720787
ASW0010.1177/1178622117720787Air, Soil and Water ResearchGupta et al
research-article2017
Air Pollution From Bleaching and Dyeing Industries
Creating Severe Health Hazards in Maheshtala Textile
Cluster, West Bengal, India
Air, Soil and Water Research
Volume 10: 1–10
© The Author(s) 2017
Reprints and permissions:
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DOI: 10.1177/1178622117720787
https://doi.org/10.1177/1178622117720787
Biman Gati Gupta1, Jayanta Kumar Biswas1 and Krishna M Agrawal2
1Department of Ecological Studies and International Centre for Ecological Engineering, University
of Kalyani, Kalyani, India. 2Department of Environment Management, Indian Institute of Social
Welfare & Business Management, Kolkata, India.
ABSTRACT: Hazardous bleaching and dyeing units are rapidly increasing in developing countries due to growing global demand of textile
products. The aim of the study is to assess long-term respiratory effect of air pollution generated from textile bleaching and dyeing industries
on the residents living in such industrial setting. Such types of long-term (2012-2016) studies have been conducted first time in this area. The
control area of Chatta and Kalikapur under Maheshtala textile cluster (10.45°N latitude to 75.90°E longitude) has been identified for the study.
Ambient air monitoring with particulate matters (PMs; PM2.5 and PM10), NO2, and SO2 of 72 air samples has been done with air sampler machine
during different seasons. The concentrations of PM2.5 and PM10 have been found higher than Central Pollution Control Board (India) and World
Health Organization norms. Using data on 73 respondents on age, education, occupation, and income, impact on different causes of respiratory
ailments has been examined. The survey shows that 67% of total population are having different respiratory complaints. The regression analysis
(R2 = 0.9998) and correlation matrix show that cold, cough, bronchitis, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) have a
strongly significant positive correlation with fever (r = 0.98, P < 0.05); breathing trouble has a significant strong positive correlation with cold,
cough, bronchitis, asthma, COPD, and fever (r = 0.877, P < 0.05); high blood pressure has a negative correlation with cold and fever (r = −0.655,
P < 0.05); cardiovascular problem has a strong positive correlation with high blood pressure (r = 0.989, P < 0.05) and strong negative correlation
with cold, cough, asthma, bronchitis, and cold-related fever (r = −0.54, P < 0.05) due to PM2.5 and PM10 concentration. About 56% of villagers
who have opted for this occupation have school-level education (class I-IV) with annual income of Rs 60 000 ($870) only. Studies express
present scenario of air pollution in the subject area which is still unnoticed and propose to take control of air pollution.
KEYWORDS: bleaching and dyeing, air pollutants, PM 2.5, PM10, health hazards
RECEIVED: December 10, 2016. ACCEPTED: April 9, 2017.
PEER REVIEW: Six peer reviewers contributed to the peer review report. Reviewers’
reports totaled 940 words, excluding any conidential comments to the academic editor.
TYPE: Original Research
FUNDING: The author(s) received no inancial support for the research, authorship, and/or
publication of this article.
DECLARATION OF CONFLICTING INTERESTS: The author(s) declared no potential
conlicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR: Jayanta Kumar Biswas, Department of Ecological Studies
and International Centre for Ecological Engineering, University of Kalyani, Kalyani 741235,
West Bengal, India. Email: biswajoy2000@yahoo.com
Introduction
Bleaching and dyeing units (800 units, located in the
Maheshtala textile cluster, West Bengal, India) discharge
toxic effluents without any treatment to canal, pond, and
nearby agricultural land due to absence of common effluent
treatment plant. They treat it neither totally nor partially in
their own premises to reduce cost of production in Maheshtala
cluster. Untreated toxic effluent is characterized by high pH,
turbidity, bad odor, total dissolved solids (TDS), total suspended solids (TSS), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
chemical oxygen demand (COD), chloride, nitrate, sulfuric
acid, heavy metals, and low dissolved oxygen (DO), and it
contaminates surface water, degrades soil, pollutes air by
nitrogen and sulfur dioxides, and contaminates recipient
water bodies.1–3
Furthermore, textile units produce atmospheric emissions
during their various processes. Gaseous emissions have been
identified as the second most important pollution problem
(after wastewater) from the textile industry. Speculation concerning the amounts and types of air pollutants emitted from
bleaching and dyeing operations has been widespread, but
generally, air emission data from textile manufacturing operations are not readily available. Air emissions include dust, oil
mists, acid vapors, bad odors, and boiler exhausts. Cleaning
and production changes result in sludge from tanks and spent
process chemicals, which may contain toxic organics and
metals. Again, air emission results from combustion of diesel
from two major sources: point source boilers, ovens, and
storage tanks, and diffusive source solvent based, wastewater
treatment, warehouses, and spills.4
The contamination of air affects the surrounding area both
directly and indirectly.4,5 Diesel engines and generators contribute to the problem by releasing PMs directly into the air
and also emitting SO2 and NO2, which transform into secondary particulates in the atmosphere.6 Particulate matters, PM2.5
and PM10, are generated during the incomplete combustion of
diesel. Diesel exhaust is a group I carcinogen, which causes respiratory trouble. It contains several substances that are also
listed individually as human carcinogens by the International
Agency for Research on Cancer.
The aim of the study is (1) to assess health condition of the
residents due to air pollution with particular reference to respiratory system such as cold, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), breathing trouble, fever, high blood
pressure, and cardiovascular problem and (2) to make a survey
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Air, Soil and Water Research
2
Figure 1. Map showing the Kalikapur area with location for air sampling stations.
of the locality adjoining to the bleaching and dyeing cluster
in the control area of Chatta and Kalikapur in terms of age,
education, income, occupation, and impact on health. The
findings of this study will help future researchers to know
the type of diseases prevailing in bleaching and dyeing cluster
and to organize further epidemiological studies particularly
with respect to air pollution.
Study Area
Maheshtala (44.77 km2) is an urban area with its administrative headquarters at Alipore of South 24 Parganas district of
West Bengal and lies between 10.45°N latitude and 75.90°E
longitude. Chatta canal running through Chatta and Kalikapur
(1.85 km2) and most of the new bleaching and dyeing units
operating in this area have been selected for the extensive
study (2012-2016) on environmental management and ecoplanning. Canal receives maximum effluent from bleaching
and dyeing units from these areas. Apart from that the canal
also receives sewage and household wastewater from different
inter-connecting drains of the neighborhood. The water
carrying capacity of Chatta canal (cross section and depth)
is reducing over the years due to improper cleaning and siltation. Three monitoring points (stations A, B, and C) have
been selected along the stretch of Chatta to Kalikapur (500 m
apart) for collection of air samples. Samples have been collected in summer, monsoon, and winter seasons. The maps of
Chatta canal covering study area, West Bengal, and South 24
Parganas along with the location of Maheshtala are shown in
Figure 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
The climate of the area comprises temperature (13.6-40°C),
annual rainfall (1760-1800 mm), and relative humidity (4788%) as per district climate section, Meteorological Department,
Government of India (GOI).
Materials and Methods
Collection of samples
Air samples have been collected at three monitoring stations
(A, B, and C) along the canal stretch 500 m apart from each
other during summer, premonsoon and post-monsoon seasons
(2012–2013). The designated station A is at Chatta (latitude:
Figure 2. Map of West Bengal.
22.49°N and longitude: 88.24°E) and it indicates the point of
direct discharge of raw effluent into the canal from bleaching
and dyeing units and characterized by thickly populated area;
station B is at Kalikapur and is a point of normal flowing area
of canal, concentration of units, and inhabited by population;
and station C is the near main road of the study area, Chatta.
Methodology
Air samples have been taken by air sampler machine APM 460
DXNL Dust Monitoring Equipment (Envirotech Instruments,
New Delhi, India) installed at specific sites. The samples are
taken in 2 different formats: one for 8 hours (8.00 am to
16.00 pm) and the other for 24 hours (8.00 am to 8.00 am).
The sampler machine specifies automatic flow controller
with electronic feedback for constant sampling rate throughout
the sampling period. Flow control is set for free flow with flow
stabilization disabled at >1.1 m3/min and at 1.0 m3/min with
filter paper installed and flow controller enabled. Samples of 3
filters (in 24 hours) are carried to the laboratory (R. V. Briggs
& Co. Pvt. Ltd, National Accreditation Board for Testing and
Gupta et al
3
Figure 3. Map of South 24 Parganas and Mahestala.
Calibration Laboratories [NABL] accredited, India) for analysis using the standard method for quantifying PM. Total suspended PM comprises particles above 10 μm (nonrespirable
PM) and particles below 10 μm (respirable PM). Owing to its
modular design, APM 460 DXNL can be easily paired with a
gaseous sampling attachment (for monitoring SO2, NO2, NH3,
ozone, etc) as gaseous sampling requires only a few liquid PM
of air flow over a period of 8 hours by sucking a known quantity of air through glass fiber filters. The mass of concentration
of SPM is calculated by measuring the weight of collected
matter in known volume of air sampled. The method of measurement of PM2.5, PM10, SO2, and NO2 along with concentration of ambient air in different places against time-weighted
average is shown in Table 1.
Sulfur dioxide from air is immersed in a solution of potassium tetrachloromercurate. A dichloro-sulfito mercurate complex is formed which repels oxidation by the oxygen in the air;
once formed, this complex is unchanging to strong oxidants
such as ozone and oxides of nitrogen, and therefore, the
absorber solution may be kept for some time prior to analysis.
The complex is made to react with pararosaniline and formaldehyde to form the intensely colored pararosaniline methylsulfonic acid. The absorbance of the solution is measured by
means of a suitable spectrophotometer following modified
West and Gaeke Method.
Ambient nitrogen dioxide (NO2) is collected by bubbling
air through a solution of sodium hydroxide and sodium arsenite. The concentration of nitrite ion (NO2−) produced during
sampling is determined colorimetrically by reacting the nitrite
ion with phosphoric acid, sulfanilamide, and N-(1-naphthyl)
ethylenediamine di-hydrochloride and measuring the absorbance of the highly colored azo dye at 540°nm following Jacob
& Hochheiser modified method.
The survey format for assessing socioeconomic and health
status of local residents has been prepared by Kalyani University
(Department of Ecological Studies) and Indian Institute of
Social Welfare & Business Management, Kolkata, and the survey has been organized by a 2-member team, one each from
the institutions.
Results and Discussion
The characteristics of surface water degrading the atmospheric
pollution by emanating acid fumes and bad odor are shown in
Table 2. The results of concentrations of each pollutants of
ambient air at 3 different locations at Chatta and Kalikapur
area under Maheshtala textile cluster have been analyzed in
detail. The analytical results for summer, monsoon, and winter
seasons taken for each station as well as air quality nature are
also depicted as a of part environment management study
(2012-2016). The findings are given based on mean values
Air, Soil and Water Research
4
Table 1. Method of measurement of ambient air samples along with concentration of pollutants in air against time-weighted average at different
places. Adapted with permission from CPCB, India.
POLLUTANTS
TIME-WEIGHTED
AvERAGE
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), µg/m3
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), µg/m3
Particulate matter (size less than
10 µm) or PM10, µg/m3
INDUSTRIAL,
RESIDENTIAL,
RURAL, AND
OTHER AREAS
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT
ECOLOGICALLy
SENSITIvE AREA
(NOTIFIED By CENTRAL
GOvERNMENT)
Annual*
50
20
24 h**
80
80
Annual*
40
30
24 h**
80
80
Annual*
60
60
100
100
Annual*
40
40
24 h**
60
60
24 h**
Particulate matter (size less than
2.5 µm) or PM2.5, µg/m3
CONCENTRATION IN AMBIENT AIR
Improved West and Gaeke Method
Ultraviolet luorescence
Jacob & Hochheiser modiied
(NaOH-NaAsO2) method
Gas-phase chemiluminescence
Gravimetric
TEOM
Beta attenuation
Gravimetric
TEOM
Beta attenuation
Abbreviation: TEOM, tapered element oscillating microbalance.
*Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year at a particular site taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform intervals.
**24 hourly or 8 hourly or 1 hourly monitored values, as applicable, shall be complied with 98% of the time in a year. 2% of the time, they may exceed the limits but not on
two consecutive days of monitoring.
Table 2. Seasonal surface water data taken during 2012-2013 in the study area.7
S. NO.
PARAMETERS
S1
SUMMER
S2
SUMMER
S3
SUMMER
S4
RAINy
S5
RAINy
S6
WINTER
S7
SUMMER
SD
1
pH
7.6
7.0
6.9
7.2
7.1
7.9
6.8
±0.68
2
Turbidity (NTU)
—
42
40
8.7
16
60
15.7
±19.98
3
Temperature, °C
34
37
35
31
31
29
30
±2.98
4
TDS, mg/L
3904
—
—
2240
—
2700
3398
±1716.68
5
TSS, mg/L
52
540
110
30
22
51
48
±186
6
CaCo3, mg/L
—
—
666
—
—
867
601
±401.76
7
DO
—
—
0.00
0.90
4.0
0
5.00
±2.35
8
Fe, mg/L
—
—
0.35
0.21
0.11
1.54
—
±0.66
9
Cd, mg/L
0.01
0.013
0.019
0.00
0.00
0.023
0.003
± 0.01
10
Pd, mg/L
0.013
0.22
0.06
0.02
0.027
0.103
0.014
±0.07
11
Cu, mg/L
0.05
—
0.006
0.01
—
—
—
±0.02
12
Zn, mg/L
0.05
0.94
0.284
1.15
0.18
—
—
±0.05
13
Cr, mg/L
0.03
0.05
0.007
0.00
0.061
0.061
0.025
±0.02
14
Ni, mg/L
—
0.012
0.05
0.05
—
—
—
±0.02
15
As, mg/L
0.004
0.013
0.011
0.011
0.00
0.037
0.028
±0.01
16
BOD, mg/L
—
172
365
40
16
91
22
±134.43
17
COD, mg/L
—
552
979
125
70
256
80
±369.71
18
Escherichia coli,
CFU/100°mL
—
—
380 000
10 000
—
12 000
12 000
±16 621.34
Abbreviations: BOD, biochemical oxygen demand; CFU, colony-forming unit; COD, chemical oxygen demand; DO, dissolved oxygen; NTU, nephelometric turbidity unit;
TDS, total dissolved solids; TSS, total suspended solids.
Gupta et al
5
Table 3. Mean values of ambient air quality for 8 hours.
AMBIENT AIR qUALITy
PARAMETERS, µG/M3
SUMMER
(2012–2013)
MONSOON
(2012–2013)
WINTER
(2012–2013)
STANDARD
DEvIATION
CPCB NORMS
(2009)
WHO NORMS
(2005)
PM2.5
39
49
69
± 15.28
60
25
PM10
90
76
141
± 34.21
100
50
SO2
20.8
14.1
18.4
± 3.39
80
20
NO2
50.8
36.4
54.6
± 9.6
80
40
Abbreviations: CPCB, Central Pollution Control Board; WHO, World Health Organization.
Table 4. Mean values of ambient air quality for 24 hours.
AMBIENT AIR
PARAMETERS, µG/M3
SUMMER
(2012–2013)
MONSOON
(2012–2013)
WINTER
(2012–2013)
SD
CPCB LIMITS
(2009)
WHO LIMITS
(2005)
PM2.5
31
39
55
±12.22
60
25
PM10
72
61
113
±27.40
100
50
SO2
17
11
14.4
±3.01
80
20
NO2
41
30
44
±7.37
80
40
Abbreviations: CPCB, Central Pollution Control Board; WHO, World Health Organization.
considering all 3 stations during 8 and 24 hours of operation
and are depicted in Table 3 and 4, respectively.
The surface water quality of the cluster is not suitable for
domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes. The canal water
is emanating bad odor, blackish in color, and contaminated
with organic chemicals. Metals in surface water contaminate
the vegetables and fruits grown in the cluster and ground. The
higher level of pH (7.9 ± 0.68), TSS (540 ± 186 mg/L), TDS
(3398 ± 1716.68 mg/L), turbidity (60 ± 19.98 mg/L), BOD
(365 ± 134.43 mg/L), COD (979 ± 369.71 mg/L) and presence
of heavy metals such as Pb (0.22 ± 0.07 mg/L) are major sources
of water pollution due to the use of chemicals and dyes. Low
DO may result in anaerobic conditions that cause bad odor.
The condition further gets endangered by fumes developed by
storage of chemicals and dyes used in processing area of the
units. Evaporation of surface water in noon due to increased
atmospheric temperature (30-40°C) and evapotranspiration
from soil and plants add to air pollution. These are evident
from the study on soil degradation and contamination of plants
and agricultural products at Maheshtala textile cluster due to
highly degraded surface water.8
Assessment of air pollution in the cluster
Air emission from the drying ovens and diesel generators for
producing hot water drives air pollution. The 8-hour sample
of ambient air shows that the PM2.5 is 39 μg/m3 in summer,
49 μg/m3 in monsoon, and 69 μg/m3 in winter during the
study period of 2013–2013. The data resemble the atmospheric condition of the area and contamination level of surface water due to raw effluent discharged from different
bleaching and dyeing units. PM2.5 levels in summer and monsoon are found safe due to air movement from south to north
and rainfall in monsoon because the cluster is near the Bay of
Bengal, but higher (69 μg/m3) in winter season due to humidity (47%-71%) which falls beyond the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB) (India) (2009) limit of >60 μg/m3.9,10
Air pollutants can have adverse effects on humans and the
ecosystem. Carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2)
from boiler and motor vehicle exhaust, chlorine gas (from
chlorides), sulfuric and nitric acid fumes, oil, and lead particulates from printing area released from factories are considered
as primary pollutants. Secondary pollutants are not emitted
directly. Rather, they form in the air when primary pollutants
react or interact. Ground-level ozone is a prominent example
of a secondary pollutant. Some pollutants may be both primary and secondary as they are both emitted directly and
formed from other primary pollutants. The bar chart of
different air pollutants in summer, monsoon, winter season,
and corresponding CPCB permissible limits is presented in
Figure 4.
Similarly, the 24-hour sample of ambient air data show
that the PM10 is 72 μg/m3 in summer, 61 μg/m3 in monsoon,
and 113 μg/m3 in winter (2012-2013). Higher concentration of
PM10 in winter season (113 μg/m3) exceeding the limit of
100 μg/m3 (CPCB, 2009)10 due to low temperature (10-15°C),
smog, direction of air flow (north to south), and humidity
(47-71%) as per district meteorological data, GOI.
The PM2.5 levels in summer and monsoon are found safe
due to air movement from south (ocean side) to north (land)
and rainfall (1700-1800 mm annually) (district meteorological
data, GOI) in monsoon because the cluster is near the Bay of
Air, Soil and Water Research
6
Figure 4. Bar chart showing the air contaminants level on summer, monsoon, and winter seasons. CPCB indicates Central Pollution Control Board;
WHO, World Health Organization.
Figure 5. Scatterplots and linear diagrams of PM10, SO2, PM2.5, and NO2, respectively, during different seasons.
Bengal, but higher in winter season 113 μg/m3 compared to
the limit of 100 μg/m3 (CPCB, 2009)10 due to temperature
(10-15°C), direction of air flow (north to south), and humidity
(47-71%) (district meteorological data, GOI). Residents
working in manufacturing factories may also be exposed to
toxic chemicals at their workplaces.11
The sulfur dioxide (SO2) level in air samples shows that the
concentration in summer (17 μg/m3), monsoon (11 μg/m3), and
winter (14.4 μg/m3) is less than the permissible limit of 80 μg/
m3,10 and is considered to be safe. Similarly, nitrogen dioxide
(NO2) level indicates that during those times, the respective
concentrations of 56.4, 36.8, and 58.4 μg/m3 are within the
permissible limit of 80 μg/m3 (CPCB, 2009).
The scatterplots and linear diagrams of mean PM2.5, PM10,
SO2, and NO2 for 8 and 24 hours of collected air samples are
shown in Figure 5.
The combined scatterplot diagram for all air pollutants collected in summer, monsoon, and winter seasons is shown in
Figure 6.
As per The Energy and Resources Institute12 report, diesel
exhaust (DE) is a major provider to combustion-derived PM in
air pollution. In several human experimental research studies,
Gupta et al
7
Figure 6. Scatterplot diagram of all air pollutants in summer, monsoon, and winter seasons.
Table 5. Concentrations of SO2, NO2, and PM10 at different urban locations in West Bengal.
STATE
LOCATION
SO2, µG/M3
NO2, µG/M3
PM10, µG/M3
West Bengal
Durgapur
13
48
108
Haldia
13
41
238
Howrah
13
40
186
Kolkata
12
70
135
Raniganj
14
45
126
8
59
119
South Suburban
Adapted with permission from CPCB, 2015.35
using a well-validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been
linked to critical vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus
creation.13 The samples of the air pollutants collected by
CPCB, India, from different locations of West Bengal are
shown in Table 5.
The study site is located near Kolkata and south suburban.
Sample results from industrial townships located in Haldia
and Durgapur are shown for comparison. The air samples of
bleaching and dyeing cluster show similarity in the air samples
collected by CPCB (India) in Kolkata and south suburban.
lung cancer15 and other cardiopulmonary mortality. The large
number of deaths16 and other health problems associated
with particulate pollution were first demonstrated in the early
1970s17 and has been reproduced many times since long.
In 2012 alone, 7 million deaths in the world remained attributable to the combined effects of ambient (3.7 million) and
household (4.3 million) air pollution.18 Ambient air pollution
has been acknowledged as the fifth biggest cause of mortality
in India.19
Size, shape, and solubility matter
Health impact due to air pollution
Air pollution is a noteworthy threat factor for a number of
pollution-related diseases and health conditions including
respiratory infections, heart disease, COPD, heart stroke, and
lung cancer. The health effects instigated by air pollution
may include difficulty in breathing, wheezing, coughing,
asthma, and deterioration of existing respiratory and cardiac
conditions.14
Increased levels of fine particles in the air as a result of
anthropogenic particulate air pollution are consistently and
independently related to the most adverse effects, including
The size of the particle is a main element of where in the
respiratory tract the particle will come to rest when inhaled.
Larger particles are generally filtered in the nose and throat
via cilia and mucus, but PM smaller than about 10 μm can
settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems.20
The 10 μm size does not represent a strict boundary between
respirable and nonrespirable particles but has been agreed
upon for monitoring of airborne PM by most regulatory
agencies. Because of their small size, particles on the order of
~10 μm or less (PM10) can penetrate the deepest part of the
lungs such as the bronchioles.
8
Air, Soil and Water Research
Figure 7. Types of responded villagers.
Figure 9. Occupation pattern of villagers.
Figure 8. Types of literacy rate of villagers.
Figure 10. Error line diagram of respiratory diseases.
Assessment of health status in the cluster area
The survey has been made in the control area of the cluster
with 73 persons of 639 villagers, comprising men (84.30%) and
women (15.70%) (Figure 7). We found that among total villagers, there are 41.09% local residents and 58.91% are migrated
from adjoining areas. Migrated labors filled up the gap of manpower requirement in the cluster as sufficient manpower is not
available in the area, and at the same time, some local residents
are unwilling to do this kind of hazardous job. Among the
respondents, 78.08% and 17.08% are from the age group of 21
to 40 and >50 years, respectively. About 89.04% and 10.95%
(Figure 8) are literate and illiterate, respectively, out of 89.04%,
45.20% have completed lower school level from class I-IV and
42.46% have completed middle school–level studies.
It is evident from the study that 56% of the residents
(including migrated) are occupied in bleaching and dyeing
(B&D), knitting, printing, and other B&D-related activities;
32% are occupied in other businesses such as steel furniture,
manufacturing of small steel items, grocery shop, and wooden
furniture; and 12% (Figure 9) are engaged as auto, bus, minibus
drivers and in automobile jobs. The annual incomes of 1.36%,
86.32%, and 12.32% villagers are ⩾Rs 36 000 ($530), ⩾Rs
60 000 ($870), and ⩾Rs 120 000 ($1740), respectively, against
annual per capita income of Rs 74 380 ($1065) of India.21
Findings of Health Survey
From health survey, it is revealed that the villagers are having
cold, cough, bronchitis, asthma and COPD (67.12%), breathing trouble (56 %), and fever (76.71%) (Figure 10) or
Figure 11. Standard error line diagram of heart diseases.
Figure 12. Error line diagram of infant diseases.
heart-related diseases such as high blood pressure (12.73%),
cardiac problem (26%) (Figure 11), respectively, or both at a
time due to air pollution. The findings of infant diseases are
shown in Figure 12.
Gupta et al
9
Statistical analyses of PM and respiratory diseases
Statistical and correlation analyses of PM and respiratory diseases are presented in Tables 6 to 8.
Air pollution and respiratory diseases
In this study, it has been seen that cold, cough, bronchitis,
asthma, and COPD have a significant positive correlation
with fever (r = 0.98, P < 0.05). Breathing trouble has a strong
positive correlation with cold, cough, bronchitis, asthma,
COPD, and fever (r = 0.877, P < 0.05). Similarly, high blood
pressure has a negative correlation with cold and fever
(r = −0.655, P < 0.05). Furthermore, heart problem has a strong
positive correlation with high blood pressure (r = 0.989,
Table 6. Regression analysis for PM and effect on respiratory
diseases.
REGRESSION ANALySIS
Multiple R = 0.999968
R 2 = 0.999936
Adjusted R = −1.6667
Standard R = 0.28463
P < 0.05) and strong negative correlation with cold, cough,
asthma, bronchitis, and cold-related fever (r = −0.54, P < 0.05)
(Table 7). It is important that the health survey showed that
cold, cough, bronchitis, asthma, and COPD are strongly
significant in the cluster area due to the presence of high
concentration of PM (PM10) in the atmosphere.
Similarly, effect of PM2.5 in atmosphere shows that heart
trouble has strongly significant positive correlation with high
blood pressure (r = 0.977, P < 0.05) and breathing trouble
(r = 0.733, P ⩽ 0.05). Fever has positive significant correlation
with cold and cough (r = 0.981, P ⩽ 0.05) and breathing trouble
(r = 0.892, P ⩽ 0.05) (Table 8).
The strength of the observed association between air pollution and mortality is confirmed by previous interpretations of
associations between particulate air pollution and other health
end points. Elevated levels of particulate air pollution have
been associated with declines in lung function or with increases
in respiratory symptoms such as cough, cold, breathing,
wheezing, and asthma attacks.22–25 Other studies have found
associations between particulate air pollution and rates of
hospitalization,26 COPD,27 and controlled action due to
illness.28
Epidemiological investigation is needed to quantify the
health impact in an unprotected population. The major pollutants emitted by combustion have all been associated
with increased respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity and
Table 7. Correlation matrix between 2 pairs of diseases due to effect of PM10 on health.
COLD
Cold
HBP
Breathing trouble
Heart problem
Fever
HBP
BREATHING
TROUBLE
HEART
PROBLEM
FEvER
1
−0.6554
0.877364
1
−0.21263
−0.54152
0.983823
1
0.989868
−0.07173
−0.7801
0.777215
1
−0.68336
1
Abbreviations: HBP, high blood pressure.
Model at signiicance level (P < 0.05).
Table 8. Correlation matrix between 2 pairs of diseases due to effect of PM2.5 on health.
COLD
HBP
BREATHING
TROUBLE
HEART
PROBLEM
Cold
1
HBP
0.327098
1
Breathing
trouble
0.962013
0.57265
1
Heart problem
0.520592
0.977121
0.733908
1
Fever
0.981346
0.139314
0.891584
0.346738
Abbreviations: HBP, high blood pressure.
Model at signiicance level (P < 0.05).
FEvER
1
Air, Soil and Water Research
10
mortality.29 The major urban air pollutants can also give rise to
significant respiratory morbidity.18 For instance, another study
was also reported on an exacerbation of asthma among children in Mexico City.30 An increased risk of respiratory symptoms in middle-aged nonsmokers in Beijing was noted.31
In relation to the very young ones, it was found that PM
exposure, SO2 exposure, or both increased the risk of low birth
weight in Beijing.32 Studies found that air pollution increased
intrauterine mortality in São Paulo.33 Previous studies of petrochemical and chemical industrialization have found amplified
respiratory symptoms, increased cancer mortality, and shortened life probability in communities near highly polluting petrochemical/chemical areas.34
Conclusions
Our findings highlight the long-term adverse impact on population health due to rapidly increasing hazardous bleaching and
dyeing units at the Maheshtala cluster mainly on young generation (20-40 years) due to lack of other opportunities.
This study suggests that education and income are not the
main predictors for good health; rather, occupation and income
for the livelihood are the guiding factors for bad health in this
bleaching and dyeing cluster, normally happening in developing countries.
Appropriate authorities should consider monitoring of this
situation in terms of (1) effluent treatment, (2) water treatment,
(3) reducing air pollution, (4) continuous monitoring of health
impacts over long term, and (5) assessment of the impact of
industrial cluster as a whole with proper eco-planning and
infrastructure.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Acknowledgements
Survey on age, education, literacy, annual income, and health
condition of the villagers has been conducted in association
with Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business
Management (IISWBM), Kolkata.
Author Contributions
JKB conceived and designed the study; BGG collected samples, analyzed the data, jointly developed the structure with
JKB and arrangements of the paper; and BGG, JKB, and KMA
made necessary corrections and finalized the article.
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