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Fifteenth century England is recognised by historians as an era characterised by political disorder and turbulence. The throne of England changed eight times during the course of the Fifteenth century alone and this goes some way in demonstrating the political instability experienced by the nation. Of the many sudden changes of political fortune, which mark English society in the fifteenth century, none is more remarkable than the recovery of the Yorkist cause. Edward, duke of York, a claimant to the throne through his descent from the second son of Edward III, was proclaimed king in March 1461 following his victory over the army of Henry VI at the Battle of Towton. Edward IV’s usurpation of the throne heralded a new Yorkist dynasty following the sixty two- year old rule dominance of the crown by the House of Lancaster. This paper will analyse the tactics and methods by which Edward IV managed to retain his throne at the same time as reasserting the prestige of the monarchy following the disastrous reign of Henry VI. The relationship between displays of finery and masculinity, it will be argued, was representative of Edward IV’s personal inclination to consolidate his kingship through public spectacles that showcased his manhood and indicated his strong hold over the throne. The purpose of this paper is to reflect that Edward IV projected a specific form of knightly masculinity that intentionally contrasted to the pious and saintly image of Henry VI. My analysis of Edward’s kingship and masculinity focuses on one important setting that allowed high status individuals to demonstrate their manhood: the medieval tournament. Edward IV was the first king to compete in the tournament since Edward III, who had set the precedent of the knightly model through his active participation in chivalry. This paper argues that Edward IV’s reign was a rebirth of chivalry principally through the return of the tournament at court, which enabled him to exert his authority and manhood amongst those of the elite who might seek to challenge his right to the throne.
Chivalric traditions continued to shape all aspects of life for those of high status in the late medieval and early modern periods. But this same period has most often been characterised as witnessing a decline of chivalry. Indeed William Worcester and William Caxton lamented this decline of chivalry and a related loss of English masculinity, grieving for the loss of French territories, all of which took an emotional toll on the English nation. Yet in fact Edward IV’s reign brought a revival of chivalry as his kingship was presented as the antidote to England’s humiliation through his embodiment of a chivalrous version of masculinity. From the start of his reign Henry VIII also made it clear that he wanted to go to war with France. He felt compelled to equal and to even surpass the victories of his martial hero Henry V not just for his own prestige, but also for England’s. This paper argues that by the late fifteenth century the English nation was more chivalric than it had been for decades as noblemen untied against a common enemy, thus displaying a range of emotions that included: nostalgia, anger and revenge. This paper will also examine the role of the medieval tournament in establishing knightly bonds between the men of the tiltyard and both kings who held and competed in jousting contests. Friendships between knights were the most important bonds in the elite cultural system that constituted chivalric life. This paper identifies individuals such as William Hastings and Anthony Woodville in the reign of Edward IV who demonstrated chivalric masculinity because of his knightly expertise. For Edward in the absence of brothers in the tiltyard, these men provided a substitute for this familial connection; functioning as the king’s chivalric brothers- in-arms, who promised mutual support, encouraged acts of bravery and personal loyalty. This paper demonstrates that the mutual respect between Edward and these chivalric brothers saw them develop strong emotional bonds that transcended beyond the tiltyard and even beyond death.
At the battle of Mortimer’s Cross in Wales on the 2 February 1461, the eighteen year old Edward earl of March, proved himself to be a capable soldier, defeating a Lancastrian force. At the time Edward’s contemporaries did not doubt his military prowess, or great courage and hardiness. Thomas More wrote that: ‘in war, sharp and fierce; in the field, bold and hardy’. It was Edward’s decisive victory at Mortimer’s cross, which clearly demonstrated that he was the best general on the Yorkist side. Edward IV set a heroic example to his men of being fierce in battle and having proved his hegemonic masculinity, there could be no question regarding his ability to embody the warrior ideal. In this paper, I argue that there was a strong identification between the warrior ethos and notions of manhood and kingship in the late medieval and early modern period. Edward IV and Henry VIII’s reigns brought a renewal of military activity as both sought to recuperate English chivalric masculinity, whilst they also celebrated the earlier achievements of the medieval warrior kings. Edward was a warrior king in the first instance because he had to be. Henry tried to be one. It becomes apparent in this paper that this was the sort of king that his subjects wanted too. Significantly for Edward and Henry their nobles remained intrinsically warriors, as a result they were able to develop strong homosocial bonds with their men as they took personally to the battlefield unlike their predecessors. One important aspect that this paper also illustrates is that those men, who took a leading role in warfare tended to be the same men, who had dominated the tiltyard during the reigns of Edward IV and Henry VIII.
Whereas tournaments of the late thirteenth century were infused with cross-channel contact, whether in reciprocity of form or in the international composition of the participants involved, by the early fifteenth century, tournament forms in England and the Netherlands had significantly diverged. As has been thoroughly explored by recent historians, English tournaments became increasingly socially exclusive, whilst retaining an international dimension in the interests of diplomacy. However, this essay demonstrates that this development was by no means typical of all late medieval tournaments. The case of the Low Countries demonstrates that the more socially inclusive style tournaments did continue into the fifteenth century, and provided an opportunity for the ducal household and noblemen to come into contact with patrician townspeople and even more diverse urban audiences.
2019 •
The aim of this thesis is to explore and uncover the strong presence chivalry had during the development of the early Tudor dynasty, particularly following the end of the Wars of the Roses and into the early modern era. It seeks to answer the questions of how prevalent the phenomena of chivalry and courtly love were during the transition from the medieval to the early modern period, as well as their importance in the political and dynastic foundations of the Tudor dynasty. Further, the work aims to examine what chivalry and courtly love reveals about gender, politics, and social dynamics during the reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII. In the foundations of his reign, Henry VII craved dynastic stability, legitimacy, and monarchical power. In establishing his dynasty, Henry attempted to create a legacy that emphasised the conceptual ideals of chivalry, and courtly love, as critical for strength, courtly performance and politics. The thesis will argue that the early Tudor kings sought to drive cultural chivalric elements into the political, and dynastic foundations of the early Tudor public sphere. It will explore how chivalric and courtly love ideals created a framework for conversation and behaviour, gauging how gender roles were perceived and performed by courtiers during the reigns of Henry VII and Henry VIII. Chivalry’s place in Tudor court culture has been considerably understated, discussed as a cultural undertone, and not properly contextualised. By focussing on this cultural ideal in early Tudor court life, the thesis will argue chivalric discourse was crucial to both kings and courtly performance.
‘Best loved of the King’: homosocial bonding and male friendships at the courts of Edward IV and Henry VIII Homosocial bonding played a major role throughout the Middle Ages in the transfer of power and prestige between the king and his men at court. In particular the bond between knights at the courts of both Edward IV and Henry VIII was expressed as a form of ennobling love. Many of these ‘new men’ at the courts of Edward IV and Henry VIII were able to advance their status through homosocial relationships, which were clearly an important aspect of a man's identity as a courtly gentleman in this period. This paper examines and reflects on the representation of male friendships in the late Middle Ages, which has often failed to depict homosociality as anything other than a superficial interaction. Yet Edward IV and Henry VIII chose to prioritise these male friendships above their male-female relationships and they formed an emotional attachment to these men. My analysis of Edward IV and Henry VIII’s relationship with these men focuses on one important setting that enabled them to develop a close homosocial bond with these knights: the medieval tournament. This paper argues that the primacy of Edward and Henry’s love for their chivalrous companions was displayed through a non-verbal form of interaction in the tiltyard. Though this was a public space, the close proximity and bodily contact experienced between king and knight signified the homosocial bonds of chivalry. It is the aim of this paper to demonstrate that the performance of chivalric masculinity was intimately bound up with the companionship of other men and that this desire to be included in the dominant male group led to the formation of strong emotional bonds between king and knight.
Le Chevalier Délibéré (1483) by Olivier de la Marche (c. 1425-1502) is a poem of great literary value. But it was also conceived and received in a historical context. Its central theme, the tournament of Atropos (Death), reflects the spectacle of choice for the Burgundian Nobility of the fifteenth century: the tournament, specifically the Pas d'Armes.
By comparing two knights of two different eras, can we record the evolution of chivalry? William Marshal (c.1147-1217) lived during the age in which chivalry was mid-way through it evolution. He lived the life of a knight who had to fight for his living and propelled himself through the ranks of the aristocracy due to his achievements on both the battlefield and the tournament. When he was knighted before the battle of Drincourt (1167) he held no land. However, upon his death he held the prestigious earldom of Pembrokeshire, lands in Ireland as well as being the Marshal of England during Henry III's infancy. Richard Beauchamp on the other hand was born into a noble family. His father was part of the Lord's Appellant which rebelled against Richard II (1387) and from this the Beauchamp family lost all of their land. However, upon Henry Bolingbroke (future Henry IV) usurping the crown from Richard in 1399, Thomas Beauchamp found himself in royal favour. Like Marshal, Richard proved himself on the battlefield. He was present at the battle of Shrewsbury (1403) and ventured on a pilgrimage (similar to Marshal). Upon his return he loyally served Henry V in France and became the lieutenant of Calais. Both of these knights lived in two different eras. Richard was more educated and learned of the ways of the chivalric culture than Marshal due to it's evolution. However, both were great warriors and leaders of men who extended their wealth. This dissertation discusses both of the lives of these great knights while comparing the differences of the late Twelfth and early Fifteenth Centuries.
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