UC Marine Council UC Office of the President Title: Dolphin sympatric ecology Author: Bearzi, Maddalena Publication Date: 04-01-2005 Series: Coastal Environmental Quality Initiative Publication Info: Coastal Environmental Quality Initiative, UC Marine Council, UC Office of the President Permalink: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/64f711gc Additional Info: To read final report of associated research supported by the California Coastal Environmental Quality Initiative,follow this link: http://repositories.cdlib.org/ucmarine/ceqi/031/ Keywords: Marine Mammal/Vertebrate Biology Abstract: Interspecific associations between two or more species of the family Delphinidae have been reported by many scientists, but the sympatric ecology of such dolphin associations has not been studied in great detail. A few field investigations have been conducted on this subject in different parts of the world on species such as bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.), short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis ), and killer whales Orcinus orca ). Sympatric dolphins seem to use different strategies to co-exist when resources appear to be limited, including dietary divergence (different prey preference, slightly diverse diet,different feeding time) and/or different habitat use shallow versus deep waters, flat areas versus submarine canyons and escarpments, different travel routes). This paper presents a review of some well-studied dolphin species found in sympatry and discusses the nature of habitat and resource partitioning as well as studies on aggressive behaviour displayed by species living in the same habitat. eScholarship provides open access, scholarly publishing services to the University of California and delivers a dynamic research platform to scholars worldwide. Marine Biology Research, 2005; 1: 165
/175 REVIEW Dolphin sympatric ecology MADDALENA BEARZI Department of Organismic Biology, Ecology and Evolution, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA Abstract Interspecific associations between two or more species of the family Delphinidae have been reported by many scientists, but the sympatric ecology of such dolphin associations has not been studied in great detail. A few field investigations have been conducted on this subject in different parts of the world on species such as bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops spp.), short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis ), and killer whales (Orcinus orca ). Sympatric dolphins seem to use different strategies to co-exist when resources appear to be limited, including dietary divergence (different prey preference, slightly diverse diet, different feeding time) and/or different habitat use (shallow versus deep waters, flat areas versus submarine canyons and escarpments, different travel routes). This paper presents a review of some well-studied dolphin species found in sympatry and discusses the nature of habitat and resource partitioning as well as studies on aggressive behaviour displayed by species living in the same habitat. Key words: Dolphins, habitat partitioning, resource partitioning, sympatry Introduction The literature contains numerous accounts of associations and interactions between different species of the family Delphinidae world-wide (Table I). Only a few sympatric populations of small odontocetes, however, have been well investigated in the field (common bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus
/ hereinafter bottlenose dolphin
/ and Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops aduncus: Hale et al. 2000; Wang et al. 2000; short-beaked common dolphins, Delphinus delphis , and bottlenose dolphins: Politi et al. 1998; Bearzi et al. 2005; short-beaked common dolphins, long-beaked common dolphins, Delphinus capensis, and bottlenose dolphins: Bearzi 2003; short-beaked common dolphins and striped dolphins, Stenella coeruleoalba : Frantzis & Herzing 2002; transient and resident killer whales, Orcinus orca : Bigg et al. 1987, 1990; Baird et al. 1992; Baird 1994; Ford et al. 1998; Saulitis et al. 2000). In this paper, sympatry is defined as the co-occurrence of two or more dolphin species in the same immediate habitat, which might be called direct sympatry, where broad sympatry simply means two or more species occurring over the same wider geographical area. Interspecific associations between dolphins may be beneficial for at least one species for several reasons, particularly in offshore waters (e.g. increased feeding, decreased predation rates; Norris & Dohl 1980; Baraff & Asmutis-Silvia 1998; Scott & Cattanach 1998; Wilson 2000; Gygax 2001). The goal of this paper is to review the present literature on the sympatric ecology of some well-studied dolphin species and discuss the different strategies employed by these species to co-exist, reducing the possible occurrence of direct competition for food resources (Roughgarden 1976). Sympatric ecology of some well-studied species of Delphinidae Field studies on dolphin sympatric associations have been mentioned in the literature (Table II). This paper presents a review of well-studied species found in sympatry. Bottlenose dolphins and Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins Populations of bottlenose dolphins are known to inhabit pelagic waters as well as coastal areas (Leatherwood et al. 1983), showing morphological, Correspondence: M. Bearzi, Department of Organismic Biology, Ecology and Evolution, University of California, Los Angeles, 621 Charles E. Young Drive South, Box 951606, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1606, USA. E-mail: mbearzi@earthlink.net Published in collaboration with the University of Bergen and the Institute of Marine Research, Norway, and the Marine Biological Laboratory, University of Copenhagen, Denmark (Accepted 7 April 2005; Printed 14 July 2005) ISSN 1745-1000 print/ISSN 1745-1019 online # 2005 Taylor & Francis DOI: 10.1080/17451000510019132 166 M. Bearzi Table I. Accounts of associations and interactions between different species of the family Delphinidae observed in the field. For extensive lists of cetaceans found in associations in the eastern Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California, also see Hill & Barlow (1992), Carretta & Forney (1993), Mangels & Gerrodette (1994), Carretta et al. (1995), Frantzis & Herzing (2002). Species Globicephala macrorhynchus , Tursiops truncatus , Lagenorhynchus obscurus , Orcinus orcas Stenella attenuata , Stenella longirostris Tursiops aduncus , Sousa chinensis Stenella coeruleoalba , Delphinus delphis L. obscurus , Grampus griseus Globicephala melas , O. orcas D. delphis , Delphinus capensis Lagenorhynchus acutus , D. delphis , G. melas T. truncatus , S. chinensis O. orcas , other Delphinidae Globicephala sp., D. delphis D. delphis , T. truncatus G. macrorhynchus , G. griseus G. griseus , Lagenorhynchus obliquidens , Lagenorhynchus hosei , Lagenorhynchus borealis , Phocoenoides dalli T. truncatus , Phocoena phocoena G. macrorynchus , D. capensis G. macrorynchus , Peponocephala electra Stenella frontalis , T. truncatus G. melas , L. acutus S. coeruleoalba , D. delphis , G. griseus osteological, and molecular differentiations (Walker 1981; LeDuc & Curry 1998; Rossbach & Herzing 1999). The frequent presence of bottlenose dolphins along the coastline has made this dolphin one of the best-known cetaceans (e.g. Shark Bay, western Australia: Connor & Smolker 1985; Connor et al. 1998; the Firth of Tay, Scotland: Wilson et al. 1993; Wilson 1995; Sarasota Bay, Florida: Scott et al. 1990; Wells 1991; Argentine Bay: Würsig 1978; Croatia, Mediterranean Sea: Bearzi et al. 1997, 1999; and in southern California: Weaver 1987; Hansen 1990; Weller 1991; Defran et al. 1999). Coastal populations usually live in small groups (five to 25 individuals) within 1 km of the shore and often reside in a specific area, whereas pelagic populations are found in larger schools (25
/150 individuals) in the open ocean (Bearzi et al. 1999; Defran & Weller 1999). Sympatric species of the genus Tursiops have been described by a few investigators. For instance, bottlenose dolphins and Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins appeared to be in direct sympatry around the Chinese waters of the Penghu archipelago and were Reference Norris & Prescott 1961 Perrin et al. 1973 Norris & Dohl 1980 Norris et al. 1994 Ballance & Pitman 1998 Saayman & Tayler 1973 Au et al. 1979 Au & Perryman 1985 Polacheck 1987 Forcada et al. 1994 Das et al. 2000 Garcı́a et al. 2000 Würsig & Würsig 1980 Bloch & Lockyer 1988 Leatherwood et al. 1988 Hill & Barlow 1992 Bearzi 2003 Selzer & Payne 1988 Gowans & Whitehead 1995 Corkeron 1990 Jefferson et al. 1991 Overholtz & Waring 1991 Bearzi 1997 Bruno et al. 2004 Shane 1995 Shelden et al. 1995 Ross & Wilson 1996 Weller et al. 1996 Migura & Meadows 2002 Herzing & Johnson 1997 Baraff & Asmutis-Silvia 1998 Frantzis & Herzing 2002 observed in mixed schools that frequently included other dolphin species as well (Yang 1976; Zhou & Qian 1985). These two species, however, differed ecologically: bottlenose dolphins preferred the coastal and shallow waters of the continental shelf, feeding upon benthic or reef-dwelling fish and cephalopods, whereas Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins favoured offshore waters, feeding mostly on schooling epipelagic and mesopelagic species (Wang et al. 2000). In the Indian and western Pacific Oceans, Hale et al. (2000) recorded different preferences in habitat choice for the same species, with bottlenose dolphins frequenting both shallow waters and offshore reefs and Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins inhabiting estuaries and coastal waters. This study showed that some areas were occupied exclusively by one species, with coastal regions of sympatry in their distribution. Sympatric bottlenose dolphins and Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins also seemed to exist in south African waters (Wang et al. 2000), although Ross (1977) described these species as being typically A review of well-studied sympatric dolphins 167 Table II. Field studies of sympatric associations of the family Delphinidae. Species Site O. orca (transient and resident) Eastern North Pacific Reference Baird 1994 Baird et al. 1992 British Columbia Baird & Dill 1995, 1996 Vancouver Island Bigg 1982 Baird & Whitehead 2000 British Columbia and Alaska Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996 British Columbia and Washington State Bigg et al. 1987, 1990 Coastal British Columbia and adjacent waters Ford et al. 1998 British Columbia Guinet 1990 Morton 1990 Prince William Sound (Alaska) Saulitis et al. 2000 T. truncatus and T. aduncus Indian and western Pacific oceans Hale et al. 2000 Taiwan and south-central China (Chinese waters) Wang et al. 2000 D. delphis and D. capensis Santa Monica Bay (California) Bearzi 2003 Southern California Bight (eastern north Pacific) Banks & Brownell 1969 Evans 1975 Heyning & Perrin 1994 Rosel et al. 1994 California coast Hill & Barlow 1992 Eastern north Pacific and adjacent waters Leatherwood et al. 1988 Eastern Pacific Perrin et al. 1985 L. acutus and D. delphis Scotian shelf (Nova Scotia) Gowans & Whitehead 1995 L. acutus , D. delphis , and G. melas Northeastern USA Selzer & Payne 1988 S. coeruleoalba and D. delphis Eastern tropical Pacific Au et al. 1979 Au & Perryman 1985 Polacheck 1987 Biscay Bay (northeast Atlantic) Das et al. 2000 Southeastern coast of Spain Sagarminaga & Cañadas 1995, 1998 S. coeruleoalba , D. delphis , and G. griseus Gulf of Corinth (Greece, Mediterranean Sea) Frantzis & Herzing 2002 S. longirostris and S. attenuata Hawaii (eastern tropical Pacific) Norris & Dohl 1980 Norris et al. 1994 Perrin et al. 1973 Psarakos et al. 2003 Western tropical Indian Ocean Ballance & Pitman 1998 S. longirostris , S. attenuata , and T. truncatus Hawaii Baird et al. 2001 S. longirostris and Lagenodelphis hosei Central Philippines Dolar 1999 S. attenuata and T. truncatus Bahamas waters Herzing & Johnson 1997 G. macrorhynchus and D. delphis Eastern tropical Pacific Polacheck 1987 G. macrorhynchus and T. truncatus Northeastern Pacific Norris & Prescott 1961 G. macrorhynchus and G. griseus Santa Catalina Island (California) Shane 1995 T. truncatus and D. delphis Kalamos Island (Greece) Ferretti et al. 1998 Politi 1998 Politi et al. 1998 Bruno et al. 2004 T. truncatus , D. delphis , S. coeruleoalba and Sousa sp. Cape coast of south Africa Saayman et al. 1972 allopatric. Ross (1977) noted different prey in the stomachs of bottlenose dolphins and Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins, with the former species exploiting deep reefs located offshore and the latter preferring shallow inshore waters. Short-beaked common dolphins in associations with longbeaked common dolphins, bottlenose dolphins, and striped dolphins Inshore populations of the genus Delphinus have been described for different areas world-wide, including the Southern California Bight, California (Evans 1975; Bearzi 2003), South Africa (Young & Cockroft 1994), Bay of Plenty, New Zealand (Neumann 2001a,b) and the Mediterranean Sea (Bruno et al. 2004; Bearzi et al. 2005), whereas the ecology of offshore communities remains largely unknown (Evans 1994). Several populations of common dolphins stay in large schools that can reach thousands of individuals, but often separate into smaller basic social units of about 30 individuals (Evans 1994; Bearzi et al. 2003). There is no known gene flow between shortbeaked common dolphins and long-beaked common dolphins, and they occur sympatrically in tropical 168 M. Bearzi and temperate waters (Heyning & Perrin 1994; Rice 1998). In Santa Monica Bay, California, the direct sympatric ecology of short-beaked common dolphins and long-beaked common dolphins was investigated (Bearzi 2003). The two species were both observed year-round mostly offshore (
/500 m from shore), generally near submarine escarpments and canyons. Short-beaked common dolphins and longbeaked common dolphins were sympatric in the bay, but they were never seen in mixed schools (Bearzi 2003). The co-existence of these species is probably explained by an abundance of anchovies (Engraulis mordax ), among their favourite food, and other prey in areas of local upwelling such as submarine canyons and escarpments, as also reported by other authors (Mais 1974; Evans 1975; Hui 1979). These sympatric species had a similar diet (Fitch & Brownell 1968). However, slight differences in their prey were observed (Schwartz et al. 1992). This difference in diet might indicate how partitioning of ecological niches may have reduced the occurrence of competition for food resources when the dolphins were in direct sympatry (Bearzi 2003). In the same bay, the broad sympatric ecology of bottlenose dolphins, short-beaked common dolphins and long-beaked common dolphins was also investigated (Bearzi 2003). High abundance and yearround occurrence of the three species appeared to be correlated to prey abundance and, consequently, to the oceanography of this region (Bearzi 2003), as also reported for other small odontocetes in different locations (Cockcroft & Peddemors 1990; Gowans & Whitehead 1995; Defran et al. 1999). Eighty per cent of the sightings of bottlenose dolphins (n /157) were found in shallow waters (B/500 m from shore), and they were generally separated from the distribution of the two species of common dolphins showing spatial habitat partitioning (Bearzi 2003). A few sightings of feeding bottlenose dolphins, however, were recorded near the deepest submarine canyons, in similar feeding locations of the two species of common dolphins. Considering that bottlenose dolphins and the two species of common dolphins generally fed on different prey (for a review of preys consumed by the three Delphinidae : Bearzi 2003), these species were likely to have co-occurred at these locations without competition for resources (Bearzi 2003). Das et al. (2000) also reported slightly different dietary preferences for sympatric striped dolphins and short-beaked common dolphins in the northeast Atlantic (Bay of Biscay). In this area, both species were quite opportunistic feeders, taking advantage of seasonally or locally abundant preys. However, striped dolphins were observed displaying more opportunistic trophic habits compared with common dolphins. Habitat partitioning and direct sympatry have been observed for short-beaked common dolphins and other delphinids by Gowans & Whitehead (1995). These authors examined the summer distribution of short-beaked common dolphins, Atlantic white-sided dolphins (Lagenorhyncus acutus ), and long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas ) in the highly productive waters in and near a submarine canyon of the Scotian Shelf called the Gully. Their results demonstrated that: (1) these species were much more abundant inside the Gully than outside, and (2) they used some areas of the Gully slightly differently, showing spatial partitioning of habitat. Atlantic white-sided dolphins and short-beaked common dolphins divided the Gully temporally but not geographically, whereas pilot whales ranged widely over the entire study site, preferring locations with flat relief. Habitat partitioning and direct sympatry were also observed for short-beaked common dolphins and bottlenose dolphins in the eastern Ionian Sea near the island of Kalamos, where a small group of bottlenose dolphins shared the same inshore waters of the archipelago with about 100 short-beaked common dolphins (Politi et al. 1998; Bruno et al. 2004). These two sympatric species had adopted different foraging strategies, with common dolphins feeding in the water column or near the surface and bottlenose dolphins focusing on bottom prey (Ferretti et al. 1998). In spite of such sympatry, the two species rarely mixed and showed no direct interactions (Bearzi et al. 2005). These results suggested a separation of niches that may have reduced direct competition for food resources (Bruno et al. 2004). Sympatric short-beaked common dolphins and striped dolphins have been observed in three different areas of the Mediterranean: Alborean Sea (Garcia et al. 2000), south Tyrrhenian Sea (Mussi et al. in press) and Gulf of Corinth (Frantzis & Herzing 2002). Frantzis & Herzing (2002) also observed striped dolphins and short-beaked common dolphins in mixed-species associations with Risso’s dolphins (Grampus griseus ). In all mixedspecies sightings, Risso’s dolphins and common dolphins were always the minority species present and interspecific rake marks on Risso’s dolphins indicated potentially complex and regular interspecific interactions among these species. Among the accountable factors for mixed-species associations in the Mediterranean Sea there were: (1) the relative abundance of each species, and (2) the potential dependence of common dolphins on striped dolphins when the former could not form singlespecies groups (Frantzis & Herzing 2002). A review of well-studied sympatric dolphins Transient and resident killer whales In the eastern north Pacific, two forms of killer whales, resident and transient, are distinguished (Bigg 1982; Baird & Dill 1995). These whales concentrate in cold regions of high productivity in which pods occupy very large ranges (Baird 2000). Groups of this species generally occur in small pods, usually with less than 40 individuals (Dahlheim & Heyning 1999), and resident pods are typically larger than transient pods (Bigg et al. 1987; Morton 1990; Baird 1994). Residents and transients show differences in acoustics, morphology, pigmentation patterns, and genetics (Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996; Ford et al. 1998; Baird 2000). Besides significant differences, these populations are well known to live sympatrically (Table II). In British Columbian and Washington waters, two communities of northern and southern resident killer whales live in broad sympatry with transient killer whales while displaying remarkable differences in feeding behaviour (Baird 2000; Saulitis et al. 2000). Resident populations feed primarily on fish, while transient whales prey on marine mammals, mainly pinnipeds (Bigg et al. 1990; Ford et al. 1998; Saulitis et al. 2000). Bigg et al. (1990) and Ford et al. (1998) observed that resident killer whales of British Columbia, Washington and Alaska, eat mostly salmonids, of which 50% were chinook (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha ), the largest and most energy-rich species present year-round in these areas. Similarly, resident killer whales in Prince William Sound, Alaska, fed primarily on coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch ), while transient killer whales fed on harbour seals (Phoca vitulina ) and Dall’s porpoises (Phocoenoides dalli ; Saulitis et al. 2000). In the various study areas, transients travel and forage more than residents (88.5
/94.5 versus 58
/ 72% of the time), whereas residents socialize and rest more than transients (Morton 1990; Felleman et al. 1991; Baird 1994; Saulitis et al. 2000). Saulitis et al. (2000) also reported that different prey choices among populations of killer whales were accompanied by different foraging strategies. Residents, for instance, foraged in co-ordinated pods swimming at high speed, lunging, encircling and chasing fish at the surface (Similä & Ugarte 1993; Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996); mammal-eating transients either swam along shorelines or in dispersed formation across open areas (Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996; Saulitis et al. 2000). Baird & Dill (1995) found high variability in habitat use between resident and transient whales, with transient animals spending far more time in shallow waters. Dissimilarities also existed in diving patterns of these populations, with resident animals spending most of their time in the top 20 m of the 169 water column and feeding on salmonids, with transient animals displaying longer mean dive durations between 20 and 60 m (Bigg et al. 1990; Baird 1994, 2000). Associations between transient and resident killer whales have rarely been seen (Morton 1990; Baird & Dill 1995; Barrett-Lennard et al. 1996). Observations in Prince William Sound and coastal British Columbia show that these populations do not associate, probably because of their strikingly different diet (Ford et al. 1998; Saulitis et al. 2000). Ecological separation within sympatric dolphin communities When species that require similar resources occur in the same habitat they tend to partition the available resources, thus reducing competition (Roughgarden 1976). Two or more competing species usually divide the resources by occupying different physical locations or by feeding on different prey (Roughgarden 1976; Pianka 1978). These strategies have been observed for a large number of taxa, including primates (Jones & Sabater-Pi 1971; Tutin & Fernandez 1984; Kuroda et al. 1996; Yamagiwa et al. 1996; Stanford & Nkurunungi 2003) and carnivores (Wu 1999; Fedriani et al. 2000; Wang & Fuller 2001). In-depth field investigations of habitat partitioning and resource use for small odontocetes are complicated due to the difficulties of observing these animals in the open ocean, but comparative inferences can be formulated based on existing studies. Strategies adopted by sympatric species to co-exist Investigations on a few sympatric species of the family Delphinidae conducted world-wide illustrate how these animals seem to adopt similar strategies to co-exist (Table III) and show that ecological separation between sympatric species is based primarily on diet and habitat use. Dietary divergence within habitat. When food is abundant, different dolphin species with overlapping diets may be found together in the same habitat (Selzer & Payne 1988; Gowans & Whitehead 1995). The prey may come in schools large enough to accommodate mixed-species aggregations of predators and complete dietary overlap at certain times, but such large prey patches are not consistent enough to support these overlaps all the time (Tarasevich 1957; Bearzi 2003). In situations where diets frequently overlap but food cannot support competing predators, it appears that sympatric species tend to exhibit different prey preferences (Gowans & Whitehead 1995). Many species of small 170 M. Bearzi Table III. Ecological separation within sympatric dolphin communities. Trait Dietary divergence within habitat Different prey preference Species and location O. orca (transients and residents), British Columbia, Alaska, and Washington State D. delphis , T. truncatus , Kalamos Island (Greece) Diet overlap/slightly different diet Diet overlap/different seasons or time Tursiops sp., various areas around the world D. delphis , S. coeruleoalba , Northeast Atlantic D. delphis, D. capensis , Santa Monica Bay (California) L. acutus , D. delphis , Globicephala melas , Scotian shelf (Nova Scotia) L. acutus , D. delphis , Continental shelf of the northeastern USA L. acutus, D. delphis , G. melas, Scotian shelf (Nova Scotia) S. longirostris , S. attenuata , Hawaii (eastern tropical Pacific) S. longirostris , S. attenuata , Eastern tropical Pacific Different habitat use Shallow versus deep waters, and/or inshore versus offshore populations Flat areas versus steeper areas Reference Bigg et al. 1990 Felleman et al. 1991 Baird 2000 Saulitis et al. 2000 Ferretti et al. 1998 Politi et al. 1998 Hale et al. 2000 Das et al. 2000 Bearzi 2003 Gowans & Whitehead 1995 Selzer & Payne 1988 Gowans & Whitehead 1995 Norris & Dohl 1980 Norris et al. 1994 Perrin et al. 1973 O. orca (transients and residents), British Columbia and Washington State Baird & Dill 1995 Baird 1994, 2000 D. delphis , D. capensis and T. truncatus , Santa Monica Bay (California) Bearzi 2003 D. delphis , T. truncatus , Kalamos Island (Greece) Ferretti et al. 1998 Politi et al. 1998 Bruno et al. 2004 T. truncatus and T. aduncus , Chinese waters Wang et al. 2000 T. truncatus , Sousa sp., and S. coeruleoalba , southeastern Cape coast of South Africa Saayman et al. 1972 S. longirostris , S. attenuata , Hawaii (eastern tropical Pacific) Perrin et al. 1973 Norris & Dohl 1980 Norris et al. 1994 S. longirostris , S. attenuata , T. truncatus , Hawaii Baird et al. 2001 S. longirostris , Lagenodelphis hosei , Central Philippines Dolar 1999 Dolar et al. 2003 S. coeruleoalba , D. delphis , southeastern coast of Spain Sagarminaga & Cañadas 1995 L. acutus, D. delphis , G. melas , Scotian shelf (Nova Scotia) Gowans & Whitehead 1995 Different travel routes related to bottom topography O. orca (transients and residents), British Columbia and Washington State Morton 1990 Felleman et al. 1991 Baird 2000 A review of well-studied sympatric dolphins odontocetes, such as short-beaked common dolphins and bottlenose dolphins, are well known to be opportunistic feeders that can vary their diet according to the availability of the most abundant and catchable prey (Evans 1975, 1994; Klinowska 1991). A small difference in prey preference may be enough to support the feeding requirements of more than one species, allowing sympatric dolphins to coexist (Hoelzel 1998). Slightly different diets for sympatric striped dolphins and short-beaked common dolphins were observed by Das et al. (2000) in the northeast Atlantic (Bay of Biscay). Ross (1977) reported more striking differences in prey preferences for sympatric bottlenose dolphins for the Indian and western Pacific Ocean. However, sympatric species of the family Delphinidae can also show a completely different diet, as illustrated for resident and transient killer whales (Bigg et al. 1990; Baird 2000). In addition to differences in prey preferences, sympatric dolphin species can show dietary separation in times of day and/or during different times of year (Table III). This behaviour was observed for Atlantic white-sided dolphins and short-beaked common dolphins in the Gully (differences in times of year as well as prey depth and species: Gowans & Whitehead 1995) and for spotted dolphins (Stenella attenuata ) and spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris ) in the eastern tropical Pacific (differences in times of day as well as prey depth, size and species: Perrin et al. 1973). Different habitat use. Sympatric dolphins may also use the same microhabitat in a different way, such as exploiting resources found at different depths (Table III). A separation of niches based on depth was proposed in the eastern Ionian Sea for bottlenose and short-beaked common dolphins (Ferretti et al. 1998; Politi et al. 1998). Sympatric species can also display ecological separation utilizing inshore and offshore waters, as observed by Wang et al. (2000) for bottlenose 171 dolphins living in Chinese waters, Dolar (1999) for spinner dolphins and Fraser’s dolphin (Lagenodelphis hosei ) in the Sulu Sea, Bearzi (2003) for bottlenose dolphins in sympatry with short-beaked common dolphins in Californian waters, and Baird & Dill (1995) for transient and resident killer whales in British Columbia and Washington State. Resident and transient killer whales also used the same habitat but with different travel routes, sometimes related to the bottom topography (Morton 1990; Felleman et al. 1991; Baird 2000). Aggressive behaviour and competition between sympatric species Direct competition and aggressive behaviour between sympatric species of the family Delphinidae have only occasionally been observed (Table IV). Ross & Wilson (1996) witnessed four violent dolphin
/porpoise interactions in the Moray Firth, Scotland, but these authors did not discuss possible reasons for these interactions. In the same study area, Patterson et al. (1998) recorded aggressive behaviour by sympatric bottlenose dolphins towards harbour porpoises, suggesting that infanticide may be a factor responsible for this type of behaviour. Baird (1998) also reported aggressive behaviour by a Pacific white-sided dolphin on a neonatal harbour porpoise in Washington State. His study showed that aggression was more the result of an object-oriented play than aggressive behaviour displayed by one species competing for food, mate, or space. In the western edge of Great Bahama Bank, Herzing et al. (2003) observed interspecific interactions between Atlantic spotted dolphins (Stenella frontalis ) and bottlenose dolphins, with male spotted dolphins displaying dominant mounting behaviour towards bottlenose dolphin males. In Hawaiian waters, Psarakos et al. (2003) also observed aggressive behaviour between sympatric spinner and spotted dolphins. This type of interaction was accompanied by interspecific copulation. Table IV. Aggressive behaviour between sympatric dolphins. Aggressive behavioura Aggressors Location References Victims T. truncatus P. phocoena Moray Firth (Scotland) L. obliquidens S. frontalis S. longirostris G. griseus P. phocoena T. truncatus S. attenuata S. coeruleoalba D. delphis G. melaena San Juan Island (Washington State) Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas Hawaii (eastern tropical Pacific) Gulf of Corinth, Greece Ross & Wilson 1996 Patterson et al. 1998 Baird 1998 Herzing et al. 2003 Psarakos et al. 2003 Frantzis & Herzing 2002 Santa Catalina Island, California Shane 1995 G. griseus a This list does not include predatory
/prey mixed-species interactions observed for transient killer whales feeding on small cetaceans. 172 M. Bearzi It is clear that by contrasting these infrequent examples of interactions, the majority of the investigations conducted world-wide to date show that dolphins tend, whenever possible, to avoid direct competition by using behavioural, dietary and physiological habitat specializations (Table II). Future research: do sympatric associations among dolphins reflect social complexity? Species such as bottlenose dolphins and short-beaked common dolphins exhibit a fission
/fusion grouping pattern (Connor et al. 2000; Bruno et al. 2004) in which proximate changes in group size and composition appear to reflect proximate availability and distribution of food resources. The key factor that may account for this grouping in dolphins is usually prey, the occurrence of which is ephemeral and patchy, particularly in offshore waters (Clapham 1993). Dolphins also exhibit high levels of encephalization, having the largest brain-to-body size ratio among the cetaceans (Reiss et al. 1997; Marino 1998; Marino et al. 2000). Such encephalization may enable these animals to forage for widely dispersed, frequently changing food sources, and to cope with the complexities of group life that follow from such a fluid foraging pattern (Würsig 1978; Würsig & Würsig 1980). If fission
/fusion grouping is a response to a complex foraging environment and has placed intelligence and social complexity at a premium in these animals, how may it have affected sympatric associations? Ecological information about sympatric dolphins is scarce in comparison with other large brained species such as great apes (Bearzi 2003). Because dolphins’ ecological problem-solving needs and abilities parallel those of great apes (Marino 1996, 1998; Reiss et al. 1997) it is possible that similar strategies that rely on cognition and memory have facilitated divergence of foraging strategies when in sympatry with other cetacean species. Acknowledgements The manuscript was improved through review by W. Hamner, J. Heyning, G. Grether, G. Bearzi, B. Schlinger, C. Saylan, and C. Stanford. This study was conducted under the Coastal Environmental Quality Graduate Fellowship. Special thanks to the Los Angeles Dolphin Project volunteers. References Au DWK, Perryman WL. 1985. Dolphin habitats in the eastern tropical Pacific. Fishery Bulletin 83(4):623
/43. Au DWK, Perryman PL, Perrin WF. 1979. Dolphin Distribution and the Relationship to Environmental Features in the Eastern Tropical Pacific. La Jolla, California: National Marine Fisheries Service, Southwest Fisheries Center Administrative Report LJ79-43. Baird RW. 1994. Foraging behaviour and ecology of transient killer whales (Orcinus orca ). PhD dissertation, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, B.C. Baird RW. 1998. An interaction between Pacific white-sided dolphins and a neonatal porpoise. Mammalia 62(1):129
/34. Baird RW. 2000. The killer whale: foraging specializations and group hunting. In: Mann J, Connor RC, Tyack PL, Whitehead H, editors. Cetacean Societies: Field Studies of Dolphins and Whales. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p 127
/53. Baird RW, Abrams PA, Dill LM. 1992. Possible indirect interactions between transient and resident killer whales: implications for the evolution of foraging specializations in the genus Orcinus . Oecologia 89:125
/32. Baird RW, Ligon AD, Hooker SK, Gorgone AM. 2001. Subsurface and nighttime behaviour of pantropical spotted dolphins in Hawai’i. Canadian Journal of Zoology 79:988
/96. Baird RW, Dill LM. 1995. Occurrence and behaviour of transient killer whales: seasonal and pod-specific variability, foraging behaviour and prey handling. Canadian Journal of Zoology 73:1300
/11. Baird RW, Dill LM. 1996. Ecological and social determinants of group size in transient killer whales. Behavioral Ecology 7:408
/ 16. Baird RW, Whitehead H. 2000. Social organization of mammaleating killer whales: group stability and dispersal patterns. Canadian Journal of Zoology 78:2096
/105. Ballance LT, Pitman RL. 1998. Cetaceans of the western tropical Indian Ocean: distribution, relative abundance, and comparisons with cetacean communities of two other tropical ecosystems. Marine Mammal Science 14(3):429
/59. Banks RC, Brownell RL. 1969. Taxonomy of the common dolphins of the eastern Pacific Ocean. Journal of Mammalogy 50:262
/72. Baraff LS, Asmutis-Silvia RA. 1998. Long-term association of an individual long-finned pilot whale and Atlantic white-sided dolphins. Marine Mammal Science 14(1):155
/61. Barrett-Lennard LG, Ford JKB, Heise KA. 1996. The mixed blessing of echolocation: differences in sonar use by fish-eating and mammal-eating killer whales. Animal Behavior 51:553
/65. Bearzi G. 1997. A ‘‘remnant’’ common dolphin observed in association with bottlenose dolphins in the Kvarnerić (northern Adriatic Sea). European Cetacean Society 10:204. Bearzi G, Notarbartolo di Sciara G, Politi E. 1997. Social ecology of bottlenose dolphins in the Kvarnerić (northern Adriatic Sea). Marine Mammal Science 13:650
/68. Bearzi G, Politi E, Notarbartolo di Sciara G. 1999. Diurnal behavior of free-ranging bottlenose dolphins in the Kvarnerić (northern Adriatic Sea). Marine Mammal Science 15(4): 1065
/97. Bearzi G, Reeves RR, Notarbartolo di Sciara G, Politi E, Canadas A, Frantzis A, Mussi B. 2003. Ecology, status and conservation of short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis ) in the Mediterranean Sea. Mammal Review 33(3):224
/52. Bearzi G, Politi E, Agazzi S, Bruno S, Costa M, Bonizzoni S. 2005. Occurrence and present status of coastal dolphins (Delphinus delphi and Tursiops truncatus ) in the eastern Ionians Sea. Aquatic conservation: Marine and fresh water ecosystems. Published online in Wiley Interscience (www. interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/aqc.667 Bearzi M. 2003. Behavioral ecology of the marine mammals of Santa Monica Bay, California. PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. Bigg MA. 1982. An assessment of killer whales (Orcinus orca ) stocks off Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Reports of the International Whaling Commission 32:655
/66. Bigg MA, Ellis GM, Ford JKB, Balcomb KC III. 1987. Killer Whales: a Study of their Identification, Genealogy, and Natural A review of well-studied sympatric dolphins History in British Columbia and Washington State. Nanaimo, B.C: Phantom Press. Bigg MA, Olesiuk PF, Ellis GM, Ford JKB, Balcomb KC III. 1990. Social organization and genealogy of resident killer whales (Orcinus orca ) in the coastal waters of British Columbia and Washington State. In: Hammond PS, Mizroch SA, Donovan GP, editors. Individual Recognition of Cetaceans: Use of Photo-Identification and other Techniques to Estimate Population Parameters. Reports of the International Whaling Commission, Special Issue 12. Cambridge: International Whaling Commission. p 383
/405. Bloch D, Lockyer C. 1988. Killer whales, Orcinus orca , in Faroese waters. Rit Fiskideildar 11:55
/64. Bruno S, Politi E, Bearzi G. 2004. Social organization of a common dolphin community in the eastern Ionian Sea: evidence of a fluid fission
/fusion society. European Research on Cetaceans 15:49
/51. Carretta JV, Forney KA. 1993. Report of the Two Aerial Surveys for Marine Mammals in California Coastal Waters Utilizing a NOAA DeHavilland Twin Otter Aircraft March 9
/April 7, and February 8
/April 6, 1992. La Jolla, California: NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SWFSC-185. Carretta JV, Forney KA, Barlow J. 1995. Report of 1993
/1994 Marine Mammal Aerial Surveys Conducted within the U.S. Navy Outer Sea Test Range off Southern California. La Jolla, California: NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SWFSC217. Clapham PJ. 1993. Social organization of humpback whales on a north Atlantic feeding ground. Symposium of the Zoological Society of London 66:131
/45. Cockcroft VG, Peddemors VM. 1990. Seasonal distribution and density of common dolphins Delphinus delphis off the south-east coast of southern Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science 9:371
/7. Corkeron PJ. 1990. Aspects of the behavioral ecology of inshore dolphins Tursiops truncatus and Sousa chinensis in Moreton Bay, Australia. In: Leatherwood S, Reeves RR, editors. The Bottlenose Dolphins. San Diego: Academic Press. p 285
/94. Connor RC, Mann J, Tyack PL, Whitehead H. 1998. Social evolution in toothed whales. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 13(6):228
/32. Connor RC, Smolker RA. 1985. Habituated dolphins (Tursiops sp.) in western Australia. Journal of Mammalogy 66:398
/400. Connor RC, Wells RS, Mann J, Read AJ. 2000. The bottlenose dolphin: social relationships in a fission
/fusion society. In: Mann J, Connor RC, Tyack PL, Whitehead H, editors. Cetacean Societies: Field Studies of Dolphins and Whales. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p 91
/126. Dahlheim ME, Heyning JE. 1999. Killer whale: Orcinus orca . In: Ridgway S, Harrison R, editors. Handbook of Marine Mammals, Vol. 6. The Second Book of Dolphins and Porpoises. San Diego: Academic Press. p 281
/322. Das K, Lepoint G, Loizeau V, Debacker V, Dauby P, Bouquegneau JM. 2000. Tuna and dolphin associations in the northeast Atlantic: evidence of different ecological niches from stable isotope and heavy metal measurements. Marine Pollution Bulletin 40(2):102
/9. Defran RH, Weller DW. 1999. Occurrence, distribution, site fidelity, and school size of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus ) off San Diego, California. Marine Mammal Science 15(2):366
/80. Defran RH, Weller DW, Kelly DL, Espinosa MA. 1999. Range characteristics of Pacific coast bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus ) in the Southern California Bight. Marine Mammal Science 15(2):381
/93. Dolar MLL. 1999. Abundance, distribution and feeding ecology of small cetaceans in the eastern Sulu Sea and Tañon Strait, 173 Philippines. PhD dissertation, University of California, San Diego. Dolar MLL, Walker WA, Kooyman GL, Perrin WF. 2003. Comparative feeding ecology of spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris ) and Fraser’s dolphins (Lagenodelphis hosei ) in the Sulu Sea. Marine Mammal Science 19(1):1
/19. Evans WE. 1975. Distribution, differentiation of populations, and other aspects of the natural history of Delphinus delphis Linnaeus in the northeastern Pacific. PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. Evans WE. 1994. Common dolphin, white-bellied porpoise Delphinus delphis Linnaeus, 1758. In: Ridgway SH, Harrison R, editors. Handbook of Marine Mammals, Vol. 5. San Diego: Academic Press. p 191
/224. Fedriani JM, Fuller TK, Sauvajot RM, York EC. 2000. Competition and intraguild predation among three sympatric carnivores. Oecologia 125:258
/70. Felleman FL, Heimlich-Boran JR, Osborne RW. 1991. The feeding ecology of killer whales (Orcinus orca ) in the Pacific northwest. In: Prior K, Norris KS, editors. Dolphin Societies: Discoveries and Puzzles. Berkeley: University of California Press. p 113
/47. Ferretti S, Bearzi G, Politi E. 1998. Comparing behavior of inshore bottlenose and common dolphins in the eastern Ionian Sea through focal group surfacing pattern analysis. Abstract, The World Marine Mammal Science Conference, Monaco, France, 20
/24 January 1998. Fitch JE, Brownell RL. 1968. Fish otoliths in cetacean stomachs and their importance on interpreting food habits. Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada 25:2561
/74. Forcada J, Aguilar A, Hammond P, Pastor X, Aguilar R. 1994. Distribution and numbers of striped dolphins in the western Mediterranean Sea after the 1990 epizootic outbreak. Marine Mammal Science 10(2):137
/50. Ford JKB, Ellis GM, Barrett-Lennard LG, Morton AB, Palm RS, Balcomb KC III. 1998. Dietary specialization in two sympatric populations of killer whales (Orcinus orca ) in coastal British Columbia and adjacent waters. Canadian Journal of Zoology 76:1456
/71. Frantzis A, Herzing D. 2002. Mixed-species associations of striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba ), short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis ), and Risso’s dolphins (Grampus griseus ) in the Gulf of Corinth (Greece, Mediterranean Sea). Aquatic Mammals 28(2):188
/97. Garcia S, Knouse D, Sagarminaga R, Cañadas A. 2000. An insight on the biological significance of mixed groups of common dolphins (Delphinus delphis ) and striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba ) in the Alboran Sea. In: Evans PGH, Pitt-Aiken R, Rogan E, editors. European Research on Cetaceans 14. Rome: European Cetacean Society. Gowans S, Whitehead H. 1995. Distribution and habitat partitioning by small odontocetes in the Gully, a submarine canyon on the Scotian Shelf. Canadian Journal of Zoology 73:1599
/ 608. Guinet C. 1990. Sympatrie des deux catégories d’orques dans le Détroit de Johnstone, Columbie Britannique. Revue Ecologie (Terre et Vie) 45:25
/34. Gygax L. 2001. Evolution of group size in the dolphins and porpoises: interspecific consistency of intraspecific patterns. Behavioral Ecology 13(5):583
/90. Hale PT, Barretto AS, Ross GJB. 2000. Comparative morphology and distribution of the aduncus and truncatus forms of bottlenose dolphin Tursiops in the Indian and western Pacific Oceans. Aquatic Mammals 26(2):101
/10. Hansen LJ. 1990. California coastal bottlenose dolphins. In: Leatherwood S, Reeves RR, editors. The Bottlenose Dolphin. Millbrae: Academic Press. p 403
/20. 174 M. Bearzi Heyning JE, Perrin WF. 1994. Evidence for two species of common dolphins (genus Delphinus ) from the eastern north Pacific. Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Contributions in Science 442:1
/35. Herzing DL, Johnson CM. 1997. Interspecific interactions between Atlantic spotted dolphins (Stenella frontalis ) and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus ) in the Bahamas, 1985
/1995. Aquatic Mammals 23(2):85
/99. Herzing DL, Moewe K, Brunnick BJ. 2003. Interspecific interactions between Atlantic spotted dolphins (Stenella frontalis ) and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus ) on Great Bahama Bank, Bahamas. Aquatic Mammals 23(3):335
/41. Hill PS, Barlow J. 1992. Report of a Marine Mammal Survey of the California Coast Aboard the Research Vessel McArthur July 28
/November 5, 1991. La Jolla, California: NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SWFSC-169. Hoelzel AR. 1998. Genetic structure of cetacean populations in sympatry, parapatry, and mixed assemblages: implications for conservation policy. Journal of Heredity 89(5):451
/8. Hui CA. 1979. Undersea topography and distribution of dolphins of the genus Delphinus in the Southern California Bight. Journal of Mammalogy 60(3):521
/7. Jefferson TA, Stacey PJ, Baird RW. 1991. A review of killer whale interactions with other marine mammals: predation to coexistence. Mammal Review 21:151
/80. Jones C, Sabater-Pi J. 1971. Comparative ecology of Gorilla gorilla (Savage and Wyman) and Pan troglodytes (Blumenbach) in Rio Muni, west Africa. Bibliotheca Primatologica 13:1
/96. Klinowska M. 1991. Dolphins, Porpoises and Whales of the World: the IUCN Red Data Book. IUCN. Kuroda S, Nishihara T, Suzuki S, Oko R. 1996. Sympatric chimpanzees and gorillas in the Ndoki forest, Congo. In: McGrew WC, Marchant LF, Nishida T, editors. Great Ape Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 71
/81. Leatherwood S, Reeves RR, Foster L. 1983. The Sierra Club Handbook of Whales and Dolphins. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books. Leatherwood S, Reeves RR, Perrin WF, Evans WE. 1988. Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises of the Eastern North Pacific and Adjacent Arctic Waters: a Guide to their Identification. New York: Dover Publications. LeDuc RG, Curry BE. 1998. Mitochondrial DNA sequence analysis indicates need for revision of Tursiops . Reports of the International Whaling Commission 47. Mais F. 1974. Pelagic fish surveys in the California current. California Department of Fish and Game. Fish Bulletin 162:1
/79. Mangels KF, Gerrodette T. 1994. Report of Cetacean Sightings during a Marine Mammal Survey in the Eastern Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of California aboard the NOAA Ships McArthur and David Starr Jordan, July 28
/November 6, 1993. La Jolla, California: NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SWFSC211. Marino L. 1996. What can dolphins tell us about primate evolution? Evolutionary Anthropology 5(3):81
/5. Marino L. 1998. A comparison of encephalization between odontocete cetaceans and anthropoid primates. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 51:230
/8. Marino L, Rilling JK, Lin SK, Ridgway SH. 2000. Relative volume of the cerebellum in dolphins and comparison with anthropoid primates. Brain, Behavior and Evolution 56:204
/ 11. Migura KA, Meadows DW. 2002. Short-finned pilot whales (Globicephala macrorhynchus ) interact with melon-headed whales (Peponocephala electra ) in Hawaii. Aquatic Mammals 28(3):294
/7. Morton AB. 1990. A quantitative comparison of the behaviour of resident and transient forms of the killer whale off the central British Columbia coast. In: Hammond PS, Mizroch SA, Donovan GP, editors. Individual Recognition of Cetaceans: Use of Photo-Identification and other Techniques to Estimate Population Parameters. Reports of the International Whaling Commission, Special Issue 12. Cambridge: International Whaling Commission. p 245
/8. Mussi B, Miragliuolo A, Bearzi G. (in press) Short-beaked common dolphins around the island of Ischia, Italy (southern Tyrrhenian Sea). European Research on Cetaceans 16. Neumann DR. 2001a. Seasonal movements of short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis ) in the north-western Bay of Plenty, New Zealand: influence of sea surface temperature and El Niño/La Niña. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 35:371
/4. Neumann DR. 2001b. The activity budget of free-ranging common dolphins (Delphinus delphis ) in the northwestern Bay of Plenty, New Zealand. Aquatic Mammals 27(2):121
/36. Norris KS, Dohl TP. 1980. The structure and function of cetacean schools. In: Herman LM, editor. Cetacean Behavior: Mechanism and Functions. New York: Krieger Publishing Company. p 211
/61. Norris KS, Prescott JH. 1961. Observations on Pacific cetaceans of Californian and Mexican waters. University of California Publications in Zoology 63:291
/402. Norris KS, Würsig B, Wells RS, Würsig M. 1994. The Hawaiian Spinner Dolphin. University of California Press. Overholtz WJ, Waring GT. 1991. Diet composition of pilot whales Globicephala sp. and common dolphins Delphinus delphis in the mid-Atlantic Bight during spring 1989. Fishery Bulletin 89:723
/8. Patterson IAP, Reid RJ, Wilson B, Grellier K, Ross HM, Thompson PM. 1998. Evidence for infanticide in bottlenose dolphins: an explanation for violent interactions with harbour porpoises? Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 265:1167
/70. Perrin WF, Scott MD, Walker GJ, Cass VL. 1985. Review of Geographical Stocks of Tropical Dolphins (Stenella spp. and Delphinus delphis ) in the Eastern Pacific. NOAA Technical Report NMFS 28. Perrin WF, Warner RR, Fiscus CH, Holts DB. 1973. Stomach contents of porpoise, Stenella spp., and yellowfin tuna, Thunnus albacares , in mixed-species aggregations. Fishery Bulletin 71(4):1077
/92. Pianka ER. 1978. Evolutionary Ecology. New York: Harper & Row. Polacheck T. 1987. Relative abundance, distribution and interspecific relationship of cetacean schools in the eastern tropical Pacific. Marine Mammal Science 3(1):54
/77. Politi E. 1998. Un progetto per i delfini in Mediterraneo. Le Scienze 360:64
/9. Politi E, Airoldi S, Natoli A, Frantzis A. 1998. Unexpected prevalence of common dolphins over sympatric bottlenose dolphins in eastern Ionian Sea inshore waters. European Research on Cetaceans 12:120. Psarakos S, Herzing DL, Marten K. 2003. Mixed-species associations between pantropical spotted dolphins (Stenella attenuata ) and Hawaiian spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris ) off Oahu, Hawaii. Aquatic Mammals 29(3):390
/5. Reiss D, McCowan B, Marino L. 1997. Communicative and other cognitive characteristics of bottlenose dolphins. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 1(4):123
/56. Rice DW. 1998. Marine Mammals of the World: Systematics and Distribution. Special Publication 4. The Society of Marine Mammalogy, Allen Press. A review of well-studied sympatric dolphins Rosel PE, Dizon AE, Heyning JE. 1994. Genetic analysis of sympatric morphotypes of common dolphins (genus Delphinus ). Marine Biology 119:159
/67. Ross GJB. 1977. The taxonomy of bottlenosed dolphins Tursiops species in south African waters, with notes on their biology. Annals of the Cape Provencial Museums, Natural History, South Africa 11(9):135
/94. Ross HM, Wilson B. 1996. Violent interactions between bottlenose dolphins and harbor porpoises. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B 263:283
/6. Rossbach KA, Herzing DL. 1999. Inshore and offshore bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus ) communities distinguished by association patterns near Grand Bahama Island, Bahamas. Canadian Journal of Zoology 77:581
/92. Roughgarden J. 1976. Resource partitioning among competing species: a coevolutionary approach. Theoretical Population Biology 9:388
/424. Saayman GS, Bower D, Tayler CK. 1972. Observations on inshore and pelagic dolphins on the south-eastern cape coast of South Africa. Koedoe 15:1
/24. Saayman GS, Tayler CK. 1973. Social organization of inshore dolphins (Tursiops aduncus and Sousa sp.) in the Indian Ocean. Journal of Mammalogy 54:993
/6. Sagarminaga R, Cañadas A. 1995. Studying a possible competition for ecological niche between the common dolphin, Delphinus delphis , and striped dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba , along the southeastern coast of Spain. European Research on Cetaceans 9:114
/7. Sagarminaga R, Cañadas A. 1998. A comparative study on the distribution and behaviour of the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis ), and the striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba ) along the south-eastern coast of Spain. European Research on Cetaceans 12. Saulitis E, Matkin C, Barrett-Lennard L, Heise K, Ellis G. 2000. Foraging strategies of sympatric killer whale (Orcinus orca ) populations in Prince William Sound, Alaska. Marine Mammal Science 16(1):94
/109. Schwartz M, Hohn A, Bernard H, Chivers S, Peliter K. 1992. Stomach Contents of Beach Cast Cetaceans Collected along the San Diego County Coast of California, 1972
/1991. Southwest Fisheries Science Center Administrative Report LJ-92-18. Scott MD, Wells RS, Irvine AB. 1990. A long-term study of bottlenose dolphins on the west coast of Florida. In: Leatherwood S, Reeves RR, editors. The Bottlenose Dolphin. San Diego: Academic Press. p 235
/44. Scott MD, Cattanach KL. 1998. Diel patterns in aggregations of pelagic dolphins and tunas in the eastern Pacific. Marine Mammal Science 14(3):401
/28. Selzer LA, Payne PM. 1988. The distribution of white-sided (Lagenorhynchus acutus ) and common dolphins (Delphinus delphis ) vs. environmental features of the continental shelf of the northeastern United States. Marine Mammal Science 4(2):141
/53. Shane SH. 1995. Relationship between pilot whales and Risso’s dolphins at Santa Catalina Island, California, USA. Marine Ecology Progress Series 123:5
/11. Shelden KEW, Baldridge AA, Withrow DE. 1995. Observations of Risso’s dolphins, Grampus griseus with gray whales, Eschrichtius robustus . Marine Mammal Science 11:231
/40. Similä T, Ugarte F. 1993. Surface and underwater observations of cooperatively feeding killer whales in northern Norway. Canadian Journal of Zoology 71(8):1494
/9. Stanford CB, Nkurunungi JB. 2003. Sympatric ecology of chimpanzees and gorillas in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda. Diet. International Journal of Primatology 24:901
/18. View publication stats 175 Tarasevich MN. 1957. Comparison of the composition of herds of aquatic and amphibious mammals. VNIRO 33:199
/218. Tutin CEG, Fernandez M. 1984. Nationwide census of gorilla (Gorilla g. gorilla ) and chimpanzee (Pan t. troglodytes ) populations in Gabon. American Journal of Primatology 6:313
/ 36. Walker WA. 1981. Geographical Variation in Morphology and Biology of Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops ) in the Eastern North Pacific. NOAA Administrative Report LJ-81-03C. Wang H, Fuller TK. 2001. Notes on the ecology of sympatric carnivores in southeastern China. Mammalian Biology 66: 251
/5. Wang JY, Chou LS, White BN. 2000. Osteological differences between two sympatric forms of bottlenose dolphins (genus Tursiops ) in Chinese waters. Journal of Zoology, London 252: 147
/62. Weaver AC. 1987. An ethogram of naturally occurring behavior of bottlenose dolphins, Tursiops truncatus , in southern California waters. Master thesis, San Diego State University. Weller DW. 1991. The social ecology of Pacific coast bottlenose dolphins. Master thesis, San Diego State University. Weller DW, Würsig B, Whitehead H, Norris JC, Lynn SK, Davis RW, Clauss N, Brown P. 1996. Observations of an interaction between sperm whale and short-finned pilot whales in the Gulf of Mexico. Marine Mammal Science 12:588
/94. Wells RS. 1991. The role of long-term study in understanding the social structure of a bottlenose dolphin community. In: Pryor K, Norris KS, editors. Dolphin Societies: Discoveries and Puzzles. Berkeley: University of California Press. p 199
/225. Wilson B. 1995. The ecology of bottlenose dolphins on the Moray Firth, Scotland: a population at the northern extreme of the species’ range. PhD dissertation, University of Aberdeen. Wilson B, Thompson PM, Hammond PS. 1993. An examination of the social structure of a resident group of bottlenosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus ) in the Moray Firth, N.E. Scotland. European Research on Cetaceans 7:54
/6. Wilson EO. 2000. Sociobiology: the New Synthesis. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Wu H-Y. 1999. Is there current competition between sympatric Siberian weasels (Mustela sibirica ) and ferret badgers (Melogale moschata ) in a subtropical forest ecosystem of Taiwan? Zoological Studies 38(4):443
/51. Würsig B. 1978. Occurrence and group organization of Atlantic bottlenose porpoises (Tursiops truncatus ) in an Argentine bay. Biological Bulletin 154:348
/59. Würsig B, Würsig M. 1980. Behavior and ecology of the dusky dolphin, Lagenorhynchus obscurus , in the south Atlantic. Fishery Bulletin 77(4):871
/90. Yamagiwa J, Maruhashi T, Yumoto T, Mwanza N. 1996. Dietary and ranging overlap in sympatric gorillas and chimpanzees in Kahuzi-Biega national park, Zaı̈re. In: McGrew WC, Marchant LF, Nishida T, editors. Great Ape Societies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p 82
/98. Yang HC. 1976. Studies on the whales, porpoises and dolphins of Taiwan. Annual Report of the Science Taiwan Museum (Taipei) 19:131
/78. Young DD, Cockcroft VG. 1994. Diet of common dolphins (Delphinus delphis ) off the south-east coast of southern Africa: opportunism or specialization? Zoological Society of London 234:41
/53. Zhou K, Qian W. 1985. Distribution of the dolphins of the genus Tursiops in the China Seas. Aquatic Mammals 1:16
/9. Editorial responsibility: Kaj Sand-Jensen