COMEDY STUDIES, 2016 VOL. 7, NO. 1, 62 78 http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2040610X.2016.1139808 Live from DC: Saturday Night Live political parody references in presidential rhetoric Josh Compton Institute for Writing and Rhetoric, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH, USA ABSTRACT KEYWORDS From content analyses to effects studies to rhetorical and critical analyses, we have a growing body of scholarship exploring political humor on United States late night television. The growing body of political humor scholarship reveals how late night comedy characterizes politics and politicians. What has not yet been explored, however, is how United States’ politicians characterize late night television humor. Recognizing Saturday Night Live (SNL) as a unique type of late night television political humor in the USA, this essay turns to SNL mentions in United States’ presidential remarks, including mentions by Presidents George Bush, George W. Bush, Gerald Ford, and Bill Clinton. Directions for future scholarship in this area are also proposed. Political humor; political comedy; presidential rhetoric; Saturday Night Live; caricatures Like every joke, the political joke is an act of communication. Hans Speier, ‘Wit and Politics’ Introduction We now know more about late night television political humor in the United States than ever before. Content analyses reveal strong political content of late night television programs, including talk shows like The Tonight Show and the Late Show (Niven, Lichter, and Amundson 2003, 2008) and mock news programs like The Daily Show (Brewer and Marquardt 2007). Effects research suggests viewers of late night television political humor are affected in a number of ways: candidate evaluations (Baumgartner and Morris 2006; Young 2004, 2006), political knowledge (Cao 2008; Kim and Vishak 2008), perceptions of politics (Pfau, Houston, and Semmler 2005), political cynicism (Baumgartner and Morris 2006), news media cynicism (Morris and Baumgartner 2008), political efficacy (Baumgartner and Morris 2006; Hoffman and Thomson 2009), and political engagement (Cao and Brewer 2008; Moy, Xenos, and Hess 2005), to name a few (see Compton 2008a, for a review of political humor effects research). Assessing some of the inconsistencies in CONTACT Josh Compton © 2016 Taylor & Francis josh.compton@dartmouth.edu COMEDY STUDIES 63 political humor effects research, Graber (2008) concluded: ‘And they are probably right all of them. A stimulus that is experienced in diverse ways, depending on the receivers and the circumstances, is bound to produce diverse outcomes’ (340). We also have a more nuanced view of late night humor from rhetorical, critical, and theoretical analyses. Baym (2005), for example, concludes that The Daily Show is better described as alternative journalism rather than Jon Stewart’s claim that it’s simply fake news. Waisanen (2009) argues that Stephen Colbert and Jon Stewart are rhetorical critics. Smith and Voth’s (2002) analysis of Saturday Night Live (SNL) offers a compelling argument that late night comedy, and specifically, debate parodies, had profound impacts on Campaign 2000. Compton (2008b) contends that late night monologue jokes on programs such as The Tonight Show and the Late Show influence post-debate evaluations. Some applaud late night mocking of politics (e.g., Hariman 2007); others criticize it (e.g., Hart and Hartelius 2007). From content analyses to effects studies to rhetorical and critical analyses, we have a growing body of scholarship exploring political humor on late night television. Bucking a longstanding tendency to dismiss late night television entertainment as, just that, entertainment (Delli Carpini, and Williams 1994), scholars have turned critical, thoughtful, scientific eyes toward late night comedy programs. The growing body of political humor scholarship reveals how late night comedy characterizes politics and politicians. What has not yet been explored, however, is how United States’ politicians characterize late night television humor. In another project (Compton 2010), I surveyed United States’ presidential mentions of late night talk shows, such as The Tonight Show and the Late Show, and hosts, such as Johnny Carson and David Letterman. I found more than fifty mentions of late night talk shows and hosts by Presidents Nixon, Reagan, Bush, Clinton, Bush, and Obama. But presidents are also mentioning other late night television programs. Recognizing SNL as a unique type of late night television political humor in content (Pekurny 1980), impact (Smith and Voth 2002), and effects (Pfau, Houston, and Semmler 2005) this essay turns to SNL mentions in presidential remarks. Saturday Night Live A skim of recent political humor research reveals that scholars are increasingly focused on newer forms of late night television, especially Jon Stewart’s The Daily Show and Stephen Colbert’s The Colbert Report. In contrast, this essay turns to one of the grandparents of late night television, SNL. SNL’s producer, Lorne Michaels, explained: ‘The people on the other shows who have to do it every day, they take little bites. We come in with a big take, and we have people playing them, and that’s a different approach’ (cited in Carter 2008, C1). Nearly 30 years ago, Pekurny (1980) noted that SNL’s ‘atypical time period [allows] greater freedom of content than exists for most commercial television programs’ (91). ‘The comic perspective of SNL is somewhat unique compared to its rivals from the weeknights’ (Voth 2008, 232). Some empirical evidence suggests that, in contrast to other types of late night political humor, viewing SNL is linked to less political participation (Pfau, Houston, and Semmler 2005). Smith and Voth (2002) noted SNL’s impact on the 2000 presidential campaign in their rhetorical analysis of SNL’s treatment of the debates between Al Gore and George W. Bush, although Voth (2008) argues SNL had less of an impact during the 2004 election. 64 J. COMPTON Journalists speculated that SNL was back with full force for Campaign '08: It ‘proved redhot [during that] political season’ (Gold 2008, A15). How do United States’ presidents view and use SNL as reflected in their presidential rhetoric? Do they characterize it as ‘an impious enterprise,’ or do they embrace it as a forum for sociability, as a chance to ‘connect’ with the viewing audience? Do the uses of SNL humor seem purposeful, reflecting views of political humor as strategy (e.g., Meyer 2000; Speier 1975). A review of presidential references to SNL follows, providing some answers to these questions. Presidential mentions of Saturday Night Live and its comedians Comedian Chevy Chase’s impersonation of President Gerald Ford is now part of political parody lore. It was a bluntly physical impersonation. Chase did not look like Ford, nor did he wear character make up or do anything special to his hair. Instead, ‘[h]e just fell down a lot, spectacularly, after news footage had depicted Mr. Ford stumbling on several occasions’ (Caro 2006, A17). Rutenberg (2001) of The New York Times noted the ‘routine…was funny partly because it made no attempt to portray the man in any other sense’ (E5). Falling down was the primary caricatured characteristic. Levasseur and Dean (1996) place Ford’s infamous fall down the steps in the context of an incongruity theory explanation of humor: ‘[O]ne such expectation dictates than an individual in the act of walking will continue until coming upon a logical stopping point. Gerald Ford was well known for violating such expectations…’ (60). President Ford offered a lengthy reference to Chase during a fundraising dinner in Los Angeles, California, on March 26, 1976. He began by complimenting the master of ceremonies, and then launched into a recap of the Radio and Television Broadcasters Association dinner from the night before: [T]hey had as their master of ceremonies a young star on television called Chevy Chase. I don’t know how many of you know him, but he has moved up very, very rapidly in the television business. He has a show on Saturday nights at 11:30, and the principal theme of his performance is mimicking me. [Laughter] And he struck on a responsive chord a few months ago when there were some comments concerning my alleged clumsiness, and he has made a pretty good profession out of it. [Laughter] We find a few notable aspects of this introductory material. Ford mentions the actor by name but not the name of the television program. Ford also frames Chase as someone relatively unknown a likely jab at his impersonator. After describing Chase and his popular impersonation, Ford recounted Chevy’s humorous antics at the dinner: [W]hen he was introduced…he makes his entry…and he stumbles all over as he finally gets up to the rostrum here, and he falls and, well, it goes on for about 5 minutes or more it seemed like an hour. [Laughter] This description recounts Chase’s routine from the night before, but it also begins what will be a common theme in Ford’s treatment of his mimicry: self-deprecation. ‘It seemed like an hour,’ Ford admitted, and his audience laughed along with him. COMEDY STUDIES 65 Ford then turned to his response to Chase’s mockery. Ford described a physical pratfall he did after being introduced by Chase as Ford noted, ‘we were prepared for him’ that involved a tablecloth and lots of silverware crashing to the floor. Ford continued: And then I came to the podium and I had my speech book, and I had it on top with about 40 or 50 pages, and I put my speech book down like this, and I put the other things up like this, and then they all went down like that. [Laughter] …And then I turned to Chevy Chase and said, ‘Chevy, you are a very, very, very funny suburb.’ And I concluded with saying, ‘I’m Gerald Ford and you’re not.’ [Laughter] (Ford 1976, March 26) 1 This lengthy anecdote is notable for a couple of reasons. First, it is the first recorded mention of SNL by a United States President during official remarks, as collected in The American Presidency Project database. But secondly, Ford’s remarks offer self-deprecating humor to play along with the popular mimicry. Less than a month later, during a public question-and-answer session, Ford was asked about Chase’s caricatures of him: Q. …On several recent episodes of Saturday Night Live you have been portrayed as being [laughter] shall we say, clumsy. Do you think that by portraying you this way this has possibly increased your popularity among the average American? THE PRESIDENT. Well, I have not quite thought of it that way. [Laughter] But if that is the end result, I am delighted to have that conclusion. Well, to be serious for a moment, I think in the world in which we live you have to expect the bitter with the sweet, and you have to take a little kidding here and there. You have to expect some sharp barbs in a political campaign, and you have to expect various people in the press and elsewhere to have a lot of fun with those kinds of things. You just have to let it roll off your back like water off a duck’s back, and that is what I did. (Ford 1976, April 22) This made the second time in less than a month that Ford spoke of the SNL caricature of him. In both instances, Ford was able to respond to the humor, demonstrating his good humor and sociability. By letting the mocking ‘roll off your back like water off a duck’s back’ and playing along with the humor, as he did at the Radio and Television Broadcasters Association dinner, Ford both dismissed and embraced SNL parody. While Ford was the first to mention his SNL impersonator, he was not the only president to do so. Fifteen years later, President George Bush began mentioning his SNL impersonator, Dana Carvey, in myriad rhetorical contexts. Not once or twice, but instead, nearly 10 times during his tenure. The first recorded instance occurred toward the end of a press conference: ‘But, listen, thanks. I hope you all get a little chance for a vacation. I’ll be here for go to Camp David today. I’ll be back I’m not trying to be like Dana Carvey here [laughter] …’ (Bush 1991, August 2). With this remark, Bush mentions the halting way Carvey impersonated his speech delivery in SNL characterizations. The next month, Bush mentioned Carvey by name again, interjecting during questioning: ‘determined Dana Carvey, determined [Laughter]’ (Bush 1991, September 27), playing on Carvey’s technique of emphasizing the word determined when playing President Bush. In both of these instances, Bush referenced the impersonator, while at the same time, underscored the highlighted mannerisms. Bush turned his self-consciousness into laughter-inducing selfinterruptions. He showed both an awareness of Carvey’s impersonations and a self-mocking delight in them. 66 J. COMPTON In other instances, Bush referenced Carvey in general, not as a response to specific mannerisms. For example, during a commencement speech at the Pennsylvania State University, Bush said: Last time I gave a speech on a college campus, one student came up to me afterwards and said, ‘That was the best imitation of Dana Carvey I’ve ever seen.’ [Laughter] I never knew I had such talent. (Bush 1992, September 23) Bush also mentioned Carvey at the conclusion of his remarks to the medal-winning teams of the National Science Olympiad: … And when one of you kids can prove who started the Michelangelo virus, just remember: My name is Dana Carvey. [Laughter] (Bush 1992, March 27) We can assume Bush liked this joke; he used it again one month later, this time, speaking to the United States Academic Decathlon winners (Bush 1992, April 23). In another speech, Bush spoke not only about Carvey but also to Carvey. During a Christmas greeting to his staff, Bush said: Don’t dare move my hands [laughter] what I wanted to do [laughter]. No, but I am very grateful to Dana [Carvey] and to Paula for being here. And Dana’s given me a lot of laughs. He said to me on the phone, ‘Are you sure you really want me to come there?’ [Laughter] And I said yes. And he said, ‘I hope I’ve never crossed the line.’ I knew exactly what he meant, and as far as I’m concerned, he never has. The fact that we can laugh at each other is a very fundamental thing. I’m not sure on November 4th that the invitation would have gone out and then had the same enthusiasm. [Laughter] (Bush 1992, December 7) Perhaps this segment more than any other reflects how Bush both used and viewed late night television political parody. He referenced a specific mannerism mocked by Carvey’s impersonation Bush’s gestures hearkening back to his earlier mentions of Carvey a year earlier. But he also praised Carvey, enhancing perceptions of Bush’s sociability and sense of humor. This response to the impersonation matches President Ford’s response to Chevy Chase’s impersonation: Both presidents acknowledged the popular characterizations and played along with the humor. President Bush mentioned his SNL impersonator more than any other president. But President Clinton has the distinction of mentioning not one but two impersonators. Two comedians played Clinton on SNL: Phil Hartman and Darrell Hammond. Clinton mentioned Hartman at the Democratic National Committee Presidential Gala with this quip: ‘I appreciated Phil Hartman saying he voted for me, but it’s not quite enough for all the abuse I’ve put up with in advance. [Laughter]’ (Clinton 1993, May 12). Clinton mentioned and addressed Hammond at a Radio and Television Correspondents Association Dinner. Following a segment that evening featuring Hammond, Clinton said: I have to take this over before it gets out of hand. [Laughter] God knows, I can’t afford to jeopardize my relationship with the press corps. [Laughter] But I want to thank you, Bill, or ‘Mr. President.’ By the way, I wrote up a to-do list for you for the next couple of days. As usual, there’s the morning jog; you have to do that now. [Laughter] Tomorrow at 3:30 p.m., I have a conflict. I have a root canal appointment and a press conference in the East Room. I know it’s going to hurt, but would you mind doing the press conference? [Laughter] No, wait a minute. I couldn’t ask anybody else to do that, even me. (Clinton 1997, April 10) COMEDY STUDIES 67 In these humorous remarks, President Clinton acknowledges the impersonation, but turns the humor toward the press corps-fitting for the event. Like his predecessors Bush and Ford, Clinton plays along with the mocking. Three years later, Clinton referenced and addressed Hammond again at another Radio and Television Correspondents Association Dinner: [B]efore I go any further, I want to welcome the really funny person who is here tonight, the man who impersonates me every week on Saturday Night Live, Mr. Darrell Hammond. And Darrell, I want you to know I used to think you were really funny but not so much anymore. I think it’s Clinton fatigue. [Laughter] Poor Darrell, what’s he going to do when I leave office? [Laughter] Come to think of it, what am I going to do? [Laughter] (Clinton 2000, April 6) In this segment, Clinton once again acknowledges the impersonation, and notably, he also mentions SNL by name. (This is the first recorded instance of a president saying the name of the show, SNL, in remarks indexed in The American Presidency Project database.) In this remark, Clinton also uses self-deprecating humor, and he offers a mild, humorous rebuke of Hammond. Other presidents made passing references to SNL and its comedians. President George W. Bush mentioned his SNL impersonator, although not by name, during a commencement address: ‘I saw a person when I walked in, said, ‘Is it him, or is it the guy on Saturday Night Live?’ [Laughter]’ (Bush 2004, May 14). With this joke, Bush introduced some selfdeprecating humor, suggesting that it’s difficult to tell the difference between himself and a comic actor who impersonates him. The ‘guy on Saturday Night Live’ was Will Ferrell. In an example of meta-humor, Bush was asked about Ferrell’s impersonation. In an exchange that bridged impersonators from two different presidencies and generations, President Bush was asked during an interview with Politico and Yahoo News about his and his father’s SNL impersonators: Q: All right. Mr. President, who does the better impression, Will Ferrell of you, or Dana Carvey of your father? THE PRESIDENT: Dana Carvey. (Bush 2008, May 13) In another instance, George W. Bush referenced SNL during an interview with Tom Brokaw on April 24, 2003: Mr. Brokaw. Did you see that famous television video of Saddam the next day, in the glasses, reading awkwardly from the notepad and so on? The President. Well, yes. I was amused by that, almost as amused by that as I was his PR man it was one of the classics probably helping NBC Saturday Night Live out mightily, but through his it was just unbelievable what he was saying. (Bush 2003, April 24) In this exchange, Bush doesn’t highlight specific SNL material, but instead, the nature of the television program a program that mocks political current events. Presidents Ford, Bush, and Clinton mentioned their SNL impersonators by name. President George W. Bush made mention of his impersonator, but not by name. In contrast, some SNL material goes beyond mere mentions if the program or its actors and is used strategically. This type of SNL presidential rhetoric is explored in the next section. 68 J. COMPTON Using Saturday Night Live humor No president got more rhetorical mileage out of a specific SNL skit than President George Bush. The SNL episode in question aired on February 9, 1991, during the Gulf War, and began with an actor portraying a military officer telling the assembled press corps: I am happy to take any questions you might have with the understanding that there are certain sensitive areas that I’m just not going to get into, particularly information that may be useful to the enemy. (cited in Allen 1991) Then, reporters begin asking a series of questions about military secrets, including ‘I understand there are passwords our troops on the front lines use. Could you give us some examples of those?’ (cited in Allen 1991). Writing for The Washington Post, Allen (1991) summarized the skit as: ‘the point being that the reporters are either fools or traitors’ (D1). The White House noticed, too. DeParle (1991a) reported in The New York Times: White House officials, in the face of criticism, wavered at one point but dropped the idea of easing press restrictions after a Saturday Night Live sketch lampooning the press convinced them and the President that the public was on their side. (1) An anonymous senior White House official said of the sketch: ‘It was not a trivial component. [The sketch] gave us an indication that things weren’t being handled too badly’ (cited in DeParle 1991b, A9). The sketch was impacting, from press popularity to White House policy. Noting the popularity and power of the skit, Bush incorporated it into his remarks and not just remarks about the Gulf War beginning less than a week after it aired. President Bush first referenced the sketch during an exchange with reporters about military action in Iraq: Q. Let me ask you about the French Foreign Minister says that a date has been set for the start of the ground war and that we’re on the eve of the pre-eve. Do you disagree with what he says? The President. I don’t comment on anything to do with military. I’ve referred to those comments although the decision on ground forces will be made by me for U.N. forces. But I would simply not comment on that. It reminds me of Saturday Night Live. Remember the questions they ask on Saturday Night: ‘Hey, tell us how we can help the Iraqi soldiers the most,’ or ‘What is the password?’ or ‘Please give me some information that will do in our troops.’ I mean, I’m not in that business come on. That was a wonderful piece. (Bush 1991, February 17) In this exchange with the press, President Bush references the SNL skit that powerfully mocked the press paraphrasing some of the jokes and mentioning the program by name. A few months later, Bush returned to this reference, and this time, to deflect a different question in a different context: Q. Are you going to meet with your advisers this week? And where do you think you’re vulnerable politically? Some of your people talk about the Democrats may try to pass a health care plan and you’ll get hurt on that, or they may try a soak the rich scheme. What are you worried about? You’re a pretty good political analyst yourself, you’re going to bring something to the discussion COMEDY STUDIES 69 THE PRESIDENT. You know why I’m laughing, John? I remember the campaign. Please tell us your weaknesses. Please tell us why you can’t make it. It’s like those questions that came up during the Iraq war, you remember, on Saturday Night Live: please give us the code words so when we invade the beaches we’ll know where not to go. Please tell us the exact missile sites that you have, so that we can share this with the American people. [Laughter] (Bush 1991, August 2) Although it was a different context, we see the humor used for similar purposes. A skit mocking the press is deflects a question and, we can assume, mocks the press. Bush wasn’t finished with that reference yet. A couple of months later, at another press conference, he came back to it: Q. Mr. President, the field of Democrats who want your job are now pretty much announced. What is your assessment of your competition? The President. …I don’t really think it would be helpful for me to kind of analyze and point out. It’s like the questions I get here, ‘Please tell us your three greatest weaknesses as President of the United States, sir.’ The Saturday Night Live over there. I want to stay out of that. (Bush 1991, October 4) And once again, a couple of weeks later, he was ‘still reminded of the Saturday Night Live program’: But let me just offer you a spirit…of cooperation because we do want the best, most intrusive coverage possible, and that can be done with…the national interest in mind. I say ‘national interest’ because I’m still reminded of the Saturday Night Live program. I don’t know whether any of you saw that, about the guy getting up, ‘Now, could you please give us the code words that would help Saddam Hussein understand what he’s up against?’ Or, ‘Could you give us directly the place that you plan for the Marines to land? Would it be this on the map or that?’ And it went on and on and on. I showed this to a couple of people, and it hit, with all respect now [laughter] it hit a familiar chord with some. (Bush 1991, October 17) Bush mentioned this specific SNL skit on four separate occasions, expanding the audience beyond those who saw the mocking during the original broadcast. He also used it in different contexts, from campaign to military strategies. As this survey has revealed, four presidents Presidents Ford, Bush, Clinton, and W. Bush have mentioned SNL or its comedians more than twenty times in their presidential remarks. But presidents were not the only ones mentioning SNL. A Press Secretary, a Vice President, and two candidates also spoke the NBC comedy show. These instances are explored next. Beyond presidents: other mentions of Saturday Night Live Other politicians have incorporated SNL references in to their speeches and remarks. For example, George Stephanopouos, President Clinton’s Press Secretary, brushed off a question about his portrayal featured on SNL: Q: Did you like your portrayal on Saturday Night Live? MR. STEPHANOPOULOS: I have only heard about it, I didn’t see it. 70 J. COMPTON Q: They had the little boyish haircut look. MR. STEPHANOPOULOS: Yeah. Great. Any questions? [Laughter] (Clinton 1993, April 12) Other SNL references were more developed. President George W. Bush’s Vice President, Dick Cheney, either responded to SNL questions or brought up SNL in a number of speaking appearances. Cheney mentioned SNL and his impersonator on the show, Darrell Hammond, in an address before the Federalist Society: A lot has changed since my last appearance here. I’ve been a corporate CEO now, a national candidate, vice president and now, of course, a recurring character on Saturday Night Live. [Laughter] I’ve been watching a tape of the guy who plays me on the show, Darrell Hammond. He’s got the voice down. He’s pretty good at the mannerisms, but he’s not quite there yet. And I doubt that he’ll ever capture the real me. I mean you just can’t fake charisma. [Laughter] (Cheney 2001, November 15) Speaking at a convocation ceremony, Cheney joked: I should tell you that I was also invited to speak at another university commencement today. There being no way of doing both, I figured out a solution: You’re getting me and the other college is getting the guy who plays me on Saturday Night Live. (Cheney 2002, May 3) Similar to the way Presidents Ford, Bush, Clinton, and Bush referenced their impersonators, Cheney engaged in some self-deprecating humor. In two television interviews, Vice President Cheney was asked about SNL impersonations. After confirming that Cheney watched SNL, ABC’s Diane Sawyer asked for Cheney’s reactions to the comedy program: SAWYER: Do you have a favorite [SNL skit]? CHENEY: I loved the one where I was in the cave in Kandahar, Afghanistan. I thought that was superb. I enjoyed the show very much, and [Hammond]’s got it down. He’s doing pretty well. He’s not there yet, but he’s doing well in terms of his impersonations. SAWYER You mean the bionic heart, the whole thing? CHENEY The bionic heart, the coffee maker and where he was in effect a one-man Afghani wrecking crew, as I recall. I thought it was pretty good. (Cheney 2001, November 29) Later in the interview, Cheney mentioned that ‘the tape of the Saturday Night Live’ the Kandahar skit was his favorite of the Cheney jokes he’d heard. The next month, Cheney was asked about SNL on Meet the Press. After playing the Kandahar clip, host Tim Russert asked Cheney for his reaction: CHENEY: Well, Tim, if you have another successful 10 years on Meet the Press, maybe you’ll get your own skit on Saturday Night Live. [Laughter] RUSSERT: I’ve been there, unfortunately. It hurts. CHENEY: All right. OK. (Cheney 2001, December 9) As with the presidents’ mentions of SNL, Cheney suggests that he’s embracing the humor, that he’s in on the jokes. COMEDY STUDIES 71 Two presidential contenders spoke about SNL during Campaign 2008. Presidential contender Hillary Clinton mentioned SNL during a presidential candidate debate. SNL’s parody of the presidential debates suggested that then-candidate Barack Obama was getting special treatment by debate moderators. During the next debate, after she was asked the first question by the moderator, Clinton commented: Well, can I just point out that in the last several debates, I seem to get the first question all the time. And I don’t mind. I you know, I’ll be happy to field them, but I do find it curious, and if anybody saw Saturday Night Live, you know, maybe we should ask Barack if he’s comfortable and needs another pillow. [Laughter, boos.] I just find it kind of curious that I keep getting the first question on all of these issues. But I’m happy to answer it. (Presidential Debates 2008, February 26) The retort did not go over well. As one critic wryly noted, ‘It was funnier the first time’ (Sanneh 2008, 94). Sarah Palin, John McCain’s running mate, made an appearance on SNL. SNL’s Tina Fey had developed a popular impersonation of Palin. McCain was asked by Chris Wallace of FOX News about her appearance. McCain’s response: ‘She did a great job’ (McCain 2008, October 19). Discussion We should start with the most obvious and perhaps most important observation: SNL a late night comedy television program in the United States has entered the rhetorical record of United States’ presidents. Six presidents completed their terms during SNL’s tenure, and four of them have mentioned the show or its comedians by name during formal and informal speeches, press conferences, and public interviews. Of course, context affects the success of political humor (e.g., Levasseur and Dean 1996). While some of the contexts of these remarks were particularly conducive to humorous content (e.g., Correspondents Dinners), other forums were more suited to serious content (e.g., State of the Union address). Just as late night comedians mention names of politicians that they think will be familiar to their audiences (Weinraub 2000), United States’ presidents are mentioning a television show and names of comedians that they think will be familiar to their audiences (Compton 2010). Engaging in this popular mockery may be serving as self-deprecating humor, allowing presidents to identify with their audience (Meyer 2000) an audience shared with SNL. Presidents were not only mentioning SNL and its actors; in some instances, they were laughing along with the mockery. Speier ([1975] 1998) speaks to this in his essay on political humor: [O]ne can even join in another’s laughter at an opponent’s joke in which one is ridiculed. In this case, the victim meets the joker in reciprocal laughter. Perhaps the victim dissembles; if he plays his role well, he diminishes the significance of the joke, if not necessarily its quality. (1385) Many of the presidents surveyed in this essay did indeed ‘join in another’s laughter,’ including Presidents Ford, Bush, and Clinton. Indeed, some presidents not only laughed along, but also turned the tables on the comedians by making jokes about them. They 72 J. COMPTON ‘respond[ed] to the originator of the joke with a counterjest so that the joker and the victim exchange roles’ (Speier [1975] 1998, 1386). But it is also notable which presidents did not mention SNL: Presidents Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan. That Reagan never mentioned the show is most surprising, a president who ‘[u]nlike most of his predecessors… pointedly embraced and utilized humorous repartee’ (Boskin 1990, 478). And Reagan did mention another comedian/impersonator Rich Little. In fact, Reagan mentioned Little on five separate occasions. So why didn’t Reagan embrace his SNL impersonator the way his presidential peers did? Perhaps the reason Reagan did not mention SNL or the impersonation by comedian Phil Hartman is simple: There was not much to mention. Critics claim the impersonation ‘wasn’t particularly memorable’ (Holloway 2001, D4), and SNL producer Lorne Michaels admitted: ‘We didn’t do Reagan very often because there wasn’t that much to do. He was an actor, and people liked him. There just wasn’t much there’ (cited in Holloway 2001, D4). We can also speculate as to why President Carter did not talk about SNL. Dan Aykroyd’s impersonation of President Carter was popular an impersonation called ‘perfected’ (Shales 1979, D1) and ‘note-perfect’ (Barol & Foote 1989, 40). In 1977, Carter’s press secretary, Jody Powell, was invited by Lorne Michaels, SNL’s producer, to host the show. Powell reportedly ‘found [SNL] funny, but he did not know if the President shared this view’ (Shales 1977, B1). Powell considered the offer to host, but ultimately declined. One journalist reports that President Carter, in comparison to Bush’s delight with Carvey’s impersonation, ‘was said to be less thrilled with Mr Aykroyd’ (Holloway 2001, D4). While this survey suggests that Presidents Carter and Reagan were the only presidents to completely ignore SNL in their presidential remarks, even those who did mention the program did not always do so extensively or, it would seem, strategically. Consider, for example, President George W. Bush’s rhetorical engagement with SNL. Eric Foner of Columbia University and presidential historian Michael Beschloss thought W. Bush could lessen the negative impact of Ferrell’s impersonation by joking about the impersonation or by appearing in public with Ferrell (Rutenberg 2001), consistent with Speier’s ([1975] 1998) notion of diminishing a joke by laughing along with it. But Bush did not mention Ferrell by name, and when asked about Ferrell during an interview, offered an implicit criticism by suggesting Carvey’s impersonation of Bush, Sr., was better. Bush’s answer was not particularly surprising. Ferrell’s impersonation of Bush was biting. As one journalist put it, Ferrell’s Bush was ‘an inarticulate, squinty-eyed frat boy doing his best to fake his way through final exams’ (Rutenberg 2001, E5). (When The New York Times tried to get Bush’s reaction to Ferrell’s impersonation, the White House didn’t call back (Rutenberg 2001).) We can contrast W. Bush’s general dismal of SNL with Ford’s embrace. As this analysis revealed, Ford not only referenced Chase’s impersonation but spoke of it at length. Leibovich (2006) recounts how Ford participated in an SNL broadcast, supported his press secretary’s stint as a SNL host, and interacted with Ford at speaking events. He ‘diminishes the significance of the joke’ (Speier [1975] 1998, 1385), and possibly, turned the liability of ridicule into an asset (Nilsen 1990). Lorne Michaels claimed: ‘If Will Ferrell plays George Bush, they like Bush more. ‘Strategery’ was entirely forgivable because he seemed like a guy they liked’ (cited in Carter 2008, C1). Smith and Voth (2002) argue that Bush benefited during the 2000 campaign from playing along with the jokes about him ”his willingness to COMEDY STUDIES 73 embrace the comic role" (119). From these perspectives, it is difficult to understand Bush’s decision to ignore SNL. President Bush’s use of the SNL Gulf War/press corps skit was notable in its frequency and versatility. Bush referred to this script in its original context press coverage of the war but also in other contexts, including his own campaign. Bush’s use of this skit seems to reflect Speier’s ([1975] 1998) observation: ‘Humor weakens an audience’s defenses and makes it more amenable to persuasion’ (1356). This survey of United States’ presidential references of SNL revealed that the quoted content was generally mild. Some argue that all SNL content is mild. One critic offered this perspective: [Saturday Night Live] isn’t hard-hitting political satire. In fact, most of it isn’t political satire at all, in the strict sense. Saturday Night Live treats politics less as a contest of ideas than as a cast of characters. (Sanneh 2008, 94) Paletz (1990) offers a useful taxonomy for considering whether political humor is supportive, benign, undermining, or subversive. The humor surveyed in this essay fits more on the supportive or benign end of the spectrum: SNL was poking fun, for the most part, at presidential quirks and superficial characteristics, aspects that are easily caricatured. The most critical humor surveyed in this essay focused on the press and not the president the Gulf War press corps skit used so often by Bush. Further, the presentation of the jokes on a late night comedy show, with actors often in costume and makeup adds to the light-hearted tone. While Boskin (1990) argued nearly twenty years ago that American political humor’s boundaries are based on extant power structures and taboos ‘American political humor is more frequently than not a tepid cup of tea,’ he writes (Boskin 1990, 475) others suggest that American political humor is more biting now. Zengerle (2004) argues in The New York Times that late night political ridicule and political humor in general has become ‘mean and partisan’ (1). Would more intense late night television political parody function in presidential rhetoric? What are the boundaries for effectiveness? These and other questions should be addressed in future scholarship, an area explored next. Future scholarship Scholars have noted SNL humor used as political strategy by other politicians. Nilsen (1990) argues that politicians can use humor to define political concepts, to disarm critics, to establish d etente, to establish a position or make a point, to inbond, to relieve tension, and to provide a substitute for actual physical or military confrontation. (35) Scholars have speculated political intent with some instances of late night humor references in political rhetoric. For example, Messner (2007) and Battistella (2006) examined California’s Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger’s use of a SNL epithet girlie (or girly) men in some of his political rhetoric. The phrase comes from a 1987 SNL skit featuring Austrian bodybuilders, Hans and Franz, mocking men with small muscles. Battistella (2006) explored how Schwarzenegger’s use of the phrase kept the catchphrase alive, and Messner (2007) noted: J. COMPTON 74 [T]he implied self-mocking in his girlie man comments gets him off the hook, perhaps, from otherwise coming across as a bully: Democrats who decry the sexism or homophobia embedded in the girly man comment appear perhaps to have no sense of humor. (470) Rothstein (2008) of The New York Times argues that caricature is ‘immune from easy challenge. A caricature bypasses argument’ (C1). Whether SNL political parody content works best to deflect inquiries (e.g., President George Bush’s use of the Gulf War press corps skit) or works best to constrain would-be attackers (e.g., Schwarzenegger’s use of the ‘girlie men’ phrase) is unclear. This and other issues surrounding political use of SNL references warrant future scholarship. Future scholarship should test such claims of effects of mentioning SNL content, much as recent late night scholarship has assessed effects (Compton 2008a). Heeding Young and Tisinger’s (2006) call to not treat late night comedy as monolithic, scholars have looked at specific television shows, mainly The Daily Show (e.g., Baumgartner and Morris 2006) and The Colbert Report (e.g., Baumgartner and Morris 2008). SNL has either been lumped into other types of late night television humor (Cao and Brewer 2008) or ignored by effects researchers (but see Pfau, Houston, and Semmler 2005, for an exception). Lorne Michaels downplays its influence: ‘…[W]hen people start getting into how we’re changing things, I think we’re not. I think we affect the media and maybe influence some people. I think we’re a safety valve. Some pressure gets let off by what we do’ (cited in Carter 2008, C1). Future research can test Michael’s assumptions by looking specifically at SNL’s influence when it’s mentioned in presidential rhetoric. Conclusions Once dismissed as mere entertainment, late night television political humor is an increasingly common focus of scholars from myriad disciplines. This survey of presidential rhetoric indicates a unique merging of Washington DC and New York City, as SNL appears in presidential rhetoric to deflect questions, promote sociability, and, perhaps, to simply get a laugh. Paletz (1990) once observed ‘authority is a perpetual source of humor’ (483). It seems humor might be a source of humor for people of authority, too. Note 1. All presidential remarks were retrieved from The American Presidency Project online database, available at: http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/. This database is hosted by the University of California at Santa Barbara and maintained by John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters (database). Acknowledgements A version of this paper was presented at the annual convention of the International Communication Association in Singapore in June 2010. 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