Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz by Chris Frangou Supervised by Dr Barry Hill Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 2 Acknowledgements Firstly I would like to thank Dr Barry Hill for his supervision and continual support over the past year during the writing of this thesis. I would also like to thank my friend and musical collaborator Mulatu Astatke for his help in providing invaluable insight to his music and the history of contemporary Ethiopian music. This research would not have been possible without them. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 3 Abstract All musical styles are hybrids. They can be seen as a product of the confluence of cultural groups and historical events. Recently, there has been a rise in the popularity of Ethiopian music in the Western world, particularly of the contemporary style known as ​Ethio-jazz. Ethio-jazz emerged in in Addis Ababa in the 1960s and ‘70s and is a hybrid of traditional Ethiopian musical elements fused with African American jazz, soul and funk. One of the important works of Ethio-jazz is Mulatu Astatke’s 1974 LP entitled ​Yekatit Ethio Jazz. As Ethio-jazz is a hybrid style, this thesis aims to identify the cultural origins of individual musical elements that are found on the record Yekatit Ethio Jazz. In addition to this it will discuss how specific historical and cultural aspects made an impact on the music composition process and the subsequent commercial success of this particular album release. This research will be conducted by employing specific methodologies across the chapters of this thesis. The first method employed is the reviewing of literature and musical sources that are currently available on this topic and related subject matter. This is followed by a historical and cultural study and an analysis of Yekatit Ethio Jazz through transcription of the recorded material and analysing musical elements found within the music. Finally an interview with Mulatu Astatke is conducted and analysed in order to address, confirm and elaborate on previous finding in the thesis. Key words:​ Ethnomusicology, musical analysis, hybridity, music theory, Ethio-jazz, Mulatu Astatke. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 4 Acknowledgements 2 Abstract 3 Chapter 1: Introduction. 1.1 Addressing a lack of analysis of traditional and contemporary Ethiopian Music. 1.2 Examining a Hybridised Style; a Hybridised Musician. 1.3 The Impact of Politics and Industry on Music Making in Ethiopia. 1.4 Notion of Author Being a Participant Observer. 6 7 7 8 9 Chapter 2: Literature Review. 2.1 Notions of World Music 2.2 Musical Analysis & Transcription 2.3 Qualitative Research Methodologies 2.4 Issues Identifying Musical Elements. 2.5 Ethiopian Music and Ethio-jazz. 2.6 Hybrid Music: Yekatit Ethio Jazz as an Example of Transculturation. 2.7 Mulatu Astatke. 2.8 Commercial Success in the West. 10 10 11 11 13 13 14 15 15 Chapter 3: Methodology. 3.1 Musical Analysis and Transcription. 3.2 From Observations to Conclusions Using a Qualitative Framework. 3.3 Ethnography: The Importance of Social Context in Music Making. 3.4 The Semi-structured Interview. 3.5 The Participant Observer 15 16 16 16 17 17 Chapter 4: Historical and Cultural Study. 4.1 Mulatu Astatke: a brief biography. 4.2 The Cultural Origins of Ethio-jazz. 4.3 A Brief History of Ethiopian Music. Qenet (ቅኝት), Melody, and Harmony. Rhythm and Time Signatures. 4.4 A Brief Definition of Jazz 4.5 Historical Connections Between the Musical Cultures of Ethiopia and the U.S. 4.6 Music Business in 1960s & ‘70s Ethiopia. 18 18 19 19 20 21 22 22 23 Chapter 5: Musical Analysis. 5.1 Instrumentation. 5.2 Track by Track Analysis ደወል (Dewol) የከር ሰው (Yekermo Sew) ጉብልዬ (Gubelye) 24 25 25 25 26 29 Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz አስማሪ (Asmarina) የካ ት (Yekatit) ነፃነት (Netsanet) ትዝ ዬ አ ቺ ልጅ (Tezetaye Anchie Lidge) ሳብዬ (Sabye) አ አ ቺ እል ር (Ene Alanchie Alnorem) 5.3 Post Analysis Conclusions. - 5 29 31 32 34 35 38 39 Chapter 6: Interview with Mulatu Astatke. 39 Chapter 7: Conclusion 43 Discography 46 References 46 Appendix A: Glossary of terms 51 Appendix B: Audio Recordings 52 Appendix C: LP Artwork & associated images. 53 Appendix D: Transcription of Semi-structured Interview with Mulatu Astatke. 54 Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 6 Chapter 1: ​Introduction. Over the past 20 years, there has been a notable rise in the popularity of Ethiopian music in the Western world, particularly of the contemporary style known as ‘​Ethio-jazz’. Ethio-jazz as a style first emerged in Addis Ababa in the 1960s and ‘70s and is a combination of traditional Ethiopian musical elements fused with African American jazz, soul and funk. One of the important works of Ethio-jazz is Mulatu Astatke’s 1974 LP entitled ​Yekatit Ethio Jazz. Globally, it is possible to identify two important factors in rise in popularity of Ethio-jazz with non-Ethiopian audiences. Firstly, the release of the Jim Jarmusch directed film entitled ​Broken Flowers (2005) starring Bill Murray​; a film whose soundtrack focuses strongly on the music of Astatke and secondly, the re-release of multiple volumes of Ethiopian music under the title Ethiopiques by the French record label Buda Musique. It is important to note that the creation of the style itself and these two factors of popularity are outcomes derived from the quickening pace of globalisation in relation to the deterritorialization of musical styles; a phenomena that has been well documented by ethnographers, musicologists and cultural researchers. This research project responds to this background and develops the following research questions: Can we identify the cultural origin of individual musical elements that are found on the record ​Yekatit Ethio Jazz? How did specific historical and cultural aspects impact on the music composition process and the subsequent commercial success of this particular album release? These questions will be addressed by employing specific research methodologies which will be discussed in the following chapters. Chapter 2 will present a review of literature and musical sources that are currently available on this topic and related subject matter. Chapter 3 outlines my research methodology, one that foregrounds qualitative techniques. Chapter 4 presents a historical and cultural study which follows a framework based on the ideas of Blacking who states that music cannot be analysed in it’s own right, but instead must be accompanied by the analysis of the composer or artist’s cognitive processes and the broader social and cultural Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 7 context (1995, p.55). The fifth chapter adopts a musicological approach to the analysis of Yekatit Ethio Jazz through transcription of the recorded material and analysing musical elements found within the music. Finally, Chapter 6 analyses a semi-structured interview that I conducted with Mulatu Astatke himself in order to address, confirm and elaborate on previous findings. This interview process was reviewed and approved by SCU HUMAN RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE (Approval No ECN-16-225). 1.1 Addressing a lack of analysis of traditional and contemporary Ethiopian Music. This thesis addresses a perceived a lack of analysis of traditional and contemporary Ethiopian Music​. Teffera (2008) states there is a lack of in-depth theoretical analysis of traditional and contemporary Ethiopian music, especially in regards to aspects such as harmony, instrumentation and arrangement. Analysis of these musical elements in isolation of the cultural context can defined as a ‘musicological’ analytical framework. By embarking on a musicological analysis of selected aspects of the music recordings included in the album Yekatit Ethio Jazz, and then contextualising this analysis with a discussion of a specific cultural context, this research project aims to fill a gap within the body of knowledge regarding Ethio-jazz and link the cultural context surrounding the development of Ethio-jazz to the way the music actually sounds. 1.2 Examining a Hybridised Style; a Hybridised Musician. Ethio-jazz and contemporary Ethiopian music can be defined as a hybridised musical style. The name Ethio-jazz itself alludes to a musical style that combines more ancient Ethiopian music such as ​zema (music of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church), ​bahalawi (traditional secular styles) and zemenawi (modern, contemporary music) with African American Jazz styles (Shelemay, 2006, p.305). A discussion of these musics is beyond the scope of this paper. It is worth noting, that when examining a hybrid musical style such as Ethio-jazz, it is arguable that all musical styles are hybridised (Dilanchian, 1993). There is no such thing as ‘pure music’. Genre specifications tend to create definitions of music that do not reflect history and often shroud the true cultural origins of particular musical elements found within the music. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 8 The feature film Broken Flowers was released in 2005 and features the music of Mulatu Astatke, an Ethiopian musician and a pioneer of the Ethio-jazz style. The release of this critically acclaimed film reactivated interest in Ethio-jazz and specifically the music career of Mulatu Astatke. Mulatu Astatke was born in Jimma, Ethiopia in 1943 (Diarra, 2014). Astatke left Ethiopia to study as a 16 year old in 1959, only to arrive in North Wales and finally London, where he decided to study music. He later became the first African to enrol and study at Berklee College of Music (then named Berklee School of Music), after which he moved to New York City and finally back to Ethiopia in 1969 (Williams, 2014). In interviews conducted for this project it is clear that Mulatu’s experiences living abroad had a profound effect on the creative development of his musical ideas. A more detailed biography is included in Chapter 4.1 of this thesis. This research project develops the notion that specific musical ideas and creative works are developed in relation to an artist’s personal experiences sited within a specific cultural context; a combination of specific and historical and cultural factors. The complex interactions between an artist’s experiences and this cultural context have enabled Mulatu Astatke to be an instigator of a hybridised style. This thesis aims to examine these interactions and reflect on how they have made an impact on Astatke’s composition process and the subsequent commercial success of this album release. A musical analysis of Yekatit Ethio-jazz will be covered in Chapter 5 in which I aim to identify the cultural origins of specific musical elements. 1.3 The Impact of Politics and Industry on Music Making in Ethiopia. Politics and industry have played a major role in creating the trajectory of music and music making in Ethiopia. From approximately 1137 until 1974, Ethiopia was an empire. It’s final ruler Emperor Haile Selassie I was the last of the Solomonic Dynasty who claim they are descendants of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba (Crummey, Marcus & Mehretu, 2016). In the late 1960s and early ‘70s, an Ethiopian music industry emerged. Despite strict censorship laws and government controls on music releases, Ethiopian record companies began releasing Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 9 records for commercial distribution in 1969 (Teffera, 2008). The first record company was Amha Records, created by Amha Eshete in Addis Ababa in 1969 (ibid). This historical period from 1969 prior to the military coup in 1974 was a prolific one for original music releases in Ethiopia. A pivotal point in Ethiopian history, 1974 marked the end of imperial rule in Ethiopia, the beginning of the socialist Derg regime (ibid) and also the release of Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz. This change in political climate would ultimately lead to a decline in creativity and musical output in Ethiopia. Many musicians left the country and went into exile, ending what Teffera (2008) calls ‘The Golden Years’ of Ethiopian music. These political and historical events will be discussed in more depth in Chapter 4, the historical and cultural study. 1.4 Notion of Author Being a Participant Observer. This project is developed from my position as both a early career music researcher and a participant observer. A participant observer, when ‘​in a study of a group, community or society, [is] an observer who is simultaneously a full participant in the group. Often this role is taken by a psychologist, anthropologist or sociologist in order to examine processes ​in situ.’ (Reber, Reber & Allen, 2009). Despite my background as an Australian musician with European heritage, and my lack of personal identification with the culture of Ethiopia, I have an ongoing professional and personal relationship with both Mulatu Astatke and contemporary Ethiopian music which has developed over the past four years. During these years I have extensively studied the music of Mulatu Astatke and other contemporary Ethiopian composers and musicians and have had the opportunity to tour Ethiopia and Australia and perform with Astatke himself. This relationship has enabled me to have insight into Astatke’s music, his creative process and develop a relationship that can facilitate the outcomes of this project. In addition to this, our collaboration (as a Western musician and an Ethiopian musician) has further contributed to the evolving musical hybrid that is Ethio-jazz and has helped inform my own musical identity. This close correspondence however can have it’s own disadvantages, as the willingness to retain a amicable relationship between the author and the participant can dictate the outcome of the research and possible lines of questioning when conducting research interviews. These ideas surrounding participant observation and its concerns and considerations will be elaborated on in Chapter 2 of this thesis. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 10 Chapter 2: ​Literature Review. In this review I aim to discuss texts that specifically focus on an analysis of African music styles, qualitative research methodologies, Ethiopian history, musical analysis, and the impact of historical and cultural aspects on the development of musical styles. I also aim to connect these broad topic areas by discovering themes within these texts that relate specifically to my research questions. 2.1 Notions of World Music Much like other styles of music with their origins outside of the West, Ethio-jazz is often marketed under the genre world music in Western countries. According to Feld (2000), the term world music first emerged in the 1960s. It’s origins began as an optimistic and inclusive academic term for music found outside of the Western sphere, it eventually proved divisive. Feld (2011, p.147) describes the creation of a binary existence of music definition; music of Western origin and music of the non-Western origin and ‘the relationship of the colonizing and the colonized thus remained generally intact in distinguishing ​music from ​world music’. World music can be seen as a companion term to ethnomusicology. Where ​musicology surrounds the study of Western classical music, primarily focusing on the abstracted musical score, ​ethnomusicology is often understood as a term for the study of non-Western music. The notions of world music are further discussed in the book, Music and Globalization: Critical Encounters (White, 2011)​. This book follows the phenomenon of globalisation through the medium of music, outlining factors that help and obstruct cross pollination of cultures and their respective music. In the introduction of the book the origin of the term world music is discussed. White mentions that it is a modern term for music originating from cultures beyond the West and in which its primary function was for labelling in the marketing of records. There is a particularly engaging chapter authored by Timothy D. Taylor in which he discusses the status of world music in the present day. Despite the marketing of Ethiopian music and Ethio-jazz as World music, it is safe to argue that the term World music has little or no value within this research project or within ethnomusicology in general. The term harbours a culture of limited understanding and knowledge of the complexity Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 11 of music beyond the West as well as promoting a Western-centric and divisive view of music and musicology. 2.2 Musical Analysis & Transcription Regarding the topic of musical analysis, ​Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music (1987) by Jean-Jacques Nattiez is a book with a very large reach. The book is divided into two sections, the first being ​the Semiology of Musical Fact. Within this Nattiez discusses the concept of both music itself and ‘the musical work’ and the way music and music production is perceived based on differing cultures from around the world. The second part is called ​the Semiology of Discourse on Music and focuses primarily on musical analysis. This book gives this research a solid platform in musical analysis and its link to psychology surrounding music and even anthropology. Another text concerning musical analysis in which I have utilised to throughout this research project is Nicholas Cook’s ​A Guide to Musical Analysis (1987). This text covers common methods of musical analysis, most of which are associated with Western music and Western art music in particular. The text is sectioned into two parts, the first concerning analytical methods and in the second Cook applies these analytical methods in his own analysis of certain Western art music pieces. Due to the strong Western classic music association, the text is somewhat limiting in its practicality for my specific area of enquiry. However, due to the work of Mulatu Astatke being a hybrid of traditional Western music and Ethiopian music, I have the ability to utilise elements of this style of Western classical analysis. As this research focuses on music that is a hybrid of Western and non-Western music, and considering most theoretical framework is based on music of the West, we must consider this concept when conducting musical analysis. 2.3 Qualitative Research Methodologies This research project employs qualitative research methodologies including a semi-structured interview with Mulatu Astatke. I begun my research into semi-structured interview techniques by reading two texts. The first being a book entitled ​Mastering the Semi-Structured Interview and Beyond: Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 12 From Research Design to Analysis and Publication (Galletta & Cross, 2013). This has been a very useful reference for me in my planning of the interview and achieving a strong foundation in which to build this type of method. Galletta and Cross (2013) state that ‘the semi-structured interview provides a repertoire of possibilities. It is sufficiently structured to address specific topics related to the phenomenon of study, while leaving space for participants to offer new meanings to the study focus.’ The second text, Grindsted (2005) discusses the idea of committing to a ‘ordinary, conversation-like’ interactive format for the semi-structured interview, as it will aid the interviewee in producing more accurate responses. By far the most detailed and useful resource I have utilised in throughout this project has been ​Qualitative Research Methods (Liamputtong, 2009). This text outlines many procedures and also clearly states the pros and cons of certains methods. Particularly useful is the chapter focusing on in-depth interviewing methods, another term for a semi-structured interview. This chapter discusses the approach you should undertake when completing an in-depth interview as well as identifying advantages and disadvantages to this research method. Liamputtong argues that conversation is the primary course of human interaction and provides us the opportunity to know others on a deeper more personal level. Due to this, in-depth interviewing gives us ‘a means of collecting empirical data about the social world of individuals by inviting them to talk about their lives in great depth’ (Liamputtong, 2009). Other advantages discussed within this text include the ability to retrieve non-binary answers, repressed information, and see the world through the eyes of the participant (Liamputtong, 2009). Galletta and Cross (2013) state an advantage of this type of qualitative research is in ‘its attention to lived experience while also addressing theoretically driven variables of interest.’ Despite all the advantages of a semi-structured or in-depth interview, certain processes must be considered and navigated in order to achieve a successful and academic outcome. If not, this type of qualitative research becomes a disadvantage to any researcher. Some of these considerations include the way of asking questions; including and not limited to avoiding dichotomies such as yes or no answers and also leading questions that may force the participant to respond in a predefined way (Liamputtong, 2009). As discussed in the introduction, my close personal and professional working connection to Mulatu Astatke and contemporary Ethiopian music over the past four years has solidified my position as a participant observer within this research. According to Vinten (1987) by becoming a participant observer you are immersed in the field of research. In doing so, you hope to attain Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 13 ‘more information and a greater depth of knowledge than would be possible from the outside looking in’. However, Vinten continues by arguing that it is not always possible to be academic and follow strictness in protocol when being a participant observer. The difficulty of continually taking notes and documenting the experience when being directly involved in the process is an inherent shortcoming. In addition to this, results may vary in the presence of the researcher, as the researcher themselves can unintentionally alter and influence the research field and subjects. Vinten uses the example of the Heisenberg principle in physics as an example of this, he states that ‘according to this [principle] it is impossible to determine both the mass and velocity of a moving particle. The mere act of observation means that the measurement of either mass or velocity will be distorted.’ These issues can be overcome in various ways, including becoming a ‘covert participant observer’ by, according to Vinten, not disclosing your true identity as a researcher. Reflecting back on my own relationship to the field of research over the past four years, I can conclude my intentions to formally research this field were not fully fledged until a year ago. My position as a researcher only has only come to fruition over the past year and not disclosed prior to this. This mitigates the Heisenberg-esque impact of me being a participant observer in this research. 2.4 Issues Identifying Musical Elements. John Blacking’s paper ​The Problem of Musical Description (1995) discusses the automatic process a listener undergoes in order to distinguish the works from one composer or artist to another and what elements are subconsciously identified by the listener. Blacking promotes the view that you cannot strictly analyse musical patterns or formulas without considering the cognitive processes of the composer or artist; processes that can be related to specific social, cultural, personal and physical behaviour and interactions. 2.5 Ethiopian Music and Ethio-jazz. In a detailed conference paper, Teffera (2008) writes about what she, and others including Francis Falceto, call the ​Golden Years of Ethiopian popular music from 1955 to 1974. The paper focuses on a historic overview of Ethiopian music; particularly in the lead up to, and during, the Golden Years. It discusses how this music developed into a unique hybrid of traditional Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 14 Ethiopian and American music. Teffera is a very useful source of journal articles related to this subject matter and often refers to other literary works in this topic area. It is worth noting Teffera is an Ethiopian currently living in Europe, and in being so, has an innate connection to the culture and music itself. Other articles that Teffera has produced and are valuable resources include ​The Dilemma of the Uprooted: A Case Study of the Impact of Music on the Ethiopian Diaspora (2011) and ​Canvassing Past Memories through Tezeta (2013); the later of which is an in-depth discussion on the traditional Ethiopian musical scale ​tezeta (referred to as ​tizita within this thesis)​, which is commonly found in the works of Mulatu Astatke. Another text with a focus on traditional Ethiopian scales is Stephanie Weisser and Francis Falceto’s paper entitled ​Investigating Qenet in Amhara Secular Music: an acoustic and historical study (​2013). The paper is a very thorough discussion on the four main types of traditional Ethiopian scales: ambassel, a​nchi hoye, ​bati and tizita. The main purpose of this paper is to critically analyse these scale types and their history, whilst attempting to discern whether they altered, simplified or tempered over time. The primary methodology of the paper is the process of analysing two types of sources, historical texts from previous researchers, and old Ethiopian recordings. The authors mention the earliest academic reference to these scales is in a paper written by Michael Powne in 1968, a source many academics subsequently refer to. It is worth noting that the co-author of this paper Francis Falceto is also the producer of the ​Ethiopiques series of 28 (and growing) CDs released by French label Buda Musique. These discs are compilations of Ethiopian traditional and popular music from the 1950s to present day. This series is arguably one of the main contributing factors to the growing popularisation of Ethiopian music in the west since the mid-‘90s. 2.6 Hybrid Music: Yekatit Ethio Jazz as an Example of Transculturation. There are texts that can be found specifically dedicated to Ethiopian history surrounding and leading up to what became Ethio-jazz and in turn Mulatu Astatke’s ​Yekatit Ethio Jazz album. Dilanchian (1993) covers both historical material and the idea of cultural hybridity in his paper Musical Cousins: Armenia, Ethiopia & Jamaica . Dilanchian argues ‘Cultures are hybrids, intricately related and influential upon each other. Music is particularly porous to influences so it provides interesting examples of cross-pollination.’. He demonstrates this by outlining the relationship between the music and culture of Armenia, Ethiopia & Jamaica. An example of which is the immigration of a band of Armenian horn players; these musicians later instructed many Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 15 musicians in Ethiopia who would become influential figures in the 1960s and ‘70s Ethio-jazz scene. The historic content as well as the way cultural hybridity is illustrated in this text is of great use to this thesis. 2.7 Mulatu Astatke. Shelemay (2006) and Williams (2014) provide their readers with detailed, chronological profiles of Mulatu Astatke’s life and work, including informative quotes from interviews with him. Shelemay’s text is in the form of an academic journal article and Williams as a newspaper article in The Guardian, which also features important historical elements that contextualises Astatke’s life and his music. Both these articles supply a level of biographical insight that has been utilised in personalising questions for the semi-structured interview I will be conducting with Astatke. 2.8 Commercial Success in the West. Mekonnen’s (2010) article moves beyond examining the 1960s and ‘70s period by discussing the contemporary spread of ​Ethio-groove to Western audiences and the adoption of this music by Western musicians and bands. Mekonnen describes Ethio-groove as the popular music found in 1960s and ‘70s Ethiopia. In many ways this can be seen as another term for the musical style Ethio-jazz. Mekonnen explores the spread of Ethio-groove through the examination of various processes that occurred, such as Francis Falceto’s role in the re-release of decades of Ethiopian recordings to a Western audience. These recordings date from roughly the mid-1950s until present, with a heavy focus on music from the 1960s and ‘70s. Another process that is examined it that intercultural collaboration has aided the spread of Ethio-groove; such as Getatchew Mekurya playing with the American band Either/Orchestra or Mulatu Astatke with the UK group The Heliocentrics. Chapter 3: ​Methodology. As stated in Chapter 1, this thesis will be addressing the research questions by engaging in various methods. These methods include conducting a historical and cultural study, musical Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 16 analysis and transcriptions of the recorded music, and an interview with Mulatu Astatke subject to an ethics approval. This chapter will discusses these methods and process in which I apply them within this thesis. 3.1 Musical Analysis and Transcription. By embarking on a musicological analysis of selected elements found in the music recordings included in the album Yekatit Ethio Jazz In order to supplement our historical and cultural study we must take musicological approach and analyse the music itself. This process will include detailed transcriptions of musical elements including melody, harmony and rhythm found within the compositions. According to Cook (1987) ‘There is no fixed way of starting a musical analysis. It depends on the music, as well as on the analyst and the reason the analysis is being done. But there is a prerequisite to any sensible analysis, and this is familiarity with the music.’ Listening to the music in it's entirety is the best possibly way to gain this familiarity. Cook further states it is important to write down initial impressions to when beginning an analysis and when you are still in the first listening stages of your analysis. These initial impressions can then be referred back to further down the line and according to Cook enable you to respond to the initial experience of the music and not lose sight of this once you start to know the composition better and begin more in-depth analysis and transcription. Some of these initial impression I am to notate include the rhythmic feel, overall quality of the harmony (whether it sounds like it has a major or minor-like sound) and form. 3.2 From Observations to Conclusions Using a Qualitative Framework. According to Liamputtong (2009) ‘It is crucial that qualitative research should be situated within a methodological framework.’ It is important that the methods employed within this research project are clearly defined in order to understand the nature and scope of application of the conclusions. 3.3 Ethnography: The Importance of Social Context in Music Making. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 17 As previously discussed in the literature review, John Blacking’s paper ​The Problem of Musical Description (1995) argues that you cannot rely solely on the analysis of musical patterns or formulas created by a composer or artist, but you must also analyse and discover their cognitive processeses. These cognitive processes including what the mind goes through when the person is participating in activities that relate to their social, cultural and personal interactions. This means the composers social context is of great importance to the music making process. In response, this project includes an examination of the broader historical and cultural context in which this music was created and subsequently released. This historical and cultural study in Chapter 4 will be followed by the musicological analysis in Chapter 5. Blacking’s concept of understanding the cognitive processes of an artist will be further pursued in Chapter 6 through the process of a semi-structured interview with Astatke. 3.4 The Semi-structured Interview. Liamputtong (2009) states that ‘In-depth interviews aim to elicit rich information from the perspective of a particular individual and on a selected topic under investigation’. In the case of this thesis, the individual I aim to engage in an interview with is Mulatu Astatke and the topic under investigation is his album Yekatit Ethio Jazz and the associated research questions. An in-depth interview is described as a one-on-one interview, generally conducted face-to-face, between the researcher and participant or research subject (Liamputtong, 2009). Liamputtong (2009) stresses the point of transcribing your own interviews and in doing so ensure the interview is transcribed word for word including every expression and sound both the interviewee and interviewer verbalise. This process illustrates the interview in a more organic, natural way which is a more accurate representation of the original verbal communication that took place. 3.5 The Participant Observer By engaging in fieldwork over an extended period of time you are able to garner a strong and trusting relationship with your research participant (Liamputtong, 2009). As discussed in the introduction chapter, I have developed an ongoing professional and personal relationship with Mulatu Astatke which has significantly aided the research process and has further informed my Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 18 own creative practice. Through my involvement in the performance of traditional and contemporary Ethiopian music with and without Astatke, it has enabled me to gain a strong understanding of this music and witness Astatke’s creative and musical processes first-hand. Chapter 4: ​Historical and Cultural Study. This chapter presents a discussion of some of the important historical and cultural aspects of surrounding the emergence of Ethio Jazz and identifies the impacts of these on Astake’s Music compositional process and the subsequent commercial success of the album Yekatit Ethio Jazz. Firstly I will present a brief biography of Astatke and contextualise this with a broader discussion of relevant Ethiopian historical aspects. 4.1 Mulatu Astatke: a brief biography. Mulatu Astatke was born in Jimma (a town found in the Oromia Region of Western Ethiopia) in 1943 just two years after the Italian occupation. Due to his family's wealth, Astatke was able to move abroad to study (Shelemay, 2006). As a 16 year old in 1959, Astatke arrived in North Wales to study aeronautical engineering (Diarra, 2014). He eventually moved to London, where he began studying music at the Trinity College of Music. Here he learned piano, clarinet and music harmony; fundamentals that would help him significantly in his later musical career. In 1963 he became the first African to enrol and study at Berklee College of Music and later moved to New York City where he recorded his first two LP records Afro-Latin Soul 1 & 2 in 1966 on Worthy Records (Diarra, 2014; Spencer, 2010; Williams, 2014). By 1969 Astatke was back in Ethiopia, had aligned himself with Amha Eshete’s label Amha Records and was beginning to establish himself as one of the busiest musicians, composers and arrangers in the country (Freerix, 2010). In 1972 Astatke released his third LP, Mulatu of Ethiopia, once again on Worthy Records (Diarra 2014; Freerix, 2010). Over these years Astatke made a name for himself composing and arranging for many of Amha’s releases, including for singers such as Tilahun Gessesse. Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz was released at turning point in Ethiopian history. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 19 Ethiopia has a strong cultural identity and a documented cultural history spanning thousands of years. Despite a brief period of occupation by Italy from 1936 to 1941, Ethiopia has remained largely independent from Western colonization throughout this time (Crummey, Marcus & Mehretu, 2016). Due to this, Ethiopia is seen as a shining light of African independence within the continent. Many countries throughout Africa have adopted the colours of the Ethiopian flag and Addis Ababa is home to the headquarters of the African Union. (ibid) 4.2 The Cultural Origins of Ethio-jazz. Often marketed in the West under the broader genre label ‘world music’, Ethio-jazz is it’s own style with specific cultural origins which we aim to identify within this thesis. In order to discuss the cultural origins of Ethio-jazz, we must first define the term Ethio-jazz itself. The term Ethio-jazz itself is a combination of the prefix ​Ethio, a prefix which is commonly used to identify something as Ethiopian, and ​jazz, the style of African American origin with heavy focus on improvisation which itself is a confluence musical cultures. To gain a stronger understanding of Ethio-jazz we must identify its origins and in doing so we must investigate the origins of both Ethiopian music and jazz. This will enable us to identify the musical elements found on the record Yekatit Ethio Jazz. 4.3 A Brief History of Ethiopian Music. Ethiopian music has a long and complex history intricately entwined with the culture of the countless tribes that call Ethiopia home. Like many cultures around the world, traditional Ethiopian music has its origins in religion. This is commonly attributed to the historical figure St. Yared who lived between 505 and 571 AD and was instrumental in developing early forms Ethiopian of musical notation and ​zema, the sacred music still utilised in the Ethiopian Orthodox Church today (Teffera, 2008; Weisser, 2011). Some traditional instruments include the masinko (a violin-like instrument with one string), krar (lyre), washint (flute) and the bagana (large lyre)(Sarosi, 1967; Weisser, 2011). What is now considered to be contemporary Ethiopian music began to take shape in the early 20th century. This begun with Ras Tafari Makonnen (who later became Emperor Haile Selassie I) watching a marching band of forty young Armenian musicians perform in Jerusalem. The Armenians were orphans from the Armenian genocide that took Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 20 place between 1915 and 1917 (Dilanchian, 1993; Kifner, 2014). R ​ as Tafari Makonnen granted the forty orphans asylum in Ethiopia along with their bandleader and music teacher Kevork Nalbandian (Dilanchian, 1993; Teffera, 2008). They became what was later known as the Bodyguard Band, a group known for later contributing heavily to contemporary Ethiopian music by backing singers such as Tilahun Gessesse and Mahmoud Ahmed. The Body Guard band introduced their marching band instruments such as saxophones and trumpets into contemporary Ethiopian music and broader consciousness of Ethiopia (Dilanchian, 1993; Teffera, 2008). Qenet (ቅኝት), Melody, and Harmony. In order to successfully analyse Astatke’s music in Chapter 5, we must first outline some of the non-Western musical idioms, in particular the unique pentatonic scales found in traditional Ethiopian music. These traditional scales are called ​qenet (ቅኝት) in amharic (Weisser & Falcetto, 2013). Traditional Ethiopian music utilises four main types of qenet in its composition. They are known in amharic as ​anchi hoye, ​bati, ​tizita and ​ambassel (Abate 2009). Depending on musical context the compositions may focus on modes of each of these scales. In Western notation, these four scales types and some common variations can be written as follows and are found from tracks 01 to 07 in the audio file accompaniment to this thesis: Anchi hoye Anchi hoye (5th mode) Bati major Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 21 Bati minor Tizita major Tizita minor Ambassel Rhythm and Time Signatures. Just like many other cultures, many different rhythms can be found in traditional Ethiopian music. However, one of the most common and identifiable in modern times is called the ​chik chikka (​ቸክቸክካ) and it employs a time signature of 6/8. This time-feel relies on two Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 22 simultaneous pulses with equal emphasis. This is commonly referred to in Western music as the 3:2 polyrhythm, as notated below in 6/8 time (refer to audio track 08). A common interpretation of the chik chikka rhythm on the modern drum kit can be notated as follows (refer to audio track 09): 4.4 A Brief Definition of Jazz There are many scholarly texts surrounding the history of jazz, and to write about this topic in any depth would be beyond the scope of this thesis. However certain aspects can be discussed in order to give context and broaden our understanding of the jazz elements found in Ethio-jazz. The origins of jazz can be found deeply rooted in the African diaspora within the United States. In his book ​At the Jazz Band Ball: sixty years on the jazz scene (2010)​, Jazz critic and author Nat Hentoff declares ‘it’s indisputable that jazz began as black music’. Schuller (2005) describes jazz as being improvisational and a combination of Western harmony and African rhythms. He also states a definitive definition of jazz is difficult and misleading as it has constantly evolved as a style since its creation as a musical style in the early 20th century (ibid). Despite the conciseness of this definition of jazz, we are able to use this basic understanding to inform us and enable us to have a better understanding of how this music fits within the hybrid Ethio-jazz. 4.5 Historical Connections Between the Musical Cultures of Ethiopia and the U.S. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 23 The hybrid style of Ethio-jazz has borrowed many of its elements from the music of the United States. There have been many historical connections between the musical cultures of Ethiopia and America, many of which have directly influenced the course of contemporary Ethiopian music. Teffera (2008) argues that it is ‘absolutely doubtless that the broadcasting of foreign (American) music via radio has been an inspiration for Ethiopian musicians at the time to create new tunes with accordingly new musical styles’. *a level of acceptance to Ethiopian audiences. 4.6 Music Business in 1960s & ‘70s Ethiopia. Although Emperor Haile Selassie I was instrumental in the development and evolution of contemporary Ethiopian music (Teffera, 2008), Selassie granted sole music publishing and distribution business rights to the Hager Fikir Theatre in 1948 (Alehegn, 2012; Fantahun, 2016). His sanctioned restrictions resulted in limited enterprise activity in relation to music until the 1960s. However, Western music was becoming more readily available to the general public. As Ethiopia entered 1960s, music was being imported and distributed within Ethiopia through a small group of record shops owned by foreigners and broadcast on radio stations such as the Voice of America (Fantahun, 2016). The popularity of Western music like jazz, soul and funk grew and it was at this time three main record companies gained significant traction within Ethiopia. Philips Ethiopia, Kaifa Records and Amha Eshete’s label Amha Records were instrumental in releasing the vast majority of domestic recordings on LP and cassette up until the mid-seventies. These releases were printed and pressed in production plants in both Greece and India. Amha Records begun with Amha Eshete opening a shop selling records in Addis Ababa called Harambee. It was at this shop Eshete begun importing music he liked from the United States to sell to the Ethiopian public. His success grew and his focus turned to recording and releasing modern Ethiopian music. His first artist was singer Alemayehu Eshete, and Amha Records was born (Fantahun, 2016). According to Teffera (2008), Amha Records along with Philips Ethiopia and Kaifa Records ‘released more than 450 singles (45s) and 30 LPs from 1969-1978.’ Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 24 1974 marked the beginning of the end of a long line of Ethiopian Emperors who claim to be descendants of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba following a military coup d’etat overthrowing Emperor Haile Selassie I. What came next was a dictatorial regime called the ​Derg which restricted all kinds of music and cultural activities. Music and cultural activities that were permitted, were used as propaganda tools to push pro-Derg political messages (Teffera, 2008). During this time many musicians left Ethiopia and went into exile (ibid). Chapter 5: ​Musical Analysis. The following chapter aims to analyse various musical elements found in Yekatit Ethio Jazz. This analysis will include a discussion of the instrumentation, rhythmic and arrangement concepts and a transcription of the melodies used within his music. This transcription process exposes the various scales and harmonies used by Astatke within the various musical works that make up the album Yekatit. It is important to acknowledge that due to Astatke’s music training in Western music, he understands both Western classical music harmony and traditional Ethiopian music. In this instance a musicological analysis is useful as it relates both to Astake’s creative process /context and to understanding the sonic qualities of his music. Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio-jazz LP features nine compositions in total. On the record sleeve they are written in amharic with an english translation in parenthesis; they are as follows: A Side: 1. ደወል (Dewol) 2. የከር ሰው (Yekermo Sew) 3. ጉብልዬ (Gubelye) 4. አስማሪ (Asmarina) 5. የካ ት (Yekatit) B Side: 1. ነፃነት (Netsanet) 2. ትዝ ዬ አ ቺ ልጅ (Tezetaye Anchie Lidge) Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 25 3. ሳብዬ (Sabye) 4. አ አ ቺ እል ር 5.1 (Ene Alanchie Alnorem) Instrumentation. The instrumentation found on Yekatit Ethio Jazz is typical of Western popular music, particularly in the styles of African American jazz, soul, and funk during the time of this record’s release in 1974. It comprises of a drum kit, electric bass, electric guitar, saxophone, flute and trumpet and the personnel are as follows: Mulatu Astatke ​- Keyboards, arranging & composition Giovanni Rico - ​Electric bass Temare Haregu - ​Drums Andrew Wilson - ​Electric guitar Moges Habte - ​Tenor saxophone Fekade Amdemaskal - ​Tenor saxophone & flute Yohannes Tekolla - ​Trumpet We can look to other albums within Western jazz, soul and funk for comparison, similar instrumentation can be found in albums such as Weather Report’s ​Mysterious Traveller (1974), Stevie Wonder’s ​Talking Book (1972), Herbie Hancock’s ​Head Hunters (1973) and ​Fresh (1973) by Sly and the Family Stone; all released in the U.S. during the early 1970s. 5.2 Track by Track Analysis ደወል (Dewol) Dewol begins with an atmospheric intro that involves simultaneous free improvisation from the entire ensemble utilising the C anchi hoye mode. Just like free improvisation in American jazz music, there is no fixed rhythm or tempo at this stage. This improvisation is then interrupted by the drums outlining jazz waltz groove with the Wurlitzer piano at 0:57 (a common 3/4 time Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 26 signature with a swing feel). This is then followed by the main melody of the composition at 1:11. The overall form of this composition is as follows: Free improvisation Jazz waltz groove Melody Free improvisation Vibraphone solo over groove Melody For the majority of the jazz waltz parts of the composition, the bass is outlining a walking bass line typical of jazz. However instead of outlining chord tones of a chord progression or a Western scale as is commonly found, the walking bass outlines the notes of the C anchi hoye pentatonic scale. The most distinctly Ethiopian element within this piece is the use of the C anchi hoye scale melodically and harmonically. The ornamentation style the horns employ during the free improvisation sections are also Ethiopian of origin, mirroring the ornamentation style of traditional Ethiopian instruments such as the maskino. In regards to Western elements, the jazz waltz feel and the quasi-walking bass line are very strong representations of Western musical elements, mostly derived from American jazz music. የከር ሰው (Yekermo Sew) Yekermo Sew utilises a G minor tizita scale. As is true with most of the music on this LP, the bass strongly outlines the tonic centre and the harmony of the piece. In Yekermo Sew, the bass plays an octave pattern ostinato which is extrapolated upon in an improvisational manner as the piece progresses and increases in intensity. The following transcription illustrates the bass part Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz and the main - 27 melody of the composition which is performed by the horns. As you can see in the transcription, the composition follows a 21 bar AAB form. This is a similar AAB form to the Horace Silver composition turned jazz standard ‘Song for my Father’ (1964), however instead of a 21 bar form, Silver’s composition follows a more common 24 bar AAB form (Jazz in America, 2016). In the B section the bass outlines new tonic centres. This gives the Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 28 B section the sense of moving harmony or chord progression, alternating between an Eb major and the tonic G minor chord. The drums alternate between two main 4/4 feels in Yekermo Sew, the first being in the A section and the second in the B section. The A section feel is a lower dynamic and features a cross-stick rhythm where the snare cross-stick is felt on each of the 4 beats of the bar. In the B section, the feel changes to more of a traditional soul or funk back-beat groove with a higher dynamic. During the solo sections the drums extrapolate the back-beat feel of the B section and there is interplay with the the soloist and other members of the rhythm section. Despite the solo sections utilising the feel of the B section, the solos improvise on the static G bass ostinato from the A section which slowly develops and changes as the solos develop and increase in intensity. Each of the solos finish with the B section. The overall form of this composition is as follows: Intro A A B A A B Wurlitzer solo B Electric guitar solo B A A B Following this analysis of Yekermo Sew, we are able to identify the main Ethiopian musical element in the piece is the employment of the tizita minor scale for the construction of both the melody and harmony of the piece. In contrast, many Western elements can be identified. This Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 29 includes the implied chord progression outlined in the B section, the two main drum grooves, and also the classic jazz AAB form with the B section acting as a bookend to the solos. ጉብልዬ (Gubelye) Gubelye is composed utilising the G anchi hoye scale. The composition begins with two lead-in notes played on the Wurlitzer electric piano by Astatke. It is then followed by free improvisation in a similar style to which occurs on the track Dewel. In this case however, the saxophone takes the focus of the improvisation with the Wurlitzer piano improvising a chordal accompaniment. During this, the bass plays tonic notes and the guitar tremolo picks atmospherically. The drums enter at 0:28, outlining a slow 6/8 time feel. This occurs after the bass plays the same two lead-in notes the Wurlitzer played at the beginning of the piece. The saxophone then performs the main melody of the piece over this groove. The melodies throughout this composition, both improvised and written, apply intricate ornamentation. The overall form of the composition is simple, and is as follows: Free intro Melody with groove Wurlitzer Solo Melody Fade out Distinct Ethiopian elements within Gubelye include the use of the G anchi hoye scale and employing intricate ornamentation in the written and improvised melodies. Despite 6/8 time signatures being a feature of traditional Ethiopian music, the type of 6/8 drum groove performed by Haregu can be seen as a primarily Western musical element within this composition. Other strong Western musical elements include Wilson’s use of the wah pedal as an effect on the electric guitar. This effect is idiomatically linked to many musical styles of American origin, including funk, soul and rock music. አስማሪ (Asmarina) Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 30 Amarina features a similar 3/4 jazz waltz groove to the what is featured in Dewol, however is composed in D bati minor, a scale with identical notes to the D minor pentatonic scale of Western music (D, F, G, A and C). When it comes to Astatke’s Wurlitzer piano solo he takes the liberty of soloing not exclusively in the scale but using all the 12 tones of Western music imposed over the top of the pentatonic scale. This can be seen in the transcription below. This transcription illustrates Astatke’s use of notes that not only belong to the bati minor mode, but also Western scales such as the D dorian mode and the blues scale which can be observed by the extensive use of a G​♯ note. This process is very similar to how a jazz musician improvises. Melodically, there are two main parts. The first melody is performed by the flute, then follows the second melody performed by the saxophone and trumpet. The second melody outlines the end of each solo. With this in mind, the form of Amarina is as follows: Intro ostinato Flute melody Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 31 Main melody Wurlitzer Solo Main melody (Wurlitzer solo continues) Guitar Solo Main melody (Guitar solo continues) Fade out The main musical element of Ethiopian origin within Asmarina is the D bati minor scale. However, as mentioned earlier, this scale is not exclusive to Ethiopian music as it is identical to the Western D minor pentatonic scale, a scale used in many American musical styles such as blues, funk and soul to name a few. The 3/4 jazz waltz groove outlined by the drums is in the style of many classic American jazz compositions. Finally, Astatke’s use of notes outside of the D bati minor scale when improvising is conducive to the style and approach to improvising by American jazz musicians. የካ ት (Yekatit) Yekatit is based on the A anchi hoye scale. All of the notes of the scale are spelt out by the repetitive main bassline which ascends the scale beginning on an A note (see figure below). The main melody is divided into two sections of 8 bars each. This can be seen as an A section and a B section. This simple AB form continues throughout the piece as can be seen in the overall form of the composition below: Intro hits Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 32 A B A B Wurlitzer Solo B (Wurlitzer solo continues) A Flute solo with fade out. The A anchi hoye scale is a distinctive Ethiopian element within this composition. Aside from this, most of the other musical elements in this piece are Western in origin. This can be seen in the 4/4 drum groove with hi-hats on the 8th notes and a strong backbeat similar to grooves found in soul and funk music. Once again Wilson utilises the wah pedal as a timbral effect on the electric guitar; another Western element. Finally the AB form is a common form found in many compositions of Western origin, including many jazz pieces, and is similar to binary form which originates in Western classical music (White, 1976, p.50). ነፃነት (Netsanet) Netsanet is composed using the D bati minor scale and offers a unique rhythmic concept quite different to the other compositions on the record. The tune is composed in 4/4 time, however the bassline is phrased in 6/4 across the bar. As the bassline continues to play it phases against the horn lines and drum groove and it resolves to beat 1 after every 3 bars of 4/4 as can be seen in the transcription of the bass line below: Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 33 In the form of the composition, each section is bookended by the horns playing a phrase and either finishing with a hits played by the band or a break. The latter being performed at the end of the main melody, and the former being performed between each of the solos. This is outlined in the following form: Main melody Horn phrase with hits Main melody Horn phrase with hits Saxophone solo Horn phrase with break Guitar solo Horn phrase Guitar solo continues Horn phrase with break Wurlitzer solo Horn phrase Wurlitzer solo continues Horn phrase with break Main Melody Horn phrase with hits Main Melody Horn phrase with hits Fade out with guitar solo Similarly to the composition Asmarina, Netsanet utilises the D bati minor scale and as previously discussed it is an identical scale to the Western D minor pentatonic scale. This means the scale can be identified as not only an Ethiopian musical element but also a musical element of Western origin. Significant Western musical elements found in Netsanet include the 4/4 drum groove performed by Haregu. Although polyrhythmic concepts owe their origin to African music, the way Astatke composes the layered time signatures found in Netsanet can also be seen as a Western musical element. This phasing effect created by the bass playing in 6/4 whilst the rest of Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 34 the band is in 4/4 can found in compositions by Steve Reich and many other Western composers of the time. It is also worth noting composers such as Reich have admitted being strongly influenced by music from Africa (Reich, 2002), a concept in which we agree all styles of music are a form of hybrid music. A final Western element found in this composition is the use of horn phrases followed by unison band hits. These elements are idiomatic to American soul and funk in particular, and can be seen utilised heavily in the music of artists such as James Brown. ትዝ ዬ አ ቺ ልጅ (Tezetaye Anchie Lidge) Tezetaye Anchie Lidge is composed using the E​♭ tizita major scale. The composition begins in a jazz waltz 3/4 swing time feel under the main melody, until there is a musical break at the 1:44 mark of the piece when it modulates into a swing 4/4 time feel. The piece continues to alternate between these two time feels, returning to the 3/4 feel as the melody returns toward the end of the recording. Tezetaye Anchie Lidge is the longest composition on the album at 6:04. Not only is it the longest, but features an intricate form in comparison to some of the other tracks. Due to the composition alternating between 3/4 and 4/4, I have indicated the time signature of each section in the following layout of the form: Main melody in 3/4 Saxophone melody in 3/4 Saxophone melody (with horn melodies over the top) in 3/4 Main Melody in 3/4 Saxophone solo in 3/4 Break Saxophone solo in 4/4 (with horn melodies) Hits Guitar solo in 3/4 Break Guitar solo in 4/4 (with horn melodies) Hits Wurlitzer solo in 3/4 Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 35 Break Wurlitzer solo in 4/4 (with horn melodies) Hits Main melody in 3/4 Saxophone melody 3/4 Main melody in 3/4 Guitar solo in fade out In Tezetaye Anchie Lidge, like many other compositions on Yekatit Ethio Jazz, the main Ethiopian element found in the piece is the use of a traditional Ethiopian scale. In the case of this composition it is the E​♭ tizita major scale. However, just like the bati minor is the same scale as the minor pentatonic in Western music, the tizita major scale is the same scale as a major pentatonic scale in Western music. Due to this, the intention would have been to write the composition utilising a traditional Ethiopian scale (and Ethiopian musical element) but it can also be considered a Western element as well. In regards to other Western musical elements, a distinctive element is the utilisation of the 3/4 jazz waltz groove, as was also mentioned when analyzing both the compositions Dewol and Asmarina. Not only is this a Western musical element, but so is the 4/4 swing feel found in this piece and also the compositional technique of modulating between the two time signatures. Similar time signature modulation can be found in many American jazz pieces, notably in Dave Brubeck’s composition ‘Blue Rondo ​à la Turk’ recorded in 1959. Brubeck’s composition is known for alternating between 9/8 and 4/4 time signatures. ሳብዬ (Sabye) The composition Sabye is once again an example of a tune written in the anchi hoye scale and it features a 6/8 time signature conducive to traditional Ethiopian song. The composition is mainly in they key of G, however in the B section the bass continually resolves onto a C# which gives the listener the impression of a different tonic centre and a different mode of the anchi hoye scale. This can be seen in bars 22 onwards in the transcription below: Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 36 As you can see in this transcription the bass outlines the Ethiopian scale by performing two repetitive ostinatos. There are also some odd meters observable throughout the composition, such as the 4/8 bar after the unison melody at the beginning of the piece. This motif is revisited Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 37 throughout the composition. Overall the form of Sabye cycles through a simple AB form beginning with the unison riff played by the entire band (of which you can see notated at the beginning of the transcription). The following is the outline of the form: Unison riff A B Unison riff A B Unison riff Saxophone Solo B (saxophone solo continues) Unison riff Wurlitzer solo Unison riff A B Quick fade out Sabye consists of some strong Ethiopian elements in it’s composition. These include the G anchi hoye scale found in the piece, as well as 6/8 drum groove and to employment of intricate ornamentation in the solos. This 6/8 drum groove utilises the common 3:2 polyrhythm found in traditional Ethiopian music and can be seen as a modern interpretation adapted to the Western drum kit. Although no one is formally credited as performing congas on this record, you can clearly hear congas layered in amongst the drum kit groove in this recording. This is likely to be performed by Astatke, as it is one of his main instruments and he has had experience performing on congas prior to this recording. The use of congas, and the layering of the conga rhythm on the drum kit part further enhances the traditional 6/8 feel. The most obvious Western elements found in this composition is the AB form, or binary form. This type of form was previously discussed as being common in Western compositions. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz አ አ ቺ እል ር - 38 (Ene Alanchie Alnorem) The final composition on Yekatit Ethio Jazz, Ene Alanchie Alnorem, begins with the pre-recorded sound of the wind, slowly joined by improvisation on the Wurlitzer electric piano by Astatke. The piece is dynamically soft overall and has the characteristics of a ballad using the E​♭ tizita major scale. The drums enter at 0:20 outlining a simple 4/4 groove with a cross-stick on the backbeat. In a similar way to some of the other tunes on this album, the melody is divided into two sections, an A section and a B section. In the A section the flute takes the melody and in the B section the guitar takes the melody. Following the B section, there is a break and drums stop with an absence of time. The Wurlitzer then begins a solo when the drums return and once again outline the groove. The following is the outline of the overall form: Intro (free time - Wurlitzer piano improvisation over wind sound) A B Break (free time - no drums) Wurlitzer solo Guitar solo Break (free time - no drums) A B Break (free time & fade out) The most distinctive Ethiopian element found within this piece is E​♭ tizita major scale. However the tizita major is the same scale as the Western major pentatonic scale. As we discussed in the analysis of Tezetaye Anchie Lidge, this element is considered Ethiopian in origin, but can also be associated coincidentally as a Western element as well. The drum grooves in 4/4 performed by Haregu are another Western musical element. The final identifiable Western musical element is Astatke’s occasional use of notes outside of the tizita major scale when improvising, both during his solos and when playing accompanying chord voicings. This is the same method Astatke employs when soloing on Asmarina, as discussed previously. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz 5.3 - 39 Post Analysis Conclusions. After the detailed musical analysis we have undertaken on each of the tracks from Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz, we can come to some strong conclusions about the cultural origins of many of the musical elements found on this album. A constant feature of each piece is the utilisation of a traditional Ethiopian scale as the basis of each of the composition’s melodic and harmonic structure. On many of the pieces these traditional scales are then embellished and given a traditional flavour with the use of intricate ornamentation on the melodic phrases, either written or improvised. It is also worth noting there are only a limited amount of these traditional Ethiopian scales are explored. These are the anchi hoye, bati minor, tizita major and tizita minor scales. Some of the scales discussed earlier in Chapter 4 of this thesis were not utilised by Astatke in the composition process, such as the bati major and ambassel scales. Yekatit Ethio Jazz employs rather common Western jazz arrangements. The compositions often begin with a melody (or head) and are followed by improvised solos and the melody is revisited throughout the composition. It is also worth noting much of the music on this record is composed utilising vamps, ostinatos and/or static harmony. A comparison can be drawn to modal jazz of the late 1950s and ‘60s, or the single chord vamps found in the vast majority of funk music of the time. Astatke utilises common Western musical forms in the compositions including an AAB form in Yekermo Sew and two AB binary forms. It can also be seen that in all of the pieces (perhaps with the exception of Sabye) Astatke utilises drum grooves, time signatures and feels that have origins in Western music, particularly American soul, funk and jazz. This is especially true in regard to the tracks with either 3/4 or 4/4 swing feel, a primary element of American jazz music. In contrast, Sabye features a traditional Ethiopian 6/8 feel that has been adapted for the Western drum kit. Chapter 6: ​Interview with Mulatu Astatke. The following chapter will include a discussion and analysis of excerpts from a semi-structured interview I conducted with Mulatu Astatke in order to address, confirm and elaborate on previous findings within this thesis. As discussed earlier in this thesis, a close connection to the subject Astatke can have it’s own disadvantages, especially in regards to a semi-structured interview, as the willingness to retain a amicable relationship between the author and the Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 40 participant can have an influence on possible lines of questioning when conducting this research interview. Due to this, certain questions surrounding the topic of politics and music business details where touched on, but not pursued in an insistent manner as to retain trust and comfort between friends during the interview process. The full transcription of this interview can be found in Appendix D. According to Astatke, the first album recorded in the style of Ethio-jazz was his two volume LP Afro-latin Soul released in 1966, followed by his 1972 LP Mulatu of Ethiopia (Astatke, 2016). Both these releases were recorded in the US, Yekatit Ethio Jazz was the first LP of his own music recorded in Ethiopia (ibid). On the topic of influences and what music he was listening to at the time he was recording Yekatit Ethio Jazz, Astatke (2016) said, ‘Well, I was in America before, so I was looking to all types of music. Listening to all types of music’. In later conversation during the semi-structured interview, Astatke reflects on other musicians and other music that had an influence on him, ‘I really enjoyed Miles, I enjoyed Coltrane, I used to listen to a lot of different people, then I worked really hard to find myself and be myself. (Astatke, 2016) This American influence had a profound impact on Astatke’s approach to the composition and recording process of Yekatit Ethio Jazz as can be seen in the Western musical elements that were found in the track by track analysis in Chapter 5.2. One of Astatke’s preceding works to Yekatit Ethio Jazz, and as stated by Astatke earlier, one of the first records in the style of Ethio-jazz was his 1966 two volume LP Afro-latin Soul. The name alone summons the question of whether latin American music was an influence in his early works. When questioned on this, Astatke claims latin music has it’s roots in Africa, and in turn the two musics are one and the same (2016). He elaborates by saying all the rhythms come ‘from West Africa, to latin America, they went to Cuba. This feel, this rhythm and it was developed in New York as latin jazz.’ (Astatke, 2016). During the 1980s Astatke travelled to Cuba by boat where he met musicians and researched Cuban music, he describes similarities between Cuba and Africa saying, ‘some parts of Cuba, it’s just like back in Africa. Only the language would be Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 41 different. The feel, the playing, the dance, everything is like West Africa brother. Back to Africa again.’ (Astatke, 2016). This line of questioning within the semi-structured interview prompted the discussion of hybridity, globalisation, musical analysis, and the impact music from Africa has had on the world, especially in relation to jazz and latin music. ‘The whole world is connected, we are all connected. It’s a great contribution of Africa to the world. So if you go to Ethio-jazz, not only latin; how do you analyse music? That’s the question. You don’t analyse by only listening to the rhythms. If you want to analyse something, you have to analyse the structures, the rhythms, the harmonic structures, the bass lines and the arrangement. So when you go to Afro-latin soul, the first thing they listen to is the rhythm. They have to listen to the combination, they have to do everything.’ (Astatke, 2016) As Astatke is a proficient musician on many instruments, it is difficult to pin down Astatke as being associated with one specific instrument. On Yekatit Ethio Jazz, Astatke is featured primarily on the Wurlitzer electric piano, however he often plays various percussion instruments and vibraphone in other musical contexts. When questioned about whether he would consider himself having a primary instrument, Astatke explained, ‘I started with percussion, I used to play timbales and congas in London. A lot of congas, bongos I used to play quite a lot. I had a chance to play with Edmundo Ros big band in London, it has like four trumpets, five saxophones, a whole rhythm section and I was playing congas. I had other friends called Frank Holder, a fantastic percussionist in London, and also Niaaza Alsherif from Paris, another great percussionist. So we used to play, we used to jam a lot around London areas, that’s how I started on rhythms, I started on vibes after I left England and moved to America. I started vibes at Berklee College. I met great guys like Gary Burton, at the same time we were at Berklee together, and some other great musicians. You know, that’s how I started the vibraphone.’ (Astatke, 2016) Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 42 Despite not playing the vibraphone on Yekatit Ethio Jazz, vibraphone is one of Astatke’s feature instruments across many of his other recordings and informs his approach to many other instruments including electric piano. In regards to his favourite vibraphone player Astatke claims, ‘Milt Jackson. I love Milt Jackson. So Milt is my favourite, Gary [Burton] was good on four mallets, which i’m pretty much interested with playing with two mallets. I used to listen to Milt Jackson a lot.’ (Astatke, 2016) Upon questioning the definition of Ethio-jazz, Astatke describes the style as the process of imposing the 12 notes of Western music against a composition that utilises traditional Ethiopian pentatonic scales. He says, ‘So this music is based on these modes, so those modes are Ethiopian, and what I was trying was the five Ethiopian notes against the twelve European music, so I decided I should call it Ethio-jazz, and finally, I got the right name for this music. That’s how it happened.’ (Astatke, 2016) A musical technique Astatke utilises when applying the 12 notes of Western music to the Ethiopian scales is imposing chords and voicings over the top. He explains, ‘So the music would be on five notes, the melodies composed on five notes, and if you listen to the back, what I have been doing, you can hear 13th chords, flat 5s, beautiful substitutions that i’ll be using, beautiful examples of five against twelve.’ (Astatke, 2016) During the composition process for the music on Yekatit Ethio Jazz, Astatke describes how he utilises one traditional Ethiopian scale as the basis for harmony on each composition. Presently he writes utilising many Ethiopian scales in once piece of music, a development from his earlier compositional approach (Astatke, 2016) Astatke further adds to this comment by stating that ‘Ethio-jazz is a combination of all sounds, of all rhythms, of all musical elements, which makes it so interesting.’ (2016); a concept which allows Ethio-jazz to be all encompassing and non-obstructionary to any potential external musical influence present at the time of performance and composition. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 43 As discussed earlier in this thesis, Yekatit Ethio Jazz was released in 1974 at a time of political change. The imperial government lead by Emperor Haile Selassie I was overthrown and replaced by a the socialist Derg regime. When questioned on his relationship to domestic politics and whether his music actively reflects any political standpoint, Astatke is quick to make it clear he does not make any political affiliations in his music making process. Although making music within a politically complex and turbulent environment means there will always be a connection, often made outside of the musician or composer's own control. This can be seen in the name of the LP and its title track ​Yekatit. Yekatit in Astatke’s native Amharic is the month in which revolutionaries began to take control of the country in 1974. This action can be seen as a rather pro-revolutionary move, however Astatke strongly denounces any personal association and claims the naming was a decision made by his record label Amha Records (Astatke, 2016). Chapter 7: ​Conclusion This thesis has addressed the perceived a lack of analysis of traditional and contemporary Ethiopian music stated in the introduction​. This has been achieved by focusing on the music of Mulatu Astatke, specifically his 1974 LP Yekatit Ethio Jazz. I have identified the cultural origin of individual music elements found within the music and discussed how specific historical and cultural aspects had an impact on the music composition process and subsequent commercial success of the album. This was undertaken through various qualitative research methodologies including by embarking on both a musicological analysis of the music itself coupled with a broader analysis of the historical and cultural context the music belongs to. The interview conducted with Mulatu Astatke enabled us to confirm and elaborate on previous findings within this research. In regards to the question of identifying the cultural origin of individual musical elements that are found on the record Yekatit Ethio Jazz​, I placed elements into two categories, originating from either Western or Ethiopian musical styles. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 44 I came to the conclusion that the instrumentation found on the record is of Western origin. Astatke utilises the drum kit, bass guitar, keyboards (in the form of the Wurlitzer electric piano), electric guitar, tenor saxophone, flute and trumpet. These are all instruments commonly found together on American jazz, funk and soul releases of the time. The 4/4 and 3/4 (6/8) swing grooves found on the record are all Western in origin and are typical of American jazz. In addition, the straight 4/4 grooves are also Western in origin, and are from the American styles funk, soul and jazz. These grooves are found in the compositions Yekermo Sew, Yekatit, Netsanet and Ene Alantchi Alnorem. Astatke’s solo on Asmarina (discussed and transcribed in Chapter 5.2) illustrates a non-pentatonic approach to improvisation, despite the composition being based on a D bati minor pentatonic Ethiopian scale. His 12-tonal approach to improvisation is in the style of a Western jazz musician and he confirms and discusses this approach in the semi-structured interview in Chapter 6. The scales used as the foundation for melody and harmony on all the compositions found on Yekatit Ethio Jazz are traditional Ethiopian pentatonic scales. I have concluded that although there are other musical elements of Ethiopian origin in these compositions, including the 6/8 chik chikka feel on Sabye and the melodic phrasing and use of intricate ornamentation, the primary Ethiopian element throughout this record is the utilisation of the traditional pentatonic scales. The second question in this thesis involved how specific historical and cultural aspects had an impact on the music composition process and the subsequent commercial success of Yekatit Ethio Jazz. Some of the main aspects included Astatke’s study in Western musical institutions such as Trinity College of Music in London UK, and Berklee College of Music in Boston USA. Both of these institutions provided Astatke with the fundamentals of Western musical theory and composition which had a profound impact on Astatke’s approach to composition and performance on the album Yekatit Ethio Jazz. As Astatke discusses in the semi-structured interview in Chapter 6, his time living and performing with musicians in both the UK and USA exposed him music that was popular in the respective countries at the time. This included American jazz, soul, R&B and pop music, all which influenced Astatke’s stylistic approach as well as the instrumentation and timbre of his ensemble. In Ethiopia, the emergence of a thriving music scene in the late 1960s and early ‘70s provided a solid platform for Astatke to record and Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 45 release music within the country. From 1969 he not only released his own music, but worked as a musician, composer and arranger for well known Ethiopian singers such as Tilahun Gessesse on Ethiopia’s first record label Amha Records, which was launched in the same year by Amha Eshete. This gave Astatke a strong industry backing within Ethiopia and provided him the creative freedom to compose and record the music on Yekatit Ethio Jazz, also released on Amha Records. In 1974, Emperor Haile Selassie I was overthrown and the socialist Derg regime took control of Ethiopia, an event which influenced the naming of Astatke’s LP. Yekatit, the month on the Ethiopian calendar, corresponds to the date of the socialist revolution. There are cultural and historical aspects that had an impact on the success of Yekatit Ethio Jazz and Astatke’s music in the West. These include the inclusion of Astatke’s music on Jim Jamusch’s 2005 film Broken Flowers and the re-release of multiple volumes of Ethiopian music on Buda Musique’s Ethiopiques series. Some of these cultural and historical aspects can be attributed to the globalisation of the music industry. As with most musical styles, Ethio-jazz is a hybrid. It is a confluence of cultural groups and historical events. Globalisation allowed Astatke to travel around the world for study and in turn exposed himself to a variety of non-Ethiopian musical influences. It was this same phenomenon that procured the later success of this music in the West. The marketing of non-Western music under the genre ‘world music’ and the West’s desire for music that is exotic and different. Not to mention global marketing and industrial processes enabled Astatke’s music to become widely known. In-depth details of globalisation and its effect on music and the global music industry are beyond the scope of this thesis, however we can still acknowledge it is an aspect with an undoubtable effect on the the composition process and commercial success of Yekatit Ethio Jazz. There is still much to be written about in regards to such a broad topic like contemporary Ethiopian music, particularly in relation to music of the 1960s and ‘70s and Mulatu Astatke. Related topics such as scales, harmonic and melodic concepts in traditional Ethiopian music, the influence of Western, particularly American, culture and music on 20th century Ethiopia and politics and music industry in 1960s and ‘70s Ethiopia could all be explored in much more detail. 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Weisser, S & Falceto, F 2013, 'Investigating Qenet in Amhara Secular Music: an acoustic and historical study', ​Annales d'Ethiopie, vol. 28, pp. 299-322. White, BW 2011, ​Music and Globalization: Critical Encounters, Tracking Globalization, Indiana University Press. White, JD 1976, ​The Analysis of Music, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs. Williams, R 2014, 'Mulatu Astatke: the man who created 'Ethio jazz'', ​The Guardian, 6 September 2014, <https://www.theguardian.com/music/2014/sep/05/mulatu-astatke-man-created-ethiopian-jaz z#comments>. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 51 Appendix A: ​Glossary of terms Addis Ababa - ​the capital of Ethiopia. Amharic -​ the official language of Ethiopia. Arrangement (musical) - the adaptation of a composition in regards to form and instrumentation. Bahalawi - ​traditional secular music of Ethiopia. Ethio-jazz - ​a hybrid musical style that is a combination of traditional Ethiopian music and American jazz, soul and funk. Form (musical) - ​the structure or design of a composition. Globalisation - t​ he process of international integration arising from the exchange of world views, products, and other cultural aspects. Harmony - ​the combination of simultaneously sounded musical notes. Instrumentation - ​the writing of music for particular instruments. LP - ​a long-playing record, also known as an album and typically referring to vinyl. Melody - ​a series of single musical notes performed in a tuneful way. Meter (musical) - ​the regular succession of pulses. Also used as a term for ‘time signature’. Pentatonic scale -​ a musical scale comprising of 5 notes per octave. Rhythm -​ a regular pattern or systematic arrangement of sound. Scale (musical) - a defined series of musical notes within an octave of music and used as the basis of composition. Time signature -​ the meter of the music (see ‘meter’). The regular succession of pulse. Voicing - the way a composer or arranger organises notes within a chord on an individual instrument or between various instruments playing simultaneously. Walking bass - ​a style of bass accompaniment which outlines chord tones and chromatic passing tones with regular quarter-note rhythm. Typically found in jazz music. Zema - ​the music of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. Zemenawi - ​contemporary music or popular music of Ethiopia. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz Appendix B: ​Audio Recordings 01 - Anchi Hoye 02 - Anchi Hoye (5th Mode) 03 - Bati Major 04 - Bati Minor 05 - Tizita Major 06 - Tizita Minor 07 - Ambassel 08 - 3-2 Polyrhythm 09 - Chik Chikka 10 - Dewol 11 - Yekermo Sew 12 - Yekermo Sew - Transcription 13 - Gubelye 14 - Asmarina 15 - Asmarina - Wurlitzer solo 16 - Yekatit 17 - Yekatit - Bass line 18 - Netsanet 19 - Netsanet - Bass line 20 - Tezetaye Anchie Lidge 21 - Sabye 22 - Sabye - Transcription 23 - Ene Alanchie Alnorem - 52 Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 53 Appendix C:​ LP Artwork & associated images. LP front cover of Yekatit Ethio Jazz (top) and back cover with personnel, liner notes in amharic and track listing (bottom). Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 54 Appendix D: ​Transcription of Semi-structured Interview with Mulatu Astatke. Chris​: Where did Ethio-jazz come from? Mulatu​: Well now it’s almost, 52 years. Now we are almost celebrating 52 years of Ethio-jazz. So this has been created a long, long, time ago my friend, and it’s been great challenge, so beautiful. Well, now after all these years, now Ethio-jazz has really becoming big in the world. So we have groups playing from all over the world, like from Japan, into Europe, all over Europe, I should say America, Brazil, Colombia. All these are fantastic Ethio-jazz groups playing, you know, playing this music. I’m so happy, so glad, because some people have a chance to create things, but sometimes they pass away before they see the result of their work, their experimental things, but I think i’m very, very lucky to see how this music got all over the world while I have my life and I really thank Berklee College, like to really thank all those places I have studied, like Harvard, MIT and Berklee and all the great musicians I have played with in the world. I really thank you, thank you for that. Chris​: Who came up with the name Ethio-jazz? Mulatu​: Well what it is, at first it was like afro-latin soul, because when I say afro-latin soul I was just trying to express the African contribution to the world of music. Chris​: To latin? Mulatu​: Yeah. Whatever we call these latin rhythms, are rhythms which are found in Africa, all over. So our latin American brothers are so connected through the cultures of Africa. This is what I was trying to prove, talking about latin music but of course Ethio-jazz is a combination of all sounds, of all rhythms, of all musical elements, which makes it so interesting. Now, why I use montunos, maybe that might make it latin because of the montunos, but there is this ​kikriki from Ghana, sorry, from Congo, that use these montunos. Long time ago. Chris​: What instrument would they play it on, guitars or? Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 55 Mulatu​: Yeah guitars, they use all the guitars, and that actually had the feel of the montunos. So if you go to latin music arrangements, they have the melody going, they have mambo 1, mambo 2 to make it faster, soloing and whatever, but if you go to the Congolese, instead of going faster they start fast and go really cool and slow, which they call kikiriki. So in latin instead it’s reverse. Anyway, afro-latin soul was as the name expresses, African and latin connection between African and latin. Then that was just concentrating on the rhythm side and its combinations, but I was researching and working on it and I said, ok, latin doesn’t use so much anchi-hoye, tizita, ambessal. So this music is based on these modes, so those modes are Ethiopian, and what I was trying was the five Ethiopian notes against the twelve European music, so I decided I should call it Ethio-jazz, and finally, I got the right name for this music. That’s how it happened. Chris​: What the Yekatit LP the first time you worked on Ethio-jazz? Or was it around before that album? Mulatu: Well, Yekatit was not the first one. Yekatit was after Ethio-jazz had been created for a long time. I did Yekatit when I arrived back in Ethiopia. The first was Afro-latin Soul, volume 1 and volume 2, and Mulatu of Ethiopia. These are the three LPs done in New York about 52 years ago. So Yekatit is a piece i’ve done after arrival in Ethiopia. Chris: ​What were you listening to at the time you did the Yekatit LP? Mulatu: ​Well, I was in America before, so I was looking to all types of music. Listening to all types of music. But as I say always, I had this great professor from Berklee, who always told us, “Be yourself.”. So I was listening to most of these great musicians in America, I was thinking how did these people become themselves, how do they create, how do they make their own sound, how do they become great in the world? So, it took me time, I was working hard on how to be myself, and I had been doing a lot of experimental work, a lot of writing, a lot of listening, but finally I came up with this sound called Ethio-jazz. Then, I became myself. Ethio-jazz is my baby, now 52 years and people know me as the father of Ethio-jazz. Chris​: What would you say is your primary instrument? Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 56 Mulatu​: I started with percussion, I used to play timbales and congas in London. A lot of congas, bongos I used to play quite a lot. I had a chance to play with Edmundo Ros big band in London, it has like four trumpets, five saxophones, a whole rhythm section and I was playing congas. I had other friends called Frank Holder, a fantastic percussionist in London, and also Niaaza Alsherif from Paris, another great percussionist. So we used to play, we used to jam a lot around London areas, that’s how I started on rhythms, I started on vibes after I left England and moved to America. I started vibes at Berklee College. I met great guys like Gary Burton, at the same time we were at Berklee together, and some other great musicians. You know, that’s how I started the vibraphone. Chris​: Who is your favourite vibraphone player? Mulatu​: Milt Jackson. I love Milt Jackson. So Milt is my favourite, Gary was good on four mallets, which i’m pretty much interested with playing with two mallets. I used to listen to Milt Jackson a lot, an album called, Master Sounds or something, or had a group called Master Sounds, beautiful sound. I really enjoyed Miles, I enjoyed Coltrane, I used to listen to a lot of different people, then I worked really hard to find myself and be myself. In the beginning I used to listen to them, but I never wanted to me like them. I just wanted to be myself, because you can never be somebody else. The best way to be is yourself. It comes into your nerve system, through your bloodstream and everything to want to be sounding like somebody else, which is so impossible. You never sound like anybody. So the best thing is, be yourself and try to sound like yourself. Chris​: That’s true. Mulatu​: That’s the best! Chris​: For the album Yekatit, you used Wurlitzer piano and the guitar has wah-wah and distortion on one of the solos. Was it a decision you made to use all those instruments with those sounds, or did the musicians bring a lot of that? Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 57 Mulatu​: I always look for new sounds. I always come up with new sounds. That’s what I really love to do and I want whatever I do to sound different. So I use these systems to record the Yekatit album. I had a trumpet player, saxophone player and I enjoyed it. It was good, beautiful experimental work, I enjoyed working on it. Chris​: When you apply the Ethiopian scales in the music, you say that it is the twelve notes against the five notes. Does each piece you compose start with the five notes and then you apply the twelve notes? Mulatu​: Yeah, you can listen to Mulatu of Ethiopia, probably to Dewol. That would be a beautiful example of this combination. Other stuff would be, Kulun, the way I solo on Kulun Mankwaleshi and another would would be Mascaram Setaba which uses a beautiful jazz bass line, beautiful chord changes and everything. Those are five against twelve. Chris​: By making the chords, is that using twelve against the five? What is the method? Mulatu​: Well it’s the musical voicings and the harmonic progressions which you use twelve against five. So the music would be on five notes, the melodies composed on five notes, and if you listen to the back, what I have been doing, you can hear 13th chords, flat 5s, beautiful substitutions that i’ll be using, beautiful examples of five against twelve. All these 13s, flat 5s, are all chords outside of the five notes. It is so difficult, you have to be careful of how to use them, if you don’t know how to use those things, they can easily lose the beauty, the touch and the colour of the scale. So that took me really quite a while to fuse the two together. Maybe you’ve see it on Afro-latin Soul, we used some crazy, beautiful harmonic structures, 13s, flat 5, all these were used like 52 years ago. Yeah, where some people now think it is new stuff. Well we used it! So it is a great contribution to music. I remember when I received my PhD from Berklee, they said, which I will never forget, “for your contribution to the music industry in the world.” so 52 years ago we used these 13s and flat 5 against these five notes, which makes it so interesting and beautiful. It’s great man! Chris​: So when you’re soloing, are there any ideas or methods to apply the twelve to the five? Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 58 Mulatu​: I mean you can use vi, ii, V, I. You can use IV, I. Use ii, V, I. You know, those things. I use different ways so they can fit. Chris​: So with the five you create chords over the top? Mulatu​: Exactly. You know, find ways how it can fit beautifully to the five notes. Chris​: So Yekatit Ethio-jazz was released on Amha Eshete’s record label? Mulatu​: Yeah. Chris​: Did he release a lot of your stuff? Mulatu​: Well, actually I started with him. With Amha and also Philips Ethiopia. Yeah, but finally then I was on a French label. I never did this for international release. I was doing it for ******* Ethio-jazz. Operating our modes, operating our music. I did it in America, a long time ago. Finally, I don’t know, Amha makes connection with this French guy without us knowing anything about our music or our contribution, I think he signed with the guy and they started releasing it, in Europe. What happened was **** Chris​: The Ethiopiques series? Mulatu​: Yeah, Ethiopiques. At the beginning I knew nothing about it, it’s just Amha Eshete who signed on behalf of us, on behalf of the other Ethiopian musicians, which is not correct at all! So we are still discussing about it. Chris​: Still? Mulatu​: Yeah. Chris​: But it was 20 years ago. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 59 Mulatu​: It’s bad. I tell you, it’s bad. Chris​: So, you wouldn’t have seen any royalties from that? From the Ethiopiques stuff, you wouldn’t have seen royalties from it at all? Mulatu​: Yeah well, we get royalties. Chris​: You do? Mulatu​: Yeah, yeah. Some. Most are registered and we see some. Chris​: So the Ethiopiques thing is fine? You see royalties? Mulatu​: No, no. Well. Anyway, that’s a different thing. I’m talking with my lawyers and talking to different people about that. It’s bad. Using it for different films, he’s just making money left and right with this thing. It’s so bad I tell you. Well anyway, we will get somewhere with it. Chris​: Hopefully. Mulatu​: It takes time. Chris​: Do you think the album Yekatit is important. How does it fit amongst your work? Is there something important about it? Mulatu​: It is Ethio-jazz. Nothing else. It’s good! Chris​: Is it different from your other works? Mulatu​: Well, most of the stuff I do they have different approaches, you know, as you go along. Now I am using different modes in pieces. In Ethio-jazz I used to concentrate on one mode, and now I have pieces where I use all the modes in one piece. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 60 Chris​: So back then, you only used one mode a piece? Mulatu​: Yeah, so you could listen to ​Ethio Blues, could be a beautiful example, where I use all the modes in there. So it’s like one step ahead. Chris​: Like the album name… Mulatu​: …​Steps Ahead. Chris​:​ Yeah! Mulatu​: That’s it. Chris​: I know it’s a hard thing to ask but, Yekatit was released the year of the revolution… Mulatu​: Yeah, I know well… I never think politically. I just… Yekatit, the name, is the month the revolutionaries took over. Before we had the emperor, then the revolution. So, somebody just gave it a name. Chris​: You didn’t come up with the name? Mulatu​: No, no. It’s Amha. I wrote the music, composed Yekatit. Anyway, I’m never interested in politics, I have nothing to do with it. I just play my music man. So, people who produce this, give the names, whatever they want to use. Chris​: I know you already spoke a little about it, but how are you influenced by latin music? Mulatu​: It’s Africa man. I don’t say latin, I never say latin music, it all belongs to Africa. Whenever I play or whenever I write I think Africa. I never think latin. Yeah, that’s what it is. That’s what the Afro-latin soul means. African and then latin. So which one was the first one, is what the question should be. Where do all these rhythms come from? Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 61 Chris​: Africa. Mulatu​: From West Africa, going to latin America, they went to Cuba. This feel, this rhythm and it was developed in New York as latin jazz. Chris​: It’s amazing. I love the idea of how everything moves around and comes back. Mulatu​: Yeah! Chris​: You said you went to Cuba as well? Mulatu: ​Yeah. I went to Cuba. Very interesting, I did some research, I met some great musicians. So beautiful. I love it. Especially with some parts of Cuba it’s just like back in Africa. Only the language would be different. The feel, the playing, the dance, everything is like West Africa brother. Back to Africa again. Chris:​ Because even jazz, in the same way. Mulatu: ​Yeah, the whole world is connected, we are all connected. It’s a great contribution of Africa to the world. So if you go to Ethio-jazz, not only latin… how do you analyse music? That’s the question. You don’t analyse by only listening to the rhythms. If you want to analyse something, you have to analyse the structures, the rhythms, the harmonic structures, the bass lines and the arrangement. So when you go to Afro-latin soul, the first thing they listen to is the rhythm. They have to listen to the combination, they have to do everything. Chris: So you said with your arrangement of the traditional song ​Kulun Mankwalesh, the bass line was simpler? Mulatu: ​Before? Yeah. You don’t have to listen to me! You listen to what the military band was doing, you listen to the people at the nightclub what they were doing before, like 60 years ago and then you listen to my Kulun Mankwalesh. It changed the whole atmosphere of the ​chik chikka rhythm in Ethiopia. Hybrid Music: Mulatu Astatke’s Yekatit Ethio Jazz - 62 Chris:​ Your arrangement of it? Mulatu: ​Of course! It changed the whole sound, and I used Tilahun Gessesse to sing the song. So it’s all changed, not only Ethio-jazz, the feels, the rhythms have changed. All you have to do it just listen to the earlier music, and what’s happening after that. Now you see your vinyl of wedding songs, all of that is from my Kulun Mankwalesh. Which one was first those recordings or Kulun Mankwalesh? That’s how you have to make research. Now you go to guraginya, like Mahmoud Ahmed’s stuff, ​I created that rhythm called ​Ebo Lala. Yeah. You make the research, which was first, Ebo Lala first or the Roha playing Guraginya first? That’s how it should be. It’s all from my things. It’s all Mulatu’s stuff.