The Fifteenth-Century ‘School’ of Rennes Reconsidered

The Fifteenth-Century "School of Rennes" Reconsidered Author(s): Diane E. Booton Source: Gesta, Vol. 44, No. 1 (2005), pp. 31-45 Published by: International Center of Medieval Art Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25067110 . Accessed: 12/06/2011 08:49 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at . http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=icma. . 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BOOTON Houghton Library, Harvard University The Master of the Hours d'Orl?ans ofMarguerite (Paris, BnF, MS lat. 1156 B, after 1426) is thoughtby some scholars to have a pivotal played role in the development illuminators "school" of manuscript Rennes fifteenth-century working of the in early This article in the duchy of Brittany. and the manuscript's codicological stylistic fea tures of its two artists?the Orl?ans Master and the Calendar with two Painter?as well as its proposed stylistic association examines considered manuscripts influential to the "school," notably theChantemerleMissal (Paris, BnF, MS lat. 1098) and an unpublished book of hours (Paris, Biblioth?que de l'Arsenal, that a third suggest, however, 616). Visual comparisons illuminator, whom I shall call the Chantemerle Painter, after was primarily in the the missal, responsible for illumination This article also considers the extent latter two manuscripts. MS of commercial documentation manuscript sources. historically and remains While undocumented gathered on based in Rennes production archival and manuscript from u a is school of Rennes" plausible, a hypothesis. Since 1935, issues of lay and ecclesiastical patronage of monumental sculpture and architectural projects in themedi eval duchy of Brittany have received full scholarly attention.1 In contrast, the regional patronage of illuminated manuscripts remains less explored, while the commercial production of books and manuscripts in latemedieval Brittany is a compar atively neglected topic.2Within this field of medieval schol arship, however, the art historian Eberhard K?nig has offered importantcontributions tomedieval manuscript studies by pre senting a broad stylistic interpretation of the development of the region's manuscript illumination in the laterMiddle Ages. In the 1980s K?nig proposed the existence of a local school of manuscript illuminators inmedieval Rennes.3 Based largely on stylistic analysis and liturgical usage among a group of illuminated books of hours, his hypothesis, though it has gained some currency, remains very much in question.4 His theory builds chiefly on the presumed influence of the Master of theHours ofMarguerite d'Orl?ans on a few illumi nators who produced books of hours for patrons in Brittany. The artist's masterpiece, theHours of Marguerite d'Orl?ans (Paris, BnF, MS lat. 1156 B, use of Rome), was illuminated after the 1426 marriage ofMarguerite d'Orl?ans (1404-1466), countess of Vertus and daughter of Louis d'Orl?ans and Va count lentine Visconti, toRichard de Montfort (1395-1438), GESTA XLIV/1 ? The and the youngest son of Duke JeanV of Brittany. Marguerite's manuscript was primarily illuminated by two artists: theMaster of theHours ofMarguerite d'Orl?ans, also known as theOrl?ans Master, who painted most of themin iatures (Fig. 1), and theCalendar Painter, who was responsi of ?tampes Abstract International Center of Medieval Art 2005 31 ble for the twinmedallions illustrating the occupations of the months and the zodiac on the calendar pages (Figs. 2 and 3).5 According toK?nig, theOrl?ans Master probably worked in Paris, Bourges, Poitiers, Angers, and briefly inRennes. K?nig placed the proposed local school of illuminators in Rennes, because he attributed two illuminated manuscripts thatwere written for the liturgical use of Rennes to the same Calendar Painter. The firstwas a missal made for a member of the Chantemerle family, now in the Biblioth?que nationale de France (MS lat. 1098), and the second a book of hours in the Biblioth?que de l'Arsenal in Paris (MS 616), which will be described more fully below and reproduced here for the first time. K?nig concludes that the liturgical use of a manuscript may conveniently identify its place of production.6 Among thematerial outcomes of theOrl?ans Master's in fluence, K?nig maintains, were books of hours illuminated by local artists for the regional nobility that imitate themaster's colorful borders teeming with small active figures. K?nig's examples include two books of hours by theMaster of Rennes 34 (ca. 1430-1450, use of Rome),7 contributions to several books of hours by theMaster ofWalters W. 221 (ca. 1425 1450, use of Rennes, Rennes variant, or undetermined),8 and several books of hours by theMaster of theHours of Jean de Montauban (ca. 1430-1460, use of Rennes, St. Brieuc, and The local illuminators betray theirprovincialism, unknown).9 for in their less elegant style and use of brash colors K?nig sees a display of the crude and uncultured tendencies typical of theprovincial locale, and even of the artists' "temp?rament mal contr?l?."10 The hypothesis that a late medieval school of illumi nators existed inRennes is historically plausible, but such a school is undocumented. The theory is also weak on stylistic grounds, for, as this paper will show, the attribution of both to the Cal the Arsenal Hours and the Chantemerle Missal endar Painter appears questionable when the twomanuscripts are closely compared with the calendar pages in theHours of Marguerite d'Orl?ans. Moreover, comparisons will dem onstrate that a different artist, active about 1415-1420, was primarily responsible for the illumination in the other two calendar d'Orl?ans, Painter, Hours of Marguerite lat. 1156 B, fol. 7 the month of July, after 1426, Paris, BnF, MS nationale de France) (Clich? Biblioth?que FIGURE 2. Calendar page for 1. Orl?ans Master, Hours ofMarguerite FIGURE d'Orl?ans, Descent of the Holy Spirit, after 1426, Paris, BnF, MS lat. 1156 B, fol. 150 (Clich? Biblio th?que nationale de France) manuscripts. This other artist, who here will be called the Chantermerle Painter after themissal in Paris, borrows cer tain iconographie motifs from the Boucicaut Master and the Rohan Master, two well-known and influential artists in the it is pos history of French manuscript illumination. While sible that theOrl?ans Master or his illuminated manuscripts still exerted some stylistic and iconographie influence in Brittany, his connection to Rennes by way of the Calendar Painter appears questionable. Looking beyond specific attri butions, we might also ask whether medieval Rennes offered a viable market to employ parchmenters, scribes, and illumi nators in commercial The Hours Calendar production. ofMarguerite Painter toK?nig's d'Orl?ans and the study of theHours of Marguerite According d'Orl?ans, themanuscript was written at Blois about 1420 1421 and illuminated in several stages by different artists, be 32 ginning inRennes about 1426, continuing in that city about 1430, until the illumination was finally finished and themanu script bound in Paris about 1450.n This unusually long pro duction, spanning more than twenty-five years and involving activity in three towns, is based on K?nig's reading of an archival document that records a payment to the scribe Yvonet de laMote, then living at Blois, who received 6 livres tournois on 12 February 1419 (1420 n.s.) from the tr?sorier g?n?ral of Duke Charles d'Orl?ans for a book of hours writ ten for his sisterMarguerite. The scribe received another pay ment when he presented the unbound folios toMarguerite's lady-in-waiting on 24 February 1420 (1421 n.s.). Such documentation provides a tantalizing link to a book of hours described in the payment register as written in "lettres de forme," or a Gothic bookhand, and with gilt letters in the calendar. However, the vague manuscript description in the extant register cannot be positively identified as the Hours of Marguerite d'Orl?ans now in Paris. There is no evi dence to explain why this book of hours would have been set FIGURE detail d'Orl?ans, of Marguerite 1426 (Clich? Biblioth?que nationale de France) FIGURE 3. Hours of July calendar, after aside for five years before receiving its first illumination and another twenty years before its binding. It seems at least as likely that the payment to the scribe Yvonet de laMote refers to a different book of hours, perhaps one thatMarguerite enjoyed in her youth. Indeed, K?nig himself questioned whether Marguerite was the intended recipient of theHours ofMarguerite d'Orl?ans, because itsprayers were written for a male supplicant. In any case, it is possible that she, like other medieval noblewomen, owned more than one book of hours in her lifetime.12That the Hours of Marguerite d'Or l?ans was illuminated after her marriage toRichard de Mont fort is evident from the numerous visual references, such as the heraldic ermine of theMontfort family in themedallion for themonth of April, theirmonogram "R M" repeated in several historiated initials, and the dimidiated coat of arms of Brittany and Orl?ans. The dexter placement of theMontfort ermine would indicate, however, that Richard de Montfort commissioned the manuscript. While the Orl?ans Master normally receives greater attention from art historians looking at this exquisite book of hours, this study is concerned with the illuminator of the manuscript's calendar pages. For it is the artistic style of the Calendar Painter thatwe need to compare to the illumination in the Chantemerle Missal and the Arsenal Hours, the two other manuscripts attributed to him by K?nig and on which the "school of Rennes" is founded. The Calendar Painter draws stocky figures with black outlines and reduces facial features to essential strokes without apparent modeling. His figures fit ment, ca. 4. Chantemerle 1420, Paris, Biblioth?que of Hours, detail of The Last Judg de IArsenal, MS 616, fol. 13lv (Clich? Painter, Book Biblioth?que de IArsenal) comfortably within theirmedallions. The Calendar Painter's drawing of tree branches and wheat stalks show a clear inter est in graphic line and texture.His work is limited to the cal endar miniatures in thismanuscript, and it is unknown why he did not complete the remaining illumination. While K?nig sees one artist at work in the calendar pages of theHours of Marguerite d'Orl?ans, the Arsenal Hours, and Chantemerle Missal, there are sufficient stylistic differences to attribute the latter twomanuscripts to the Chantemerle Painter. The Chantemerle Painter Manuscript illumination in the Chantemerle Missal and theArsenal Hours share the distinctive figurai style and com positional conception of theChantemerle Painter. His figures have oval faces, slightly droopy eyelids over large oval eyes, a nose bridge that extends beyond the brows, and overly round nostrils, details especially apparent in frontal views (Fig. 4). The well-known missal (Paris, BnF, MS lat. 1098, use of Rennes) was probably commissioned by a member of the Chantemerle family of Picardy, as indicated by the numerous scrolls inscribed with the family's name, the coat of arms, and the black birds punning on the family's name in the decorative borders.13 Anselme de Chantemerle, bishop of Rennes (1389-1427), was themost likely commissioner and owner of themissal.14 The major calendar feast of the Pre sentation (introduced inRennes by 1415) and a prayer for the date the manu cessation of the papal schism (1392-1418) 33 FIGURE FIGURE 5. Chantemerle ca. 1415-1418, Christ in Prayer, Painter, Chantermerle Missal, lat. 1098, fol. 35v (Clich? Biblioth?que natio Paris, BnF, MS nale de France) script to about 1415-1418. Besides the usual contents of a missal, the manuscript includes a calendar for the use of Rennes, a votive mass for St. Melaine, and additional prayers for SS. Golvin (St. Pol-de-L?on), Melaine (Rennes), and Guillaume (St.-Brieuc), all saints venerated in Brittany. In addition to the twelve miniatures illustrating the occupations of themonths for the calendar year, the Chan temerle Missal contains two full-page illuminations, two half-page miniatures, thirty-five smaller illustrations (mea suring thewidth of one column), and three historiated initials (Figs. 5 and 6). The artist employs bright, saturated colors and creates decorative patterning at the expense of natural are istic renderings or atmospheric landscapes. Landscapes often simplified with a tendency toward abstraction. Hills be come terracedmounds with craggy slopes instead of the steep cylindrical promontories commonly seen in contemporary French manuscript illumination. In some respects, the "escal loped hillsides," as Millard Meiss described them, resemble landscapes painted by theMaster of Walters 219, who has been said to show the influence of late-fourteenth-century Lombard landscape illustration.15 34 detail of Christ Missal, nationale de France) 6. Chantemerle (Clich? Biblioth?que in Prayer, ca. 1415-1418 The Chantemerle Painter apparently collaborated on themissal with another illuminator, who was responsible for the canon pages (fols. 188v-189), but on stylistic grounds, he cannot be identifiedwith theCalendar Painter of theHours of Marguerite d'Orl?ans. The second artist models draperies and facial features more delicately than the Chantemerle Painter, and he works in a conservative fashion without great drama, other than color, which accentuates his figure group ings and patterned backgrounds. A book of hours now in the Biblioth?que de l'Arsenal (MS 616, ca. 1420), which is reproduced here for the first time, can be attributed as well to theChantemerle Painter (see 1 for a full description of themanuscript).16 Its Appendix Hours of theVirgin follow the liturgical use of Rennes; its includes many Breton saints but, perhaps signifi and excludes the important Rennais SS. Melaine cantly, Moderan. The calendar also omits the dedication of Rennes as well as the unusual Rennais cathedral (3 November), calendar octave of St. Laurence secundum usum Redonensis, cele brated just two days after the saint's primary feast (12 August), as found in theChantemerle Missal. Minor calendar feasts in clude a surprisingly large number of Breton saints from the of St.-Brieuc and Dol. The major feast of the Pre sentation of theVirgin (21 November) dates themanuscript after 1415, by which timeAnselme de Chantemerle, as bishop of Rennes, had introduced it into the diocesan calendar. The manuscript's calendar and litany, which enumerate Breton, dioceses Angevin, and Touraine saints among the confessors, include fewer Rennais saints thanwe might expect in a book of hours written for the use of Rennes. ca. 7. Chantemerle FIGURE calendar page for the Painter, Book of Hours, month of June, ca. 1420, Paris, Bibl. de l'Arsenal, MS 616, fol. 6 (Clich? de l'Arsenal) Biblioth?que FIGURE The calendar miniatures in the Arsenal Hours and the Chantemerle Missal have similar compositions, illustrating the occupations of themonths within rectangular frames (Figs. source borrowed the design, perhaps from a pattern book. This miniature shows the singular style of the Chantemerle Painter: figureswith large droopy eyes, brightly colored cloth 7 and 8). The single figures, tall and lanky, appear insignifi cant in large spaces simply decorated with a colorful geometric background and stencil-like leaves of grass. The miniatures by theChantemerle Painter differ appreciably in composition as well as in style from the calendar occupations in theHours of Marguerite d'Orl?ans. In theArsenal Hours, theChantemerle Painter reveals an iconographie debt to the Boucicaut and Rohan Masters in some of its twelve calendar miniatures, nine historiated ini tials, and forty-seven half-page miniatures. In theAnnuncia tion to theVirgin (Fig. 9), the churchlike architecture, with its spindly columns, partially supported dome, dormer windows, and side turret, reflect elements found in earlier books of hours by a follower of the Boucicaut Master (ca. 1416) and by theRohan Master and workshop (ca. 1417-1418).17 Bou cicaut influence can also be detected in the turning posture of theVirgin toward theAnnunciate Angel, as well as in the image of God the Father placed above in the domical apse.18 The reversed composition, in which Gabriel kneels to the right of theVirgin Mary, suggests that the artist or his visual 8. Book of Hours, lioth?que de l'Arsenal) detail of June calendar, 1420 (Clich? Bib ing, and geometric patterning of the background. The artist's individual flair has been described by K?nig as "sauvage" and "moins civilis?" and consistent with his attributed Rennais origin, but these primitive descriptions underesti mate the artist's skill and vibrant sense of color.19 Along theborders of theAnnunciation page spring bright blue and orange pseudo-acanthus leaves with fantastic flowers and orange-winged dragons, a striking border type found on many pages of theArsenal Hours, as well as inmanuscripts and Rohan attributed to or in the style of the Boucicaut Masters. Borders of large pseudo-acanthus leaves were popu lar inBoucicaut manuscripts after 1412, which, slightly later (ca. 1417), tended to harmonize, especially in color, with the adjacent miniature.20 By this time, manuscripts illuminated with the same vivid borders were in the hands of patrons resid ing inBrittany, as exemplified by theDurrieu Hours, written possibly for the use of Rennes but illuminated in Paris about 1415-1420.21 Other pages in theArsenal Hours display a dif ferent type of border decoration, showing delicate vine feath ering with single floral blossoms and gilt trefoil leaves, as 35 to the Virgin, ca. 1420, Paris, 9. Book of Hours, Annunciation FIGURE de l'Arsenal) Bibl. de l'Arsenal, MS 616, fol. 13 (Clich? Biblioth?que ca. 1420, to the Shepherds, 10. Book of Hours, Annunciation FIGURE de lArsenal) Paris, Bibl. de IArsenal, MS 616, foi 73 (Clich? Biblioth?que well as acanthus leaves, some colored blue and red, others, pale green and mauve (Fig. 10). Less exuberant and less self miniature illustrates a shepherd viewed from the back, a motif thatmay be ultimately traced to theLimbourgs' Belles Heures, which was purchased after the death in 1416 of Jean, conscious than the firstborder type, these borders, which may be the hand of a Flemish artist, achieve a more conservative and symmetric design that does not upstage themain minia tureon the page.22 Both border types differ substantially from those in theHours of Marguerite d'Orl?ans in theirfloral de sign, figurai portrayal, and color scheme, as compared, for example, to theminiature of Pentecost (Fig. 1). Iconographie references to an earlier tradition of French manuscript illumination continue in the Arsenal Hours, as seen in theAnnunciation to the Shepherds and theBetrayal of Christ, inwhich theChantemerle Painter presents starless night scenes, dimly rendered inmuted mauves, blues, and purples (Figs. 10 and 11). In the first theChantemerle Painter reveals an artistic debt to theLimbourg brothers and in the second to the Parement Master; both sources were probably filtered through later manuscripts 36 or drawings. The Annunciation duke of Berry, by his nephew's wife, Yolande d'Aragon, duchess of Anjou.23 The Betrayal miniature differs slightly from the standard composition for this subject by positioning Judas at Christ's left,making Peter turn away from Christ, and placing John theEvangelist in the unusually vacant fore ground, in front of the band of soldiers.24 The white, wavy clouds thatfill the deep blue sky in theBetrayal miniature are normally seen in other manuscripts as an aureole around God the Father, although a follower of the Parement Master em ployed this same feature in a similar manner as early as about 1405.25 In Christ Nailed to theCross (Fig. 12), theChantemerle Painter's signature feature of terraced hillsides presents a dramatic terrain for the Passion scene. The miniature may also reveal the influence of the Rohan Master. In its place to the Cross, ca. 1420, Paris, FIGURE 12. Book of Hours, Christ Nailed de l'Arsenal) Bibl. de l'Arsenal, MS 616, fol. 36v (Clich? Biblioth?que FIGURE of Hours, Betrayal of Christ, ca. 1420, Paris, de l'Arsenal) 616, fol. 24v (Clich? Biblioth?que 11. Book l'Arsenal, MS Bibl. de ment of themourning group in the leftbackground, the hench man at center, and the three men rolling dice in the left foreground, the composition repeats elements in a miniature from a book of hours attributed to theRohan Master. There, however, theminiature combines Christ Nailed to the Cross and the Crucifixion in one narrative scene.26 A Crucifixion miniature was probably meant to follow thatof Christ Nailed to the Cross in theArsenal Hours, but confusion in produc tion seems to have occurred, for the miniature at the next canonical hours in the series illustrates theDescent from the Cross.27 Despite the compositional similarities to the Rohan Master's illumination, theArsenal miniature shows an artist a different pictorial conception. Though more with working conservative in his drawing and composition than theRohan Master, he nonetheless achieves a boldness with his graphic style and disregard for realism, seen, for example, in the tilted cross and the henchman's gymnastic pose in theminiature of Christ Nailed to theCross. His uncommon elements create an unexpected dramatic effect, sometimes lost inmore traditional compositions. The unidentified patron of theArsenal Hours is repre sented five times, an unusually large number of "portraits" in books of hours commissioned by the laity.He kneels before theVirgin in two miniatures (fols. 129, 150) and before the Virgin Annunciate, Christ Blessing, and Madonna and Child Enthroned in three historiated initials (fols. 13, 153v, 161). The patron appears bearded once and beardless three times. This suggests an improbable example of two commissioners, perhaps a father and son. Itmore likely shows the artist's in attention to detail. One representation of the lay patron stands out for its design and iconography. In an exceptionally large illumination forObsecr?te (Fig. 13), theman kneels alone in prayer; gazing upward through opened curtains, as if drawn aside for a theatrical production, he beholds theVirgin Mary astride a very large crescent moon. She lifts the nude Christ Child to theoutstretched arms of angels, while two other angels play musical the Virgin on instruments. Not a crescent moon, the typical representation of where the moon appears as a symbolic sliver at her feet, this moon is strong and solid enough to hold substantial weight. The unusual iconography, encouraged perhaps by local productions of myst?res, com bines the artist's apparent love of dramatic design with his desire to fill available space with multicolored, multipatterned decorative detail. The Chantemerle Painter was also responsible for at least one composition and sketch for a miniature in the Arsenal 37 of Hours, Patron Kneeling before the Virgin and Child ca. 1420, Paris, Bibl. de l'Arsenal, MS 616, fol. 150 de l'Arsenal) (Clich? Biblioth?que FIGURE 13. Book on a Crescent Moon, Hours thatwas then illuminated by a second artist (fol. 45). An underdrawing of terraced rocks?a trademark feature of the chief artist?is only partially hidden beneath painted grass and trees in the scene of David in Prayer, placed at the opening of the Penitential Psalms (Fig. 14). Compared with the Chantemerle Painter, this unidentified illuminator paints facial features in darker flesh tones with more modeling and depicts slightly ruddy cheeks, furrowed brows, and dark beards aged with white highlights. The collaborative association could indicate the seniority of theChantemerle Painter or a hierarchy of labor division within a workshop. the Chantemerle Painter trained in Paris or more direct influence of theBoucicaut and under the Angers Rohan Masters is difficult to determine because of the itinerant nature of both manuscripts and illuminators. The omission of the dedicatory feast of Rennes cathedral, as well as the inclu sion of numerous Angevin, Touraine, and non-Rennais saints could indicate that the Arsenal Hours was produced outside Whether Rennes. Together, the textual and visual evidence in the Arsenal Hours and the Chantemerle Missal help to date the artist's activity to about 1415-1420, slightly earlier than 38 14. Unidentified artist over design by the Chantemerle FIGURE Painter, inPrayer, ca. 1420, Paris, Bibl. de IArsenal, MS 616, Book ofHours, David de l'Arsenal) fol. 45 (Clich? Biblioth?que theCalendar Painter. If theChantemerle Painter had worked in Rennes about 1415-1420, we might expect to find some trace of his influence in othermanuscripts, but thus far, thishas not been detected. Indeed, K?nig admits thatRennes offered smaller market opportunities for a manuscript illuminator and, moreover, theorizes that theOrl?ans Master leftRennes for Poitiers and other patronage.28 The only reason for local izing theChantemerle Painter's activity inRennes is the spe cific liturgyof theArsenal Hours and theChantemerle Missal, as well as the presumed patronage of Bishop Anselme de Chantemerle. We cannot assume, however, that the liturgy accurately identifies a manuscript's place of production in all cases, because some devotional books written for the liturgies of Nantes and Rennes were undoubtedly illuminated outside the duchy, primarily in Paris.29 The Angevin traits in the cal endar of theArsenal Hours as well as itsRohanesque icono graphie aspects suggest that Angers and the Anjou region cannot be ruled out entirely. Without evidence to support the stylistic connection among themanuscripts, we might also question the assump tion that the Calendar Painter began work on Marguerite's book of hours inRennes. The artistmight have worked else where, for example, at Angers or even Nantes, the most vi brant and economically flourishing town in the region and the primary residence of the duke and his administration. Alter natively, Richard de Montfort might have retained the artist in residence, for example at his ch?teau d'?tampes, repre sented in theAugust calendar of the Tr?s Riches Heures of Duke Jean de Berry. The possible change in venue fromRennes to another town inBrittany or western France may have con sequences forK?nig's proposed professional itinerary of the Orl?ans Master as the artist traveled in search of patrons. Medieval Rennes as a Potential Book Market The theory of a "school of Rennes" in the early fifteenth century rests on stylistic connoisseurship, ownership marks in books, and the diocesan use for liturgical and devotional manuscripts, rather than on archival or historical evidence. In fact, no document concerning manuscript-making activity in Rennes exists before 1340. In that year, ten confraternities, including parchmenters, contributed to the foundation of the of Sainte-Anne.30 In 1407 Duke Jean V upheld the professional status of parchmenters, though their privileges may have been in place well before that date.31 Despite du cal recognition, the group never achieved the political power Hospital and influence of many other local tradesmen, who attained the important office of town financial officer, or miseur.32 Inmedieval Rennes, theRue de la parchemenerie was a tan gible testament to the trade's activity in supplying parchment for the documentary needs of themunicipality and religious institutions.33However, other artisan groups in Rennes?the so-called freem?tiers?worked without a formal professional structure, and they have left little historical trace. Painters and imagiers may have figured among the freem?tiers, but archival documents neglect almost entirely the lives and transactions of painters and sculptors as professional trades men inRennes before 1500.34 Despite the accumulated archival research by the nine teenth-century local historians Paul de la Bigne-Villeneuve and Arthur de La Borderie, as well as by twentieth-century historians, documents have yet to reveal the name of a single manuscript illuminator working in late medieval Rennes. Thus far only ten individuals can be identifiedwith the artisan activities of painting and manuscript making in medieval Rennes. Five scribes can be named, notably clericus (1411), presumably of the Rennes ca thedral chapter, frater Petrus Garnerius (1454) of the Fran ciscan convent in Rennes, and three laymen: Jean Durocher Guillelmus Dionisius and Robin Luce (1403), Guillaume Moichan (1408-1409), Richart, and Hamon (1412).35 Three painters?Moerien, Soybaut?who by artistic function cannot be entirely sepa rated from illuminators, received payment in 1442 and 1443 from the city for painting the ducal coat of arms for display at the Porte Mordelaise, throughwhich the duke and his ret inue made their ceremonial entr?e.36 Documents record one bookbinder, presbiter Petrus de Brolio, who was paid by the Rennes cathedral chapter (1413-1414).37 Archival registers also show that the cathedral chapter sent books out of town for repair and rebinding in 1418-1419, which suggests that local services were not always available.38 Finally, one Rennais Guillaume libraire emerges Cheveau moved from obscurity: the bookseller into the new publishing technol ogy toward the end of the fifteenth century with the acquisi tion of Jean Georget's printing presses.39 The evidence that I have thus far collected concerning manuscript production in Rennes is admittedly modest in scope; it pertains chiefly tomunicipal and cathedral chapter payments. Omitted from this tabulation are possible pur chases by the lay nobility, themost likely owners of prayer books, romances, and histories, but Breton archival collections of family papers are often incomplete for the laterMiddle Ages. Nonetheless, the documentation suggests a limited com trade in parchment and an even more limited trade inmanuscripts. Medieval Rennes offered fewer commercial opportunities thanNantes, but even Nantes remained a very small participant inWestern European commercial trade.40 mercial The archival evidence suggests thatmedieval Rennes would have presented a weak market for a single manuscript illumi nator, let alone sufficientwork for several or an organized group. Indeed, among the fifteenmanuscripts that I have been able to identify as having been made in Brittany and to date by internal inscriptions, only two were written in Rennes, both for local religious institutions (Table 1). The majority of the dated manuscripts were written inNantes and Vannes. Conclusions Three manuscripts?the Hours ofMarguerite d'Orl?ans, theArsenal book of hours, and theChantemerle Missal?are pivotal to the hypothesis that a school of manuscript illumi nators existed in fifteenth-centuryRennes. Linked in a depen dent fashion by way of attributed style and liturgical usage, themanuscripts' symbiotic relation dissolves when one critical link is broken. The attribution of the Calendar Painter from theHours ofMarguerite d'Orl?ans to both theArsenal Hours and the Chantemerle Missal was the alleged connection, but as this paper has shown with the first publication of illumi nations from theArsenal Hours, the stylistic attribution is no longer secure. While only two manuscripts can thus far be attributed to the Chantemerle Painter, his distinctive figurai style may one day be discovered in other manuscripts that will reveal hopeful clues about his residence and patrons. As forRennes as the center of manuscript making, the collected archival evidence may not in fact rule out its possibility, but it continues to question its probability. 39 1 Table Late Medieval Date 1344 Locale Name Rennes Abbey 1402 Nantes 1409-1418 Nantes /Paris? Yves Manuscripts of Scribe / Origin of St.-Melaine from Brittany, Identified and Dated MS Current Location Type Rennes, Cartulary Luce Book Church of St.-Vincent by Inscription of hours Source BMun, MS 271 New York, PML, MS M. Statuta syndalia Namnetensia Paris, BnF, MS Bible Paris, BnF, MS 515 Unidentified 1420 Vitr? Priest Dom Raoul de Cerisay, scribe and illuminator Missal, 1423 Dol Nicholaus de Launey, prior of Monte Dolis Le Tombel de Chartrose Raulet, Breviary Nantes, M?diath?que, Le livre du gouvernement des princes Paris, BnF, MS Ordinary Rennes, Missal Paris, BnF, MS lat. 172 nouv. acq. Vincentius Bandellus, De veritate conceptionis beatae virginis Mariae Paris, BnF, MS lat. 9591 After 1427 Nantes chappelain 1438 Nantes Johannes Mercator 1454 Rennes Franciscan 1457 Tr?guier (diocese) convent Yves Even, presbiter, rector ecclesie parrochialis de Tuonguerri 1479 Lamballe 1483 Vannes 1488 Nantes 1497 Nantes 1497 Vannes (emended) Charles Psalter Whereabouts . . . I, 355 and Samaran Avranches, fr. 163 Berger, II, 75 244 BMun, MS MS Samaran 25 fr. 12254 BMun, MS 335-336 La Borderie, unknown 39 255 46-48 and Marichal, VII, Samaran and Marichal, VII, Daoulas, No. Samaran and Marichal, VII, 85 478 141 255 III, Leroquais, 112-115 [Trogu?ry] Leroux Grand Pierre Aliet Magister Christianus Michael de Vouges Jehan Pocart 1 VII, Marichal, Ch?teaubriant histor?ale, vol. and Meiss, lat. 1597 1417 scribe Samaran Marichal, Opera (Voulgez) l?gendaire medica Iuvencus, Epistolary, etc. Legendary Samaran Marichal, Whereabouts Nantes, Mus?e unknown Dobr?e, MS Nantes, M?diath?que, Whereabouts MS unknown Leguay, 20 109 and III, 129 95 Samaran Marichal, and VII, 201 Samaran and VII, 193 Marichal, Leguay, 95 Sources au moyen ?ge. ?tude sur les plus anciennes versions de la Bible ?crites en prose de langue d'o?l (Paris, 1884). La Bretagne au temps des ducs (Daoulas, 1991). au moyen ?ge en Bretagne." Biblioth?que de l'?cole des Chartes, ser. V, 3 (1862), La Borderie, A. de. "Notes sur les livres et les biblioth?ques et sociaux." Bulletin mensuel de la Soci?t? Polymathique du Morbihan, Leguay, J.-P. "Vannes au XVe si?cle. Aspects institutioneis, ?conomiques Berger, S. La Bible fran?aise Daoulas, Abbaye de Daoulas, 45-120. et les missels manuscrits des Biblioth?ques (Paris, 1924). publiques de France Leroquais, V Les sacramentaires M. French Painting in the Time of Jean, Duke de Berry: The Late Fourteenth Century and Patronage of theDuke (London, 1967). des manuscrits en ?criture latine portant des indications de date, de lieu ou de copiste (Paris, 1959-). Samaran, C, and R. Marichal. Catalogue Meiss, 40 39-50. CIII (1976), Appendix de l'Arsenal, MS 616 Paris, Biblioth?que Book of Hours in Latin, use of Rennes Northwestern France, ca. 1420 Description Parchment, fols, ii + 167 + i, 24.3 x 17.5 cm Collation l12 (fols. 1-12), 2-58 (fols. 13-44), 113-118), 49-112), 156(fols. last leaf canceled), 148-155), Catchwords 64 (fols. 45-48), 7-148 (fols. 178"1 (fols. 127-133, 168 (fols. 119-126), 208 (fols. 188 (fols. 134-141), 196 (fols. 142-147), 216-1 (fols. 156-160, last leaf canceled), 228 (fols. 161-167). (fols. 112v, 118v, 141v) in light red ink for 1 column of 22 lines; 13x9 22 lines Ruled Written cm; calendar ruled for textualis semi-quadrata; rubrics in red 15th-century violet velvet over boards, traces of a clasp, gilt edges; 25 cm l-12v: in gilt, blue, and black, full. Includes Presentado Calendar, but not Visitado 19 May), (1441). In gilt, Yves (1253-1303; of St. Pol-de-L?on with (Goulven) (d. ca. 600 in Rennes), 29 July), (1184-1234; (1 July), Guillaume, bishop of St.-Brieuc Simphorian of Autun (22 August), Gobrian, bishop of Vannes (3 Novem ber) instead of the usual dedication of Rennes cathedral, and Gacian, Lunar In blue, the saint's day and translation archbishop of Tours (18 December). of Martin of Tours (11 November; 4 July) and the translation of Golvin to Rennes (23 August) 2. Fols. 13-24: Hours 3. Fols. 24-24v: Hours 4. Fols. 25-25v: Hours 5. Fols. 26-44v: of theVirgin, Rennes of the Cross, matins use, matins and lauds of theHoly Spirit, matins Short Hours, vespers and compline forHours of theVirgin, Hours of theCross, and Hours of theHoly Spirit (fols. 43v-44v blank, ruled) 6. Fols. 45-51: Penitential Psalms 7. Fols. and Rogacian (Nantes), Maurice Litany, includes Donacian (Tours), Guillaume (St.-Brieuc), (Angers), Julian (Le Mans), Martin Maclou (St. Pol-de-L?on), (St.-Malo), Melaine (Rennes), Albin, Golvin Gobrian (Vannes), Moderan (Rennes), Armel, Yves; Petitions 51-54: Collects: "Deus cui proprium est misereri.... Pretende nobis .Deus a quo sancta desideria. . .. Ure domine memoriam... ign? sancti . . .Fidelium deus omnium conditor. . . .Hostia christi sanctifica Spiritus. me corpus. . . .Ave verum corpus christi. . . ." 9. Fols. 55-72v: Office of theDead (for northwestern France) 8. Fols. 54-55: for themajor feasts of the year Prayers forMass 129-131: Fifteen Joys of theVirgin to the Lord (fol. 133v blank, ruled) 131v-133: Seven Requests 10. Fols. 73-128v: 11. Fols. 12. Fols. 13. Fols. 134-135: Prayer to the Virgin, Obsecro te, in French: "Doulce dame sainte marie mere de dieu plaine de piti? fille de souverain roymere gloriose. . . ." (J. Sonet, R?pertoire d'incipit de pri?res en ancien fran?ais [Paris, 1956], No. 472) 135v-137: Prayer to the Virgin, in French verse: "L'doulce dame nette et pure sans correpcione et sans ordure / esperance de toute creature. . . ." 14. Fols. 15. Fols. que Prayer to theVirgin, in Latin: "Gaude virgo mater cristi . ." (Randall, Medieval and Renaissance concepisti.. 137v-139: per aurem I, Nos. 76, 86, 87) Manuscripts, 16. Fols. 139v-144v: Prayers and suffrages: Trinity, Peace (fol. 139v); John (fol. 140v); (fol. 140); Peter and Paul, James, Christopher Evangelist Eustache (fol. 141); all saints, Katherine (fol. 142); female saints (fol. 143); all saints (fol. 144) 17. Fols. 145-147v: veram devotus 18. Fols. of the Virgin: "Gloriose virginus marie . . ." (fol. 147v blank, ruled) sum celebramus. 150-151v: . . .) impetres Office Obsecro te, in Latin (. . . et michi N. hodie f?mulo Gospel Prayers Sequence toVincent of Passion (heading in red). Gloriose / Jhesu crist print humanit?. oraison de nostre dame la vertu divine d 'incipit de pri?res en ancien fran?ais, No. virge rayne /En qui par . . ." (Sonet, R?pertoire 695) Decoration Decorated initials: four-, five- and seven-line initials (Hours of the Virgin) with light blue or light mauve tracery with tessellated interior field on gilt ground. historiated initials: five-line historiated initials: man in prayer 13), Pentecost (fol. 25), angel (fol. 39), Virgin and Child (fol. 137), storks intertwined (fol. 150), patron kneeling in prayer before Christ historiated initials: priest celebrating Mass 153v). Eight-line Nine Contents (1415) Golvin 152-154v: 155-157: of blue or mauve in compressed 1. Fols. according to John and Peter of Luxembourg 21. Fols. 157-160v: Prayers to theVirgin, in Latin: "Mundi regina maria ave mater ave pia ave virgo mater cristi. . . Salue mater dorolosa [sic] iuxta crucem lacrimosa dum pendebat filius . . . (fol. 160, in verse) Gaude virgo . . ." gratiosa /verbum verbo concepisti. to the 22. Fols. 161-167: Prayer Virgin, in French: "Une moult devote 19. Fols. 20. Fols. (fol. (fol. 119), funeral service (fol. 127). Nine-line historiated initial: man kneeling in prayer before theVirgin and Child (fol. 161) Borders: U-ribbon bar frame of bicolor acanthus on gilt ground (fol. 24v); single gilt verticals on either side of miniature (fol. 152); borders of blue and mauve vines, flowers, strawberries (calendar); bicolor aroid flowers with fleshy bicolor acanthus leaves forming single vine, gilt trefoil leaves, strawberries (fols. 13,18); bicolor acanthus leaves in blue and orange with white dots along stems and edges (fol. 36v). Different border design of ivy vine feathering with single flower blossoms, flowering stems, or acanthus leaves in blue and orange springing from gilt verticals (fol. 152) (fol. 13), two Marginalia: hybrids (fols. 1,137v), insect (fol. 1), noblewoman men fighting with bow and arrow, shield and lance (fol. 25), dragon (fols. 34, 45), man riding donkey(?) (fol. 34v) Line endings: blue and mauve with white tracery rectangular bars with small gilt squares Twelve calendar miniatures: (Jan.) man holds cup and stands at table; (Feb.) sits on stool, warming hands by fire; (Mar.) man cuts branches; (Apr.) man holds flower sprig; (May) man rides gray horse and carries hawk; (June) man holds scythe and carries knife sharpener in sheath at waist; man (July) man cuts grass with sickle; (Aug.) man threshes wheat; (Sept.) man cuts fruit from tree; (Oct.) man knocks acorns from tree for three hogs; (Nov.) man sows seed from basket tied around neck; (Dec.) man raises axe to slaughter hog of three types: rectangular, varies in Forty-seven half-page miniatures measurement 11-11.5 8-9.5 x 8-9 cm; arched compartments, measuring x 8.5-9 cm; or projecting half lunettes, measuring 9-10.5 x 5.5-9 cm 1. Fol. 13 Annuncation (Hours of theVirgin, matins) 2. Fol. 18 Visitation (Hours of theVirgin, lauds) 3. Fol. 24v Betrayal (Hours of the Cross, matins) 4. Fol. 25 Trinity (Hours of the Holy Spirit, matins) 5. Fol. 28v Mocking of Christ (Hours of the Cross, prime) 6. Fol. 29v Nativity (Hours of theVirgin, terce) 7. Fol. 8. Fol. 9. Fol. 31v Christ before Caiphas (Hours of the Cross, (Hours of the Virgin, sext) 34v Flagellation (Hours of theVirgin, none) terce) 32v Adoration 10. Fol. to the Cross (Hours of the Cross, nones) 36v Christ Nailed 37v Flight into Egypt (Hours of theVirgin, vespers) 12. Fol. 39 Descent from the Cross (Hours of the Cross, vespers) 13. Fol. 40 Christ before Pilate (Hours of theVirgin, compline) 11. Fol. 14. Fol. 42v Entombment 15. Fol. 45 David 16. Fol. tuo (fol. two 55 Burial (Hours of the Cross, compline) in Prayer (Penitential Psalms) (Office of theDead) 17. Fol. 73 Annunciation 18. Fol. 75v Miracle to the Shepherds (Office of theNativity) of theWheat Field (Office of the Epiphany) 41 40. Fol. 19. Fol. 77v Magi Follow the Star 20. Fol. 78v Presentation of the Virgin 41. Fol. 21. Fol. 80 Annunciation 42. Fol. (Office of the Purification) to theVirgin (Votive Mass of theAnnunciation) of Christ (Office of the Resurrection) 22. Fol. 82 Resurrection 23. Fol. 83v Ascension 24. Fol. 85v John the Baptist 25. Fol. 87 Peter (Office of St. Peter) 26. Fol. 89 Processional (Office of Corpus Christi) 27. Fol. 92v Peter and Paul (Office of SS. Peter and Paul) 28. Fol. 94v All Saints (Office of All Saints) According 36. Fol. llOv Sebastian 112 Denis(?) 38. Fol. 113v Bishop 115v Eustache 39. Fol. of Society Societatis 103v Michael 37. Fol. (Comune plurimorum martyrum) saint (Commune confessons pontificis; (Commune confessons, with Thorns (Gospel Sequence of Passion to John) patron, represented fols. 13, 129, 150, 153v, 161 Parisiensis fol. 1, inscr. "Domus Jesuits, Paris: professae Jesu, 1693. Dono R. P. de la Chaize." [signed]: fol. 1, inscr. "Paraph? au d?sir de Tarrest du 5 juillet 1763? For explanation of this note, see Franklin (below), II, 275. Mesnil." de Picard: fols, lr-v (repeated), inscr. "de la biblioth?que Charles-Adrien Mesnil unius martyris, non pontificis) (Commune and Child on a Crescent Moon Unidentified male 35. Fol. 34. Fol. to the Lord) Provenance to theAngels) (Votive Mass 105 Andrew (Office of St. Andrew) 107 James and another apostle (Office of St. James) 108v Crucifixion (Commune doctorum) 33. Fol. 150 Patron before theVirgin (Obsecro te) 47. Fol. 152 Christ Crowned to theHoly Spirit) 29. Fol. 98v Trinity (Votive Mass 30. Fol. lOOv Holy Cross (Office of theHoly Cross) 31. Fol. 102 Lamentation (Votive Mass of the Pentecost) 32. Fol. 45. Fol. 46. Fol. 44. Fol. (Office of theAscension) (Office of St. John the Baptist) (In anniversario electionis consecrationis episcopi) saint (Commune confessionis, non pontificis) 129 Patron before theVirgin and Child (Fifteen Joys of theVirgin) 118 Monastic 13 lv Last Judgment (Seven Requests 145 Nativity (Office of theVirgin) 148 Margaret (Unius virginis) 43. Fol. of Christ 117 Gregory Charles-Adrien M. unius martyris) non pontificis) Picard, 1765." de Paulmy: fol. ii v, inscr. "514." Identified by Martin inventory number from the library of M. de Paulmy. (see below) as an Bibliography Franklin, A. Les anciennes biblioth?ques de Paris: II, 275. l?ges, etc. (Paris, 1867-1870), Martin, H. Catalogue des manuscrits ?glises, monast?res, de la Biblioth?que de l'Arsenal K?nig, E. Franz?sische Buchmalerei um 1450. Der Jouvenal-Maler, der Maler und die Anf?nge Jean Fouquets des Genfer Boccaccio (Berlin, 1982), 54 note 134. col (Paris, 1885), 1,463-464. -. heures de Marguerite d'Orl?ans. int?grale du Reproduction et des images du manuscrit latin 1156 B de la Biblioth?que Nationale (Paris), trans. F. Boespflug (Paris, 1991), 47. Les calendrier Duine, F. "Inventaire liturgique de l'hagiographie breton." Bulletin de la Soci?t? d'llle-et-VHaine, XLIX (1922), 157-158, No. CLXXXV. Arch?ologique NOTES * sincere thanks to J.Margolis, Sylvia Parsons, and Irina Tarsis for reading earlier versions of this paper, to the anonymous readers of for his support and Gesta, and especially to Jonathan J. G. Alexander expert advice on Arsenal 616. I am also grateful to the curators and portails de la cath?drale de Nantes. Un grand programme XVe si?cle et son public (Rennes, 2003). My 2. nationale de de l'Arsenal, the Biblioth?que staff of the Biblioth?que de Rennes, the Archives d?parte France, the Biblioth?que municipale de Rennes and the Archives municipales mentales d'Ille-et-Vilaine, for allowing me to consult manuscripts and documents in their collec tions. Research 1. Recent possible by generous funding and the Bibliographical of America (Fredson Bowers Award). au XVe si?cle, de la culture ?crite en France 1159)," in Pratiques and ed. M. Ornato and N. Pons (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1995), 499-514; R. Harrou?t, "Une famille de bibliophiles au XVe si?cle: Les Co?tivy," studies on sculpture and architecture include A. Mussat, Arts et la Bretagne. Un mill?naire (Paris, 1979); idem, "La ca cultures de th?drale Saint-Pierre de Vannes," CA (Cornouaille), J. Y. Copy, Art, soci?t? et politique au 294-312; 453; C. Prigent, Pouvoir ducal, religion et production artistique en de 1350 ? 1575 (Paris, 1992); and J.-M. Guillou?t, Les Basse-Bretagne 42 Bulletin 1983 (Paris, 1986), temps des ducs de Bretagne. Les gisants haut-bretons (Paris, 1986); R. Barri?, "La con de la struction de la cath?drale Saint-Corentin de Quimper," M?moires et d'Arch?ologie Soci?t? d'Histoire de Bretagne, LXIV (1987), 443 Original research and summaries of previous studies are found in the collected short papers of Artistes, artisans et production artistique en Bretagne au Moyen ?ge, ed. X. Barrai I Altet (Rennes, 1983); Prigent, "Le Pouvoir ducal, religion et production artistique', C. de M?rindol, livre peint ? la fin du moyen ?ge, support privil?gi? d'une politique (B.N., dynastique, familiale ou personnelle. Les Miracles de Notre-Dame n.a.fr. 24541) et le Livre d'heures de Pierre II de Bretagne (B.N., lat. for this article was made from the Bibliographic Society Society of the United Kingdom sculpt? du et m?moires d'llle-et-Vilaine, 3. Cil de la Soci?t? (1999), Arch?ologique du D?partement 139-199. ? Rennes ? la fin E. K?nig first presented this theory in "L'enluminure de la guerre de cent ans," in Artistes, artisans et production artistique en Bretagne au Moyen ?ge, 121-126, and repeated thereafter in several exhibition catalogues, including Pontivy, Ch?teau des ducs de Rohan, Tr?sors des biblioth?ques de Bretagne (Vannes, 1989), 49-63; Schal Bretagne. Die Kultur Landesregierung, laburg, Nieder?sterreichische ed. B. B?ranger-Menard des 'Landes am Meer' 1300-1990, (Vienna, 1990), 72-75; and Daoulas, Abbaye de Daoulas, La Bretagne au temps des ducs (Daoulas, I Altet, X. Barrai 1991), 11. et le duch? de Bourgogne les Pays-Bas (Paris, 6313, and transcribed by K?nig in Les heures de to the 48. K?nig attributes later miniatures d'Orl?ans, Marguerite painter Etienne Sauderat, working about 1450; see Les heures de Mar 115-118. de Bretagne, LXI (1984), 377-411, esp. 406-407; de "Un manuscrit reconstitu? ? la Biblioth?que Municipale Rennes," BMon, CXLIV/2 (1986), 153-155; M.-H. Santrot, Entre France et Angleterre. Le duch? de Bretagne: Essai d'iconographie des ducs guerite d'Orl?ans, A. Mussat, 1988), 12. au XVIe si?cle (Paris, E. K?nig, Franz?sische der Genfer der Maler (Berlin, 1982), 53-56, 64 13. du XHIe ? peintures en France 1955), No. 241 and his circle (Nos. 242-247); um 1450: Der Jouvenal Maler, Buchmalerei manuscrits Boccaccio und die Anf?nge Jean Fouquets F. O. 116, 118-119, 251, 273, 297-298; der in Randzier B?ttner, "Iconographisches sp?tmittelalter Eigengut lichen Handschriften. Inhalte und Programme," Scriptorium, XXXIX/2 66, 116-117, 122-124, 1440-1520 (Paris, luminure ? Nantes 64-75, et les missels manuscrits des biblioth?ques (Paris, 1924), III, 68-72; Porcher, Les manuscrits ? 47. peintures, No. 208; and K?nig, Les heures de Marguerite d'Orl?ans, 14. RdA, XXXV attributed to the Master of Rennes 15. and the Early Calendar 34 include Rennes, de Rohan), and Cam 16. Manuscripts de ma?trise, Universit? 17. 1992), II, No. "Der Meister der Grandes Heures de by A. Heimann, und seine Werkstatt," Stadel Jahrbuch, VII-VIII (1932), 1-61; P. Durrieu, "Le ma?tre des Grandes Heures de Rohan et les Lescuier d'Angers," Revue de l'art ancien et moderne (1912), 80-98, 160-183; J. Porcher, The Rohan Book of Hours (London, 1959); and M. Meiss 270, 290, 299, 312; and L. Randall, in the Walters Art Gallery Manuscripts 108, with earlier bibliography. and M. Thomas, The Rohan Master: A Book ofHours (New York, 1973). See also L. Blacksberg, "Death and Contract of Salvation: The Rohan Master's Illumination for the Office of the Dead," Flanders in a Euro attributed to theMaster of the Hours of Jean de Mon Manuscripts tauban include Paris, BnF, MS lat. 18026, ca. 1430-1466, use of Rennes; St.-Brieuc use?; Rennes, Rennes, BMun, MS 1834, ca. 1430-1460, use of Rennes; and Lyon, BMun, MS BMun, MS 29, ca. 1425-1450, 5140, ca. 1425-1450, use unknown. See Leroquais, Les livres d'heures, um 1450, 116-117, 123, No. 260; K?nig, Franz?sische Buchmalerei 8 and 9, 253, 315-316; Avril and Reynaud, Manuscrits peintures, No. 93; and Claude Aguttes, H?tel des Ventes de Neuilly, October 2001, No. 2. K?nig, "L'enluminure ? Rennes," 123. For example, books of hours in a New York private collection and in the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge (MS 62), reproduced by Meiss, and Dunlap, The Limbourgs and Their Contemporaries, Beatson, I, unusual illumination has 263, 266, Figs. 863-864. The Rohan Master's been discussed 241, 130, Figs. de la Biblioth?que de l'Arsenal Catalogue is described as use of 1885), I, 463-464, where themanuscript as et missels, No. CLXXXV Vannes; Duine, Br?viaire (described "Heures Brito-Rennais"); A. Franklin, Les anciennes biblioth?ques de Rohan tance from G. Clark, The Last Flowering: French Painting inManu scripts, 1420-1530 (New York, 1982), from American Collections um 1450, 24, 109, 116-117, No. 25; K?nig, Franz?sische Buchmalerei (Baltimore, 13-47. as use of Rennes. Baltimore, Rennes, BMun, MS 28, ca. 1430, use of Rennes; New York, PML, MSS M. 164 and 173, ca. 1420-1430, Rennes variant; and Vienna, cod. 1910, ca. 1440, use of Rome. See J. Plummer, with assis ?NB, 119, 121-123, 252, Figs. and Renaissance Medieval (1950), des manuscrits II, 275; coll?ges, etc. (Paris, 1867-1870), ?glises, monast?res, um 1450, 54 note 134; and K?nig, Buchmalerei Franz?sische K?nig, "L'enluminure ? Rennes," 124, where he identifies the book of hours de attributed by K?nig to theMaster of Walters 221 include use undetermined; WAM, MS W. 221, ca. 1425-1450, JWCI, XIII Landscape," Paris. et Fran?oise de Dinan: ?tude du cycle de minia tures et des bordures histori?es du manuscrit 34, 15942 de la Biblio (M?moire H. Martin, (Paris, de Rohan de Rennes" th?que Municipale Haute Bretagne, Rennes, 1995). MS W. 219, fol. 245; see M. Meiss, E. H. Smith and S. Off Dunlap, French Painting in the Time of Jean de (New York, 1974), I, Berry: The Limbourgs and Their Contemporaries 412-413, II, Fig. 523; see also O. Pacht, "Early Italian Nature Studies Baltimore, WAM, Beatson, (1977), 34, use of Rome (Hours of Catherine see K?nig, 22, ca. 1440, use of Rome; bridge, Christ College, MS um 1450, Buchmaleri "Un Franz?sische 124, Fig. 307; Mussat, "Les heures de manuscrit and S. Esposito, reconstitu?," 153-155; Catherine Primary documents generally spell his name "Chantemelle," although his name appears as "Chantemerle" in all the secondary literature. For this bishop, see H. Morice, L'?glise de Bretagne, depuis ses commence nos jours (Paris, 1839), 23; P. de la Bigne-Villeneuve, ments jusqu'? sur Anselme de Chantemerle, inM? l'?v?que de Rennes," bretonnes, ed. P. de la Bigne-Ville langes d'histoire et d'arch?ologie neuve de and A. Guillotin II, 229-234; (Rennes, 1855-1858), Corson, Fouill? historique de l'archev?ch? de Rennes (Rennes, 1880), I, 76-77, 120. esp. 67. Manuscripts BMun, MS sacramentales en France "Notice 1993), 28-29. et l'art du temps de Fouquet," de latins, ed. P. Lauer (Paris, 1839-), I, Catalogue g?n?ral des manuscrits et missels des ?glises et abbayes bretonnes 400; F. Duine, Br?viaires de France ant?rieurs au XVIIe si?cle (Rennes, 1906), 27-28; V. Lero quais, Les Figs. ne pas accepter l'indication pr?cieuse fournie par la litur "[P]ourquoi on se rappelle qu'on sait peu de choses sur les lieux surtout si gie d'origine des miniatures de cette ?poque." E. K?nig, "Un atelier d'en Her daughter-in-law Marguerite de Bretagne owned five books of hours according to her 1469 testament; see A. de La Borderie, "Notes sur les publiques Re d'Orl?ans. (1985), 197-233; E. K?nig, Les heures de Marguerite latin production int?grale du calendrier et des images du manuscrit 1156 B de la Biblioth?que Nationale (Paris), trans. F. Boespflug (Paris, 1991); and F. Avril and N. Reynaud, Les manuscrits ? peintures en France, 49-53. au moyen ?ge en Bretagne," Biblioth?que livres et les biblioth?ques l'?cole des Chartes, ser. V, 3 (1862), 45-46. 172, 184. See C. Couderc, Album de portraits d'apr?s les collections du d? (Paris, [1910]), PL LXV; V. Leroquais, Les partement des manuscrits livres d'heures: Manuscrits de la Biblioth?que Nationale, Paris (Paris J. Porcher, Les and Ma?on, 1927), I, Nos. 21, 67-70, Pis. XLVI-L; III, No. 1849-1852), et histoire de l'art du Moyen Age en "Arch?ologie ans de travaux," M?moires de la Soci?t? d'His (Nantes, dans particuli?rement Bretagne: Vingt-cinq toire et d Arch?ologie de Bretagne pi?ces originales 2063, La Mote 77, and pi?ces originales Les ducs de Bourgogne: in L. Laborde, 340, Bigaud 4; published ?tudes sur les lettres, les arts et l'industrie pendant leXVe si?cle et plus Paris, BnF, ? 10 Illumination around 1400 in Flanders pean Perspective: Manuscript and Abroad, ed. M. Smeyers and B. Cardon (Louvain, 1995), 487 an den Meister des Rohan 498; and M. Dachs, "Neue Zuschreibungen Studenbuches," (1995), 85-101. 18. Wiener Jahrbuch f?r Kunstgeschichte, XXXXVIII Compare the image of God the Father with miniatures in books of hours in Baltimore (WAM, MS W 260, fol. 27, ca. 1415), Paris (Collection Charnac?, ca. 1420), and Chantilly (Mus?e Cond?, MS 64, fol. 25, ca. 1420); reproduced inM. Meiss, E. W. Kirsch, and K. Morand, French Painting in the Time of Jean de Berry: The Boucicaut Master (London, 43 see also Avril and Reynaud, Les manuscrits ? 1968), Figs. 130-132; 18-19. Concerning a differentiation of artists, see peintures en France, G. Bartz, Der Boucicaut-Meister. Ein unbekanntes Stundenbuch (Heri bert Tenschert, Kat. XLII) laboration, see C. Geisler XLI/1 19. (2002), (Rotthalm?nster, 1999). For workshop col "The Boucicaut Masters," Gesta, 29-38. "Il est probable qu'il [the illuminator of Arsenal 616] a travaill? ? Rennes, et la qualit? un peu sauvage de ses travaux semble bien justi fi?s la localisation. D'un autre c?t?, il se distingue par une imagination also detected the collaboration Meiss of the Boucicaut The Boucicaut Kirsch, and Morand, 124, 174, 299, 322-323. Meiss, 21. Master, theHours of the Cross sequence, but again the artist found no adequate space for the illustrations. As it is, there is no Crucifixion scene in the Hours of the Virgin or the Hours of the Cross. and Rohan work 92, 96, K?nig, 29. Besides Erzbisch?fliches Ars vivendi ars mori Di?zesanmuseum, Cologne, Renate K?nig. 34 der sch?nsten An endi. Die Handschriftensammlung dachtsb?cher des Mittelalter aus der wohl bedeutendsten Sammlung in 5, 23. and Compare Flemish books of hours, ca. 1420, in Randall, Medieval Renaissance Manuscripts, III, Nos. 229 and 230, Figs. 440 and 441. Books of hours modeled after the Belles include manuscripts Cloisters, 1405-1408) in London and in theWalters Art Museum Heures (New York, The in the Zwemmer Collection in Baltimore (MS W. 287, see M. Meiss, French Painting in the Time of Jean de 1420-1425); Berry: The Late Fourteenth Century and the Patronage of the Duke (London, 1967), I, 265, II, Fig. 262, and Meiss, Kirsch, and Morand, ca. The Boucicaut naissance 24. Fig. 240, as well II, No. 103. Master, Manuscripts, as Randall, Medieval windmill 25. Dunlap, 30. 31. For A Descriptive MS (Cambridge, II, Figs. 857, 862, 863, I, 259-264, bourgs and Their Contemporaries, scene in 865-867. The composition may distantly echo a bas-de-page see Meiss, The Late Fourteenth the Tr?s Belles Heures de Notre-Dame; Century, II, Fig. 27. The Rohan Master may also have influenced a similar composition by theMaster of Walters 221 (Baltimore, WAM, MS W. 221, fol. 15); at least the similarities are stronger than those of the Orl?ans Master, who, according to K?nig, was the dominant stylistic force on theMaster 44 of Walters 221. et allou? de Rennes et leurs lieutenans de 491. et si?cles," in Les m?tiers au moyen ?ge. Aspects ?conomiques ed. P. Lambrechts and J.-P. Sosson (Louvain-la-Neuve, 1994), sociaux, 157-204, 33. 160. esp. Concerning the early printing endeavors in Brittany, see Dom Fr. Plaine, "Essai historique sur les origines et les vicissitudes de l'imprimerie en et de Vend?e, XXXVIII (1875), 241 Bretagne," Revue de Bretagne en Bretagne A. de La Borderie, L'imprimerie "Le livre et sa diffusion en (Nantes, 1878); M. Duval, et Arch?ologique de la Soci?t? Historique de Bretagne," M?moires urbaine (1952), 31-62; B. Saunier, "L'organisation Bretagne, XXXII 258, 354-371, au XVe si?cle 458-465; in Artistes, artisans et production l'exemple de Rennes," en Bretagne au Moyen Age, 33-31; and Rennes, Biblio en Bretagne: 500 ans d'imprimerie 1484-1985, th?que municipale, ed. X. Ferrieu (Rennes, 1985). des m?tiers: artistique 118; illuminated by the Rohan Master (Cambridge, see M. James, 62, fol. 119, ca. 1417-1418), in theFitzwilliam Museum Catalogue of theManuscripts and Dunlap, The Lim Beatson, 1895), No. 62; Meiss, Museum, es seneschal Concerning Breton m?tiers, see J.-P.Leguay, Un r?seau urbain au moyen ?ge. Les villes du duch? de Bretagne aux XTV?me etXV?me si?cle (Paris, 1981), 263-265; M. Planiol, Histoire des institutions de la Bretagne XVe II, Fig. 45. the book of hours Fitzwilliam "Mandement I, 336, II, Fig. 412. Re copy); see A. Rebillon, ouvri?res et marchandes de (Mayenne, 1982), IV, La Bretagne ducale, 109-160; J.-P. Leguay, "Les m?tiers de l'artisanat dans les villes du duch? de Bretagne aux XlVe et collaborating with the Rohan workshop (Paris, Biblioth?que Mazarine, MS 469, fol. 13, ca. 1415), and an imitator of the Parement Master (Turin,Museo Civico, Heures de Milan); reproduced by Meiss, Beatson, and Dunlap, The Limbourgs and Their Contemporaries, II, Fig. 87; 26. and Their Contemporaries, AMun, No. 327 (18th-century cherches sur les anciennes corporations la ville de Rennes (Paris, 1902), 15. II, 14, No. 32. Similar aureoles are found inminiatures by theCoronation Master (Paris, BnF, MS fr. 12420, fol. 11, 1402), the Boucicaut Master (Paris, Mus?e de Jacquemart Andr?, MS 2, fol. 20v, 1405-1408), Boucicaut followers 8 and The Limbourgs Rennes, les parcheminiers de Rennes es preveleges et franchises de (6 April 1407); see R. Blanchard, quoy ilz ont joy es temps passez" Lettres et mandements de Jean V, duc de Bretagne (Nantes, 1889-1895), element repeated inRohan manuscripts; de Jacquemart the Boucicaut Hours (Paris, Mus?e The Boucicaut Master, Figs. Meiss, Kirsch, and Morand, and Meiss, The Late Fourteenth Century, I, 247, 337-340, 100. mentioned maintenir is another Boucicaut see, for example, a book of hours illuminated in collabora Andr?, MS 2, 1405-1408), tion (Paris, Biblioth?que MS 469, ca. 1415); reproduced Mazarine, The Boucicaut Master, Figs. 30 and by Meiss, Kirsch, and Morand, 262. Hours PML, MS M. 515 (1402, use of Nantes), written by Yves Luces with see Meiss, Beatson, and illumination attributed to the Troyes Master; and Re A similar composition inwhich Judas is placed at Christ's left is found in Brb, MSS 11060-1, p. 164, by Jacquemart and assistants; repro duced inMeiss, The Late Fourteenth Century, II, Fig. 191. The distant d'Orl?ans, above, two other illuminated to Paris: Philadelphia, Breton books of hours are assigned Free Li brary,Widener MS 4 (ca. 1405, use of Rennes), written by Johannes Parvus with illumination attributed to the Lu?on Master and theEgerton the Durrieu see Philadelphia Museum of Art, Leaves of Gold: Manuscript Master; Illumination from Philadelphia ed. J. Tanis with the as Collections, sistance of J. Thompson No. 28; and New York, 2001), (Philadelphia, where 22. Les heures de Marguerite 28. 135, Figs. deutschen Privatbesitz, ed. J.M. Plotzek et al. (Munich, 2001), No. and Nantes. its liturgical use is described as Rennes(?) of production problems: the scribe or manu script designer neglected to leave space forminiatures at prime (Hours of theVirgin) and sext (Hours of the Cross). Finding no place at prime (Hours of the Virgin) to paint the usual Nativity scene, the artist illus Pilate, which creates a narrative discontinuity. It is possible that both the Flagellation and Christ before Pilate miniatures were intended for tr?s remar (London, BL, Harley 2940, ca. 1420), shops in at least one manuscript noting their colorful borders of acanthus leaves, tall flowering stems, and decorative gold balls emerging from the ground or a vase; see There are signs, however, trated it at the next available hour of terce (Hours of the Virgin); he at none (Hours of the Virgin) between the painted the Flagellation Adoration of the Christ Child and the Flight into Egypt. For the final hour of compline (Hours of theVirgin), the artist painted Christ before Andrews, insolite et par un sens de la d?coration, moins civilis?, mais ? Rennes," 124. quable." K?nig, "L'enluminure 20. 27. 34. This isRebillon's conclusion based on a 1755 document and "imagiers" among the free m?tiers; les anciennes corporations, 24. 35. A Franciscan see Rebillon, listing painters sur Recherches ordinary (Rennes, BMun, MS 39, fol. 28v) records scribal role of Brother Petrus Garnerius in 1454: "Istud ordinarium the est pro uenerabili et famoso conuentu Redonensi Fratrum Minorum scriptum et completum anno Domini MCCCC quarto, per manum quinquagesimo . . ." See en ?criture des manuscrits Catalogue latine portant des indications de date, de lieu ou de copiste, ed. C. Sa maran and R. Marichal (Paris, 1959-), VII, 255. A 1411 payment in theRennes cathedral chapter account books identifies the clerical scribe fratris Petri Garnerii. "Item die lune post festum assencionis domini pro Dionsius: surrogacione novorum foliorum in libro de catholicon dicte ecclesie loco folioium dicti libri amissorum sobrit Guillelmo Dionsii clerico Guillelmus XX s. item XXXI s.," 1411 estivalis. The three lay scribes?Iohannes and Robinus Luce?also worked for the Guillelmo Moichan, Durocher, Rennes cathedral chapter: "Item dono Iohanni Durocher pro coppiendo et pro instrumento XV litteras fundacionis cappelanie beate Margarete s." 1403 estivales; "Item de mandato dominorum tune capitulatium tra didit idem prepositus Guillelmo Moichan deducendo de majori somma unius pro scriptura psalterii pro capitulo predicto XX s.," 1408-1409 vernalis; and "Item pro Robino Luce chorali dicte ecclesie pro nota unius . . . solvit XX s.," 1412 psalterii dicti capituli de mandato dominorum estivalis. Comptes du chapitre de Rennes, Rennes, AdIV, ser. G 209, not foliated; excerpted 36. in Rennes, AdIV, AMun, Comptes not foliated. 37. et couvenant fait ovecques lesdiz paintre a la somme de 60 s." Also, "A Richard paintre pour avoir ermyn? et paint ledit g?bet"; and "A Hamon Soybaut pour avoir paint et ermyn? ledit g?bet." Rennes, 1442; transcribed inAdIV, ser. 1 F 104, chapter accounts record payments to presbiter for binding a manuscript: "Item pro religacione unius libri dicte ecclesie nuncupati libri Johannis solvit Petro de Brolio pres The Rennes cathedral Petrus de Brolio b?tero XXV vernalis. Rennes, AdIV, ser. G 209, not fo s.," 1413-1414 in Rennes, AdIV, ser. 1 F 433, p. 68. liated; excerpted 38. "Item de mandato Radulpho Guillelmo dominorum capituli tradidit ipse prepositus domino Crambert presbitero pro litteris capituli defferendis magistro de Montforti scolastico Redonensi et abbati de Monteforti tarn pro repparacione et religacione librorum dicte ecclesie quam pro resti tucione unius consocii cum priore sancti Moderandi ad eamdem eccle siam 5 d.," 1418-1419 vernalis. Rennes, AdIV, ser. G 209, not foliated; in Rennes, AdIV, ser. 1 F 433, p. 79. ser. 1 F 433, pp. 21, 58, 63, 65. et a Richart, paintres, pour plastrer "Item a poy? ce miseur a Moerien et paindre un tablel quel fut armoy? des armes et tymbe du Duc et Et pour semez dermines atach? au Portai de la dite Porte Mordelayse. partie dudit portai contre la venue de mondit seigneur le Duc par des miseurs, excerpted 39. libraire, who hired the printer Pierre Concerning Guillaume Cheveau, Le Bret to operate his new printing presses, see A. le Duc, "Les d?buts difficiles de l'imprimerie," in Artistes, artisans et production artistique en Bretagne au Moyen ?ge, 284. 40. P. Blois, Histoire marchi? de Nantes (Toulouse, 1977), 98-100. 45