Front. Mater. Sci. 2011, 5(2): 98–108
DOI 10.1007/s11706-011-0134-4
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Numerical investigations of arc behaviour in gas metal arc
welding using ANSYS CFX
M. SCHNICK (✉)1, U. FUESSEL1, M. HERTEL1, A. SPILLE-KOHOFF2, and A. B. MURPHY3
1 Institute of Surface and Manufacturing Technology, Technische Universitat Dresden, Dresden, Germany
2 CFX Berlin Software GmBH, Berlin, Germany
3 CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering, Lindfield NSW 2070, Australia
© Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
ABSTRACT: Current numerical models of gas metal arc welding (GMAW) are trying to
combine magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) models of the arc and volume of fluid (VoF)
models of metal transfer. They neglect vaporization and assume an argon atmosphere for
the arc region, as it is common practice for models of gas tungsten arc welding. These
models predict temperatures above 20 000 K and a temperature distribution similar to
tungsten inert gas (TIG) arcs. However, current spectroscopic temperature measurements in GMAW arcs demonstrate much lower arc temperatures. In contrast to TIG arcs
they found a central local minimum of the radial temperature distribution. The paper
presents a GMAW arc model that considers metal vapour and which is in a very good
agreement with experimentally observed temperatures. Furthermore, the model is able to
predict the local central minimum in the radial temperature and the radial electric current
density distributions for the first time. The axially symmetric model of the welding torch,
the work piece, the wire and the arc (fluid domain) implements MHD as well as turbulent
mixing and thermal demixing of metal vapour in argon. The mass fraction of iron vapour
obtained from the simulation shows an accumulation in the arc core and another
accumulation on the fringes of the arc at 2000 to 5000 K. The demixing effects lead to very
low concentrations of iron between these two regions. Sensitive analyses demonstrate
the influence of the transport and radiation properties of metal vapour, and the
evaporation rate relative to the wire feed. Finally the model predictions are compared
with the measuring results of Zielińska et al.
KEYWORDS:
1
arc welding, numerical simulation, GMAW, ANSYS CFX
Introduction
Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is a long-established
process that is used for joining metals. The arc is
established between the work piece and a continuouslyfed wire. On the one hand, the arc flow and the arc
Received November 20, 2010; accepted December 28, 2010
E-mail: schnick@mciron.mw.tu-dresden.de
attachment at the anode wire have an important influence
on the droplet formation and the heat transfer. On the other
hand, the droplet geometry, surface temperatures and
vaporization affect the fluid flow and the heat transfer
inside the arc. A comprehensive understanding of the
welding process and a detailed description of the physical
effects are necessary to reduce the parameter space required
for experiments and to provide direction to the development of welding techniques and equipment. Numerical
simulation is a knowledge engineering tool for a better
M. SCHNICK et al. Numerical investigations of arc behaviour in GMAW using ANSYS CFX
visualisation and understanding of the complex cause and
effect chains in arc welding.
The GMAW models that have been used previously
differ in the effects being studied and corresponding
models [1]. The main focus of most of them is the
prediction of droplet formation. State-of-the-art models
include those that use volume of fluid (VoF) multiphase
modelling of a free surface [2]. For the calculation of the
electric current density, resistive heating and pinch force in
the droplet, VoF-based models either use heat and electric
current flux boundary conditions [3] or are combined with
an arc model [4–6] that has been developed and tested for
tungsten inert gas (TIG) arcs. They are based on
magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) and assume a singlecomponent fluid of argon in a state of a local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) [7]. In Refs. [4–6], it is
revealed that the arc attachment at the wire and the work
piece are simplified by using an increased mesh size.
Spille-Kohoff [8] neglected the droplet formation but used
the unified sheath model of Lowke and Sansonnens [9–10]
for modelling the transient behaviour of a GMAW process
in argon. All of these arc models predict arc temperature
distributions and plasma flows that have been measured at
TIG arcs. The peak temperatures of 20 000–23 000 K were
calculated direct below the wire. The arc temperature at the
centreline of the arc is always higher than 16 000 K, except
in the near-electrode regions.
However, spectroscopic plasma temperature measurements contradict the predicted arc temperatures. Metzke et
al. [11] analyzed a pulsed GMAW process with a copper
wire and argon as the process gas. By using a narrow bandpass filter and spectroscopy he showed high local
concentrations of metal vapour during the pulse. The
metal vapour is not evenly distributed. A high concentration occurs for the arc core, while argon dominates in the
fringes of the arc. Furthermore spectroscopic measurements of the arc temperatures were done. The radial
temperature distribution demonstrates a maximum of
13 000 K, which can be located at the transition region
between the metal vapour and the argon. In contrast to TIG
arcs, a central temperature minimum of 8000 K was
observed. Goecke [12] performed spectroscopic investigations at GMAW of aluminium in argon. He used different
spectroscopic methods but he always obtained the same
characteristic temperature distribution as in Ref. [11]. The
recent measurements of Zielińska et al. [13–14] were done
for GMAW of mild steel in spray transfer mode and
confirm the results of [11–12]. They compared the
99
measured temperatures with the predictions of Ref. [4]
and suggested the influence of the metal vapour, which was
neglected in the model, as the cause of the lower measured
temperatures.
The influence of metal vapour on arc behaviour has so
far been analysed numerically only for TIG arc welding.
Tashiro et al. [15] modelled a TIG arc in helium
considering a fixed fraction of metal vapour. The results
predict higher temperatures and arc constriction. The TIG
models of Yamamoto et al. [16–17] and Lago et al. [18]
include vaporization at the work piece surface. They both
consider mixing of metal vapour and argon but their simple
treatments of diffusion did not allow the effects of
demixing [19] to be considered.
In this paper, a stationary axially symmetric model is
used for numerical investigations of the influence of metal
vapour in GMAW. In the model a flux of metal vapour is
defined at the lower side of the wire and the flow and
diffusion of metal vapour in the arc is considered. The
transient behaviour of droplet formation is neglected
initially.
2
Arc model
The commercial simulation software ANSYS CFX is used
for a rotationally-symmetric steady-state model of a gas
metal arc. An MHD model was used for the implementation of the electromagnetic effects in the fluid and the
solids. It is based on the conservation equation of electric
current and Ohm’s law
!
j ¼ – gradΦ
(1)
and the calculation of the magnetic vector potential
!
!
Δ A ¼ – 0 $ j
(2)
for the calculation of the magnetic field, the resistive
heating and the Lorentz force, which appear in the
conservation equations of energy, mass and momentum.
The effects of the sheaths are simplified by using a mesh
size of 0.1 mm at the electrodes.
The computational domain includes the welding torch,
the wire, the arc (fluid domain) and the workpiece. The
diameter of the wire is 1.2 mm, and the stick out and the arc
length are 5 mm.
The shielding gas flows around the gas nozzle and
contact tube. We defined an argon fraction of 100% at the
shielding gas inlet and at the opening. An interface mass
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Front. Mater. Sci. 2011, 5(2): 98–108
source of iron vapour at 3023 K was modelled at the lower
side of the wire. The total mass flow of iron vapour
corresponds to 0.01%, 0.1%, or 1% of the 10 m/min wire
speed. The configuration of the model and the distribution
of the iron vapour mass source are shown in Fig. 1 [20].
Fig. 1 Configuration of the model and the iron vapour mass
source. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [20], Copyright
2010 IOP Publishing Ltd.)
The plasma is assumed to be in a LTE. Density, enthalpy,
thermal and electric conductivity and viscosity are
calculated as functions of argon mole fraction and
temperature, which is equal for heavy particles and
electrons, as shown in Fig. 2 [21]. The thermodynamic
and transport properties, including the combined diffusion
coefficients, were calculated using the Chapman-Enskog
method for a temperature range of 300–30 000 K [18].
Radiation is treated using the net emission coefficient
(NEC) model with the published data of Menart et al. [22].
An SST turbulence model is used and demixing effects
are taken into account. The combined diffusion coefficient
model [19,23] is used to treat diffusion of metal vapour
relative to argon. It is based on a conservation equation for
the mass fraction yA of component A:
!
∂ðyA Þ
!
(3)
þ div u yA þ J A ¼ 0
∂t
with the diffusion mass flux JA:
!
JA ¼
!
n2
mA mB DxAB gradxB þ DpAB grad ln ptot þ DEAB E
– DTAB grad ln T
3
Results
Figure 4 shows calculated results for a 250 A arc and a
vaporization rate of 1% relative to the wire feed rate [20].
The calculated arc temperatures are in good agreement with
experimental data [11–13]. The highest arc temperature of
18 000 K is predicted at the centre line, directly below the
wire. Closer to the workpiece, a local minimum in the
radial temperature distribution is predicted at the centre of
the arc. At a height of 1.5 mm above the workpiece, the
central temperature is 10 000 K whereas the highest
temperature of 12 500 K occurs off centre.
The calculated mass fraction of the iron vapour shows an
accumulation in the arc core. This arises from the iron
vapour boundary source at the tip of the wire. Another
accumulation is visible at the arc edge between 2000 and
5000 K. Demixing effects lead to low concentrations of
iron vapour between these two accumulations.
The calculated mass fraction distribution is consistent
with the observed sharp optical separation of the arc core,
mainly dominated by the metal vapour, and the outer arc
regions. Steep gradients are predicted at the border of the
arc core. The vapour accumulation in the outer regions is
correlated with the well-known (especially for GMAW
with magnesium-alloy aluminium filler) optically-bright
arc fringes. The highest temperatures and current densities
occur at the boundary of the arc core.
Analyses of the sensitivity of the four driving forces of
diffusion demonstrate that the temperature and the mole
fraction gradients are the strongest drivers of demixing.
The effects of the electric field and the pressure gradient are
very small and could be neglected. In principle, the
diffusion leads to an iron vapour flux from regions with
higher temperatures to lower temperature regions. The offcentre radial maximum of the temperature leads to iron
vapour diffusion fluxes both radially outwards and
inwards. However, a calculation without demixing effects
demonstrates that the plasma jet is the primary reason for
the high iron vapour concentration in the arc core and the
low fraction in the arc fringes.
(4)
where the terms respectively describe diffusion due to the
gradient in the mass fraction of component B, the gradient
in the total pressure, the electric field of the arc, and the
temperature gradient. mk are the average masses of the
heavy species in the two components, and DIAB are
combined diffusion coefficients, which are shown in
Fig. 3 [21].
4 Influence of vaporization and iron vapour
properties
Different mechanisms have been suggested as responsible
for the radial minimum in the temperature distribution. The
vapour is about 3000 K at the wire surface, and heat is
required to raise its temperature. Further, the electric
M. SCHNICK et al. Numerical investigations of arc behaviour in GMAW using ANSYS CFX
101
Fig. 2 Influence of iron vapour on plasma properties of argon. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21], Copyright 2010 IOP
Publishing Ltd.)
conductivity and the net radiative emission coefficient of
iron vapour are much higher than that of argon at the same
temperature, especially below 10 000 K. To investigate
this, calculations were done with and without vaporization
and with a vapour that was assumed to have the properties
of argon; see Fig. 5.
The results make clear that the thermophysical properties
of the metal vapour cause the low plasma temperatures at
the centre of the arc. Subsequent calculations were done for
evaluation of the influence of each physical property of the
iron vapour, see Fig. 6.
The minimum in the radial temperature distribution can
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Front. Mater. Sci. 2011, 5(2): 98–108
Fig. 3 Diffusion coefficients of iron vapour in argon. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21], Copyright 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd.)
Fig. 4 Calculated values of the temperature (left), the Fe mass
fraction (right), and the flow (vectors) in a 250 A arc with a
vaporization rate of 1% relative to the 10 m/min wire feed rate.
(Reproduced with permission from Ref. [20], Copyright 2010
IOP Publishing Ltd.)
Fig. 5 Influence of the vaporization and the physical properties
of vapour on the radial temperature distribution at a position
1.5 mm above the workpiece (parameters as in Fig. 4)
M. SCHNICK et al. Numerical investigations of arc behaviour in GMAW using ANSYS CFX
103
Fig. 6 Influence of the physical properties of the vapour on the radial distributions of temperature, electric current density, axial velocity
and arc voltage drop above the workpiece (parameters as in Fig. 4).
only be found if the radiative properties (NEC) of the iron
vapour are used. The influence of the electric conductivity
is very small and causes just a minor decrease of the
electric current density in the arc core. In fact the electrical
conductivity of iron vapour is significantly larger that that
of argon only at lower temperatures. For temperatures
above 15 000 K, that of argon is larger.
The higher density of the iron vapour results in a higher
specific enthalpy and leads to a wider arc. The central
minimum in the radial temperature distribution is correlated with a minimum in the current density distribution.
The highest electric conductivity is located at the edge of
the metal-vapour-dominated arc core. This has been
predicted by Goecke [12], who measured the highest
charge density at the intersection of the metal vapour core
and the outer argon arc.
High vaporization rates lead to a higher arc voltage. This
is mainly caused by the higher radiative losses and the
higher specific enthalpy. Further, it seems that the arc
attachment at the wire is less constricted because of the
vaporization. However, the model does not allow predictions about the attachment mode and charge transfer at the
surfaces of the wire and the workpiece.
5
Influence of vaporization rate
The influence of the welding current (from 100 to 400 A)
on arc temperatures and flow field has been examined
previously. GMAW at a current of 400 A with argon is
characterized by the spray mode of droplet transfer; this
means that the wire melts so that its tip forms a cone of
liquid and a large number of small detaching droplets is
produced. Observations of a spray mode arc at these
parameters show a differently-shaped metal vapour
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Front. Mater. Sci. 2011, 5(2): 98–108
distribution in the arc core; the strongly-radiating metal
vapour region looks more like a cone than a cylinder.
Numerical analyses demonstrate that the shape of the
metal-vapour-dominated region is mainly affected by the
vaporization rate. The calculations presented above were
all done for vaporisation rates of 1% of wire feed.
However, vaporization rates of 5%–10% were measured
for GMAW of aluminium alloys and a rate of 5% was
measured for GMA brazing with copper filler [7].
Figure 7(a) shows the calculated metal vapour mass
fraction, arc temperature and flow vectors of 250 A arcs
depending on the vaporization rate relative to a wire feed
rate of 10 m/min. For a low vaporization rate of 0.1%, the
model predicts a narrow metal-vapour region as well as a
flow field and arc temperatures very similar to those found
in TIG arcs. The influence of the metal vapour is almost
negligible. Vaporization rates above about 3% cause a
dramatic change in the arc flow field and the metal vapour
distribution. As it can be seen in the results for the
vaporization rate of 5%, the region with the metal vapour
mass fraction above 0.5 (the red region) becomes conical.
A similar conical region of low temperature is formed.
The results indicate that the formation of the conical
metal vapour distribution is accompanied by a reversal of
the direction of plasma flow in the centre of the arc. In
contrast to all previous results, the central plasma flow is
directed axially from the workpiece towards the wire.
In the fringes of the arc the direction of flow is radially
inward and axially downward. This outer region is
characterized by the highest temperatures and a high flow
velocity. Especially in the upper arc region there are high
gradients of the metal vapour content between the iron
vapour and argon plasma regions.
Figure 7(b) shows the radial distributions of temperature,
current density and the axial flow velocity 1.5 mm above
the workpiece. The radial position of the maximum in
temperature and current density shifts radially outwards as
the vaporization rate increases. For vaporization rates
above about 2%, the current density in the arc core
vanishes because of the low temperature. In such cases, the
electric current flows through the high-temperature region
between the metal vapour and argon plasma regions.
An interesting property of the arc in the case of 5%
vaporization rate is that the velocity at radii less than 2 mm
is directed upwards. This behaviour is very unusual; it is
generally found, in both measurements and simulations,
that the flow velocity is downwards in free-burning arcs
such as those used in gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
and GMAW. Upwards flow can be obtained when the
attachment to the lower electrode is forced to be constricted
Fig. 7 Influence of the vaporization rate, relative to a wire feed rate of 10 m/min, in a 250 A arc using the 1 mm NECs of Menart and
Malik: (a) the temperature distribution and flow vectors (right) and metal vapour mass fraction distribution (left), images are scaled and
sized; (b) radial distributions of temperature, current density and downward velocity at a position of 1.5 mm above the workpiece).
M. SCHNICK et al. Numerical investigations of arc behaviour in GMAW using ANSYS CFX
[24]; however the attachment here is diffuse. We attribute
the flow reversal to the strong radiative cooling of the
central regions of the arc because of the high metal vapour
concentration. This decreases the electrical conductivity in
this region, so the current is forced to flow at higher radii.
The magnetic pinch force then drives the downward
plasma flow at these higher radii. Mass continuity then
leads to the upward plasma flow in the central regions.
6 Comparison with experimental results of
Zielińska et al.
We have mentioned three recent publications containing
results of arc temperature distributions in GMAW. The
results revealed in Refs. [11–12] are related to pulsed
GMAW processes and aluminium or copper wires. The
measurements of Zielińska et al. [13–14] are most relevant
to the calculations presented here, because they are for
spray-transfer mode GMAW, which can be approximated
by a steady-state calculation, and an iron wire was used.
The arc temperature measurements were performed for
rather academic welding parameters, with a much longer
arc than used industrially. A measured arc temperature
distribution was presented for spray-transfer mode GMAW
with an arc current of 330 A, a wire feed rate of 9 m/min
and argon as shielding gas. We obtained best agreement
with the measured radial temperature distributions using a
vaporization rate of 3% relative to the wire feed rate.
For the purposes of comparison of our numerical
predictions with the experimental results of spray-transfer
mode GMAW, the idealized wire tip shape and the
assumption of a flat workpiece without weld pool
105
depression are not longer suitable. Thus the geometrical
boundary conditions of the partially liquid wire were
determined using the high-speed video images also
presented by Zielińska et al. [14]. The shape of the
depressed weld pool can not be extracted from these
pictures, because it is obscured by the workpiece. We
assumed a weld pool depression with a depth of 2 mm and
a diameter of 7 mm. The presence of detached droplets
between wire and workpiece was neglected.
To allow a comparison between simulations and highspeed video images, the calculated distribution of the net
radiative emission for an axisymmetric plasma was used to
determine the intensity distribution of radiation from the
arc, viewed from side on. The axisymmetric calculation
gives the local radiation intensity rad(z, r) where z is the
vertical and r the radial position. The side-on view
radiation (as recorded by the camera) Rad(z, x), with
horizontal distance x from arc axis, was calculated by an
integral of the local radiation intensity over a line of sight
perpendicular to axial direction z, according to
x
Radðh, xÞ ¼ rad h,
$xð1 þ tan2 αÞdα
(5)
cosα
!
where α is the angle between the axial direction and the
radial direction to the integration point on the line of sight.
Figure 8 shows a high-speed video image [14] and the
calculated radiation intensity. The radiative contributions
of argon and metal vapour were calculated separately; the
metal vapour radiation contains mainly lines at wavelengths below 650 nm, and is scaled transparent-to-blue,
and the argon radiation contains mainly lines above 650 nm
and is scaled transparent-to-red.
The figure demonstrates good agreement, especially for
Fig. 8 Comparison of a high-speed video image (left) with reconstructions of calculated radiation intensity for spray-transfer mode
GMAW with arc current of 330 A; the middle figure shows the argon (scaled transparent to red) and iron vapour radiation (scaled
transparent to blue) separately; the right-hand figure shows them combined. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21], Copyright 2010
IOP Publishing Ltd.)
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Front. Mater. Sci. 2011, 5(2): 98–108
the shape of the metal vapour radiation. The highest metal
vapour and argon radiation intensities were calculated at
the edge of the conical arc core. There is a lower-intensity
region inside the metal vapour zone of the arc in both
measured and calculated figures; this is due to the much
lower temperatures in the lower central region of the arc.
The predicted extent of the argon radiative emission is
much smaller than in the measured image. This is expected,
since it has been shown that absorption and reemission of
radiation by the cool gas surrounding argon arcs leads to
radiative emission from regions up to 10 mm or more from
the arc core [25–26]. Such radiative transfer effects are of
course not taken into account in the NEC approach, and
therefore cannot be reproduced by the model.
The left-hand side of Fig. 9 [21] shows a quantitative
comparison between the measured and numericallypredicted radial temperature distributions at different
heights above the workpiece. The distributions of the
iron vapour content and temperature as well as the flow
velocity vectors are shown on the right-hand side. The
numerical predictions are in reasonable agreement with the
measurements (note that the temperature scale starts at
6000 K, which exaggerates the discrepancies). In particular, the radial positions at which the maximum temperatures occur agree closely. The discrepancies in temperature
are around 2000 K, with the calculated temperatures
generally exceeding the measured temperatures, especially
in the outer arc regions.
We emphasize that there are many uncertainties inherent
in the comparison. In particular, the rate of vaporization of
the wire, the distribution of the metal vapour source at the
edge of the wire, and the shape of the weld pool depression
are not known and are estimated values are used in the
model. Further, we have not taken into account the
influence of droplets falling through the arc. Nevertheless,
the reasonable agreement between the predictions and the
measurements suggests that the most important physical
processes are adequately taken into account in the model.
In particular, the flow reversal found for high vaporization
rates in Section 5 is again present. Our simulations indicate
that the conical region of high metal vapour concentration
in the arc centre is always associated with the flow reversal.
As discussed in Section 5, this is a consequence of the
strong radiative cooling in the central region of the arc, and
the consequent effects on the current density and flow
distributions. The fact that we are able to predict the
observed temperature profile and the radiative emission
distribution is evidence that the flow reversal is indeed
occurring.
7
Conclusions
An MHD model of the GMAW process has been used for
numerical studies of the influence of iron vapour on the arc
temperature and the current transfer. An iron vapour mass
source was defined at the lower side of the wire. The effects
of turbulent mixing, and laminar diffusion and demixing,
have been taken into account.
Fig. 9 Comparison between predicted and measured radial temperature distributions at different heights above the workpiece (left), and
calculated metal vapour mass fraction and temperature distributions and flow velocity vectors (right) of a spray-transfer mode GMAW
process for an arc current of 330 A. (Reproduced with permission from Ref. [21], Copyright 2010 IOP Publishing Ltd.)
M. SCHNICK et al. Numerical investigations of arc behaviour in GMAW using ANSYS CFX
The model predicts a central minimum in the radial
temperature distribution. The calculated temperature distributions are in accordance with measurements.
A high concentration of metal vapour is predicted in the
arc core, with a second accumulation in regions with
temperatures between 2000 and 5000 K. Between these
accumulation regions, the Fe mass fraction is very small.
The high concentration of iron vapour leads to the
decreased temperatures near the arc axis. The main
mechanism is the strong radioactive emission from the
iron vapour. The role of the higher electric conductivity of
metal vapour below temperatures of 15 000 K is found to
be much smaller than previously suggested.
The rate of vaporization of the wire has a strong
influence on the arc temperature and current density
distributions, affecting both the maximum and minimum
temperatures and the position of the minimum. The model
also predicts a significant influence on the arc flow field.
For high vaporization rates of 3%–5% or more relative to
the wire feed rate, a reversal of the plasma flow direction
for the inner arc region was predicted. Downward flow
occurs in the outer regions of the arc, and an upward flow
occurs in the central regions. Such a flow reversal has not
been previously observed in welding arcs. However, it
appears to be associated with a change in the shape of metal
vapour distribution; the shape of the central region with
high-metal vapour concentration was predicted to change
from cylindrical at low vaporization rates to conical at high
vaporization rates.
While there is no direct measurement of the flow
reversal, its existence has been given indirect support
through the comparison of our modelling results with the
arc temperature measurements and high-speed video
images of Zielińska et al. The images showed a conical
metal vapour region, in agreement with the predictions of
our model. Further, a good agreement was obtained with
the position of the off-centre temperature maximum and
reasonable agreement with the temperature values. These
results suggest that our simulations are taking into account
the main physical processes, and therefore that the
prediction of the inner flow reversal is realistic.
107
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