Daniel 10.3-4.doc

Daniel 10:3-4 Daniel 10:3-Daniel Abstained From Choice Food, Meat, Wine and Using Ointment Until the End of The Three Weeks Review of Daniel 10:1-2 Daniel 10:1 During Cyrus’s third year, king over Persia, a message was revealed to Daniel who was called by his name Belteshazzar. Specifically this message was truth and concerning a great conflict because he understood this message, yes he possessed understanding concerning this revelation. (Author’s translation) Daniel 10:1 marks a transition from the account of the revelation Daniel received during the first year of Darius the Mede’s reign as king over the Babylonians to the account of the revelation he received during the third year of Cyrus the Persian. The former appears in Daniel chapter nine. This would indicate that Daniel received this revelation from God through an elect angel in 536 B.C. since this was the third year of the reign of Cyrus king of Persia. In Daniel 11:2-12:13, in 536 B.C. Daniel receives his fourth and final prophetic revelation, which concerns itself with the future of the nation of Israel during the Times of the Gentiles. This was the year that the Jewish exiles in Babylon were returning from Babylon and had begun rebuilding the temple. Thus, Israel’s captivity in Babylon had come to an end when Daniel received this revelation from God. He was approximately eighty-four years of age at this time. Daniel tells the reader that he received a message, which he describes as “truth” which refers to truth in an objective sense as revelation of God’s will in relation to Israel, which is concerning the future of Israel from Daniel’s perspective in the sixth century B.C. The prophecy recorded in Daniel 11:2-12:13 is truth in the sense that it is prophetic revelation from God regarding His prophetic program for the nation of Israel. This revelation makes clear that Israel will be at war or engaged in armed conflicts until the Second Advent of Jesus Christ, which terminates the seventy weeks. The revelation that is presented to the reader in Daniel 11-12 concerns itself with war up to the end of the seventy weeks which culminates in the Second Advent of Jesus Christ. These last two chapters in the book of Daniel reveal that there will be great conflict in the future for Israel during the Times of the Gentiles extending up to the Second Advent of Jesus Christ. Daniel was able to tell the reader that this prophetic revelation from God was concerning a great war because this was clear to him from the message which was communicated to him by the unidentified elect angel. Therefore, Daniel understood from this revelation which appears in chapters 11 and 12 that Israel would have no peace but would constantly be at war until the seventy weeks had come to an end. She would have no peace until the millennial reign of Jesus Christ. Daniel 10:2 During those days, I myself, Daniel caused myself to enter the state of mourning for three weeks. (Author’s translation) So here in Daniel 10:2, Daniel transitions from employing the third person in the narrative as he did in Daniel 10:1 to using the first person emphasizing that this is his personal account of what he saw and heard when he received this fourth and final prophetic revelation from God concerning the future of the nation of Israel. He says that he caused himself to enter the state of mourning. In Daniel 10:3, he tells the reader that he expressed his sorrow by fasting and by not putting on any ointment for three weeks. The obvious question is why was Daniel causing himself to enter into the state of mourning? One reason why he could have been mourning is because many of the Jewish exiles continued to stay in Babylon even though they were free to return to the land of Israel. Daniel had a good reason why he could not return, namely he was a high governmental official in Babylon serving Darius the Mede who served under Cyrus the Persian. Remember during Cyrus’ first year he issued a decree which permitted the Jewish exiles to leave Babylon and return to their homeland (cf. Ezra 1). However, Ezra 2:64 says that only 42,360 returned, which is a rather small number. Another reason why Daniel could have been mourning was that he heard of the enemies of the Jews opposing them (cf. Ezra 4:4-5). On the anniversary of Israel’s exodus from Egypt, a new exodus had begun during the first year of Cyrus the Persian, namely the Jewish exiles exodus from Babylon to Israel (Ezra 1). However, it met with great discouragement early on (cf. Ezra 3:12-4:5). The work of rebuilding the temple came to a complete stop because of Israel’s enemies (cf. Ezra 4:24). It would take another two decades before the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem would be completed (Zechariah 4:7). Daniel Did Not Eat Choice Food Daniel 10:3 I did not eat any tasty food, nor did meat or wine enter my mouth, nor did I use any ointment at all until the entire three weeks were completed. (NASB95) “I did not eat any tasty food” is composed of the masculine singular construct form of the noun lě·ḥěm (לֶחֶם‭) (‬lekh‭´‬-em‭)‬,‭ “‬food‭” ‬which is modified by the‭ ‬feminine plural form of the noun‭ ‬ḥǎmǔ·ḏôṯ‭ (‬חֲמֻדוֹת‭) (‬khaw-mad‭´)‬,‭ “‬tasty‭” ‬and then we have the‭ ‬negative particle‭ ‬lō(ʾ‭) (‬לֹא‭) (‬low‭)‬,‭ “‬not any‭” ‬which is negating the‭ ‬meaning of the‭ ‬first person singular‭ ‬qal active‭ ‬perfect‭ ‬form of the verb‭ ‬ʾā∙ḵǎl‭ (‬אָכַל‭) (‬aw-kal‭)‬,‭ “‬I did eat.‭” Asyndeton Daniel is employing the figure of “asyndeton” in order to emphasize with the reader Daniel’s solemn nature when he received this fourth and final revelation from God concerning the future of the nation of Israel during the Times of the Gentiles. ʾā∙ḵǎl The verb ʾā∙ḵǎl means “to eat, to consume food” and its meaning is emphatically negated by the negative particle lō(ʾ), which means “absolutely no” since it is functioning as marker of emphatic negation. Therefore, these two words express the fact that for three weeks Daniel “never ate” choice food. The qal stem of the verb is fientive expressing an action referring to the action of Daniel abstaining from choice food. The perfect conjugation of the verb is constative describing in summary fashion taken by Daniel. ḥǎmǔ·ḏôṯʹ lěʹ·ḥěm The noun lě·ḥěm means “food” referring to a consumable product which is in contrast to a drinkable liquid. It usually means “bread” but here it is modified by the noun ḥǎmǔ·ḏôṯ, which means “choice, valuable” referring to things which are considered as the best, most costly or most valued. Bread was not considered in Daniel’s day to be costly or of high value. Some argue that this word describes this food as “desirable.” However, it can describe something that is of precious value. Of course, food that is desirable is often expensive. Perhaps both ideas are in view with this word. Thus, these two words speak of “expensive choice food.” The construct state of lě·ḥěm means that it is governing the noun ḥǎmǔ·ḏôṯ and is expressing a genitive relation between the two. Here the genitive relation is attributive meaning that ḥǎmǔ·ḏôṯ describes the construct term in a way that is best translated into English with an attributive adjective. Daniel Did Eat Meat or Drink Wine Daniel 10:3 I did not eat any tasty food, nor did meat or wine enter my mouth, nor did I use any ointment at all until the entire three weeks were completed. (NASB95) “Nor did meat or wine enter my mouth” is composed of the conjunction wa (וְ‭) (‬waw‭)‬,‭ “‬nor,‭” ‬which is followed by the‭ ‬masculine singular form of the noun‭ ‬bā∙śār‭ (‬בָּשָׂר‭) (‬baw-sawr‭)‬,‭ “‬meat‭” ‬and then once again we have the‭ ‬conjunction‭ ‬wa‭ (‬וְ‭) (‬waw‭)‬,‭ “‬or,‭” ‬which is followed by the masculine singular form of the noun‭ ‬yǎ∙yin‭ (‬יַיִן‭) (‬yah-yin‭)‬,‭ “‬wine‭” ‬and‭ ‬then we have the‭ ‬negative particle‭ ‬lō(ʾ‭) (‬לֹא‭) (‬low‭)‬,‭ “‬nor‭” ‬which is negating the‭ ‬meaning of the third person masculine singular qal active perfect‭ ‬form of the verb‭ ‬bôʾ‭ (‬בּוֹא‭) (‬bow‭)‬,‭ “‬did enter‭” ‬and then‭ ‬we have‭ ‬the preposition‭ ‬ʾěl‭ (‬אֶל‭) (‬ale‭)‬,‭ ‬which is not translated and its object is the masculine singular construct form of the noun‭ ‬pě(h‭) (‬פֶּה‭) (‬peh‭)‬,‭ “‬mouth‭” ‬which is modified by the‭ ‬first person singular pronominal suffix‭ ‬ʾǎnî‭ (‬אֲנִי‭) (‬an-ee‭)‬,‭ “‬my.‭” wa The conjunction wa is adjunctive meaning that it is introducing a word which presents another item which Daniel abstained from for three weeks which is “in addition to” abstaining from eating expensive choice food. bā∙śār The noun bā∙śār means “meat” speaking of the flesh of animals. Of course, Daniel only ate the flesh of animals which were ceremonially clean according to dietary regulations of the Mosaic Law, which he adhered conscientiously (cf. Daniel 1). wa Once again, the conjunction wa is adjunctive meaning that it is introducing a word which presents another item which Daniel abstained from for three weeks which is “in addition to” abstaining from eating expensive choice food or meat. yǎ∙yin The noun yǎ∙yin means “wine” which is the usual Hebrew word for a fermented grape and clearly refers to an intoxicating beverage when used in excess. There were no prohibitions with regards to the drinking of wine in the Mosaic Law. However, the problem was that the wine, as well as the meat, had been dedicated to idols as was customary in Babylon. Thus, for Daniel or any Jew under the Law, to drink of this wine would be to recognize the Babylonian idols as deities. But in this case, by telling the reader that he abstained from drinking wine for three weeks indicates that Daniel drank wine that was not offered to the Babylonians. We knew he would never drink wine dedicated to idols. Thus, the wine he mentions here in Daniel 10:3 is wine that was not dedicated to idols but considered acceptable to drink under the dietary regulations of the Mosaic Law. bôʾ The verb bô(ʾ) means “to enter” and is used with reference to food entering Daniel’s mouth. Its meaning is emphatically negated by the negative particle lō(ʾ), which means “absolutely no” since it is functioning as marker of emphatic negation. Therefore, these two words express the fact that for three weeks wine “never entered into” Daniel’s mouth. The qal stem of the verb is fientive expressing an action referring to the action of Daniel abstaining from drinking wine for three weeks. The perfect conjugation of the verb is constative describing in summary fashion taken by Daniel. ʾěly piʹ The noun pě(h) means “mouth” referring to the entrance orifice of the body for ingestion of food and liquids, breathing and communication. The word’s meaning is modified by the first person singular pronominal suffix ʾǎnî, which means “my” since it functions as a possessive pronoun referring of course to Daniel. The noun pě(h) is the object of the preposition ʾěl which means “into” since it functions as a marker of an extension toward a goal which is inside of an area, which in our context is Daniel’s mouth. Daniel Did Not Use Ointment Until Three Weeks Was Complete Daniel 10:3 I did not eat any tasty food, nor did meat or wine enter my mouth, nor did I use any ointment at all until the entire three weeks were completed. (NASB95) “Nor did I use any ointment at all until the entire three weeks were completed” is composed of the conjunction wa (וְ‭) (‬waw‭)‬,‭ “‬nor any,‭” ‬which is‭ ‬followed by the qal active infinitive absolute form of the verb‭ ‬sûḵ‭ (‬סוּךְ‭) (‬sook‭)‬,‭ “‬at all‭” ‬and then we have the‭ ‬negative particle‭ ‬lō(ʾ‭) (‬לֹא‭) (‬low‭)‬,‭ “‬nor‭” ‬which is negating the‭ ‬meaning of the first person singular‭ ‬qal active‭ ‬perfect‭ ‬form of the verb‭ ‬sûḵ‭ (‬סוּךְ‭) (‬sook‭)‬,‭ “‬did I use ointment‭” ‬and then‭ ‬we have the‭ ‬preposition‭ ‬ʿǎḏ‭ (‬עַד‭) (‬ad‭)‬,‭ “‬until‭” ‬and its object is the‭ ‬qal‭ ‬active infinitive construct form of the verb‭ ‬mā·lē(ʾ‭) (‬מָלֵא‭) (‬maw-lay‭´)‬,‭ “‬were completed‭” ‬which is followed‭ ‬by the‭ ‬feminine singular‭ ‬construct form of the‭ ‬cardinal number‭ ‬šā·lōš‭ (‬שָׁלֹשׁ‭) (‬shaw-loshe‭´)‬,‭ “‬three‭” ‬which is modifying the‭ ‬masculine‭ ‬plural‭ ‬noun‭ ‬šā·ḇûaʿ‭ (‬שָׁבוּעַ‭) (‬shaw-boo‭´‬-ah‭)‬,‭ “‬the weeks‭” ‬which is modified by the‭ ‬masculine plural form of the noun‭ ‬yôm‭ (‬יוֹם‭) (‬yome‭)‬,‭ “‬entire.‭” wa Once again, the conjunction wa is adjunctive meaning that it is introducing a word which presents another item which Daniel abstained from for three weeks which is “in addition to” abstaining from eating expensive choice food or meat and drinking wine. lō(ʾ) sāḵʹ·tî sôḵʹ The verb sûḵ means “to anoint” in the sense of applying to one’s body oils, performs, lotions or resins. It refers to the anointing of oneself with oil for cosmetic purposes, usually after washing. Anointing oneself with oil (usually olive oil) was a common OT practice due to the severity of the Middle Eastern sun (cf. Ps 121:6). It was also associated with rejoicing (e.g., Prov 27:9) and was therefore usually not practiced during a period of mourning. Biblical Studies Press. (2006). The NET Bible First Edition; Bible. English. NET Bible.; The NET Bible. Biblical Studies Press. The meaning of the verb sûḵ is emphatically negated by the negative particle lō(ʾ), which means “absolutely no” since it is functioning as marker of emphatic negation. Therefore, these two words express the fact that for three weeks Daniel “never applied ointments” to his body. The qal stem of the verb is fientive expressing an action referring to the action of Daniel abstaining from applying olive oil to his body after bathing for three weeks. The perfect conjugation of the verb is constative describing in summary fashion taken by Daniel. The verb sûḵ is used a second time with the same meaning but this time it is used in the infinitive absolute form, which is used to emphasize the action of the verb in the qal perfect conjugation, which was negated by negative particle lō(ʾ). This construction affirms Daniel abstaining from anointing himself with olive oil for three weeks. The qal stem is again fientive expressing this action not taking place in the life of Daniel for three weeks. ʿǎḏ yā·mîmʹ šelōʹ·šěṯ šā·ḇǔ·ʿîmʹ melō(ʾ)ṯʹ The masculine plural noun šā·ḇûaʿ means “a unit of seven” and is modified by the cardinal number šā·lōš which means “three” since it is a ordinal number of being third in a series involving time. This cardinal number is then modified by the noun yôm which again is in the plural and again means “days” referring to a unit of time reckoned from sunset to the next sunset, including two or more segments (morning and evening) about 24 hours. The noun yôm is in the plural and means “days” referring to a unit of time reckoned from sunset to the next sunset, including two or more segments (morning and evening) about 24 hours. The verb mā·lē(ʾ) means “to fill up a time frame” in the sense of a period of time whether days, weeks, months or years coming to an end. Here it refers to the end of the three weeks in which Daniel abstained from choice food, meat, wine and anointing himself with olive oil. It functions here as the object of the preposition ʿǎḏ whose functions determines the function of this verb in the construct state. Here the preposition means “until” referring to a continuous extent of time up to a point. Here Daniel abstained from eating choice food, meat, drinking wine and anointing himself with olive oil at the end of three weeks. Translation of Daniel 10:3 Daniel 10:3 I never ate expensive choice food or meat. Also, wine never entered into my mouth likewise I never anointed myself with oil until the end of the three weeks. Exposition of Daniel 10:3 Daniel explains what he means in verse 2 that he was mourning. He expressed this mourning by never eating choice expensive food or meat, which of course was ceremonially clean according to the dietary laws of the Mosaic Law. He also never drank wine, which was also clean in that it was not dedicated to idols. Lastly, he says he never anointed himself with oil. All of these actions expressed Daniel’s grief. As we noted in verse 2, Daniel was mourning for three weeks for two reasons. First of all, many of the Jewish exiles continued to stay in Babylon even though they were free to return to the land of Israel. During Cyrus’ first year he issued a decree which permitted the Jewish exiles to leave Babylon and return to their homeland (cf. Ezra 1). However, Ezra 2:64 says that only 42,360 returned, which is a rather small number. Secondly, Daniel heard of the enemies of the Jews opposing them (cf. Ezra 4:4-5). On the anniversary of Israel’s exodus from Egypt, a new exodus had begun during the first year of Cyrus the Persian, namely the Jewish exiles exodus from Babylon to Israel (Ezra 1). However, it met with great discouragement early on (cf. Ezra 3:12-4:5). The work of rebuilding the temple came to a complete stop because of Israel’s enemies (cf. Ezra 4:24). It would take another two decades before the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem would be completed (Zechariah 4:7). God’s plan was moving according to schedule even though Daniel may not have realized this fact. So here in Daniel 10:3, Daniel is telling the reader that he expressed this mourning over these two things by going on a fast for three weeks. He was fasting for three weeks out of concern for his fellow Jewish countrymen and as an expression of seeking God’s will concerning this matter of his people. Fasting refers to the act of depriving the body of nourishment. It was done for a variety of reasons. First of all it was done by nations as a sign of sorrow in the wake of a national tragedy (Judges 20:26; 1 Samuel 31:13; 1 Chronicles 10:12; 2 Samuel 1:12; 3:35; Esther 4:3; Jeremiah 14:1-12; Joel 1:14; 2:12-15). It was also done by individuals of course who experienced sorrow or suffering (1 Samuel 1:7-8; 20:34; Job 3:24; Psalm 42:3; 102:4; 107:17-18). Fasting was also a sign of repentance from national or corporate sins and was an act of seeking forgiveness from God as a nation (1 Samuel 7:6; Ezra 9:1-10:17; Nehemiah 9:1; Zechariah 8:16-19). Daniel and Nehemiah fasted individually over their nation’s corporate sin as a demonstration of humility and repentance (Daniel 9:3-14; Nehemiah 1:4-7). Many believers in the Old Testament fasted while in intercessory prayer for others (2 Samuel 12:16-23; Nehemiah 1:8-10; Psalm 35:13; Daniel 6:18; 9:15-19) or when offering personal petitions (1 Samuel 1:7-11; Nehemiah 1:11; Psalm 109:21-24; Daniel 9:3; 10:1-3). Leaders prayed and fasted before battles (Judges 20:26; 1 Samuel 7:6; 2 Chronicles 20:3) and for relief from famine (Jeremiah 14:1-12; Joel 1:14; 2:12-15) or for success in other areas (Ezra 8:21-23; Esther 4:16). The Lord Jesus Christ encouraged fasting as an aid to one’s personal devotion to God (Matthew 6:16-18). The first century apostolic church engaged in corporate fasting and prayer meetings (Acts 13:2-3). Fasting was used as an aid to experiencing God’s presence (Exodus 34:28; 1 Kings 19:8) and as an act of ceremonial public worship (Nehemiah 9:1; Esther 9:31; Isaiah 58:3; Jeremiah 36:6-9; Zechariah 7:3-5; 8:19). Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther initiated fasts even though the Mosaic Law did not require them. Kent Berghuis writes, “The Scriptures do not forbid fasting, and yet they curb improper applications of the practice. Nor does the Bible command fasting for all believers, although the practice is assumed as part of the human spiritual experience. The Bible mentions fasting from food in about fifty-nine contexts, depending on how strictly one limits the references. Of these, thirteen contain at least some negative associations or corrective teaching, while the other forty-six either are totally favorable toward fasting, give it at least tacit approval, or appear to assign it no moral connotation. The positive passages demonstrate that in general fasting is viewed favorably, as long as certain spiritual boundaries are in place. The dominant theme of the correctives is that fasting is meaningless if accompanied by hypocrisy or sin, and the ritual itself is less important than righteous attitudes and actions.” (Bibliotheca Sacra, volume 158, number 629; pages 87-88) Easton’s Bible Dictionary has the following comment on fasting, they write, “Fast — The sole fast required by the law of Moses was that of the great Day of Atonement (q.v.), Lev. 23:26–32. It is called ‘the fast’ (Acts 27:9). The only other mention of a periodical fast in the Old Testament is in Zech. 7:1–7; 8:19, from which it appears that during their captivity the Jews observed four annual fasts. (1.) The fast of the fourth month, kept on the seventeenth day of Tammuz, the anniversary of the capture of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans; to commemorate also the incident recorded Ex. 32:19. (Comp. Jer. 52:6, 7.) (2.) The fast of the fifth month, kept on the ninth of Ab (comp. Num. 14:27), to commemorate the burning of the city and temple (Jer. 52:12, 13). (3.) The fast of the seventh month, kept on the third of Tisri (comp. 2 Kings 25), the anniversary of the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. 41:1, 2). (4.) The fast of the tenth month (comp. Jer. 52:4; Ezek. 33:21; 2 Kings 25:1), to commemorate the beginning of the siege of the holy city by Nebuchadnezzar. There was in addition to these the fast appointed by Esther (4:16). Public national fasts on account of sin or to supplicate divine favour were sometimes held. (1.) 1 Sam. 7:6; (2.) 2 Chr. 20:3; (3.) Jer. 36:6–10; (4.) Neh. 9:1. There were also local fasts. (1.) Judg. 20:26; (2.) 2 Sam. 1:12; (3.) 1 Sam. 31:13; (4.) 1 Kings 21:9–12; (5.) Ezra 8:21–23: (6.) Jonah 3:5–9. There are many instances of private occasional fasting (1 Sam. 1:7; 20:34; 2 Sam. 3:35; 12:16; 1 Kings 21:27; Ezra 10:6; Neh. 1:4; Dan. 10:2,3). Moses fasted forty days (Ex. 24:18; 34:28), and so also did Elijah (1 Kings 19:8). Our Lord fasted forty days in the wilderness (Matt. 4:2). In the lapse of time the practice of fasting was lamentably abused (Isa. 58:4; Jer. 14:12; Zech. 7:5). Our Lord rebuked the Pharisees for their hypocritical pretences in fasting (Matt. 6:16). He himself appointed no fast. The early Christians, however, observed the ordinary fasts according to the law of their fathers (Acts 13:3; 14:23; 2 Cor. 6:5). (Easton, M. (1996). Easton's Bible dictionary. Oak Harbor, WA: Logos Research Systems, Inc.) C. Robert Marsh has the following comment, “The Bible describes three main forms of fasting. The normal fast involves the total abstinence of food. Luke 4:2 reveals that Jesus ‘ate nothing’; afterwards ‘He was hungry.’ Jesus abstained from food but not from water. In Acts 9:9 we read of an absolute fast where for three days Paul ‘did not eat or drink’ (HCSB). The abstinence from both food and water seems to have lasted no more than three days (Ezra 10:6; Esther 4:16). The partial fast in Dan. 10:3 emphasizes the restriction of diet rather than complete abstinence. The context implies that there were physical benefits resulting from this partial fast. However, this verse indicates that there was a revelation given to Daniel as a result of this time of fasting. Fasting is the laying aside of food for a period of time when the believer is seeking to know God in a deeper experience. It is to be done as an act before God in the privacy of one’s own pursuit of God (Exod. 34:28; 1 Sam. 7:6; 1 Kings 19:8; Matt. 6:17). Fasting is to be done with the object of seeking to know God in a deeper experience (Isa. 58; Zech. 7:5). Fasting relates to a time of confession (Ps. 69:10). Fasting can be a time of seeking a deeper prayer experience and drawing near to God in prevailing prayer (Ezra 8:23; Joel 2:12). The early church often fasted in seeking God’s will for leadership in the local church (Acts 13:2). When the early church wanted to know the mind of God, there was a time of prayer and fasting.” (Brand, C., Draper, C., England, A., Bond, S., Clendenen, E. R., Butler, T. C., & Latta, B. (2003). Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary. Nashville, TN: Holman Bible Publishers. ) The New Manners and Customs of the Bible, “Fasting is the laying aside of food for a period of time when the believer is seeking to know God in a deeper experience. It is to be done as an act before God in the privacy of one’s own pursuit of God (Exodus 34:28; 1 Samuel 7:6; 1 Kings 19:8). The sole fast required by the law of Moses was that of the Great Day of Atonement in Leviticus 23:26–32. It is called ‘the fast’ in Acts 27:9. The only other mention of a periodical fast in the Old Testament is in Zechariah 7:1–7; 8:19. During their captivity, the Jews observed four annual fasts: the fast of the fourth month, kept on the seventeenth day of Tammuz, the anniversary of the capture of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans; to commemorate also the incident recorded Exodus 32:19; the fast of the fifth month, kept on the ninth of Ab (Numbers. 14:27), to commemorate the burning of the city and temple (Jeremiah 52:12, 13); the fast of the seventh month, kept on the third of Tisri (2 Kings 25), the anniversary of the murder of Gedaliah (Jeremiah 41:1, 2); the fast of the tenth month (Jeremiah 52:4; Ezekiel 33:21; 2 Kings 25:1), to commemorate the beginning of the siege of the holy city by Nebuchadnezzar. There was, in addition to these, the fast appointed by Esther (Esther 4:16). Public national fasts on account of sin or to supplicate divine favor were sometimes held (1 Samuel 7:6, 2 Chronicles 20:3; Jeremiah 36:6–10; Nehemiah 9:1), as were local fasts (Judges 20:26; 1 Samuel 31:13; 2 Samuel 1:12; 1 Kings 21:9–12; Ezra 8:21–23; Jonah 3:5–9). There are many instances of occasional fasting by individuals (1 Samuel 1:7; 20:34; 2 Samuel 3:35; 12:16; 1 Kings 21:27; Ezra 10:6; Nehemiah 1:4; Daniel 10:2, 3). Moses fasted forty days (Exodus 24:18; 34:28), as did Elijah (1 Kings 19:8). Jesus fasted forty days in the wilderness (Matthew 4:2). Apparently the practice of fasting was lamentably abused (Isaiah 58:4; Jeremiah 14:12; Zechariah 7:5). Jesus rebuked the Pharisees for their hypocritical pretenses in fasting. The early Church often fasted in seeking God’s will for leadership in the local church (Acts 13:2). When the early Church wanted to know the mind of God, there was a time of prayer and fasting. Jesus Himself appointed no specific fast. The early Christians, however, observed the ordinary fasts according to the law of their fathers (Acts 13:3; 14:23; 2 Corinthians 6:5). (Freeman, J. M., & Chadwick, H. J. (1998). Manners & customs of the Bible (Rev. ed.].). North Brunswick, NJ: Bridge-Logos Publishers.) H.A.G. Belben has the following comment, “Fasting in the Bible generally means going without all food and drink for a period (e.g. Est. 4:16), and not merely refraining from certain foods. I. In the Old Testament: The Heb. words are ṣûm (verb) and ṣôm (noun). The phrase ‘innâ nap̄šô (to afflict the soul) also refers to fasting. First, there were certain annual fasts. Thus the Hebrews fasted on the Day of Atonement (Lv. 16:29, 31; 23:27–32; Nu. 29:7). After the Exile, four other annual fasts were observed (Zc. 8:19), all of them, according to the Talmud, marking disasters in Jewish history. Est. 9:31 can be interpreted as implying the establishment of yet another regular fast. In addition to these there were occasional fasts. These were sometimes individual (e.g. 2 Sa. 12:22) and sometimes corporate (e.g. Jdg. 20:26; Joel 1:14). Fasting gave expression to grief (1 Sa. 31:13; 2 Sa. 1:12; 3:35; Ne. 1:4; Est. 4:3; Ps. 35:13–14) and penitence (1 Sa. 7:6; 1 Ki. 21:27; Ne. 9:1-2; Dn. 9:3–4; Jon. 3:5–8). It was a way by which men might humble themselves (Ezr. 8:21; Ps. 69:10). Sometimes it may have been thought of as a self-inflicted punishment (cf. the phrase ‘to afflict the soul’). Fasting was often directed towards securing the guidance and help of God (Ex. 34:28; Dt. 9:9; 2 Sa. 12:16–23; 2 Ch. 20:3–4; Ezr. 8:21–23). Fasting could be vicarious (Ezr. 10:6; Est. 4:15–17). Some came to think that fasting would automatically gain man a hearing from God (Is. 58:3–4). Against this the prophets declared that without right conduct fasting was in vain (Is. 58:5–12; Je. 14:11–12; Zc. 7). II. In the New Testament: The usual Gk. words are nēsteuō (verb), and nēsteia and nēstis (nouns). In Acts 27:21, 33 the words asitia and asitos (‘without food’) are also used. As far as general Jewish practice is concerned, the Day of Atonement is the only annual fast referred to in the NT (Acts 27:9). Some strict Pharisees fasted every Monday and Thursday (Lk. 18:12). Other devout Jews, like Anna, might fast often (Lk. 2:37). The only occasion when Jesus is recorded as fasting is at the time of his temptations in the wilderness. Then, however, he was not necessarily fasting from choice. The first temptation implies that there was no food available in the place he had selected for his weeks of preparation for his ministry (Mt. 4:1–4). Cf. the 40 days’ fasts of Moses (Ex. 34:28) and Elijah (1 Ki. 19:8). Jesus assumed that his hearers would fast, but taught them when they did so to face Godward, not manward (Mt. 6:16–18). When asked why his disciples did not fast as did those of John the Baptist and of the Pharisees, Jesus did not repudiate fasting, but declared it to be inappropriate for his disciples ‘as long as the bridegroom is with them’ (Mt. 9:14–17; Mk. 2:18–22; Lk. 5:33–39). Later they would fast like others. In Acts leaders of the church fast when choosing missionaries (13:2–3) and elders (14:23). Paul twice refers to his fasting (2 Cor. 6:5; 11:27). In the former passage voluntary fasting, by way of self-discipline, appears to be meant (nēsteia); the latter passage mentions both involuntary ‘hunger’ (limos) and voluntary going ‘without food’ (nēsteia). The weight of textual evidence is against the inclusion of references to fasting in Mt. 17:21; Mk. 9:29; Acts 10:30; 1 Cor. 7:5, though the presence of these references in many mss in itself indicates that there was a growing belief in the value of fasting in the early church.” (Wood, D. R. W., & Marshall, I. H. (1996). New Bible dictionary (3rd ed.). Leicester, England; Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press.) Daniel 10:4-Daniel Was By the Bank of the Tigris River on the Twenty-Fourth Day of the First Month Twenty-Fourth Day of the First Month Daniel 10:4 On the twenty-fourth day of the first month, while I was by the bank of the great river, that is, the Tigris. (NASB95) “On the twenty-fourth day of the first month” is composed of the conjunction wa (וְ‭) (‬waw‭)‬,‭ ‬which is not translated and‭ ‬followed by the‭ ‬preposition‭ ‬bĕ‭ (‬בְּ‭) (‬beh‭)‬,‭ “‬on‭” ‬and its object is the masculine singular construct form of the noun‭ ‬yôm‭ (‬יוֹם‭) (‬yome‭)‬,‭ “‬the day‭” ‬which is modified by the masculine plural cardinal number‭ ‬ʿěś·rîm‭ (‬עֶשְׂרִים‭) (‬es-reem‭´)‬,‭ ‬and then we have the‭ ‬conjunction‭ ‬wa‭ (‬וְ‭) (‬waw‭)‬,‭ ‬which is not translated and followed by the feminine singular cardinal number‭ ‬ʾǎr·bǎʿ‭ (‬אַרְבַּע‭) (‬ar-bah‭´)‬,‭ ‬which altogether are translated‭ “‬twenty-fourth‭” ‬and then we have the preposition‭ ‬lĕ‭ (‬לְ‭) (‬leh‭) “‬of‭” ‬and its object is the articular masculine singular form of the noun‭ ‬ḥō·ḏěš‭ (‬חֹדֶשׁ‭) (‬kho‭´‬-desh‭)‬,‭ “‬the month‭” ‬which is‭ ‬followed by the articular masculine singular form of the adjective‭ ‬ri(ʾ‭)·‬šôn‭ (‬רִאשׁוֹן‭) (‬ree-shone‭´)‬,‭ “‬first.‭” wa The conjunction wa means “then” since it is functioning as a marker of a sequence of closely related events. This means that it is introducing a statement that marks the next event that took place after the events recorded in verses 2 and 3, which record Daniel telling the reader that he entered into a state of mourning for three weeks. Now, here in verse 4, the conjunction wa is introducing a statement in which Daniel tells the reader that on the twenty-fourth day of the first month while he was by the banks of the Tigris river, he saw a vision of a supernatural being, whom he describes in verses 5 and 6. Therefore, the conjunction wa is marking this event as taking place immediately after the three weeks in which Daniel mourned. b ʿěś·rîmʹ w ʾǎr·bā·ʿā(h)ʹ yômʹ The noun yôm is in the singular and means “day” referring to a unit of time reckoned from sunset to the next sunset, including two or more segments (morning and evening) about 24 hours. The construct state of this noun means that it is governing the word which follows it. It is expressing a genitive relation with this word, which is masculine plural cardinal number ʿěś·rîm, which means “twenty” i.e. twentieth in a series involving time. It is followed by the copulative use of the conjunction wa which is joining this cardinal number with the feminine singular cardinal number ʾǎr·bǎʿ, which means “four” pertaining to an ordinal number as the fourth in a set of time. The conjunction indicates that these two cardinal numbers should be added together. The genitive relation is a genitive of number indicating that these three words indicate how many there are of the construct term. The preposition bĕ means “on” since it indicates a point in time. Here it indicates that on the twenty-fourth day of the first month, Daniel received a vision of the preincarnate Christ. l ǎ hā ri(ʾ)·šônʹ ḥōʹ·ḏěš The noun ḥō·ḏěš means “month” and its articular construction indicates that this noun is unique in its class. The word is modified by the adjective ri(ʾ)·šôn, which “first” pertaining to being first in a series involving time. The articular construction also denotes that this denotes that this month is unique in its class. There is only one first month. The preposition lĕ is functioning as marker of possession indicating that this twenty-fourth day in which Daniel received a vision of the preincarnate Christ “belongs” to the first month. Daniel Was By the Tigris River Daniel 10:4 On the twenty-fourth day of the first month, while I was by the bank of the great river, that is, the Tigris. (NASB95) “While I was by the bank of the great river, that is, the Tigris” is composed of the wa (וְ‭) (‬waw‭)‬,‭ “‬while‭” ‬which‭ ‬is‭ ‬followed by‭ ‬the‭ ‬first person singular independent personal pronoun‭ ‬ʾǎnî‭ (‬אֲנִי‭) (‬an-ee‭)‬,‭ “‬I‭” ‬and then we have the first‭ ‬person singular qal active perfect form of the verb‭ ‬hā∙yā(h‭) (‬הָיָה‭) (‬haw-yaw‭)‬,‭ “‬was‭” ‬which is followed by the preposition‭ ‬ʿǎl‭ (‬עַל‭) (‬al‭)‬,‭ “‬beside‭” ‬and its object is the‭ ‬feminine singular construct form of the noun‭ ‬yāḏ‭ (‬יָד‭) (‬yawd‭)‬,‭ “‬the bank of‭” ‬which is followed by the articular masculine singular noun‭ ‬nā·hār‭ (‬נָהָר‭) (‬naw-hawr‭´)‬,‭ “‬the‭ ‬river‭” ‬which is modified by the‭ ‬articular‭ ‬masculine‭ ‬singular form of the adjective‭ ‬gā·ḏôl‭ (‬גָּדוֹל‭) (‬gaw-dole‭´)‬,‭ “‬great‭” ‬and then we have the‭ ‬third person‭ ‬masculine singular pronominal suffix‭ ‬hû(ʾ‭) (‬הוּא‭) (‬who‭)‬,‭ “‬that is‭” ‬which is followed by the‭ ‬masculine singular proper name‭ ‬ḥid·dě·qěl‭ (‬חִדֶּקֶל‭) (‬khid-deh‭´‬-kel‭)‬,‭ “‬the Tigris.‭” wa This time the conjunction wa means “while” or “as” since it is used as a temporal marker relating points of time which occur simultaneously. The two points of time are Daniel by the banks of the Tigris river and seeing the vision of the preincarnate Christ. This indicates that “while” Daniel was by the banks of the Tigris, he saw a vision of the preincarnate Christ. ʾǎnî The independent personal pronoun ʾǎnî means “I myself” and functions as the subject of the verb hā∙yā(h) meaning that it is performing the action of this verb. It is employed for emphasis, stressing with the reader that this is Daniel’s personal account regarding this prophetic revelation which he received during the third year of Cyrus the Persian’s reign over the Medo-Persian Empire. hā∙yā(h) The verb hā∙yā(h) denotes that Daniel “was” beside the banks of the Tigris River when he received his fourth and final prophetic revelation from God during the third year of the reign of Cyrus the Persian. The qal stem of the verb is stative meaning that Daniel “was in the state of being located” by the banks of the Tigris river when he received this final prophetic revelation from God during the third year of the reign of Cyrus the Persian. The perfect conjugation of the verb is stative expressing the same thing. ʿǎlʹ yǎḏʹ hǎ hǎ gā·ḏôlʹ nā·hārʹ The noun yāḏ means “side” pertaining to a position close to another position but not the front or behind. Here it speaks of the area bordering a river. Thus, most English translations render the word “bank.” The construct state of this noun means that it is governing the word which follows it. It is expressing a genitive relation with this word, which is the noun nā·hār which means “river” pertaining a flow of body of water, above or below ground, man-made or natural. The articular construction of this noun indicates that this river is unique in its class. It also has a demonstrative force. The noun yāḏ is the object of the preposition ʿǎl, which means “at, near, by, beside” since it is a marker of a spatial location in very close, virtual proximity to another object. Here it denotes that Daniel was “at, near, by, beside” the Tigris river. The adjective gā·ḏôl primarily means “great” describing the spatial greatness of the Tigris river. The word denotes the size of this river was greater than size of the majority of earth’s rivers. The articular construction of this adjective marks it as grammatically congruent with the noun nā·hār. It also marks this river as being distinct or in other words it is marking it as distinct from all the other rivers on planet earth. hû(ʾ) The third person masculine singular pronominal suffix hû(ʾ) means “that is, namely” since it is functioning epexegetically meaning that it is introducing a word which identifies specifically for the reader that great river Daniel was beside when he received his fourth and final prophetic revelation from God. ḥid·dě·qěl The proper name ḥid·dě·qěl means “Hiddekel” but in English it means “Tigris” referring to a river which flows through modern eastern Iraq. The KJV and ASV transliterate the Hebrew proper name. However, the modern English translations usually substitute the more familiar “Tigris.” The Hebrew name reflects the Akkadian (and Sumerian) name “Idiglat.” The name also appears in the Aramaic and Arabic form “Diglath.” The Hebrew text has ‎חִדָּקֶל‭ (‬hiddaqel‭)‬.‭ “‬Tigris‭” ‬appears here in the LXX LXX Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament, translated between 250–100 BC),‭ ‬since it is the Greek name for this river.‭ ‬Elsewhere in the OT‭ ‘‬the great river‭’ ‬refers to the Euphrates‭ (‬e.g.,‭ ‬Gen‭ ‬15:18‭; ‬Josh‭ ‬1:4‭)‬,‭ ‬leading some interpreters to think that a mistake is involved in using the expression to refer to the Tigris.‭ ‬But it is doubtful that the expression had such a fixed and limited usage.‭ ‬The Syriac Syriac The Syriac tranlsation of the Old Testament, also called Peshitta,‭ ‬however,‭ ‬does render the word here by‭ ‘‬Euphrates‭’ (‬Syr Syr The Syriac tranlsation of the Old Testament, also called Peshitta.‭ ‬perat‭) ‬in keeping with biblical usage elsewhere. Biblical Studies Press. (2006). The NET Bible First Edition; Bible. English. NET Bible.; The NET Bible. Biblical Studies Press. Translation of Daniel 10:4 Daniel 10:4 Then, on the twenty-fourth day of the first month while I myself was beside that great river, namely the Tigris. Exposition of Daniel 10:4 Daniel continues to describe his circumstances when he received his fourth and final prophetic revelation from God concerning the future of the nation of Israel during the Times of the Gentiles. He informs the reader that he was by the banks of the Tigris river, which is located in eastern modern Iraq on the twenty-fourth day of the first month when he received this final revelation from God. “The first month” is a reference to the first month in the Jewish calendar, namely Nisan. Its early name was “Abib.” This month was known as the month of flowers (Nehemiah 2:1) and is the first month of the Jewish sacred year, which corresponds to March and April. Nisan is an Akkadian loan word and forms part of the Babylonian system of lunar month names taken over by the Jews some time after the Exile. Akkadian nisannu, itself a Sumerian loan word, corresponds to the Sumerian month name Bára.zag.gar, the first month in the Nippur system that became standard for Babylonia during the Old Babylonian period. Nisan falls in the spring (March-April) and corresponds to the earlier Hebrew designation ’abib (Exod. 13:4; 23:15; 34:18; Deut. 16:1). The festival of Passover is celebrated in mid-Nisan, and it also marks the time of Jesus’ crucifixion (cf. Matt. 26:17-19). Achtemeier, P. J., Harper & Row and Society of Biblical Literature. (1985). In Harper’s Bible dictionary. San Francisco: Harper & Row. The Passover took place on the fourteenth day of this month (Exodus 12:1-11; Leviticus 23:5). Of course, Jesus Christ was crucified on the Passover. Also the Feast of Unleavened Bread took place from the fifteenth day of this month to the twentieth day of this month (Leviticus 23:6-8). On the twenty-first day of this month, Israel observed the Feast of Firstfruits (Leviticus 23:9-14). So Daniel informs the reader of the exact day in which he received this fourth and final prophetic revelation from God. He does this in order to signify to the reader the significance and importance of this revelation. Daniel might have chosen the month of Nisan as a time for prayer and fasting because Passover, which occurs during this month, was the time of Israel’s deliverance from Egypt. Thus, Daniel may have associated Israel’s deliverance from Egypt with the present deliverance of the Jewish exiles from Babylon occurring in his day. Daniel says that he was by the banks of the Tigris river, which is located in modern eastern Iraq. The question arises as to why Daniel did not return to Israel with the Jewish exiles from Babylon? He did not return because quite simply he was serving in the city of Babylon under Darius the Mede. If you recall, in Daniel 6:2, Darius established one hundred twenty satraps over the Babylonian kingdom he was ruling in order that they would be in authority over the entire kingdom. Also, out from these men, he appointed three supervisors over the hundred seventeen. Daniel was one of these three. Daniel 6:4 says that Daniel was distinguishing himself above the supervisors as well as satraps because an extraordinary spirit was in him. Consequently, the king intended to establish him over the entire kingdom. Of course Daniel’s fellow satraps conspired to kill him but God delivered him from death. Their conspiracy against Daniel was exposed and the king executed them. Thus, Daniel became the ruler of the satraps. So he remained in Babylon because of his duties. Thus, he mentions his Babylonian name here in Daniel 10:1 as an indication as to where he was located. Also, Daniel could have mentioned his Babylonian name to remind the reader that he who was writing was the same Daniel mentioned earlier in the book that bears his name. Walvoord writes “The place of the vision is declared to be ‘by the side of the great river, which is Hiddekel.’ Here we learn for the first time that Daniel did not accompany the pilgrims who returned to Jerusalem, although this is implied in the earlier verses of chapter 10. Liberal scholars attempt to turn this into an argument against the historicity of Daniel, assuming that he would automatically return to his native land as soon as permitted. As Young points out, however, if Daniel was merely a fictitious character, an ideal created by a writer in the Maccabean period, it would have been far more natural to have pictured him returning triumphantly to his native land. Young concludes, ‘The fact that Dan. does not return to Palestine is a strong argument against the view that the book is a product of the Maccabean age.’ Young, p. 223. The obvious explanation of Daniel’s failure to return is that he was quite old, probably eighty-five years of age, and, according to chapter 6, had been given a prominent place in the government and was not free to leave as were the others. Probably he could do Israel more good by remaining at his post than by accompanying them in the limitations of his age to Palestine. The statement that the vision occurred by Hiddekel, or the river Tigris, has also been subject to criticism on two counts. First, the question has been raised whether this should be considered a literal and geographic statement or part of the vision. In Daniel 8, Daniel’s vision ‘was by the river of Ulai,’ but the context makes plain that he is only there in vision not in reality. In chapter 10, however, the context and narrative makes plain that he is actually by the Tigris River, as the following verses relate how the men who were with him but did not see the vision fled. Liberal scholars like Montgomery, however, consider the reference to ‘the great river’ a contradiction with the specification ‘Hiddekel’ or the Tigris River, as the Euphrates River is normally called ‘the great river.’ Montgomery, accordingly, regards this ‘as an early gloss’ in the text, with the only alternative that ‘otherwise we must attribute a solecism or gross error to the writer.’ Montgomery, p. 407. The Syriac version substitutes ‘Euphrates,’ for ‘Hiddekel.’ All of this, however, is quite arbitrary as there is no reason why the Tigris should not also be called a great river; and if that expression uniformly referred to the Euphrates, it would be all the more strange for a copyist to insert, ‘Hiddekel.’ Conservative scholars generally agree that the river is the Tigris. C. F. Keil, Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament, p. 409; Leupold, p. 447; Young, p. 224. Contrast Montgomery, p. 407. The probability is that Daniel had come to this geographic area in connection with his duties as a chief administrator of the government. No great amount of travel need be assumed here because just above Babylon the Euphrates and Tigris are only about thirty-five miles apart.” Walvoord, John F. Daniel: The Key to Prophetic Revelation; pages 241-242; Moody Press; Chicago; 1971 Excursus: Tigris River Eerdmann’s has the following article on the Tigris, “Tigris [tīˊgrĭs] (Heb. ḥiddeqel; Gk. Tigris; Akk. Akk. Akkadian Idiglat; O. Pers. Pers. Persian Tigra).† † Major revision The easternmost of the two major rivers of Mesopotamia. Formed from two branches that originate on the southern slopes of the Taurus mountains in Turkish Armenia, one south of Lake Geuljik and the other southwest of Lake Van, the river flows southeasterly across the Mesopotamian plain to modern Kurna, where it joins with the Euphrates to form the Shaṭṭ el-˓Arab, which empties into the Persian Gulf. Major tributaries include the Upper and Lower (or Greater and Lesser) Zab and the Diyala rivers. The lower course of the river has shifted since ancient times (presumably it once flowed directly into the Persian Gulf), destroying remains of many ancient sites as well as the system of canals linking the Tigris and Euphrates. Important ancient cities on the Tigris included Nineveh, Calah, and Assur. The Tigris is mentioned as one of the branches of the river flowing out of the garden of Eden (Gen. 2:14; KJV KJV King James Version “Hiddekel”). Daniel saw one of his visions while standing on the bank of the Tigris (Dan. 10:4). Sir. Sir. Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus) 24:25 implies that the river reaches its highest level after the melting of the snow.” Myers, A. C. (1987). In The Eerdmans Bible dictionary. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. D.J. Wiseman commenting on the Tigris writes “The Gk. name for one of the four rivers marking the location of Eden (Hiddekel; Gn. 2:14; Akkad Akkad Akkadian. Diglat; Arab Arab Arabic. Dijlah). It rises in the Armenian Mountains and runs SE for 1,900 km via Diarbekr through the Mesopotamian plain to join the river *Euphrates 64 km N N North, northern of the Persian Gulf, into which it flows. It is a wide river as it meanders through Babylonia (Dn. 10:4) and is fed by tributaries from the Persian hills, the Greater and Lesser Zab, Adhem and Diyala rivers. When the snows melt, the river floods in Mar.–May and Oct.–Nov. Nineveh, Calah and Assur are among the ancient cities which lay on its banks. Wiseman, D. J. (1996). Tigris. In (D. R. W. Wood, I. H. Marshall, A. R. Millard, & J. I. Packer, Eds.)New Bible dictionary. Leicester, England; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. Roger Boraas writes that the Tigris River (tīʹgris) is “one of the two major rivers (the other is the Euphrates) that nourished an extensive floodplain providing the physical basis for the rise of civilization in the ancient Near East. Its name is derived from Old Persian Tigra. In Assyrian-Babylonian it was known as Idiglat, and the Hebrew Hiddekel is preserved in Gen. 2:14 where it is identified as the third river ‘which flows east of Assyria’ running out of Eden. It was designated also as the location in which Daniel perceived a major vision (Dan. 10:4). The headwaters of the river lie in the mountains of southern Armenia, modern eastern Turkey and northern Iraq, just west and south of Lake Van. It runs generally southeastward along the base of the western foothills of the Zagros Mountains. It is joined en route by three major tributaries and several minor ones draining the western slopes of the hills to the northeast. The main tributaries are the Upper Zab, the Lower Zab, and the Diyala. Important ancient cities built on the Tigris include Assyria’s Nineveh (opposite modern Mosul) and Asshur (the original Assyrian capital), modern Qal¯at Shergat. Near modern Baghdad lay the Neo-Babylonian commercial center Opis, and farther south at modern Sulman Pak was the Parthian and Sassanian city named Ctesiphon. Its location is still marked by a most magnificent brick vaulted arch. Across the river on the west bank at modern Tell Umar are the ruins of the Seleucid capital Seleucia. Physically the river is fast and rugged in the upper reaches, being navigable only from Mosul southward. Its 1,146-mile length was close enough to the Euphrates from about Baghdad south to allow canals to run irrigation water across from the higher western riverbed toward the Tigris. This 10,000-square-mile basin provided the agricultural sustenance for the earliest city-state and empire building of which we have record. The lower reaches of the river were slow flowing, meandering, and ended in salt marshes in antiquity. Now the bed joins that of the Euphrates to form the Shatt al-Arab before emptying into the Persian Gulf. This ancient setting provided the physical context for some of our most ancient literature, in which the survival of life depended on the constantly flexing battle between the forces of the fresh and salt waters. Achtemeier, P. J., Harper & Row and Society of Biblical Literature. (1985). In Harper’s Bible dictionary. San Francisco: Harper & Row. PAGE 20 ã2014 William E. Wenstrom, Jr. Bible Ministries