Journal of Archaeological SCIENCE Journal of Archaeological Science 30 (2003) 743–752 http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas Stable isotope analysis of 21 individuals from the Epipalaeolithic cemetery of Vasilyevka III, Dnieper Rapids region, Ukraine Malcolm Lillie a*, Michael P. Richards b, Kenneth Jacobs c a Wetland Archaeology & Environments Research Centre, Department of Geography, University of Hull, Hull HU6 7RX, UK b Department of Archaeological Sciences, University of Bradford, Bradford BD7 1DP, UK c Département d’anthropologie, Université de Montréal, CP 6128/Succ. A, Montreal, Québec, Canada H3C 3J7 Abstract Bone collagen extracted from 21 humans from the Epipalaeolithic cemetery of Vasilyevka III was analysed for their
13C and
N ratios. This particular cemetery is one of the three early sites from the Dnieper Rapids region, with Vasilyevka III being dated to the period 10,400–9200 cal. BC on the basis of three radiocarbon determinations. As a consequence, the analyses presented here provide insights into the nature of the diet of these populations during a stage of major restructuring of the landscapes in the European mainland and more specifically in this context, the Dnieper region. The absolute age of Vasilyevka III places it at a point in time immediately after the occurrence of the most significant environmental changes in the former USSR, with the shift from late Pleistocene hyperzonal environments, to zonal vegetation types more characteristic of the Holocene period being in evidence in the palaeoenvironmental record.  2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. 15 Keywords: Isotopes (
13C,
15N); Human bone; Ukraine; Epipalaeolithic; Palaeodiet 1. Introduction The transition from the late Glacial to Holocene period is characterised by a shift in vegetation and fauna throughout Europe. In the former USSR, the vegetation at 10,300 yr BP is characterised by an abrupt shift between hyperzonality [57], and more zonal environmental conditions [24, p. 187]. Amongst the significant faunal changes in evidence, bison (Bison priscus), a key ‘mass drive hunting’ animal was replaced by auroch (Bos primigenius), and the Pleistocene horse (Equus latipes) was replaced by the tarpan-horses (Equus gmelini) [42, p. 102]. Alongside these floral and faunal shifts, there is evidence that the Holocene transition resulted in (predictably) a range of technological developments and a reorientation of hunting strategies [2]. Specifically, this period is thought to be represented by the continued exploitation of large game animals (cf. * Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: m.c.lillie@hull.ac.uk (M. Lillie), http://www.hull.ac.uk/wetlands (M. Lillie), m.p.richards@bradford.ac.uk (M.P. Richards), kantjac@hotmail.com (K. Jacobs). Ref. [2]). However, the focus of large-scale cemeteries at the Dnieper Rapids argues for, at least, a seasonal aggregation of population at this location in order to exploit stable resources such as freshwater fish along with the plants of the riparian zone [26]. In order to explore the dietary adaptations and shifts during this period and in this region we undertook stable isotope analyses for palaeodietary reconstruction of 21 humans from the Epipalaeolithic cemetery of Vasilyevka III, in the Dneiper Rapids, Ukraine. The cemetery of Vasilyevka III (Fig. 1), which is located to the south of the town of Dniepropetrovsk on the Dnieper [11], is unusual in that, along with Voloshkoe and Vasilyevka I, these large burial sites are unaccompanied by any associated activity/settlement evidence. Vasilyevka III has been the subject of radiocarbon dating by Jacobs (1993) [42], and is placed between 10,080 and 9980 uncal. yr BP. The three radiocarbon determinations obtained, 10,080100 BP (OxA3809), 10,060105 (OxA-3807) and 9980100 BP (OxA-3808), when calibrated to 2
using the OxCal program of Stuiver et al. [54], indicate an age range of 10,400–9200 cal. BC. 0305-4403/03/$ - see front matter  2003 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/S0305-4403(02)00249-2 744 M. Lillie et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 30 (2003) 743–752 Fig. 1. The Dnieper Rapids showing concentration of cemeteries: 1=Vasilyevka III and II, 2=Marievka, 3=Igren VIII, 4=Vasilyevka V, 5=Nikolskoye, 6=Vovnigi II and 7=Yasinovatka. :=Epipalaeolithic and Mesolithic; 6=Neolithic. Given the known ages for cemeteries in Europe, Vasilyevka III clearly represents one of the earliest examples recovered to date. These cemeteries are usually thought to suggest residential stability of a semipermanent or permanent nature, and possibly increased group size and social complexity [60]. The cemeteries relating to Northwest Europe, such as Skateholm and Vedbæk are dated to the later Mesolithic, while sites such as Schela Cladovei, Vlasac and others on the Danube are of Mesolithic age at 9750–6000 BC [2,8]. The available regional archaeological and faunal evidence would suggest that a mixed diet was being consumed at this time, with a range of dietary proteins being available in the developing Holocene environments. On the basis of faunal remains and the development of the bow and arrow (cf. Refs. [39–41]) the continuation of hunting economies is well represented in this region. Similarly, the occurrence of a significant number of cemeteries at the Rapids, alongside the results of stable isotope analysis of later Mesolithic (Marievka, Vasilyevka II) and Neolithic (Igren VIII, Osipovka, Vasilyevka V, Vovnigi II, Yasinovatka and Dereivka I) diets, indicates that a broad range of resources were incorporated into what was in essence a fisher–hunter– gatherer resource procurement strategy during the earlier Holocene [29]. The current research has two key objectives: the first is the assessment of the most likely source of the dietary resources exploited at Vasilyevka III, and the determination of whether these are of terrestrial and/or freshwater origin. The second objective is the determination of any variability in access to these resources between males and females. The latter element of this study is facilitated by the presence of 44 graves at the cemetery of Vasilyevka III [55, pp. 3–19; 56] (Fig. 2). Of these, 21 individuals, identified as comprising ten males, nine females, one ‘sub-adult’ individual and an individual of indeterminate age and sex, are represented in this study (Table 1). Recent research by the present authors into the later Mesolithic and Neolithic cemeteries of this region has suggested that some variability in access to dietary resources occurred [29, pp. 967–968]. In particular, whilst the isotope evidence for the majority of the samples in this earlier study indicated that much of the protein consumed came from C3 terrestrial-based M. Lillie et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 30 (2003) 743–752 745 Fig. 2. Cemetery plan scanned and re-drawn from Ref. [56]. Note: burials 13 and 6462-33 are indeterminate and burial 14 is not recorded on this plan, all other burials have \ or _ to indicate biological sex determination [28]. resources, with the addition of a significant amount of river fish, four individuals exhibited differing isotopic signatures. In this context, two individuals from the Neolithic cemeteries of Dereivka I and Vasilyevka V had isotope levels suggestive of proteins derived from animals, while two separate individuals from the Neolithic Osipovka and Yasinovatka cemeteries exhibited signatures more in line with protein derivation from plant foods [29, p. 968]. Recent research has confirmed this observation, as six additional individuals from the cemetery of Yasinovatka are shown to have consumed a diet of C3 plants and/or the herbivores that consumed them [44]. One of the more significant aspects of these earlier studies is that the consumption of fish proteins appears to continue into the earlier Neolithic period, and also that certain individuals were clearly obtaining their dietary proteins from alternative, animal and plant proteins [29]. An understanding of the nature of the subsistence spectrum at the beginning of the Holocene, as outlined in this study, will consequently enable a consideration of longterm subsistence trends to be evaluated against the evidence that has been obtained at the Mesolithic– Neolithic transition [29]. Additional high-resolution analysis of subsistence regimes in the Mesolithic period is currently being undertaken in an attempt to further define the economic trajectory of these populations. 2. Dental evidence for diet The dentitions of 21 individuals from Vasilyevka III were investigated in order to determine the prevalence of pathologies such as caries levels, expression of dental calculus and rates of enamel hypoplasia. The data presented here are the first reported for the Epipalaeolithic cemetery of Vasilyevka III. As noted by Lillie and Richards [29, p. 969] a range of pathologies have been investigated in order to assist in the interpretation of economic shifts such as those usually expected at the Mesolithic to Neolithic transition (e.g. Refs. [1,14– 16,20,25,30,32,33,35,37]). However, while these studies can enhance our understanding of the subsistence economies exploited, it is increasingly apparent that it is only with the integration of such studies within multi-disciplinary research agendas such as is presented 746 M. Lillie et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 30 (2003) 743–752 Table 1 Age, sex and isotope ratios for 21 samples from the cemetery of Vasilyevka III Museum number Burial number Age Sex
13C
15N C/N 6462-1 6462-2 6462-3 6462-5 6462-6 6462-7 6462-8 6462-9 6462-10 6462-11 6462-12 6462-18 6462-19 6462-20 6462-21 6462-22 6462-24 6462-25 6462-26 6462-27 6462-33 1 2 5 8 10 11 12 13 14 16 18 26 28 31 33 34 36 37 38 39 ? Indet Indet Indet 18–25 18–25 Indet 20–30 13–20 45–55 35–55 45–55 40–50 50–60 +55 18–22 18–22 20–25 25–35 30–40 Adult ? F F F M F M M Indet F F F M M M F F M M M M ?
22.35
22.31
22.37
22.12
22.62
22.35
22.59
22.33
23.14
22.45
22.30
22.66
22.04
21.63
21.88
22.25
22.35
22.91
22.27
22.34
22.54 12.45 12.42 11.66 12.97 11.37 12.85 12.34 12.43 11.39 11.86 11.90 12.11 13.02 14.12 12.74 13.10 12.42 12.61 12.91 12.70 12.61 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.3 3.8 3.6 3.9 3.6 4.6 3.4 3.9 3.7 3.3 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.4 4.0 3.4 3.4 Samples with poor C:N ratios (outside the range 2.9–3.6) have been excluded from discussions in the text, and from Fig. 3. here, that a more holistic overview of the palaeodietary characteristics of the populations being considered can be achieved. 2.1. Materials and methods As outlined previously, the dentitions of 21 individuals, with 496 teeth in evidence were studied. The analysis was undertaken at the macroscopic level, by Lillie, during an extended research visit to Eastern Europe in 1993. The Vasilyevka III collections are housed in the Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation. Standard methodologies for the identification and classification of dental diseases were used at the time of this study (e.g. Refs. [17–19,21,22,30,34,36,38,51–53,58]) (cf. Refs. [28,29]). 2.2. Pathologies Lillie and Richards [29, p. 969] reported that the pathology of dental caries is not in evidence in the Dnieper Rapids cemetery series during the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Dental calculus expression, which in this context is taken to be indicative of the consumption of dietary proteins, is consistently recorded (cf. Ref. [21]). This observation accords well with a general pattern for diet-linked dental pathologies in Mesolithic Europe [34]. As with the later Mesolithic and Neolithic examples reported by Lillie and Richards [29], caries is absent at Vasilyevka III. Eleven individuals at Vasilyevka III exhibit calculus deposition, and while the degree of expression is clearly more pronounced in males, a number of biasing factors, which have influenced the overall degree of expression, were identified by Lillie [28]. Primarily, in this context, the age of the individual and functional wear stage of the dentition have been identified as biasing factors. A number of individuals with functional wear stages above ca. 45 years of age at death (burials 6462-14, -18, -22, -28 and -30) have no evidence of calculus deposition due to advanced wear of the enamel. Conversely, the presence of calculus in the lower age category of 18–25 is variable, with females exhibiting lower grades of calculus deposition when compared to males [28, p. 212]. Hillson [21] has suggested that variations in calculus deposition can be assumed to be a direct result of the relative frequencies of protein versus carbohydrates being consumed in the diet. While the analyses undertaken on the Vasilyevka III population does indicate higher levels of male versus female incidence of calculus, there is little indication that the observed expression resulted in inequality in terms of the quality of dietary intakes between the sexes [27, p. 223; 29, p. 969]. Enamel hypoplasia, a dental marker of generalised physiological stress, is significant in this context: the frequencies of enamel hypoplasia at Vasilyevka III occur at a level of 22.7% of the cemetery population (five individuals) and at 1.61% of all teeth available for study [28, p. 214]. The low levels of expression of this nonspecific indicator of sub-adult stress are consistent with prehistoric hunter–gatherer frequencies elsewhere in Europe (e.g. Refs. [1,15,31]) (cf. Ref. [34, pp. 130–131]). While there remains a lack of comparable studies across the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition, y’Edynak [15] indicated that 70% of all teeth at Vlasac exhibit this pathology, while on the population level, figures ranging between ca. 45 and 53% have been reported from southern Scandinavia and Denmark [34, p. 131]. At Vasilyevka III, the fact that three males and two females exhibit hypoplasias indicates that despite the small sample size these stress events are relatively equally distributed between the sexes [28]. This evidence also suggests that observations of dietary equivalence in relation to access to dietary proteins and/or calorific intakes [29, p. 970] are supported by the present analysis. 3. Stable isotopic evidence for diet Stable isotope analysis provides a direct measure of human diet, with the carbon isotope value,
13C, indicating how much marine protein there was in the diet, as compared to terrestrial protein [50]. Humans with a diet where all of the protein is from marine sources have bone collagen
13C values of approximately
121‰ M. Lillie et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 30 (2003) 743–752 [7,45,49]. In freshwater systems, groundwater carbon can have an influence on
13C values, and it is possible to get faunal
13C values of less than
20‰. For example, Dufour et al. [13] measured modern freshwater fish from Lake Geneva with
13C values of ca.
22 to
23‰. The nitrogen isotope value,
15N, tells us about the trophic level of an organism in an ecosystem, as consumers have bone collagen
15N values that are 2–4‰ higher than the protein they consume [48]. Therefore, a herbivore which consumed low trophic level protein plant foods, will subsequently have lower
15N values than carnivores that consume higher trophic level herbivores. In marine ecosystems
15N values can be much higher than in terrestrial systems simply because there are more steps in the food chain. For example, in Holocene western Europe we could expect herbivore
15N values of approximately 51‰, and carnivores
15N values at approximately 91‰. In marine and freshwater ecosystems we can expect higher trophic level fish (piscivores) to have
15N values of 121‰, and marine mammals like seals which consume those fish to have
15N values of 151‰ [45]. Katzenburg and Weber [23], in a study of freshwater ecosystem of Lake Baikal, Siberia, found that freshwater seals had similar
15N values (ca. 141‰) to their marine counterparts. Bonsall et al. [6] report Mesolithic human
13C values of ca.
19 to
20‰ and
15N values of ca. 14–15‰ from the sites of Vlasac, Lepenski Vir and Schela Cladovei in the Danubian Iron Gates sites. The high
15N values indicate that almost all of the dietary protein was from fairly high trophic level freshwater fish. Interestingly, in this region the associated
13C values were not more negative, as was seen in the humans who consumed freshwater resources in Ukraine (e.g. between
21 and
23‰, [29]) and in the freshwater seals from Lake Baikal [23]. Three humans that were radiocarbon dated to the Neolithic from the site of Lepenski Vir had similar
13C values to the Mesolithic individuals, but had much lower
15N values of between 10 and 12‰, indicating the inclusion of lower trophic level protein, probably from terrestrial sources, in the Neolithic diets. 747 Western Europe. This research was possible as freshwater foods can often have carbon isotope values that are distinct from terrestrial foods, as well as higher nitrogen isotope values (see above). Bonsall et al. [6], although having very few directly dated Neolithic samples concluded that Mesolithic individuals generally had isotope values that indicated diets predominantly derived from freshwater fish from the Danube, while in the subsequent Neolithic period freshwater fish were not as important. Lillie and Richards [29] also found that Mesolithic individuals did consume a great deal of freshwater resources, but that they also consumed a significant amount of terrestrial foods. They found similar results for the Neolithic, where freshwater fish continued to be important. This led them to conclude that there was not a significant dietary change across the Mesolithic–Neolithic transition. Richards et al. [46] measured the isotope values of middle Upper Palaeolithic (Gravettian) humans from a number of sites in Eastern Europe, including Kostenki and Sunghir from Russian Federation. They found elevated
15N values for the two Kostenki individuals that indicated the use of aquatic resources, most likely freshwater fish, even in this early time period. 3.2. Methods Twenty-one individuals, comprising nine adult females of varying age, ten adult males, again of varying age, a sub-adult aged between 13 and 20 years, and an individual of indeterminate age and sex were sampled for stable isotope analyses. The stable isotope analysis of the human bone collagen was carried out at the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford. Collagen was extracted from the human bone samples following a modified Longin method as outlined by Richards and Hedges [45]. Isotope measurements were made on a Europa Geo CF-IRMS. Errors on the
13C values are 0.3‰, and are 0.4‰ for the
15N values.
13C values were determined in relation to the VPDB standard, and
15N values in relation to the AIR standard. 3.1. Previous stable isotope research in Eastern Europe To date there have only been a handful of published isotope studies of Eastern European material (e.g. Refs. [6,23,29,43,46]), and no results from an Epipalaeolithic context. For earlier prehistory, particularly the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods the only two studies currently published are those of Bonsall et al. [6], who looked at a number of Danube sites in the Iron Gates gorge, and Lillie and Richards [29] for sites along the Dnieper Rapids in Ukraine. Both of these studies attempted to look for the same dietary shifts between the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods that had been found in 3.2.1. Isotope results The data cluster well together (Fig. 3, Table 1) and there is no significant difference between male and female values, although the individual with the highest
15N value is a male. All of the Vasilyevka III individuals have
15N values over 11.5‰. These data are interpreted as indicating a relatively uniform diet, with a strong dependence on freshwater fish and other animal protein. The
13C and
15N values are consistent with many human isotope values from later Mesolithic and early Neolithic sites in Ukraine [29] which also indicate a mainly animal protein diet, with a significant 748 M. Lillie et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 30 (2003) 743–752 Fig. 3. Human bone collagen
13C and
15N values from Vasilyevka III. Table 2 Average human bone collagen
13C and
15N values for prehistoric sites in Eastern Europe Region/site Age
13C
15N N Source Vasilyevka III Ukraine various Vlasac Schela Cladovei Sunghir Kostenki 1 Kostenki 18 Epipalaeolithic Mesolithic/Neolithic Mesolithic Mesolithic Mid-Upper Palaeolithic Mid-Upper Palaeolithic Mid-Upper Palaeolithic
22.20.2
22.40.9
19.00.4
19.60.2
19.00.2
18.2
19.1 12.70.6 10.81.92 14.60.2 15.40.4 11.30.1 15.3 13.1 15 17 5 7 3 1 1 1 2 3 3 4 4 4 For the Schela Cladovei and Vlasac values only individuals that were directly radiocarbon dated are included. References for the data are (1) this study, (2) Refs. [6,29,46]. contribution from freshwater resources such as fish. This is in contrast to later periods (post-Neolithic) in this region where a wider range of human isotope values, and particularly lower
15N values, is observed indicating that freshwater fish was not as uniformly important in these later periods. Average isotope values from other Eastern European prehistoric sites are given in Table 2, and plotted in Fig. 4. These data are, of course, not directly comparable as
13C and
15N values can differ between regions. This is apparent as the Ukrainian
13C values are more negative, on average, than the other sites considered, which may well reflect freshwater ecosystem
13C values from the Dneiper river system, which are more negative than the freshwater values from the Danube (Schela Cladovei and Vlasac). The mid-Upper Palaeolithic values are also not necessarily directly comparable as faunal
13C and
15N values have changed over the past 30,000 years, and as such, pre-Holocene values are not directly comparable with Holocene data. However, it is apparent that all of the human
15N values are relatively high, certainly when compared to Western European values [3–5]. On the basis of the, arguably limited, available evidence, and comparison with the published isotope studies considered, it is concluded that there is a strong input from freshwater fish in Eastern European prehistoric diets, an input that is discernible from the mid-Upper Palaeolithic through to the Neolithic period. 4. Discussion and conclusions On the basis of the palaeopathological and stable isotope analyses presented above, it is apparent that the M. Lillie et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 30 (2003) 743–752 749 Fig. 4. Average Vasilyevka stable isotope values plotted with average human values from other prehistoric sites in Eastern Europe. Details of the other studies are given in Table 2. main dietary elements consumed by the population of Vasilyevka III consisted of animal proteins with a significant input from freshwater resources such as fish. The dental evidence is indicative of broadly equivalent levels of calculus deposition, and a similar trend in terms of dental pathology between the sexes, which is confirmed and in fact reinforced by the observation that no significant differences occur between the male and female isotope signatures. The interpretation of the isotope results as indicating a relatively uniform diet, with a strong dependence on freshwater fish and animal protein contrasts to that in evidence from later periods in this region [29]. In these later periods, e.g. the Mesolithic and Neolithic, there is a wider range of isotope values, and particularly lower
15N values, indicating that freshwater fish was not as uniformly important. Also, the results obtained previously suggested that during the Mesolithic period males may have been in a more favoured position in terms of dietary access to animal proteins [29]. The evidence presented in this paper would seem to suggest that at the beginning of the Holocene more equal levels of access to dietary proteins were occurring. On the basis of the stable isotope evidence presented above, it is apparent that assertions that the exploitation of fish represented a ‘crisis’ in the hunting economy of the populations in the Dnieper region (cf. Ref. [2]) require re-evaluation, particularly in light of the consistent and continued exploitation of this resource into the later Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. In addition, O’Connell et al. [43, p. 307], note that a range of freshwater species such as waterfowl, otter, beaver, European pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis), European catfish (Siluris glanis), asp (Aspius aspius), pike (Esox lucius), zander (Lucioperca lucioperca), rudd (Scardinius erhythropthalamus), mussel (Unio) and river snail (Viviparus sp.) are all attested in Telegin’s faunal report from the Copper Age site of Dereivka [57], and at least some of these would presumably have been available resources in the earlier Holocene. When compared with previous studies by Bonsall et al. [6], Lillie and Richards [29] and O’Connell et al. [43], it is increasingly apparent that a broad range of resources, with a consistent emphasis on the exploitation of freshwater species, and presumably the plants of the riparian zone, was being exploited by Epipalaeolithic through to Neolithic/Copper Age populations in Eastern Europe. The evidence from Northwest Europe contrasts to the evidence presented above in that the ‘broad spectrum’ approach to resource exploitation occurs in Eastern Europe at an earlier time than evidenced elsewhere. Shifts in the fauna and flora of the region occur relatively rapidly as glaciers retreat at the end of the Valdai glaciation. At least ten species of the mega fauna hunted by specialised late Upper Palaeolithic hunters, including mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), woolly rhinoceros (Rhinoceros tichorhinus) and cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) became extinct, while others migrated northwards following the retreating glaciers (e.g. reindeer, Rangifer tarandus) [12]. 750 M. Lillie et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 30 (2003) 743–752 The role of large game hunting changed dramatically at the onset of the Holocene in the Russian Plain [2, pp. 194–195; 12, p. 319]. Steppe, forest and tundra vegetation zones were consolidated and in the forest zone reindeer were hunted to the north, with wild boar, elk, red deer, duck, grouse, fish and sea mammals also exploited in the Baltic region. In the steppe zone mountain goat, wild horse, gazelle, aurochs and red deer were hunted [9,10, p. 319]. Broad spectrum economies, following seasonal schedules and the specialised exploitation and use of seasonal resources such as waterfowl, fish, seal and plant foods occur between 5000 and 2000 uncal. BC in the Baltic region [59, p. 15]. A wide range of resources were clearly exploited in the late Mesolithic (6300–5800 uncal. BP) at the site and cemetery complex of Skateholm I, with grey seal, wild boar, red deer, roe deer, fish (ca. 90% freshwater species including pike, perch, and various cyprinids) and birds (including guillemot, razorbill, sea eagle, tufted duck and cormorant) in evidence [47]. As would be anticipated, the shift towards ‘broad spectrum’ exploitation strategies occurs earlier in south-eastern parts of Europe than north-western areas due to the time transgressive nature of floral and faunal responses to climatic amelioration at the beginning of the Holocene. Vasilyevka III reinforces this observation and provides early evidence for such exploitation strategies, indicating a rapid shift away from large game hunting and the adaptation of exploitation strategies towards the newly developing faunal and floral resources that characterise the Holocene period. In conclusion, it is apparent that the addition of isotopic studies towards interpretations of part human dietary pathways is clearly an important element of the techniques employed by palaeoanthropologists when attempting to undertake studies of diet. Further analyses in collaboration with colleagues in Ukraine, aimed at refining the isotope evidence from this region, will hopefully provide a more robust indication of later Mesolithic diets and the associated faunal isotopic signatures for the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Acknowledgements The samples of human bone, used for the analyses presented in this paper, were obtained by K.J. during research in St. Petersburg, Russian Federation. The palaeopathological analysis was undertaken by M.L. during doctoral research which was funded by the SERC (now NERC). M.L. would like to thank Professor Gokhman and Dr Alexander Kozintsev, Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography and Professor Dimitri Timofeev, Department of Palaeolithic Studies, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation, for invaluable assistance during his research visits to Eastern Europe. References [1] V. Alexandersen, Description of the human dentitions from the Late Mesolithic grave-fields at Skateholm, Southern Sweden, in: L. 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