkish Musikisi and wrote a work in Arabic letters Türk Musikisi Nazariyatı (Theories of Turkish Music). Rauf Yekta Bey’s study attracted the attention of famous French music historian Albert Lavignac, professor at Paris Conservatory. Lavignac offered Rauf Yektâ Bey to prepare Turkish Music chapter in a detailed music encyclopaedia project. Yektâ Bey completed his work in 1913 and expressed Turkish music sound system, mode, manners and instruments. Publication of the encyclopaedia was cancelled due to the outbreak of the World War I. The work published in 1922 in French is the first example of the works which described Turkish music theory in a European language [3]. Rauf Yekta Bey was music teacher at Dar-ül Elhan, Ottoman State Conservatory, where Western music was taught under the title of “Musiki” and Ottoman period music with the name of “Turkish Musikisi”. 2.5. Music as a term in the Republic Period “Musiki” or “Turkish musiki” was used terminologically in this period. However, a new debate started related to the definition and origin of Turkish musiki in this period. In the formation of such a definition, the chapter titled “Milli Musiki’ (national music) in 2 Ziya Gökalp’s work “The Principles of Turkism” has great influence. Such a text is important not only for the prohibition of Turkish music but also for the collection of music types completely different from each other, which is the topic of another debate. Even though not expressing directly that Gökalp hates Ottoman music, it can be understood from his writings. He also defines Turkish music in Ottoman period as “Dümtek musikisi” and claims that its theoretical part was taken from Byzantine by Farabi and the basic and real Turkish music is Anatolian folk melodies. Gökalp states in his same book “Dar-ül Elhan (conservatory) in Istanbul is the “Dar-ül Elhan of dümtek manner i.e. Byzantine music. This institution gives no importance to real Turkish music which will gain westerly characteristics after harmonising by adjusting melodies from public heart to Europe music. This institution should be turned into Turkish Darül Elhan.” After these words Dar-ül Elhan’s Turkish Music Education department was closed and only symbolical Turkish Music classification council continued their works. Ziya Gökalp is thought to be Atatürk’s mastermind, but he doesn’t have much knowledge in music. Many researchers claim that another author wrote the chapter related to music in his Principles of Turkism. However, he succeeded in reversing the perceptions through the definitions he made, defined real Turkish music, Ottoman music, to be harmonised in Western Music sound system (12 Equal temperament) belonging to other nations and folk melodies to be Turkish Music. Principles of Turkism, published in the same year, when the Republic was founded, played important roles in the formation of the State and became the architect of cultural demolition. In this period, (Ottoman) Turkish music developed by the side of Itri, Dede Efendi, Hacı Arif Bey and others was banned by the government either in education institutions or on the radios while Western music was supported and encouraged in the same period. It was aimed to send students to Europe to learn Western music. These students started to work as music teachers at state conservatories and education institutions after completing their education and coming home. So, Western music found considerably large living area by getting supported by the government. With the foundation of Istanbul and Ankara Radios in the Republic period, a new period was started when new denominations like “Turkish Art Music” and “Turkish Folk Music” took place. Such terminologies are still used to determine and differentiate sub-types of Turkish music. The definition of Turkish folk music is seen in some references but that of Turkish art music is not seen anywhere in references. This is a problematic situation. A conflicted and contradictory terminology of Turkish music was revealed by Onur Akdoğu who divided Turkish music into two categories “Traditional Turkish music” and “Contemporary Turkish music” [2]. He added a new discussion matter by putting these terms in literature in Turkish music society. It is another debate topic to offer and use different names for music types surviving in Turkey. The first State Music Conservatory was founded in 1970 with the financial support of the government. Official name of this conservatory, which is still in the body of İTÜ and serves in its official name ‘Turkish Music State Conservatory. The term musiki is still used in its title. In 1980s, with the development of systematic musicology works, news studies were conducted for music science and new thoughts were proposed. Gültekin Oransay, the first music professor, who completed upgrade education in Germany proposed some terms in place of those not Turkish in music terminology. In the place of musiki originating from Ancient Greek he proposed and used Küğ which was used in Middle Asia by Turks. There are some works like “Atatürk and Küğ”, where this name was used. However, such a proposal was not adopted much only by some of his students. 3. Conflicts in the definition of Turkish music Definition conflicts are at the heart of debate. The name used for more than 100 years seems to be a subtitle when it was given because it should be named differently from Western music. The name “Turkish music” was used first officially by Rauf Yekta Bey using the expression of traditional frets, maqam and usul (ritm), courses and instruments in the same study. In his writing “national music”, Ziya Gökalp claimed that music dropped from Ottoman em- 3 pire is Byzantine origin. Through such a claim, he threw Yekta’s efforts to dustbin by defending the view that folk music harmonised by Western music is the original Turkish music. Government accepted Gokalp’s views and this caused many questions in concepts and perceptions. Music theoretician H.S. Arel in his book “Who owns Turkish Musikisi,” tried to show it is not Byzantine, Arabic and Persian origin but not succeeded. Some authors attempted to remove question marks by using some adjectives before “Turkish music” but the conflict was not corrected. Turkish music may falsely be thought that it is performed and produced only by Turks. However, when considered the large Turkish geography, it is not much true an identification. The mentioned thing here is only a music type and there is a need for the determination of formation process. It is true that Turkish has had a certain musical background from Middle Asia to date. However, from 10th century, references belonging to Turkish writers reached to date through Farabi, but until 17th century very few repertoire reached to date, in 17th century, large extended collation repertoires of the authors like Ali Ufki and Kantemiroğlu give opinions related to the musical infrastructure of mentioned period. Following this century, through either Meşk method or notation of works saved many music examples from being forgotten. It can be stated in the light of this knowledge “Turkish music repertoire started with 17th century Ottoman period. Therefore, other name of Turkish music is Ottoman Music”. Not only those from Turkish race gave works in this type of music but also those not Muslim and Turk like in Ottoman like Tatyos Efendi, Bimen Şen, Kemençevi Vasilaki contributed greatly to its development. It is clear that Turkish Music is not a music type belonging only to Turkish race. In order for a composed melody to bear the identity of “Turkish music”, it must be prepared in convenience with the theoretical rules, mode and manner structure. Besides, melodic structure and course give the melody its Turkish music identity. Expansion of Western music in Ottoman empire from 19th century and in republic period mixture of Western Music and Folk music (hybrid) caused a new type of music imposed as “Turkish music”. Some music authors added “traditional” as a prefix to Turkish Music the heritage of Ottoman Empire (not to offend its enthusiasts). 3.1. Traditional Turkish Music The adjective “Traditional” sounds good. However, since such a quality was granted to Western music in Turkey to give living area to it under the title of “Turkish music”, most traditionalists didn’t accept and use this adjective. This music is a type majority of whose repertory comes from Ottoman time and has unique sound system where the instruments like ud, ney, tanbur, kanun are prevalent. When this definition began to be heard, it was criticised densely by folk music performers and researchers since the definition was just like that of Turkish Art Music. Therefore, new qualifiers was also added to this name. Classical Turkish Music: This name may be thought to have been produced as an alternative to Classical Western Music. However, when considered the history of Turkish music, it is seen that after especially 10th century it gained unique characteristics. Theoretical infrastructure started by Farabi continued to be developed by the theoreticians such as Abdulkadir Meragi, Safiyyuddin Urmevi. Fifteenth century is known to be the golden age of Turkish music theory, when a number of theoretical references were written. This period covering 100 to 150 years after the foundation of Ottoman Empire represents an age when the books written in Turkish were devoted to Sultans after the conquering of Istanbul. Music works with long – lasting forms like Kâr, kârçe and composition for some historians while for the others, those involved in the Establishment process of Istanbul Radio until 1930s are named classical Turkish music. Works since song form and from 1930 to date are so-called Turkish art music, most often art music. Some western music enthusiasts who don’t want to use the word west preferred to name this type International Art Music. Therefore, by adding traditional before Turkish art music they wanted to escape from conceptual conflict. Traditional Turkish Art Music: It is a monophonic music type composed of maqams based on 24 sound systems with unequal intervals at one octave, and completing a whole with unique melodic structure and trend, manners and instruments. 4 In practice, the term “traditional” has never been used. However, it is possible to see this name at many music teaching departments since such departments were founded on western music basis and these lectures are just like refugees and taught superficially. One can never see an announcement board of radio, TV and concert saying “Traditional Turkish Art Music Concert”. It is a natural and expected result not to use the qualifier “traditional” in practice in also theory. At professional, official and authority establishments, like the Ministry of Culture, TRT and State Conservatoires this name is adopted to be “Turkish Art Music”. Traditional Turkish Folk Music: It is a monophonic music type composed of modes based on 17 sound systems with unequal intervals, performed using the folk instruments like bağlama, kemane, kemençe (string instruments). It is not spread over extended geographies but confined to regions. 3.2. Classical western music It is thought to be better to have a look at the names used for this type of music living in Turkey. Today, this music type known in Europe and America only with the name “music” or “classical music” is named after Classical Western Music in Turkey. When considering music history, since this music type was shaped in the European countries like Germany, Austria, Italy and France, home of this music type is known to be Europe. Before the discovery of the Continent America, Europe was the farthest west of the world from either geographical or cultural proint of view. This music type is still named “Western music” in Europe, the territories where it was born. This music type is so-called like this in all references (old – new) related to music history and theory [4]. Addition of Western as qualifier before this music type in Turkey is caused by this fact. Actually, the term “classical” was added as qualifier before a name of period (1750-1820) in Western music and this period was in mind with the name of “classical period”. In also Europe, in this period, music was named “Classic Music” due to the characteristics of the period. “Classic Music” as a name was used for the first time in Oxford English Dictionary in 1836. This music type in Turkey is named “International Art music” even though seldom and such a name is not used by large mases. In addition, in nowhere in the world, Classical music is socalled International Art Music. In Turkey, this music is also named “western music” and “classical music”. However, since there is another Turkish music type beginning with “classical” it is better to name it “Classical Western Music” in order to better understand it. 3.3. Contemporary Turkish Music Such a name is in the focus of debates. It was squeezed between Western and Turkish music and turned into a hybrid form. The most apparent characteristics of this music type is that it is polyphonic and uses Tampere system with 12 equal intervals. The reason for this music type, the first examples of which were given by Turkish Five to have this name is that it is different from Western music. Turkish Five received education on Western music abroad and returned home in 1930s. They produced their first composition – arrangement examples by arranging / adjusting folk melodies according to Western harmony system. These works were formed in polyphonic special harmony method due to maqamic structure of Turkish folk melodies. The polyphonic sound produced was very away from the original of folk melodies. Instruments used in Turkish folk music were not included in these orchestras. People were forced to love and listen this music type but they did not prefer it. It is seen that in the formation and shaping of “Contemporary Turkish Music” Z. Gökalp has an important role. Even though the Government accepted Gökalp’s thoughts about Turkish music policies at the beginning of modern Republic period, great majority of society did not adopt such a music type since there is no one society which became successful in accepting radical and instant changes in cultural products in a short time. This music type mentioned above is still not preferred in today’s Turkey in either entertainment places or wedding parties. Conclusion In Turkey, Turkish music lives as Ottoman heritage dropped from past to present day. In addition, there is another type of Turkish music derived and mixed under the effect and from Western music style. Artisans performing these two different Turkish music types make them located in different poles. One side (more conservatives) criticise violently this new type 5 which destroys traditional frets while other side defends themselves as “I am Turk, so music I produced and performed is called Turkish music”. Increasing the ownership of Turkish music art requires not only protection of past music heritage but also producing new works. One must bear in mind that applauding, heightening and financially supporting the enjoyed music type will absolutely threaten and abandon those not supported to death. Such a condition is surely a cultural demolition. The larger the number of the types of the music the richer the culture is. People spending effort to develop these music types should continue and transfer these types in a respected environment and by respecting other masters. Accurate denomination of music types may be seen to be the starting and an important point of this respect. References [1] B. Aksoy. Geçmişin Musiki Mirasına Bakışlar, Pan Pub. 2008 [2] O. Akdoğu, Türk Müziği'nde Türler ve Biçimler, Aegean Uni. Pub. 1996 [3] R. Yekta, A. Lavignac (editor),”Turkish Music” Encyclopédie de la musique et dictionnaire du Conservatoire, V.5, P:2845-3064 [4] T. Christensen (Editor), The Cambridge History of Western Music Theory, Cambridge U. Press, 2002 [5] Z. Gökalp, Türkçülüğün Esasları, 1923 6 Observations on the Blurred Boundaries Between Classes, Social Groups and Genres in the Musical Life of Ottoman Edirne Onur Güneş Ayas Yıldız Technical University, Sociology Department gunesayas@gmail.com Abstract. Recent studies on the musical life of Ottoman Istanbul show that the Ottoman musical tradition has succeeded to bind people from different social backgrounds as well as different musical styles and genres together in a unifying cultural universe. However, Ottoman Edirne has not been studied from this perspective. The purpose of this paper is to show that the unifying character of the Ottoman musical tradition that binds different classes, social groups, religious communities and musical genres and styles together may also be observed in Ottoman Edirne. It is true that Edirne has served as the Ottoman capital for ninety years and remained in close contact with the new capital and the court afterwards and this fact has definitely played a very important role in the central position of Edirne in the Ottoman musical tradition. However, if the musical life of Ottoman Edirne is properly analyzed, it can be observed that the traditional music was far from being limited to the court and its immediate entourage. Social basis of Ottoman music tradition in Edirne displays a striking wideness and diversity, making the borders between social classes, ethnic and religious minorities and musical genres considerably blurred. Keywords: Ottoman Edirne, sociology of music, tekke music, Turkish music, folk music 1. Introduction The subject of this paper is to reveal the social context of the musical life in Ottoman Edirne in terms of the blurred boundaries between classes, social groups and musical genres. In order to achieve this task properly, the biased ideological classifications of the early republican period on the Ottoman musical tradition should be corrected first. The classifications established by the early republican elites have survived until recently and left its mark on almost all of the music debates in Turkey. These classifications were based on Gökalp’s famous formulation which is also the theoretical source of all the subsequent classifications in music debates. The early republican elites aimed to form a new national identity supporting Westernization and the consciousness of secular Turkishness while excluding the OttomanIslamic legacy as much as possible. The Gökalpian formula provided the legitimizing theoretical framework for this twofold project [9]. In early republican Turkey, the most essential pillar of the official position towards music was to exclude and “otherize” the Ottoman musical legacy. This official position had been inspired by the “national music” formula expressed by Gökalp in his book Türkçülüğün Esasları (The principles of Turkism). As Tekelioğlu compactly put it, Gökalp’s formulation was defining the problem and solution as follows: “The enemy is Eastern music, the source is folk music, the 7 model is Western music and its harmony and the purpose is to achieve national music” [13]. In this conjunction, republican elites claimed that the Ottoman music tradition in the cities and the folk music in the Anatolian villages were completely dissimilar in terms of their historical origin and the musicological and cultural characteristics. Accordingly, Ottoman musical tradition was entitled with names such as “court music”, “enderun music”, “tekke (dervish lodge) music” etc. all of which referred to closed groups having a little connection with ordinary people and the social fabric of the Ottoman societies. In Gökalp’s formula, Ottoman music was not only “backwards”, “sick”, “somniferous” and “cosmopolitan” but also a “foreign” music taken from Byzantines. Gökalp argued that Ottoman music, which was “the remnant of the obsolete Byzantine culture”, had nothing to do with Turkishness. The pure and genuine music of the Turks could only be found among the Anatolian folk songs which had no connection with this “foreign” Ottoman music [15]. Moreover, the hegemonic discourse defined each branch of the central musical tradition of Ottoman society as something hostile and unrelated to each other, building insurmountable discursive walls between the so-called classical, popular, religious and secular branches of this music. Recent studies on the musical life of Ottoman Istanbul refuted these claims, showing that the Ottoman musical tradition succeeded to build a unifying cultural universe that binds people from different backgrounds as well as different musical styles and genres together. As a result, it has become evident that there are not strict distinctions between classes, social groups, genres and styles in the musical world of Ottoman Istanbul. However, though it is the second capital of the empire, Ottoman Edirne has not been studied from this perspective. The purpose of this paper is to show that the unifying character of the Ottoman musical tradition that binds different classes, social groups, musical genres and styles together can also be observed in Ottoman Edirne. In order to achieve this task, a general outline about the social context of Ottoman musical tradition will be drawn first and then the musical life in Ottoman Edirne will be analyzed in terms of the relationships between the court and the ordinary people, “classical” styles and folk music, “high” music forms and popular entertainment music, religious and secular music etc. This paper is loosely based on one of my former studies which analyses the musical life of Edirne from a sociological perspective in a free essay form [8]. But this revised and expanded version adds new sources, perspectives and subjects to the former. The main sources of this paper are the biographical collections of the Ottoman musicians such as Şeyhülislam Esad Efendi’s Atrab’ül Âsâr [5] (the only biographical collection of musicians written in Ottoman period), histories on Ottoman Edirne especially the one written by Peremeci [12] and a recent biographical collection of musicians living in Edirne written by Uludere [2]. Before dealing with the musical life of Edirne, we had better outline the social context and the general characteristics of the Ottoman musical tradition first. Under the next sub-section, I will use the relevant material from one of my recent studies [7]. 2. Ottoman Musical Tradition: Social Context and General Characteristics To begin with, we should note that OttomanTurkish society had no Western type aristocracy or clergy. Since the land belonged to the State rather than being under private ownership, there was not a Western type land owner class either. The main class distinction within the Ottoman society was between the rulers and the ruled as a whole, and unlike Western society the ruling elite did not exclusively come from the ranks of the upper classes or aristocracy. Since there was not an aristocracy, there were not rival courts as patrons of the musicians. But this does not mean that the Sultan was the only patron of the high music as usually happened in the Eastern courts. For instance, the so-called classic music of Iran was limited to palace and its immediate entourage [3]. However, the historical records clearly show that the Ottoman music tradition differs not only from the Western but also the other Eastern music traditions in being able to maintain itself independent from the patronage of the Sultan. As Behar [4] notes, there are many historical evidences that prove this point: “When two successive sultans, Osman III (r. 1754–7) and Mustafa III (r. 1757–74), both strongly disliked music and chose to disband the Topkapı Palace meşkhane, thus ending all musical activity in the royal palace, this rash decision had no disruptive effect on the practice of music in the city. Twenty years later, Selim III (r. 1789–1807), himself a patron of the arts 8 and a great composer, had no difficulty whatsoever in quickly reconstituting in the palace a retinue of masterly musicians and composers.” Behar explains this fact by pointing to the fact that the Ottoman musical tradition was “already sufficiently diffused and ingrained in the urban social tissue and resilient enough to survive” independent from the patronage of the ruling groups. The organization of instruments and performance has been also instrumental in maintaining this independence. Ottoman music was mainly a “chamber music” except the military music called Mehter. Two or three instruments and a singer were usually enough to perform the most complex examples of this music and becoming a performer or even a composer did not require a very long musical education as in the West. For example, the music of Mawlawi rite that we can consider as the equivalent of the most complex forms of Western music such as symphony or concerto required no more than five or six musicians in its traditional form. There was not an opera tradition either. So financing even the most complex musical activities was not expensive as happened in the Western classical music world. As we have noted, the palace was not the only place that Ottoman music was performed. Ottoman music was trained and performed in “private homes, mosques, dervish lodges and even coffeehouses”. So, as many researchers and experts noted, Ottoman music was mainly an urban music performed in various places in a widespread manner that was open to the participation of all classes. The range of the large social basis of this music can be seen from its prominent composers. For instance, when we look into the famous biographical collection of Şeyhülislam Esat Efendi (Atrab ül-âsâr fi tezkire-ti urefâ’ il edvâr) written in 18th century (see Behar, 2010), we clearly see that there were many musicians from humbler origins beside some high-ranking officials and dignitaries. This is apparent from the names of the composers of the Ottoman music tradition recorded in this biographical collection. For example Tavukçuzade was the son of a chicken seller. Taşçızade was the son of a stone-cutter. Sütçüzade and Suyolcuzade were respectively sons of a milkman and a builder of water conduits. Even the most famous composer Dede Efendi, who also performed in the palace and being favored by both the two respective powerful sultans of the period was the son of an owner of a public bath and Mawlawi dervish as well. Before being idealized into a nostalgic aristocratic due to some nostalgic yearning for an imaginary aristocratic musical past, he had been usually called Hamamcıoğlu İsmail or Dervish Ismail in his time, pointing to the humble origins of the composer. It is interesting to see four workers, a servant and even a slave in a biographical collection including 97 composers of the so-called high music tradition of Ottomans. A similar social composition of classical music composers is certainly unimaginable in the Western context. It should be noted that dervish lodges, especially those of Mevlevis, were also very important in making the religious and secular repertoire of the Ottoman classical music tradition accessible to all classes of society. These lodges were the civil centers of musical training and transmission open to everyone except only those rejecting to obey the special rules of these places. It is also interesting that even the non-Muslim musicians were a part of this musical world despite the compartmentalized social organization in civic and religious affairs. In Ottoman Turkey, Muslims and non-Muslims performed a common repertoire, employed common artistic and compositional techniques and used the same musical forms and instruments. Another important feature of the Ottoman music tradition was that the boundaries between various genres were very flexible. In other words, high music, folk music and popular music were not polarized through the social distinction strategies but merged together in a unifying musical culture. It does not mean that a folk song and the highest forms of classical Ottoman music had the same value, but it is certain that they were not polarized. For example, Ali Ufki who compiled the Ottoman musical repertoire in two manuscript anthologies which are still one of the two written sources about the music of the period, has classified the folk songs and the complex forms of music performed in the palace in the same pages. We know that folk songs were performed in the palace and sometimes folk singers were invited to sing for the Sultan. Moreover, when we look into the works of the composers, we see many light or popular music pieces along with the socalled art music samples. For example even court musicians like Itri and Dede Efendi have composed popular songs along with the classical suits. Tanburi Mustafa Çavuş, today greeted as one of the most prominent composers of the 9 classical tradition, had in fact composed only popular songs but he had been also honored and favored by the palace. Even the Mehter music which was performed by the musicians who were also some kind of civil servants and directly financed by the royal palace, used to play for the people in the urban activities, important days and civil ceremonies open to all classes of society. 3. Musical Life in Ottoman Edirne: Sociological Observations 3.1. The Court, Mehter and Musical Life in Social Context Edirne is among the major centers of the traditional Ottoman music along with İstanbul, İzmir and Bursa. This is, to a large extent, a result of the fact that it has served as the capital of the empire for 90 years. After replaced by Istanbul in 1453 as the Ottoman capital, Edirne continued to be one of the most favorite places of Sultans. Mehmet IV (1642-1693) and Mustafa II (1664-1703) spent most of their time not in the capital (İstanbul) but in Edirne. Indeed, four out of five composers recorded in Atrab’ül Âsâr lived in the reign of Mehmet IV. There are twelve composers from Edirne in the history of Peremeci. Five of them have served for or been educated in the Ottoman court. We should add Benli Hasan Ağa (1607-1662) and Kara İsmail Ağa (1674-1724), who are not included by Peremeci, to this list of court musicians. It is interesting that all the other musicians in this collection of biographies are members of dervish lodges. The traffic between the court and the other institutions in the city, which are open to all classes of people, was also dense. For example, Yahya Nazîm (1650-1727) who has been educated in Enderun (a royal institution of high education) has left the Court and joined the Mevlevi order. As a matter of fact, professional musicians who are directly employed by Sultan or courtly institutions constituted a minority among the musicians. For example, only 7 out of 75 composers included in Atrab’ül Âsâr served directly or indirectly for the court, most of whom were deprived of a regular job or payment. Moreover, one out of this seven “court musicians” were a member of Mehter, in other words a soldier. The borders between amateur and professional musicians were blurred. Even the famous com- poser Itri was not paid regularly by the court; instead he was taking a daily wage in exchange for his teaching sessions. The other indirect payments to Itri were for non-musical jobs, as seen in his appointment as the chamberlain of the slave trade by his own request. Kara İsmail Ağa, who is among the composers who lived in Edirne, is an exception since he has spent all his time in courtly missions. He is the only musician in Atrab’ül Asar who spent his entire career in the royal palace. However, he comes from a humble social origin, an ordinary villager from one of the villages near Edirne. Edirneli Hafız İbrahim, who has served as imam in the court between 1662 and 1686, is among the outstanding musicians of the period and has performed together with legendary musicians such as Hafız Post and Itri. He had served as the İmam of the Selimiye Mosque before starting his courtly mission. So it can be said that he also had close relationship with the ordinary people in Edirne who came the mosque five times a day for daily prayers. Alongside the court musicians such as Kara İbrahim Ağa and Hafız İbrahim Efendi having jobs that directly related with music, there were also musicians that served for the court in nonmusical jobs such as Küçük Müezzin Efendi (d. 1707) who was a courtier. Mehter is the only musical organization that was directly affiliated with the court and whose members were paid regularly. Mehterhane, besides being a military musical organization, at the same time, answered musical demands of the ordinary people in the city. Mehter band used to perform music in religious or secular festivals and carnivals, in various public places and even in villages for ordinary people. So it was very important in the musical life of the city. Evliya Çelebi recorded that in Balkans Mehter bands regularly performed along the river banks and people sometimes danced and ice skated on the frosted river [1]. There are ethno-musicological studies on the impact of Mehter music on the folk music traditions of Balkan people [6]. Edirne was among the important centers of Mehter music. Most famous Mehter music composers such as Edirneli Zurnazen Daği Ahmed Çelebi, Edirneli Mehter Ahmet Ağa were from Edirne as evident from their names. It is interesting that these musicians composed some popular instrumental dance music for entertainment purposes (these were called Rakkas Peşrevi) along with the classical pieces in dif- 10 ferent makams composed in the “high art” tradition. For example Edirneli Zurnazen Daği Ahmet Çelebi and Mehter Ahmet Ağa had composed some pieces in “murabba” form, which is the most common “high art” form in Ottoman musical tradition along with popular pieces for entertainment. 3.2. Dervishes, Sufi Orders and Religious Functionaries in Musical Life Musicians in Sufi orders were also very important in the musical life of Edirne. Most of the musicians recorded in different collections of biographies are tekke musicians (dervishes) or religious functionaries. In this respect, Ottoman society is different from some of the eastern countries. Even though the empire witnessed some short periods of religious narrow mindedness on music as seen in the Kadızadeli movement, religious functionaries and especially tekke musicians have always been the most important part of the musical life of the empire. Some tekkes such as Mevlevi and Halveti orders along with their Celveti and Gülşeni branches were important centers of musical activity. Bektaşi order was also important. Mevlevi order was rather addressing distinguished listeners in the so-called high music circles. Edirne Mevlevihanesi was one of the most important centers of musical life in the city. Bektaşi order was the most outstanding example of the nested classical and popular taste in the dervish milieu. The studies on Bektaşi music in Rumelia show that Bektaşi hymns, named nefes, display both classical and folk musical elements. Even in the villages these pieces of music include elements from the classical music system based on makams. In Edirne, unorthodox dervish figures such as Seyyit Ali Sultan (Kızıl Deli), Postlu Baba, Koçu Baba, Deniz Ali Baba have played an important role in the emergence of a unifying musical culture that puts the Anatolian and Balkan impacts together [10]. Mevlevi houses as centers of “high art” music in the empire were also bridging between the Court and ordinary people. Since tekkes are open to all classes of people, Mevlevi houses supported by Sultans, were presenting a high musical taste to ordinary people while recruiting talented people from lower classes into this distinguished cultural tradition. For example, we read in an announcement of Mevlevi House in Edirne, which is the second capital city of the empire and one of the most important centers of the classical music tradition, that there will be music lessons in the lodge including the teaching of makam, usul and the most complex forms of Ottoman music. It is interesting to see that these lessons were open to all classes of society regardless of one’s social origin and even his religion, the only thing that was expected from the participants was regular attendance to the lessons and not being drunk [14]. There were other Sufi orders, mostly Halveti origin, that were important in the musical life of Edirne. Selami Şimşek records that among the musicians from dervish orders in Edirne, 82.5 % is Mevlevi, 10.26 % Halveti, 2.56 Nakşi, 2.56 Celveti, 2.56 Sadi [14]. Gülşeni branch of the Halveti order was very influential in the musical life of Edirne. They had also a special name “Gülşeni Bülbülleri” (means “Nightingales of Gülşeni Order”) including famous musicians such as Edirneli Şaban Dede, Edirneli Salihzade, Edirneli İmamzade etc. There were also transitions between the Court and the Mevlevi order. Yahya Nazîm Çelebi (1647-1726), a composer and poet lived in Edirne, is a good example. He was educated in the court in his youth, then left the court and joined the Mevlevi order. It was possible that a dervish educated in a Sufi order in his youth joined the court later on in his middle adulthood. The fact that Muradiye Mevlevihanesi in Edirne was built by and named after Sultan Murad II is a good example of this close relationship between Mevlevi order and the Court. The most famous composer from Muradiye Mevlevihanesi is Köçek Mustafa Dede (d. 1684) whose masterpiece named Beyati Mevlevi Ayini is one of the most distinguished pieces of the classical repertoire. It is important to note that Köçek Mustafa Dede also composed secular classical pieces. For example in Atrab’ül Asar, Şeyhülislam Esad Efendi has recorded only his secular compositions. As a matter of fact, it should be noted that there was not a strict distinction between religious and secular music in Ottoman culture. For this reason, it has been claimed that drawing a distinction between secular and religious music is not a proper classification for Ottoman musical tradition. For example, in Edirne, all the musicians from sufi orders and religious institutions have composed so-called secular pieces along with 11 religious music. Murabba, as the most common form used in secular fasıl repertoire, has been used by all the musicians in the field. Not only dervishes such as Köçek Mustafa Dede and Kudümzen Derviş Ali or the spiritual leaders of sufi orders such as Şeyh Kemalzâde Ali Efendi but also religious functionaries such as Edirneli Hafız İbrahim (the imam of Selimiye Mosque) composed secular pieces in classical tradition. This fact shows that Ottoman makam music tradition has served as a unifying cultural system that links secular and religious branches of music together. This unifying cultural system involves non-Muslim musicians too. 3.3. Non-Muslim Musicians Musicians from religious and ethnic minorities were a part and parcel of the Ottoman musical milieu. It can be confidently argued that in Ottoman Empire Muslim and non-Muslim people had a common musical taste based on the central Ottoman makam system. Despite the fact that Ottoman society was compartmentalized along different religious communities, music was a meeting point that easily gets beyond the borders. When we look at the non-Muslim composers in Edirne, we see that they all composed musical pieces in classical Ottoman tradition, used Ottoman makam and usul patters, had their education and performed together with Muslim musicians. In the collection of biographies compiled by Uludere [2], there are nonMuslim (Jew) musicians such as Avtaliyon Ben Mordehay, Yehuda Ben Israel Ben Aroya, Aharon Hamon, Behor Josef Dannon living in Edirne, who composed pieces in various genres of Ottoman makam music such as beste, şarkı, semai and peşrev in various makams including Uşşak, Segah, Acemaşiran, Isfahan and Hüseyni. It is interesting that a collection of songs in makam Hüseyni published by the famous Jewish singer İzak Algazi in 1925 includes a piece composed by Avtaliyon Ben Mordehay (1570-?). There were many religious functionaries and rabbis among these Jewish composers. But they had close relationships with Muslim musicians including imams and dervishes. They performed music in common places and learned from each other. For example, Avtaliyon Ben Mordehay had close relationships with the dervishes in Edirne Mevlevi House. He had taken his musical training in Edirne Mevlevi House and performed Ottoman music there together with Muslim dervishes. Another striking example is that the student circle of Şeyh Kemalzade Ali Efendi (1839-1889) involved Jewish musicians such as Büyük Hayim and Hanende Salomon along with Mevlidhan Müftü Hafız Mustafa Efendi, İmaretli Deli İmam and Hafız Arif Efendi, all of them devout Muslims having religious jobs and titles. In other words, it can be confidently said that the musical activities in Ottoman Edirne have had a unifying role between different religious communities. 3.4. Humble Social Backgrounds of Musicians It had been noted above that the wide participation of people from all social classes and different ethnic and religious origins seems to have been the rule in the Ottoman musical tradition. In Atrab’ül Asar, from potters and stone masters to the governors of important cities, from senior religious scholars to imams of small neighborhoods and even two slaves, there are musicians from all walks of life. Edirne is not an exception. Edirneli Şeyh Kemalzade Ali Efendi, who composed sophisticated classical pieces of music in art music forms, was a tanner (debbağ) and called “tabak”. There are still certain popular idioms and slangs about “tabakhane” in modern Turkish. The composer Sâgâri who lived in 16th century was also known as Gazzaz or Kazzaz Ali. That means that he was a silkman. The father of the famous court musician Benli Hasan Ağa (b. 1607) was a halva (a kind of Turkish dessert) seller. Benli Hasan Ağa was himself an ordinary singer who sings simple folk songs accompanied by his tanbura (a folk music instrument used by villagers). Another famous court musician, Kara İsmail Ağa, was an ordinary villager from Hasköy, a village near Edirne before being employed by the Ottoman Court. 3.5. Interaction between Art and Folk Music Another indicator of the blurred boundaries between social classes and musical genres in Ottoman music can be observed in the relationship between art music and folk music branches of the main tradition. As we mentioned in the introduction, official view in the early republican period, which was based on the Gökalpian formula, had assumed that there was a strict contrast between the art and folk music traditions in Ottoman Turkey. According to this as- 12 sumption, Ottoman makam music was the music of the court, upper classes or the closed religious circles unrelated with popular and folk music traditions, while the folk music was the genuine music of the Turkish people. However recent researches refuted this assumption. The musical life in Edirne is a perfect example of the close relationship between art and folk music traditions in Ottoman Empire. Even the court musicians are related to folk music tradition in one way or another. For example, the famous composer and court musician Benli Hasan Ağa was playing tanbura, an instrument played by common people living in villages according to Evliya Çelebi, and singing folk songs before being accepted to his courtly mission. He continued to sing Rumeli folk songs for the Sultan while composing musical pieces in classical style such as Rast Peşrevi and Saz Semai and Pençgah Peşrevi. Sâgâri who composed classical pieces in the late 16th century like Benli Han Ağa was also playing kopuz, again a folk music instrument. Ubeydi who lived one generation after Sâgâri had composed folk songs along with musical pieces in classical style and forms such as murabba and nakış. Zurnazen Daği Ahmet Çelebi was the composer of the famous Rakkaş Peşrevi, a kind of dance music for entertainment purposes well-loved by common people. It is interesting that Şeyh Kemalzâde Ali Efendi played bağlama (the most common folk music instrument in Turkey) along with tanbur and ney, which are the representative instruments of the classical musical tradition. Another example is Edirneli Kadri Dağdeviren (1868-?) who took ney lessons from Neyzenbaşı Hilmi Dede in Yenikapı Mevlevihanesi and composed a murabba beste in makam Suzinak, at the same time playing folk music instruments such as cura, a twelvestringed Bektaşi sazı and accordion. Hafız Rakım Ertür (1883-1961) who had played ney in Edirne Muradiye Mevlevihanesi in the last years of Ottoman Empire, has collected and notated Rumeli folk songs such as “Atımın Yelesi”, “Toraman”, “Şıpka”, “Bakkallar Satıyor Karaca Üzüm”. As a matter of fact, Rumeli folk songs as a genre, is perhaps the most striking example of the close relationship between art and folk music. For example, the Classical State Chorus (Devlet Korosu or Klasik Koro) which is affiliated directly to the Turkish Presidency and very conservative and elitist in its repertoire, includes Rumeli folk songs in its concerts full of sophisticated classical music of the empire. Musicological studies on Rumeli folk songs have demonstrated that there are striking resemblances between the melodic and stylistic patterns of the classical pieces and Rumeli folk songs which are still sung in the villages among common people. The entertainment music of Edirne usually performed by the Roman musicians in taverns also reflects this pattern. The musicological studies show that both the folk music in the countryside and the entertainment music in the city centre include melodic patterns taken from Ottoman art music, using its makams such as Hüseyni, Uşşak, Rast, Karcığar and Hicaz [10]. 4. Conclusion In conclusion, it can be said that Edirne is among the major cities in which the Ottoman musical tradition shaped. The three fundamental formal institution of this tradition (Enderun, Mehterhane and Mevlevihane) were active and influential in Edirne which was also very close to Istanbul and one of the most favorite places of Sultans. Edirne has serves as the Ottoman capital for ninety years and remained in close contact with the court afterwards. This fact has definitely played a very important role in the central position of Edirne in the Ottoman musical tradition. However, if the musical life of Ottoman Edirne is properly analyzed, it can be observed that makam music was far from being limited to the court and its immediate entourage. Social basis of Ottoman makam music tradition in Edirne displays a striking wideness and diversity, making the borders between social classes, ethnic and religious minority groups and musical genres considerably blurred. These flexible boundaries show that Ottoman musical tradition has succeeded to build a unifying cultural system that binds people from all walks of life together. References [1] A. Altundağ, Evliya Çelebi Seyahatnamesi’nde Türk Musikisi ile Alakalı Bilgiler, Marmara Üniversitesi Faculty of Theology, Unpublished master thesis, İstanbul, 2005. [2] A. Ö. Uludere, Edirneli Bestekarlar, Ceren Publishing, Edirne, 2015. [3] B. Nettl, Persian Classical Music in Tahran Process of Change, in Eight Urban Musical Cul- 13 tures: Tradition and Change, ed. B. Nettl, London, 1978. [4] C. Behar, Ottoman Musical Tradition, in Cambridge History of Modern Turkey Vol III, S. Faroqi, ed., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2006, pp. 393-407. [5] C. Behar, Şeyhülislam’ın Müziği: 18. Yüzyılda Osmanlı-Türk Mûsikisi ve Şeyhülislam Esad Efendi’nin Atrab’ül Asar’ı, Yapı Kredi Publishing, İstanbul, 2010. [6] D. A. Buchanan, Balkan Popular Culture and Ottoman Ecumene: Music, Image and Regional Political Discourse, Scarecrow Press, United Kingdom, 2007. [7] G. Ayas, A Comparison Between the SocioHistorical Background of the Musical Classifications and The Hierarchies of Taste in the West and Turkey with Special Reference to Popular Music, in III. International Music and Cultural Studies Proceedings May 13-14, Dakam Publishing, İstanbul, 2016, 81-90. [8] G. Ayas, Edirne’de Osmanlı Devri Makam Musikisi Hakkında Sosyolojik Gözlemler, in Edirne İçin, ed. Y. Okay, Doğu Kitabevi, İstanbul, 2013. [9] G. Ayas, Turkish History Thesis as a Legitimizing Instrument in Music Debates of Early Republican Turkey, Rast Musicology IV/1 (2016), 1057-1075. [10] M. Duygulu, Edirne’de Müzik, in Edirne: Serhattaki Payitaht, ed. Emin Nedret İşli-Sabri Koz, Yapı Kredi Publishing, İstanbul, 1998. [11] N. Özalp, Türk Musikisi Tarihi I, Milli Eğitim Basımevi, İstanbul, 2000. [12] O. N. Peremeci, Edirne Tarihi, Bellek Yayınları, Edirne, 2011. [13] O. Tekelioğlu, The Rise of a Spontaneous Synthesis: The Historical Background of Turkish Popular Music, Middle Eastern Studies XXXII/2 (19986), 194–215. [14] S. Şimşek, Osmanlı’nın İkinci Başkenti Edirne’de Tasavvuf Kültürü, Buhara Publishing, İstanbul, 2008. [15] Z. Gökalp, Türkçülüğün Esasları, Matbuat ve İstihbarat Matbaası, Ankara, 1923. 14 “Annuaire Oriental Commercial Guides to İstanbul” as a musicological source Ahmet FEYZİ* * Atatürk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Department of Fine Arts Education Music Education Division ahmet.feyzi@atauni.edu.tr Abstract. Reference to several literature and verbal source is an obligatory in writing the history of Turkish music to enlighten the written historical process and the musical structure in it. Among these references used the most often are edvar (book about music theory), risale (small handbook on music theory), lyrics journal and similar written source types. Such source types related to music art shelters huge amount of valuable data in it. Such sources types are at the first degree reference source status from musicological point of view. Some other written reference types even if seeming to be out of music literature, may have data which are not found even in the related documents when their contents are analysed. Among such important sources is the Annuaire Oriental Commercial Guides to İstanbul (AOCGİ). These annual records bear the characteristics of commercial catalogue and were first prepared for 1868-1869 term and then continued until 1950 in 50 issues. AOCGİ are important sources since they have important reference characteristics and information about music teachers. These annals record information about people giving music education services beginning from Tanzimat period and continuing until the first years of Republic period. When looked from this perspective, it is vitally important for musicology to analyse carefully these annals in especially literature related to music art in near history. Keywords: Musicology, musicological sources, Turkish annual commercial records, Tanzimat era, music teaching 1. Introduction In historical musicology studies, one of the most important issues is the type of reference cited and its accurateness. Such written or verbal reference types may determine the reliability of the study to be prepared and affect the usability of concrete knowledge obtained as the results of reviews. Therefore, criticizing the references used in a study is a required action [24]. In addition, one-way review studies conducted based on only one study can accompany with some problems. Such review studies by considering only one study are generally confined to information taken from the mentioned source. Accuracy and reliability of the source can be affected by the approach of the author whose characteristics may shape the work. In this respect, scientific quality of such musicological studies is closely related to the number of references analysed throughout the study and its processing style. Even if it seems not to be a good choice to classify the references related to musicology it is possible to see some types of categorisation. As it takes place in scientific methodology, in order for a material to be a reference (1) it should have occurred in its period or (2) it should have happened in the nearest time to its period or been composed of the sources nearest to its time. First one is the main (real) source while the second is by- hand source” [24]. Such references may also be divided in two categories by considering their relationship with music as an art. When considered the content of musicology science and the social institutions music art is dependent on, it can be seen that the huge number of references can be obtained as sources. Many of the social institutions this art branch is dependent on like education, religion, trade, health and others can shelter huge amount of information in their body. Hand written edvar, risale, note corpus, lyrics, song and kanto journals can be counted first among the references directly related to Turkish music culture. The most important of them being related directly to music art are circles and booklet. These works are the first 15 referenced sources in the studies related to conceptual structure involving conceptual information related to music art. checked from other sources in order to avoid from false and mistakes. These document are not accepted to be a representative sample of repertory of the period they are reviewed and since they do not contain notes, they cannot provide a practical and meaningful sight into their times [5], however, by evaluating carefully the works published on the examination manners of these works [23], these journals can be analysed to obtain healthier and concrete information. Apart from lyrics journals, chant, song and kanto journals can often be seen in Turkish music history. Such journal beginning to be seen after 19th century have a very close similarity with lyrics journal. Figure 1. Sample page of an “Edvar”; Tefhimü’l-Makamat Fi Tevlidi’n-Nagamat/ Kemani Hızır Ağa [12] Musicology is associated with some mathematic and cosmologic elements in addition, pitch systems used in Turkish musical culture and their mathematical and theoretical bases are among the information types encountered most often. Furthermore, in addition to detailed information related to rhythm and maqams used in Turkish music, changes these dynamics experienced in historical process can be detected in these sources. Great majority of such works whose number is not so much have been taken under examination and their content analyses have been completed. Lyrics journals beginning to be seen in Turkish musical culture following the tradition of writing edvar and risale are among the most important sources of other musicological studies. The number of such sources today is nearly 500, whose writing tradition began in Selçuk period [8] and the oldest sample was written in 15th century in the period of Murad II [23]. These sources form a musical literature with written song words [21] and majority of these sources are in old Turkish alphabet even in Karamanlıca1. Even if the lyrics journals are used in Turkish musicology studies most often, such sources should be approached with care and their contents should be evaluated and 1 It is a writing language used by Rum Orthodox groups living in Anatolia. In the language old Greek alphabet is used to write Turkish words. There are several güfte mecmuası with traditional Turkish music content and note reviews written in this writing language and formed in Byzantine notation system [5]. Figure 2. An example of lyrics Journal (Haşim Bey-1864) [11] Hand written note corpus involve work notation apart from lyrics journals and are as important as them and important works sheltering information about their periods on either note writing system or repertory. Even though the number of such type of works is not so much as musicological references, it is possible to access note corpus examples written using all notation system used in Traditional Turkish music from the archives. The first examples of such note corpus began to be seen with Urmiyeli Safiyuddîn. This work is followed by the work entitled Kenzül-Elhan, written by Abdülkadir Merâgi, has not yet been found its content has not been clarified through the analyses. It is stated to include several music works written in “ebced” notes [25]. These sources began to be seen more clearly through the note corpus in 17th century by Ali Ufki and Kantemiroğlu and sustained its presence in 19th century through the sources 16 developed in different notation systems2. With the use of western graphic notation system beginning from the last quarter of 19th century in Turkish music culture the number of note corpus increased and writing tradition of such works has reached to date. In addition to the aforementioned sources, there are also several source types used in musicology studies. Such sources can be accepted to be secondary sources at first sight but they are inevitable to reach correct and accurate information. Even though they are not directly related to music art, these works are of the characteristics that can approve or support the information present in the primary sources in connection with music art and in many times they can shelter information related to music art even if their content is mostly related to other fields than music art. “Among the most important of them are the document like travel books, embassy notes, memorials and dairies, anthologies, nasihatnâme (book about the ethics and rules of behaviour), işretnâme (book about describing the fun parliament), sâkinâme (book about describing the drinks and booze), surname (book about describing the wedding and entertainment), siyasetnâme (book explaining how managers should behave), vekayinâme (books written about the day's events), tezkire (books on people biography), cönk (vertical and small pocket notebook), harc-ı hassa books (private spending book), salary records books, tâyinat and icmal books (books about payments other than salaries and inspection), document monitoring books, in’am books (donation books) and periodicals like newspapers and magazines” [24]. Even though nearly all these sources are used in different research by different authors they can shelter important and diversified musicological information. Giving examples for each of these source types is not possible in the scope of the present study so the most known examples are 2 In Turkish music culture, emerging of note review volumes dates back to 17th century. Among them especially contemporary Ali Ufki’s Mecmua-i Saz-ı Söz and known as Kantemiroğlu Edvarı Kitab-ı İlmi'l-Mûsikî âlâ Vechi'l-Hurûfât are the largest volume works. Even though in 18th century such volume note review was not seen much, in 19th century Hamparsum Limonciyan invented Hamparsum notation and it was used densely so many note books written in this system can be seen in that age. In the same century, Byzantine notation developed by Hrisantos was used to publish many Turkish music works as note review [9], [5], [22], [17]. taken here. For instance, the work of Aksoy which takes the writings of travellers coming from Europe to Ottoman Empire also evaluates musicological knowledge in these travel books [3]. Another example is the study of Uzunçarşılı, where author examined Ehl-i Hiref notebooks in their times by detecting the parts belonging to musicians and determined the list of music occupants in the period when the books were prepared [26]. The study of Kalender is likely to be another study related to the period benefiting from periodic publishes of the time. Author tried to put forward the changes in musical life in late 19th century and early 20th century in Ottoman Empire period in the study [16]. One of the most important such studies, was conducted by İnalcık, where a number of source types given above were evaluated beginning from 13th century and based on the results important amount of clues about entertainment culture in Ottoman period were obtained [14]. Even though this work is not dealt with directly music art, it is very important reference about music culture at the time. Commercial annuals are among the sources used not often in musicology studies. Such inventories are generally related to economic and commercial activities and published yearly. Such yearly books include economic and commercial activities between certain dates and were often reference books. Economic activities and professional and business structure based on these activities can give clues about the changing social structure in a country or a city like İstanbul [4]. Changes, deviations or losses in commercial sectors can archive the changes in consumption habits in a society. Commercial annals bearing vitally important records of about economic and commercial activities and evaluated in the present study can enable to monitor large scale institutional, social, sectoral and occupational changes in Tanzimat era significant passage period to western culture in Turkish history. Such economic and commercial changes can determine changing consumption habits in society during the period. Such annual records began to be prepared and published with 1868-1869 term in Ottoman period and called in Turkish “Şark Ticaret Yıllıkları”, “L’Indıcateur Ottoman annuaıre – almanach commerce” in French, Annuaire Oriental Commercial Guides to İstanbul (AOCGİ) in English. These sources are used 17 mostly by economic and commercial historians and show generally economic and commercial activities and people and institutions working in these fields in Ottoman Empire. They are prepared as a catalogue to promote the potentials of Ottoman Empire to foreign capital. Ads given in the annual records are subjected to a sectoral categorisation and businesses or people are presented to reader in alphabetical order. In the space belonging to every person commercial field and addresses are given with the name. The first accessible issue of AOCGİ dates back to 1868-1869 term while the latest belongs to 1948 being designed for 46 distinct years. Records) in Turkish name. Its publication language is French and Ottoman but the publishers are generally English. AOCGİ begin generally with a Turkish foreword written in French, Romaic, Ottoman or Armenian letters were composed of 5 chapters in first years. The first chapter included the data related to Sultan and Ottoman family, consulates and embassies, ministries and protocols, mail and telegraph establishment, praying areas of different religions and sects, customs tariffs, railways and railway tariffs while the second part includes a part called Istanbul Addresses giving places to important commercial centres and bankers, tradesmen, masters, artisans and etc. working there with their address and occupational field in alphabetic order. In the 3rd part, occupational groups in Istanbul and members are given in alphabetic order with their occupational field and work addresses. In 4th part, the name of hans (hotels) and quests in Galata and Eminönü were given together with the dwellers of a street towards Beyoğlu and in 5th part people occupying with commerce and arts in other cities of Ottoman Empire were given with their addresses. The last pages were left for the promotion of foreign or domestic firms. In many of AOCGİ, there were plans showing Galata and Pera sides [27]. Ottoman Bank published the copy of 46 annual reports for its collection and researchers and people can use them. Figure 3. Cover page of 1881 AOCGİ [b] The first accessible issue of AOCGİ was published with a French name Indicateur Constantinopolitain by Raphaël César Cervati and N. C. Sargologo. They were first prepared only for Istanbul but after 1880s they began to be prepared periodically. In some issues of TACR, nearly all important commercial centres of Ottoman Empire were included in them from Cairo to İskenderun, Thessaloniki to Monastir by giving their collected data, counts, the number and names of businesses and tradesmen and advertisements (ads) [4]. These records were named until 1883 Indicateur Ottoman Illustré, between 1883 and 1887-1888 terms Indicateur Oriental, 1891 and 1930 Annuaire Oriental and after 1931 Şark Ticaret Yıllıkları (Eastern Commercial Annual Such a source is important for both economic and commercial history and also the changes experienced in a period from Tanzimat to modern republic. AOCGİ present the social and institutional changes in a period of Turkish history and clues about the development and changes in music art. In addition to other occupational fields, AOCGİ include an advertisement part directly for music teachers. Due to such an aspect, they are important sources for musicological studies. This part included by nearly all issues of AOCGİ is important to show the reflection of social changes starting in Tanzimat period in music art. 18 reformism continuing until republic period turned into revolution at last [20]. Figure 4. Advertisement of music teachers in 1868-1869 AOCGİ [a] Table of this figure is given in Annex 1. The Period between the first and last issue of AOCGİ (1868 and 1948; Tanzimat and Republic) is considerably important and interesting for both Turkish history and Traditional Turkish Music since fundamental changes were experienced in every side of institutional structure of the State and music which may have inspired something to the following policies as the preparatory stage of republic period [1]. However, the changes in Turkish social structure in 19th century should also be analysed in order to understand the changes in music culture in AOCGİ period. Tanzimat period beginning traces of which are accepted to be in 18th century is expressed by several historians as “Occidentalism” or “Reforming”. This period is actually a semi – Islamic and semi–Occidental period i.e. dilemma [20] in other words it is a dualist period. This dualist structure be seen with period that called Tanzimat in Turkish history was first seen with impact in bureaucracy [13]. In early 19th century, Ottoman society lived in its traditional lifestyle with institutional structure forming for a long period and became open to effects coming from west and new life styles resulting from these effects were allowed together with traditional structure. Old and outdated institutional structures began to leave their places the requirements of modern world. Such reforms beginning with Tanzimat period [18] moved social and cultural changes and added new and different consumption habits to traditional ones. This dualist life style and In Tanzimat period in which music culture also underwent changes, the most important change was experienced in institutional aspect. “As in the developing period of Ottoman state, the first and largest interaction, touch and exchange with the west were seen in military field in also Tanzimat period” [7]. Together with the changes in other military structures, Mehterhane was also closed and replaced with Muzika-i Humâyun on 17 Sept 1828, Italian chief Gaetano Donizetti were invited to Istanbul and this military musical institution was opened. This event is not only a reform in military area but a great change in Turkish music culture [10] to stimulate others. With the establishment of Muzika-i Hümayûn, classical western music came closer to civil society which was previously private preference of official administrators, scholars or other bureaucrats. Such an expansion caused also the changes in traditional music culture. Elements constituting the infrastructure of traditional Turkish Music (forms, types, note writing systems, education and teaching types etc.) faced partial changes as the result of interaction with this newly introduced music culture [2]. One of the inner dynamics where such changes were observed is music teaching or tutorial, which was seen as an amateur occupation until Tanzimat period. In traditional music teaching practice, music occupants out of those accredited to the palace, led their life in a patrimonial system. In this system, a performance evaluation and pricing practice which dates back to settlement of Turks in Anatolia and is mixed with Classical Iranian tradition was applied. In this practice, artisan or musician produces a work and forefront people for example those from the palace or bureaucracy give gifts, presents, coins or other commercial materials (atiyye ina’am) to lead their lives [15]. Today, if music is a professional field and a sector providing regular income to its occupants in Turkey it owns much to such events experienced in mid – 19th century. With Tanzimat period, music teaching began to undergo changes in the way to become a profession. Partial change in the form of earnings of the person qualified as teacher educators in this system that there is not conflict of interest and material basis of a union 19 craftsmen producing goods or services in the sense that everyone knows began to be seen in this period [6]. Educator duty without any financial expectation in Mesk system, has now started to become a profession with innovation brought innovations in art of Tanzimat period and the music teacher made a commercial activity moved to the Ottoman Empire from Europe. With private lessons began to be given by foreign music educators in Istanbul music, educator living was becomed a profession provided in society. This transformation also changed consumption habits in music culture and lead to the establishment of professional music education institutions out of military organisation founded at the beginning of 20th century. AOCGİ are one of the best sources to provide opportunity to monitor the changes in both social and artistic life of Turkey including music. In this study; AOCGİ an important source for economic and commercial history has been under scrutiny from the musicological terms and musicological information obtained from these sources were determined. For this aim, related literature was reviewed and totally 46 issues of AOCGİ were accessed. Among the issues, that belonging to 1868-1869 period was taken to be sample. Based on this sample, knowledge determined to be about music art was analysed in terms of musicology. 2. Findings The important point of AOCGİ for musicology and music history is the advertisements for music tutorials. There is always a part in the annals from the first issue for music tutorials. This situation shows and archives an important change in Turkish music history. Until the years when the first annals were published, in Turkish music culture, professional music education was not shown to be a commercial activity or there is no document to shoe this. Until Tanzimat period, music teaching was not an income bringing activity and in great majority only gifts could be given to tutors, with these documents music education is shown to have turned out and been accepted to be a commercial activity in social area and it is shown that as a sector composed of music teaching and professional music occupation began at this age. When annals are evaluated from this point of view, it seems possible to reach historical knowledge by considering their contents. When knowledge obtained from these annals is combined with those from other musicological sources following results may be accessed. a. Advertisements under the headline of “Professeurs de Musique” show that in the period when the ad was announced majorly foreign music tutors tended to give lessons for a certain price and list of such people can be reached in the annals. Such knowledge reveals that in the period between Tanzimat and republic in Turkish music history a change and evolution were experienced towards music profession. Until this period, music education had not been an income requiring activity and been performed in a performance (meşk) system and from this time such a system began to change and an economic expectation appeared for the effort, which then turned musical education into a professional occupation. In addition, the beginning point of this evolution is the ads given by foreign tutors. Such a situation may show the effect of official music policy in Tanzimat period reflecting in civil musical life. b. One of the most important properties of AOCGİ is that it gives nearly all the foreign music tariners and performers in the Ottoman Empire period. Even though the annuals cannot give the complete list of all music professionals of that day (Tanzimat and republic), it is possible to determine majority of musicians in that period by combing all the names taking place in the annuals and completing a list involving actively working foreign musicians in Turkish music. If names in the printed copies each year of this annuals is detected and made a public lists, It is possible to obtain detailed resource that including assets of the foreign musicians Turkish music culture. c. Advertisements takin place in AOCGİ not only include the names of tutors but also their lessons and addresses. Special field knowledge seems to change for years, but when this knowledge is evaluated over a 5- or 10 - year period, changes in demanded instrument types and preference can be followed. Such knowledge can define society’s preference change. In addition, by looking into origin of instruments, density of the effect of western music can be determined over the years in 20 Turkish music culture. Furthermore, information related to address in the ads can give opinions about the areas where music tutors prefer densely or musical activities take place, which parts or sides of the city harbour active music performances. In addition, for biographical perspective such advertisements are valuable documents. d. The number of music tutors increases every year and the diversity of instruments in ads seems to increase. In addition to this data, some music teachers also put their career and institutional title and the school where they got their diploma interestingly. Increasing number of music teacher may be important to show that in Turkish Music culture, teaching music began to be accepted as a professional occupation conducted in return for money and such a situation gave music teaching an occupational identity. In addition, in some ads, diploma or school of teachers were shared on ads and such a condition shows that society gave importance to career of teachers. General music teaching at schools gained importance in public eyes. e. Other knowledge obtained from the annals is that in 1868-1869 term, all ads were related to foreign music tutors while in republic period and after there are ads for Turkish music teachers. It is shown in these ads that with the beginning of 20th century Turkish music teachers/tutors began to be seen together with those foreign and it means that music teaching began to be seen by Turkish music occupants as a profession at the beginning of republic period. There are other ads including important information in addition to those given above. Annals also include ads, out of music tutorials, about the sales of pianos by showing the changes in consumption habits at that time. Annals include records of the development of theatres through the ads of newly opened theatres. This situation is important for music art which is closely related to theatre in Tanzimat and republic periods. Ads of musical areas where musical performances are shown in addition to theatres in the annals and reveal the changes in musical performance types and areas in traditional Turkish culture in Tanzimat period. Additionally, advertisements for dance teachers show a very interesting differentiation period. 3. Results Studies on music history and culture with the descriptive characteristics from structural point of view require, due to their content, the use of several source types. Increase in the type and number of sources evaluated in such researches can cause information to be more reliable and concrete. In addition, the analysis of primary sources “nearest to their times” affects directly the reliability level of the researches. Some source types not directly related to music can help double check the findings in more related sources. Such sources are of great importance due to these characteristics. More often, knowledge withdrawn from such secondary type sources cannot be obtained even from those related directly to musicology. AOCGİ, in this respect, can be counted among the most important sources for music culture and history in Tanzimat and republic periods. Even though AOCGİ is a reference source used in economic and commercial research, it can include significant knowledge related to several scientific fields. Motions in economic and commercial activities can represent the changes in society and all the changes in the needs and habits of society can reflect themselves directly on economic and commercial life. In changing time, changes in society’s consumption habits may have caused some commercial activity types to disappear and emerge new ones. When considered the characteristics of music as an art associated closely with trade, it is possible to see the clues of changes and activity alterations in music in the comprehensive works like AOCGİ. From this point of view, advertisement for music tutors recorded in AOCGİ may be important to show the changes in Turkish music culture in especially Tanzimat and Republic periods. In other words, increase in the status of musicians in society can be followed from these findings due to the increased honorary status of teachers or tutors at that periods and increasing hiring prices also show the increasing importance of musicians in the social structure of that time. In Turkish music culture, in civil life fixed salary for music tutors is not a common practice but in these annals such an application and its results 21 can be seen and some opinions can be gained from the information in them. It can also be followed from these annals that in Turkish music culture, music tutors began to be accepted in society as an occupation and official status. Following this stage, music related institutions were established and such a condition can also be monitored in the annals. In addition, in 19th century, which is an interesting period for Turkish musical history, people closely related to music and giving musical services can be detected from the annals especially from Ottoman military institutions and civil society. Such detections are very important from musicological angles. In addition to such types of knowledge, newly opened theatres, the zones with dense musical activities, musical instruments, commercial facilities and their occupational fields, performance areas and musical activities at these performance areas are important knowledge to be determined from these annals. Annex; An. 1. Advertisements for music teachers in 1868-1869 term Name Abrami (Piérre) Borge (J.B.) Bragozzi (A.) Cervati (Paul) Demoro (Delphiue ) Dassap (Paul) Foscolo (François) Giammalv a (Paul) Gravina (marc) Guatelli (Calisto) Iory (Jean) Lombardi (Auguste) Mounier (J.B.) Parisi (Joseph) Pisani (B.Cheval ier) Poumicon (Madelle) Roberti (Albert) Virgilio (Raph.) Field Piano and violin Piano Piano and Org Singing and Piano Piano Piano and Org Piano and Org Violin Organized Devlet-i Aliyye Muzikalar ı Bnb. Mdr. Piano Piano Piano Piano Piano and Singing Piano Flute Violin Address Derviş sokak No 25 Beyoğlu Yüksek Kaldırım No 24 Galata Ermeni Kilisesi Sokağı No: 10 Beyoğlu Karantina sokak No: 3 Galata Galavany sokak No: 17 Beyoğlu Büyük cadde No: 425 Beyoğlu Büyük cadde No: 378 Beyoğlu Peşkirci Sokak No: 1 Beyoğlu Şezar Sokak No: 9 Beyoğlu Sakız Ağa sokak No: 85 Beyoğlu Asmalı Mescid No: 40 Beyoğlu Yeni Sokak No:10 Beyoğlu Kömürcü Sokak No: 10 Beyoğlu Yazıcı Sokak No: 19 Beyoğlu Büyük cadde No: 346 Beyoğlu Büyük cadde No: 47 Beyoğlu Linardi Sokak No:15 Beyoğlu Dudu odalar Sokak No: 5 Beyoğlu References [1] Akkaş, S. Türkiye’de Cumhuriyet Dönemi Kültür ve Müzik Politikaları (1923-2000), Ankara, Sonçağ Yayıncılık, 2015 [2] Aksoy, B. “Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Musıki ve Batılılaşma”. Tanzimat’tan Cumhuriyet’e Türkiye Ansiklopedisi. Cilt 5, İstanbul, İletişim Yayınları, 1985 [3] Aksoy, B. Avrupalı Gezginlerin Gözüyle Osmanlılarda Musıki, İstanbul, Pan Yayıncılık, 2003 [4] Aktar, A. Şark Ticaret Yıllıklarında “Sarı Sayfalar”: İstanbul’da Meslekler ve İktisadi Faaliyetler Hakkında Bazı Gözlemler, Toplum ve Bilim, 1868-1938, 22 76 Bahar, İstanbul, İletişim Yayınları, 1998 [5] Behar, C. “Türk Musikisinin Tarihi Kaynaklarından Karamanlıca Yayınlar”, Müteferrika. Bahar, Sayı 2, İstanbul, Sahaf Müteferrika, 1994, s.41 [6] Behar, C. Aşk Olmayınca Meşk OlmazGeleneksel Osmanlı/Türk Müziğinde Öğretim ve İntikal (4. Baskı), İstanbul, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2012, s.141 [7] Cebeci, D. Tanzimat ve Türk Ailesi. İstanbul, Bilgeoğuz Yayınları, 2009, s.18 [8] Çavdaroğlu, Z. Geleneksel Musikimizde Güfte Formu ve Güfte Formlarındaki Değişim Süreçlerine Tarihsel Açıdan Bir Bakış, Musiki Dergisi (Online),2011, Erş. Trh. 19.03.2016 [9] Elçin, Ş. Ali Ufkî: Hayatı, Eserleri ve Mecmuâ-i Saz ü Söz, İstanbul, Milli Eğitim Basımevi,1976 [10] Gazimihal, M. R. Türk Askeri Muzıkaları Tarihi, İstanbul, Maarif Basımevi, 1955, s.42 [11] Haşim, Mehmed, Haşim Bey Mecmuası (İlaveli 2. Baskı), İstanbul, 1864 [12] Hızır Ağa, Kemani, Tefhimü’lMakamat Fi Tevlidi’n-Nagamat, İ.B.B. Kitaplığı, Muallim Cevdet Yazmaları 783 [13] İnalcık, H. Osmanlı ve Modern Türkiye, Timaş Yayınları, İstanbul, 2013, s.60 [14] İnalcık, H. Has-Bağçede ‘Ayş u TarabNedimler Şairler Mutrîbler, İstanbul, İş Bankası Yayınları, 2015a [15] İnalcık, H. Şair ve Patron-Patrimonyal Devlet ve Sanat Üzerinde Sosyolojik Bir İnceleme (6.Basım), Ankara, Doğu Batı Yayınları, 2015b, s.7-17 [16] Kalender, R. Yüzyılımızın Baslarında İstanbul’un Musiki Hayatı, Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, c. 23, s. 411-444. Ankara, 1978 [17] Karamahmutoğlu, G.Türk Müziğinde Kullanılan Notasyon Sistemleri, Yeni Türkiye-Türk Musikisi Özel Sayısı, Yıl 10 Sayı 57, Ankara, Yeni Türkiye Stratejik Araştırma Merkezi, 2014 [18] Lewis, B. Modern Türkiye’nin DoğuşuIII.Edisyon (Çev. B. Babür Turna), Ankara, Arkadaş Yayınevi, 2011, s.104138 [19] Ortaylı, İ. İmparatorluğun En Uzun Yüzyılı (41.Basım), İstanbul, Timaş Yayınları, 2014 [20] Ortaylı, İ. Batılılaşma Yolunda, İstanbul, İnkilâp Kitabevi, 2015, s.210-303 [21] Popescu-Judetz, E. Türk Musîkisi Kültürünün Anlamları, Çev. Bülent Aksoy, İstanbul: Pan Yayıncılık, 2007, s.74 [22] Tura, Y. Kitâb-ı İlm ül Musıki âla Vech-ül Hurufat, Mûsikîyi Harflerle Tesbit ve İcrâ İlminin Kitabı, İstanbul, Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2000 [23] Uslu, R. Türk Müziği Eğitim Tarihinde Güfte Mecmuaları ve İncelenme Esasları Üzerine Tespitler. Müzikte 2000 Sempozyumu. (Hzl: Göktan Ay), Ankara, Kültür Bakanlığı Yayınları, 2001, s.160 [24] Uslu, R. Müzikoloji ve Kaynakları, İstanbul, İTÜ Vakfı Yayınları, 2006, s.9[25] Uslu, R. Yüz Yıldır Aranan Meragi’nin Müzikler Hazinesi (Kenz-ül Elhan) Adlı Eseri Bulundu mu?, Musiki dergisi (Online), 2015, Erş.Trh. 17.03.2016 [26] Uzunçarşılı, İ. H. Osmanlı Sarayında Ehl-i Hiref (Sanatkârlar) Defterleri, Belgeler, Cilt: XI - Sayı: 15, Ankara, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınevi, 1981-1986 [27] www.obarsiv.com “Annuaire Oriental Commercial Guides to İstanbul” used in this research [a] L’Indicateur Constantinopolitain. Guide Commercial. Premıère Anneé (1868), Hégire (1285). Créé par Raphael Cervati et publié par R. Cervati et N. C. Sargologo Tarif-i Dersaadet, Rehnüma-yı Ticaret, Birinci sene, 1285-1868 Raphael Çervati ve şeriki Sargologo’nun eseri. İstanbul: Imprımerie G. B. Pagano, 1868 [b] L’Indicateur Ottoman Illustré. AnnuaireAlmanach du Commerce de L’Industrie, de L’Administrati1on et de la Magistrature (1881), (Hégire 1298). Créé par Raphael C. Cervati et publié par Cervati Frères & D. Fatzea, Constantinople: Typographie et Lithographie J. Pallamary 23 Arrangement Music in Turkey in 60’s as East-West Eclecticism Research Assistant Münevver Arıkan and Prof. Dr. Ayşe Azman Mersin University- Sociology Department Abstract.This study focuses on the arrangement music which can be regarded as a popular music genre. Considering Turkish modernization process, with Western technical and the concept that brings together local elements in many areas of social and cultural life caused to the formation of a structure. Especially after 1950 types of music which can be described as hybrid music type was born. Arrangement music is one of this hybrid music types and emerges with the examples that are performed by typing Turkish lyrics to western music. With the framework of this study, The selection of 1960 period is not a coincidence. This period is important for being a period that the social aspects of the changes and the speed of this change is so obvious and the decisive in which both appear that the arrangement of music in the production of various genres.Starting with the Republic, Westernization / modernization process has gained speed in the 1950s. In these years that tradition and new came across very clearly, neither tradition was not abandoned nor new could forsake. In the period that is difficult to make a choice between, it is decided that to make synthesis with both two elements. Therefore, at this point in both the construction of identity, as well as to ensure the integration of the new and the tradition it seems to begin creating the new musical genres. The arrangement music is considered important for being the new form of the result of this process. Keywords: Turkish Modernization, arrangement music, eclecticism, east-west 1. Introduction The aim of this study is to examine the arrangement music which gave its first examples in 1960s with the projections on music on social change in the process of Turkish modernization. When the Turkish modernization process remembered, certain changes are observed in music as in many areas. Depending the period of the conjunctural nature, social change formula is based in one hand resists the protection of local resources on the other hand is based on Western-style technical forms. This vision is built on the separation between modernity and national thoughts of ZiyaGökalp. If it is read through Gökalp’s conceptualize of culture and civilization considering music, it seems that he puts folk music against traditional Ottoman / Turkish music as an element of national culture which he accepts foreign and non-national as an element of national culture. But Gökalp says it cannot be found in contemporary folk songs, this feature has been looking at the technical and harmony of West. At this point it can be said that Gökalp efforts to create a modern and national music for Turkey, inspired by Europe occurred in the 19th century national music trends [4]. In the result, in a way, a result of westernization policy that tried to create a new national identity that making the a reckoning anti-Ottomanism with everything that reminds 24 197 of the Ottoman Empire has tried to be denial of legacy. Western values are chosen as reference in the effort to create a national identity in the style of Western music. With a forcing approach performed to study the situation arising out towards innovation, the social layer with musical understanding that the state is adopted to pursue persistently in spite of government employees is a contradiction or differentiation cases between traditional or classical Ottoman music of the culture. Because of the westernized policies carried perhaps the most difficult and controversial process that emerges in the field of music. In that time, it is also has cultural and artistic policies are both an aesthetic concern only to transport and allow to adopt the functions the public with performed and modernization revolution [11]. In this context, The synthesis set by the central concept has created a chaotic situation arising from the new and old rivalries. Musical genres that performed for this purpose are affected by this chaotic environment. In this environment, in general, the performed music is an eclectic structure. The eclecticism cases in here -style on the different cultural elements, tools, styles, techniques etc., means the creation of a new form by bringing together. This is the result of bringing together the different elements in a selective manner. Therefore, it is a conscious choice as to what will be included in the foreclosure process in the case of eclecticism. When this situation evaluated in the context of Turkish music, in the synthesis of musical styles that are performed especially in the period after 1950 has attracted the attention of a structure rather than the presence of an eclectic look. The period of the exercise of eclectic music style can be said that the social conditions are effective in the post-1950 period. Turkish modernization has started a new phase in the 1950s. Based on the location of the forcing process of social change has taken democraticpopulist development process. With the adaption of the multi-party, life began to take a greater share of the benefits of modernization on social masses. Demographic structure of the city as the center of modernity and rural origin population has changed rapidly and started to flow to cities. New population, who immigrate new to the city, has been the tendency to infiltrate the political and social center. This trend can be observed in terms of music is possible either. The differentiation of types of music shaped by Westernist-modernist trend is proof of that situation. In one hand music genres appropriate to the level of appreciation from new population in this period while popularizing the music market-can be named as popular music- on the other hand Westernist tendencies can be observed in accordance with the modernist and rather appeared the new arrangement grows that younger generation listened to music. Incorporating elements of Western and native music arrangements also poses a corresponding view of the emerging and eclectic musical style available in this period. When the subject is considered from this point, in this study, arrangement music that serves as one of the add-on part in the construction of social identity in the 1960s will be discussed. 2. Turkish Modernization Reflections on Music and its As is known, the main problems encountered in the process of being built after the collapse of the Ottoman Empire that the identity of the state will be established on which basis. Many names offered new suggestions for problems especially ZiyaGökalp seems to form the basis of the dominant ideology. Gökalp made the distinction between the concepts of culture (hars) and civilization, informed the realization of the harmony between the two as a prerequisite for a healthy society. Gökalp sees Ottoman culture and Ottoman corrupt and even artificial; he argues that instead the need to turn to Western civilization. At this point, he identifies civilization with Western and specifies culture as a point to develop the values and ideals of national consciousness [712]. Gökalp developed a theory with a synthesis idea to overcome the problem of identity. If we make a very general distinction, it is seen that a new model emerged in the modernization experience there as opposed to the Republic of Turkey from the Ottoman period is now West axial modernization understanding of traditional and modern in based on the elimination of the traditional elements of navigating a clear distinction. Therefore, it can be said that the realization of a radical break 25 198 with understanding of traditional elements with denial of legacy in Turkey [5]. As it’s mentioned above, segments of society and institutions are affected by this process. The traces of this understanding can be seen in art and more specifically in music. During this period, in music context which constitutes one of the basic trivets of the execution and the state's identity seems that there is a showdown with the past. Therefore, elements of Western technique plus local shows itself most clearly in the formulation of the music. As it is called Musical Revolution by the state's founder and executive staff in the process of music, it would not be wrong to say that there is a certain attitude of Westernisation. In this context, such as statements relating to music, both Gökalpand Ataturk's are very decisive opinion on the music of the Ottoman Empire. Here, it is useful to refer especially Gökalp’s opinions on music: Gökalp states in the essentials of Turkism separating from the Turkish art from Ottoman, he claims that there are two different music in the Ottoman Empire before introducing with Western music. These are Eastern music which is taken from the Byzantine, and folk melodies of the old Turkish music and the other continuers. He characterizes the East music for both sick and anti-national and specifies the folk music informally as national culture. Western music it is not foreign to the national culture because it is unique to civilization, and therefore the music that will occur as a result of the fusion of Western music with folk music is accepted as both the national and European music can be owned [12]. This built on the distinction between the basic direction of the reform of the Musical Revolution and modernity and a national player with clarifying this distinction is the creation of synthesis of moving from folk songs and contemporary music with Western technique and harmony of a national music [4]. As a result of these changes, it can be said that Turkey views the provision of social life is experiencing a very serious crisis of culture and identity. The imposition of foreign culture elements on society makes the realization of this crisis expectable. It is a production of excapted by the squads understanding of the past with the aim of throwing out all their savings, that based on the cultural and social life of Ottoman Empire which was adopted and therefore rejection of the image. That refers to the phenomenon can be called as false Westernization. Because progress or seek of modernity only "old to new is better" principle reduced to the East-West dichotomy West is definitely superior to everything, a concept is established as innovation itself. Western European style belongings such as modernbeautiful-beneficial were called as alafranga; East was called with such names as old as the back-ugly-perceived bad that alaturca [8-6]. Therefore in the researches of music, it should be discussed if it can find or not the exact quest in the Republican Turkey. Because it is seen that it actually returns to a type of music eclecticism aimed at the synthesis of cases of this. And this kinds of music emerge especially after 1950. When the topic is considered in the context of arrangement music, this music genre is important aspect in that period that we come across especially '60s began to be performed. Before dealing with musical arrangements, it is necessary to generally explain the political changes during the 1950s and their reflections on music. Until the 1950s, Westernization policies were presented as the official policy of the state. However, as previously stated, Westernization policies led to a chaotic period in the history of Turkey. This period can be explained as the reconstruction of the cultural system, and the centre of the state determined the direction of Westernization. In the 1950s, the reflection of these policies on the music took a different form. The strict rules of the state about policies led to a conflicting situation between the musical taste of people and the taste imposed by the state. Thereby, the abovementioned struggle to form a synthesis actually served to form a chaotic period. The new values were accepted by neither the state nor the society; and the gap between the Turkish classical music and folk music was widened. The Western impression of the state was implemented via all the state institutes. According to this, the cultural policies not only had aesthetical interests, but also had the role of making the people adopt the modernization improvements [11]. During the Democratic Party period, with a convenient political attitude towards the USA, the Westernization movement became popular. The luxury products, modern machinery, new job fields, new type of buildings, roads, light 26 199 boards from the Western culture made the people in the big cities learn about the West. Due to this renewed city life resembling the West, the cultural life in Turkey was also affected much more significantly [1]. Accordingly, the political approach during the 1950s became significant for culture and art values. During the single party period, the state tried to form a unique structure of Western and local elements; and then there occurred a huge migration waves towards the cities. As a result, genres like arabesque, arrangement, Anatolian pop and Turkish light music appeared. In that case, the crucial feature of the post-1950 period was to realize a change in music compared to single party regime. All the genres mentioned above1 are syntheses of Western style and local elements. 3. The Musical Arrangements during the 1960s Before stating the background of Turkish musical arrangements and explaining the relation between music and social class, it is necessary to explain the notion of arrangement. The term “arrangement” comes from “arrange”, “to edit”. According to the definition in Meydan Larousse: “Arrangement: An adaptation, an interchange, an editing in a musical work piece to make it fit to another medium other than the specific sounds, instruments or a group of people for which it was originally written”. It is possible to say that this term implies to rearrange, adapt and edit a musical work which was already arranged in another way. What must be underlined is the fact that while arranging the previous melody is kept and a musical assortment to the melody is provided [10]. For the Turkish case, there is incomprehensibility in musical genres, especially in the popular music. The real definitions of musical arrangement, fasıl, Anatolian pop, pop, arabesque are uncertain. Popular music is generally comprised of the 1 Amongthese genres, Arabesque has a special role. Itcombinesboth the Western andEasternmusicalelements. Itlocalizesmanyfeatures. fasıl which is an adaptation of Turkish classical music to musical halls, arabesque which is a hybrid of different techniques and cultures, and Western pop and rock. These genres are eclectic mixtures of local, regional and universal musical genres; and they helped to improve an eclectic and cosmopolite structure in Turkish popular music. Since the early, Republican period, Westernization was always important for Turkish culture. Accordingly, the operettas, tangos, jazz works, rock’n roll covers were performed with the new approaches in this period. These genres were imitated to form a Turkish musical system. In that case, we can say that the actual conception for the Turkish popular music is to keep national identity but still to perform Western music[9]. Consequently, the genres during the 1960s had the aim of synthesis. Erol explains the struggle to mix the local music with the popular ones: “The ‘aesthetical’ elements of the international popular music industry can provide standards for the musicians in different countries or for the musicians who live in the same region with different styles. The musicians who demand to be famous worldwide can see superstars as an example. On the other hand, some of the musicians may decide to have a local or national career and create a mixture of these different elements. So, the different styles which are called syncretism or hybrid can be formed” [2]. The Western style works during the 1950s were intertwined with our own cultural experience in this period. The folk songs were performed with Western style instruments, both West and East instruments were used together, folk poems were composed in Western style and lyrics were written for West-oriented songs. These attempts served for the notion of synthesis. These forms and musical arrangements became much more mature during the 1970s, yet the 1960s are important to prepare the ground for this improvement thanks to Westernization attempts. It was pretty clear that the musicians in this period imitated the West in terms of lyrics and music, as we can conclude from their clothes and music choices. However, this kind of imitated works has a limited effect on the people. The lyrics and music needed to be adapted to fit the Turkish 27 200 culture. The notion of synthesis of Turkish lyrics with Western songs became a way to solve this. There are two main ways for this synthesis. First of them is “arranged-light music” and the other one is “Anatolian pop”. The songs which were performed in English, Italian, French or Spanish were arranged, the music and sound stayed the same but Turkish lyrics were written for them. Thanks to Turkish lyrics, the listeners in Turkey could adopt and like the songs much easier; it also helped popular music market to get stronger. Important figures like FecriEbcioğlu and Sezen Cumhur Önal pioneered this period with arrangements; and with their attempts, many singers preferred arrangements and the period was named after this movement [1]. It would not be impossible to say that the social movement experienced in the 60’s played an important role in the emergence of the concept holding together the social movements of the domestic and western elements within the music. In this context, it can be seen that in the 1960s, westernization, together with a nationalist understanding found its reflection in music [3]. It is important to remark that this political stance makes its presence felt in folk music and minstrelsy that embodies protesting features. Thus, the music of the 60s represents a group of people feeling drawn to the Western culture and in terms of both its lyrics and melody, it contains such themes as freedom, love and happiness of the individual. In this sense, when the political stance of this particular period is evaluated in terms of arrangement of music, it is observed that the nationalist stance of the period did not only build the nation’s own identity but also to performed its own music and it also called people for a westernized life style. Hence it is no surprise that a great majority of the performers were individuals from middle class, who felt themselves drawn to Western culture [1]. 4. Result There occurred significant changes in Turkey going hand in hand with the Westernization movement, which reached its peak in the early republican period and later on, though having much longer historical roots. Considered among the important tools to infuse the revolutions into the people, Music has been affected by this change and begun to be played in various formats. The direction of this change in the music is also the Western. Taking the Western methods and techniques as a reference has led such the formation of a number of duality as Eastern-Western, modern-traditional, monophonic-polyphonic, and alaturcaalafranca. The arrangements -musical arrangements -, one of the music types started to be played in this era of duality, has a similar view as well. Although the opinions with respect to that this playing forms shows a form of synthesis have been given place above, the ultimate outcome achieved within the scope of this study is that this music, especially the arrangements, is the fact presenting an eclectic view in reality. Because, superimposing the Turkish lyrics and Western melodies on each other is met with in these songs, rather than a word-music integration in the real sense. When it is approached in terms of music and identity, it can be claimed that the music (arrangement) of the period, which represents integration into Western culture, did not only appeal to middle class but also had a nationalist point of view. However, it is important to remark that the notion of nationalism here made its presence felt in terms of only performing Western songs in Turkish, which was caused by the aim of gaining appreciation of a larger group, with a more market-oriented point of view. References [1] A. Akkaya, F. Çelik, Aranjmandan Anadolu popa Türkiye’de 1960’lı- 70’li yıllar, in 60’lardan 70’lere 45’lik şarkılar, BGST Press, 2006. [2] A. Erol, Bir dönemin popüler müzik ikonu olarak Zeki Müren, in biyografya 3: Zeki Müren, ed. Ayşegül Yarman, Bağlam Press, 2002. [3] B. Yıldız, F.Çelik, Türkiye’de popüler müzik ve kadın(1960-1980), in 60’lardan 70’lere 45’lik şarkılar, BGST Press, 2006. [4] C. Behar, Musıkiden Müziğe Osmanlı/Türk müziği: gelenek ve modernlik (makaleler-kaynaklarmetinler), Yapı Kredi Press, 2005. 28 201 [5] C. Metin, Emperyalist çağda modernleşme Türk modernleşmesi ve İran (1800-1941), Phoenix Press, 2012. [6] C. Tanrıkorur, Müzik, kültür, dil, Dergah Press, 2009. [7] E. Kongar, Toplumsal değişme ve Türkiye gerçeği, Remzi Press, 2008. [8] K. Erguner, Ayrılık çeşmesi, İletişim Press, 2010. [9] M. Stokes, Aşk cumhuriyeti Türk popüler müziğinde kültürel mahrem, Koç University Press, 2012. [10] R. Uslu, Müzik terimlerindeki karmaşanın akademik çalışmalara yansıması: orijinal, nazire, çeşitleme, varyant, aranjman, cover, icra, 2012. İDİL Journal of Art and Language, Volume:1, Number:2, 144-165. [11] Ş. Durgun, Türkiye’de devletçi gelenek ve müzik, Alter Press, 2005. [12] Z. Gökalp, Türkçülüğün esasları, Gençlik Kitabevi Press, 2012. 29 202 Love in Popular Music: Sezen Aksu Example Serra Sezgin Ankara University, Department of Journalism Abstract. This study examines Sezen Aksu’s songs which are about love in order to understand how love has been represented in these songs and whether they are different from other love narratives in popular culture. In order to understand this, since 1977, 226 songs of Sezen Aksu from 22 albums are examined with discourse analysis. It is found out that these songs define and represent love concept in a different way than other popular love narratives. Sezen Aksu’s love songs portray love as a source for hope, inclusive and superior than the material world. These songs generate an alternative love discourse to the mainstream love narratives. In this study it is explained what kind of discourse has been adopted in these songs, in which levels they differentiate from mainstream discourse and whether they associate with other love narratives. Keywords: Love, music, popular culture 1. Introduction Music, as one of the ways to transfer emotions and thoughts, functions like a bridge between its creator and the audience. The music we are listening to transfers various emotions to us. From this perspective, considering music as a medium, it is expected that the audience and listeners are effected in a sense. Thus, this study aims to understand what kind of messages given by songs to their audience. Songs are mostly related to an ultimate emotion, love. Lyrics are mostly about love for a reason and people embrace to music when they fall in love, when they become sick of love, get tired of love or hurt by love. Therefore, that would not be wrong to state that music and love have a deep and special relationship. The reason might be the inadequacy of the words when it comes to narrate love but with music, another language becomes possible or maybe it is because love and music both are strong and creative. Either way the relationship between love and music seems outstanding. On the other hand, since both love and music reflect the cultural and emotional atmosphere that they have been formed, they seem like evolving into anger and violence. In order to observe this assumption, Sezen Aksu’s songs have been examined within this study. Sezen Aksu, as a famous Turkish pop singer and a songwriter, testified various phases of Turkey and Turkish music’s socio-political and cultural transformations. The love she has been telling since 80s has a discursive consistency. For these reasons, this study examines Sezen Aksu’s songs’ lyrics which are about love, with discourse analysis. Thus, 226 love songs’ lyrics from 22 albums beginning from her first album that released in 1977 until today have been analyzed in order to find out how love has been told and defined in these songs and whether it is different from other popular love songs of today. 2. The celebration of love In Sezen Aksu’s lyrics, love has always been generated within a positive discourse. Love is 30 usually described as a source of hope and an element of creativity. In other words, it is hard to find out a negative attitude such as hate or spite towards love in these songs. Instead, love narratives are built in a festival alike concept, described as something needs to be celebrated with dancing and singing. Sezen Aksu often invites the audience to celebrate love either after a breakup or while beginning for a new journey of love. This celebration of love, positions it as a rare and supreme feeling. The same positive and constructive approach is also a subject for the beloved ones. Although the songs include disagreements, separations or complaint, the beloved ones never pictured as enemies or people that should be hated. Many times Sezen Aksu mentions that partners may stay as friends even though they broke up. Likewise, romantic heartbreaks are not underestimated but they positioned as a temporary sadness and they are never seen as an obstacle to fall in love again. In other words, in love narratives, which do not have any happy endings, the suffering described as a temporary phase and a hopeful discourse about new beginnings is adopted mostly. In short, it is analyzed that there is a positive, constructive discourse for both love and the loved ones which is not common in love narratives in popular media including Turkish popular music. In Turkey, popular music produce love narratives within a destructive discourse including violence and anger, like it is with magazines or TV serials. In this context, Sezen Aksu’s love songs are conducted in a constructive and positive discourse unlike the mainstream love narratives. In these songs love described with hope and celebration and as a phenomenon that makes life valuable with all of its joy, happiness, sadness, pain, betrayals or loneliness. In addition, Sezen Aksu’s love songs are also differentiate from mainstream love discourse by not assimilating commoditized love narratives. In these songs love is supreme than commodities, money and it is represented as a way to deal with the world’s or life’s struggles and negativity also described as a tool to investigate the world or life itself. Love gives the meaning of life according to these songs. On the one hand this discourse is different from popular love narratives. On the other hand it resembles to Sufistic love narratives in this context. Mevlana positions love in the center of universe and says that the ultimate reason for god to create the universe is love. Mevlana also mentions that love is all through the world’s main veins. In order to this perspective, love is the core of the world [4]. Thus, love songs of Sezen Aksu resembles Sufistic love narratives by positioning love in the center of life and the world and comprehending the world by not commodities but love. Similarly, in these songs love is not considered as a one-time opportunity or deliberated for one unique partner. Instead, it is a continuous process and love is always possible anytime for anyone. This means, the important thing defined here is not the loved one but the love itself. This picture of love is also resembles Sufistic love narratives. The album of Aksu named “Işık Doğudan Yükselir/Light Rises from the East” released in 1995 consists of poems of Sufists like Mevlana, Yunus Emre and Aşık Daimi, sets an example for this resemblance. 3. Songs for the beloved one The love songs of Sezen Aksu are also differentiate itself from mainstream discourses by the narratives of beloved ones. The general attitude towards love, the compassion, positive and constructive approach is also continues when it comes to loved ones. Although the separation from beloved ones includes complaint; hatred never comes to the scene. For example in one of her old songs, named “içime sinmiyor” from 1978, Aksu wishes happiness to her lover, that she couldn’t be together, with another person. In her songs, past/old partners are not mentioned as they are dead or unimportant. The emotions like anger or disappointment are generally directed to destiny, the norms but not to a person. This is another point for these songs that differentiated them from mainstream love discourse. It is found that, in these songs, the concepts disturb the purity and sanctity of love are, lies and the loved ones’ alienation. Telling lies to the beloved one represented as the first reason for the end of romantic relationship and it is externalized from love. The loved ones’ becoming someone else, alienation to his/her personal- 31 ity is the second main subject described as undesirable. The expectation from beloved one is nothing physical or material, it is just honesty. ones and love has a meaning more than just being in love with someone; past lovers are not seen as worthless individuals. Also consistent with the hopeful discourse, this prevents to get obsessed with a person or a moment. 4. Melodic melancholy While Sezen Aksu was singing about love, she didn’t just mention the bright side of love but also the sadness and sorrow. There is a large room in these songs for separation, pain and complaints but despite the other popular love narratives, these feelings do not led to violence and/or destruction. This melancholia and sadness do not respond by hatred, revenge or grudge. At this point, anger is generally turned into the self, mistakes are looked for nowhere else but in the self and this recalls Freud’s theory of pleasure and death instincts. In order to this theory, suppressing destructive emotions moves the individual’s death instincts and causes a deep sadness and a wish for death. In other words, the more a person suppresses his/her offensive tendency, the more he/she becomes more tyrant to his/her self. That means when someone tries to take control of his/her superego and suppresses it, offensive tendency turns into the self. When this reached to extreme levels, it turns into melancholia and a wish for death [2]. On the one hand, it is possible to understand Sezen Aksu’s songs with Freud’s aforementioned theory. Melancholia and the anger directed to self in these songs may be evaluated with Freud. On the other hand, the suffering of love is portrayed as a temporary sadness and not an obstacle for falling in love again. This discourse on love aims to give hope to the audience, explaining this suffering as temporary while not underestimating it. In short, while emphasizing the reality and importance of love, emotions like yearning and sadness portrayed as temporary phases and both beloved ones and love itself is defined within a hopeful and encouraging discourse. 5. Evaluation From a wider perspective, in her love songs, Sezen Aksu narrates love as something should be embraced with all of its characteristics, including the suffering. Additionally, since the love itself is defined superior than the loved Besides the representation of love excluded from material world, superior than other things and the melancholia emerged from the anger turned into the self, the concept of love in Sezen Aksu’s songs are also parallel with 19th century love narratives, like it is with Sufistic love narratives. Presenting love as superior than other values, emphasizing the importance of honesty, presenting the death for love as sacred and desirable are the common grounds for 19th century love narratives and Sezen Aksu’s songs. In order to set an example for this resemblance, Goethe or Shakespeare might be remembered. For instance, Romeo and Juliet, killed themselves since they weren’t able to be together because of their families’ hostility or Werther, preferred to sacrifice his life instead of make his love Charlotte, who was married to someone else, feel anxious. In both examples, death represents an ultimate cure for love, like in Sezen Aksu’s love songs, death is preferable to a life without love or breaking beloved one’s heart. Apart from these, it should be stated that Sezen Aksu, especially with her album “Işık Doğudan Yükselir/Light Rises from the East”, included feminist narratives and ethnic discussions. Martin Stokes’ book Aşk Cumhuriyeti/The Republic of Love (2012) explains the subject in detail. As Stokes mentioned, it is possible to interpret some of the songs in this album as feminist bildungsromans [3]. On the one hand, emphasizing ethnicity and the social pressures/norms women face with, is important also from the perspective of love; since love wouldn’t be possible without equality. At the same time this shows Sezen Aksu’s effort in order to establish the embracing, unifying discourse of love in practice. On the other hand, Sezen Aksu generates a love discourse in the context of free love by an egalitarian and emancipatory discourse. Since in these songs, lovers are not shaped in an ownership relation and sexual love has included within erotic connotations, it can be said that the discourse of love have been constructed within a free love context. Although sometimes 32 being in love suggested as a captivity of emotions, it is clearly expressed that being in love does not mean to be captivated by the loved one. In other words, beloved ones are not described in a relationship based on ownership whereas the love itself is described as a capturer, captivator. To set each other free for lovers, it is important in respect to consolidate the discourse of free love. Sezen Aksu reinforces this analysis by both criticizing the mainstream love narratives which materialize and consume love and by reproducing free love discourse. It is valuable to produce the discourse of free love instead of popular love narratives that severely love from its egalitarian and emancipatory discourse. Love’s emancipatory potential are detached day by day in this capitalist socioeconomic system in which emotions are commercialized like products. In this context, Aksu underlines love’s emancipatory and revolutionary potential and establishes an alternative discourse around this. It is necessary to point out another findings, for instance, the nostalgia, the aspiration for the past and previous romantic relationships are significant. In this context, Sezen Aksu is in a complex relationship with the time concept. Time is represented as both a source of healing and as a negative concept for taking out years, experiences and love away from us. The second significant point is about the invitation for the audience. Sezen Aksu usually invites the audience or the loved one to love, to escape, to have fun or to grieve. This invitation is coherent and senseful since the fear of loneliness is mentioned often in the songs. 6. Conclusion One of the approaches that criticize popular culture defines it as “mass culture” and underlines its repetitive, standardized nature and narcotizing function of popular culture products. On the other hand, there is another approach that based on defining popular culture as an area where hegemonic and alternative discourses collide and see popular culture products as people's’ daily lives’ products. This approach is basically critical in a more positive sense since popular culture defined also as a way of resistance. One of the representatives of this approach, Erol Mutlu, mentioned that popular cul- ture is not completely conservative and narcotizing but also not completely progressive or emancipatory. According to him, popular culture is a field where hegemonic and opponent discourses come over against each other, struggle and transform each other [1]. In other words, popular culture is an arena for battle. Thus, popular culture products are not simply tools for manipulation but they allow us to have pleasure which civilization and its norms had banned or suppressed. In addition, popular may be thought as a field for resistance and revolution considering its nostalgic subjects, celebratory qualities with also its connection to sociologic transformations. This study has supportive results for Erol Mutlu’s approach to popular culture. Since Sezen Aksu’s love songs portray love as a source of hope, embracing and superior than the material world, they can be considered as an alternative love discourse to the mainstream love narratives. The love narrative in these songs coincides with 19th century and Sufistic love narratives instead of mainstream love discourse. Then, they are important for the reason that establishing an alternative discourse inside from popular scene and this can be considered as a step towards transforming the popular into a revolutionary field. This might be a small step but in addition to love transforming into an industry, today love is considered as an excuse or extenuating circumstance for murders. Then there is probably a more important problem than not being able to love; which is interpreting love as something that is against to and presenting it as an excuse for violence and hatred. Although love is related to these feelings in different ways, love can’t be the source or an excuse for oppression or revenge. The products of popular culture like music, TV serials and films have a reasonable role in this misinterpretation. Sezen Aksu’s love songs on the other hand, seem important because they are generating an alternative discourse inside from and against this pool of discourse. This alternative discourse on love and compassion seems like the only way for humanity to be saved; since there is a lot that drives us to despair, it is not easy to fall in love and stay in love with someone or with the life itself. At this point Sezen Aksu’s love songs seem like offering a hand in order not to lose hope, and love despitefully. 33 References [1] E. Mutlu, Popüler Kültürü Eleştirmek, in: Doğu Batı Düşünce Dergisi 15 (2001), 11-44, p.42. [2] H. Marcuse, Eros ve Uygarlık/Eros and Civilization, translated by Aziz Yardımlı, İstanbul: İdea Yayınevi, 1998, p.76. [3] M. Stokes, The Republic of Love/Aşk Cumhuriyeti: Türk Popüler Müziğinde Kültürel Mahrem, translated by Hira Doğrul, İstanbul: Koç Yayınları, 2012. p.186. [4] S. Derin, Mevlana Celaleddin Rumi’nin Sevgi Anlayışı, in: Doğu Batı Düşünce Dergisi 26 (2004), 289-304, p. 291. 34 Raci Alkır’s Turkish Folk Music Cengiz ŞENGÜL Ataturk University Kazım Karabekir Faculty of Education Fine Arts Education Department Music Education Department csengul@atauni.edu.tr, csengul25@hotmail.com Abstract. From Erzurum Raci Alkır, The Pasha of Turkey folk songs and the master of Tatyan, has a rightful and important fame thanks to his performance and compilations in Turkish Folk Music. He introduced many songs which sound good such as ‘Dün Gece Yar Hanesinde Yastığım Bir Taş İdi, Seyreyle Güzel Kudreti Mevla Neler Eyler, Tutam Yar Elinden Tutam, Hani Yaylam Hani Senin Ezelin etc.’ to the society and took them out of Erzurum. Of course, his fame is not limited to his contribution to Turkish folk music. He also compiled 46 works to brought in repertory of Turkish National Broadcasting Company (TRT) both as a resource person and compiler. The type of songs called ‘Tatyan’ are the primary type of songs that people love listening by Raci Alkır’s voice and those songs brought him fame. It is a situation that has been considered as a tradition to call Raci Alkır as the master of ‘Tatyan’. by those who deal with this profession Although the songs called Tatyan in Musicological terms, the word has not been clarified both in terms of it’s etymology of and description among folk songs, it had fame as a form of folk song in Erzurum and it can also be encountered in some other cities. Keywords: Turkish Folk Music, Musicology, Raci Alkır. 1. Introduction 1.1. Raci Alkır’s life Raci Alkır was born in Yukarı Hasan-i Basri Mahallesi (Gâvurboğan Mah.) Kemal Bey Sokak No:2 Erzurum, 1933. His father’s name was Şefik and his mother’s name was Şadiye. Raci Alkır studied at Palandöken Primary School. After he spent some time in the primary school, his father decided him to work as an apprentice at a local tailor’s shop because of his love of music. He angeged with Miss Şükriye from Umudum Village in 1951 and they got married in Erzurum when he made his military service in 1954. The first of five children Abdulkadir was born in 1957, Kadriye was born in 1958, Şenay was born in 1960, Nesrin was born in 1965 and Vahit was born in 1969 [2]. 1.2. Social Environment and Business Life His father gave him as an apprentice to Beyoğlu tailor's workshop which was in Erzurum. He worked with his master, Ömer Arı for a while, after that he was hired by Sırrı Alkan, a colleague who opened a shop, as a worker. as He became a well-known tailor in Erzurum and in his neighborhood in short time. He joined the army to perform the military service in 1954. He made his military service in Samsun, İzmir, Dumlu (a village in Erzurum) and finally in the centre of Erzurum and he was disbanded in 1955. He continued doing his job during his military service and he opened a tailor’s workshop after he had been disbanded. Before military service he continued his job for a while with his art life by joining Folk Music Community which was established by Hulusi Seven and within the Erzurum Community House and Music Community under the direction of Faruk Kaleli. He met with TRT institution when TRT Erzurum Radio was opened and “Doğudan Sesler Korosu”(Voices from the East Choir) began to be broadcasted in 1961. He decided to give up working as a tailor because of his intensive musical life. Raci ALKIR won the trainee exam which was made by TRT Erzurum Radio in 1966 and he had his staff degree in 1971, then he began to work as a regular singer in the Turkish Folk Choir and he retired voluntarily in 1981 [2]. 35 1.3. Personality Raci Alkır is a beloved person in his family and neighborhood. He never leaves alone his family and his friends in their good and bad times. He is well-known for helping people generously both financially and spiritually. Having a good sense of humor has brought him an important fame. His surname was written as’ Albayrak’ wrongly in his primary school days, but it is seen as Alkış his recordings. Because of being a beloved person and his mastery in music, he’s been given the nicknames such as “Erzurum’s Pasha”, “Pasha of Folk Songs”, “Master of Tatyan”, “Türkü Pasha” and “Pasha”. He is called Pasha both by his friends and the musical society. He claims that these names were given him by people and they have been kept alive orally until today and he saw these names as a symbol of importance given to his music. 2. Raci Alkır’s art 2.1. The factors that prepared his being craftsman Raci Alkır’s interest in music began in his childhood. He states that he tried to listen and sing all the melodies he heard in his neighborhood and at school carefully. He also states that especially a religious group called Nakşibendi gathered in their house and during this meeting they performed Erzurum’s lyrics and these lyrics affected him very much. Being convenient to mysticism and epic songs, his voice tone has had an important role on his future and he began to use such lyrics much more. His first on stage experience was at primary school when he was ten years old. He sang a song named “Meşeli Dağlar Meşeli” which he learns from his elder sister in his neighborhood. Afterwards, he had been listening and memorizing the folk songs until he joined Erzurum Public House, Erzurum Folk Dances and Erzurum Folk Songs Tourism Community. Raci Alkır states that he memorized the songs and lyrics without writing them down 2.2. Erzurum public house – Erzurum folk dances and folk songs community Raci ALKIR began to Folk Music Choir which performed its activities within the Erzurum Public House in 1945s. In those years, the director of Erzurum Public House was İhsan Şafak and the chief of choir was Faruk Kaleli [6]. New formations began to appear as a result of closing of Erzurum Public Houses and the disappearing activities in these houses. One of those formations was Erzurum Folk Dances and Erzurum Folk Songs Community established in Erzurum in 1954 [8]. Turkish Folk Music Choir was established by the management of Hulusi Seven with the advice of Faruk Kaleli. “O Maral Bakışın” was the first single Folk Song that he sang with the Community Choir. He learned it from Zeki Orhan in Erzurum. Alkır mentioned that he sang this song at the 12th March Independence Festival which was held at Erzurum Public Education Center in 1956. He performed a song named “Atımı Bağladım Nar Ağacına” at the festival which was held as a part of the activities of community in 1958. Alkır made everyone talk about himself by his individual and Choir performance as a result of joining the activities from different parts of the country. Moreover, together with the master of brass instrument Suat Işıklı, he carried out his studies of Turkish Folk Music Choir within Erzurum Public Education Center. 2.3. The years in Erzurum TRT radio Erzurum Turkish Folk Songs Choir within Erzurum Folk Dances and Folk Songs Tourism Community usually performed at the 12 March Festival which is the independence date of city, and at the special days organized by the governorship until 1960. TRT Erzurum Radio began to work with the order of President Cemal Gürsel and it provided a facility to the Choir thanks to its short signal broadcasting. Thence, Erzurum Folk Dances, Folk Songs Community and Turkish Folk Songs Choir created an impression around the country. With the broadcasting, the Choir of the community took the name of “Doğudan Sesler Korosu” and it began to broadcast not only Erzurum folk songs, but also it broadcasted the songs belong to Easter Anatolian Region [7]. 36 Raci Alkır performed the song named “Baba Bugün Dağda Duman Yeri Var” in his first radio Broadcasting. He sang many folk songs from the region of Erzurum, Kars, Artvin, Elazığ, Diyarbakır and Malatya repeatedly. Hulusi Seven was directing Folk Music Choir on the radio in those days. Suat Işıklı and Seyfettin Sığmaz were also the chiefs of choir for a short time. Raci Alkır won the trainee exam which was made by TRT Erzurum Radio in 1966 and he had his staff degree in 1971, then he began to work as a regular performer in the Turkish Folk Choir and he sang his compilation named “Dün Gece Yar Hanesinde” in the exam. He had an opportunity to meet with masters such as Nida Tüfekçi, Mustafa Geceyatmaz, Talip Özkan and Ateş Köyoğlu after he entered TRT Institution. He performed music forms such as lyric, eulogy successfully and he had admiration of people all around the country. He retired from TRT by his own will in 1981. He has contributed to TRT repertory with nearly 50 of his compilations and he’s still working on new compilations. Many songs that he wrote became famous around the country and they have been performed by hundreds of singers. Besides the songs he himself, he has also performed many folk songs from many regions of the country successfully and has set an example for young generations. After he retired, he continued the concerts which he began during the years in which TRT had the monochrome broadcasting. The documentaries that show Raci Alkır’s life are as an example of his contribution to Turkish cultural life. Raci Alkır took part in broadcastings about March, The Independence date of 12 Erzurum, together with Erzurum Folk Dances Community in 1950s. He met with Muzaffer Sarısözen in these programs. Since he was concerned about the future of the Erzurum Radio, he refused both Muzaffer Sarısözen’s offer in those days and the offer of Turgut Özakman, the manager of TRT, for him to work for Ankara or Istanbul Radio. This devoted behavior has been told gladly by his collogues in Erzurum Radio all the time. th Alkır contributed to the radio and tv programs successfully which were organized by TRT. Besides there are 7 records, 2 CDs and 1 cassette. Raci Alkır practiced his works to record in 1965s. He remembers 6 names of 7 records. He sang the following Folk songs in the records he did in those days: Hellocan, Palandöken Dağları, Aşkın Ezeli, Dün Gece Yar Hanesinde, Köylü Kızı, Bana Gül Gönderen Yar, Kadem Bastı, Dağlarda Çiçek, Almayanı (UH), Uzun Avluda Kapılar, O Revanın Ak Yokuşu. Alkır recorded a cassette named “Anılar” in 1996. Ministry of Culture and Tourism organized two divine CDs named Raci Alkır in 2002 and Raci Alkır Divine Songs in 2006. Thanks to this, he introduced the folk songs composed from his own compilations to his fans [2]. Raci Alkır died in Erzurum on the 16th of December 2011. 3. Raci Alkır’s contribution to Turkish folk music in terms of being a resource person and his compiler side In this part, it is stated his contribution to Turkish Folk Music and the identities of his works as a result of the interview made with him. 46 Folk songs were examined in this part. 37 of these songs were examined with the title of rhythmic vocal melodies (Kırık Havalar) and 9 of them free rhythmic vocal melodies (Uzun Havalar). 3.1. Rhythmic vocal melodies (Folk Songs with a regular tempo-Also called Broken Air) 3.1.1. Aşığam Ben Sana. Erzurum region, Raci Alkır says that this song was based on anonymous music and lyrics and he compiled them by listening lyrics in Erzurum in 1950s. 3.1.2. “Atımı Bağladım Nar Ağacına”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır heard and composed this work the lyric and music of which is anonymous, in 1955. However, he could not remember from where and whom he heard it. 3.1.3. “Aya Bak Nice Gider (Karakız)”. Raci Alkır listened and composed this song from Sebahattin Altınok who sold shirts in Erzurum, when he worked as a tailor. He could remember only the first stanza and he wrote the lyric himself. Mustafa Hoşsu wrote it down 37 and provided this song to TRT repertory in 1973. and music are anonymous after listening to it from Selahattin Erorhan in 1970s. 3.1.4. “Bade-i Lebinden Nuş Eden Âşık”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır listened and composed this song based on the lyrics of a prominent lyricist Hafız Hakkıoğlu. Its music is anonymous and its lyric belongs to Excellency İbrahim Hakkı from Erzurum. 3.1.13. “Dün Gece Yar Hanesinde Yastığım Bir Taş İdi (Tatyan)” This folk song is one of the most important works that made Raci Alkır famous and known by the public as a performer. He first listened to this Tatyan style folk song from İhsan Öz from Erzurum and compiled it. In the later years as he couldnt remember the lyrics apart from first verse he compiled it again by adding lyrics to the second verse which belonged to Haydar Telhüner known as “Kemani” and by adding lyrics to the third verse which belonged to his father Şefik Alkır. In 1971 Nida Tüfekçi brought this work to TRT repertoire whose music is anonymous. 3.1.5. “Beni Sorma Bana”. Erzurum region. This divine song the lyrics of which belongs to Yunus Emre and the music is anonymous, was learned and composed by Raci Alkır during the meeting at his father Şefik Alkır’s home. 3.1.6. “Bir Bostan Ektim Pazı”. İspir region in Erzurum. Raci Alkır said that he listened and learned this song the lyric and music of which are anonymous, in İspir from Nusret Ayık in 1962. In the following years he sang it as the composed form on Erzurum Radio. 3.1.7. “Bu Abdal Postudur”. Erzurum Region. Raci Alkır composed this song whose lyric belongs to İrşadi Baba and music is anonymous, by listening Erzurum’s lyric tellers in 1950s. 3.1.14. “Erzurum Kilidi Mülk-i İslamın”. Raci Alkır compiled this folk song whose lyrics belong to Muhammed Lutfî Efendi and music is anonymous and whose region is Erzurum, after listening to it from Gazelhans from Erzurum in 1950s. In 1983 Mehmet Özbek brought this work to TRT repertoire by notating it. 3.1.8. “Bu Yol Erzurum Yolu”. Raci Alkır first listened and compiled this folk song, whose lyrics and music are anonymous and whose region is Erzurum, from Cevat Sağıroğlu who was a jeweler in Erzurum in 1960s. 3.1.15. “Erzurum’un Dağları Görünmez Oldu”. Raci Alkır says that he compiled this work whose lyrics and music are anonymous after listening to it from Kemani Haydar Telhüner in 1960s. 3.1.9. “Burç Üstüne Bayrakları Kurdular (Tatyan)”. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this folk song, whose lyrics belong to Âşık Ömer and music is anonymous and whose region is Erzurum, in 1950s. 3.1.10. “Bülbül Bağa Girip Yapmış Yuvayı (Tatyan)”. This Tatyan folk song’s lyrics and music are anonymous and it belongs to Erzurum region. Raci Alkır cant remember where or from whom he heard this song and when he compiled it. Ateş Köyoğlu notated it and brought it to his repertoire in 1985. 3.1.16. “Gel Ey Hanım”. Raci Alkır met an Azeri traveller while travelling to Istanbul by train in 1965. During the conversation Alkır asked Azeri traveller if there was any Azeri song that he knew and Azeri citizen murmured a lyric such as “Menim Balam Paşmahlarım (Ayakkabı) Tehdedir”. The citizen couldn’t remember the rest of the song so Alkır wrote lyrics there and compiled this folk song. 3.1.11. “Can Bula Cananını”. Raci Alkır compiled this folk song whose lyrics belong to Muhammed Lutfî Efendi and music is anonymous and whose region is Erzurum, after listening to it from Gazelhans from Erzurum in 1950s. In 1983 Nida Tüfekçi brought this work to TRT repertoire by notating it. 3.1.12. “Dertli Doğdum Ben Anamdan”. According to the information that Raci Alkır gave us he compiled this work whose lyrics 3.1.17. “Giden Ay Tutulurmu”. Ankara region. Raci Alkır who took part in Ankara Radyosu Yurttan Sesler Korosu due to Erzurum’s liberation in 12th March, listened to it from Orhan Subay, a sedge performer, and compiled it in 1961. 3.1.18. “Hakk’a Teslim Olmuşam”. Raci Alkır compiled this work whose lyrics and music are anonymous in 1950s after listening to it from Gazelhans. 3.1.19. “Hakk’ın Kapısında Hakk’ın Aslanı”. Raci Alkır compiled this work whose lyrics 38 and music are anonymous in 1950s after listening to it from Gazelhans from Erzurum. anonymous whose lyrics belong to Celal Güzel. 3.1.20. “Hani Yaylam Hani Senin Ezelin”. In 1960s there was a theatre show of Erzurum Folk Dances and Folk Songs Association in the salon of Public Education Center. In one of the parts of the play an anonymous melody known as “Gelin Çıkarma Havası” in Erzurum was played accompanied by clarinet and tambourine. Sebahattin Bulut who was the director of the play gave a poem to Raci Alkır and wanted him to read the lyrics with the melody. Raci Alkır assembles the poem “Hani Yaylam Hani Senin Ezelin” and “Gelin Çıkarma Havası” and folk song. 3.1.27. “Moğorçur Deresi (Tortum Halayı)”. Raci Alkır listened to this song whose lyrics and music were anonymous and compiled it after he heard this folk song from Neşet Güner -scrivener- from Tortum district of Erzurum in 1965. 3.1.21. “Hz. Ali Methiyesi”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır compiled this work with the anonymous music and lyrics in 1950s after listening to it from his father Şefik Bey in dervish conference. 3.1.22. “İndim Derede Durdum”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this work whose lyrics and music are anonymous in 1962 from Ali Balkır from “Doğudan Sesler Korosu”. 3.1.23. “Kadem Bastı Gönül Tahtı”. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this work after listening to it from Gazelhans from Erzurum in dervish conferences. Lyrics belong to Hüseyin Efendi Muhammed Lutfî Efendi’s father-known as Gedâî. In 1971 Nida Tüfekçi brought this work to TRT repertoire whose music is anonymous. 3.1.24. “Kapıda Kavun Yerler”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this work whose lyrics and music are anonymous in 1962 from a friend of his whose name was Kemal Bey. 3.1.25. “Kayalar Buz Bağlamış”. Raci Alkır goes to visit his married elder sister in Yenice village in the Kaman district of Kırşehir in 1945. As his brother in law was a soldier that time Alkır stays there for a year at the age of 13. In a wedding ceremony while they were showing the bride around he hears this folk dance and compiles it. In 1984 Erkan Sürmen brought this work to TRT repertoire whose lyrics and music are anonymous by notating it. 3.1.26. “Maşın Gelir Haralı”. Raci Alkır listened to this folk song which belong to Kars Region during his participation to the festivals of Kars liberation from Celal Güzel from Kars and compiled it. The music of this song is 3.1.28. “Narman Kazasında Bir Gelin Gördüm”. Raci Alkır who participated in the festivals of Narman’s liberation in 1960, listened to this folk song from Zeki Dilek, Narman’s mayor, and Nazım Karabulut, Oltu mayor, and compiled it. The music of this song is anonymous whose lyrics belong to Sümmani Baba. 3.1.29. “Nefis Sen Ölmezmisin”. Raci Alkır listened to this song whose lyrics and music were anonymous and compiled it in 1970s. It is one of the works that he couldn’t remember where, when and from whom he heard this song. In 1992 Lütfü Ortakale brought this work to TRT repertoire by notating it. 3.1.30. “Semadan Sırrı Tevhid-i”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır compiled this folk song whose lyrics belonged to Kadiri İmam Nuri Efendi and music was anonymous, from Bakırcı İbrahim Efendi in 1950s. 3.1.31. “Semaverim Fıkkıldar”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this work whose lyrics and music are anonymous in 1953 from Aliye Akkılıç. 3.1.32. “Seni Her Nerede Görsem”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this work whose lyrics and music are anonymous in 1960s from Kemani Haydar Telhüner. 3.1.33. “Seyreyle Güzel”. We told earlier that as Gazelhans didnt have much knowledge about music, they put different poems and the same music together and they sang it. In these dervish conferences, gazelhans sometimes sang lyrics that belonged to Muhammed Lutfî Efendi and sometimes sang lyrics that belonged to Kuddûsî Baba with a known music. Raci Alkır was able to memorize many melodies in the form of hymns and gazels which were sang during the meetings of Naqshbandi Tariqa that he participated during his childhood with his father. However as he didn’t have the chance to record the 39 performances at that time, he tried to sing these folks songs without remembering the owners of the lyrics and melodies. As a result of these statements, lyrics of Muhammed Lutfî Efendi [3] formed the first verse of the folk song “Seyreyle Güzel”and lyrics from Kuddûsî Baba [1] formed the second verse of the folk song. While singing this song people didn’t question whom it originally belonged and people know the lyrics that took part in TRT repertoire and that was notated by Mehmet Özbek in 1983 after listening it from Raci Alkır. 3.1.34. “Su Kasidesi”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this work whose lyrics belonged to İbrahim Hakkı Hazretleri and music are anonymous from Hakkı İbrahim Hakkıoğlu,grandchild of İbrahim Hakkı Hazretleri in 1966. 3.1.35. “Sultan Süleymana Kalmayan Dünya”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this work whose lyrics belonged to Karacaoğlan and music was anonymous from Gazelhans from Erzurum in 1950s. 3.1.36. “Tutam Yar Elinden Tutam”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır heard this folk song whose lyrics belonged to Erzurumlu Emrah and whose music was anonymous in a wedding ceremony from musician Ağa Dede Keskin who played clarion and from İlhami Uslu who played drums in 1975. In order to learn these songs he invited Ağa Dede Keskin to dinner and made him sing this folk song several times and he compiled it by giving it its latest form. In time this song spreads to large masses as his and people’s around him singing this song. Nida Tüfekçi brought this work to TRT repertoire by notating it. 3.1.37. “Vardım Eşiğine Yüzümü Sürdüm (Tatyan)”. When he read a poem written on a calendar page by Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı for a wrecked mosque in 1965, Raci Alkır was deeply impressed and he put the lyrics and a melody he remembered together. Alkır says that it would be truer to take it as anonymous as he put the melodies he remembered and lyrics together. He presented a number of good examples for the folk songs in Tatyan style. “Vardım Eşiğine Yüzümü Sürdüm” is one of the songs performed in tatyan style and became famous with the voice of Raci Alkır. In 1971, this work was notated by Nida Tüfekçi and brought to the TRT repertoire in 1978. “Vardım Eşiğine Yüzümü Sürdüm” which also takes place in the book of Salih Turhan, has a Sivas Region variation whose lyrics belong to Rıza Tevfik Bölükbaşı, taken from Feryadı Hafız Hakkı Bey, compiled by Rıfat Kaya. (Turhan, 2007:58). 3.2. Vocal Melodies With Free Rhtythm 3.2.1. “Benim Ahım Zalimlere Kalmasın”. In the play named “Dadaşın Aşkı” organised by public education center in 1956, journalist and writer Hikmet Barlıoğlu gave the lyrics of this unmetered folk song to Raci Alkır and in a part of this play Alkır sings this folk song with music which he transcribed fort his song. 3.2.2. “Bi Hürmeti Ya Rab”. Erzurum region. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this work whose lyrics belonged to Muhammed Lutfî Efendi and music was anonymous from Gazelhans from Erzurum in 1950. 3.2.3. “Bingöl Bugün Dumandır”. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this unmetered folk song whose lyrics and music were anonymous and which was registered in TRT repertoire, from Hınıslı Necati Kapucu in 1965. 3.2.4. “Bir Havar Eyleyin Elden Ellere”. This is a folk song in free tempo from Erzurum and the lyrics belong to Muhammed Lutfî Efendi and it is registered in TRT repertoires. Raci Alkır listened to this song from Gazelhan Hafız Dursun Hakkıoğlu during dervish conferences in 1950s and compiled it. 3.2.5. “Göç Göç Oldu Göçler yola Düzüldi”. This song, registered at TRT repertoire, became famous with the voice of Raci Alkır. Its region is Erzurum and its lyrics and music are anonymous. Raci Alkır listened to this song from Hakkı Bey whom he met in an invitation in 1965 and compiled it. 3.2.6. “Havayıda Deli Gönül Havayı”. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this unmetered folk song whose lyrics and music were anonymous and which was registered in TRT repertoire, from Selami Nevruzoğlu whom he met in a wedding in Mördülük Village in Erzurum in 1960. 3.2.7. “Hozan Dağlar Daşlıdır”. Raci Alkır listened and compiled this unmetered folk song from Muharrem Hakkıoğlu in a wedding in 1948. 40 The instrumental part of this song in which there is a stringed instrument part without lyrics is called “Dadaş Dinlendirme Havası”. Salih Turhan brought the unmetered folk song named “Hozan Dağlar Daşlıdır” to TRT repertoire and Suat Işıklı brought the instrumental part called “Dadaş Dinlendirme Havası” to the repertoire. 3.2.8. “Sakın Terki Edeptendir”. Raci Alkır heard this song whose region is Erzurum, lyrics belong to Seyis Nabi and music is anonymous from Gazelhan Hafız Dursun Hakkıoğlu in dervish conference in 1950s and compiled it. 3.2.9. “Yine Bu Derd-i Derunum”. Raci Alkır heard this song whose region is Erzurum, lyrics belong to Muhammed Lutfî Efendi and music is anonymous from Gazelhans in 1950s and compiled it. Hüseyin Yaltırık who notated this unmetered folk song, formed in hymn style, in 2003. And this song also takes place in the book “Tasavvufî Halk Müziği” published by TRT [4]. References [1] A. Doğan, Kuddûsî Divanı, Ankara: Akçağ Press, 2002. [2] C. Şengül, Erzurumlu Raci Alkır (His life and Works), Erzurum: Eser Offset, 2010. [3] H. M. Lutfî (Müellif), Hulâsatü’l-Hakayık ve Mektûbat-ı Hâce Muhammed Lutfî, İstanbul: Efe Hazretleri Foundation, Damla Press (Press Council: Hüseyin Kutlu, Hasan Mazlumoğlu and others.), 2006. [4] H. Yaltırık, Tasavvufî Halk Müziği, Ankara: TRT Publishing’s, 2003. [5] S. Turhan, Tatyan Havaları, İstanbul: Ötüken Publications, 2007. [6] S. Bulut, Erzurum Folk Dance from Generation to Generation, Ankara: Retired Offset, 1984. [7] S. Bulut, Erzurum Çarşı Pazar, Ankara: Demircioğlu Press, 1997. [8] S. Bulut, “Raci Alkır”, Erzurum Folk Songs, Erzurum: Ministers Media, 2001. 41 Melody characteristics of today’s minstrel (âşık) music Hasan Tahsin SÜMBÜLLÜ* * Atatürk University Fine Arts Faculty Department of Musical Sciences, Erzurum htsumbullu@yahoo.com Abstract. Several studies have been conducted on minstrels (âşıks: Turkish poet singers) up to date. However, majority of them are in the field of folk literature. Minstrels are poet singers reading poems they write spontaneously at the moment of reading accompanied with a musical instrument (bağlama; Turkish traditional string instrument) in their own melody patterns or those inherited from their masters or previous minstrels. Minstrels are generally brought up by a master minstrel and tend to be illiterate itinerants bearing an identity of public artisan. Minstrels express the sociologic, cultural, economic, political situation of the society they live in and psychology of society and feelings of people towards some large extended natural events or disasters (like quakes or wars) in a simple manner. In addition, minstrels function as carrier by performing anonymous melodies and folk songs (türkü) in their provinces. Turkish folk music (TFM) is fed by two main sources; Minstrels and folk song composers (anonymous or known people writing both words and melody of a folk song with a fiction mentioning fun or grieve caused by some events). Minstrels have greater shares and contributions to the formation of TFM repertory. However, there are terminological differences between conceptual knowledge of TFM and minstrels’ music. In the present study, it was aimed to determine such terminological problems and evaluate minstrels’ music living today in terms of work production, manner, melody types, tune, tones, performance manner, types, instrument, tempo and prosody. Keywords: Minstrel (Âşık), Folk Song (Türkü), Turkish Folk Music 1. Minstrel Several studies have been conducted on minstrels (Turkish poet singers) up to date. Minstrel as a term is defined in Arabic to be those occupying with love or falling in love i.e. lover [3], and in Turkish derived from light [1] entomologically whose heart burns with love and is enlightened by love [5]. In Turkic tribes minstrel term is nominated in different ways. “Altay Turks name Kam, Kırgız Turks Baksı (Bakşı), Yakutsks Oyun, Tonguz Şaman, Oghuz Turks Ozan [4]. Such nominal differences are caused by the situation differences of minstrels in the society. Minstrels are the cultural representatives of a nation. Until today the term minstrel has been replaced by other words like Saz Şairi (instrumental poet) [4], Ozan (poet) and Halk Şairi (folk poet) [6], Sazlı Ozan (instrumented poet), Çöğür Şairi (instrumented poet) [7]. Minstrels are often illiterate, cannot read and write they have never gone to school for education. They know playing instrument (saz; bağlama) they read their poems accompanied with instrument. Their most important characteristics is to read poems they write spontaneously at the time of speaking and unprepared [1]. This tradition is stated to date back to Dede Korkut (Korkut Ata; poetic ancestor of Turks) [2]. When considered their general characteristics, minstrels are poet singers reading poems they write spontaneously at the moment of reading accompanied with a musical instrument (bağlama; Turkish traditional string instrument) in their own melody patterns or those inherited from their masters or previous minstrels. Minstrels are generally brought up by a master minstrel and tend to be illiterate itinerants bearing an identity of public artisan. Minstrels express the sociologic, cultural, economic, political situation of the society they live in and psychology of society and feelings of people towards some large extended natural events or disasters (like quakes or wars) in a simple manner. In addition, minstrels function as carrier by performing anonymous melodies and folk songs (türkü) in their provinces. 2. Contributions of Minstrels to TFM Repertoire of TRT (Turkish Radio and Television Institution) TRT TFM Repertoire has 4461 anonymous folk songs. The number of repertoires is in- 42 creasing consistently by adding the works present in the past archive records and newly compiled ones in new repertories. Table 1 gives the contribution of minstrels to TFM repertory of TRT involving 4461anonymous folk songs as reference person. Table 1. TRT TFM Repertoire reference person /ratio Reference people Other people Provincial team Minstrels Anonymous Written from plaque Total f 4048 332 231 3 2 4616 % 87,69 7,19 5,00 0,06 0,04 100 Work rates of minstrels listed in TRT TFM Repertoire are given in Table 2. Table 2. Work rates of minstrels listed in TRT TFM Repertoire Minstrels Âşık Veysel Şatıroğlu Âşık Daimi (İsmail Aydın) Âşık Davut Sulari Âşık Dursun Cevlani Âşık Halil Söyler Âşık Veli Aydın 45 % Minstrels f % 19,5 Âşık Beyhani 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 1 0,4 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 1 1 1 1 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 1 0,4 22 9,5 15 6,5 11 4,8 10 9 4,3 3,9 Âşık Ali Tanburacı 8 3,5 Âşık Halil Yıldız 7 3 Âşık Musa Aslan 7 3 Âşık Nesimi Çimen 6 2,6 6 2,6 5 2,2 Âşık Ali İzzet Özkan 5 2,2 Âşık Ferrahi Âşık Şeref Taşlıova Âşık Ali Kızıltuğ Âşık Ali Âşık Ali Metin 4 4 3 2 2 1,7 1,7 1,3 0,9 0,9 Âşık Davut Telli 2 0,9 Âşık Fikret Ünal 2 0,9 Âşık Hasan Ayazma 2 0,9 Âşık İhsan 2 0,9 2 0,9 2 0,9 2 0,9 Âşık Nihani 2 0,9 Âşık Süleyman 2 0,9 Âşık Veli Erdem 2 0,9 Âşık Yanık Mehmet 2 0,9 Âşık Yaşar Reyhani Âşık Abdullah Gülhani Âşık Ahmet Başer Âşık Ahmet Bozdemir 2 0,9 1 0,4 1 0,4 Âşık Dertli Divani Âşık Efkâri Âşık Erol Ergani Âşık Gülhani Âşık Haydar Âşık Haydar Aslan Âşık Hazeri Âşık Hüseyin Aslan Âşık Hüseyin Çırakman Âşık Hüseyin / F.Karaduman Âşık İkrami Âşık İlyas Güldibi Âşık İmami Âşık İsmail Nar Âşık Kul Ahmet Âşık Meftuni Âşık Mehmet Âşık Mehmet Akça Âşık Naim Yıldırım Âşık Nuri Çırağı Âşık Nuri Şenlik Âşık Ömer Doğan Âşık Özlemi Âşık Pehlivan Dinkçi Âşık Sait Alioğlu Âşık Sefil Selimi Âşık Süleyman Elver Âşık Süleyman Fahri Âşık Şakir Âşık Veli Revani Âşık Veli Yaycı 1 0,4 Âşık Yasin Totally 66 minstrels contributed to TRT TFM Repertoire with 231 anonymous folk songs. Ratio of their contribution is 5% to TRT TFM Repertoire. This ratio is expected to be higher when the number of people who are not counted to be minstrel even though they come from this tradition and strain and contributed to TRT TFM repertoire with their works. Nevertheless, even if these people and their contribution are added to the table the ratio does not exceed quarter of the repertoire. In this respect, the contribution of minstrels to TRT TFM repertoire seems to be lower than expected. Âşık Sefai (Mehmet Acet) Âşık Mahsuni Şerif Among the contributors to TRT TFM Repertoire given in the table, the group “other people” includes other than minstrels are local and provincial people like Muharrem Ertaş, Hacı Taşan, Hisarlı Ahmet, Çekiç Ali, Neşet Ertaş who are already accepted to be minstrel and Celal Güzelses, Abdülvahit Küzecioğlu, Malatyalı Fahri, Faruk Kaleli who are reference people to Turkish Folk Music and Kadir İnanır, Hamit Çine, Talip Özkan, Soner Özbilen, Şemsi Yastıman, Abdurrahman Kızılay, Muharrem Akkuş, Nida Tüfekçi, Mehmet Özbek, Arif Sağ who are artisans. In addition, local people like Bebek İsmail from İmranlı, Sivas, Mevlide Kayhan from Boğazlıyan, Yozgat and Mehmet Ali Aydoğdu from Kınık Orhaneli Bursa contributed to compilation works. Âşık Mehmet Gülyüz Âşık Mehmet Temiz Âşık Mümin Meydani Such difference may be thought to be the reflection of the fact that the concept of minstrel is not clearly defined. Therefore, the concept of minstrel should be redefined and the criteria of being minstrel should be determined. f Total 1 0,4 231 100 Totally 231 anonymous folk songs were provided to TRT TFM Repertoire by 66 minstrels among whom Âşık Veysel Şatıroğlu contributed the most to the repertoire with the largest number of works (45 folk songs) followed by Âşık Daimi with 22 works, Âşık Davut Sulari with 15 works, Âşık Dursun Cevlani with 11 43 folk songs and Âşık Halil Söyler with 10 works. Distribution of anonymous folk songs given by minstrels to TRT TFM Repertoire according to their location is presented in Table 3. Table 3. Distribution of anonymous folk songs given by minstrels to TRT TFM Repertoire according to their location Location Sivas f % 72 31,2 Erzincan Kars Kahramanmaraş Tokat Amasya Manisa Location f % 38 16,5 Azerbaijan 19 8,2 Kastamonu 11 4,8 Rumeli 11 4,8 Sinop 9 3,9 Tunceli 7 3 Van 2 2 2 2 2 2 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,9 Şanlıurfa Erzurum Kırklareli Adana Kayseri Malatya 7 6 6 5 5 5 3 2,6 2,6 2,2 2,2 2,2 1 1 1 1 1 1 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 0,4 Çorum Middle Anatolia Ardahan 3 3 2 1,3 1,3 0,9 Total Aksaray Artvin Bilecik East Anatolia Kerkük Konya Northeast Anatolia Yozgat Unknown 1 0,4 1 0,4 2 0,9 231 100 It is seen when the distribution of 231 folk songs contributed by 66 minstrels to n TRT TFM Repertoire is considered according to their location that the largest amount of folk songs belong to Sivas province (with 72 works) followed by Erzincan with 38 folk songs, Kars with 19 folk songs, Kahramanmaraş and Tokat with 11 folk songs, Amasya with 9 works. 3. Melody characteristics of minstrel music 3.1. Production of works In traditional Minstrel concept, music and words are complementary parts of each other and it is impossible to think them discreetly. Minstrels can use masters’ or anonymous melodies and produce works based on composing. Sometimes minstrels may read their poems by adjusting the words to previous masters’ prepared melodies. Such melodies are called “giydirme” (fitted) melodies. For some minstrels, producing melody is not so important as producing words. Therefore, they do not often give priority to melody. For some minstrels, composing folk song is a requirement and so they produce different melodies. Even if words belong to other minstrels, they have and use their own melodies and they adopt composing approach. Musical product they produce is called composed folk song. Among their general characteristics, minstrels have the ability of reading spontaneously. In especially east and north east part of Turkey, minstrels have this ability most often. 3.2. Style In minstrel’s music, manner, style and ornaments may vary from person to person or between locations. Differences like Sümmani Ağzı (style), Azeri Ağzı can elaborate melody. Such a situation is caused by rich structure of folk music and cultural differences. The same manner differences can be seen in also folk music. Due to the differences in manner, tavır and style like Karadeniz (blacksea) folk songs, Aegean folk songs, some researchers prefer to use the statement of local Turkish music in place of Turkish folk music. 3.3. Melody types It is possible to categorize minstrel’s music according to its melodies as arrhythmic (uzun hava), rhythmic (kırk hava) and mixed (karma hava). In arrhythmic melodies, recitative reading is dominant. In such reading tradition, rhythm is free but melody patterns bear an inner harmony due to their verbal and wording structures. Minstrels generally perform the examples of this types. Rhythmic (Kırık havalar) include melodies created in convenience with rhythmic understanding. In majority, the types like Köroğlu and Güzelleme (compliment) may be in rhythmic (Kırık) category. Melodic categorisation of minstrel music has generally been completed. In Turkish Folk Music concept, such types are also divided into subcategories. Rhythmic types include Türkü, Zeybek, Barana Havaları, Güvendeler, arrhythmic; Baraklar, Bozlaklar, Mayalar, Hoyratlar and mixed types are Divan and Müstezat. There are conceptual differences between Turkish Folk Music and minstrel’s music. 3.4. Maqam (tune) In general, makam (tune) or style (hava) is used in the place of melody patterns. The concept of makam (tune) used by minstrels and named melody pattern (ezgi kalıbı) is absolutely different from that used in Turkish folk music. The number of makam (pattern melody) 44 named also like divan, koşma, yolüstü, atüstü, zarıncı, nigahi, kerem, yanık kerem, kesik kerem, Osmanlı divanisi is 157 in Kars province according to Karslı Âşık Şeref Taşlıova, 216 in again Kars province according to Fahrettin Kırzıoğlu, 116 in Azerbaijan according to Zeynelabidin Makas while 68 in Erzurum according to Çalmaşur. Melodies described to be makam (tune) are pattern melody generally in Hüseyni, Uşşak, Gülizar, Çargah, Karcığar, Kürdi, Segah, Hüzzam and Hicaz tunes. In place of makam (tune), the concepts given as follows are suggested; Hava (style), Seyir (trend), Ahenk (harmony), Ezgi Kalıbı (melody pattern; Kalıp Ezgi), Nağme Meydana Getirme (producing melody), Gezinme, Örgü Kalıbı, Özel Ezgi Dokusu (special melody tissue). Today some minstrels, like Bahri İlhan can produce their compositions in convenience with the makam (tune) approach in Turkish music. 3.5. Nuances It is not much possible in minstrel’s music to use nuance, which is an element to emphasize musical expression and defined by the terms speed and volume. Some examples of nuances may be piano (p-light), forte (f-volume), ritardando (rit.-slowing down in rhythm), accelerando (accel- speeding up in rhythm). Musical expression is not shown on notes in Turkish music. Performance is practised. It is a debated matter that in Turkish music, nuance terms are not shown on notes. Some researchers defend that these expressions should take place in western notation practice, which is the universal note writing system while others contradict this view since present situation can provide musician freedom and thus resulting in new comments and performances and is not written in the tradition. Even if in minstrel music, the use of musical expressions is seen in the practice of the work according to melody, minstrels do not such a thing consciously. In some minstrel styles (hava) like Köroğlu, nuances need to be used since such styles require using high volume voices due to the heroic content of the works. But in this instance, the mentioned situation continues throughout the work. Nuance terms shouldn’t be confused with each other when the changes in expression forms are seen. 3.6. Performance types Performance manner of minstrel music requires solo performance in many cases. Howev- er, there are also various performance manners in lines, face to face or collectively. 3.7. Lyrics types Structure of today’s minstrel music is based on the types performed conveniently with spelling resemblance. These types are ağıt (mourning), başayak, epopee, divan, lebdeğmez, duvak kapma, geraylı, güzelleme, hiciv (criticism), herbe zorba, hurufat, kalenderi, kıta, koçaklama, koşma, muamma, mühemmes (or muhammes), chess (satranç), selis, semai, tekellüm (or tekerleme), taşlama, tecnis, üstadname, varsağı, vezn-i aher, vücutname, yanıltma, and yıldız [8]. One of minstrel styles (hava) is deyiş (idiom; folk poem) sometimes staying out of traditional minstrel school in east and northeast Anatolia while in middle Anatolia seen more often from west to east like in Sivas, Tokat, Çorum, Malatya, Tunceli, Maraş, Muş and Erzincan. Deyiş is the general name of the melody performed with instrument, but among Alevi- Bektaşi Türkmens it should be considered as religious and sufi music with the same content. Performance of deyiş in bağlama design with accorded short – handled bağlama instrument makes the work stronger melodically. In addition, a new bağlama playing technique, called şelpe, using fingers is adapted to this type commonly. In the work, fa#, sol, la sounds are often used consecutively in decision or after suspended stops. Hüseyni, uşşak and hicaz maqams are mostly used in deyiş [8]. 3.8. Instruments Instrument used mostly by Minstrels is bağlama. The level of instrument playing skills among minstrels is not so high since the words are forefront. This level is higher in the areas where Alevi-Bektaşi tradition is more common. 3.9. Rhythmes Minstrels use Turkish music manners considering their own local characteristics. Among minstrels producing composed folk song different manners can be seen. For example, minstrels in Erzurum province use mostly the manners 4/4, 5/8 and 7/8 while in Kars and Azerbaijan minstrels use the manners 4/4, 6/8 and 12/8. 3.10. Prosody 45 It is important to know melody patterns and use music with words successfully. Otherwise, prosody mistakes seen more often in minstrel music i.e. discrepancy between music and words will inevitably be experienced. In some melodies, words cannot be fitted in melody and words are squeezed rhythmically. Such prosodic mistakes are experienced in many performances. Mistakes in the harmony between the words and melody or rhythm may be caused by minstrels’ deficiencies in musical knowledge or that they don’t know formal music rules. Today some of minstrels began to have musical knowledge. They do the notation of their compositions and get their copyright and patent from the associations like MESAM (a copyright institution). Prosodic mistakes are not seen in their works since they do this as a profession to have an income. 4. Suggestions It seems to be a requirement that the concept of minstrel should be re-considered and -defined and the criteria of being minstrel should be reevaluated according to today’s conditions. Such an evaluation should be considered according to the rate of production and there should be a difference between minstrels who compose or transfer folk songs and those not. For the first group an alternative title should be given like folk song yakıcı (folk song composer) or public artisan. and social media tools. Türkü cafes are thought to be effective in the production of folk song by turning into folk song production centres. It is suggested that not only minstrel coffee houses but also folk song cafes should be cared for the production of folk song. References [1] Dizdaroğlu, H., Types in Folk Poem, TDK publishing, Ankara University Publication, Ankara, 1969. [2] Efendiyev, P., Azerbaijan Şifahi Folk Literature. Maarif Neşriyatı, Bakü, 1992. [3] Kadri, K., Turkish Dictionary, Volume: III, TDK publishing, İstanbul, 1943. [4] Köprülü, M. F., Literature Studies -I-, Ötüken Publications, İstanbul, 1989. [5] Onay, A. T., Form and Type in Folk Poem, Ofset Press, İstanbul, 1928. [6] Sakaoğlu, S., “Sümmani”, Great Turkish Classics, Ötüken Publications, İstanbul, 1989. [7] Sakaoğlu, S., Various opinions on the concepts of “Ozan, Âşık, Saz Şairi and Halk Şairi”, in Turkish Folk Music (Salih Turhan), Publications of Ministry of Culture, Ankara, 1992. [8] Şenel, S., “Minstrel Music”. Islamic encyclopedia (Volume: 3), Religious Foundation of Turkey Publications, Ankara, 1991 The use of the term maqam (tune) in naming minstrel melodies causes conceptual and terminological problems. From this point of view, it is thought that minstrel melodies should be described using the concepts like Hava, Seyir, Ahenk, melody pattern (Kalıp Ezgi), producing Nağme, Gezinme, Örgü Kalıbı, special melody tissue (Özel Ezgi Dokusu) in place of the term makam (tune). Today, it is a debated matter whether minstrels should be reference people or not for the production of folk music works. Even though minstrels provide considerably important contributions to cultural sustainability by voicing their masters’ works, in terms of the production of musical works (folk song), Türkü Yakıcılar (folk song composers) play more active roles in composing folk song. In this respect, a change in the roles in the concept of minstrel may be required and desired. For the musical work production, composed folk songs of composers (yakıcı) can easily be accessed through mass communication 46 Harmonization studies in Turkish Music: the samples of Kürdi and Hicaz Tune lines Ali Korkut ULUDAĞ* * Ataturk University Fine Arts Education Department Musical Education Division korkutuludag@atauni.edu.tr Abstract. Present study was conducted to determine which methods and techniques students used in education system prepared for the polyphony of Turkish music works in modern harmony system to write accompaniment. The study was conducted with the participation of guitar – piano students chosen among those attending Atatürk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Music Education Division based on individual voluntariness using single group pre and post - test group model. Experimental operation process lasted for 5 weeks. Students conducted harmonization works in Kürdi and Hicaz tune lines. As the data collection tool, literature review, (gradual scoring key for students’ skills of accompaniment GSKSSA) and questionnaire form to obtain the opinions of specialists. Central trend measures, skewness, flatness coefficients were calculated and KolmogorovSmirnov Test was applied to determine if the data show normal distribution. After positive results were obtained from this test, dependent groups t – test application was conducted to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference between pro and post test scores of students. When the results of the study are evaluated in a complete way, it may be stated that education system prepared by the researcher increased the accompaniment skills of students significantly. In this respect, the difference between pre and post test scores was determined to be in favor of post test scores. Keywords: Turkish music, harmonization, tune, guitar, piano 1. Introduction Polyphonic applications in Turkish music field are among most debated in literature. Such studies have achieved several stages until reaching at this level. In polyphonic works in Turkish music, Turkish folk melodies were used. Polyphonic trials prepared generally in the forms of books and post graduate theses take mainly into consideration hüseyni tune line. Traditional Turkish music have been produced in society throughout centuries and used in a great enjoyment and come to date. Due to such characteristics, turning traditional Turkish music works into polyphony requires taking loads great responsibility [3]. In order to carry diversity and richness in our music culture to universal scale present studies should be improved qualitatively and quantitatively [13]. We should bear in our minds that we first have to know and evaluate our art to develop it [16]. From technical perspective, Turkish Music is a monophonic but multi-fret horizontal music type however, western music is polyphonic but has less fret vertical. However, it does not mean that these two types of music can never be combined at any circumstances [1]. It is the main point that polyphony to be created should bear its original pattern. When local pattern is lost traditional structure is also destroyed and some other musical structures are obtained [12]. The most important of all is that an art form to conserve traditional values, national elements, nobility and cultural vividness should be constructed [2]. There is no doubt that traditional music types should not be ignored but conserved. Polyphonic Turkish Music should be seen to be a process where music culture will turn out to be open to international arena [6]. Turkish Music has tried to be blended with polyphony beginning from late 19th century 47 which was counted to be a criterion of being contemporary. Hüseyin Sadettin Arel defended that Ottoman/Turkish Music should also be treated with polyphony which is a requirement of a modern nation’s art in addition to its traditional performance in monophonic way [10]. Arel has contributed greatly to harmony education in Turkey through his studies, books and students in addition to several terms used at present [17]. Following him, Kemal İlerici wrote a book Turkish Music and Harmony and advanced the topic [9]. Throughout the history, various unique lines have been used in east and west music. Such lines with the names of mode, tone are the products of a music system [15]. It is required not to conflict line and tune [11]. In traditional Turkish Music, the concepts of tune and line are not the same things. Line is a concept showing voices and frets included in a tune while tune as a concept tells traditional uses of line voices [14]. As can be seen, tune and line as concepts are very different from each other in meaning and content [7]. Outlines of the study were constructed through accord blocks with the content of modern harmony used in the lines of kürdi and Hejaz tune. In experimental operation process, main works chosen to be studied for its harmonization includes the lines in muhayyer kürdi and Hejaz tunes. Accord blocks used in the works were shaped by students through different figure samples and these works were generally harmonized through a simple tissue form. Students conducted their accompaniment works through piano or guitar voluntarily. 1.1. Problem sentence To what extent the students can write accompaniment for the works in the context of education system prepared for Turkish Music poly-phonation class? 1.2. Sub problems 1. Is there a statistically significant difference between pre- and posttest scores of students’ skills of accompaniment with Turkish Music works? 2. What are the pedagogic materials containing polyphonation prepared for Turkish Music field? 2. Method This section involves the data about the model of the study, work groups, data collection tools, analysis of main data and experimental operation. 2.1. Study model Pre and post-test experimental design among real experimental models was used in the study. In the model without control group, study group is determined before the study and a test is given to the subjects before the experiment and their success status is determined. After the experiment, groups are tested again and the effect of the experiment is determined according to the difference between two tests [8]. In this test, experimental process is tested on only one group. Measurements related to subjects’ dependent variables are conducted through the same tools and on the same subjects as pre and posttest. In the method, significance of the difference between pre and post- test values belonging to only one group is tested [4]. Application of the method may last for a 5 – week period. 2.2. Study group Study group involves 25 (n=25) BSc students chosen among those attending Atatürk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Music Education Division. 2.3. Data collection tools In the study, as the data collection tools, literature review and questionnaire form to obtain the opinions of specialists were used. In order to obtain content validity of forms two specialist teaching staff was asked to give their opinions. Before the analysis of pre and post test scores, scaling questions related to gradual scoring key were determined as follows. Are the subjects able to 1. use accurately the rules of modern harmony system 2- write correctly the symbolic shapes of accords 3move accords closely to each other 4- drop the voice between accords at the same place 5- use accord cycles correctly 6- make lateral movements between the accords 7- write suitable accord walking with the work 8- use figure samples accurately 9write accompaniment rhythm patterns conveniently with the work 10- provide the combination of the work and accompaniment. 48 2.4. Data analysis For the analysis of the data, SPSS 20 software package was used. In order to determine the type of tests to be used in the analyses normality hypotheses were tested. Central trend measures, skewness, flatness coefficients were calculated and Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test was applied to determine if the data show normal distribution. Central trend measures, skewness, flatness coefficients are given in Table 1. Table 1. Central trend measures, skewness, flatness coefficients are given in Test Pretest n:25 Average Median Skewness Skewness standard 12.9 12.00 .357 .46 error Flatness Flatness standard error Average Median Posttest Skewness Skewness standard -.471 .902 81.82 84.00 -.251 .464 error Flatness Flatness standard error -.548 -.902 It is seen when considered Table 1 that average and median of the distribution are close to each other in both pre and post - test. As these three values are getting closer to each other, the distribution is closer to normal distribution [5]. Skewness coefficient of the distribution is for pretest is 357 and that of flatness is -,471 in pretest; while -.548 and .902, respectively in posttest. It is accepted to be a criterion that the coefficient of skewness and flatness is between -1 and +1. From this point of view, data are convenient with normal distribution characteristics. At last, for the normality hypothesis, Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test was conducted and the results are given in Table 2. Table 2. Results of Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test related to normality of the distribution Test Pretest posttest Kolmogorov-Smirnova n Z 25 .668 25 .701 p ,764 .710 From Table 2, data are accepted to show normal distribution (p>.05). Normality hypothesis was met when considered the result of the analysis. Parametric tests were used in the analysis of the data. Dependent groups t – test was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between pre and post test scores of students’ skills of accompaniment with Turkish Music works by adjusting significance level to 0.05. 2.5. Experimental process grades At the first grade of the experimental process, students conducted a harmonization works on a Turkish Music work they wanted. They arranged the work based on their experience they gained before experimental process. At the beginning stage of the study, students conducted no study. Accompaniment work they did is also pretest stage of an experimental work. Students were also responsible for the same work at posttest stage. These works are the ballads called “Kütahya’nın Pınarları and Çay Elinden Öteye”. Works conducted in the scope of the study are as follows; 2.5.1. First week A free accompaniment was conducted to determine students’ level of experiment in musical background and their success levels. 2.5.2. Second week Stage 1. Line of La Kürdi tune is given below. Figure 1. line of La Kürdi tune Stage 2. Pausing and walking voices on the line of La Kürdi tune are shown below discreetly and together. Figure 2. . Pausing and walking voices on the line of La Kürdi tune line 2.5.3. Third week Introduction of accords with modern harmony system to be used on the line of Kürdi tune accompanied by a ballad. 49 Harmonization work of the ballad prepared by the researcher called “İki Keklik Bir Kayada Ötüyor” is given below. In this part of the study, the same accord blocks were used on Turkish Folk melodies belonging to Kürdi and Muhayyer Kürdi tunes. Harmonization work of the ballad prepared by the researcher called “Zülüf Dökülmüş Yüze” is given below. Figure 3. harmonization work of the ballad called “İki Keklik Bir Kayada Ötüyor” (Arrangement: Ali Korkut ULUDAĞ). 2.5.4. Fourth week Stage 1. Line of La Hicaz tune is given below. Figure 4. Descendant and Riser Studying on La Hicaz Maqam Line Stage 2. Pausing and walking voices on the line of La Hicaz tune are shown below discreetly and together. Figure 5. Pausing and walking voices on the line of La Hicaz tune line 2.5.5. Fifth week Introduction of accords with modern harmony system to be used on the line of Hicaz tune accompanied by a ballad. Figure 6. Harmonization of a ballad called “Zülüf Dökülmüş Yüze” (Arrangement by Ali Korkut ULUDAĞ). 3. Results and Discussions In this section, the results of dependent groups t – test scores related to the difference between pre- and post – test scores and their polyphonic works on Turkish Music take place. Dependent groups t – test was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically significant difference between pre and post test scores of students’ skills of accompaniment with Turkish Music works and the results are given in Table 2. 50 3.1. Results of the first sub- problems Table 2. Results of dependent groups t – test related to the difference between students’ pre and posttest scores Test Pretest Posttest n 25 25  12.90 81.82 SS 3.12 7.13 df t 24 -55.497 P .000 According to Table 2, the difference between the pre and post test scores of the students’ skills of accompaniment with Turkish Music works is statistically significant (t=-55.497; p<0.05). Mean scores of students related to their accompaniment skills are 12.9 for pretest and 81.82 for posttest. According to such results, teaching method prepared by the researcher in the scope of Turkish Music polyphonation class are said to increase students’ skills of accompaniment significantly. 3.2. Results of the Second sub problem Different polyphonation studies are given below carried out in Turkish Music field among which are books, articles, proceedings and theses. Table 3. Books Title Four – system Harmony Pentatonism in Turkish Folk Music Tanpereman in Turkish Music Four – harmony in contemporary Turkish Music Polyphonic Method in melodies in Turkish and western music Turkish Music tune lines A summary of Kemal İlerici’s Harmonic Line Four Harmony and its application in Turkish Music Turkish Music Harmony for Tanpere instruments (unpublished) Polyphonic applications and İlerici Harmony in Turkish Music Author Kemal İlerici Ahmet Adnan Saygun Nail Yavuzoğlu Necdet Levent Necdet Levent Muammer Sun Ertuğrul Bayraktar Tevfik TutuBahadır Tutu Nail Yavuzoğlu Atilla Sağlam Year 1945 1988 1997 1998 1998 1998 1998 1999 2000 2001 Table 4. Articles Title Sound system in traditional Turkish Art Music Arel-Ezgi-Uzdilek sound system and some frets not used in practice Polyphonic Debates in Turkish Music Views of teaching staff at university in viola teaching in Turkish Music lines about the functionality of the studies based on tune content Polyphonic approaches in Turkish Music Harmonic Analysis of Piano works taking place in Muammer Sun’s Yurt Renkleri 1 Album Comparative analysis of the books involving the application of four harmony system Kutluk Gökhan Yalçın 2012 Table 5. Proceedings Title Polyphonic Matter Polyphonic music types Polyphonic music types Polyphonic music types Polyphonic music types Polyphonic music types works in traditional works in traditional works in traditional works in traditional works in traditional Author Sadi Yaver Ataman Ruhi Ayangil Year 1988 Ertuğrul Bayraktar Necati Gedikli Fırat Kızıltuğ 1988 Cüneyt Pakdemir 1988 1988 1988 1988 Table 6. Theses Title /Type Author A Study On Polyphony Of S. Ercan Bağçeci Educational Songs In Modal Style By Means Of Fourth Harmony System A study on polyphonic in Turkish Uğur Türkmen Folk Music through Kannon and imitation Evaluation of Polyphonic concept Adnan Koç in Turkish folk music Kemal İlerici his life, works and Gülen Ada contributions to musicology Tanır The Usage of the scales about the Aytekin Albuz tone system of traditional Turkish Music in viola teaching and the polyphonic approaches about this system Determining the basic differences Işıl Bursa between traditional and quartal harmonization systems used in Turkish music while practicing polyphony and their place in music education Comparison between Turkısh Erdal Oral classıcal music and the jazz music Theoretical experiences on Ali Akaçça polyphony ın Turkish music Ahmet Yesevi Oratorios with Tolga Karaca four harmony System Characteristics Turkish folk Fatma Erkılıç music in Ahmet Adnan Saygun’s Piano Works Turkish five’s Polyphonation Gökçe Ağ method of Turkish Folk Music Karcebaş Works Year 1996 1996 1996 2001 2001 2005 2006 2008 2011 2011 2013 Author Cihat Can Year 2002 Uğur Türkmen Betül Demircan/Ayt ekin Albuz 2003 4. Conclusions and suggestions 2009 Aytekin Albuz Gökhan Yalçın/Özer 2011 As the result of experiments, a statistically significant difference was obtained between pre- and posttest scores of students (t=-55.497; p<0.05). Mean scores of participants given for their skills of accompaniment with Turkish Music works were 12.9 at pretest and 81.82 at 2012 51 posttest. It is seen when the results are taken into consideration as a whole that students’ skills of accompaniment developed through the technique used in the study aiming to solve technical problems in Turkish Music polyphonation class. Effectiveness of teaching system prepared by the researcher and high motivation presented by the participants during the application process made the study more meaningful. Students utilized modern and mixed harmonic system accord programing works more often. Students’ deficiencies in experimental operation process related to nominalization and symbolization of accords were removed majorly in the last weeks of the study. Suggestions developed for the study are as follows: With such studies; 1. Similar research can be conducted over different teaching systems and experimental working models and work groups. 2. Opinions of teaching staff may be taken into consideration when conducting and planning such studies. 3. Such applied works can be given place in the classes like harmony contrpoint accompaniment and education music composing techniques. 4. Student centered working methods like collaborative learning in such applied studies can be used. 5. Diversity of figure samples used in accompaniment works can increase. 6. Such harmonization works with modern and mixed content can be turned into book through systematic methods. References [1] Albuz, A., Türk Müziğinde Çokseslilik Çalışmaları, Sanat ve Tasarım Dergisi, vol. 1, (2011): 51-66, Malatya, 2011. [2] Ataman, S.,Y., Çokseslilik Meselesi, Birinci Müzik Kongresi Bildiriler, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Ankara, 1998. [3] Bayraktar, E., Geleneksel Müziklerimiz ve Çokseslilik Çalışmaları, Birinci Müzik Kongresi Bildiriler, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Ankara, 1998. [4] Büyüköztürk, Ş., Sosyal Bilimler İçin Veri Analizi El Kitabı, Pegem Akademi, Ankara, 2011. [5] Can, A., SPSS ile bilimsel araştırma sürecinde nicel veri analizi, Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık, Ankara, 2013. [6] Demirci, B., Viyolonsel için Türk müziği dizileri, Ankara: Pegem Akademi, (2013). [7] Ekici, S., Türk Halk Müziğinin Melodik Yapısının Adlandırılması Konusunda Düşünceler, Akademik İncelemeler Dergisi, cilt.4, sayı. 1, (2009): 21-33, Sakarya, 2009. [8] Kaptan, S., Bilimsel Araştırma Ve İstatistik Teknikleri, Tekışık Web Ofset Tesisleri, Ankara, 1998. [9] Kızıltuğ, F., Geleneksel Müzik Türlerinde Çokseslilik Çalışmaları, Birinci Müzik Kongresi Bildiriler, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Ankara, 1998. [10] Özkoç, Ö., Hüseyin Sadettin Arel’in Çokseslilik Üzerine Olan Düşünceleri ve Prelude İsimli Eserinin İncelenmesi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kompozisyon, Koro ve Orkestra Şefliği Anasanat Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara, 2012. [11] Öztuna, Y., Büyük Türk Musikisi Ansiklopedisi, Başbakanlık Basımevi, c.2, Ankara, 1990. [12] Pakdemir, H,C., Geleneksel Müzik Türlerinde Çokseslilik Çalışmaları, Birinci Müzik Kongresi Bildiriler, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Ankara, 1998. [13] Parasız, G., Keman Öğretiminde Kullanılmakta Olan Çağdaş Türk Müziği Eserlerinin Seslendirilmesine Yönelik Olarak Oluşturulan Hazırlayıcı Alıştırmaların İşgörüsellik ve Etkililik Yönünden İncelenmesi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Güzel Sanatlar Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı, Ankara, 2009. [14] Say, A., Müzik Sözlüğü, Müzik Ansiklopedisi Yayınları, Ankara, 2002. [15] Sun, M., Türk Müziği Makam Dizileri, Sun Yayınevi, Ankara, 2004. [16] Tura, Y., Türk Musikisinin Meseleleri, Pan Yayıncılık, İstanbul, 1998. 52 [17] Yalçın, G., Hüseyin Sadettin Arel’in Armoni Kitaplarındaki Armonik ve Terminolojik Yaklaşımları, Rast Müzikoloji Dergisi, cilt. 1, sayı. 2, (2013): 1-16, Tokat, 2013. 53 Establishment aim and present situation of the institutions giving professional music education in Turkey Koray Çelenk* * Atatürk University Fine Arts Faculty Department of Musical Science koraycelenk@atauni.edu.tr Abstract. Turkish Republic has been founded on especially cultural bases. Emerging from the Atatürk’s opinions about music, new regulations were adopted during the first years of Republic on culture and arts and new steps were forwarded to create modern society. Among the most important steps is the foundation of educational institutions aiming to develop music and musical education. Music education started in Turkey during Ottoman period and went on with new and contemporary works after the establishment of Turkish Republic. In the development process of music and its institutional structure, with the changing educational policies in Turkey, institutions giving professional music education were combined under different roofs by considering their aims. When considered the present situation of such institutions, it may be stated that institutions giving professional music education (IGPME) involve Conservatories, Education Faculties, Music Education Departments, Fine Arts Faculties, (Music-Musical Sciences, Music Technologies, Turkic Music and Basic Sciences), Fine Arts-Design-Architecture Faculties (Music, Music Technologies, Turkic Music) and Music and Performing Arts Faculties. Even though the aims of all these institutions may differ from each other, it is seen based on their present conditions and profiles that they undertake different missions from their objectives. From this point of view, present study was conducted using a descriptive method, reviewing related literature and collecting and classifying data in a systematic order. The aim of present study is to mention about historical development process of IGPME and to what extent they function their roles conveniently with their service and establishment aims by considering their aims and to shed light on the related problems. Keywords: music, music education, professional music education 1. Introduction Education is a concept continuing from the birth to death of an individual. In education process, individuals get in touch with their surrounding and learn many good and new things. Some of the things learned in this process may happen in their natural environment while others occur in the areas predetermined willing and in a planned way. In a general definition, education is a process where individuals cause deliberate and willing changes in their behaviours through their own life [6]. Education is the most fundamental structure based on individuals and it aims to prepare individuals for life by causing them to acquire required knowledge, skills and behaviours in their development process. In order to achieve a basic and good working education structure, it is required to continue this structure in a planned and programmed way together with cultural concepts by monitoring consistently developing and changing global affairs and innovations [16]. Education is the combination of all desired processes where individuals develop valuable skills, attitudes and behaviours the society in which they live gives importance. It is also a social efficiency and process ensuring optimum individual development under the influence of a selected and controlled environment (especially school) [8]. One of the most important processes where individuals develop their behavioural patterns related to skills is music. All humans are born equipped with their unique characteristics in a certain society, grow up and complete their development by being matured in the culture of this society. In order for humans to live healthily in the society in which they are born, they must absolutely meet their physiological (feeding, protecting), social and psychological (loving, 54 being loved, belonging to a group) needs in a balanced way [15]. One of most important needs may be music. In its simplest meaning, music is an aesthetical entirety made up of voices processed with certain aims, in a method and according to a certain beauty understanding [21]. Music is a very important concept since it is either an education tool or field. Concepts and applications like education through music, education with music and musical education show that music is an effective and efficient way of education. Other concepts and applications such as education for music or education at music can make music an important educational field [21]. In Turkey, music education is applied as one subdivision of art education. Art education appeals basically to individuals who try to meet their creative instincts and aesthetic needs and develop enjoyment feeling and be more sensitive to real world they live in through artistic activities and interactions. From this point of view, art education plays a significant role in the development of individual’s cognitive and psychomotor sides and especially affective feature [21]. Music education is a development or changing process where individual acquires certain musical behaviours in a conscious and aimed way through his/her life style, experiences changes and advancement in his/her musical behaviours [22]. According to another definition, music education is a process where individuals come together and shape their mental and physical characteristics and form their musical personality [5]. In Turkey, music education is categorised into 3 groups; general music education, volunteer music education and professional music education. General music education is given all students at primary, secondary and high schools while volunteer music education can be given to those who want to learn music unprofessionally by public training centres or private music courses and professional music education is demanded by people desiring to learn music professionally or willing to choose music or any branch of music as a profession and given by the responsible institutions at universities. Professional music education has passed certain stages from Ottoman empire period to date. In such a long process, several institutions were established to give such an education and these institutions underwent some changes. Even if they changed they had an establishment aim at the beginning. In especially modern Republic period, IGPMEs changed to include Turkic and Classical Music Conservatories, Music Education Departments of Education Faculties, Fine Arts Faculties, (Music-Musical Sciences, Music Technologies, Turkic Music and Basic Sciences), Fine Arts-DesignArchitecture Faculties (Music, Music Technologies, Turkic Music) and Music and Performing Arts Faculties. Establishment aims of all these institutions differ from each other. Conservatories were established to carry a mission of growing up musicians and composers while Music Education Departments music teachers and musicology departments music researchers in the country. However, in today’s practices, these institutions undertake different missions from their establishment aims. From this perspective, in the present study, problematic situation is the determination and evaluation of to what extent IGPMEs serve in convenience with their establishment aims today in Turkey. 2. Method A descriptive method was adopted in the study. By reviewing related literature, headlines of the study were determined in a systematic way. In such a systematic, institutional structure, transformation processes and aims of IGPMEs were determined beginning from Ottoman empire to date and today’s institutions were also defined by using data base of Turkish assessment selection and placement centre (ÖSYM) and a table was drawn based on the type of branches by considering their present conditions. 3. Findings 3.1. Music Education in Ottoman Period In Ottoman period before Republic, the state may be said to be governed by people in the palace, scholars, and soldiers. Official works were carried out by public officers at lower hierarchical levels of the state. When the distribution of responsibility and authority of these units is taken into consideration, they are 55 stated to be religious, justice, and educational works undertaken by scholars, executive works conducted by officers and feoffees and timariot soldiers. Education system in that term was based on ottoman elementary-primary schools (sibyan schools) and madrasahs [18]. Two types of music were seen in Ottoman period by the beginning of 19th century; folk music and Ottoman art music. After 1826, western music was added in these types. In Ottoman period, music completely interacted with the areas where it lived. From this point of view, music types can be summarised as follows; 1. Palace and hall music, 2. Religious music a. Music in mosques and masjids 3. Dervish lodge and sect music 4. Military music 5. Music belonging to occupational organisations 6. Educational music a. Madrasah music b.Enderûn practical music 7. City entertainment music Such categorisation was valid until 19th century and after that Ottoman music turned into a new form [12]. Even though education philosophy was directed to a certain target after 16th century in the West, Ottoman empire followed this change late. However, Ottoman empire had once sovereignty in 3 continents due to its superiority over other nations in administrative, army, weapon and organisational force and the most importantly educational system it had which included broader aspects than that of other states. Ottoman empire understood through several historical events that arts, social and applied sciences developed after Renaissance in the West could not be omitted and tried to adopt the changes in the West first in army and other institutions. With these reforming attempts, education took 2 forms. 1. Based on religious rules, a. Sibyan schools b.Madrasahs 2. Western like education, a. Army and technical expertise schools b.General education institutions Apart from the categories above, Enderûn school and Conscript boys school (elementary army school) belonged to palace and army [13]. In this reforming age, Akkaş categorised Ottoman official music education institutions into groups as other schools like ottoman elementary-primary schools (Sibyan schools), Madrasahs, Enderûn schools (palace schools) and Tabılhâne [2]. Such categorisation was also offered by Uçan for music education like; In Ottoman period (1299-1920/1922), general music education was given in primary and secondary schools based on religious rules more often in ottoman elementary-primary schools (Sibyan), Madrasahs and Enderûn schools; volunteer music education was in palace, lodges, performing teams or ceremony units and certain halls and pavilions; professional music education was more in Mehterhâne (army bands) and a department of Enderûn school functioning as conservatory Enderûn Music School and Dârü’l-Huffâz and Dârü’l-Kurrâ in addition certain lodges” [23]. As can be seen, in Ottoman time, IGPMEs were categorised into certain groups as follows. 3.1.1. Institutions Giving Music Education based on Religious Rules: Sibyan Schools, Madrasahs and Mevlevîhânes, Sibyan schools functioned primary education in Ottoman education system. Madrasahs were adopted in Turkic education system after Turks accepted Islam as religion and madrasahs had grades from primary education to higher education [10]. Even though Sibyan school and madrasah education had no direct music education program they taught music indirectly [2]. In Sibyan schools and madrasahs, reading holly Quran and Ezan in a tune and melodic way was very important [23]. Mevlevîhânes (Mevlevî houses) were also important sources of Ottoman music life. Semâ dance and music were two important bases of these schools due to Mevlâna’s doctrines. Due to religious and musical rituals accepted in many praying activity of Mevlevîs, some members of this lodge desired to be musicians and so Mevlevî houses gave music lessons in addition to the rules of their houses [19]. This music education system adopted practice 56 method and it was a teacher centred method. In this education system, not only performance but also theoretical knowledge was taught. As the result of such student-teacher relationship, student learnt his teacher’s behaviour and sustained their practices [4]. 3.1.2. Military Music Education Institutions: Tabılhâne, Mehterhâne and Muzık!-yı Hümâyûn Tabılhâne and Mehterhâne are the synonyms of the same institution, which is the oldest army band of the world. Drum and flag, the symbols of sovereignty of Turkish rulers continued to be used in Turkic states after the adoption of Islam. The name “Tuğ” in Great Seljuk’s Empire turned out to be Tabılhâne and Nevbet and then in Ottoman Peirod Mehter Music [18]. “Mehter candidates were educated in Enderûn and selected new comer students at Galata, İbrahim Paşa and Edirne Palaces came here and were called “Şâkirdan”. They were distributed to Grand, Seferli, Chiller and Treasure Rooms but not permitted to go Has Oda (room of sultan). They were educated like students at Enderûn and sent to places where they were needed [14]. Students began their education with manner. They were divided in groups and went on education required by these groups; shrill pipe, pipe, nakkare (small drum), cymbal, drum, and kös (large scale drum) [19]. Since rhythm is important students first tried to play mehter düdük in a rhythmic and synchronic way and were then taken to other instrument groups based on their abilities [20]. After Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II closed Guild of Janissaries in 1826, Mehterhânes were also closed. In the scope of reform works, Guild of Janissaries was turned into a new army called Asâkir-i Mansûre-i Muhammediye and this western type army needed a western type band thus causing the establishment of Muzıkayı Hümâyûn, modern Ottoman army band [7]. On closing Mehterhâne in “1826, Sultan Mahmud II invited musicians from İtaly to form a military music system and in 1827, Muzıka-yı Hümâyûn was established. In order to meet the need of human resource at this new band talented youths were taught modern instruments at Enderûn. The first education tried to be given by Turkish teachers but when they failed, Manguel was appointed to be the chief of the band. Following Manguel, in 1828, İtalian Guiseppe Donizetti overtook the duty. When this İtalian composer started to work, the first serious work also started in Muzıka-yı Hümâyûn. Donizetti first taught members of the band the Hamparsum notes which the majority of the members knew. Following it, he prepared a new note system matching the old and new voices in the notes. After teaching porta, he taught students western music notes through the table he draw. This system was the first application of modern western notes in Turkey. He then tried to solve problems related to plying instruments and developed an education system based on performance. The desire to show the new band with high performance capability to Sultan as soon as possible caused the development of such an education system. Education was confined to teaching notes and simplified Italian harmony such condition went on until early 20th century [7]. After the declaration of 2nd Constitutional Monarchy, Saffet Bey was appointed to be Muzıka chief and a new and more serous term started. By knowing the educational deficiencies of Muzıka, Saffet Bey started to work remove and correct them. In this term, regulations were prepared to make rules for the selection of students and promotion of staff [20]. Students accepted to Muzıka started music education using a string instrument and were then directed to various ones depending on their abilities. Students receiving a careful and disciplined education related to their instruments were also given bona, music theory, piano, violin, harmony, musical punctuation and music history. After the appointment of Saffet Bey as chief, the band abandoned Italian style and then passed to French method. Saffet spent efforts for the band to develop in orchestral form and increased its symphony repertory [20]. After the foundation of Turkish Republic, Muzıka-yı Hümâyûn and Turkish musicians were transferred to Ankara and employed in Turkish Presidency. 57 3.1.3. IGPMEs: Enderûn, Dârü’l-Elhân Dârü’l-Bedâyî, In the first years of Ottoman state, Turkish people adopted settled lifestyle by giving up nomad culture and thus needing army, regular official staff and arts branches. For that reason, Enderûn, palace school, was founded. Foundation of this school is said to be based on Murat II, where great statesmen, craftsmen and scientists grew up. Foundation aim of Enderûn was to make talented Christian children to be statesmen and soldier [3]. Children picked up from various parts of the country were brought first to Edirne palace and then Topkapı palace and met in front of Divân-ı Hümâyûn (executive board of the Empire). Children were put in order according to their characteristics and sent to schools at the Palace [14]. Enderûn students were classified in categories depending on their abilities and each class was called the name of the room they stayed; 1-Büyük Oda (grand room), 2-Küçük Oda (small room), 3-Doğancılar Odası (room of falconers), 4-Seferli Odası (room of soldiers who going campaign), 5-Kiler Odası (chiller room), 6-Hazine Odası (treasure room), 7-Has Oda (special room to Sultan) [1]. Students did all the needed things in those rooms. Length of the education time changed from 2 to 4. Teaching was conducted in two ways theoretical and practical. Students started their education downstairs and then went upstairs [18]. Musical education was conducted at Enderûn, in Grand and Small rooms until the construction of Seferli Room. The real room where musical education was given is seferli room. Students for this room were selected among picked up children with musical ability. Classes were given by those in Enderûn liking music from hazine and has oda in addition to those hired and coming from the outside of the palace [20]. After the detection of youths liable to arts, they were given to masters to become both instrument and voice expert. Students learned all the details of music and became experts. They attended two times Fasl-ı Hümâyûn at Topkapı palace to benefit from the things given to them [14]. Education took 14 years and students at Enderûn could not get married until 30 years old, have a moustache and stay at the palace [18]. Enderûn survived until the middle of 19th century, but as the result of western reform activities, it lost its importance and functions and then was closed in 1908. Dârü’l-Bedâyî is an institution established by mayor of Istanbul in 1914 and involved theatre and music departments in its body. Famous French artist Andre Antoine was appointed to the head position of theatre department while administration of music department was given to Ali Rıfat Bey. At music department, Turkic and classical music were decided to be taken together. Music department of the institution serving for a short time on Turkic and Western museum was closed in 1916 due to war. Academic music education works sustained in 1917 in Dârü’l-Elhân opened by Ministry of Education. This school is also the first private music school established in Ottoman period. [20]. Dârü’l-Elhân, opened by General Ministry of National Education on 1 January 1917 was first official music school. Regulation of school was prepared by a commission with the chair of Yusuf Ziya Paşa. The efficiency of the school constructed in an area seeming to be safe in the 1st World War Period was impacted by the war conditions and had to work under limited resources. Dârü’l-Elhân did not give dominantly Turkic music education and classical music classes are also given in the study [20]. Total education time was 5 years. The first year was preparation class. After the completion of preparatory class, students were divided into categories and these categories were given the classes such as theory, solfege, instrument knowledge, music history and composition and performance classes. Instrument lessons are divided into two categories Turkic and classical type music, which are reed flute, tambour, kemancha (kit), violin, lute, qanun and psaltery (Turkic instruments) and Piano, cello and flute (classical music instruments) [14]. Dârü’l-Elhân was closed in convenience with the decision National Education Ministry on 22 January 1927. In addition, from the 2nd Constitutional Monarchy to the Republic, in also the associations founded by music lovers at that time, performance, note education, solfege, 58 theory and instrument lessons were given voluntarily. Some important foundations of that time were Dârü’l-Mûsikî-i Osmâni, Üsküdar Mûsikî Cemiyeti (music association), Dârü’lFeyz-i Mûsikî, Dâruttaalim-i Mûsikî Mûsikî-i Osmâni Mektebi, Gülşen-i Mûsikî, and Şark Mûsikî Cemiyeti. 3.2. IGPMEs in Republic Period It is possible to concentrate on three establishments for music education in the Republic period; Dârü’l-Elhân and Muzıka-yı Hümâyûn heritage from Ottoman Empire and Mûsikî Muallim Mektebi (music teacher school) founded in the Republic period. Dârü’l-Elhân was the first conservatory and music school in Turkey. There were two departments at the school West and East Music in the Institution which tried to be reformed after the Republic. In 1923, Western Music Department was opened. In 1927, Eastern Music Department was closed. The institution changed its name in 1926 to be İstanbul Conservatory. By making new regulations in teaching, the name of the institution was changed in 1927 into İstanbul Municipality Conservatory. With this development, the department where Turkic Music division was closed turned directly into the conservatory of western music [9, 10]. City orchestra, city choir, which also formed Turkic Art Music and folklore association, grew up large number of musicians. In time, theatre and ballet dance were also added in the activities in addition to music. The name of Municipality Conservatory was later changed into Istanbul University State Conservatory in 1986 and taken over YOK (Council of higher education). Conservatory was structured to be an occupational school in middle size giving theoretical and applied education. Teaching staff was composed of domestic and foreign music experts and theory makers. Closing of oriental music division, direction to western music, modernising education system completely, closing of lodges which are the main sources of Alaturca Music are closely related to reform developments in each field and national culture policies [9]. Muzıka-yı Hümâyûn was conserved after the abandonment of Sultanate on 1st Nov 1922 since the Caliphate was still present but its name was changed into Makâm-ı Hilâfet Mızıkası and after the declaration of Republic on 3rd March 1924 and abandonment of Caliphate, it was transferred to Ankara with the name of Riyâset-i Cumhur Mûsikî Heyeti (Music Group of Presidency) on 27 April 1924. This group was composed of Müezzinan, Fasıl team, orchestra and band divisions. According to new administration understanding, müezzinan division was closed due to lack of functionality. In 1933, the group was divided into two parts, Riyâset-i Cumhur Filarmonik Orkestrası (Philharmonic Orchestra of Presidency) and Riyâset-i Cumhur Band (Band of Presidency). After the death of Atatürk in 1938 the division of fasıl was closed. After that Riyâset-i Cumhur Filarmonik Orkestrası was changed into Cumhurbaşkanlığı Senfoni Orkestrası (Presidential Symphony Orchestra) in 1957 and Riyâset-i Cumhur Bandosu was into Kara Kuvvetleri Armoni Mızıkası (Terrestrial Army Harmonic Band) in 1963 [2, 17, 23]. The most important step in the republic period related to music education is the opening of Mûsikî Muallim Mektebi (Music Teacher School), which was first aimed to bring up teachers but later on undertaking the function of bringing up musicians and then the institution was divided into two parts as conservatory and music teaching departments. The institution was then shaped in 1924 and 1925 to include 1-year preparatory and 4-year education directly related to teaching music. In 1931 restructuring, education time was elongated to 6 years. In 1934 and 1935 restructuration, the institution was taken from secondary school and given to higher education. In 1936 restructuration, a breakthrough was experienced and conservatory classes were opened in the body of the Institution and then the first western type conservatory of Turkey was established in the Institution Ankara State Conservatory. After 1936, the institution took over its duties to the conservatory related to growing up musicians and in 1937-1938 restructuration, it turned out to be a department in the body of Gazi Secondary Teacher School and Education Institute by transferring to Music Department. In 1974-1975 and 1978 shaping, it was given the name of Gazi Education Institute Music Department and turned into 3 and then 4year higher education institute. In 1980, it was turned into Higher Teacher School status from educational institute and ultimately since 1982 59 it has been an establishment in the body of university [23]. The aim of this institution established on 1 November 1924 was to bring up music teachers for high schools, secondary schools and teacher schools as written in the first item of the regulation of Mûsikî Muallim Mektebi (music teacher school) published in 1925. In the second regulation in 1931, it was stated that Mûsikî Muallim Mektebi was a school opened to bring up music teachers for high schools and secondary schools. The code prepared in 1934 related to National Music and Representative Academy caused the establishment of Representation Academy with the aims of forming, developing and broadcasting national music in the country based on scientific principles, bringing up quality elements at every branch of stage performance, bringing up music teachers. Establishment aims of institution carrying on its education activity with the name of Gazi Education Institute Music Branch were declared in 1970 with the decision 537 of Training and Education Department related to Gazi Education Institute Music Department Curricula to be in the first item to bring up music teachers guiding their surroundings, managing music education, teaching music lessons at secondary and occupational schools [24]. In 1940, with a Code related to State Conservatories, music and representative branches were separated from each other. Music branch included composition and orchestra directorate, piano, org, Arp; string instruments; wind and percussion instruments and singing sub branches. Such an attempt constituted the beginning of contemporary musician education. In addition, in 1975, Istanbul Turkic Music State Conservatory was established to give Turkic music education. In 1982, these institutions were taken over to YOK and given the names State Conservatories of Ankara, Hacettepe University, İstanbul Turkic Music and İstanbul Technical University Turkic Music. In 1975, Fine Arts Faculty music department was established in the body of Aegean University and started education in the first year. The aim of this department was to meet scientific research need [10]. As can be seen, after the foundation of Turkish Republic, all the institutions established related to professional music education had certain aims. These aims can be sequenced under three line as bringing up music teachers, composers, musicians, technologists, and researchers. From the beginning to date, the institutions established to achieve these aims are Education i.e. Fine arts education and music education departments, Conservatories, Music and Performing Arts Faculties Fine Arts Faculties music and music sciences departments. 3.3. Present Situation of IGPMEs According to Uçan, musicians grow up at music departments at Music and Performance Arts Faculty and State Conservatories, musical scientists come from Fine Arts Faculties and Musical Sciences and Musicology departments of state conservatories, musical technologists from Instrument Production department of State conservatories, music teachers and trainers are from educational faculties, the departments of fine arts education departments [23]. However, today, IGPMEs involve Turkic and Classical Music Conservatories, Education Faculties, Music Education Departments, Fine Arts Faculties, (Music-Musical Sciences, Music Technologies, Turkic Music and Basic Sciences), Fine Arts-Design-Architecture Faculties (Music, Music Technologies, Turkic Music) and Music and Performing Arts Faculties. Other institutions than music education departments especially those related to fine arts embody the department related both to music teaching and conservatories. Conservatories are the institutions aiming to grow up musicians (voice-instrument), musicologist, music technologist, composer, and orchestra or choir chief and offer scientific and executive approaches to music. Education Faculties Music Education Departments did not go beyond their aims beginning from the first Music Teacher School which include growing up music teachers needed by National Education Ministry at primary, secondary and high schools. It is seen when considered fine arts and related faculties that these institutions structured to combine artistic activities carried out in different fields turned out to be the units embodying branches with the same functions as conservatories to grow up musicians or music teachers. Such a condition has caused the deviation of these institutions from their main aims determined in 1975. 60 In addition, the decision of YOK for pedagogical formation to be given to conservatories and fine arts faculties in a compressed program caused another conflict and complexity among IGPMEs. Decision of YOK in Turkey is as follows. In 2011-2012 education and teaching term, 20 % of the contingent of pedagogical formation certificate programs permitted to be carried out at the Turkish universities is left for the programs needed by National Education Ministry; i.e. Guide Teacher, Preschool Teaching, English Teaching, Religion Culture and Ethics Knowledge, Technology and Design, Primary School Teaching, Turkish Language and Literature Teaching, Primary School Teaching for Mentally Disabled, Music Teaching, Mathematic Teaching; the rest 80% of the contingent is left for other branches decided on by Training and Education Council’s decision no 80 and from 2012-2013 education and teaching term Pedagogic Formation certificate Program is decided to be carried on for the branches needed by National Education Ministry [25]. With this decision, out of music teaching department, fine arts and conservatories have the right of growing music teachers. Distribution of IGPMEs in Turkey is given in tables below. 22 23 24 Marmara University -Atatürk Education Faculty Muğla Sıtkı Koçman University -Education Faculty Necmettin Erbakan University -Ahmet Keleşoğlu Education Faculty Niğde University -Education Faculty Ondokuz Mayıs University -Education Faculty (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Pamukkale University -Education Faculty Trakya University -Education Faculty Uludağ University -Education Faculty 25 Yüzüncü Yıl University -Education Faculty 17 18 19 20 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 A.İbrahim Çeçen University –Education Faculty A.İzzet Bay. University -Education Faculty A.Menderes University -Education Faculty Aksaray University -Education Faculty Atatürk University -K.Karabekir Education Faculty Balıkesir University -Necatibey Education Faculty Cumhuriyet University -Education Faculty Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University Education Faculty Dokuz Eylül University -Buca Education Faculty (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Erzincan University -Education Faculty Gazi University -Gazi Education Faculty Gaziosmanpaşa University -Education Faculty Harran University -Education Faculty İnönü University -Education Faculty Ktü-Fatih Education Faculty (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) M.Akif Ersoy University -Education Faculty Education time Contingent 4 40 4 4 4 30 40 40 4 40 4 40 4 30 4 30 4 31 4 4 40 50 4 25 4 4 40 30 4 51 4 30 50 4 30 4 40 4 40 4 31 4 4 4 30 30 40 4 30 Table 2. Conservatories in Turkey Conservatories 1 Adıyaman University –State Conservatory 2 Akdeniz University Antalya State Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) 3 A.Kocatepe University -State Conservatory 4 A.Menderes University -State Conservatory 5 Anadolu University State Conservatory Table 1. Music Education Departments in Turkey Music Teaching 4 6 Ankara University State Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) 7 Atatürk University – Turkic Music State Conservatory 8 Başkent University Conservatory (no scholarship, 25% and full imbursement) 9 Bülent Ecevit University -State Conservatory 10 Çukurova University -State Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) 11 Dicle University State Conservatory Education Time Contingent 4 24 4 5 4 11 4 4 4 5 20 10 4 5 4 4 4 4 15 50 15 5 String instruments 4 10 Guitar Music Wind and Percussion Instruments Piano and Arp Singing and Opera String instruments string instruments production repairing musicology and composition Piano and Arp Singing and opera String instruments 4 4 4 10 4 15 4 12 4 15 4 15 4 5 4 6 4 4 4 15 21 44 Basic Sciences 4 - 4 10 4 21 4 4 4 4 7 5 10 10 4 5 4 24 4 4 4 4 4 6 20 21 20 20 Branches Opera, Choir and Popular Music Singing Guitar Wind and Percussion instruments Piano and Arp Turkic Music String instruments Wind and Percussion instruments Piano and Arp Turkic Music String instruments Piano and Arp Composition and music Theory Opera, choir and popular music singing Piano and Arp String instruments Singing and opera String instruments String instruments production repairing Wind and Percussion Instruments Piano and Arp Singing and opera String instruments Voice education Basic Sciences 61 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Dokuz Eylül University -İzmir State Conservatory Ege University Turkic Music State Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Fatih University Conservatory (no scholarship and full imbursement) Fırat University State Conservatory Gazi University Turkic Music State Conservatory Gaziantep University - Turkic Music State Conservatory (day and night time education (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Gaziosmanpaşa University -State Conservatory Giresun University State Conservatory Composition Wind and Percussion Instruments Piano and Arp Singing and opera String instruments Instrument production repairing Voice education Basic Sciences 4 4 4 21 4 4 4 12 20 20 4 14 4 4 22 71 Turkic Music 4 20 Basic Sciences 4 20 Instrument education Music Voice education Voice education 4 20 4 4 4 20 20 52 4 53 Turkic Music 4 15 Music 4 45 Guitar Composition Music Wind and Percussion Instruments Piano and Arp Singing and opera Chief String instruments Instrument education Instrument production repairing 4 4 4 4 8 20 4 27 4 4 4 4 9 16 5 20 4 34 4 22 Harran University State Conservatory String instruments 4 6 İnönü University State Conservatory Piano and Arp Turkic Music String instruments 4 4 4 10 15 10 Haliç University Conservatory (no scholarship, 50% and full imbursement) İpek University Conservatory (English) (no scholarship, 50%, 75 % and full imbursement) İskenderun Technical University -Mustafa Yazıcı State Conservatory İst. University -State Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) İTU Ist. Turkic Mus. State Con. (Turkish and English) 29 30 Basic Sciences Hacettepe University -Ank. State Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) 28 Kafkas University State Conservatory Kocaeli University State Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) KTU-State Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Mersin University State Conservatory (TR and North 31 Cyprus TR citizens) M.Sinan Güzel Snt. University -İst. State 32 Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Niğde University 33 Turkic Music State Con. Okan University Conservatory (no 34 scholarship, 50% and full imbursement) Ondokuz Mayıs 35 University -State Conservatory Sakarya University 36 State Conservatory Selçuk University Dilek Sabancı State 37 Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Music 4 34 Trakya University State Conservatory 38 (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Music 4 25 39 Guitar Composition Music Wind Instruments Wind and Percussion Instruments Piano and Arp Singing and opera Percussion Instruments String instruments Composition Music Music Technologies Chief 4 4 4 4 10 4 15 12 4 20 4 4 21 21 4 4 4 4 4 27 10 35 4 20 4 30 Uludağ University State Conservatory (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Yıldırım Beyazıt 40 University - Turkic Music State Con. Yüzüncü Yıl University - Turkic 41 Music State Con. (Day and Night time education) Piano and Arp Wind and Percussion Instruments Turkic Music String instruments Guitar Composition Music Wind Instruments Wind and Percussion Instruments Piano and Arp Turkic Music String instruments 4 10 4 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 40 5 7 5 10 5 4 10 4 4 4 6 12 22 Music 4 21 Composition Wind and Percussion Instruments Piano and Arp Singing and opera String instruments Composition Music Wind and Percussion Instruments Piano and Arp Singing and opera String instruments 4 2 4 15 4 4 4 4 4 12 21 15 10 20 4 16 4 4 4 15 13 16 Turkic Music 4 40 Music 4 30 Music 4 30 Basic Sciences Turkic Music Singing and opera 4 4 4 15 15 11 Turkic Music 4 20 4 20 4 4 4 21 20 5 4 9 4 4 4 3 10 10 Turkic Music 4 30 Turkic Music 4 60 Wind and Percussion Instruments Piano and Arp String instruments Composition Wind and Percussion Instruments Piano and Arp Turkic Music String instruments 62 Table 3. Fine Arts Faculty in Turkey Universities with Fine Arts Faculty 1 Akdeniz University Ardahan University 2 Music Education time 4 Basic Sciences 4 30 Music 4 60 Music 4 60 Music 4 20 Music Technologies 4 21 4. Results and suggestions 4 15 4 15 Music Technologies 4 11 Erciyes University Music Turkic Music 4 4 20 10 9 Kırıkkale University Music 4 35 10 Kocaeli University Music 4 10 11 Marmara University Music 4 15 Music 4 50 Music 4 20 In Turkey, institutions giving music education were established suitably with their targeted aims from Ottoman time to Turkish Republic and to date. Three main institutions whose establishment and development were transferred to this time in especially republic time are Music Education Departments, Conservatories and Fine arts faculties, Music and Music sciences departments. When considered the establishment aims of these institutions, it is seen that Music Education Departments aim only to grow up music teachers, conservatories were established to carry a mission of growing up musicians and composers while musicology departments music researchers in the country. However, today, establishment aims of these institutions seems to conflict with each other. 3 4 5 6 7 8 12 13 Atatürk University (Day time – Night time education) Batman University (Day time – Night time education) Cumhuriyet University - (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Çankırı K.Tekin University Dokuz Eylül University - (TR and North Cyprus TR citizens) Nevşehir University -(Day time – Night time education) Süleyman Demirel University Branches Music Technologies Music Contingent 25 Table 4. Music and Performing Arts Faculties in Turkey Universities hosting music and performing arts faculties İ.Doğramacı Bilkent University - (Piano, String instruments, wind instruments and percussion 1 instrument, singing, theory and composition) (nonscholarship and full scholarship) 2 3 Ordu University (Day time – Night time education) Pamukkale University -(Day time – Night time education) Branches Education Contingent time Music 4 30 Music Turkic Music Music Musicology Turkic Music 4 60 4 40 4 4 - 4 - Table 5. Fine Arts-Design and Architecture Faculties in Turkey Universities hosting Fine Arts – Design and Architecture faculties 1 Düzce Univ. 2 3 4 5 6 İnönü Univ. (Day time – Night time education) İstanbul Medipol University (25%, 50% and fully imbursement) Karabük University Safranbolu F. Toker Fine Arts – Design and Architecture faculties Yaşar University (25%, 50% and fully Yıldız Teknik University Education time Contingent Turkic Music Music Music Technologies 4 4 20 30 4 30 Turkic Music 4 40 Music 4 25 Turkic Music 4 40 Music 4 30 Music 4 20 Branches As can be seen in tables, Music Education Departments aim only to grow up music teachers, conservatories involve several departments and aim to grow up musicians, composers, researchers, technologist and chief. When considered fine arts faculties, they have a mixed aim in today’s condition and they grow up both teachers and musicians. Music Education Departments aim only to grow up music teachers while in conservatories and fine arts faculties students can get pedagogic formation and so they are pushed out of their basic establishment aim. In Music Education Departments formation is given in a 4-year period while in other departments it is given in a very shortened program and such a situation is expected to reduce the quality of music education. Apart from Fine Arts faculties, Fine ArtsDesign and Architecture faculties have also music departments with the same function as conservatories and music education. Such a formation causes a deviation for these institutions from their main aims. Opening of more and more IGPMEs in the country increases the size of music teachers’ and other artists’ employment problem. It is thought that in Turkey IGPMEs should function in convenience with their establishment aims. Therefore, music teaching should be left Music Teaching 63 Department including pedagogical formation education and related departments of fine arts faculties should be reformed in convenience with their main establishment aims. Related departments of fine arts faculties conflicting with each other are suggested to have more accurate and consistent curricula like in other professional music education institutions. It may be suggested that conflicting departments like Fine Arts Faculty Music and Musical Sciences, Musical Technology, Basic Sciences and Turkic Music can be withdrawn from the body of these institutions and combined in conservatories already hosting them in their body. In a broader meaning, it may be suggested that all the fields can be combined under a musical faculty. References [1] Akdeniz, İ., Türk Mûsıkîsi’nde Enderûn’un Yeri ve Önemi, Atatürk Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi Sanat Dergisi, 4 (2003): 63-67. [2] Akkaş, S., Türkiye’de Cumhuriyet Dönemi Kültür ve Müzik Politikaları (1923-2000), Sonçağ Yayınları, Ankara, 2015. [3] Akyüz, Y. K., Türk Eğitim Tarihi, İstanbul Kültür Yayınları, İstanbul, 1997. [4] Başer, F. A., Tahrir-ü Tahririyye Işığında Mevlevî Ayini Formu, Uluslararası Düşünce ve Sanatta Mevlâna Sempozyumu, Rumi Yayınları, Konya, 2006. [5] Demirci, B., 2006 İlköğretim Müzik Dersi 6. Sınıf Öğretim Programı, Öğretmen Kılavuz Kitabı ve Öğrenci Çalışma Kitaplarının Uygulamadaki Görünümüne Yönelik Değerlendirilmesi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, Ankara, 2009. [6] Ertürk, S., Eğitimde Program Geliştirme, Yelkentepe Yayınları, Ankara, 1972. [7] Gazimihal, M. R., Türk Askeri Mızıkaları Tarihi, Maarif Basımevi, İstanbul, 1955. [8] Good, C., Dictionary of Education, Mc GrawHill Co., New York, 1959. [9] İlyasoğlu, E., Yirminci Yüzyılda Evrensel Türk Müziği, Cumhuriyet’in Sesleri, Tarih Vakfı Yayınları, İstanbul, 1999. [10] Kavcar, C., Cumhuriyet Döneminde Müzik Eğitimi [Bildiri], I. Türk Müziği Kurultayı, Eskişehir İ. T. İ. A. İletişim Bilimleri Fakültesi, 20-23 Ekim 1981: 16-26. [11] Kaya, Y. K., İnsan Yetiştirme Düzenimiz, Politika-Eğitim-Kalkınma, 6. Baskı, Pegem Akademi Yayıncılık, Ankara, 2015. [12] Kaygısız, M., Türklerde Müzik, Yayınları No:317, İstanbul, 2000. Kaynak [13] Koçer, H. A., Türkiye’de Modern Eğitimin Doğuşu, Uzman Yayınları, Ankara, 1987. [14] Özalp, N., Türk Mûsıkîsi Tarihi, I.Cilt, Meb Yayınları No:3109, İstanbul, 2000. [15] Öztürk, M., Öğretimi Planlama-Uygulama ve Değerlendirme, Bizim Büro Basımevi, Ankara, 2007. [16] Parasız, G., Keman Öğretiminde Kullanılmakta Olan Çağdaş Türk Müziği Eserlerinin Seslendirilmesine Yönelik Olarak Oluşturulan Hazırlayıcı Alıştırmaların İşgörüsellik ve Etkililik Yönünden İncelenmesi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, Ankara, 2009. [17] Say, A., Müzik Sözlüğü, Müzik Ansiklopedisi Yayınları, Ankara, 2002. [18] Temiz, E., Türkiye’de Cumhuriyet Döneminden Önce Kurulan Resmi ve Gönüllü Müzik Kuruluşları, e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy, vol.5, 4 (2010): 324-332, http://www.newwsa.com/download/gecici_mak ale_dosyalari/NWSA-1445-4-7.pdf. [19] Tezbaşarır, A., Mehter Tarihi Teşkilatı ve Marşları, Berksoy Basımevi, İstanbul, 1975. [20] Toker, H. ve Özden, E., Osmanlı Devleti’nde Müzik Eğitimi Veren Önemli Kurumlar, Rast Müzikoloji Dergisi, Cilt.1, 2 (2013): 107-128. [21] Uçan, A., İnsan ve Müzik-İnsan ve Sanat Eğitimi, Müzik Ansiklopedisi Yayınları, Kurtuluş Matbaası, Ankara, 1994. [22] Uçan, A., Müzik Eğitimi, Müzik Ansiklopedisi Yayınları, Adalet Matbaası, Ankara, 1997. [23] Uçan, A., Müzik Eğitimi Temel Kavramlarİlkeler-Yaklaşımlar ve Türkiye’deki Durum, Evrensel Müzikevi, Ankara, 2005. [24] Yayla, F., Üniversiter Yapı İçinde Müzik Öğretmeni Yetiştirme Sistemi [Bildiri], Ulusal Müzik Eğitimi Sempozyumu, Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Denizli, 26-28 Nisan 2006: 5867. [25] URL-1: YÖK Formasyon Kararı, 2016. http://www.memurlar.net/haber/205969/2.sayfa 64 A study on the determination of the use status of Turkish music works in cello education BarışDEMİRCİ* Atatürk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Department of Fine Arts Education Music Education Division bdemirci@atauni.edu.tr * Abstract. This study is a descriptive study which is aimed to collect the views of the teaching staff to determine the use status of traditional Turkish music works in cello education. In convenience with the aim of the study, answers of some questions were sought related to teaching programs the cello teaching staff apply to their students including the use and performing status of traditional Turkish music works in cello education and the problems seen in performance processes. Then, general status of traditional Turkish music was evaluated considering music education department cello education processes. Population of the study includes all cello teaching staff at Education Faculty Departments of Music Education at universities in Turkey and the study group is composed of those who participated in the study. Interview method was used to collect data, which was analysed through content analysis. Some suggestions were proposed considering the results of the study. Keywords: Instrument education, cello education, traditional Turkish music 1. Introduction Culture is the combination of the characteristics of a society shaped by traditions, values and life styles in the formation and development process of the same society. These characteristics shape the identity of a society, reflect on the lifestyles of individuals and are dropped to generation next through interaction. In the manifest of World Culture Policies Conference organised by UNESCO (1982), culture was defined in a broad range to be a whole composed of apparent concrete physical, psychologic, mental and emotional characteristics defining a society or a group and a matter of fact including not only science and literature but also life styles, basic human rights, values, traditions, and beliefs [9]. Art, one of the components of culture has taken place in life from the first day of humans on the earth. Art is a fact revealing the potentials and structure of a society and reflecting the cultural formation, development and evolution processes [5]. Based on Atatürk’s principles like modernisation in art culture, nationalism in core, simplicity and understandability in form, uniqueness in expression, contemporariness in method and universality in quality [14], Turkish music culture started a modernisation and universalisation process by conserving its core structure, in the intellectual direction of westernisation. Just as what Atatürk thought, future of Turkish music founded on an identity base with contemporary, national, universal 65 was determined under the structuration of Atatürk’s dynamism and thoughts [1]. Only through this attempt, future may belong to those who conserve their own national identity without omitting it, respect for other identities as much as yours and are compatible with universal values and formations [10]. It is seen when looked into today from the past of Turkey that significance of art is focused in order to be a modern society and attempts and improvements tried to be realised to develop art. Such advancements affected also music art directly. What was experienced in music education in Ottoman period, acquirements and experiences shed light also on Republic period and music education process gained acceleration. In this process, institutions serving for professional music education were founded and started to perform their duties related to education in different structures and aims. These institutions are State Conservatories, Turkish Music State Conservatories, Old Turkish Music State Conservatories, Fine Arts Faculties, Musical Sciences and Music departments and Education Faculties Departments of Fine Arts Education Music Education Divisions. Each institution giving music education follows a certain program. Even though their programs are different from each other they have several common lectures. One of these subjects is instrument education including main and individual instrument. Instrument education is the process where individual combines and shapes mental and physical characteristics and ultimately forms a musical personality. Parasız stated that individual instrumental education can enable students to play their instruments in accurate and correct technique, plan and apply playing time effectively, express their music culture in the best way through instrument and conduct works to increase their musical skills [13]. In the body of aforementioned institutions, instrumental education processes involve both traditional Turkish music works with their original structures and contemporary Turkish music works by adjusting or arranging traditional ones in a polyphonic way. Involving the richness of Turkish music in instrument education programs offers possibility to students to know Turkish music and works by performing and handing them in the generations next. It will be a good approach to increase the number of (inter)national studies especially on the performance of traditional Turkish music works and the problems experienced in their teaching processes. 1.1. Traditional Turkish music teaching processes in cello education and the relation of western music pitch system Cello education taking place in instrument education processes is involved in the body of the mentioned institutions at upgrade education. They continue their programs using both classical western music and Turkish music. At the institutions like conservatories and education faculties music education departments where instrument education is given based heavily on classical western music, contemporary polyphonic Turkish music examples are performed and repertory containing verbal and instrumental examples in traditional music types are arranged for several instruments including cello. Değirmencioğlu and Ararpgirlioğlu stated that modal cello education was started for the first time at İstanbul Technical University Turkish Music State Conservatory in 1976 and today nearly all Turkish Music State Conservatories carry out this education. In addition, from an institutional perspective, in nearly 35 – year history of modal cello education, as in other Turkish music instruments, in cello education traditional Turkish music verbal and instrumental work repertoire is used [4]. It is seen when technical elements and pitch systems (half tone with 12 equal intervals) in classical western music instrument education processes are taken into consideration that the problems expected to be experienced in cello teaching programs and education processes based on the simultaneous application of modal education based on pitch system taking place in Turkish music concept (24 - fret Arel-EzgiUzdilek-24 AEU) and polyphonic Turkish music or classical western music education are the subject of both research and debate. 66 It was highlighted in a study named the usability of Turkish music in violin teaching that the violin is used mostly in Turkish music and when classical western music technique and performance manner are taken into consideration, it is seen that they are not compatible with each other, their pitch systems are different and therefore the use of mode lines closer to tonal system can ease the education [7]. In another study “Cello in Turkish music”, it was that due to the differences in pitch system of Turkish and western music, performing a work in cello in Turkish music has large differences from that in western music [11]. Education Departments Music Education Divisions at the universities founded in the provinces of Ağrı, Ankara, Bolu, Burdur, Çanakkale, Denizli, Erzincan, Erzurum, İstanbul, İzmir, Tokat, Trabzon, Urfa and Van. Problems caused mostly by pitch systems are related to the need for the consideration of left and right hand rules and patterns in the performance in classical western music instrument education. Such technical rules and manners conflict with those used in the performance processes of Turkish music in cello education. However, basic technical manners based on applied sound system in classical western music instrument education processes should be given in Turkish music cello education processes especially at the starting stage and for a definite time period. Through such an application, students can learn the instrument for either locations or spring techniques. Acquirements they obtain can contribute to their performance levels and musical expression status. Four CTs reported that they use TTFM and TTAM works to teach cello to their students. It was aimed in the study in convenience with its subject and the determined problem to detect the views of teaching staff taking place in cello education processes at education faculties music education departments related to the use status of traditional Turkish music works in this education process. With this aim, an interview form was prepared for cello teachers (CTs) and data obtained were analysed and evaluated based on each question using content analysis method. As the result of the study, general status of traditional Turkish music in cello education processes at music education departments was discussed and some suggestions were proposed. 1.2. Institutions of the participants Totally 14 teaching staff participated in the study from Education Faculty Fine Arts 2. Results 2.1. Views of CTs for the first question Question 1. Do your students practice adjusted traditional Turkish folk music (TTFM) works and Turkish art music (TTAM) works to Cello? These works include Nikriz Longa, Çalın Davulları, Beyaz Giyme, Garip (Hicaz Saz Semaisi)-Göksel Baktagir, Senle (Kürdi Saz Semaisi)-Yurdal Tokcan, Hicaz Peşrev-Refik Fersan, Hicaz Saz Semaisi -Refik Talat Alpman, Mini Mini Nihavend Peşrev-Hüseyin Saadettin Arel, Muhayyer-Kürdi Saz Semaisi-Sadi Işılay, Mahur saz semaisi, Kürdili Hicazkar Saz Semaisi, Nihavent longa. One CT stated that he/she doesn’t plan to practice any of such these works while 9 have never had students practice these works. Eight of them stated the reasons why they have done like this as follows: ü Students demand to play these works but I don’t prefer them due to technical difference in left hand. ü Yes, I may think. The works my students can play may be preferred. ü I cannot use traditional Turkish music works since length of the lessons and musical levels of the students are insufficient in Cello teaching programs. ü Yes, such works should be used in cello teaching program, however; they should be adjusted to Tampere system because CTs also should be equipped with efficient skills relted to these works. ü I made interested students play such works using original notes. I didn’t use any adjustment and adjusted works. TRT or Ministry of Culture also does not use adjustment as far as I know. They play by transferring them. ü I generally use etude – based material by considering the technical deficits and working habits of students in teaching process. In 67 addition, I make the students play a small scale work by considering their demands. My aim is to make them acquire first technical then musical skills. I observed through my experiences that students with high ability to play instrument can comfortably, effectively and correctly play traditional music (TTFM and TTAM). However, those with low instrumental capability but willing to practice traditional works play them much worse than their etudes. I think if students improve their instrumental skills they can play all the world’s music. ü I want TTFM and TTAM to take place in cello teaching processes. However, we need to decide on the pitch system we will teach to our students. Western or Turkish music pitch system? In addition, we need teachers to teach our traditional music with micro tonal pitch system because majority of university teaching staff have been brought up by learning western music pitch system. Such a situation is a very big problem for teaching process. ü The number of such works is unfortunately so limited. I surely want students to play them. However, what should be remembered is that what positive contribution is provided to cello through the works we want students to play. Seven CTs stated that they don’t want their students to play adjusted/arranged (Tampere) Turkish music works. Two of them answered the question “Do you want this topic to take place in teaching programs?” as “No”. One replied that since he/she doesn’t have such works he/she doesn’t have such a demand from the students. Four CTs expressed their reason for not demanding such a thing from their students as follows. ü I want but my students’ levels are very important. ü Hours and credits of instrument lessons should be more in music teaching programs. ü It is very difficult in a one – hour lesson to constitute the structure of traditional Turkish music on instrument. ü I want such a thing to take place in teaching programs. ü I very rarely want students to play them because I have difficulty in finding suitable works at efficient level. 2.2. Views of CTs for the second question 2.3. Views of CTs for the third question Question 2. Do you want students to play Turkish music works adjusted/arranged (Tampere) for cello? Question 3. Do your cello students demand for playing Turkish music works? Seven CTs reported that they have their students adjusted/arranged (Tampere) Turkish music works. These works are for 2 cellos Anadolu Ezgileri-Şinasi Çilden, for the cello of Azeri composers, Özlem-Şinasi Çilden, Hicaz Şarkı, Uzun Hava-Erdal Tuğcular, Beyaz Giyme, İzmir Zeybeği, Kırmızı Buğday, Çanakkale Türküsü, Sarı Gelin, Yemen Türküsü. Views on some of the works practiced are as follows: ü Students do not study planned and efficiently enough to play/sing the works. ü In vocalising the works, they have difficulty in the same way with their deficits. ü Only those at a certain level of playing instrument can rarely play the arranged works. ü They have technical difficulty. ü They have difficulty in especially rhythm and dual tones. ü Students sometimes have problems in intonation since the works involve half positions. Thirteen of CTs reported that their students have such a demand for playing / singing Turkish music works while one CT reported they he/she has no student with this demand. 2.4. Views of CTs for the fourth question Question 4. Do you work on traditional mode scales or Tampere lines? Twelve of CTs stated that they work on mode scales or Tampere lines in cello teaching while 2 stated they don’t work on them. Views of CTs on both conditions; ü I find scale works to be important and necessary to grasp and perceive mode concept. ü I have students play the scales of the works compatible with western music selected from suitable tones. ü After the determination of modal 68 characteristics of works I want students to play the scales in connection with their modes. ü After playing modal scale we start playing the works belonging to related mode. ü Before playing the work I certainly make students practice Tampere scale. ü It may make easier to adapt students to intonation of the work to be performed by playing its scale. ü Yes. If we play a modal work as in western music system, we first work on scale. ü Whatever the mode and tone of the works I have students play I absolutely want them to play scale. ü I want students to make Tampere scale works in the same way with its tone. ü I have students play Tampere scale. They do that with a great satisfaction. They feel more comfortable themselves when playing the scales they are familiar with. Their working time gets longer. ü I have them play very little. If repertoire is richer then this will be a must. ü It is useful for students to know basic modal scales I make them do such types of scale works. ü I prefer to concentrate fully on the work rather than modal scale. ü I don’t have students make scale works because I don’t have such works played. 2.5. Views of CTs for the fifth question Question 5. Do you try to arrange / adjust works according to TTFM – TTAM or western music (Tampere) pitch system for cello Four CTs stated that they do adjustment / arrangement trials while 10 do not. Views of CTs are as follows. ü Yes. I do Tampere adjustment trials. I need to transpose the works according to cello registry. Such a condition may be problematic for traditional Turkish music rules. However, I far as I observe, such adjustment may attract the attention of students and start to spend more time for their instrument. ü Yes. I have Tampere works on this subject. I generally consider the levels of my students and try to write simple and easy. I have problems in musical expression. 2.6. Views of CTs for the sixth question Question 6. Do you have arrangements for cello (cello-piano, orchestra, room music etc.)? Four CTs stated that they have such an arrangement for cello while 10 stated that they don’t. Works of CTs are as follows; Barcarole-Tachaikovsky, Maldita NostalgiasJohow, Over The Rainbow-Arlen, OblivionPiazzolla, for Orchestra, Kalanların ardından, Hüzün, Uzun ince bir yoldayım, The smurfs, Bahçalarda Mor Meni, Şehnaz longa, Ederlezi (Film music), Game of Thrones (Film music), for 4 cellos İzmir'in Kavakları ve Selanik Türküsü 3. Results, Discussions and Suggestions Totally 14 teaching staff participating in the study from Education Faculty Fine Arts Education Departments Music Education Divisions at the universities founded in the provinces of Ağrı, Ankara, Bolu, Burdur, Çanakkale, Denizli, Erzincan, Erzurum, İstanbul, İzmir, Tokat, Trabzon, Urfa and Van expressed their views on the use of traditional Turkish music works in cello teaching processes. In addition, they made some suggestions. Four of 14 CTs have their students play TTFM and TTAM works while one CT doesn’t plan to do that. Nine CTs don’t practice such a thing. They also expressed their reasons for not doing it and suggested some views. Common views of CTs who don’t plan to have their students play TTFM and TTAM works are that cello teaching processes are carried out based heavily on western music in music education departments and most of CTs get western music education in instrument education processes and they do not have efficient background. It may be useful to remind some basic rules of instrument education. In individual instrument education lessons, communication between teacher and teaching staff and teaching method play an effective role to access targets [13]. In instrument education, it is aimed that students acquire some skills systematically by practising the knowledge required to play the instrument [2]. In this process, three basic factors affecting the quality are teacher, student 69 and teaching program [3]. Teacher should be director for students in a hard process but not unbeatable. With this view, student will absolutely be successful but after doing things they have to by extending the time over a long period of time under dense efforts and in disciplines. This common view reemphasizes that the process of instrument education is led by teacher, student and the program. One of the reasons why CTs don’t have students play TTFM and TTAM works is that they don’t have practicing materials of this music type (method, etude etc.) or if there are such materials they are not in instrument education processes in Turkey. As is known, traditional Turkish music and western music pitch systems are different from each other. Main problem is that there are not efficient amount of education materials for TTFM and TTAM GTHM. Classical western music instrument teaching methods and techniques should be a reference to traditional Turkish music pitch system and some efforts should be spent to obtain the richness in the materials and techniques western music has. Such a development requires a long breathed working process. It is an inevitable fact that students getting cello education in both sound systems will absolutely face some conflicting situations. Seven CTs stated that they have students play adjusted / arranged Tampere Turkish music works while other 7 don’t. Two of them answered the question “Do you want this topic to take place in teaching programs?” as “No”. One replied that since he/she doesn’t have such works he/she doesn’t have such a demand from the students. Four CTs stated their reason for not playing and suggestions. All the CTs participating in the study have the common view that the number of adjusted / arranged Tampere Turkish music works is not enough and the present ones are not suitable for students’ musical knowledge level and some techniques are difficult to learn. CTs can remove such negative situation by readjusting the adjusted works to their students’ levels. In addition, cello masters in Turkey can produce such types of adjusted and arranged works (like türkü, song etc. and book). Thirteen CTs in the study reported that their students want to perform works belonging to their own culture while one CT reported that his/her students don’t have such demands. In general, nearly all of the students want to play Turkish music works. Reason for this may be in classical western music instrument teaching processes, developing argument materials like etudes, method etc. are applied often and routinely. Therefore, in cello teaching programs giving place to Turkish music works in some intervals may increase students’ interest in the instrument and affect their working performance positively. In addition, students can have opinions, know and play their own music culture and types through their instrument. Twelve of 14 CTs sated that their students play traditional mode or Tampere scale while 2 stated theirs do not. They also stated that when students play these scales they learn both mode lines and have the benefits for sounding process of these works. In western music, scale is defined to be the sequencing of 8 adjacent notes consecutively from any sound as increaser or decreaser. In Turkish music, scale is defined to be the sequencing of again 8 notes consecutively which is formed through the addition of one 4 and one 5 or vice versa [12]. Structure of each music type is different from each other. When students practice scale works they can learn some rules in both types by playing and evaluating them comparatively. Four CTs stated that they have made Tampere adjustment trials while 10 haven’t done such a thing. Adjustments CTs may do can provide them the opportunity to have repertoire of Turkish music types taking place in instrument education processes in Turkey. After that, they can develop this repertoire in convenience with the feedbacks by practicing it in cello teaching process. By doing this, CTs can contribute to the removal of the deficits related to Turkish music types they stated in music education departments. Four of 14 CTs participating in the study stated that they have arrangements for cello (cello-piano, orchestra room music etc.) while 10 not. Attempts to be achieved in this field are related directly to harmony knowledge. 70 According to Uludağ, harmony is to catch the beauty of synchrony among the sounds in an excellent order and unity [15]. CTs may not have such an authority, but nevertheless they can collaborate with those receiving harmony and make new arrangements thus giving a new polyphonic dimension to traditional Turkish music works and contribute to this field. In addition, students can find possibilities to share and practice their own music culture through instrument groups like dio, trio and quartet. The institutions giving music education are named State Conservatories, Turkish Music State Conservatories, Old Turkish Music State Conservatories, Fine Arts Faculties, Musical Sciences and Music departments and Education Faculties Departments of Fine Arts Education Music Education Divisions. These institutions carry out instrument education processes in convenience with their aims and targets. In such a process, 4 basic music types play deterministic roles, which are TTFM, TTAM, polyphonic Turkish music and classical western music. Today, debates still continue on pitch systems and relations between traditional Turkish music types and polyphonic Turkish music. As stated by Demirci, traditional music types should not be ignored and should absolutely survive. Polyphonic Turkish music should be accepted to be a process where it gained an international status. It should be a duty for Turkish nations and generations next to launch the basic principles on which Atatürk’s modernisation program in art culture [6]. As stated by İlerici, at the most advanced scientific age, it is not expected that humans can understand Turkish music wholly but until the invention of a Turkish piano which will definitely be used to evaluate polyphonic relations in Turkish music, we have to use the present one and its capacity. However, it doesn’t mean that it will not work with Turkish sounds. It will be the largest unconsciousness not to work with our own sounds and it will also be the biggest sin to come to a level where we cannot give the eternal gift to humankind [8]. References [1] Budak, O., A., Turkish musicnin kökeni gelişimi, Ankara: Phoenix Yayınevi, (2006) [2] Çelenk, K., Keman Educationnde Vibrato Becerisinin Geliştirilmesine Yönelik Deneysel Bir Çalışma (Gazi Üniversitesi Örneği), Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Ankara, 2010. [3] Çilden, Ş., Müzik öğretmeni yetiştirme sürecinde instrument educationnin nitelik sorunlarının irdelenmesi, Denizli: Ulusal Müzik Education Sempozyumu, 2006. [4] Değirmencioğlu, L., Arapgirlioğlu, H., Makamsal cello öğretiminde popüler müzik eserlerinden yararlanma: (Orhan Gencebay örneği), Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, cilt. 2, sayı:31, 2011. [5] Demirci, B., Cello educationnde traditional Turkish musicne yönelik bir çalışma modeli, Hacettepe Universty Journal of Education, Cilt-sayı, 28(1), 2013. [6] Demirci, B., Cello için Turkish music dizileri, Ankara: Pegem Akademi, (2013) [7] Demircioğlu, N., Keman öğretiminde Turkish musicnin kullanılabilirliği, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İnönü Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Malatya, 1996. [8] İlerici, K., Turkish music ve Armonisi, MEB Devlet Kitapları: İstanbul (1981). [9] Oğuz, E., S., Toplum bilimlerinde kültür kavramı, Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi/Journal of Faculty of Letters, Cilt/Volume 28 Sayı/Number 2, s. 123-139, 2011. [10] Özçelik, S., Küreselleşme ve ulusal müzik kültürüne etkileri, Ankara: Uluslararası Avrupa’da ve Türk Cumhuriyetleri’nde Müzik Kültür ve Education Kongresi, s. 186, 13-16 Kasım Türkiye, 2002. [11] Özgüller, Ö., Turkish music’nde cello, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Haliç Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimleri Enstitüsü Türk Musikisi Ana sanat Dalı, İstanbul, 2007. [12] Özkan, İ., H., Türk musıkisi nazariyatı ve usülleri-kudüm velveleleri, İstanbul: Öztüken Neşriyat A.Ş, 2006. [13] Parasız, G., Keman öğretiminde kullanılmakta olan çağdaş̧ Turkish music eserlerinin seslendirilmesine yönelik 71 olarak oluşturulan hazırlayıcı alıştırmaların işgörüsellik ve etkililik yönünden incelenmesi, Yayımlanmamış̧ Doktora Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Müzik Öğretmenliği Bilim Dalı, Ankara, 2009. [14] Uçan, A., İnsan ve müzik insan ve sanat education, Ankara: Evrensel Müzik Evi, (2005). [15] Uludağ, A., K., Turkish music Çokseslendirme Dersi İçin Tasarlanan Bir Akor Programlama Çalışması ve Etkililik Düzeyleri, Journal of Human Sciences, vol.13, 2 (http://dx.doi.org/10.14687/jhs.v13i2.3792 2016). 72 Study of music teachers’ opinions about individualised education programs (IEP) Gökalp PARASIZ* *Atatürk University Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty Department of Fine Arts Education Music Education Division gparasiz@atauni.edu.tr Abstract. Education of individuals needing special education is completed through Individualised Education Program (IEP) used in present education programs and adjusted separately to each student. Effectiveness of IEP is directly associated with the knowledge and experience of teachers in special education and preparation and application of IEP topics. From this point of view, at the first stage, determination of deficiencies and problems of music teachers related to IEP is a very important topic. Data in the scope of the study were collected through interview technique among qualitative data collection techniques and supported by document analysis technique. Study group was composed of 33 secondary school music teachers having full time inclusive students in 20152016 education term in the centre of Erzurum city. It was found that participant music teachers in the study do not have enough knowledge about inclusion application and the content of IEP. Requirement of IEP was determined to be the common view of teachers. In addition, it is also expected by music teachers that in order to remove their deficiencies in both preparation and application of IEP they should have an extensive education at BSc stage and training course after they start teaching. Keywords: Music education, individualised education program (IEP), inclusion in music education 1. Introduction Education program is a tool prepared and renovated consistently to cause desired behavioural changes among children and youths. It is closely related to education policy on one side and application field on the other side. It functions as a bridge connecting practice with National Education policy [21]. On preparing educational programs, special needs are considered not only for normal students but also those needing special care (students needing special care; SNSC) and education for their individual characteristics and differences. Individuals showing significant differences from their peers in individual characteristics and educational efficiencies are called individuals requiring special education (IRSE) [1]. Taking individual differences into consideration in education and teaching process is among the most important subjects of education. It is a basic right to students needing special care to get education for their individual characteristics. Making adjustment to their educational regulations and providing supporting educational services are needed for them. Today, services involving the methods confining SNSCs the least are preferred the most [16]. Special education is defined in a legal regulation (code 573 3rd item term b) to be that special education is the type of education conducted in convenient areas and designed for SNSCs to satisfy their educational needs with the help of specially trained staff, developed educational programs and methods suitable for their deficiencies and characteristics [12]. It is also defined as the type of education provided to children with different and special needs, increasing the capacity of individuals with superior characteristics convenient to their capabilities to maximum, preventing deficiencies from turning into disability and supporting the disabled individuals to become self – efficient and independent producer individuals and integrate with society [2]. 73 It is very important for disabled students to integrate with the society and gain the skills of independent living through successful inclusion programs [15]. same classroom through accurate methods and approaches to provide them possibility to use their special characteristics in the best way and make easier their life in the society. Inclusion practices began in 1970s in the USA with the rise of Inclusion Law then separated to other countries. With the practised law, disabled children received possibility to have education with their normal peers and the requirement of such an application is emphasized. Inclusive education model main aim of which is to offer possibility for SNSCs to have education with their peers in general education facilities was discussed in many countries and had practice area due to legal regulations, results of the studies, pressure from parents groups [18]. In UK, with the legal regulation in 1993 (Education Law) and Practical Guide prepared in 1994 aimed to provide possibilities at the possible highest level for SNSCs from every disability groups to utilise special education services by determining the principles of the regulations (Department for education, 1994, trans. Özgür) [16]. In 2005, the law of citizenship of the disabled, their inclusion to the society and equality of their rights in France take the disabled into consideration in a general framework. Such a legal regulation is accepted to be an important advancement since for the first time France has such a statement in its human rights law. In the new framework of the law and regulation, inclusion of the disabled to social life is a base [7]. Sucuoğlu et al. stated that in many countries inclusion practices are expanding and the number of heterogeneous classrooms is increasing in general education classrooms and primary school teachers may face SNSCs more often [19]. At every stage of life, sportive and artistic activities to be carried out with peers can ensure the development in the individual and social development of people and the skills the activities require. Peer interactions involving such sportive and artistic activities are very important since they enable both social interactions and the opportunity to learn various skills. In such activities, individuals become aware of interest and abilities of other participants of the activity and gain new skills while spending quality time with other peers [20]. Zick stated in a study conducted on When literature is reviewed in Turkey related to the education of SNSCs, it is seen that such students had education discretely from others in 60s and 70s. From 1970, convenient students began to have education with their peers (as a kind of inclusive education). Form mid-1980s, it has been seen that programs and activities carried out in normal schools began to expand for SNSCs by making adjustment for them [16]. Inclusion is the education of SNSCs in normal education environment on the condition of providing special education services to teachers and students [11]. The aim of inclusive education is to reveal the abilities and interests of SNSCs going on their education with their normal peers in the mentally disabled students that in Germany at a primary school mentally disabled students can integrate with other students with the help of the conversation and behaviours in the classroom environment their peers can support them, in especially music and PE classes all the classroom come together and can make common activities [22]. The main issue of the inclusion is providing supportive service. Without providing special education support services, inclusion will only be a placement of SNSCs in a normal education classroom. However, inclusion is completely achieved only when SNSCs or teachers or both are supported when needed [4]. Present situation needs to be determined at schools where inclusion is practised to obtain the expected benefits of inclusive education, to make required changes and regulations and differentiate/adjust the system according to the areas the schools are located. Such a determination attempt can ease infrastructure works like the setup of support systems, growing up of experienced and expert staff to work at such schools, designing inclusive environment, training SNSCs and their families and removal of the problems of staff working at this application [10]. 74 Education through inclusion has 3 different application models as fulltime, part time and reverse inclusion. 1.1. Full time inclusion SNSC is registered in a normal classroom and receives his/her whole – day education in the same classroom. Special education support services and (support education room), special tools and equipment and education materials are provided for SNSCs to get their education in the same classroom with their peers at preschool, primary and secondary school and general education institutions and integrate with their peers socially. IEP is applied and required adjustments are designed for SNSCs [13]. 1.2. Part-time inclusion In this type of inclusion, SNSCs attend some lessons or outdoor activities with their normal peers in the same classroom or out [13]. IEP is a written document for SNSCs to develop or meet their educational needs in disciplines taking place in the program they receive (self-maintenance, academic abilities, social skills, communication etc.) at suitable educational environments (school, special education schools, special education classroom etc.) and to benefit the most from supportive education services (support education room, classroom assistance, language and speaking therapy, physical rehabilitation etc.). Such a document is planned with the collaboration of family, teacher, and related specialists and applied with the family’s approval [14]. IEP is not a contract document guaranteeing the planned advancement in students’ performance. However, all the services written down in IEP should be provided to SNSCs and IEP team should help SNSCs to achieve all targets taking place in IEP (NCSE, 2006; Pierangelo and Giuliani, 2007, trans. Avcıoğlu) [3]. 1.3. Reverse inclusion This inclusion is applied when the school is specially designed for SNSCs but normal students want to attend it. In this case, either normal students are allowed to attend the same classrooms with SNSCs or they are taken to a discrete classroom [13]. With the inclusive education programs, SNSCs can get their education with their peers from preschool to the end of secondary school and be prepared for social life [14]. It a requirement according to Wolfe and Hall (2003) and Wood, (2002) in each inclusion practice that academic and social benefits of all students from the inclusion should consistently increase, IEPs should be prepared, students’ performance should be monitored, teachers should be positive role models, other students should raise awareness/sensitiveness towards individual differences, SNSCs should participate actively in education by interacting positively with their peers and make SNSCs feel the ownership of the area they are in and make collaboration with people and institutions [5]. According to Özyürek, IEP is a general flow chart for SNSCs showing what behaviours they should do and how and with whom they should do the sub - activities [17]. Several studies have been conducted since the beginning of inclusion practices on nearly whole aspects of the subject including its importance and applicability and the determination of the views of pre- and primary school and branch teachers and special education experts, families and school directors. Results of these studies generally include that the interviewed individuals generally look positive into inclusion practices and SNSCs should get their education under special inclusive environment. In addition, in the studies determining views, teachers are reported to have still problems with inclusion practices and state that as they have such deficiencies inclusion does not have a good for SNSCs and their peers [6]. Field and branch teachers have very critical duties and responsibilities in the inclusion education of SNSCs in Turkey. IEPs should be prepared and applied effectively and accurately in order to have a successful education model. One of the fields supporting the social and educational development of SNSCs the most is music and education with music. In the study of Hirler in Germany on preschool students, SNSCs and normal students come together and dance in a rhythm. They also develop their creativeness. Music 75 education is an important method in the mentioned study. Music seen to be a universal language moves emotions and integrates children in the same place through a pedagogic infrastructure [8]. In 2005 in France, teachers were trained about the acceptance of the disabled in music education by Cemafore in the scope of a program after which this training turned out to be a complementary must for music teachers [7]. Present study aims to determine the views of music teachers about the preparation and application of IEP over the secondary school music teachers in the city centre of Erzurum who have full time inclusive students. Descriptive method was used in the study. Data were collected using interview technique, one of the methods of qualitative data collection and supported by document analysis techniques. Data collection by asking questions to subjects is generally a face to face method [9]. The study includes 33 secondary school music teachers in the city centre of Erzurum who have full time inclusive students. Following titles are the main matters of the interview. • Education status of music teachers related to inclusion education • Efficiency of teachers in the preparation of IEP • Music teachers’ demand for assistance in the preparation of IEP • Problems of music teachers in preparing their IEP • Problems of music teachers in applying their IEP for their aims Questions in the interview form were prepared under the control of one expert and one education programmer in special education. Participant teachers determined randomly were included in the study after getting permission from local governorate and educational administration of Erzurum. Teachers were visited in their schools and told the aims and scope of the study. Data collected from the interviews were analysed in complementary method. 2. Findings Table 1. Education status of music teachers related to inclusion education I have had education on the subject I haven’t received any education 4 29 It is seen from Table 1 that 4 music teachers have had inclusion lecture at university while the rest, 29 haven’t received such a lecture. Table 2. Efficiency preparation of IEP of teachers in the 4 I have sufficient knowledge about IEP I have prepared IEP for inclusive students 28 I cannot prepare IEP for inclusive 5 students Table 2 presents the situation of music teachers in preparation efficiency of IEP for SCSCs. It is seen from the table that 4 teachers have sufficient knowledge about IEP, 28 have prepared IEP in their professional life and 5 cannot prepare IEP. Table 3. Music teachers’ demand for assistance in the preparation of IEP I demand assistance from guiding teacher I demand assistance from school administration I do not make preparation 24 7 9 In Table 3, preparation status of music teachers is evaluated and 24 music teachers demand assistance from guiding teacher when preparing IEP, 7 from school administration while 9 do not make any preparation for this activity. 76 Table 4. Problems of music teachers in preparing their IEP attending the lessons and 5 do not express their ideas. I do not have efficient knowledge about the needs of inclusive students I cannot find any sample documents related to IEP in music education field I cannot produce creative opinions about the subject I cannot prepare IEP which can integrate SNSCs with normal students and make communication between them I cannot get enough knowledge and support from families No comment 3. Results, discussions and suggestions 11 27 22 25 8 5 According to Table 4 related to the problems music teachers faced when preparing IEP, 11 teachers do not have efficient knowledge about the needs of inclusive students, 27 cannot find any sample documents related to IEP in music education field, 22 cannot produce creative opinions about the subject, 25 cannot prepare IEP which can integrate SNSCs with normal students and make communication between them, 8 cannot get enough knowledge and support from families while 5 do not express their opinions about the subject. Table 5. Problems of music teachers in applying their IEP for their aims I don’t find the length of classes to be sufficient I cannot get enough support from school administration I cannot get enough support from families I have difficulty in finding suitable tools for the lesson I have inclusive students not attending the lessons No comment 28 13 8 28 18 5 As can be seen in Table 5, when the problems music teachers experienced while applying their IEP in convenience with their aims are evaluated following results were found. Twenty – eight teachers reported that the length of class is not enough, 13 teachers do not get efficient support from school administration while 8 from families, 28 teachers have difficulty in finding suitable tools for the lesson, 18 teachers have inclusive students not Among 33 music teachers participating in the study in the sampling area of Erzurum city centre, 4 had inclusion lecture at university while the rest, 29 reported that they did not receive such a lecture. This situation shows that music teachers do not have efficient knowledge and education about inclusion practices. It was seen when the efficiency of teachers about IEP obliged to be used in inclusion practices in the education of was considered that only 4 of 33 teachers had sufficient knowledge about IEP, 28 of them had previously prepared IEP in their professional life even though they did not know much about it and 5 teachers could not prepare IEP. It was stated in the study that 24 music teachers demanded assistance from guiding teacher when preparing IEP and 7 from school administration while 9 teachers did not make preparation for this activity. It was determined when the problems music teachers faced when preparing IEP that 11 teachers did not have efficient knowledge about the needs of inclusive students. Furthermore, 27 teachers reported that they could not find any sample documents related to IEP in music education field. Twenty-two teachers were determined not to produce creative opinions about the subject. It was seen that 25 teachers could not prepare IEP which can integrate SNSCs with normal students and make communication between them, 8 teachers could not get enough knowledge and support from families while 5 teachers did not express their opinions about the subject. It was also seen when the problems music teachers experienced while applying their IEP in convenience with their aims were considered that 28 teachers reported that the length of class is not enough, 13 teachers did not get efficient support from school administration while 8 from families, 28 teachers had difficulty in finding suitable tools for the lesson, 18 teachers had inclusive students not attending the lessons and 5 did not express their ideas. 77 It was found that the teachers participating in the study do not have efficient knowledge about inclusion practices and the content of IEP. Music teachers have difficulty in finding sample IEP suitable with their branch, cannot produce opinions to elaborate the education of SNSCs and get information about SNSCs from their families, experience problems in SNSCs’ attending the class and find length of the lessons to be in efficient. Common view of music teachers is that IEP is required for SNSCs, in addition, they expect that they should be trained about the preparation and application of IEP to complete their deficits in the subject. Knowledge about special education is given to music teacher candidates in the music teaching program at the 4th grade and 8th term. However, in general, when this subject is evaluated in the class experienced and specialist teachers are invited to the lecture and asked to tell their experiences. When considered the results of the study, it is seen that music teachers do not get enough education about this subject and cannot be aware of the importance of the subject at BSc level. It is seen that in order to achieve the aim of special education lecture a more comprehensive lecture plan should be prepared and some projects should be prepared and applied for special education. Music teachers who will often face inclusive students in their teaching profession should get a detailed education about the subject and after graduating they should update their knowledge about special education and support their basic knowledge with new ideas. Classification of SNSCs can be made under such titles as difficulties in learning, language and speaking defects, mental disability, emotional and behavioural disorders, multiple disability, auditory and visual losses, hearing difficulty, orthopaedic disorders, other health problems (chronic illnesses), deficiency in seeing, autism, traumatic brain diseases, retarded development, attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder, gifted and talented mind. It is required for teachers to know the group of a SNSC and the needs of this group and IEPs should be prepared in this frame. In IEPs, to be prepared and applied by teachers, collaboration between students, families, school administration, private teachers and guide teacher should be focused and spent care. In addition, physical conditions in the classrooms and materials to be used in the class should be provided in the best possible ways. Great care about the preparation and application of IEPs may provide positive interaction between SNSCs by increasing their self-esteem and their environment and peers. References [1] Aral, N., Gürsoy, F., Özel Eğitim Gerektiren Çocuklar Ve Özel Eğitime Giriş, MORPA kültür yayınları Ltd.Ş. İstanbul, s. 21, 2009. [2] Ataman, A., Özel Gereksinimli Çocuklar ve Özel Eğitime Giriş, Ankara: Gündüz eğitim ve Yayıncılık, 2003. [3] Avcıoğlu, H., A’dan Z’ye BEP, Bireyselleştirilmiş Eğitim Programlarının Geliştirilmesi, Vize Basın Yayın. Ankara, 2015. [4] Batu, E., S., Kaynaştırma, Destek Hizmetler ve Kaynaştırmaya Hazırlık Etkinlikleri, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 2(4) 35-45, Ankara, 2000. [5] Çolak, A., Vuran, S., Uzuner, Y., Kaynaştırma Uygulanan Bir İlköğretim Sınıfındaki Sosyal Yeterlik Özelliklerinin Betimlenmesi ve İyileştirilmesi Çalışmaları, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 14 (2), 33-49, 2013. [6] Diken, İ. H., Edt., İlköğretimde Kaynaştırma, Ankara: Pegem Akademi, s. 17-18, 2013. [7] EUCREA France, Accès des personnes handicapées à la Culture Droits & Demarches Guide à l’usage des associations de personnes handicapées Une réalisation Eucrea France 2011 avec le soutien du Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication EUCREA Fransa, s. 11, 2011. [8] Hirler, S., (Themenheft "Kinderund Musik"); Hrsg.: Deutsche Liga für das KindKinder brauchen Musik, Spiel und Tanz: Rhythmik als ganzheitliches Bildungsangebot in der frühkindlichen Erziehung, Aus: Frühe Kindheit – die 78 ersten sechs Jahre 2005, 8. Jg., Heft 4, s. 813 [9] Kaptan, S., Bilimsel Araştırma ve İstatistik Teknikleri, Tek Işık Web Ofset Tesisleri, Ankara, s. 143, 1998. [10] Kargın, T. F., Acarlar, B. Sucuoğlu. Öğretmen, Yönetici ve Anne-Babaların Kaynaştırma Uygulamalarına İlişkin Görüşlerinin Belirlenmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 4 (2), 55-76, 2003. [11] Kırcaalı İftar, G., Özel Eğitimde Kaynaştırma, Eğitim ve Bilim, 16,45 50 1992. [12] MEB, Özel eğitim Hakkında Hükmünde Kararname, 1997. [20] Şenel, H. G., Otizmli Bireylerle Akranlarının Spor ve Sanat Etkinlikleri Aracılığıyla Etkileşimde Bulundukları İki Örnek Uygulama, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 10 (2), 65-72, 2009. [21] Varış, F., Eğitimde Program Geliştirme. “Teoriler ve teknikler”, s. 51, 7. Baskı. Alkım Kitap Yayıncılık, Ankara, 1997. [22] Zick, N., Integrative Förderung geistig behinderter Kinder, Am Beispiel einer Grundschule mit integrativer Konzeption und einer Sonderschule für geistig Behinderte, Diplomarbeit, Diplomica Verlag, p.45, 2005. Kanun [13] MEB, Kaynaştırma Yoluyla Eğitim Uygulamaları, Özel Eğitim Hizmetleri Yönetmeliği, 02. 09. 2008, 23/2-a-b-j, Tarihli Genelge. [14] MEB, Okullarımızda Neden Nasıl Niçin Kaynaştırma, MEB Özel Eğitim Rehberlik ve Danışma Hizmetleri Genel Müdürlüğü. Ankara, s. 38, 2010. [15] Orel, A., Töret, G., Zerey, Z., Sınıf Öğretmeni Adaylarının Kaynaştırmaya Yönelik Tutumlarının İncelenmesi, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 5 (1), 23-33, 2004. [16] Özgür, İ., İlköğretimde Kaynaştırma. Karahan Kitabevi, Adana, s. 1-30, 2011. [17] Özyürek, M., Bireyselleştirilmiş Eğitim Programını Geliştirme ve Temelleri, Kök Yayıncılık: Ankara, 2010. [18] Sucuoğlu, B., Türkiye’de Kaynaştırma Uygulamaları: Yayınlar/Araştırmalar (1980-2005), Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 5 (2), 15-23, 2004. [19] Sucuoğlu, B., Ünsal, P., Özokçu, O., Kaynaştırma Sınıfı Öğretmenlerinin Önleyici Sınıf Yönetimi Becerilerinin İncelenmesi, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 5 (2), 51-64, 2004. 79