Nineteenth-Century Music Criticism Music, Criticism & Politics Ge ne ral e ditor Luca Lévi Sala Volume 3 Scholarly Committee Philip Bohlman (Chicago), Federico Celestini (Innsbruck), Michel Duchesneau (Montréal, QC), Christoph Flamm (Lübeck), Erik Levi (London), Karen Painter (Minneapolis, MN), Gemma Pérez Zalduondo (Granada) Publications of the Centro Studi Opera Omnia Luigi Boccherini Pubblicazioni del Centro Studi Opera Omnia Luigi Boccherini Publications du Centro Studi Opera Omnia Luigi Boccherini Veröffentlichungen des Centro Studi Opera Omnia Luigi Boccherini Publicaciones del Centro Studi Opera Omnia Luigi Boccherini Lucca Nineteenth-Century Music Criticism edited by Teresa Cascudo García-Villaraco F turnhout mmxvii © F  All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. D/2017/0095/177 ISBN 978-2-503-57497-4 Printed in Italy Contents Teresa Cascudo García-Villaraco Introduction ix Music Criticism / Music Journalism Katharine Ellis Music Criticism, Speech Acts and Generic Contracts 3 Guillaume Bordry Barnum et les Romains: Critique, claque et réclame dans les Soirées de l’orchestre d’Hector Berlioz 23 Sylvia Kahan A Critic’s Progress: Émile-Mathieu de Monter’s Musical Reporting of the Paris 1867 and 1878 Exposition Universelles for the Revue et Gazette musicale de Paris 33 Ingeborg Zechner London’s Italian Opera as a Topic of Interest to International Nineteenth-Century Music Criticism 59 Jeroen van Gessel Speaking for Whom? Using Opera Reviews from Strasbourg (1887-1918) to Clarify the Problematical Source Character of Music Criticism 77 José Ignacio Suárez García Graphic Humour as Musical Criticism: Cartoon and Caricature in the First Wagnerian Reception in Madrid 101 Mónica Vermes The Music in the Theatres of Rio de Janeiro (1890-1900): Concert Series, Music Criticism and Conlicting Cultural Projects in the Early Years of the Republic 133 Marita Fornaro Bordolli The Power of Music Criticism in the Shaping of Modern Uruguay: An Analysis of the Newspaper Montevideo Musical 159 Discourses Melanie Plesch The Cultural Biography of a Music Periodical: Boletín Musical (Buenos Aires, 1837) 183 Erin Fulton Nativist Rhetoric in the Opera Journalism of Antebellum New York City 207 Marc Ernesti 1813, Vienna, and a Re-print of the AMZ: Notes on Intertextuality in German Music Media around 1800 237 Nancy November The String Quartet in Early Nineteenth-Century Performance and Criticism 255 Maria Teresa Arfini Beethoven e Mendelssohn nel pensiero di Adolf Bernhard Marx 269 Renato Ricco «La musica non imita e non esprime che lo stesso sentimento in persona»: per una (mancata) teoria musicale leopardiana 281 Žarko Cveji� Fallen Angels of Music: Subjectivity in Early 19th-Century Philosophy and the Reception of Virtuosity in Contemporary Music Criticism 305 Michael B. Ward ‘Absolute’ Philosophy? Gender, Nationalism, and Jewishness in Eduard Hanslick’s Formalism 337 Teresa Cascudo García-Villaraco Manuel de Falla at War. On Race, Sound and New Music 355 Composers’ Voices R. J. Arnold «Les Plaisirs de l’Imagination Sont les Seuls Réels»: Grétry’s Writings and the Expansion of Critical Thought at the Beginning of the Nineteenth Century 379 Diau-Long Shen Composer-Critics and «Inimitable Creators»: E. T. A. Hoffman, W. A. Mozart, and the Genesis of German Romantic Opera 403 Anja Bunzel Critical Responses to Nineteenth-Century Music Criticism: Johanna Kinkel’s Trinklieder and Her Later Lieder Collections 421 Yaël Hêche Richard Wagner et La Reine de Chypre de Fromental Halévy (Paris, 1841): la critique musicale comme rélexion esthétique capitale 449 Rainer Kleinertz Richard Wagners offener Brief über Franz Liszts Symphonische Dichtungen (1857) und die Komposition von Tristan und Isolde 473 Biographies 495 Index of Names 499 Introduction 1. T he present volume is proof of the growing interest in music criticism observed in the ield of musicology. Used as a frequent source by music historians, it begins to be accepted as an object of musicological research in itself. Of course, this does not imply that it is a new one. Since the end of the 19th century, coinciding with what we might consider the birth of musicology as an academic discipline, there have been studies devoted to this subject. A brief literature review could give us an idea of the agenda that has dominated the way in which musicologists approach periodical press, and music criticism in particular. What follows is not intended in any way to be an exhaustive bibliographical review, even if it tries to point out and to illustrate with selected bibliographical references the main trends of current research in musical criticism: irstly, it means to help to better understand composers’ creative options and musical compositions; secondly, it intends to be used as a rhetorical example to follow in musicography; and, thirdly, the matter has been studied from an institutional point of view1. In the beginning of the 20th century, the critical texts of composers such as Carl Maria von Weber, Robert Schumann, Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner, among others, became an object of study. Scholar’s motivation to do so was mainly to deduce the aesthetic principles that guided composers’ work. For example, Paul Moos published Richard Wagner als Ästhetiker. Versuch einer kritischen Darstellung in 1906, and the critic Georg Felix Kaiser edited, in 1908, the writings of Weber, to whom he dedicated a study in 1910. These texts were printed by the publishing house Schuster & Loefler, owner of the important magazine Die Musik. Leon Plantinga’s book of Schumann’s critical activity, Schumann as Critic, published by Yale University Press in 1967, is better known for sure. It is signiicant that this study was greeted as a pioneer in the Anglo-Saxon context. Gerald Abraham, in fact, begins his review of the book in the Journal of the American Musicological Society with the following words: «How strange that Schumann should have been so long for a fulllenght scholarly examination of his critical writings»2. It is also signiicant that Plantinga 1 . I have excluded here the publications of a propaedeutic nature, from Charles Burney’s Essay on Musical Criticism (1789) to M. D. Calvocoressi’s Principles and Methods of Musical Criticism (1923), Alan Walker’s An Anatomy of Musical Criticism (1966) or Robert D. Schicks’ Classical Music Criticism (2013). 2 . Abraham 1968, p. 226. The question of the ‘value’ and ‘authority’ of musical criticism was developed through a traditional perspective in Cone 1981. Introduction himself, as emphasized by Abraham in the quoted review, justiied his study by defending the «intrinsic value» of his object, the seriousness and detail of Schumann’s criticism, as well as the undeniable competence that he had as a critic. Of course, Schumann was, above all, a composer. That is, his criticism was considered a further form of expression of his creative personality. However, in invoking the «intrinsic value of his criticism», Plantinga justiies to some extent the relevance of what was presented as a new ield of study. This recognition of some sort of «intrinsic value» to criticism had also justiied previous studies of highly inluential critics, which constitute the second of the tendencies listed above. This is the case, for example, of Eduard Hanslick and George Bernard Shaw. Regarding the latter, in 1946, William Irvine, professor of literature at Stanford, published in The Musical Quarterly one of the earliest studies on him. Irvine founded his relevance on the «literary» quality of his articles that trascended the limits of a genre, musical criticism, «by its nature, ephemeral»3. Some decades before Irvine’s article, Hanslick’s critical activity, aside from the studies devoted to his famous essay On the Beautiful in Music, was analysed in 1885 by Robert Hirschfeld, who wrote Das kritische Verfahren Eduard Hanslicks, calling attention to, so to speak, the double educational and journalistic personality of the Austrian critic, who had been his professor at the University of Vienna4. Academic research began to pay attention to Hanslick’s works as a critic later. For example, Vito Levi published in 1973 the article ‘Le recensioni wagneriane di Hanslick sulla Neue freie Presse’5. This article emerged in strict contemporaneousness with the diffusion of reception studies, whose relation with the use of periodical sources is a subject to which I will refer later. Regarding my third point, it has to be stated that the history of the institutionalization of musical criticism is inseparable from the study of the newspapers that disseminates it. The latter have been an object for musicology since the end of the 19th century, both in the perspective that gives the history of the musical press in a particular country and with the purpose of providing detailed study of singular periodical sources. Ferdinand Kromer defended in 1897, in Leipzig, the doctoral dissertation Die Anfänge des musikalischen Journalismus in Deutschland. A couple of decades later, the Revue de Musicologie published a irst approach to the French case, authored by Jacques-Gabriel Prod’homme, who was a translator of Wagner and specialist in Hector Berlioz6. Subsequently, many publications with a similar orientation would appear, mixing history and bibliography, dedicated to the musical press written in other languages or, in more recent times, to speciic newspapers. The foundation in 1980 of the project called Retrospective Index to Music Periodicals (RIMP) was a milestone. It focuses on music and musical life from approximately 1800 to 3 . Irvine 1946, p. 319. . Hirschfeld 1885. 5 . Levi 1973. 6 . Prod’homme 1918. 4 x Introduction 1950 and was explicitly established «to facilitate and encourage research based on this often neglected documentary source», that is, musical periodicals7. Needless to say, Katharine Ellis, collaborator in this volume, is one of the authors who contributed decisively to the transformation of this line through a cultural approach with her book on the Revue et Gazette musicale, published in 19958. 2. Traditional musicological methods, as summarized above, gave a more or less adequate answer to the issues involved in the study and analysis of historical change: the study of music criticism has been molded by them. The transformation of musicology in the 1970s and the 1980s had as a main concern the categories of ‘composer’ and ‘musical work’, so, consequently, it did not contemplate, of course, the issue of what to do with musical journalism as an autonomous issue. I would say that musicologists at the time dealt with the considerable challenge of deciding what to do to recover from the crisis that the discipline faced hitherto, deined by the lost of the centrality of a concept of ‘music’ grounded on the notion of the autonomy of art. The so-called reception theory set by Hans Robert Jauss at the end of the 1960s and widespread in its historiographical version over the next decade contributed substantially to the loss of that centrality. In fact, the debate generated in Germany when its inluence began to grow, by 1980, was largely related to this issue. On the one hand, one of the irst musicologists who relected on the impact of this new approach, Friedrich Krummacher, immediately observed that since the 19th century, musicology had attended several empirical aspects associated with reception9. As Michela Garda summed it up, for musicology — which from the beginning had dealt with the problem of the fugacity of musical performance and with the character, so to speak, incomplete of its supports and, in particular, of musical notation — the study of documents that could testimony music’s effect was completely accepted10. On the other hand however, the new dimension given to the study of reception, which in turn became itself an object of study, aroused the fear of succumbing to the threat of relativism, which 7 . Cohen [s.d.]. Also the CIRPEM (Centro Internazionale di Ricerca sui Periodici Musicali) was founded in Italy in the 1980’s. There is still room for databases with speciic indexing engines. For instance, Antonella d’Ovidio and Elena Oliva (Università di Firenze) presented at the conference out of which this volume originated a preliminary result from the research project ‘ArtMus. Articoli musicali nei quotidiani iorentini dell’Ottocento: una banca dati’, coordinated by Mila De Santis. It was preceded by two other projects, coordinated at the same university by Fiamma Nicolodi: ‘BaDaCrim. Banca dati della critica musicale Italiana 1900-1970’ and ‘Permusica. Periodici musicali del Novecento 1900-1970’ (<http://www.permusica.eu/>). 8 . Ellis 1995. 9 . Krummacher 1979-1980, p. 154. 10 . Garda 1989. xi Introduction above all concerned, «the stability of the work as text», using Jim Samson’s words11, despite the paradox provoked by the categories of composer and work being the starting points of the research projects that were placed in this ield12. I cannot pursue this matter any further here13, but I would like to stress the new relevance then attained by press sources since they documented a particular kind of reception mediated by the verbal language. Two important questions arose from this new relevance. The irst one was the problem of how to overcome the temptation of confusing the work of the historian of the reception with that of the experts in documentation; the latter being limited to inventorying, chronological ordering and describing the journalistic occurrences of a certain author or a certain work. This limitation was underlined by the already mentioned author Michela Garda in 1989, when she discussed the undoubtedly monumental research developed by Susanne Großmann-Vendrey around the reception of the Bayreuth Festival in the German press14. The problem has been largely overcome. I would like to cite as an example of a solution to this problem the research made by Esteban Buch on the reception of the work of Arnold Schoenberg by the Viennese music journalists during the irst decade of the 20th century, published in 200515. Documented on a corpus of about ive thousand critiques, his purpose is to historicize the controversy that marked this reception, also integrating what we could consider the composer’s responses, including his own music. From the methodological point of view, the most relevant aspect of Buch’s text is that the newspaper sources are the centre of his research. The second issue was that of the speciicity of press sources that include, of course, musical criticism, but also any journalistic genre reporting on musical agents, compositions, objects or events. Sandra McColl, for instance, paid attention to all aspects of music journalism in her book on music criticism in Vienna. For doing it, she focused on a single season and on a particular journalistic genre: the feuilleton16. I would like to underline its dual nature as a text, being at the same time literary and mediatic. Moreover, in the 19th century, musicians became a particular type of celebrity from the moment that they became subjected to the attention of the media17. The relevance, for 11 . Samson 2017. . Or, in Carl Dahlhaus’ words: «Denn Rezeptionsgeschichte gerät, sobald sie versucht, vom bloßen Sammeln verstreuter Zeugnisse zur Rekonstruktion einer Bewußtseinsgeschichte überzugehen, in das Dilemma, daß der Werkbegriff, der einerseits als Ausgangs- und Orientierungspunkt unentbehrlich erscheint, andererseits dadurch gefährdet ist, daß sich die «Identität» des Werkes in eine unabsehbare Menge wechselnder Reproduktionen und Rezeptionen, denen der Notentext und das den Notentext realisierende tönende Faktum unterworfen sind, aulöst». Dahlhaus 1981, p. 139. 13 . See, for further reference, Borio – Garda 1989; Danuser – Krummacher 1991; Everist 1999. 14 . Garda 1989, p. 6. She refers to Grossmann-Vendrey 1977-1983. 15 . Buch 2006. 16 . McColl 1996. 17 . See, for instance, Gooley 2010. 12 xii Introduction example, of such works as Emmanuel Reibel’s L’écriture de la critique musicale au temps de Berlioz (2005) or Nicholas Vazsonyi’s Richard Wagner: Self-Promotion and the Making of a Brand (2010) becomes fully intelligible only when this double question is pointed out18. It will not be coincidental that both investigations have arisen in the ield of projects or departments devoted to literary studies. In the meantime, putting it very briely, the agenda of historical research shifted from the traditional tenets of historical objectivity to the idea that the past does not exist outside our textual representations of it. Beyond the controversy, and also besides the context explaining the conditions of its emergence, the label ‘linguistic turn’ implies a claim made by historians over the concept of discourse as an historiographical category19. Associated with this concept of discourse, we ind, of course, the discipline known as discourse analysis, also an ambiguous term. We could deine it as the discipline that aims to study the use of language in a contextualized way. In its widest deinition, therefore, the use of discourse as a theoretical and historiographical category removes disciplinary limitations and, in some ways, also removes the ontological foundations of musicological knowledge. It involves the disintegration — utopian or dystopian disintegration, depending on the point of view — of the disciplinary identity of historical musicology, which would jeopardize, not only the object, but also the academic identity of the individuals. The approach to discourse analysis has been developed in different areas, from linguistics to neurology, and also in social sciences. There is an obvious dificulty derived from this, which is to choose references that are, in addition to being solid within their original context, adequate to deal with newspaper sources by integrating the concerns of the historical method. For instance, I have personally found Norman Fairclough’s theory very useful20. For him, the category of discourse includes semiotic practices based both on verbal and non-verbal communication. Furthermore, he thinks of them as social practices as well. This bears two relevant notions: irstly that any discourse is a mode of action and secondly that it is always a historical mode of action, since it is situated in a dialectical relationship with other aspects of the social context in which it takes place. In Fairclough’s view, discourse is «socially constituted» and «constituted socially». This dual role is conirmed by verifying that discourse is always constitutive of social identities, social relationships and systems of knowledge and belief with the main goal of critical discourse analysis being to investigate how such practices, relationships and processes emerge and are shaped by power relations and struggles for power. Key-concepts in Fairclough’s theory are the concept of ‘hegemony’ and, on the other, of ‘interdiscursivity’. It should also be noted that Fairclough includes in his theory two additional elements. The irst is that the relationship between discourse and other aspects of the social realm is not a trans-historical 18 . Reibel 2005; Vazsonyi 2010. . Clark 2004. 20 . Fairclough 2003. 19 xiii Introduction constant, but a historical variable. The second element is that he supports the possibility of detecting changes between different historical periods through discursive practices that stand out or have a particular impact. This is one of the main reasons why I think that his theory is particularly useful for historians of music. There is very recent research in which the application of critical discourse analysis and pragmatics are used systematically in the study of newspaper sources. It is the case of the doctoral thesis of Ruth Rivera on the ‘scenic fact’ in the press published in the late 19th century in the Castillian city of Valladolid21. Nonetheless, it is much more common to ind an eclectic approach that includes several methods, namely rhetorical and argumentative analysis, traditional textual commentary and close reading and what we may call a simpliied ethnography22. An interpretation based on soft concepts, such as discourse, does not seem to be incompatible with accuracy. As a matter of fact, I personally stand for an inevitable eclecticism in intellectual history, where I put this kind of research into the relationship between music and press. I agree with Warren Breckman, when he afirms that eclecticism is A prerequisite to the ideal of interdisciplinary conversation in the humanities. Intellectual history takes its important place [in that conversation] not because it is intrinsically interdisciplinary, but because, as a rendezvous discipline, at the intersection of weak interdisciplinarity and weak disciplinarity, it is the eclectic discipline par excellence23. At this point, it seems appropriate to address the question of the plurality of meanings of the term criticism. It is a commonplace the ambivalent distinction between at least three different types of musical criticism in the 19th century: one of a speculative and aesthetic character, which has philosophy as a model; another philological and historiographic criticism; and a commercial one, published in newspapers destined to the mass of music lovers (or consumers). Musicology has considered above all the writings susceptible of being able to it in the irst two types mentioned. An example of this, among others we could argue, is the corpus used for the electronic music lexicon developed in Italy by a team of researchers coordinated by Fiamma Nicolodi and Paolo Trovato24. I would like to add another example: Martin Kaltenecker’s book on the discourses of musical listening and sound that, on one side, is based on the same kind of corpus and, on other side, illustrates the possibility of combining discourse analysis and reception theory25. More recently, attention has also been paid to the third type of musical criticism, adopting a point of 21 . Rivera Martínez 2016. . See, for instance, the articles collected in Cascudo – Palacios 2012 and Cascudo – Gan 2014. 23 . Breckman 2014, p. 290. Regarding the interdisciplinary agenda, see Newell 2001. 24 . Nicolodi – Trovato 2007. This is not, of course, a recent perspective. See, for instance and for reference, regarding the Italian academic tradition, Parente 1933. 25 . Kaltenecker 2011. See also Kaltnecker 2016. 22 xiv Introduction view which implies that the sources it understands, and to some extent also those that comprise the ‘more’ philosophical or philological criticism, refer to music to a lesser extent than, a priori, one might expect26. The aim of studying music ideas in music criticism is now also intended to respond to the challenge of a second objective, which is to discern other types of cultural and social relations, in particular power relations, represented in the elements that take part of the public discourse of musical criticism, which is also considered within the media universe to which it belongs. This contextual perspective is typical of historiographical currents such as the cultural history and the intellectual history, which, insofar as history tout court and musicology have been approached, have opened up the possibility of new themes and approaches in the study of music27. For intellectual history, the study of the connections that result in cultural transfers has a particular relevance. Cultural transfer studies, following one of its major theorists, Michel Espagne, are the result of complex interactions between multiple poles or linguistic areas and it proposes a transnational history of symbolic goods and their producers, content and reception28. It solves what constitutes, in my view, a major problem: the implicit bias of structural and methodological nationalism. It also proposes new categories, different from ‘author’, ‘work’ and ‘period’, and new objects of study mainly, cities and mediators. Needless to say, the press is an urban and mediating phenomenon par excellence, and so we are justiied to study musical criticism taking it into consideration. It is not, of course, a recent approach. It emerged in the 1980s in the ield of research into cultural exchanges between France and Germany. One of its premises is that the passage of a cultural object from one context to another implies necessarily a resigniication. Any transfer, therefore, is a metamorphosis. Jin-Ah Kim is the author of one of the few essays in which we ind a relection about cultural transfer from musicology. She underlines one of its most evident results: that it nulliies the interest «in the original and the inluence, in reconstructing the relationship in terms of cause and effect»29. Cultural transfer goes then hand in hand with a type of contextualism that, as Peter E. Gordon explains, is placed against the «premise of origin». According to this author, such a premise is deined as: «the best account of what [any] idea, theme or ideology actually means can only be grasped if one restores that idea to the horizons of its original articulation», considered as «authoritative over and against all later manifestations or deployments»30. As I see it, it could help to avoid simplistic approaches to the study of cultural localizations considered only in their peripheral context. 26 . See, for instance, Korstvedt 2011. . Regarding the ‘cultural turn’ in musicology see, among others, Subotnik 1983, Tomlinson 1984, Weber 1993, Chimènes 1998. See also Maniates 1982 and 1983. See also Kerman 1985. In this article, putting it simply, intellectual history is considered as a part and a complement of the project of cultural history that deals mainly with «intellectuals, ideas, and intellectual patterns over time» (Gordon 2007, 1). 28 . Espagne – Werner 1983. See also Wendland 2012 and Wilfert-Portal 2013. 29 . Kim 2015, 48; see also Kim 2014. For an application in musicology, see Fauser 2009. 30 . Gordon 2013, p. 27. 27 xv Introduction I would like to mention briely one inal issue, before introducing the essays contained here. The massive digitization of historical newspapers, including musical periodicals. It has fundamentally changed the conditions of accessibility and searchability of these sources. Sooner or later it will consistently inluence the musicological agenda. What Franco Moretti called in 2000 «distant reading» is a practice that could be easily transferred into musicology, namely, but not limited to the discursive study of musical criticism31. The possibility to mine large databases of searchable text through pattern recognition is a current reality that will also transform the way in which we use newspapers as a source for music history research32. 3. The twenty-two articles collected in this volume constitute a state of the art of the themes and approaches that are currently given in the ield of musicology regarding musical criticism, in a period of study that coincides with what has been agreed to be called the long 19th century. The articles cover a period of time extending from the Mémoires of André-Ernest-Modeste Grétry (1741-1813) to the journalistic articles that Manuel de Falla (1876-1946) wrote in Madrid during the World War i. They use sources ranging from the pioneering Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung to the modern mass press, fully consolidated at the turn of the century. The volume also illustrates the persistence of some themes and approaches present in the academic production of the past and proposes answers to questions that have been previously exposed. It contains a variety of methods and perspectives that reveal their origin: the international conference entitled ‘Nineteenth Century Music Criticism’, organized by the Centro Studi Opera Omnia Luigi Boccherini and Palazzetto Bru Zane – Centre de la musique romantique française in Lucca in 2015. However, this variety is also one of its main attractives, to the extent in which traditional themes are treated on new points of view in the essays that follow. The inclusion of papers that focus on regional press is another of its relevant aspects. The articles are organised in the three sections in which the book is divided. The irst one adopts the perspective of the relations between musical criticism and musical journalism. At the moment, it is evident that it is necessary to approach the study of the 31 . Moretti 2000. . Projects on digital humanities and also on digital musicology are now present in several universities. For instance, one of the subprojects of the research program ‘Creative Amsterdam: An E-Humanities Perspective’ includes the work on a database of the 19th century music journal Caecilia through the use of digital research tools. Thomas Delpeut presented at the conference out of which this book originated the paper ‘Semantic Pallets of Music Criticism: Digitally Exploring Vocabulary and Canonisation in Dutch Concert Reviews in Caecilia (1844-1900)’, a preliminary result from this research program. 32 xvi Introduction musical critic taking into account its mainly journalistic and mediate character. It is not, however, a point of view generally accepted. Quite on the contrary, it is quite common to consult research works based on press sources that seem to use them as if they were transparent, that is, like documents that provide an ‘objective’ reading of the past. Katharine Ellis, currently an authority reference in the study of music criticism33, opens the volume with an essay that combines a solid theoretical discussion with the study of speciic cases directly related to what constitutes her main ield of specialization: the French press of the 19th century. She takes the challenge of combining techniques from literary studies, history and musicology to accomplish a global reading of the press sources. The remaining articles included in this irst section are examples of the unavoidable interaction between the writing of musical criticism and the conditions of production typical of the press, which is in turn an integral part of a much broader productive system that articulated urban musical life in Europe and America during the period addressed, which has been rightly regarded as the «civilization of the newspaper»34. Thus, Guillaume Bordry introduces the thorny question of the dependence that any musical activity had on advertising, pushed to the extreme by the claque. He uses writings, of journalistic origin, in which Hector Berlioz addressed the subject. Ingeborg Zechner’s study is an example of how overcoming the borders of different nation-states by adopting a transnational approach to analyze how music criticism played a fundamental role in the formation of a global business space anchored on the opera. From a perspective that works in a complementary way, Jeroen van Gessel shows the role that the local criticism tried to assume, in this case, the one published in Strasbourg between 1887 and 1928, in interaction with the city’s opera house and, ultimately, with the town hall, to which its management corresponded. As Van Gessel shows us in this article, based on a previous research devoted to the history of this theatre, the institutionalized critical discourse as it is published in the press becomes only fully intelligible within its own coordinates. Its elusive power depends in fact on this consistency. José Ignacio Suárez shows how, ultimately, humour contributed to the construction of the celebrity of Wagner in the Spanish context, which was not exempted from an obvious dose of criticism. Finally, this section closes with two articles dedicated to the press in São Paulo and Montevideo respectively. In the irst one, Mónica Vermes shows the extent to which the newspaper could be considered as a representation of the musical dimension of the city itself, while Marita Fornaro Bordolli takes care of the newspaper Montevideo Musical, stressing the potentiality of including this type of source studies in a broader approach of the new intellectual history, but without forgetting the questions related to the impositions of the productive system which I have previously referred. The second part of the volume, entitled ‘Discourses’, begins with an essay by Melanie Plesch, which questions the way in which musicology has approached the study of music 33 34 . See, among other recent publications, Ellis 2012, 2013. . Kalifa ET AL. 2011. xvii Introduction newspapers. It thus enters into a dialogue with the foregoing, authored by Fornaro Bordolli, introducing a remarkable theoretical dimension in the discussion of another newspaper from the South American cone: the Boletín Musical, published in Buenos Aires in 1837. Plesch considers this newspaper as an «object» and outlines its «cultural biography». The remaining articles in this section study more or less classical themes, such as the quartet genre, virtuosity or the relations between music and nationalism, but they also show that new readings are still possible. Marc Ernesti, in his article, aptly uses the term «philological microscope», a tool used to a greater or lesser extent by all authors of this volume, but very particularly by those who have been included in this second part. On the one hand, nationalism and the processes of constructing modern identities in some of their very varied discursive formations is a problem that ends up being present in the papers by Erin Fulton, the aforementioned Marc Ernesti, Michael Ward, Sylvia Kahan and Teresa Cascudo. On the other hand, Nancy November, Maria Teresa Arini, Renato Ricco and Žarko Cveji� present a collection of studies that could be conceptually linked to the emergence of a new type of subjectivity that was founded in the bourgeois-capitalist order. As Cveji� explains in his article through Andrew Bowie’s thesis, instrumental music came to symbolise the autonomous subject and its own interiority35. The philosophical ideas of F. W. J. Schelling in particular opened up the possibility for art to be considered as a form of communication and for artists to become the makers of the unity between internal and external worlds in their works of art36. Then, after 1848, the premise that music, more than any other art, could articulate an inner and private experience with a collective dimension became consensual37. Those ideas, popularised through the press, contributed to the deinition of a powerful discourse, that gave some relief to the particular 19th century «feeling of living in a revolutionary age»38. They also contributed to the consolidation of modern groupal identities. Migrations, imperialism and globalization imposed in the 19th century the contact between different groups with an unprecedent intensity. Both the city and the national State became the territories where they conlicted against each other. In the articles included in this part, we could see the press, and therefore musical criticism, as a meaningful representation of those struggles. The third section, entitled ‘Composer’s voices’, conirms the survival of a traditional subject in the study of musical criticism, but under new perspectives39. In fact, it might seem that Falla’s voice is «heard» in the previous section, but, there, the purpose is to show how his statements contributed to consolidate a discourse in consistence with the political 35 . Bowie 2007. . For a recent reappraisal to Schelling’s ideas applied to musical analysis and, in addition, to musical criticism, see Godin 2013. 37 . Cfr. Bonds 2014. 38 . Berman 1982, p. 17. 39 . For a recent approach, see Duchesneau ET AL. 2013. 36 xviii Introduction situation in Spain. Moreover, we could even consider that, more than personal statements, they were idées reçues. In contrast, the last section of the book deals with the question of how music criticism could intertwine with creative processes. R. J. Arnold explores the writings of André-Ernest-Modest Grétry, one of the earliest professional musicians that intent on bringing the problems of musical composition to the attention of a broad and not musically illustrated audience. As Arnold himself points out in his study, Grétry’s attitude was afterwards common to musical criticism as it was developed in 19th century press. Mention should be made of Diau-Long Shen’s contribution to Mozartian studies and to the history of opera in Germany during the irst half of the 19th century. Shen makes us listen to the voice of a composer, Mozart, through a critic-composer, E. T. A. Hoffmann, who, in his reviews about Mozart’s operas, gave important clues to understand how he used them as explicit models in his own compositions, while claiming that legacy as a constituent part of the new operatic genre needed in the process of building a German cultural identity. Anja Bunzel’s article, adopting the perspective of gender studies, shows the extent to which sexist expectations and prejudices could condition musical criticism40. She details how the German composer, writer, music pedagogue and musician Johanna Kinkel (1810-1858) responded musically to these stereotypes, poured into the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik about her irst songs. Finally, Yaël Hêche and Rainer Kleinertz, for their part, return to Wagner’s writings. They respectively examine Wagner’s critical responses to Fromental Halévy’s La Reine de Chypre in 1842 and to Franz Liszt’s symphonic poems in 1857. In both cases, Wagner foresaw through words capital changes that were exhibited later in his music. *** Finally, I would like to thank Luca Lévi Sala, General editor of this series, and all the collaborators for their excellent work. I should also thank all who attended and participated in the conference out of which this book originated for the exchange of ideas and debate during those days. I would like to extend my gratitude to the Centro Studi Opera Omnia Luigi Boccherini and to the Palazzetto Bru Zane – Centre de la musique romantique française for the very professional, but still friendly and warm, organisation of the event. Teresa Cascudo García-Villaraco Universidad de la Rioja 40 . See also Ellis 1997. xix Introduction Bibliography Berman 1982 Berman, Marshall. All That Is Solid Melts into Air: The Experience of Modernity, New York, Verso, 1982. Bonds 2014 Bonds, Mark Evan. Absolute Music: The History of an Idea, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2014. Borio – Garda 1989 L’esperienza musicale. Teoria e storia della ricezione, edited by Gianmario Borio and Michela Garda, Turin, EdT/Musica, 1989 (Biblioteca di cultura musicale. Documenti). Bowie 2007 Bowie, Andrew. Music, Philosophy, and Modernity, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2007. 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