Innovative Higher Education, Vol. 25, No. 1, Fall 2000 Infusion of Multicultural Issues in Curricula: A Student Perspective Sharon K. Anderson, David MacPhee, and Debra Govan ABSTRACT: To explore perceptions of the impact of a multicultural infusion project, current and former university students described classroom incidents that had strengthened their understanding of multiculturalism. They discussed why these incidents increased their multicultural awareness and how their interactions with others were changed. Participants described 155 incidents. These were sorted into 18 categories of pedagogical techniques and classroom composition or dynamics that promoted multicultural awareness. Former students reported that addressing multicultural issues in courses had a long-term impact on knowledge, attitudes, and professional skills. However, such benefits were not specific to classes that had been targeted for curriculum revision. Multicultural education is increasingly viewed as central to university students’ understanding of humanity (e.g., Banks, 1993, 1994; Butler & Schmitz, 1992; Diaz, 1994; Gaudiani, 1991; MacPhee, Oltjenbruns, Fritz, & Kreutzer, 1994). For example, MacPhee et al. (1994) identified at least three reasons for multicultural education: demographic changes in the student population, insensitivity borne of “cultural myopia or bias,” and the mandates of accrediting bodies. However, relatively few articles and handbooks discuss how multicultural education should be implemented (e.g., Adams & Marchesani, 1992; Adams, Niss, & Suarez, 1991; Baez, Oltjenbruns, Miller, & MacPhee, 1995; Gehrig, 1991; Green, 1989). Virtually all of these curriculum guides discuss diversity education from the instructor’s perspective. Other guides describe teaching strategies (e.g., Maher & Thompson Tetreault, 1992) as well as the pitfalls, opportunities, and reflections on their likely impact (Adams, 1992; MacPhee et al., 1994; Van Note Chism & Border, 1992). What is multicultural education? Originally focused on concerns about racism, it has expanded to address sexism, classism, and discrimination against people with disabilities. Sleeter and Grant (1987) identified several approaches, the most common of which promote (a) the Sharon K. Anderson holds the Ph.D. from the University of Denver and is Assistant Professor in the School of Education at Colorado State University. David MacPhee is also at Colorado State University and is Professor in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies. He received the Ph.D. from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Debra Govan holds the Ph.D. from Colorado State University and works independently as an author and in private practice. 37 ° C 2000 Human Sciences Press, Inc. 38 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION strength and value of cultural diversity, (b) social justice and equal opportunity, (c) the equitable distribution of power and wealth, and (d) alternative life choices for people. Other authors (e.g., Nieto, 1996) place particular emphasis on affirming the pluralism that students, their communities, and teachers represent. In addition to these goals, which concern the content of instruction, multicultural education is a pedagogical process. For instance, diversity issues are integrated into course content through examples, relevant materials, and themes from a variety of cultures and group (Pang & Barba, 1995). Multicultural education helps students to understand how frames of reference and perspectives influence the construction of knowledge in a discipline and how such knowledge can be translated into action as the basis for social change (Banks, 1997; Nieto, 1996). Another aspect of the instructional process is the use of an equity pedagogy that facilitates academic achievement of diverse groups of students and reduces prejudice. As such, multicultural education also is a reform movement that should address policy issues, but often does not do so (Sleeter & Grant, 1987). Importance of Student Perspectives In areas other than multicultural education, educators and researchers have examined students’ perceptions of classroom interactions and content (Babad, 1995; Laker, 1994; Nadler & Nadler, 1990; PrinceCohen, 1994). However, little research has specifically examined students’ responses to multicultural education or its impact on them. Hunt, Bell, Wei, and Ingle (1992) highlighted the importance of eliciting student perceptions rather than relying strictly on faculty recollection: “One of the most difficult tasks for university administrators and faculty is to understand and empathize with the ways students experience the institution. Faculty and staff tend to see the institution from their own limited perspective” (p. 103). The student’s perspective in evaluating multicultural education is important for several reasons. First, faculties often make assumptions about what constitutes effective multicultural education. These assumptions may not be warranted in terms of what actually promotes learning of emotion-laden content such as multiculturalism. Second, evaluations rarely ask students about a course’s impact, yet assessment of change in students is the goal of multicultural education evaluation (Beaudry & Davis, 1997). Therefore, student perspectives are crucial. Third, empowerment is a key aspect of multicultural education. Infusion of Multicultural Issues 39 According to some critics (D’Souza, 1991; Magner, 1991; Myers, 1991), trying to inculcate in students’ sympathetic attitudes toward minorities, low-income, or gay persons is to prescribe politically correct thought and speech. From this perspective students are likely to feel like targets for political correctness and become defensive. Faculty members need to employ instructional strategies that empower students (Sleeter, 1991) rather than those that provoke defensiveness. As they listen to students about their classroom experiences, students are encouraged to take charge of their own learning and to evaluate issues related to ethnicity and gender. Given the lack of research that examines how students experience and perceive multicultural education, our exploratory study had three goals: (a) to elicit descriptions of current and former students’ experiences that increased their multicultural awareness; (b) to identify the instructional patterns or pedagogical approaches within those multicultural experiences; and (c) to examine how these experiences affected students and their interactions with people different from themselves. Multicultural Curriculum Infusion Project In the project at Colorado State University, the above principles were implemented through an infusion model. In contrast to courses with distinct units on diversity, an infused course integrates multicultural issues into an entire course. In our Multicultural Curriculum Infusion Project university faculty from a variety of disciplines participate in a year-long series of seminars, readings, and field experiences that address diversity (or multicultural) issues, such as definitions of culture and ethnicity; the interaction of ethnicity, social class, and gender; and historical roots of racism. In addition, there is emphasis on how to create a safe classroom environment and on specific strategies for teaching about diversity. These strategies include cooperative learning, simulations, deconstruction of readings, critical thinking exercises related to generalizations (from theory) and individual differences, selfawareness exercises, and case studies (see MacPhee et al., 1994). Faculty participants are required to infuse one class with material on diversity although most participants eventually infuse multicultural content into all of their courses. We have found that few faculty explicitly inform students that their course is imbued with multicultural content. Instead, multicultural issues become an everyday part of the course, at least in the minds 40 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION of the instructors. However, we did not know whether students would perceive the multicultural content as part of the ongoing discourse of the class or whether it would stand in sharp relief to the rest of the material. We expected that students would be particularly attentive to active exercises such as simulations and role-plays, and to content that contradicted their worldview. Method We used an exploratory approach to examine current and former students’ perceptions and experience of multicultural education. Sample Current Students. The researchers contacted 26 faculty members who had been recent participants in the Multicultural Curriculum Infusion Project at Colorado State University. Five of the 26 faculty permitted us to survey their students (n = 98) regarding perceptions of course activities that had enhanced students’ awareness of multicultural issues. A convenience sampling method was used to access the sample. (Typically this was 95% of the students in class on the day the survey was given). The other 21 faculty members did not participate because the course in which they infused multicultural content was not taught the semester the study was conducted, they had not yet infused a course with multicultural issues, or they were no longer teaching at the university. Graduates. We selected 12 courses in which (a) the same instructor had taught both a preinfused1 and an infused version of the course and (b) the students were primarily juniors and seniors (to ensure that most had graduated at the time of the follow-up). These 12 courses were offered in six departments: Apparel and Merchandising, Education, Human Development, Nutrition, Occupational Therapy, and Sociology. Each instructor supplied class lists from which we randomly selected 6–12 students (approximately 15% of each class). To ensure mastery of course content, students who were selected had to have attained a grade of C or higher in the course. A total of 138 “infused” and 114 “preinfused” graduates were selected. The University did not have addresses for 14, another 33 were returned with no forwarding address, 1 The instructor had not yet participated in the Infusion Project nor identified the course as being infused. Infusion of Multicultural Issues 41 and 16 were returned without being completed. Sixteen infusion and 14 preinfusion participants returned completed questionnaires. These 128 students (98 current students, 30 graduates) provided 155 critical incidents. Of the current students 75 were female, and a majority (n = 70) identified themselves as Anglo. They ranged from sophomores to graduate students, with the largest number (n = 46) being seniors. The two former student groups (infused and preinfused) were equivalent on all background characteristics. All except one were female and Anglo, and the average age was 25.4 years. They had been in the work force for an average of 2.87 years, 73% were employed full time, and the average occupational status on the Duncan SEI was 53.3 (technical and support occupations). Most had majored in human development (38%), nutrition (31%), or occupational therapy (17%). Measures We used an exploratory approach to examine current students’ and former students’ (graduates’) perceptions and experience of multicultural education in the classroom. To do so we developed and distributed a critical incident response form. In addition, former students were asked to complete a survey that explored the long-term effect on knowledge, attitudes, and professional skills related to multicultural issues. Classroom Critical Incidents. The critical incident technique has been used as an assessment tool in several ways (Edwards, 1993; Parker, 1995; Vispoel & Austin, 1995). As a research tool, it has major advantages: it provides a means to gather data that minimizes researcher biases or assumptions, and the methodology is adaptable (Flanagan, 1954). The researchers developed the Classroom Critical Incident Response Form as described by Flanagan (1954) and Woolsey (1986). Both current and former students were invited “to describe up to three instances or experiences during this particular course . . . that helped strengthen your understanding of the importance of multiculturalism.” The students were encouraged “to consider all of the various course experiences” related to multicultural issues and to describe these classroom experiences in sufficient detail so that the researchers could develop a “mental picture.” In addition, they were asked to describe why the experience increased their multicultural awareness and to note any changes in their interactions with others that were the result of the classroom experiences. 42 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION Long-term Course Impact Survey. In addition to the Classroom Critical Incident Response Form, graduates completed four Likert-type questions on attitudes toward diversity, each with ratings from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). These questions focused on (1) whether cultural and social class differences were important, as long as people are treated respectfully; (2) what the level of comfort was when interacting with diverse others; (3) whether friendships included others who had different backgrounds; and (4) whether respondents sometimes put down persons because of their ethnicity, gender, or sexual preference. Participants did use the full range of response options. Next, graduates answered open-ended questions related to college courses that had a lasting impact on them and how these courses affected their (a) awareness of different perspectives, (b) personal lives (i.e., friendships and involvement in social issues), and (c) professional behaviors. In the professional domain, they also were asked how well prepared they felt they were to work with diverse people (from 1 “unprepared” to 10 “well prepared”) and whether they did any community volunteer work. Procedure Two of the researchers met with current students during class time and presented them a cover letter and the Classroom Critical Incident Response Form. The current students were given as much time as needed to write their responses. Graduates were contacted by mail and a cover letter explained that the University was trying to determine the impact of its diversity efforts. The target courses (courses that were infused) were listed as prompts, but they could discuss any course that they had taken. This was done so that the researchers would not overlook the influence of other courses addressing diversity issues. Analysis of Critical Incidents. Students’ descriptions of critical incidents were typed on individual pages for analysis. The content of these descriptions was analyzed to identify instructional patterns or pedagogical approaches that seemed to make a difference for students in understanding multicultural issues. Once the patterns were identified the researchers looked for themes that captured students’ reactions to the incident and the subsequent impact on their interactions with persons who were different from themselves. The descriptions were sorted three times. During the initial sorting, two of the researchers identified patterns. Each category was given a title and brief description. In Infusion of Multicultural Issues 43 addition, the researchers began to note the different levels of impact described. The third researcher completed the second sort using the initial category titles and descriptions. Interrater agreement was 85% between the first and second sorting. A third sorting was used to reconcile differences between the first two sorting processes. Analysis of Open-ended Questions on Survey. A content analysis of the open-ended questions was completed to identify all themes that were mentioned. With few exceptions, the same themes recurred in each area of impact. Once a complete list of themes was developed, a second individual independently coded half of the questionnaires and reached 72% agreement on the themes. Results Classroom Critical Incidents Based upon the 155 critical incidents Table I identifies the different categories and the number of descriptions in each category. In the Table I Number of Critical Incidents by Pedagogical and Classroom Dynamic Categories Category Lectures/discussion Projects Simulations Guest speakers/panels Self-exploration Class composition Reading/writing papers Facts Multiple methodologies Cultural pursuit games Slide presentations Case studies Volunteer activities Awareness of differences through group interaction Interviews Practicum/internship experiences Sharing/self-disclosure Treatment plans Number of incidents 35 17 15 14 11 9 9 8 7 6 4 4 4 3 3 3 2 1 44 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION sections that follow, we provide examples of critical incidents from the eight largest categories. In addition, we have included the students’ explanations of how a particular incident increased their awareness and changed their interactions with others. Lectures and Discussions. This was the largest category, including 35 classroom incidents. Current and former students described situations in which instructors provided information that then promoted an awareness of differences and/or bias. The following is an example: I remember most vividly the lecture on the Japanese culture and how they socialize their children. The professor lectured about how the mother provided the environment for the child to study, how many Japanese children go to special schools to enhance their education, and how fathers work until late in the evening. Students’ descriptions of how their heightened awareness changed their interactions with others different from themselves ranged from empathic to skeptical. Two examples follow: I have a half-Japanese client now who is pregnant at 17. She has made comments about how her father has told her she won’t be able to achieve her goal of becoming a radiologist now. This helps me understand the pressure she’s under to succeed in school, but also helps me to appreciate the value she’s been given to get an education and focus on helping her maintain a high value of education. As our country becomes inevitably more multicultural, I believe there will be an increase in racial tension within our society. Unfortunately, whether the perception is based on concrete reality or not, each [ethnic] group . . . will continue to perceive the other as hostile to their job interest . . . I believe that as a White male, it will continue to be a struggle to not take a defensive posture to minorities and women as I enter the workplace. Projects. Most of the descriptions in this category came from a design class in which students had the opportunity to research a particular culture and then to create a project that described the culture. One participant said, “We had an assignment that involved research of color in other cultures. This made me aware of not only how other cultures used color but how they influenced my own culture.” The following example illustrates how a project increased a participant’s awareness and affected interactions with a person from another culture. I think this increased my awareness of the Peruvian culture, their weaving . . . I found that more than symbolic representation of colors, the Peruvians chose combinations due to their interaction with each other. I felt a connection with a friend from Peru. . . . Infusion of Multicultural Issues 45 According to students, projects such as these affected their multicultural awareness in multiple ways: building a knowledge base about different cultures, feeling a connection with someone from that culture, and connecting with their own culture in a new way. Simulations. Some instructions used simulations that provided current and former students opportunities to be perceived as culturally different or to work on simulated tasks where diversity was a major issue. We had to go about campus in groups of 3 to 4 people. We had one wheelchair and we took turns in different parts of campus being in the wheelchair. We went in the bathrooms, through doors, tried to get downstairs, get up ramps . . . . The thing I really noticed was people had this look on their face when you were in their store, section, etc . . . . It was a look of kindness, pity, . . . I just wanted the people to look at me “normal.” Participants became aware of both positive and negative dynamics and interactions between themselves and others. This awareness resulted in changes of behavior. Note the following example: When I work with a child now (especially the teens) who are in a wheelchair, I always try and treat them like a teen, not someone in a chair. I treat them like one of my friends, and I try and I hope I never look or act like I feel sorry for them (even though sometimes I do). One participant, in planning a nutritionally complete menu on a Food Stamp budget, said he/she was more aware of how difficult it is to feed a family on limited finances. This experience gave the participant a “new respect for those who are struggling” with this reality. Respondents suggested that the simulations had helped develop perspective-taking, meaning that they could place themselves in another’s shoes and understand feelings and thoughts about being different. Guest Speakers/Panels. Current and former students described classroom experiences in which guest speakers presented theories about and/or personal experiences with cultural diversity. For example, one participant said, “We had a guest speaker . . . who spoke on faith and spirituality . . . about how everyone defines spirituality and religion in a different way.” Most respondents who described classroom incidents in this category reacted positively to guest speakers. They suggested that guest lectures could help them be more open to differences as well as challenge their current perspectives and stereotypes: “She handled the fact that everyone’s belief system is different very well—it is okay to be different on 46 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION this very sensitive topic! I am more open to differences of opinion on faith.” Self-Exploration. Some current and former students identified selfexploration experiences as critical incidents and these had both positive and negative impact. In reading Women’s Reality and doing a paper it helped me put perspective on my experience and to compare it to others. From this I realize my reality is different from others . . . I need to listen and interact accordingly. Can’t assume they “know” my reality. It was eye opening to me because I thought we were moving forward not getting trapped . . . as a woman we have to create equality and our own futures not leave it up to society. Class Composition. In itself the composition of the class was a stimulus for some participants. Respondents identified the presence of diversity or its lack as a critical incident for building multicultural awareness. This experience had both positive and negative impact. Working in teams with people of different ethnicities on a ‘cultural’ questionnaire. Because we had people of very different backgrounds in the group, we had a very large base of knowledge to draw from. It made me (a white male) more aware that other people may have radically different world views than I and that I may need to explain my opinions and beliefs more thoroughly and just not expect others to be able to follow my reasoning. Reading/Writing Papers. Some described course reading and writing opportunities as significant classroom incidents. Mostly it has been the exploration of different theories as they related to specific groups in our population. Examples are African American, GLB (gay, lesbian, bisexual), adult learners, and gender. The two writing assignments have also been instrumental in taking theories of our choice and interpreting them or applying them to real life events/problems. The following response illustrates how these experiences increased awareness and changed interactions: It gave us a good introduction to the theoretical basis, which hopefully gives us a better basis, or understanding of useful intervention/application . . . a greater sensitivity of what’s at play is useful. It’s also been instrumental in giving me a sound reason for not abusing theory by using it to ‘box’ people or generalize them. Facts. Some respondents identified factual information as having the greatest impact in raising their multicultural awareness. One student Infusion of Multicultural Issues 47 explained, “The low number of minorities and women in supervisory roles helped me realize even more how dominated the workforce is by White males.” It is important to note that some students viewed their exposure to multicultural information in the class as frustrating and/or unnecessary. I have found in my work and personal life that just because a person is Mexican, a whatever, that they do not have to fit into the “Mexican’s” culture. Not all Mexicans have strong family bonds . . . . Forgive my trembling . . . it [the class] did not encourage “multiculturalism”; rather it succeeded more in encouraging stereotypes and racism. Another student shared this perspective: Why are you concerned about increasing our “awareness” of multiculturalism? We all know that we’re not the same. We all know that some are better than others, regardless of cultural background. Do we really need to spend so much of our time and money to dwell on our differences? I wish not. We reexamined the impact of these classroom incidents on interactions with others to uncover any themes that might reflect students’ general experience. Their responses suggested three themes reflecting multicultural infusion’s effect. Figure 1 places these themes on a continuum, ranging from an aversive response to internalized effects on selfawareness. Those who experienced an aversive impact were frustrated with instructors who seemed uniformed about multicultural issues or intolerant of students’ perspectives. Students who experienced minimal Figure 1 Continuum of Impact for Current Students No Impact/Aversive Awareness of World Self-Awareness • Not necessary to spend time on this • Encouraged stereotypes or categorical thinking • Noticed others being intolerant • Recognized glass ceiling of companies • Realized how one-sided our country is • I need to change/check my communication • I need to learn more • I have greater respect, appreciation, hope, empathy, anger • I learned about myself • I gained insight • I struggle not to be defensive 48 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION impact were more likely to be those who received information about multicultural issues from lectures or guest speakers. Students whose self-awareness was affected most often recalled experiences involving active participation that was personally relevant such as simulations, projects, case studies, or practicum experiences. In summary, current and former students described critical incidents, later categorized into 18 pedagogical techniques and classroom dynamics that helped to strengthen their understanding of the importance of multiculturalism. In addition, participants had varying reactions to multicultural education. Some reactions seemed dependent on the instructional method while others were the result of student perception that the instructor was intolerant or ignorant of multicultural issues. Graduates’ Long-term Impact Survey Even though students described strategies in multicultural education, do certain strategies have an enduring effect? In this section, we describe graduates’ perceptions of how multicultural education affected them. They listed 33 different courses that had addressed issues of diversity. We expected more of the graduates who had taken infused courses to list targeted courses because they were prompted to do so in the cover letter. However, this was not the case. Equal numbers of infusion and preinfusion participants mentioned each target course. In addition, graduates who had taken noninfused courses listed an average of 2.86 courses that had an impact, whereas graduates who had taken infused courses listed an average of 3.12 courses, a nonsignificant difference. Furthermore, of the noninfused courses in the major, 44% were taught by an instructor who later participated in the infusion project; but 56% were taught by an instructor who had not participated. These results indicate that the course content and/or instructor’s interest in diversity had an impact independent of involvement in the Infusion Project. Several noninfused courses were mentioned by at least three of the preinfusion participants, all of which had an explicit focus on diversity: an introductory anthropology course, an education course on exceptionality and diversity, and an occupational therapy course on cultural issues in practice. Former students in the infused and preinfused courses gave similar responses to the attitude ratings as well as to the open-ended questions on impact. Therefore, the results are presented for the combined group. Attitudes and Knowledge. The graduates strongly agreed that they were comfortable interacting with people of different backgrounds (M = Infusion of Multicultural Issues 49 Table II Percentage of Graduates Noting Type of Long-Term Impact, by Area of Impact Areas of impact Specific theme Concrete information on Human diversity (general) Diversity (course specific) Ethnicity/poverty confound Impact of learning styles Gender Homosexuality Heightened interest in diversity Value diversity more Being nonjudgmental More empathetic & sensitive Decreased egocentrism Influence of own background Enhanced professional skills: Programming for diverse clients Sensitive to diverse needs Intercultural communication Use a more empowering style Engaged in activism Like to be with diverse people Minimal/negative impact Prof. Personal General Aware 19.2 53.8 7.7 3.8 7.7 15.4 0 3.8 0 0 0 7.7 10.7 25.0 0 0 0 0 7.1 3.6 28.6 21.4 21.4 0 0 24.0 4.0 4.0 0 0 8.0 4.0 48.0 0 0 0 0 13.0 0 0 0 0 17.4 13.0 30.4 0 0 0 19.2 0 0 0 0 0 3.8 7.1 0 0 0 0 0 10.7 20.0 44.0 16.0 0 0 0 12.0 0 0 0 4.3 30.4 17.4 13.0 Note. Columns do not add to 100% because multiple codes were possible. General = general impact of course(s); Aware = how course(s) affected awareness of different perspectives; Prof. = impact on professional skills and behavior; Personal = impact on personal life. 4.56 on a 1–5 scale), and they moderately disagreed that they sometimes put down others because of their ethnicity or sexual orientation (M = 2.31). A few indicated that they were more likely to hold negative attitudes toward gays than other marginalized groups. The following quotes from the open-ended sections are representative of those who talked about the importance of being nonjudgmental, especially when working in human services (see Table II). I have learned that there is no “right” way of looking at things. What is perfectly normal to me may be completely absurd to someone else. I know that everyone needs to be treated as an individual. Graduates typically gave neutral responses on the Likert item that asked about whether their friends are of similar ethnic and social class backgrounds (M = 3.13). In addition, less than 20% mentioned new 50 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION friendship patterns when asked about the impact of diversity courses on their personal lives (see Table II). Some (30.4%) mentioned social activism—letter writing, advocacy, volunteerism—as one impact in the personal sphere. Finally, there was a bimodal distribution of responses to the question about whether cultural and social class background were relatively unimportant so long as people are treated with respect (M = 3.62). Supporting comments indicated that being nonjudgmental and respectful was strongly emphasized in some courses, especially those that focused on professional skills, whereas other courses emphasized variations in human behavior that arose from social class, ethnicity, and culture. Participants who identified courses related to human behavior were more likely to disagree with the item regarding the relevancy of cultural and social class backgrounds because diversity is important to understanding a person’s behavior and needs. Content analyses of the open-ended responses revealed that knowledge about diversity was one of the most important benefits of these courses, regardless of whether it was infused (see Table II). General information included awareness of relations within different aspects of diversity (e.g., poverty, ethnicity, and gender) whereas course-specific information included material on cultural variations in areas such as child-rearing practices, communication styles, diet, and buying patterns. Several human development courses strongly emphasized the confounding effects of poverty and ethnicity (see MacPhee, Kreutzer, & Fritz, 1994), a theme that was reflected in 7.7% of the responses. Professional Skills. Nearly half of the former students (46.7%) had worked as volunteers in the community, most with low-income youth or families (n = 8) or persons with disabilities (n = 3). There were no group differences relative to volunteering nor in feeling prepared to work with diverse populations (M = 7.03, where 10 = feel well prepared). We had hypothesized that students with more multicultural course work would assimilate more knowledge about and acceptance of diversity, and the data support this hypothesis. Students who listed a larger number of courses that had an impact (a) disagreed that cultural and social class differences were unimportant, as long as you treat others with respect (r = .38, p < .05), and (b) feel prepared to work with diverse people (r = .32, p < .05). On the open-ended question about diversity courses’ influences on professional skills, more of the infusion graduates (27%) than preinfused graduates (9%) mentioned how helpful intercultural communication skills were when conducting interviews with or listening to clients, but this difference was not significant (z = .62). Infusion of Multicultural Issues 51 When former students described the types of experiences that best prepared them to work with diverse persons, almost half (48%) mentioned an internship or other type of direct contact with diverse groups, such as volunteer work or the Peace Corps. Another 24% noted real life experience; fewer (12%) listed course work and workshops. The perceived long-term professional benefits of such experiences are listed in Table II. Clearly, the most common changes relate to being sensitive to and respectful of diverse backgrounds. The following quote illustrates how this approach to human services practice is enacted. I treat a variety of people with varying disabilities and social backgrounds. I need to respect the fact that many cultures treat people with disabilities differently than I might. For example, I would always like to encourage my patients to achieve a level of maximum independence despite their disability and try to help them accomplish that goal. But in many cultures the families feel they need to protect and care for a person with a disability . . . . I would need to respect that and help the patients achieve goals they wanted. Another 20% discussed how they had learned to tailor interventions to the needs of diverse clients by taking into account learning styles, literacy levels, and variations in social networks. One participant discussed this as follows: When I convey information to a client, I always consider how their gender, income, race, and culture will affect how they use the information. If I’m dealing with an individual with an iron deficiency who is at the poverty line, I would discuss low-cost recommendations. Not all graduates perceived the attention to diversity issues as positive. One respondent resented coverage of sexual orientation and contemporary gender issues: The material on sexual orientation and gender have been virtually useless and disruptive to my profession as I teach in a Christian school and hold personal beliefs different from this (curriculum) project. I have taken a stand against ideas such as this because I cannot agree with the lifestyle choices . . . I resent this curriculum being shoved down our throats. Another graduate was less disturbed by ideological differences than by the means of instruction. As the following quote illustrates, when instructors address cultural differences, there is an inherent danger that intragroup variations will be glossed over, thus reinforcing stereotypes: I do feel strongly that when I took (the course) that the content encouraged the very stereotypes it was trying to break down . . . I was disgusted 52 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION that in a course trying to teach multiculturalism, a narrow-minded and categorical thought process was encouraged. Other graduates discussed circumstances and group norms that they found frustrating and difficult to handle: One of the therapists I became friends with was a lesbian . . . at first when I found out, I almost wanted to avoid her; I felt uncomfortable. But when I thought about it and when people at work started talking, I knew that I couldn’t just go along with this . . . I think my schooling . . . gave me that drive to want to know more about her. . . . Discussion and Conclusion This exploratory research project had multiple purposes: (a) to elicit descriptions of current and former students’ experiences that increased cultural awareness; (b) to identify the instructional patterns within those experiences that seemed important to students; and (c) to examine how these experiences affected students and their interactions with persons different from themselves. Because this study was exploratory and was conducted on a restricted population—a fairly homogenous student body at one university—only tentative implications for multicultural education can be drawn from these findings. First, it appears that instructors use multiple methods in the classroom to address multicultural issues. This approach is in accord with various authors’ suggestions that inclusive college teachers should have an array of strategies at their disposal to appeal to diverse backgrounds and learning styles (MacPhee et al., 1994). Second, students recognize instructors’ efforts to infuse issues of diversity in the classroom: they are able to articulate the way this information is presented and the impact of this information on their awareness and interactions with others. Thus, students are a viable and important (yet neglected) source of information about the impact of multicultural education. Third, students’ experience ranged from aversive to growing self-awareness. Their emotional reactions—enthusiasm, enlightenment, disinterest, frustration, anxiety, and anger—result from ideological incongruence as well as the particular methods used. Interactive and experiential methods seem to promote greater insight whereas dogmatic approaches elicited resistance. Information provided by current students suggests that instructors might consider instructional strategies that address different parts of the continuum of impact (see Fig. 1). For example, lectures, facts, Infusion of Multicultural Issues 53 slides, and readings may meet the students’ intellectual needs and interests that in turn build on the students’ awareness of the world. Simulations and experiential strategies, in contrast, may stir students to explore feelings, attitudes, and motivations that build self-awareness. Student readiness may explain the different levels of impact. As students are motivated to stay open-minded, to analyze other perspectives, and to be comfortable with a sense of self, they may be more open to selfreflection and critical analysis of multicultural information. Beaudry and Davis (1997) suggested that faculty need to be more specific about the domain (i.e., students’ behavior, attitude, or knowledge) to be modified by multicultural content. Instructors may also need to remember that the meaning of the message is as much in the listener as in the speaker. Students may feel offended or discounted by how multicultural issues are presented. Also, it is interesting to note how class composition affected current students. It may be a variable to which instructors are inattentive, and as a result they miss valuable opportunities to build awareness by bringing this aspect of the class into the foreground. The long-term results are concordant with the ideas of Gudykunst, Ting-Toomey, and Wiseman (1991), who noted that multicultural education has the potential to influence knowledge, attitudes, and professional skills. Each domain was evident in the graduates’ open-ended comments, although the retrospective design of the study and the selective sample make these conclusions tenuous. One way to gauge the validity of graduates’ perceptions of long-term impact is to compare their responses to the expected benefits of the project. The latter information was derived from an earlier cohort of faculty participants (n = 23) who, when they enrolled in the Infusion Project, were asked how their students likely would be affected by the curriculum changes. Their predictions mirrored the major themes in Table II. First, 30% wanted students to become more aware of and knowledgeable about diversity, especially its impact on values and behavior. Second, 52% hoped that students would be less judgmental and ethnocentric, “to act in ways that are more constructive and less suspicious,” and they hoped that “. . . their attitudes toward other cultures and minority groups will be more inclusive and empathetic.” Third, 39% expected their students to gain professional skills that would enable them to be better teachers, managers, and therapists. Some academic skills were not mentioned by graduates, including critically examining ideas from multiple perspectives and being more comfortable in voicing opinions. Finally, more of the faculty (22%) than of the graduates (8%) 54 INNOVATIVE HIGHER EDUCATION said that increased self-awareness was an important benefit because one’s identity and biases influenced group dynamics in work settings and affected one’s ability to deliver effective services. Instructors do not necessarily need to participate in a curriculum revision exercise to help students become conversant with multiculturalism. This assertion derives from the few differences observed between the preinfused and infused graduates, which may also be due to selection bias based on who completed the questionnaire. It may be that faculty who have a personal commitment to issues of diversity bring these into the course on their own, without prompting from the institution. Indeed, Schmitz, Paul, and Greenberg (1992) noted that faculty who volunteered for multicultural workshops had found them to be more beneficial than those who were required to attend. However, the following recommendations may assist in better presenting multicultural information to students. First, instructors should implement an ongoing feedback process to elicit students’ perceptions of the multicultural content and/or experience. Second, institutions should consider a broad-stroke approach to the infusion process. In other words, faculty, staff, and administrators could look at ways to implement a multicultural perspective outside of the classroom through advising, mentoring, and institutional services. The limitations and implications of this study suggest that further research is needed. For example, this same type of study could be completed at another university with a more diverse student population where faculties are trained to infuse their curriculum with multicultural issues. Generalizations derived from both studies could help instructors develop more effective classroom strategies in multicultural education. On a related note, students in the same course often noted the same critical incident. For instance, many students in a business course were struck by how many CEOs were Anglo males, which led to discussions of power, privilege, and hiring biases in the corporate world. One wonders what elements of such incidents make them so salient and influential. Is it that they challenge students’ assumptions about what is normative? Is it that the implications are far reaching? Or perhaps the instructor’s delivery is more forceful or inspires the imagination? Answers to such questions will help professors become better teachers and contribute to the current knowledge about effective multicultural education. In summary, effective infusion of diversity issues is a two-way process. Instructors may be trained and willing to infuse multicultural issues in their course work; however, students’ perceptions of that experience Infusion of Multicultural Issues 55 need to be considered. 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