Fluid Mechanics

Fundamentals of seventh edition Fluid Mechanics Munson Okiishi Huebsch Rothmayer This page is intentionally left blank WileyPLUS is a research-based online environment for effective teaching and learning. WileyPLUS builds students’ confidence because it takes the guesswork out of studying by providing students with a clear roadmap: • • • what to do how to do it if they did it right It offers interactive resources along with a complete digital textbook that help students learn more. With WileyPLUS, students take more initiative so you’ll have greater impact on their achievement in the classroom and beyond. For more information, visit www.wileyplus.com ALL THE HELP, RESOURCES, AND PERSONAL SUPPORT YOU AND YOUR STUDENTS NEED! www.wileyplus.com/resources 2-Minute Tutorials and all of the resources you and your students need to get started Student support from an experienced student user Collaborate with your colleagues, find a mentor, attend virtual and live events, and view resources www.WhereFacultyConnect.com Pre-loaded, ready-to-use assignments and presentations created by subject matter experts Technical Support 24/7 FAQs, online chat, and phone support www.wileyplus.com/support Your WileyPLUS Account Manager, providing personal training and support 7 th edition Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics Bruce R. Munson Department of Aerospace Engineering Iowa State University Ames, Iowa Theodore H. Okiishi Department of Mechanical Engineering Iowa State University Ames, Iowa Wade W. Huebsch Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering West Virginia University Morgantown, West Virginia Alric P. Rothmayer Department of Aerospace Engineering Iowa State University Ames, Iowa John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Executive Publisher: Don Fowley Senior Editor and Product Designer: Jennifer Welter Content Manager: Kevin Holm Senior Content Editor: Wendy Ashenberg Creative Director: Harry Nolan Senior Designer: Madelyn Lesure Executive Marketing Manager: Christopher Ruel Editorial Operations Manager: Melissa Edwards Photo Researcher: Sheena Goldstein Assistant Editor: Samantha Mandel Senior Production Editor: John Curley Media Specialist: Lisa Sabatini Production Management Services: Ingrao Associates/Suzanne Ingrao Cover Design: Madelyn Lesure Cover Photo: Graham Jeffery/Sensitive Light This book was set in 10/12 Times Roman by Aptara®, Inc., and printed and bound by R.R. Donnelley/Jefferson City. The cover was printed by R.R. Donnelley/Jefferson City. This book is printed on acid free paper. q Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foundation of principles that include responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental, social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our business. Among the issues we are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and procurement, ethical conduct within our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For more information, please visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship. Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2006, 2002, 1999, 1994, 1990 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, website www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, (201)748-6011, fax (201)748-6008, website http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Evaluation copies are provided to qualified academics and professionals for review purposes only, for use in their courses during the next academic year. These copies are licensed and may not be sold or transferred to a third party. Upon completion of the review period, please return the evaluation copy to Wiley. Return instructions and a free of charge return shipping label are available at www.wiley.com/go/returnlabel. Outside of the United States, please contact your local representative. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Munson, Bruce Roy, 1940Fundamentals of fluid mechanics / Bruce R. Munson, Theodore H. Okiishi, Wade W. Huebsch, Alric P. Rothmayer—7th edition. pages cm Includes indexes. ISBN 978-1-118-11613-5 1. Fluid mechanics—Textbooks. I. Okiishi, T. H. (Theodore Hisao), 1939- II. Huebsch, Wade W. III. Rothmayer, Alric P., 1959- IV. Title. TA357.M86 2013 532–dc23 2012011618 ISBN 978-1-118-11613-5 (Main Book) ISBN 978-1-118-39971-2 (Binder-Ready Version) Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 About the Authors Bruce R. Munson, Professor Emeritus of Engineering Mechanics at Iowa State University, received his B.S. and M.S. degrees from Purdue University and his Ph.D. degree from the Aerospace Engineering and Mechanics Department of the University of Minnesota in 1970. Prior to joining the Iowa State University faculty in 1974, Dr. Munson was on the mechanical engineering faculty of Duke University from 1970 to 1974. From 1964 to 1966, he worked as an engineer in the jet engine fuel control department of Bendix Aerospace Corporation, South Bend, Indiana. Dr. Munson’s main professional activity has been in the area of fluid mechanics education and research. He has been responsible for the development of many fluid mechanics courses for studies in civil engineering, mechanical engineering, engineering science, and agricultural engineering and is the recipient of an Iowa State University Superior Engineering Teacher Award and the Iowa State University Alumni Association Faculty Citation. He has authored and coauthored many theoretical and experimental technical papers on hydrodynamic stability, low Reynolds number flow, secondary flow, and the applications of viscous incompressible flow. He is a member of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Ted H. Okiishi, Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at Iowa State University, joined the faculty there in 1967 after receiving his undergraduate and graduate degrees from that institution. From 1965 to 1967, Dr. Okiishi served as a U.S. Army officer with duty assignments at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio, where he participated in rocket nozzle heat transfer research, and at the Combined Intelligence Center, Saigon, Republic of South Vietnam, where he studied seasonal river flooding problems. Professor Okiishi and his students have been active in research on turbomachinery fluid dynamics. Some of these projects have involved significant collaboration with government and industrial laboratory researchers, with two of their papers winning the ASME Melville Medal (in 1989 and 1998). Dr. Okiishi has received several awards for teaching. He has developed undergraduate and graduate courses in classical fluid dynamics as well as the fluid dynamics of turbomachines. He is a licensed professional engineer. His professional society activities include having been a vice president of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and of the American Society for Engineering Education. He is a Life Fellow of The American Society of Mechanical Engineers and past editor of its Journal of Turbomachinery. He was recently honored with the ASME R. Tom Sawyer Award. Wade W. Huebsch, Associate Professor in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering at West Virginia University, received his B.S. degree in aerospace engineering from San Jose State University where he played college baseball. He received his M.S. degree in mechanical engineering and his Ph.D. in aerospace engineering from Iowa State University in 2000. Dr. Huebsch specializes in computational fluid dynamics research and has authored multiple journal articles in the areas of aircraft icing, roughness-induced flow phenomena, and boundary layer flow control. He has taught both undergraduate and graduate courses in fluid mechanics and has developed a new undergraduate course in computational fluid dynamics. He has received multiple teaching awards such as Outstanding Teacher and Teacher of the Year from the College of Engineering and Mineral Resources at WVU as well as the Ralph R. v vi About the Authors Teetor Educational Award from SAE. He was also named as the Young Researcher of the Year from WVU. He is a member of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, the Sigma Xi research society, the Society of Automotive Engineers, and the American Society of Engineering Education. Alric P. Rothmayer, Professor of Aerospace Engineering at Iowa State University, received his undergraduate and graduate degrees from the Aerospace Engineering Department at the University of Cincinnati, during which time he also worked at NASA Langley Research Center and was a visiting graduate research student at the Imperial College of Science and Technology in London. He joined the faculty at Iowa State University (ISU) in 1985 after a research fellowship sponsored by the Office of Naval Research at University College in London. Dr. Rothmayer has taught a wide variety of undergraduate fluid mechanics and propulsion courses for over 25 years, ranging from classical low and high speed flows to propulsion cycle analysis. Dr. Rothmayer was awarded an ISU Engineering Student Council Leadership Award, an ISU Foundation Award for Early Achievement in Research, an ISU Young Engineering Faculty Research Award, and a National Science Foundation Presidential Young Investigator Award. He is an Associate Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), and was chair of the 3rd AIAA Theoretical Fluid Mechanics Conference. Dr. Rothmayer specializes in the integration of Computational Fluid Dynamics with asymptotic methods and low order modeling for viscous flows. His research has been applied to diverse areas ranging from internal flows through compliant tubes to flow control and aircraft icing. In 2001, Dr. Rothmayer won a NASA Turning Goals into Reality (TGIR) Award as a member of the Aircraft Icing Project Team, and also won a NASA Group Achievement Award in 2009 as a member of the LEWICE Ice Accretion Software Development Team. He was also a member of the SAE AC-9C Aircraft Icing Technology Subcommittee of the Aircraft Environmental Systems Committee of SAE and the Fluid Dynamics Technical Committee of AIAA. Preface This book is intended for junior and senior engineering students who are interested in learning some fundamental aspects of fluid mechanics. We developed this text to be used as a first course. The principles considered are classical and have been well-established for many years. However, fluid mechanics education has improved with experience in the classroom, and we have brought to bear in this book our own ideas about the teaching of this interesting and important subject. This seventh edition has been prepared after several years of experience by the authors using the previous editions for introductory courses in fluid mechanics. On the basis of this experience, along with suggestions from reviewers, colleagues, and students, we have made a number of changes in this edition. The changes (listed below, and indicated by the word New in descriptions in this preface) are made to clarify, update, and expand certain ideas and concepts. New to This Edition In addition to the continual effort of updating the scope of the material presented and improving the presentation of all of the material, the following items are new to this edition. With the widespread use of new technologies involving the web, DVDs, digital cameras and the like, there is an increasing use and appreciation of the variety of visual tools available for learning. As in recent editions, this fact has been addressed in the new edition by continuing to include additional new illustrations, graphs, photographs, and videos. Illustrations: New illustrations and graphs have been added to this edition, as well as updates to past ones. The book now contains nearly 1600 illustrations. These illustrations range from simple ones that help illustrate a basic concept or equation to more complex ones that illustrate practical applications of fluid mechanics in our everyday lives. Photographs: This edition has also added new photographs throughout the book to enhance the text. The total number of photographs now exceeds 300. Some photos involve situations that are so common to us that we probably never stop to realize how fluids are involved in them. Others involve new and novel situations that are still baffling to us. The photos are also used to help the reader better understand the basic concepts and examples discussed. Combining the illustrations, graphs and photographs, the book has approximately 1900 visual aids. Videos: The video library has been enhanced by the addition of 19 new video segments directly related to the text material, as well as multiple updates to previous videos (i.e. same topic with an updated video clip). In addition to being strategically located at the appropriate places within the text, they are all listed, each with an appropriate thumbnail photo, in the video index. They illustrate many of the interesting and practical applications of real-world fluid phenomena. There are now 175 videos. Examples: The book contains 5 new example problems that involve various fluid flow fundamentals. Some of these examples also incorporate new PtD (Prevention through Design) discussion material. The PtD project, under the direction of the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, involves, in part, the use of textbooks to encourage the proper design and use of workday equipment and material so as to reduce accidents and injuries in the workplace. Problems and Problem Types: Approximately 30% new homework problems have been added for this edition, with a total number of 1484 problems in the text (additional problems in WileyPLUS ). Also, new multiple-choice concept questions (developed by Jay Martin and John Mitchell of the University of Wisconsin-Madison) have been added at the beginning of each Problems section. These questions test the students’ knowledge of basic chapter concepts. This edition has also significantly improved the homework problem integration with the vii viii Preface WileyPLUS course management system. New icons have been introduced in the Problems section to help instructors and students identify which problems are available to be assigned within WileyPLUS for automatic grading, and which problems have tutorial help available. Author: A new co-author was brought on board for this edition. We are happy to welcome Dr. Alric P. Rothmayer. Within WileyPLUS: New What an Engineer Sees animations demonstrate an engineer’s perspective of everyday objects, and relates the transfer of theory to real life through the solution of a problem involving that everyday object. New Office-Hours Videos demonstrate the solution of selected problems, focusing specifically on those areas in which students typically run into difficulty, with video and voiceover. Over 700 homework problems from the text that can be assigned for automatic feedback and grading (34 new for the 7th edition). Including 65 GO (Guided Online) Tutorial problems (26 new for this edition). Key Features Illustrations, Photographs, and Videos y Fr < 1 Fr = 1 Fr > 1 E (© Photograph courtesy of Pend Oreille Public Utility District.) Fluid mechanics has always been a “visual” subject—much can be learned by viewing various aspects of fluid flow. In this new edition we have made several changes to reflect the fact that with new advances in technology, this visual component is becoming easier to incorporate into the learning environment, for both access and delivery, and is an important component to the learning of fluid mechanics. Thus, new photographs and illustrations have been added to the book. Some of these are within the text material; some are used to enhance the example problems; and some are included as margin figures of the type shown in the left margin to more clearly illustrate various points discussed in the text. In addition, new video segments have been added, bringing the total number of video segments to 175. These video segments illustrate many interesting and practical applications of real-world fluid phenomena. Each video segment is identified at the appropriate location in the text material by a video icon and thumbnail photograph of the type shown in the left margin. The full video library is shown in the video index at the back of the book. Each video segment has a separate associated text description of what is shown in the video. There are many homework problems that are directly related to the topics in the videos. Examples V1.9 Floating razor blade One of our aims is to represent fluid mechanics as it really is—an exciting and useful discipline. To this end, we include analyses of numerous everyday examples of fluid-flow phenomena to which students and faculty can easily relate. In the seventh edition there are 5 new examples and a total of 164 examples that provide detailed solutions to a variety of problems. Some of the new examples incorporate Prevention through Design (PtD) material. Many of the examples illustrate what happens if one or more of the parameters is changed. This gives the user a better feel for some of the basic principles involved. In addition, many of the examples contain new photographs of the actual device or item involved in the example. Also, all of the examples are outlined and carried out with the problem solving methodology of “Given, Find, Solution, and Comment” as discussed on page 5 in the “Note to User” before Example 1.1. Fluids in the News The set of approximately 60 short “Fluids in the News” stories reflect some of the latest important, and novel, ways that fluid mechanics affects our lives. Many of these problems have homework problems associated with them. Preface ix Homework Problems A set of more than 1480 homework problems (approximately 30% new to this edition) stresses the practical application of principles. The problems are grouped and identified according to topic. An effort has been made to include several new, easier problems at the start of each group. The following types of problems are included: 1) new conceptual multiple-choice problems 9) Excel-based lab problems, 2) “standard” problems, 10) “Lifelong learning” problems, 3) computer problems, 11) problems that require the user to obtain a 4) discussion problems, photograph/image of a given flow situation and 5) supply-your-own-data problems, write a brief paragraph to describe it, 6) review problems with solutions, 12) simple CFD problems to be solved using 7) problems based on the “Fluids in the ANSYS Academic CFD Software, News” topics, 13) Fundamental of Engineering (FE) exam 8) problems based on the fluid videos, questions available on book website. Lab Problems—There are 30 extended, laboratory-type problems that involve actual experimental data for simple experiments of the type that are often found in the laboratory portion of many introductory fluid mechanics courses. The data for these problems are provided in Excel format. Lifelong Learning Problems—Each chapter has lifelong learning problems that involve obtaining additional information about various new state-of-the-art fluid mechanics topics and writing a brief report about this material. Review Problems—There is a set of 186 review problems covering most of the main topics in the book. Complete, detailed solutions to these problems can be found in the Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide for Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, by Munson et al. (© 2013 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.). Well-Paced Concept and Problem-Solving Development Since this is an introductory text, we have designed the presentation of material to allow for the gradual development of student confidence in fluid problem solving. Each important concept or notion is considered in terms of simple and easy-to-understand circumstances before more complicated features are introduced. Many pages contain a brief summary (a highlight) sentence that serves to prepare or remind the reader about an important concept discussed on that page. Several brief components have been added to each chapter to help the user obtain the “big picture” idea of what key knowledge is to be gained from the chapter. A brief Learning Objectives section is provided at the beginning of each chapter. It is helpful to read through this list prior to reading the chapter to gain a preview of the main concepts presented. Upon completion of the chapter, it is beneficial to look back at the original learning objectives to ensure that a satisfactory level of understanding has been acquired for each item. Additional reinforcement of these learning objectives is provided in the form of a Chapter Summary and Study Guide at the end of each chapter. In this section a brief summary of the key concepts and principles introduced in the chapter is included along with a listing of important terms with which the student should be familiar. These terms are highlighted in the text. A list of the main equations in the chapter is included in the chapter summary. System of Units Two systems of units continue to be used throughout most of the text: the International System of Units (newtons, kilograms, meters, and seconds) and the British Gravitational System (pounds, slugs, feet, and seconds). About one-half of the examples and homework problems are in each set of units. The English Engineering System (pounds, pounds mass, feet, and seconds) is used in the discussion of compressible flow in Chapter 11. This usage is standard practice for the topic. x Preface Topical Organization In the first four chapters the student is made aware of some fundamental aspects of fluid motion, including important fluid properties, regimes of flow, pressure variations in fluids at rest and in motion, fluid kinematics, and methods of flow description and analysis. The Bernoulli equation is introduced in Chapter 3 to draw attention, early on, to some of the interesting effects of fluid motion on the distribution of pressure in a flow field. We believe that this timely consideration of elementary fluid dynamics increases student enthusiasm for the more complicated material that follows. In Chapter 4 we convey the essential elements of kinematics, including Eulerian and Lagrangian mathematical descriptions of flow phenomena, and indicate the vital relationship between the two views. For teachers who wish to consider kinematics in detail before the material on elementary fluid dynamics, Chapters 3 and 4 can be interchanged without loss of continuity. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 expand on the basic analysis methods generally used to solve or to begin solving fluid mechanics problems. Emphasis is placed on understanding how flow phenomena are described mathematically and on when and how to use infinitesimal and finite control volumes. The effects of fluid friction on pressure and velocity distributions are also considered in some detail. A formal course in thermodynamics is not required to understand the various portions of the text that consider some elementary aspects of the thermodynamics of fluid flow. Chapter 7 features the advantages of using dimensional analysis and similitude for organizing test data and for planning experiments and the basic techniques involved. Owing to the growing importance of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) in engineering design and analysis, material on this subject is included in Appendix A. This material may be omitted without any loss of continuity to the rest of the text. This introductory CFD overview includes examples and problems of various interesting flow situations that are to be solved using ANSYS Academic CFD software. Chapters 8 through 12 offer students opportunities for the further application of the principles learned early in the text. Also, where appropriate, additional important notions such as boundary layers, transition from laminar to turbulent flow, turbulence modeling, and flow separation are introduced. Practical concerns such as pipe flow, open-channel flow, flow measurement, drag and lift, the effects of compressibility, and the fluid mechanics fundamentals associated with turbomachines are included. Students who study this text and who solve a representative set of the exercises provided should acquire a useful knowledge of the fundamentals of fluid mechanics. Faculty who use this text are provided with numerous topics to select from in order to meet the objectives of their own courses. More material is included than can be reasonably covered in one term. All are reminded of the fine collection of supplementary material. We have cited throughout the text various articles and books that are available for enrichment. Student and Instructor Resources Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide, by Munson et al. (© 2013 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.)—This short paperback book is available as a supplement for the text. It provides detailed solutions to the Review Problems and a concise overview of the essential points of most of the main sections of the text, along with appropriate equations, illustrations, and worked examples. This supplement is available through WileyPLUS, your local bookstore, or you may purchase it on the Wiley website at www.wiley.com/college/munson. Student Companion Site—The student section of the book website at www.wiley.com/ college/munson contains the assets listed below. Access is free-of-charge. Video Library Comprehensive Table of Conversion Factors Review Problems with Answers CFD Driven Cavity Example Lab Problems Instructor Companion Site—The instructor section of the book website at www.wiley.com/ college/munson contains the assets in the Student Companion Site, as well as the following, which are available only to professors who adopt this book for classroom use: Preface xi Instructor Solutions Manual, containing complete, detailed solutions to all of the problems in the text. Figures from the text, appropriate for use in lecture slides. These instructor materials are password-protected. Visit the Instructor Companion Site to register for a password. WileyPLUS. WileyPLUS combines the complete, dynamic online text with all of the teaching and learning resources you need, in one easy-to-use system. This edition offers a much tighter integration between the book and WileyPLUS. The instructor assigns WileyPLUS, but students decide how to buy it: they can buy the new, printed text packaged with a WileyPLUS registration code at no additional cost or choose digital delivery of WileyPLUS, use the online text and integrated read, study, and practice tools, and save off the cost of the new book. WileyPLUS offers today’s engineering students the interactive and visual learning materials they need to help them grasp difficult concepts—and apply what they’ve learned to solve problems in a dynamic environment. A robust variety of examples and exercises enable students to work problems, see their results, and obtain instant feedback including hints and reading references linked directly to the online text. Contact your local Wiley representative, or visit www.wileyplus.com for more information about using WileyPLUS in your course. Acknowledgments We wish to express our gratitude to the many persons who provided suggestions for this and previous editions through reviews and surveys. In addition, we wish to express our appreciation to the many persons who supplied photographs and videos used throughout the text. Finally, we thank our families for their continued encouragement during the writing of this seventh edition. Working with students over the years has taught us much about fluid mechanics education. We have tried in earnest to draw from this experience for the benefit of users of this book. Obviously we are still learning, and we welcome any suggestions and comments from you. BRUCE R. MUNSON THEODORE H. OKIISHI WADE W. HUEBSCH ALRIC P. ROTHMAYER Featured in this Book 5 Finite Control Volume Analysis CHAPTER OPENING PHOTO: Wind turbine farms (this is the Middelgrunden Offshore Wind Farm in Denmark) are becoming more common. Finite control volume analysis can be used to estimate the amount of energy transferred between the moving air and each turbine rotor. (Photograph courtesy of Siemens Wind Power.) Learning Objectives Learning Objectives at the beginning of each chapter focus students’ attention as they read the chapter. After completing this chapter, you should be able to: I select an appropriate finite control volume to solve a fluid mechanics problem. I apply conservation of mass and energy and Newton’s second law of motion to the contents of a finite control volume to get important answers. I know how velocity changes and energy transfers in fluid flows are related to forces and torques. I understand why designing for minimum loss of energy in fluid flows is so important. Viscosity not important Photographs, Illustrations, and Videos Boundary layer (a) low Reynolds number flow, (b) moderate Reynolds number flow, (c) large Reynolds number flow. Most familiar flows involve large Reynolds numbers. E XAMPLE s 9.2 Characteristics of Flow Past Objects FIND Would the flow characteristics for these three situations be similar? Explain. i n Spreading of oil spills With the large traffic in oil tankers there is great interest in the prevention of and response to oil spills. As evidenced by the famous Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound in 1989, oil spills can create disastrous environmental problems. A more recent example of this type of catastrophe is the oil spill that occurred in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. It is not surprising that much attention is given to the rate at which an oil spill spreads. When spilled, most oils tend to spread horizontally into a smooth and slippery surface, called a xii field. Since the shear stress 1i.e., viscous effect2 is the product of the fluid viscosity and the velocity gradient, it follows that viscous effects are confined to the boundary layer and wake regions. The characteristics described in Figs. 9.5 and 9.6 for flow past a flat plate and a circular cylinder are typical of flows past streamlined and blunt bodies, respectively. The nature of the flow depends strongly on the Reynolds number. (See Ref. 31 for many examples illustrating this behavior.) Most familiar flows are similar to the large Reynolds number flows depicted in Figs. 9.5c and 9.6c, rather than the low Reynolds number flow situations. (See the photograph at the beginning of Chapters 7 and 11.) In the remainder of this chapter we will investigate more thoroughly these ideas and determine how to calculate the forces on immersed bodies. GIVEN It is desired to experimentally determine the various characteristics of flow past a car as shown in Fig E9.2. The following tests could be carried out: 1a2 U ⫽ 20 mmⲐs flow of glycerin past a scale model that is 34-mm tall, 100-mm long, and 40-mm wide, 1b2 U ⫽ 20 mmⲐs air flow past the same scale model, or 1c2 U ⫽ 25 mⲐs airflow past the actual car, which is 1.7-m tall, 5-m long, and 2-m wide. relate brief stories involving current, sometimes novel, applications of fluids phenomena. Many are associated with homework problems. d (c) I Figure 9.6 Character of the steady, viscous flow past a circular cylinder: Fluids in the News i x Separated region Re = 10 V9.3 Human aerodynamic wake emphasize important points for the reader. u Wake region δ << D D 5 Summary Sentences l Viscous effects important U (more than 2000 in the 7th edition) help readers connect theory to the physical world. F Boundary layer separation t h e I Figure E9.2 © Stanford University, with permission. N e w s slick. There are many factors that influence the ability of an oil slick to spread, including the size of the spill, wind speed and direction, and the physical properties of the oil. These properties include surface tension, specific gravity, and viscosity. The higher the surface tension the more likely a spill will remain in place. Since the specific gravity of oil is less than one, it floats on top of the water, but the specific gravity of an oil can increase if the lighter substances within the oil evaporate. The higher the viscosity of the oil, the greater the tendency to stay in one place. Featured in this Book E XAMPLE 2.2 Incompressible and Isothermal Pressure–Depth Variations xiii Example Problems provide detailed solutions for interesting, real-world situations, with a consistent methodology and comments. GIVEN In 2010, the world’s tallest building, the Burj Khalifa skyscraper, was completed and opened in the United Arab Emirates. The final height of the building, which had remained a secret until completion, is 2717 ft (828 m). FIND (a) Estimate the ratio of the pressure at the 2717-ft top of the building to the pressure at its base, assuming the air to be at a common temperature of 59 °F. (b) Compare the pressure calculated in part (a) with that obtained by assuming the air to be incompressible with g ⫽ 0.0765 lbⲐft3 at 14.7 psi 1abs2 1values for air at standard sea level conditions2. SOLUTION (a) For the assumed isothermal conditions, and treating air as a compressible fluid, Eq. 2.10 can be applied to yield g1z2 ⫺ z1 2 p2 ⫽ exp c ⫺ d p1 RT0 ⫽ exp e ⫺ ⫽ 0.906 132.2 ftⲐs2 212717 ft2 f 11716 ft # lbⲐ slug # °R2 3 159 ⫹ 4602°R 4 (Ans) (b) If the air is treated as an incompressible fluid we can apply Eq. 2.5. In this case I Figure E2.2 (Figure courtesy of Emaar Properties, Dubai, UAE.) p2 ⫽ p1 ⫺ g1z2 ⫺ z1 2 or g1z2 ⫺ z1 2 p2 ⫽1⫺ p1 p1 10.0765 lbⲐft3 212717 ft2 ⫽1⫺ ⫽ 0.902 114.7 lbⲐin.2 21144 in.2Ⲑft2 2 (Ans) COMMENTS Note that there is little difference between the two results. Since the pressure difference between the bottom and top of the building is small, it follows that the variation in fluid density is small and, therefore, the compressible fluid and incompressible fluid analyses yield essentially the same result. We see that for both calculations the pressure decreases by approximately 10% as we go from ground level to the top of this tallest building. It does not require a very large pressure difference to support a 2717-ft-tall column of fluid as light as air. This result supports the earlier statement that the changes in pressures in air and other gases due to elevation changes are very small, even for distances of hundreds of feet. Thus, the pressure differences between the top and bottom of a horizontal carrying a Summary and Study Guide 2.13pipe Chapter gas, or in a gas storage tank, are negligible since the distances involved are very small. In this chapter the pressure variation in a fluid at rest is considered, along with some impor- Chapter Summary and Study Guide at the end of each chapter helps students focus their study and summarizes key equations. Pascal’s law surface force body force incompressible fluid hydrostatic pressure distribution pressure head compressible fluid U.S. standard atmosphere absolute pressure gage pressure vacuum pressure barometer manometer Bourdon pressure gage center of pressure buoyant force Archimedes’ principle center of buoyancy tant consequences of this type of pressure variation. It is shown that for incompressible fluids at rest the pressure varies linearly with depth. This type of variation is commonly referred to as hydrostatic pressure distribution. For compressible fluids at rest the pressure distribution will not generally be hydrostatic, but Eq. 2.4 remains valid and can be used to determine the pressure distribution if additional information about the variation of the specific weight is specified. The distinction between absolute and gage pressure is discussed along with a consideration of barometers for the measurement of atmospheric pressure. Pressure-measuring devices called manometers, which utilize static liquid columns, are analyzed in detail. A brief discussion of mechanical and electronic pressure gages is also included. Equations for determining the magnitude and location of the resultant fluid force acting on a plane surface in contact with a static fluid are developed. A general approach for determining the magnitude and location of the resultant fluid force acting on a curved surface in contact with a static fluid is described. For submerged or floating bodies the concept of the buoyant force and the use of Archimedes’ principle are reviewed. The following checklist provides a study guide for this chapter. When your study of the entire chapter and end-of-chapter exercises has been completed, you should be able to write out meanings of the terms listed here in the margin and understand each of the related concepts. These terms are particularly important and are set in italic, bold, and color type in the text. calculate the pressure at various locations within an incompressible fluid dp at rest. Pressure gradient in a stationary fluid ⫽ ⫺g calculate the pressure at various locations within a compressible fluid at rest dz using Eq. 2.4 if the variation Pressure in the specific weight is specified. variation in a stationary incompressible fluid p1 ⫽ gh ⫹ p2 use the concept of a hydrostatic pressure distribution to determine pressures from measureHydrostatic force on a plane surface FR ⫽ ghc A ments using various types of manometers. Ixc determine the magnitude, direction, and force location the resultant Location of hydrostatic on of a plane surface hydrostatic force yR ⫽ acting⫹on yc a yc A plane surface. Ixyc xR ⫽ ⫹ xc ycA Buoyant force FB ⫽ g ⫺ V 0p 0p 0p Pressure gradient in rigid-body motion ⫺ ⫽ rax, ⫺ ⫽ ray, ⫺ ⫽ g ⫹ raz 0x 0y 0z Pressure gradient in rigid-body rotation Review Problems Go to Appendix G (WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www. wiley.com/college/munson) for a set of review problems with answers. Detailed solutions can be found in the Student Solution Manual and Study Guide for Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, by Munson et al. © 2013 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.). Conceptual Questions 1.1C The correct statement for the definition of density is a) Density is the mass per unit volume. b) Density is the volume per unit mass. c) Density is the weight per unit volume. d) Density is the weight divided by gravity. e) Density is the mass divided by the weight. 1.2C Given the following equation where p is pressure in lb/ft2, ␥ is the specific weight in lb/ft3, V is the magnitude of velocity in c) Useful only for very low density gases. d) Indicates that two solids in contact will not slip if the joining force is large. du 1.4C In fluids, the shearing strain rate for a Newtonian fluid dy has dimensions of: a) L/T2. b) 1/T. c) L2/T. d) L2/T2. 1.5C The laminar velocity profile for a Newtonian fluid is shown Conceptual Questions help evaluate student conceptual understanding (more available in WileyPLUS). Review Problems covering the main topics in the book give readers another opportunity to practice. Complete, detailed solutions to these problems are in WileyPLUS and the Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide for Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, by Munson et. al. (© John Wiley & Sons, Inc.). 0p ⫽ rrv2, 0r 0p ⫽ 0, 0u 0p ⫽ ⫺g 0z (2.4) (2.7) (2.18) (2.19) (2.20) (2.22) (2.24) (2.30) xiv Featured in this Book Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. GO * † Tutoring problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. I Lab Problems Problem is related to a chapter video available in WileyPLUS. 7.1LP This problem involves the time that it takes water to drain from two geometrically similar tanks. To proceed with this problem, go to WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/ college/munson. Problem to be solved with aid of programmable calculator or computer. Open-ended problem that requires critical thinking. These problems require various assumptions to provide the necessary input data. There are not unique answers to these problems. 7.2LP This problem involves determining the frequency of vortex shedding from a circular cylinder as water flows past it. To proceed with this problem, go to WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. WileyPLUS Icons in the problems section identify problems that are available to instructors to assign in WileyPLUS for automatic grading. p3 p4 h 12 in. T 12 in. 7.3LP This problem involves the determination of the head loss for flow through a valve. To proceed with this problem, go to WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 7.4LP This problem involves the calibration of a rotameter. To proceed with this problem, go to WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. I Lifelong Learning Problems Free jet 7.1LL Microfluidics is the study of fluid flow in fabricated devices at the micro scale. Advances in microfluidics have enhanced the ability of scientists and engineers to perform laboratory experiments using miniaturized devices known as a “lab-on-a-chip.” 5.122 Water is pumped from a tank, point (1),Obtain to the top information about a lab-on-a-chip device that is available of a water plant aerator, point (2), as shown in Video V5.16 and Fig. commercially and investigate its capabilities. Summarize your find3 P5.122 at a rate of 3.0 ft /s. (a) Determine the power that ings the pump in a brief report. adds to the water if the head loss from (1) to (2) where V2 ⫽ 0 is 4 ft. 7.2LL For some types of aerodynamic wind tunnel testing, it is (b) Determine the head loss from (2) to the bottom of the aerator to simultaneously match both the Reynolds number and column, point (3), if the average velocity at (3) is V3 ⫽ 2 difficult ft/s. Mach number between model and prototype. Engineers have developed several potential solutions to the problem including pressurAerator column (2) ized wind tunnels and lowering the temperature of the flow. Obtain information about cryogenic wind tunnels and explain the advantages and disadvantages. Summarize your findings in a brief report. I Figure P5.121 Homework Problems at the end of each chapter (over 1400 for the 7th edition) stress the practical applications of fluid mechanics principles. Lab Problems I FE Exam Problems 10 ft in WileyPLUS and on the book website provide actual data in Excel format for experiments of the type found in many introductory fluid mechanics labs. (1) (3) I Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) 5 ft 3 ft The CFD problems associated with this chapter have been developed for use with the ANSYS Academic CFD software package that is associated with this text. See WileyPLUS or the book’s web site (www.wiley.com/college/munson) for additional details. Pump I Figure P5.122 Lifelong Learning Problems require readers to obtain information from other sources about new state-of-the-art topics, and to write a brief report. 7.1CFD This CFD problem involves investigation of the Reynolds 5.123 Water is to be moved from one large reservoir number to another significance in fluid dynamics through the simulation of at a higher elevation as indicated in Fig. P5.123. The loss offlow available past a cylinder. To proceed with this problem, go to WileyPLUS energy associated with 2.5 ft3/s being pumped from sections (1)book’s to or the web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 2 2 2 (2) is loss ⫽ 61V Ⲑ 2 ft Ⲑs , where V is the average velocity of water There are additional CFD problems located in WileyPLUS. in the 8-in. inside-diameter piping involved. Determine the amount of shaft power required. Section (2) FE Exam Problems give students practice with problems similar to those on the FE Exam. Sample FE (Fundamental of Engineering) exam questions for fluid mechanics are provided in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 8-in. insidediameter pipe 50 ft Section (1) Pump CFD Problems in select chapters can be solved using ANSYS Academic CFD software. I Figure P5.123 5.124 A 34-hp motor is required by an air ventilating fan to produce a 24-in.-diameter stream of air having a uniform speed of 40 ft/s. Determine the aerodynamic efficiency of the fan. Student Solutions Manual and Study Guide a brief paperback book by Munson et al. (©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.), contains detailed solutions to the Review Problems, and a study guide with brief summary and sample problems with solutions for major sections of the book. Contents 1 Introduction 1 Learning Objectives 1 1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids 3 1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 4 1.2.1 Systems of Units 7 1.3 Analysis of Fluid Behavior 11 1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 11 1.4.1 Density 11 1.4.2 Specific Weight 12 1.4.3 Specific Gravity 12 1.5 Ideal Gas Law 12 1.6 Viscosity 14 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids 20 1.7.1 Bulk Modulus 20 1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of Gases 21 1.7.3 Speed of Sound 22 1.8 Vapor Pressure 23 1.9 Surface Tension 24 1.10 A Brief Look Back in History 27 1.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 29 References 30 Review Problems 31 Conceptual Questions 31 Problems 31 2 Fluid Statics 40 Learning Objectives 40 2.1 Pressure at a Point 40 2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field 42 2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 43 2.3.1 Incompressible Fluid 44 2.3.2 Compressible Fluid 47 2.4 Standard Atmosphere 49 2.5 Measurement of Pressure 50 2.6 Manometry 52 2.6.1 Piezometer Tube 52 2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer 53 2.6.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer 56 2.7 Mechanical and Electronic PressureMeasuring Devices 57 2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 59 2.9 Pressure Prism 65 2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface 68 2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 70 2.11.1 Archimedes’ Principle 70 2.11.2 Stability 73 2.12 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion 74 2.12.1 Linear Motion 75 2.12.2 Rigid-Body Rotation 77 2.13 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 79 References 80 Review Problems 80 Conceptual Questions 81 Problems 81 3 Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation 101 Learning Objectives 101 Newton’s Second Law 101 F ⫽ ma along a Streamline 104 F ⫽ ma Normal to a Streamline 108 Physical Interpretation 110 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure 113 3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation 117 3.6.1 Free Jets 118 3.6.2 Confined Flows 120 3.6.3 Flowrate Measurement 126 3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line 131 3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation 134 3.8.1 Compressibility Effects 134 3.8.2 Unsteady Effects 136 3.8.3 Rotational Effects 138 3.8.4 Other Restrictions 139 3.9 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 139 References 141 Review Problems 141 Conceptual Questions 141 Problems 141 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 xv xvi Contents 4 Fluid Kinematics 157 Learning Objectives 157 4.1 The Velocity Field 157 4.1.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow Descriptions 160 4.1.2 One-, Two-, and ThreeDimensional Flows 161 4.1.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows 162 4.1.4 Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines 162 4.2 The Acceleration Field 166 4.2.1 The Material Derivative 166 4.2.2 Unsteady Effects 169 4.2.3 Convective Effects 169 4.2.4 Streamline Coordinates 173 4.3 Control Volume and System Representations 175 4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 176 4.4.1 Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem 178 4.4.2 Physical Interpretation 183 4.4.3 Relationship to Material Derivative 183 4.4.4 Steady Effects 184 4.4.5 Unsteady Effects 184 4.4.6 Moving Control Volumes 186 4.4.7 Selection of a Control Volume 187 4.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 188 References 189 Review Problems 189 Conceptual Questions 189 Problems 190 5 Finite Control Volume Analysis 199 Learning Objectives 199 5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 200 5.1.1 Derivation of the Continuity Equation 200 5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume 202 5.1.3 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume 208 5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume 210 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-ofMomentum Equations 213 5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation 213 5.2.2 Application of the Linear Momentum Equation 214 5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-ofMomentum Equation 228 5.2.4 Application of the Moment-ofMomentum Equation 229 5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation 236 5.3.1 Derivation of the Energy Equation 236 5.3.2 Application of the Energy Equation 239 5.3.3 Comparison of the Energy Equation with the Bernoulli Equation 243 5.3.4 Application of the Energy Equation to Nonuniform Flows 249 5.3.5 Combination of the Energy Equation and the Moment-ofMomentum Equation 252 5.4 Second Law of Thermodynamics— Irreversible Flow 253 5.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 253 References 254 Review Problems 255 Conceptual Questions 255 Problems 255 6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow 276 Learning Objectives 276 6.1 Fluid Element Kinematics 277 6.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration Fields Revisited 278 6.1.2 Linear Motion and Deformation 278 6.1.3 Angular Motion and Deformation 279 6.2 Conservation of Mass 282 6.2.1 Differential Form of Continuity Equation 282 6.2.2 Cylindrical Polar Coordinates 285 6.2.3 The Stream Function 285 6.3 Conservation of Linear Momentum 288 6.3.1 Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element 289 6.3.2 Equations of Motion 291 Contents 6.4 Inviscid Flow 292 6.4.1 Euler’s Equations of Motion 292 6.4.2 The Bernoulli Equation 292 6.4.3 Irrotational Flow 294 6.4.4 The Bernoulli Equation for Irrotational Flow 296 6.4.5 The Velocity Potential 296 6.5 Some Basic, Plane Potential Flows 286 6.5.1 Uniform Flow 300 6.5.2 Source and Sink 301 6.5.3 Vortex 303 6.5.4 Doublet 306 6.6 Superposition of Basic, Plane Potential Flows 308 6.6.1 Source in a Uniform Stream—Half-Body 308 6.6.2 Rankine Ovals 311 6.6.3 Flow around a Circular Cylinder 313 6.7 Other Aspects of Potential Flow Analysis 318 6.8 Viscous Flow 319 6.8.1 Stress-Deformation Relationships 319 6.8.2 The Navier–Stokes Equations 320 6.9 Some Simple Solutions for Viscous, Incompressible Fluids 321 6.9.1 Steady, Laminar Flow between Fixed Parallel Plates 322 6.9.2 Couette Flow 324 6.9.3 Steady, Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes 326 6.9.4 Steady, Axial, Laminar Flow in an Annulus 329 6.10 Other Aspects of Differential Analysis 331 6.10.1 Numerical Methods 331 6.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 332 References 333 Review Problems 334 Conceptual Questions 334 Problems 334 7 Dimensional Analysis, Similitude, and Modeling Learning Objectives 346 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Dimensional Analysis 347 Buckingham Pi Theorem 349 Determination of Pi Terms 350 Some Additional Comments about Dimensional Analysis 355 7.4.1 Selection of Variables 355 346 xvii 7.4.2 Determination of Reference Dimensions 356 7.4.3 Uniqueness of Pi Terms 358 7.5 Determination of Pi Terms by Inspection 359 7.6 Common Dimensionless Groups in Fluid Mechanics 360 7.7 Correlation of Experimental Data 364 7.7.1 Problems with One Pi Term 365 7.7.2 Problems with Two or More Pi Terms 366 7.8 Modeling and Similitude 368 7.8.1 Theory of Models 368 7.8.2 Model Scales 372 7.8.3 Practical Aspects of Using Models 372 7.9 Some Typical Model Studies 374 7.9.1 Flow through Closed Conduits 374 7.9.2 Flow around Immersed Bodies 377 7.9.3 Flow with a Free Surface 381 7.10 Similitude Based on Governing Differential Equations 384 7.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 387 References 388 Review Problems 388 Conceptual Questions 389 Problems 389 8 Viscous Flow in Pipes 400 Learning Objectives 400 8.1 General Characteristics of Pipe Flow 401 8.1.1 Laminar or Turbulent Flow 402 8.1.2 Entrance Region and Fully Developed Flow 405 8.1.3 Pressure and Shear Stress 406 8.2 Fully Developed Laminar Flow 407 8.2.1 From F ⫽ ma Applied Directly to a Fluid Element 407 8.2.2 From the Navier–Stokes Equations 411 8.2.3 From Dimensional Analysis 413 8.2.4 Energy Considerations 414 8.3 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow 416 8.3.1 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 416 8.3.2 Turbulent Shear Stress 418 8.3.3 Turbulent Velocity Profile 422 8.3.4 Turbulence Modeling 426 8.3.5 Chaos and Turbulence 426 xviii Contents 8.4 Dimensional Analysis of Pipe Flow 426 8.4.1 Major Losses 427 8.4.2 Minor Losses 432 8.4.3 Noncircular Conduits 442 8.5 Pipe Flow Examples 445 8.5.1 Single Pipes 445 8.5.2 Multiple Pipe Systems 455 8.6 Pipe Flowrate Measurement 459 8.6.1 Pipe Flowrate Meters 459 8.6.2 Volume Flowmeters 464 8.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 465 References 467 Review Problems 468 Conceptual Questions 468 Problems 468 9 Flow Over Immersed Bodies 480 Learning Objectives 480 9.1 General External Flow Characteristics 481 9.1.1 Lift and Drag Concepts 482 9.1.2 Characteristics of Flow Past an Object 485 9.2 Boundary Layer Characteristics 489 9.2.1 Boundary Layer Structure and Thickness on a Flat Plate 489 9.2.2 Prandtl/Blasius Boundary Layer Solution 493 9.2.3 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation for a Flat Plate 497 9.2.4 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow 502 9.2.5 Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow 504 9.2.6 Effects of Pressure Gradient 507 9.2.7 Momentum Integral Boundary Layer Equation with Nonzero Pressure Gradient 511 9.3 Drag 512 9.3.1 Friction Drag 513 9.3.2 Pressure Drag 514 9.3.3 Drag Coefficient Data and Examples 516 9.4 Lift 528 9.4.1 Surface Pressure Distribution 528 9.4.2 Circulation 537 9.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 541 References 542 Review Problems 543 Conceptual Questions 543 Problems 544 10 Open-Channel Flow 554 Learning Objectives 554 10.1 General Characteristics of OpenChannel Flow 555 10.2 Surface Waves 556 10.2.1 Wave Speed 556 10.2.2 Froude Number Effects 559 10.3 Energy Considerations 561 10.3.1 Specific Energy 562 10.3.2 Channel Depth Variations 565 10.4 Uniform Depth Channel Flow 566 10.4.1 Uniform Flow Approximations 566 10.4.2 The Chezy and Manning Equations 567 10.4.3 Uniform Depth Examples 570 10.5 Gradually Varied Flow 575 10.6 Rapidly Varied Flow 576 10.6.1 The Hydraulic Jump 577 10.6.2 Sharp-Crested Weirs 582 10.6.3 Broad-Crested Weirs 585 10.6.4 Underflow Gates 587 10.7 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 589 References 590 Review Problems 591 Conceptual Questions 591 Problems 591 11 Compressible Flow 601 Learning Objectives 601 Ideal Gas Relationships 602 Mach Number and Speed of Sound 607 Categories of Compressible Flow 610 Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 614 11.4.1 Effect of Variations in Flow Cross-Sectional Area 615 11.4.2 Converging–Diverging Duct Flow 617 11.4.3 Constant Area Duct Flow 631 11.5 Nonisentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas 631 11.5.1 Adiabatic Constant Area Duct Flow with Friction (Fanno Flow) 631 11.5.2 Frictionless Constant Area Duct Flow with Heat Transfer (Rayleigh Flow) 642 11.5.3 Normal Shock Waves 648 11.6 Analogy between Compressible and Open-Channel Flows 655 11.7 Two-Dimensional Compressible Flow 657 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Contents 11.8 Chapter Summary and Study Guide References 661 Review Problems 662 Conceptual Questions 662 Problems 662 12 Turbomachines 658 667 Learning Objectives 667 12.1 Introduction 668 12.2 Basic Energy Considerations 669 12.3 Basic Angular Momentum Considerations 673 12.4 The Centrifugal Pump 675 12.4.1 Theoretical Considerations 676 12.4.2 Pump Performance Characteristics 680 12.4.3 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) 682 12.4.4 System Characteristics and Pump Selection 684 12.5 Dimensionless Parameters and Similarity Laws 688 12.5.1 Special Pump Scaling Laws 690 12.5.2 Specific Speed 691 12.5.3 Suction Specific Speed 692 12.6 Axial-Flow and Mixed-Flow Pumps 693 12.7 Fans 695 12.8 Turbines 695 12.8.1 Impulse Turbines 696 12.8.2 Reaction Turbines 704 12.9 Compressible Flow Turbomachines 707 12.9.1 Compressors 708 12.9.2 Compressible Flow Turbines 711 12.10 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 713 References 715 Review Problems 715 Conceptual Questions 715 Problems 716 A Computational Fluid Dynamics 725 B Physical Properties of Fluids 737 C Properties of the U.S. Standard Atmosphere 742 D Compressible Flow Graphs for an Ideal Gas (k ⫽ 1.4) 744 E Comprehensive Table of Conversion Factors See www.wiley.com/college/munson or WileyPLUS for this material. F CFD Problems and Tutorials See www.wiley.com/college/munson or WileyPLUS for this material. G Review Problems See www.wiley.com/college/munson or WileyPLUS for this material. H Lab Problems See www.wiley.com/college/munson or WileyPLUS for this material. I CFD Driven Cavity Example See www.wiley.com/college/munson or WileyPLUS for this material. Answers Index ANS-1 I-1 Video Index VI-1 xix This page is intentionally left blank ■ TA B L E 1 . 5 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Liquids (BG Units) Liquid Temperature (ⴗF) Density, R (slugsⲐ ft3) Carbon tetrachloride Ethyl alcohol Gasolinec Glycerin Mercury SAE 30 oilc Seawater Water 68 68 60 68 68 60 60 60 3.09 1.53 1.32 2.44 26.3 1.77 1.99 1.94 Specific Weight, G (lbⲐft3) Dynamic Viscosity, M (lb ⴢ sⲐft2) Kinematic Viscosity, N (ft2Ⲑs) Surface Tension,a S (lbⲐ ft) 99.5 49.3 42.5 78.6 847 57.0 64.0 62.4 2.00 E ⫺ 5 2.49 E ⫺ 5 6.5 E ⫺ 6 3.13 E ⫺ 2 3.28 E ⫺ 5 8.0 E ⫺ 3 2.51 E ⫺ 5 2.34 E ⫺ 5 6.47 E ⫺ 6 1.63 E ⫺ 5 4.9 E ⫺ 6 1.28 E ⫺ 2 1.25 E ⫺ 6 4.5 E ⫺ 3 1.26 E ⫺ 5 1.21 E ⫺ 5 1.84 E ⫺ 3 1.56 E ⫺ 3 1.5 E ⫺ 3 4.34 E ⫺ 3 3.19 E ⫺ 2 2.5 E ⫺ 3 5.03 E ⫺ 3 5.03 E ⫺ 3 Vapor Pressure, pv [lbⲐ in.2 (abs)] Bulk Modulus,b Ev (lbⲐ in.2) E⫹0 E⫺1 E⫹0 E⫺6 E⫺5 — 2.56 E ⫺ 1 2.56 E ⫺ 1 1.91 E ⫹ 5 1.54 E ⫹ 5 1.9 E ⫹ 5 6.56 E ⫹ 5 4.14 E ⫹ 6 2.2 E ⫹ 5 3.39 E ⫹ 5 3.12 E ⫹ 5 Vapor Pressure, pv [NⲐm2 (abs)] Bulk Modulus,b Ev (NⲐ m2) E⫹4 E⫹3 E⫹4 E⫺2 E⫺1 — 1.77 E ⫹ 3 1.77 E ⫹ 3 1.31 E ⫹ 9 1.06 E ⫹ 9 1.3 E ⫹ 9 4.52 E ⫹ 9 2.85 E ⫹ 10 1.5 E ⫹ 9 2.34 E ⫹ 9 2.15 E ⫹ 9 1.9 8.5 8.0 2.0 2.3 a In contact with air. Isentropic bulk modulus calculated from speed of sound. c Typical values. Properties of petroleum products vary. b ■ TA B L E 1 . 6 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Liquids (SI Units) Liquid Temperature (ⴗC) Density, R (kgⲐ m3) Carbon tetrachloride Ethyl alcohol Gasolinec Glycerin Mercury SAE 30 oilc Seawater Water 20 20 15.6 20 20 15.6 15.6 15.6 1,590 789 680 1,260 13,600 912 1,030 999 a In contact with air. Isentropic bulk modulus calculated from speed of sound. c Typical values. Properties of petroleum products vary. b Specific Weight, G (kNⲐm3) Dynamic Viscosity, M (N ⴢ sⲐm2) Kinematic Viscosity, N (m2 Ⲑ s) Surface Tension,a S (NⲐm) 15.6 7.74 6.67 12.4 133 8.95 10.1 9.80 9.58 E ⫺ 4 1.19 E ⫺ 3 3.1 E ⫺ 4 1.50 E ⫹ 0 1.57 E ⫺ 3 3.8 E ⫺ 1 1.20 E ⫺ 3 1.12 E ⫺ 3 6.03 E ⫺ 7 1.51 E ⫺ 6 4.6 E ⫺ 7 1.19 E ⫺ 3 1.15 E ⫺ 7 4.2 E ⫺ 4 1.17 E ⫺ 6 1.12 E ⫺ 6 2.69 E ⫺ 2 2.28 E ⫺ 2 2.2 E ⫺ 2 6.33 E ⫺ 2 4.66 E ⫺ 1 3.6 E ⫺ 2 7.34 E ⫺ 2 7.34 E ⫺ 2 1.3 5.9 5.5 1.4 1.6 ■ TA B L E 1 . 7 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (BG Units) Gas Temperature (ⴗF) Air (standard) Carbon dioxide Helium Hydrogen Methane (natural gas) Nitrogen Oxygen 59 68 68 68 68 68 68 Density, R (slugsⲐ ft3) 2.38 E 3.55 E 3.23 E 1.63 E 1.29 E 2.26 E 2.58 E ⫺3 ⫺3 ⫺4 ⫺4 ⫺3 ⫺3 ⫺3 Specific Weight, G (lbⲐ ft3) 7.65 E 1.14 E 1.04 E 5.25 E 4.15 E 7.28 E 8.31 E ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ Dynamic Viscosity, M (lb ⴢ sⲐft2) 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 3.74 E 3.07 E 4.09 E 1.85 E 2.29 E 3.68 E 4.25 E ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ ⫺ 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 Kinematic Viscosity, N (ft2Ⲑs) 1.57 E ⫺ 8.65 E ⫺ 1.27 E ⫺ 1.13 E ⫺ 1.78 E ⫺ 1.63 E ⫺ 1.65 E ⫺ 4 5 3 3 4 4 4 Gas Constant,a R (ft ⴢ lbⲐ slug ⴢ ⴗR) Specific Heat Ratio,b k 1.716 E ⫹ 3 1.130 E ⫹ 3 1.242 E ⫹ 4 2.466 E ⫹ 4 3.099 E ⫹ 3 1.775 E ⫹ 3 1.554 E ⫹ 3 1.40 1.30 1.66 1.41 1.31 1.40 1.40 a Values of the gas constant are independent of temperature. Values of the specific heat ratio depend only slightly on temperature. b ■ TA B L E 1 . 8 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (SI Units) Gas Temperature (ⴗC) Density, R (kgⲐ m3) Specific Weight, G (N Ⲑm3) Dynamic Viscosity, M (N ⴢ sⲐ m2) Kinematic Viscosity, N (m2 Ⲑs) Gas Constant,a R (JⲐ kg ⴢ K) Specific Heat Ratio,b k Air (standard) Carbon dioxide Helium Hydrogen Methane (natural gas) Nitrogen Oxygen 15 20 20 20 20 20 20 1.23 E ⫹ 0 1.83 E ⫹ 0 1.66 E ⫺ 1 8.38 E ⫺ 2 6.67 E ⫺ 1 1.16 E ⫹ 0 1.33 E ⫹ 0 1.20 E ⫹ 1 1.80 E ⫹ 1 1.63 E ⫹ 0 8.22 E ⫺ 1 6.54 E ⫹ 0 1.14 E ⫹ 1 1.30 E ⫹ 1 1.79 E ⫺ 5 1.47 E ⫺ 5 1.94 E ⫺ 5 8.84 E ⫺ 6 1.10 E ⫺ 5 1.76 E ⫺ 5 2.04 E ⫺ 5 1.46 E ⫺ 5 8.03 E ⫺ 6 1.15 E ⫺ 4 1.05 E ⫺ 4 1.65 E ⫺ 5 1.52 E ⫺ 5 1.53 E ⫺ 5 2.869 E ⫹ 2 1.889 E ⫹ 2 2.077 E ⫹ 3 4.124 E ⫹ 3 5.183 E ⫹ 2 2.968 E ⫹ 2 2.598 E ⫹ 2 1.40 1.30 1.66 1.41 1.31 1.40 1.40 a Values of the gas constant are independent of temperature. Values of the specific heat ratio depend only slightly on temperature. b 1 Introduction CHAPTER OPENING PHOTO: The nature of air bubbles rising in a liquid is a function of fluid properties such as density, viscosity, and surface tension. (Left: air in oil; right: air in soap.) (Photographs copyright 2007 by Andrew Davidhazy, Rochester Institute of Technology.) Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: ■ determine the dimensions and units of physical quantities. ■ identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior. ■ calculate common fluid properties given appropriate information. ■ explain effects of fluid compressibility. ■ use the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface tension. ᐉ p V (Photograph courtesy of CIRRUS Design Corporation.) Fluid mechanics is the discipline within the broad field of applied mechanics that is concerned with the behavior of liquids and gases at rest or in motion. It covers a vast array of phenomena that occur in nature (with or without human intervention), in biology, and in numerous engineered, invented, or manufactured situations. There are few aspects of our lives that do not involve fluids, either directly or indirectly. The immense range of different flow conditions is mind-boggling and strongly dependent on the value of the numerous parameters that describe fluid flow. Among the long list of parameters involved are (1) the physical size of the flow, /; (2) the speed of the flow, V; and (3) the pressure, p, as indicated in the figure in the margin for a light aircraft parachute recovery system. These are just three of the important parameters that, along with many others, are discussed in detail in various sections of this book. To get an inkling of the range of some of the parameter values involved and the flow situations generated, consider the following. Size, / Every flow has a characteristic (or typical) length associated with it. For example, for flow of fluid within pipes, the pipe diameter is a characteristic length. Pipe flows include 1 2 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction the flow of water in the pipes in our homes, the blood flow in our arteries and veins, and the airflow in our bronchial tree. They also involve pipe sizes that are not within our everyday experiences. Such examples include the flow of oil across Alaska through a 4-foot-diameter, 799-mile-long pipe and, at the other end of the size scale, the new area of interest involving flow in nano scale pipes whose diameters are on the order of 108 m. Each of these pipe flows has important characteristics that are not found in the others. Characteristic lengths of some other flows are shown in Fig. 1.1a. Speed, V As we note from The Weather Channel, on a given day the wind speed may cover what we think of as a wide range, from a gentle 5-mph breeze to a 100-mph hurricane or a 250-mph tornado. However, this speed range is small compared to that of the almost imperceptible flow of the fluid-like magma below the Earth’s surface that drives the continental drift motion of the tectonic plates at a speed of about 2  108 m/s or the hypersonic airflow past a meteor as it streaks through the atmosphere at 3  104 m/s. Characteristic speeds of some other flows are shown in Fig. 1.1b. Pressure, p The pressure within fluids covers an extremely wide range of values. We are accustomed to the 35 psi (lb/in.2) pressure within our car’s tires, the “120 over 70” typical blood pressure reading, or the standard 14.7 psi atmospheric pressure. However, the large 10,000 psi pressure in the hydraulic ram of an earth mover or the tiny 2  106 psi pressure of a sound wave generated at ordinary talking levels are not easy to comprehend. Characteristic pressures of some other flows are shown in Fig. 1.1c. V1.1 Mt. St. Helens eruption 108 Jupiter red spot diameter V1.2 E. coli swimming 106 Ocean current diameter 106 Diameter of hurricane 100 10-2 10-4 10-6 104 Average width of middle Mississippi River 102 Boeing 787 NACA Ames wind tunnel Diameter of Space Shuttle main engine exhaust jet Outboard motor prop Water pipe diameter Raindrop Water jet cutter width Amoeba Thickness of lubricating oil layer in journal bearing Diameter of smallest blood vessel Meteor entering atmosphere 106 Space Shuttle reentry Rocket nozzle exhaust Speed of sound in air Tornado 104 Water from fire hose nozzle Flow past bike rider 100 10-2 102 Mississippi River Syrup on pancake 10-4 Microscopic swimming animal 10-6 Glacier flow p, lb/in.2 ᐉ, m 102 Mt. St. Helens plume V, m/s 104 100 Nano scale devices (a) ■ Figure 1.1 Fire hydrant Auto tire Standard atmosphere “Excess pressure” on hand held out of car traveling 60 mph Atmospheric pressure on Mars 10-2 Pressure change causing ears to “pop” in elevator Pressure at 40-mile altitude 10-4 Artificial kidney filter pore size 10-8 Water jet cutting Mariana Trench in Pacific Ocean Hydraulic ram Scuba tank Car engine combustion Vacuum pump 10-8 Continental drift (b) 10-6 Sound pressure at normal talking (c) Characteristic values of some fluid flow parameters for a variety of flows: (a) object size, (b) fluid speed, (c) fluid pressure. 1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids 3 The list of fluid mechanics applications goes on and on. But you get the point. Fluid mechanics is a very important, practical subject that encompasses a wide variety of situations. It is very likely that during your career as an engineer you will be involved in the analysis and design of systems that require a good understanding of fluid mechanics. Although it is not possible to adequately cover all of the important areas of fluid mechanics within one book, it is hoped that this introductory text will provide a sound foundation of the fundamental aspects of fluid mechanics. 1.1 Some Characteristics of Fluids One of the first questions we need to explore is––what is a fluid? Or we might ask–what is the difference between a solid and a fluid? We have a general, vague idea of the difference. A solid is “hard” and not easily deformed, whereas a fluid is “soft” and is easily deformed 1we can readily move through air2. Although quite descriptive, these casual observations of the differences between solids and fluids are not very satisfactory from a scientific or engineering point of view. A closer look at the molecular structure of materials reveals that matter that we commonly think of as a solid 1steel, concrete, etc.2 has densely spaced molecules with large intermolecular cohesive forces that allow the solid to maintain its shape, and to not be easily deformed. However, for matter that we normally think of as a liquid 1water, oil, etc.2, the molecules are spaced farther apart, the intermolecular forces are smaller than for solids, and the molecules have more freedom of movement. Thus, liquids can be easily deformed 1but not easily compressed2 and can be poured into containers or forced through a tube. Gases 1air, oxygen, etc.2 have even greater molecular spacing and freedom of motion with negligible cohesive intermolecular forces, and as a consequence are easily deformed 1and compressed2 and will completely fill the volume of any container in which they are placed. Both liquids and gases are fluids. Both liquids and gases are fluids. F l u i d s i n Will what works in air work in water? For the past few years a San Francisco company has been working on small, maneuverable submarines designed to travel through water using wings, controls, and thrusters that are similar to those on jet airplanes. After all, water (for submarines) and air (for airplanes) are both fluids, so it is expected that many of the principles governing the flight of airplanes should carry over to the “flight” of winged submarines. Of course, there are differences. For example, the submarine must F Surface t h e N e w s be designed to withstand external pressures of nearly 700 pounds per square inch greater than that inside the vehicle. On the other hand, at high altitude where commercial jets fly, the exterior pressure is 3.5 psi rather than standard sea-level pressure of 14.7 psi, so the vehicle must be pressurized internally for passenger comfort. In both cases, however, the design of the craft for minimal drag, maximum lift, and efficient thrust is governed by the same fluid dynamic concepts. Although the differences between solids and fluids can be explained qualitatively on the basis of molecular structure, a more specific distinction is based on how they deform under the action of an external load. Specifically, a fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously when acted on by a shearing stress of any magnitude. A shearing stress 1force per unit area2 is created whenever a tangential force acts on a surface as shown by the figure in the margin. When common solids such as steel or other metals are acted on by a shearing stress, they will initially deform 1usually a very small deformation2, but they will not continuously deform 1flow2. However, common fluids such as water, oil, and air satisfy the definition of a fluid—that is, they will flow when acted on by a shearing stress. Some materials, such as slurries, tar, putty, toothpaste, and so on, are not easily classified since they will behave as a solid if the applied shearing stress is small, but if the stress exceeds some critical value, the substance will flow. The study of such materials is called rheology and does not fall within the province of classical fluid mechanics. Thus, all the fluids we will be concerned with in this text will conform to the definition of a fluid given previously. 4 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction Although the molecular structure of fluids is important in distinguishing one fluid from another, it is not yet practical to study the behavior of individual molecules when trying to describe the behavior of fluids at rest or in motion. Rather, we characterize the behavior by considering the average, or macroscopic, value of the quantity of interest, where the average is evaluated over a small volume containing a large number of molecules. Thus, when we say that the velocity at a certain point in a fluid is so much, we are really indicating the average velocity of the molecules in a small volume surrounding the point. The volume is small compared with the physical dimensions of the system of interest, but large compared with the average distance between molecules. Is this a reasonable way to describe the behavior of a fluid? The answer is generally yes, since the spacing between molecules is typically very small. For gases at normal pressures and temperatures, the spacing is on the order of 106 mm, and for liquids it is on the order of 107 mm. The number of molecules per cubic millimeter is on the order of 1018 for gases and 10 21 for liquids. It is thus clear that the number of molecules in a very tiny volume is huge and the idea of using average values taken over this volume is certainly reasonable. We thus assume that all the fluid characteristics we are interested in 1pressure, velocity, etc.2 vary continuously throughout the fluid—that is, we treat the fluid as a continuum. This concept will certainly be valid for all the circumstances considered in this text. One area of fluid mechanics for which the continuum concept breaks down is in the study of rarefied gases such as would be encountered at very high altitudes. In this case the spacing between air molecules can become large and the continuum concept is no longer acceptable. 1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units Fluid characteristics can be described qualitatively in terms of certain basic quantities such as length, time, and mass. Since in our study of fluid mechanics we will be dealing with a variety of fluid characteristics, it is necessary to develop a system for describing these characteristics both qualitatively and quantitatively. The qualitative aspect serves to identify the nature, or type, of the characteristics 1such as length, time, stress, and velocity2, whereas the quantitative aspect provides a numerical measure of the characteristics. The quantitative description requires both a number and a standard by which various quantities can be compared. A standard for length might be a meter or foot, for time an hour or second, and for mass a slug or kilogram. Such standards are called units, and several systems of units are in common use as described in the following section. The qualitative description is conveniently given in terms of certain primary quantities, such as length, L, time, T, mass, M, and temperature, ™. These primary quantities can then be used to provide a qualitative description of any other secondary quantity: for example, area ⬟ L2, velocity ⬟ LT 1, density ⬟ ML3, and so on, where the symbol ⬟ is used to indicate the dimensions of the secondary quantity in terms of the primary quantities. Thus, to describe qualitatively a velocity, V, we would write V ⬟ LT 1 and say that “the dimensions of a velocity equal length divided by time.” The primary quantities are also referred to as basic dimensions. For a wide variety of problems involving fluid mechanics, only the three basic dimensions, L, T, and M are required. Alternatively, L, T, and F could be used, where F is the basic dimensions of force. Since Newton’s law states that force is equal to mass times acceleration, it follows that F ⬟ MLT 2 or M ⬟ FL1 T 2. Thus, secondary quantities expressed in terms of M can be expressed in terms of F through the relationship above. For example, stress, s, is a force per unit area, so that s ⬟ FL2, but an equivalent dimensional equation is s ⬟ ML1T 2. Table 1.1 provides a list of dimensions for a number of common physical quantities. All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally homogeneous—that is, the dimensions of the left side of the equation must be the same as those on the right side, and all additive separate terms must have the same dimensions. We accept as a fundamental premise that all equations describing physical phenomena must be dimensionally homogeneous. If this were not true, we would be attempting to equate or add unlike physical quantities, which would not make sense. For example, the equation for the velocity, V, of a uniformly accelerated body is V  V0  at (1.1) 1.2 5 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units Table 1.1 Dimensions Associated with Common Physical Quantities FLT System MLT System Acceleration Angle Angular acceleration Angular velocity Area LT 2 F 0L0T 0 T 2 T 1 L2 LT 2 M 0L0T 0 T 2 T 1 L2 Density Energy Force Frequency Heat FL4T 2 FL F T 1 FL ML3 ML2T 2 MLT 2 T 1 ML2T 2 Length Mass Modulus of elasticity Moment of a force Moment of inertia 1area2 L FL1T 2 FL2 FL L4 L M ML1T 2 ML2T 2 L4 FLT 2 FT ML2 MLT 1 Moment of inertia 1mass2 Momentum FLT System MLT System Power Pressure Specific heat FLT 1 FL2 L2T 2 ™ 1 ML2T 3 ML1T 2 L2T 2 ™ 1 Specific weight Strain Stress Surface tension Temperature FL3 F 0L0T 0 FL2 FL1 ™ ML2T 2 M 0L0T 0 ML1T 2 MT 2 ™ Time Torque Velocity Viscosity 1dynamic2 Viscosity 1kinematic2 T FL LT 1 FL2T L2T 1 T ML2T 2 LT 1 ML1T 1 L2T 1 Volume Work L3 FL L3 ML2T 2 where V0 is the initial velocity, a the acceleration, and t the time interval. In terms of dimensions the equation is LT 1 ⬟ LT 1  LT 2T and thus Eq. 1.1 is dimensionally homogeneous. Some equations that are known to be valid contain constants having dimensions. The equation for the distance, d, traveled by a freely falling body can be written as d  16.1t 2 (1.2) and a check of the dimensions reveals that the constant must have the dimensions of LT 2 if the equation is to be dimensionally homogeneous. Actually, Eq. 1.2 is a special form of the well-known equation from physics for freely falling bodies, d General homogeneous equations are valid in any system of units. gt 2 2 (1.3) in which g is the acceleration of gravity. Equation 1.3 is dimensionally homogeneous and valid in any system of units. For g  32.2 ft s2 the equation reduces to Eq. 1.2 and thus Eq. 1.2 is valid only for the system of units using feet and seconds. Equations that are restricted to a particular system of units can be denoted as restricted homogeneous equations, as opposed to equations valid in any system of units, which are general homogeneous equations. The preceding discussion indicates one rather elementary, but important, use of the concept of dimensions: the determination of one aspect of the generality of a given equation simply based on a consideration of the dimensions of the various terms in the equation. The concept of dimensions also forms the basis for the powerful tool of dimensional analysis, which is considered in detail in Chapter 7. Note to the users of this text. All of the examples in the text use a consistent problemsolving methodology, which is similar to that in other engineering courses such as statics. Each example highlights the key elements of analysis: Given, Find, Solution, and Comment. The Given and Find are steps that ensure the user understands what is being asked in the problem and explicitly list the items provided to help solve the problem. The Solution step is where the equations needed to solve the problem are formulated and the problem is actually solved. In this step, there are typically several other tasks that help to set 6 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction up the solution and are required to solve the problem. The first is a drawing of the problem; where appropriate, it is always helpful to draw a sketch of the problem. Here the relevant geometry and coordinate system to be used as well as features such as control volumes, forces and pressures, velocities, and mass flow rates are included. This helps in gaining a visual understanding of the problem. Making appropriate assumptions to solve the problem is the second task. In a realistic engineering problem-solving environment, the necessary assumptions are developed as an integral part of the solution process. Assumptions can provide appropriate simplifications or offer useful constraints, both of which can help in solving the problem. Throughout the examples in this text, the necessary assumptions are embedded within the Solution step, as they are in solving a realworld problem. This provides a realistic problem-solving experience. The final element in the methodology is the Comment. For the examples in the text, this section is used to provide further insight into the problem or the solution. It can also be a point in the analysis at which certain questions are posed. For example: Is the answer reasonable, and does it make physical sense? Are the final units correct? If a certain parameter were changed, how would the answer change? Adopting this type of methodology will aid in the development of problem-solving skills for fluid mechanics, as well as other engineering disciplines. E XAMPLE 1.1 Restricted and General Homogeneous Equations GIVEN A liquid flows through an orifice located in the side of a tank as shown in Fig. E1.1. A commonly used equation for determining the volume rate of flow, Q, through the orifice is h Q  0.61 A 12gh Q where A is the area of the orifice, g is the acceleration of gravity, and h is the height of the liquid above the orifice. A FIND Investigate the dimensional homogeneity of this formula. (a) ■ Figure E1.1 SOLUTION The dimensions of the various terms in the equation are Q  . . . volume/time  L3T 1, A  area  L2, g  acceleration of gravity  2 LT , and h  height ⬟ L. These terms, when substituted into the equation, yield the dimensional form: 1L3T 1 2 ⬟ 10.612 1L2 2 1 12 2 1LT 2 2 12 1L2 12 or (b) 1L3T 1 2 ⬟ 30.61 124 1L3T 1 2 It is clear from this result that the equation is dimensionally homogeneous 1both sides of the formula have the same dimensions of L3T 12, and the number 0.61 12 is dimensionless. If we were going to use this relationship repeatedly, we might be tempted to simplify it by replacing g with its standard value of 32.2 ft s2 and rewriting the formula as Q  4.90 A 1h A quick check of the dimensions reveals that L3T 1 ⬟ 14.9021L52 2 (1) and, therefore, the equation expressed as Eq. 1 can only be dimensionally correct if the number 4.90 has the dimensions of L12T 1. Whenever a number appearing in an equation or formula has dimensions, it means that the specific value of the number will depend on the system of units used. Thus, for the case being considered with feet and seconds used as units, the number 4.90 has units of ft12s. Equation 1 will only give the correct value for Q 1in ft3s2 when A is expressed in square feet and h in feet. Thus, Eq. 1 is a restricted homogeneous equation, whereas the original equation is a general homogeneous equation that would be valid for any consistent system of units. COMMENT A quick check of the dimensions of the various terms in an equation is a useful practice and will often be helpful in eliminating errors—that is, as noted previously, all physically meaningful equations must be dimensionally homogeneous. We have briefly alluded to units in this example, and this important topic will be considered in more detail in the next section. 1.2 7 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 1.2.1 Systems of Units In addition to the qualitative description of the various quantities of interest, it is generally necessary to have a quantitative measure of any given quantity. For example, if we measure the width of this page in the book and say that it is 10 units wide, the statement has no meaning until the unit of length is defined. If we indicate that the unit of length is a meter, and define the meter as some standard length, a unit system for length has been established 1and a numerical value can be given to the page width2. In addition to length, a unit must be established for each of the remaining basic quantities 1force, mass, time, and temperature2. There are several systems of units in use, and we shall consider three systems that are commonly used in engineering. International System (SI). In 1960 the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures, the international organization responsible for maintaining precise uniform standards of measurements, formally adopted the International System of Units as the international standard. This system, commonly termed SI, has been widely adopted worldwide and is widely used 1although certainly not exclusively2 in the United States. It is expected that the long-term trend will be for all countries to accept SI as the accepted standard and it is imperative that engineering students become familiar with this system. In SI the unit of length is the meter 1m2, the time unit is the second 1s2, the mass unit is the kilogram 1kg2, and the temperature unit is the kelvin 1K2. Note that there is no degree symbol used when expressing a temperature in kelvin units. The kelvin temperature scale is an absolute scale and is related to the Celsius 1centigrade2 scale 1°C2 through the relationship K  °C  273.15 Although the Celsius scale is not in itself part of SI, it is common practice to specify temperatures in degrees Celsius when using SI units. The force unit, called the newton 1N2, is defined from Newton’s second law as 1 N  11 kg211 m s2 2 In mechanics it is very important to distinguish between weight and mass. Thus, a 1-N force acting on a 1-kg mass will give the mass an acceleration of 1 ms2. Standard gravity in SI is 9.807 ms2 1commonly approximated as 9.81 ms2 2 so that a 1-kg mass weighs 9.81 N under standard gravity. Note that weight and mass are different, both qualitatively and quantitatively! The unit of work in SI is the joule 1J2, which is the work done when the point of application of a 1-N force is displaced through a 1-m distance in the direction of a force. Thus, 1J1N#m The unit of power is the watt 1W2 defined as a joule per second. Thus, 1 W  1 Js  1 N # ms Prefixes for forming multiples and fractions of SI units are given in Table 1.2. For example, the notation kN would be read as “kilonewtons” and stands for 103 N. Similarly, mm would be read as “millimeters” and stands for 103 m. The centimeter is not an accepted unit of length in Table 1.2 Prefixes for SI Units Factor by Which Unit Is Multiplied 15 10 1012 109 106 103 102 10 101 Prefix peta tera giga mega kilo hecto deka deci Symbol P T G M k h da d Factor by Which Unit Is Multiplied 2 10 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 Prefix Symbol centi milli micro nano pico femto atto c m m n p f a 8 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction the SI system, so for most problems in fluid mechanics in which SI units are used, lengths will be expressed in millimeters or meters. British Gravitational (BG) System. In the BG system the unit of length is the foot 1ft2, the time unit is the second 1s2, the force unit is the pound 1lb2, and the temperature unit is the degree Fahrenheit 1°F2 or the absolute temperature unit is the degree Rankine 1°R2, where °R  °F  459.67 The mass unit, called the slug, is defined from Newton’s second law 1force  mass  acceleration2 as 1 lb  11 slug211 ft s2 2 This relationship indicates that a 1-lb force acting on a mass of 1 slug will give the mass an acceleration of 1 fts2. The weight, w 1which is the force due to gravity, g2, of a mass, m, is given by the equation Two systems of units that are widely used in engineering are the British Gravitational (BG) System and the International System (SI). F l w  mg and in BG units w1lb2  m 1slugs2 g 1fts2 2 Since Earth’s standard gravity is taken as g  32.174 fts2 1commonly approximated as 32.2 ft s22, it follows that a mass of 1 slug weighs 32.2 lb under standard gravity. u i d s i n t How long is a foot? Today, in the United States, the common length unit is the foot, but throughout antiquity the unit used to measure length has quite a history. The first length units were based on the lengths of various body parts. One of the earliest units was the Egyptian cubit, first used around 3000 B.C. and defined as the length of the arm from elbow to extended fingertips. Other measures followed, with the foot simply taken as the length of a man’s foot. Since this length obviously varies from person to person it was often “standardized” by using the length of the current reigning h e N e w s royalty’s foot. In 1791 a special French commission proposed that a new universal length unit called a meter (metre) be defined as the distance of one-quarter of the Earth’s meridian (north pole to the equator) divided by 10 million. Although controversial, the meter was accepted in 1799 as the standard. With the development of advanced technology, the length of a meter was redefined in 1983 as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum during the time interval of 1 299,792,458 s. The foot is now defined as 0.3048 meter. Our simple rulers and yardsticks indeed have an intriguing history. English Engineering (EE) System. In the EE system, units for force and mass are defined independently; thus special care must be exercised when using this system in conjunction with Newton’s second law. The basic unit of mass is the pound mass 1lbm2, and the unit of force is the pound 1lb2.1 The unit of length is the foot 1ft2, the unit of time is the second 1s2, and the absolute temperature scale is the degree Rankine 1°R2. To make the equation expressing Newton’s second law dimensionally homogeneous we write it as F ma gc (1.4) where gc is a constant of proportionality, which allows us to define units for both force and mass. For the BG system, only the force unit was prescribed and the mass unit defined in a consistent manner such that gc  1. Similarly, for SI the mass unit was prescribed and the force unit defined in a consistent manner such that gc  1. For the EE system, a 1-lb force is defined as that force which gives a 1 lbm a standard acceleration of gravity, which is taken as 32.174 ft s2. Thus, for Eq. 1.4 to be both numerically and dimensionally correct 1 lb  1 11 lbm2132.174 fts2 2 gc It is also common practice to use the notation, lbf, to indicate pound force. 1.2 1.0 m 3 ft 1.0 0.06 kg 2 0.5 0.5 0 Length lbm 1.0 N 9 0.2 lb 0.04 1 0 slug 2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 1 0.5 0.1 0.02 0 0 Mass 0 0 Force ■ Figure 1.2 Comparison of SI, BG, and EE units. so that gc  11 lbm2132.174 fts2 2 11 lb2 With the EE system, weight and mass are related through the equation w mg gc where g is the local acceleration of gravity. Under conditions of standard gravity 1g  gc 2 the weight in pounds and the mass in pound mass are numerically equal. Also, since a 1-lb force gives a mass of 1 lbm an acceleration of 32.174 ft s2 and a mass of 1 slug an acceleration of 1 ft s2, it follows that 1 slug  32.174 lbm When solving problems it is important to use a consistent system of units, e.g., don’t mix BG and SI units. In this text we will primarily use the BG system and SI for units. The EE system is used very sparingly, and only in those instances where convention dictates its use, such as for the compressible flow material in Chapter 11. Approximately one-half the problems and examples are given in BG units and one-half in SI units. We cannot overemphasize the importance of paying close attention to units when solving problems. It is very easy to introduce huge errors into problem solutions through the use of incorrect units. Get in the habit of using a consistent system of units throughout a given solution. It really makes no difference which system you use as long as you are consistent; for example, don’t mix slugs and newtons. If problem data are specified in SI units, then use SI units throughout the solution. If the data are specified in BG units, then use BG units throughout the solution. The relative sizes of the SI, BG, and EE units of length, mass, and force are shown in Fig. 1.2. Tables 1.3 and 1.4 provide conversion factors for some quantities that are commonly encountered in fluid mechanics. For convenient reference these tables are reproduced on the inside of the back cover. Note that in these tables 1and others2 the numbers are expressed by using computer exponential notation. For example, the number 5.154 E  2 is equivalent to 5.154  102 in scientific notation, and the number 2.832 E  2 is equivalent to 2.832  102. More extensive tables of conversion factors for a large variety of unit systems can be found in Appendix E. Table 1.3 Conversion Factors from BG and EE Units to SI Units (See inside of back cover.) Table 1.4 Conversion Factors from SI Units to BG and EE Units (See inside of back cover.) 10 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction E XAMPLE 1.2 BG and SI Units GIVEN A tank of liquid having a total mass of 36 kg rests on a support in the equipment bay of the Space Shuttle. FIND Determine the force 1in newtons2 that the tank exerts on the support shortly after lift off when the shuttle is accelerating upward as shown in Fig. E1.2a at 15 ft s2. SOLUTION A free-body diagram of the tank is shown in Fig. E1.2b, where w is the weight of the tank and liquid, and Ff is the reaction of the floor on the tank. Application of Newton’s second law of motion to this body gives a F ma or Ff  w  ma (1) where we have taken upward as the positive direction. Since w  mg, Eq. 1 can be written as Ff  m 1g  a2 (2) Before substituting any number into Eq. 2, we must decide on a system of units, and then be sure all of the data are expressed in these units. Since we want Ff in newtons, we will use SI units so that Ff  36 kg 39.81 m s2  115 ft s2 210.3048 m ft2 4  518 kg # m s2 ■ Figure E1.2a (Photograph courtesy of NASA.) Since 1 N  1 kg # m s2, it follows that 1downward on floor2 Ff  518 N (Ans) The direction is downward since the force shown on the free-body diagram is the force of the support on the tank so that the force the tank exerts on the support is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. ᐃ COMMENT As you work through a large variety of problems in this text, you will find that units play an essential role in arriving at a numerical answer. Be careful! It is easy to mix units and cause large errors. If in the above example the acceleration had been left as 15 ft s2 with m and g expressed in SI units, we would have calculated the force as 893 N and the answer would have been 72% too large! a Ff ■ Figure E1.2b F l u i d s i n Units and space travel A NASA spacecraft, the Mars Climate Orbiter, was launched in December 1998 to study the Martian geography and weather patterns. The spacecraft was slated to begin orbiting Mars on September 23, 1999. However, NASA officials lost communication with the spacecraft early that day and it is believed that the spacecraft broke apart or overheated because it came too close to the surface of Mars. Errors in the t h e N e w s maneuvering commands sent from earth caused the Orbiter to sweep within 37 miles of the surface rather than the intended 93 miles. The subsequent investigation revealed that the errors were due to a simple mix-up in units. One team controlling the Orbiter used SI units, whereas another team used BG units. This costly experience illustrates the importance of using a consistent system of units. 1.4 1.3 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 11 Analysis of Fluid Behavior The study of fluid mechanics involves the same fundamental laws you have encountered in physics and other mechanics courses. These laws include Newton’s laws of motion, conservation of mass, and the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Thus, there are strong similarities between the general approach to fluid mechanics and to rigid-body and deformable-body solid mechanics. This is indeed helpful since many of the concepts and techniques of analysis used in fluid mechanics will be ones you have encountered before in other courses. The broad subject of fluid mechanics can be generally subdivided into fluid statics, in which the fluid is at rest, and fluid dynamics, in which the fluid is moving. In the following chapters we will consider both of these areas in detail. Before we can proceed, however, it will be necessary to define and discuss certain fluid properties that are intimately related to fluid behavior. It is obvious that different fluids can have grossly different characteristics. For example, gases are light and compressible, whereas liquids are heavy 1by comparison2 and relatively incompressible. A syrup flows slowly from a container, but water flows rapidly when poured from the same container. To quantify these differences, certain fluid properties are used. In the following several sections, the properties that play an important role in the analysis of fluid behavior are considered. 1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 1.4.1 Density The density of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol r 1rho2, is defined as its mass per unit volume. Density is typically used to characterize the mass of a fluid system. In the BG system, r has units of slugsft3 and in SI the units are kgm3. The value of density can vary widely between different fluids, but for liquids, variations in pressure and temperature generally have only a small effect on the value of r. The small change in the density of water with large variations in temperature is illustrated in Fig. 1.3. Tables 1.5 and 1.6 list values of density for several common liquids. The density of water at 60 °F is 1.94 slugsft3 or 999 kg m3. The large difference between those two values illustrates the importance of paying attention to units! Unlike liquids, the density of a gas is strongly influenced by both pressure and temperature, and this difference will be discussed in the next section. The specific volume, v, is the volume per unit mass and is therefore the reciprocal of the density—that is, v 1 r (1.5) This property is not commonly used in fluid mechanics but is used in thermodynamics. 1000 990 Density, ρ kg/m3 The density of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit volume. @ 4°C ρ = 1000 kg/m3 980 970 960 950 0 20 40 60 Temperature, °C 80 ■ Figure 1.3 Density of water as a function of temperature. 100 12 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction Table 1.5 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Liquids (BG Units) (See inside of front cover.) Table 1.6 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Liquids (SI Units) (See inside of front cover.) 1.4.2 Specific Weight Specific weight is weight per unit volume; specific gravity is the ratio of fluid density to the density of water at a certain temperature. The specific weight of a fluid, designated by the Greek symbol g 1gamma2, is defined as its weight per unit volume. Thus, specific weight is related to density through the equation g  rg (1.6) where g is the local acceleration of gravity. Just as density is used to characterize the mass of a fluid system, the specific weight is used to characterize the weight of the system. In the BG system, g has units of lb ft3 and in SI the units are Nm3. Under conditions of standard gravity 1g  32.174 fts2  9.807 ms2 2, water at 60 °F has a specific weight of 62.4 lb ft3 and 9.80 kNm3. Tables 1.5 and 1.6 list values of specific weight for several common liquids 1based on standard gravity2. More complete tables for water can be found in Appendix B 1Tables B.1 and B.22. 1.4.3 Specific Gravity The specific gravity of a fluid, designated as SG, is defined as the ratio of the density of the fluid to the density of water at some specified temperature. Usually the specified temperature is taken as 4 °C 139.2 °F2, and at this temperature the density of water is 1.94 slugs ft3 or 1000 kgm3. In equation form, specific gravity is expressed as SG  13.55 Water r rH2O@4 °C (1.7) and since it is the ratio of densities, the value of SG does not depend on the system of units used. For example, the specific gravity of mercury at 20 °C is 13.55. This is illustrated by the figure in the margin. Thus, the density of mercury can be readily calculated in either BG or SI units through the use of Eq. 1.7 as rHg  113.55211.94 slugsft3 2  26.3 slugsft3 Mercury 1 1.5 or rHg  113.55211000 kgm3 2  13.6  103 kg m3 It is clear that density, specific weight, and specific gravity are all interrelated, and from a knowledge of any one of the three the others can be calculated. Ideal Gas Law Gases are highly compressible in comparison to liquids, with changes in gas density directly related to changes in pressure and temperature through the equation r p RT (1.8) where p is the absolute pressure, r the density, T the absolute temperature,2 and R is a gas constant. Equation 1.8 is commonly termed the ideal or perfect gas law, or the equation of state for 2 We will use T to represent temperature in thermodynamic relationships although T is also used to denote the basic dimension of time. 1.5 13 an ideal gas. It is known to closely approximate the behavior of real gases under normal conditions when the gases are not approaching liquefaction. Pressure in a fluid at rest is defined as the normal force per unit area exerted on a plane surface 1real or imaginary2 immersed in a fluid and is created by the bombardment of the surface with the fluid molecules. From the definition, pressure has the dimension of FL2 and in BG units is expressed as lb ft2 1psf2 or lbin.2 1psi2 and in SI units as Nm2. In SI, 1 N m2 defined as a pascal, abbreviated as Pa, and pressures are commonly specified in pascals. The pressure in the ideal gas law must be expressed as an absolute pressure, denoted (abs), which means that it is measured relative to absolute zero pressure 1a pressure that would only occur in a perfect vacuum2. Standard sea-level atmospheric pressure 1by international agreement2 is 14.696 psi 1abs2 or 101.33 kPa 1abs2. For most calculations these pressures can be rounded to 14.7 psi and 101 kPa, respectively. In engineering it is common practice to measure pressure relative to the local atmospheric pressure, and when measured in this fashion it is called gage pressure. Thus, the absolute pressure can be obtained from the gage pressure by adding the value of the atmospheric pressure. For example, as shown by the figure in the margin on the next page, a pressure of 30 psi 1gage2 in a tire is equal to 44.7 psi 1abs2 at standard atmospheric pressure. Pressure is a particularly important fluid characteristic and it will be discussed more fully in the next chapter. In the ideal gas law, absolute pressures and temperatures must be used. E XAMPLE Ideal Gas Law 1.3 Ideal Gas Law GIVEN The compressed air tank shown in Fig. E1.3a has a volume of 0.84 ft3. The temperature is 70 °F and the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi 1abs2. FIND When the tank is filled with air at a gage pressure of 50 psi, determine the density of the air and the weight of air in the tank. SOLUTION The air density can be obtained from the ideal gas law 1Eq. 1.82 r p RT so that r 150 lbin.2  14.7 lb in.2 21144 in.2ft2 2 11716 ft # lbslug # °R2 3 170  4602°R 4  0.0102 slugsft3 (Ans) Note that both the pressure and temperature were changed to absolute values. ■ Figure E1.3a Products, Inc.) (Photograph courtesy of Jenny The weight, w, of the air is equal to w  rg  1volume2  10.0102 slugft3 2132.2 ft s2 210.84 ft3 2  0.276 slug # fts2 0.5 W, lb 0.4 0.3 so that since 1 lb  1 slug # ft s2 (50 psi, 0.276 lb) w  0.276 lb 0.2 0.1 –20 0 0 20 40 p, psi ■ Figure E1.3b 60 80 100 (Ans) COMMENT By repeating the calculations for various values of the pressure, p, the results shown in Fig. E1.3b are obtained. Note that doubling the gage pressure does not double the amount of air in the tank, but doubling the absolute pressure does. Thus, a scuba diving tank at a gage pressure of 100 psi does not contain twice the amount of air as when the gage reads 50 psi. 14 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction Table 1.7 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (BG Units) (See inside of front cover.) 44.7 Table 1.8 Approximate Physical Properties of Some Common Gases at Standard Atmospheric Pressure (SI Units) 30 (See inside of front cover.) 14.7 0 0 –14.7 (gage) (abs) p, psi 1.6 The gas constant, R, which appears in Eq. 1.8, depends on the particular gas and is related to the molecular weight of the gas. Values of the gas constant for several common gases are listed in Tables 1.7 and 1.8. Also in these tables the gas density and specific weight are given for standard atmospheric pressure and gravity and for the temperature listed. More complete tables for air at standard atmospheric pressure can be found in Appendix B 1Tables B.3 and B.42. Viscosity V1.3 Viscous fluids V1.4 No-slip condition Real fluids, even though they may be moving, always “stick” to the solid boundaries that contain them. The properties of density and specific weight are measures of the “heaviness” of a fluid. It is clear, however, that these properties are not sufficient to uniquely characterize how fluids behave since two fluids 1such as water and oil2 can have approximately the same value of density but behave quite differently when flowing. Apparently, some additional property is needed to describe the “fluidity” of the fluid. To determine this additional property, consider a hypothetical experiment in which a material is placed between two very wide parallel plates as shown in Fig. 1.4a. The bottom plate is rigidly fixed, but the upper plate is free to move. If a solid, such as steel, were placed between the two plates and loaded with the force P as shown, the top plate would be displaced through some small distance, da 1assuming the solid was mechanically attached to the plates2. The vertical line AB would be rotated through the small angle, db, to the new position AB¿. We note that to resist the applied force, P, a shearing stress, t, would be developed at the plate–material interface, and for equilibrium to occur, P  tA where A is the effective upper plate area 1Fig. 1.4b2. It is well known that for elastic solids, such as steel, the small angular displacement, db 1called the shearing strain2, is proportional to the shearing stress, t, that is developed in the material. What happens if the solid is replaced with a fluid such as water? We would immediately notice a major difference. When the force P is applied to the upper plate, it will move continuously with a velocity, U 1after the initial transient motion has died out2 as illustrated in Fig. 1.5. This behavior is consistent with the definition of a fluid—that is, if a shearing stress is applied to a fluid it will deform continuously. A closer inspection of the fluid motion between the two plates would reveal that the fluid in contact with the upper plate moves with the plate velocity, U, and the fluid in contact with the bottom fixed plate has a zero velocity. The fluid between the two plates moves with velocity u  u 1y2 that would be found to vary linearly, u  Uyb, as illustrated in Fig. 1.5. Thus, a velocity gradient, dudy, is developed in the fluid between the plates. In this particular case the velocity gradient is a constant since du dy  Ub, but in more complex flow situations, such δa P B B' A δβ P τA b ■ Figure 1.4 (a) Deformation of material Fixed plate (a) ( b) placed between two parallel plates. (b) Forces acting on upper plate. 1.6 Viscosity 15 δa U P u b B y A y u = u(y) u = 0 on surface B' δβ ■ Figure 1.5 Behavior of a fluid placed between Fixed plate two parallel plates. as that shown by the photograph in the margin, this is not true. The experimental observation that the fluid “sticks” to the solid boundaries is a very important one in fluid mechanics and is usually referred to as the no-slip condition. All fluids, both liquids and gases, satisfy this condition. In a small time increment, dt, an imaginary vertical line AB in the fluid would rotate through an angle, db, so that Solid body tan db ⬇ db  da b Since da  U dt, it follows that db  U dt b We note that in this case, db is a function not only of the force P 1which governs U2 but also of time. Thus, it is not reasonable to attempt to relate the shearing stress, t, to db as is done for solids. # Rather, we consider the rate at which db is changing and define the rate of shearing strain, g, as db # g  lim dtS0 dt which in this instance is equal to U du # g  b dy A continuation of this experiment would reveal that as the shearing stress, t, is increased by increasing P 1recall that t  PA2, the rate of shearing strain is increased in direct proportion—that is, # t r g or t r V1.5 Capillary tube viscometer This result indicates that for common fluids such as water, oil, gasoline, and air the shearing stress and rate of shearing strain 1velocity gradient2 can be related with a relationship of the form tm Dynamic viscosity is the fluid property that relates shearing stress and fluid motion. du dy du dy (1.9) where the constant of proportionality is designated by the Greek symbol m 1mu2 and is called the absolute viscosity, dynamic viscosity, or simply the viscosity of the fluid. In accordance with Eq. 1.9, plots of t versus dudy should be linear with the slope equal to the viscosity as illustrated in Fig. 1.6. The actual value of the viscosity depends on the particular fluid, and for a particular fluid the viscosity is also highly dependent on temperature as illustrated in Fig. 1.6 with the two curves for water. Fluids for which the shearing stress is linearly related to the rate of shearing strain 1also referred to as rate of angular deformation2 are designated as Newtonian fluids after I. Newton (1642–1727). Fortunately, most common fluids, both liquids and gases, are Newtonian. A more general formulation of Eq. 1.9 which applies to more complex flows of Newtonian fluids is given in Section 6.8.1. 16 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction Crude oil (60 °F) Shearing stress, τ μ 1 Water (60 °F) Water (100 °F) Air (60 °F) ■ Figure 1.6 Linear variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain for common fluids. du Rate of shearing strain, __ dy F l u i d s i n An extremely viscous fluid Pitch is a derivative of tar once used for waterproofing boats. At elevated temperatures it flows quite readily. At room temperature it feels like a solid—it can even be shattered with a blow from a hammer. However, it is a liquid. In 1927 Professor Parnell heated some pitch and poured it into a funnel. Since that time it has been allowed to flow freely (or rather, drip slowly) from h e N e w s the funnel. The flowrate is quite small. In fact, to date only seven drops have fallen from the end of the funnel, although the eighth drop is poised ready to fall “soon.” While nobody has actually seen a drop fall from the end of the funnel, a beaker below the funnel holds the previous drops that fell over the years. It is estimated that the pitch is about 100 billion times more viscous than water. Fluids for which the shearing stress is not linearly related to the rate of shearing strain are designated as non-Newtonian fluids. Although there is a variety of types of non-Newtonian fluids, the simplest and most common are shown in Fig. 1.7. The slope of the shearing stress versus rate of shearing strain graph is denoted as the apparent viscosity, map. For Newtonian fluids the apparent viscosity is the same as the viscosity and is independent of shear rate. For shear thinning fluids the apparent viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate—the harder the fluid is sheared, the less viscous it becomes. Many colloidal suspensions and polymer solutions are shear thinning. For example, latex paint does not drip from the brush because the shear rate is small and the apparent viscosity is large. However, it flows smoothly onto the wall because the thin layer of paint between the wall and the brush causes a large shear rate and a small apparent viscosity. Bingham plastic tyield Shearing stress, τ For non-Newtonian fluids, the apparent viscosity is a function of the shear rate. t Shear thinning Newtonian μ ap 1 Shear thickening du Rate of shearing strain, dy ■ Figure 1.7 Variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain for several types of fluids, including common non-Newtonian fluids. 1.6 t < tyield t > tyield V1.6 NonNewtonian behavior 17 For shear thickening fluids the apparent viscosity increases with increasing shear rate—the harder the fluid is sheared, the more viscous it becomes. Common examples of this type of fluid include water–corn starch mixture and water–sand mixture 1“quicksand”2. Thus, the difficulty in removing an object from quicksand increases dramatically as the speed of removal increases. The other type of behavior indicated in Fig. 1.7 is that of a Bingham plastic, which is neither a fluid nor a solid. Such material can withstand a finite, nonzero shear stress, ␶yield , the yield stress, without motion 1therefore, it is not a fluid2, but once the yield stress is exceeded it flows like a fluid 1hence, it is not a solid2. Toothpaste and mayonnaise are common examples of Bingham plastic materials. As indicated in the figure in the margin, mayonnaise can sit in a pile on a slice of bread 1the shear stress less than the yield stress2,but it flows smoothly into a thin layer when the knife increases the stress above the yield stress. From Eq. 1.9 it can be readily deduced that the dimensions of viscosity are FTL2. Thus, in BG units viscosity is given as lb # sft2 and in SI units as N # s m2. Values of viscosity for several common liquids and gases are listed in Tables 1.5 through 1.8. A quick glance at these tables reveals the wide variation in viscosity among fluids. Viscosity is only mildly dependent on pressure and the effect of pressure is usually neglected. However, as previously mentioned, and as illustrated in Fig. 1.8, viscosity is very sensitive to temperature. For example, as the temperature of water changes from 60 to 100 °F the density decreases by less than 1%, but the viscosity decreases by about 40%. It is thus clear that particular attention must be given to temperature when determining viscosity. Figure 1.8 shows in more detail how the viscosity varies from fluid to fluid and how for a given fluid it varies with temperature. It is to be noted from this figure that the viscosity of liquids decreases with an increase in temperature, whereas for gases an increase in temperature causes an increase in viscosity. This difference in the effect of temperature on the viscosity of liquids and gases can again be traced back to the difference in molecular structure. The liquid molecules are closely spaced, with strong cohesive forces between molecules, and the resistance to relative motion between adjacent layers of fluid is related to these intermolecular forces. As 4.0 2.0 1.0 8 6 4 Gl yc 2 SA E -1 1 × 10 Dynamic viscosity, m, N • s/m2 The various types of non-Newtonian fluids are distinguished by how their apparent viscosity changes with shear rate. Viscosity 8 6 4 10 W er in oi l 2 -2 1 × 10 8 6 4 2 1 × 10-3 8 6 4 Water 2 -4 1 × 10 8 6 4 Air 2 1 × 10-5 8 6 -20 Hydrogen 0 20 40 60 Temperature, °C 80 100 120 ■ Figure 1.8 Dynamic (absolute) viscosity of some common fluids as a function of temperature. 18 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction the temperature increases, these cohesive forces are reduced with a corresponding reduction in resistance to motion. Since viscosity is an index of this resistance, it follows that the viscosity is reduced by an increase in temperature. In gases, however, the molecules are widely spaced and intermolecular forces negligible. In this case, resistance to relative motion arises due to the exchange of momentum of gas molecules between adjacent layers. As molecules are transported by random motion from a region of low bulk velocity to mix with molecules in a region of higher bulk velocity 1and vice versa2, there is an effective momentum exchange that resists the relative motion between the layers. As the temperature of the gas increases, the random molecular activity increases with a corresponding increase in viscosity. The effect of temperature on viscosity can be closely approximated using two empirical formulas. For gases the Sutherland equation can be expressed as Viscosity is very sensitive to temperature. m CT 32 TS (1.10) where C and S are empirical constants, and T is absolute temperature. Thus, if the viscosity is known at two temperatures, C and S can be determined. Or, if more than two viscosities are known, the data can be correlated with Eq. 1.10 by using some type of curve-fitting scheme. For liquids an empirical equation that has been used is m  DeBT (1.11) where D and B are constants and T is absolute temperature. This equation is often referred to as Andrade’s equation. As was the case for gases, the viscosity must be known at least for two temperatures so the two constants can be determined. A more detailed discussion of the effect of temperature on fluids can be found in Ref. 1. E XAMPLE 1.4 Viscosity and Dimensionless Quantities GIVEN A dimensionless combination of variables that is important in the study of viscous flow through pipes is called the Reynolds number, Re, defined as rVDm where, as indicated in Fig. E1.4, r is the fluid density, V the mean fluid velocity, D the pipe diameter, and m the fluid viscosity. A Newtonian fluid having a viscosity of 0.38 N # sm2 and a specific gravity of 0.91 flows through a 25-mmdiameter pipe with a velocity of 2.6 ms. V FIND Determine the value of the Reynolds number using 1a2 SI units and 1b2 BG units. r, m D SOLUTION (a) The fluid density is calculated from the specific gravity as r  SG rH2O@4 °C  0.91 11000 kgm3 2  910 kgm3 ■ Figure E1.4 and from the definition of the Reynolds number 1910 kgm3 212.6 ms2125 mm21103 mmm2 rVD  m 0.38 N # sm2  156 1kg # ms2 2 N Re  However, since 1 N  1 kg # ms2 it follows that the Reynolds number is unitless—that is, Re  156 (Ans) The value of any dimensionless quantity does not depend on the system of units used if all variables that make up the quantity are expressed in a consistent set of units. To check this, we will calculate the Reynolds number using BG units. (b) We first convert all the SI values of the variables appearing in the Reynolds number to BG values by using the conversion factors from Table 1.4. Thus, r  1910 kgm3 211.940  103 2  1.77 slugsft3 V  12.6 ms213.2812  8.53 fts D  10.025 m213.2812  8.20  102 ft m  10.38 N # sm2 212.089  102 2  7.94  103 lb # sft2 1.6 11.77 slugsft 2 18.53 ft s218.20  10 Re  7.94  103 lb # sft2 2 ft2  156 1slug # fts2 2 lb  156 (Ans) since 1 lb  1 slug # fts . 2 E XAMPLE same, as expected. Dimensionless quantities play an important role in fluid mechanics, and the significance of the Reynolds number as well as other important dimensionless combinations will be discussed in detail in Chapter 7. It should be noted that in the Reynolds number it is actually the ratio mr that is important, and this is the property that is defined as the kinematic viscosity. Newtonian Fluid Shear Stress 1.5 GIVEN The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two fixed wide, parallel plates (see Fig. E1.5a) is given by the equation u 19 COMMENTS The values from part 1a2 and part 1b2 are the and the value of the Reynolds number is 3 Viscosity y 2 3V c1  a b d 2 h where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 0.04 lb # s ft2. Also, V  2 fts and h  0.2 in. FIND Determine: (a) the shearing stress acting on the bottom wall, and (b) the shearing stress acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through the centerline (midplane). SOLUTION For this type of parallel flow the shearing stress is obtained from Eq. 1.9, tm du dy 3Vy du  2 dy h (2) (a) Along the bottom wall y  h so that (from Eq. 2) du 3V  dy h u h (1) Thus, if the velocity distribution u  u1y2 is known, the shearing stress can be determined at all points by evaluating the velocity gradient, du dy. For the distribution given y h ■ Figure E1.5a COMMENT From Eq. 2 we see that the velocity gradient (and therefore the shearing stress) varies linearly with y and in this particular example varies from 0 at the center of the channel to 14.4 lb ft2 at the walls. This is shown in Fig. E1.5b. For the more general case the actual variation will, of course, depend on the nature of the velocity distribution. and therefore the shearing stress is wall 10.04 lb # sft2 213212 fts2 3V b h 10.2 in.211 ft12 in.2  14.4 lbft2 1in direction of flow2 15 (Ans) This stress creates a drag on the wall. Since the velocity distribution is symmetrical, the shearing stress along the upper wall would have the same magnitude and direction. (b) Along the midplane where y  0 it follows from Eq. 2 that du 0 dy 10 5 midplane = 0 0 0.2 and thus the shearing stress is tmidplane  0 bottom wall = 14.4 lb/ft2 = top wall , lb/ft 2 tbottom  m a (Ans) 0.1 0 y, in. 0.1 0.2 ■ Figure E1.5b Quite often viscosity appears in fluid flow problems combined with the density in the form n m r 20 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction This ratio is called the kinematic viscosity and is denoted with the Greek symbol n 1nu2. The dimensions of kinematic viscosity are L2T, and the BG units are ft2 s and SI units are m2s. Values of kinematic viscosity for some common liquids and gases are given in Tables 1.5 through 1.8. More extensive tables giving both the dynamic and kinematic viscosities for water and air can be found in Appendix B 1Tables B.1 through B.42, and graphs showing the variation in both dynamic and kinematic viscosity with temperature for a variety of fluids are also provided in Appendix B 1Figs. B.1 and B.22. Although in this text we are primarily using BG and SI units, dynamic viscosity is often expressed in the metric CGS 1centimeter-gram-second2 system with units of dyne # scm2. This combination is called a poise, abbreviated P. In the CGS system, kinematic viscosity has units of cm2s, and this combination is called a stoke, abbreviated St. Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of the absolute viscosity to the fluid density. 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids 1.7.1 Bulk Modulus p An important question to answer when considering the behavior of a particular fluid is how easily can the volume 1and thus the density2 of a given mass of the fluid be changed when there is a change in pressure? That is, how compressible is the fluid? A property that is commonly used to characterize compressibility is the bulk modulus, Ev, defined as V Ev   p + dp dp dV  V (1.12) where dp is the differential change in pressure needed to create a differential change in volume, dV , of a volume  V . This is illustrated by the figure in the margin. The negative sign is included since an increase in pressure will cause a decrease in volume. Since a decrease in volume of a given mass, m  rV , will result in an increase in density, Eq. 1.12 can also be expressed as V – dV Ev  (1.13) The bulk modulus 1also referred to as the bulk modulus of elasticity2 has dimensions of pressure, FL2. In BG units, values for Ev are usually given as lbin.2 1psi2 and in SI units as Nm2 1Pa2. Large values for the bulk modulus indicate that the fluid is relatively incompressible—that is, it takes a large pressure change to create a small change in volume. As expected, values of Ev for common liquids are large 1see Tables 1.5 and 1.62. For example, at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 60 °F it would require a pressure of 3120 psi to compress a unit volume of water 1%. This result is representative of the compressibility of liquids. Since such large pressures are required to effect a change in volume, we conclude that liquids can be considered as incompressible for most practical engineering applications. As liquids are compressed the bulk modulus increases, but the bulk modulus near atmospheric pressure is usually the one of interest. The use of bulk modulus as a property describing compressibility is most prevalent when dealing with liquids, although the bulk modulus can also be determined for gases. V1.7 Water balloon F dp drr l u i d s i n This water jet is a blast Usually liquids can be treated as incompressible fluids. However, in some applications the compressibility of a liquid can play a key role in the operation of a device. For example, a water pulse generator using compressed water has been developed for use in mining operations. It can fracture rock by producing an effect comparable to a conventional explosive such as gunpowder. The device uses the energy stored in a water-filled accumulator to generate an ultrahigh-pressure water pulse ejected through a 10- to 25-mm-diameter discharge valve. At the ultrahigh pressures used (300 to 400 MPa, or 3000 to 4000 atmos- t h e N e w s pheres), the water is compressed (i.e., the volume reduced) by about 10 to 15%. When a fast-opening valve within the pressure vessel is opened, the water expands and produces a jet of water that upon impact with the target material produces an effect similar to the explosive force from conventional explosives. Mining with the water jet can eliminate various hazards that arise with the use of conventional chemical explosives, such as those associated with the storage and use of explosives and the generation of toxic gas by-products that require extensive ventilation. (See Problem 1.110.) 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids 21 1.7.2 Compression and Expansion of Gases When gases are compressed 1or expanded2, the relationship between pressure and density depends on the nature of the process. If the compression or expansion takes place under constant temperature conditions 1isothermal process2, then from Eq. 1.8 Isentropic (k = 1.4) p Isothermal ρ The value of the bulk modulus depends on the type of process involved. p (1.14)  constant r If the compression or expansion is frictionless and no heat is exchanged with the surroundings 1isentropic process2, then p (1.15)  constant rk where k is the ratio of the specific heat at constant pressure, cp, to the specific heat at constant volume, cv 1i.e., k  cp cv 2. The two specific heats are related to the gas constant, R, through the equation R  cp  cv. As was the case for the ideal gas law, the pressure in both Eqs. 1.14 and 1.15 must be expressed as an absolute pressure. Values of k for some common gases are given in Tables 1.7 and 1.8 and for air over a range of temperatures, in Appendix B 1Tables B.3 and B.42. The pressure–density variations for isothermal and isentropic conditions are illustrated in the margin figure. With explicit equations relating pressure and density, the bulk modulus for gases can be determined by obtaining the derivative dpdr from Eq. 1.14 or 1.15 and substituting the results into Eq. 1.13. It follows that for an isothermal process Ev  p (1.16) Ev  kp (1.17) and for an isentropic process, Note that in both cases the bulk modulus varies directly with pressure. For air under standard atmospheric conditions with p  14.7 psi 1abs2 and k  1.40, the isentropic bulk modulus is 20.6 psi. A comparison of this figure with that for water under the same conditions 1Ev  312,000 psi2 shows that air is approximately 15,000 times as compressible as water. It is thus clear that in dealing with gases, greater attention will need to be given to the effect of compressibility on fluid behavior. However, as will be discussed further in later sections, gases can often be treated as incompressible fluids if the changes in pressure are small. E XAMPLE Isentropic Compression of a Gas 1.6 GIVEN A cubic foot of air at an absolute pressure of 14.7 psi is compressed isentropically to 12 ft3 by the tire pump shown in Fig. E1.6a. FIND What is the final pressure? SOLUTION For an isentropic compression pi rki  pf rkf where the subscripts i and f refer to initial and final states, respectively. Since we are interested in the final pressure, pf, it follows that rf k pf  a b pi ri ■ Figure E1.6a 22 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction As the volume,  V . is reduced by one-half, the density must double, since the mass, m  r  V . of the gas remains constant. Thus, with k  1.40 for air pf  122 1.40 114.7 psi2  38.8 psi 1abs2 400 350 300 (Ans) of the ratio of the final volume to the initial volume, Vf Vi , the results shown in Fig. E1.6b are obtained. Note that even though air is often considered to be easily compressed (at least compared to liquids), it takes considerable pressure to significantly reduce a given volume of air as is done in an automobile engine where the compression ratio is on the order of  V f  V i  1/8  0.125. pf, psi 250 COMMENT By repeating the calculations for various values 200 150 100 (0.5, 38.8 psi) 50 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 Vf /Vi ■ Figure E1.6b 1.7.3 Speed of Sound The velocity at which small disturbances propagate in a fluid is called the speed of sound. Another important consequence of the compressibility of fluids is that disturbances introduced at some point in the fluid propagate at a finite velocity. For example, if a fluid is flowing in a pipe and a valve at the outlet is suddenly closed 1thereby creating a localized disturbance2, the effect of the valve closure is not felt instantaneously upstream. It takes a finite time for the increased pressure created by the valve closure to propagate to an upstream location. Similarly, a loudspeaker diaphragm causes a localized disturbance as it vibrates, and the small change in pressure created by the motion of the diaphragm is propagated through the air with a finite velocity. The velocity at which these small disturbances propagate is called the acoustic velocity or the speed of sound, c. It will be shown in Chapter 11 that the speed of sound is related to changes in pressure and density of the fluid medium through the equation 6000 c water 4000 (1.18) c, ft/s or in terms of the bulk modulus defined by Eq. 1.13 c 2000 air 0 dp B dr 0 100 T, F 200 Ev Br (1.19) Since the disturbance is small, there is negligible heat transfer and the process is assumed to be isentropic. Thus, the pressure–density relationship used in Eq. 1.18 is that for an isentropic process. For gases undergoing an isentropic process, Ev  kp 1Eq. 1.172 so that c kp Br and making use of the ideal gas law, it follows that c  1kRT V1.8 As fast as a speeding bullet (1.20) Thus, for ideal gases the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the absolute temperature. For example, for air at 60 °F with k  1.40 and R  1716 ft # lbslug # °R, it follows that c  1117 fts. The speed of sound in air at various temperatures can be found in Appendix B 1Tables B.3 and B.42. Equation 1.19 is also valid for liquids, and values of Ev can be used to determine the speed of sound in liquids. For water at 20 °C, Ev  2.19 GNm2 and r  998.2 kgm3 so that c  1481 ms or 4860 ft s. As shown by the figure in the margin, the speed of sound is much higher in water than in air. If a fluid were truly incompressible 1Ev  q 2 1.8 Vapor Pressure 23 the speed of sound would be infinite. The speed of sound in water for various temperatures can be found in Appendix B 1Tables B.1 and B.22. E XAMPLE 1.7 Speed of Sound and Mach Number GIVEN A jet aircraft flies at a speed of 550 mph at an altitude FIND Determine the ratio of the speed of the aircraft, V, to that of 35,000 ft, where the temperature is 66 F and the specific heat ratio is k  1.4. of the speed of sound, c, at the specified altitude. SOLUTION 0.9 From Eq. 1.20 the speed of sound can be calculated as c  2kRT  211.402 11716 ft lbslug °R2166  4602 °R  973 ft /s V 1550 mi/hr215280 ft /mi2 13600 s/hr2 Ma = V/c Since the air speed is  807 ft /s (–66 F, 0.829) 0.7 0.6 the ratio is V 807 ft /s   0.829 c 973 ft /s (Ans) COMMENT This ratio is called the Mach number, Ma. If Ma 1.0 the aircraft is flying at subsonic speeds, whereas for Ma 1.0 it is flying at supersonic speeds. The Mach number is an important dimensionless parameter used in the study of the flow of gases at high speeds and will be further discussed in Chapters 7 and 11. By repeating the calculations for different temperatures, the results shown in Fig. E1.7 are obtained. Because the speed of 1.8 0.8 0.5 –100 –50 0 T, F 50 100 ■ Figure E1.7 sound increases with increasing temperature, for a constant airplane speed, the Mach number decreases as the temperature increases. Vapor Pressure Liquid Vapor, pv Liquid A liquid boils when the pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure. It is a common observation that liquids such as water and gasoline will evaporate if they are simply placed in a container open to the atmosphere. Evaporation takes place because some liquid molecules at the surface have sufficient momentum to overcome the intermolecular cohesive forces and escape into the atmosphere. If the container is closed with a small air space left above the surface, and this space evacuated to form a vacuum, a pressure will develop in the space as a result of the vapor that is formed by the escaping molecules. When an equilibrium condition is reached so that the number of molecules leaving the surface is equal to the number entering, the vapor is said to be saturated and the pressure that the vapor exerts on the liquid surface is termed the vapor pressure, pv. Similarly, if the end of a completely liquid-filled container is moved as shown in the figure in the margin without letting any air into the container, the space between the liquid and the end becomes filled with vapor at a pressure equal to the vapor pressure. Since the development of a vapor pressure is closely associated with molecular activity, the value of vapor pressure for a particular liquid depends on temperature. Values of vapor pressure for water at various temperatures can be found in Appendix B 1Tables B.1 and B.22, and the values of vapor pressure for several common liquids at room temperatures are given in Tables 1.5 and 1.6. Boiling, which is the formation of vapor bubbles within a fluid mass, is initiated when the absolute pressure in the fluid reaches the vapor pressure. As commonly observed in the kitchen, water Boiling temperature, F 24 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction 250 150 50 0 0 20 40 60 Altitude, thousands of feet In flowing liquids it is possible for the pressure in localized regions to reach vapor pressure, thereby causing cavitation. 1.9 Surface Tension Surface tension, lb/ft V1.9 Floating razor blade 6 × 10−3 4 Water 2 0 at standard atmospheric pressure will boil when the temperature reaches 212 °F 1100 °C2 —that is, the vapor pressure of water at 212 °F is 14.7 psi 1abs2. However, if we attempt to boil water at a higher elevation, say 30,000 ft above sea level 1the approximate elevation of Mt. Everest2, where the atmospheric pressure is 4.37 psi 1abs2, we find that boiling will start when the temperature is about 157 °F. At this temperature the vapor pressure of water is 4.37 psi 1abs2. For the U.S. Standard Atmosphere 1see Section 2.42, the boiling temperature is a function of altitude as shown in the figure in the margin. Thus, boiling can be induced at a given pressure acting on the fluid by raising the temperature, or at a given fluid temperature by lowering the pressure. An important reason for our interest in vapor pressure and boiling lies in the common observation that in flowing fluids it is possible to develop very low pressure due to the fluid motion, and if the pressure is lowered to the vapor pressure, boiling will occur. For example, this phenomenon may occur in flow through the irregular, narrowed passages of a valve or pump. When vapor bubbles are formed in a flowing fluid, they are swept along into regions of higher pressure where they suddenly collapse with sufficient intensity to actually cause structural damage. The formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles in a flowing fluid, called cavitation, is an important fluid flow phenomenon to be given further attention in Chapters 3 and 7. 0 50 100 150 200 Temperature, F F l u At the interface between a liquid and a gas, or between two immiscible liquids, forces develop in the liquid surface that cause the surface to behave as if it were a “skin” or “membrane” stretched over the fluid mass. Although such a skin is not actually present, this conceptual analogy allows us to explain several commonly observed phenomena. For example, a steel needle or a razor blade will float on water if placed gently on the surface because the tension developed in the hypothetical skin supports it. Small droplets of mercury will form into spheres when placed on a smooth surface because the cohesive forces in the surface tend to hold all the molecules together in a compact shape. Similarly, discrete bubbles will form in a liquid. (See the photograph at the beginning of Chapter 1.) These various types of surface phenomena are due to the unbalanced cohesive forces acting on the liquid molecules at the fluid surface. Molecules in the interior of the fluid mass are surrounded by molecules that are attracted to each other equally. However, molecules along the surface are subjected to a net force toward the interior. The apparent physical consequence of this unbalanced force along the surface is to create the hypothetical skin or membrane. A tensile force may be considered to be acting in the plane of the surface along any line in the surface. The intensity of the molecular attraction per unit length along any line in the surface is called the surface tension and is designated by the Greek symbol s 1sigma2. For a given liquid the surface tension depends on temperature as well as the other fluid it is in contact with at the interface. The dimensions of surface tension are FL1 with BG units of lb ft and SI units of N m. Values of surface tension for some common liquids 1in contact with air2 are given in Tables 1.5 and 1.6 and in Appendix B 1Tables B.1 and B.22 for water at various temperatures. As indicated by the figure in the margin, the value of the surface tension decreases as the temperature increases. i d s i n Walking on water Water striders are insects commonly found on ponds, rivers, and lakes that appear to “walk” on water. A typical length of a water strider is about 0.4 in., and they can cover 100 body lengths in one second. It has long been recognized that it is surface tension that keeps the water strider from sinking below the surface. What has been puzzling is how they propel themselves at such a high speed. They can’t pierce the water surface or they would sink. A team of mathematicians and engineers from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) applied conventional flow visualization techniques and high-speed video to t h e N e w s examine in detail the movement of the water striders. They found that each stroke of the insect’s legs creates dimples on the surface with underwater swirling vortices sufficient to propel it forward. It is the rearward motion of the vortices that propels the water strider forward. To further substantiate their explanation, the MIT team built a working model of a water strider, called Robostrider, which creates surface ripples and underwater vortices as it moves across a water surface. Waterborne creatures, such as the water strider, provide an interesting world dominated by surface tension. (See Problem 1.131.) 1.9 σ Surface Tension 25 R σ Δ p π R2 ■ Figure 1.9 Forces acting on one-half of a liquid drop. The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using the free-body diagram in Fig. 1.9. If the spherical drop is cut in half 1as shown2, the force developed around the edge due to surface tension is 2pRs. This force must be balanced by the pressure difference, ¢p, between the internal pressure, pi, and the external pressure, pe, acting over the circular area, pR2. Thus, 2pRs  ¢p pR2 V1.10 Capillary rise or ¢p  pi  pe  h 2s R (1.21) It is apparent from this result that the pressure inside the drop is greater than the pressure surrounding the drop. 1Would the pressure on the inside of a bubble of water be the same as that on the inside of a drop of water of the same diameter and at the same temperature?2 Among common phenomena associated with surface tension is the rise 1or fall2 of a liquid in a capillary tube. If a small open tube is inserted into water, the water level in the tube will rise above the water level outside the tube, as is illustrated in Fig. 1.10a. In this situation we have a liquid–gas–solid interface. For the case illustrated there is an attraction 1adhesion2 between the wall of the tube and liquid molecules which is strong enough to overcome the mutual attraction 1cohesion2 of the molecules and pull them up the wall. Hence, the liquid is said to wet the solid surface. The height, h, is governed by the value of the surface tension, s, the tube radius, R, the specific weight of the liquid, g, and the angle of contact, u, between the fluid and tube. From the freebody diagram of Fig. 1.10b we see that the vertical force due to the surface tension is equal to 2pRs cos u and the weight is gpR2h, and these two forces must balance for equilibrium. Thus, h ~ _1_ R R gpR2h  2pRs cos u V1.11 Contact angle so that the height is given by the relationship h Capillary action in small tubes, which involves a liquid– gas–solid interface, is caused by surface tension. 2s cos u gR (1.22) The angle of contact is a function of both the liquid and the surface. For water in contact with clean glass u ⬇ 0°. It is clear from Eq. 1.22 that the height is inversely proportional to the tube radius, and therefore, as indicated by the figure in the margin, the rise of a liquid in a tube as a result of capillary action becomes increasingly pronounced as the tube radius is decreased. If adhesion of molecules to the solid surface is weak compared to the cohesion between molecules, the liquid will not wet the surface and the level in a tube placed in a nonwetting liquid will actually be depressed, as shown in Fig. 1.10c. Mercury is a good example of a nonwetting liquid when it is in contact with a glass tube. For nonwetting liquids the angle of contact is greater than 90°, and for mercury in contact with clean glass u ⬇ 130°. θ 2π Rσ θ h γ π R2h h ■ Figure 1.10 Effect of capillary action in small 2R (a) (b) (c) tubes. (a) Rise of column for a liquid that wets the tube. (b) Free-body diagram for calculating column height. (c) Depression of column for a nonwetting liquid. 26 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction E XAMPLE Capillary Rise in a Tube 1.8 GIVEN Pressures are sometimes determined by measuring the height of a column of liquid in a vertical tube. FIND What diameter of clean glass tubing is required so that the rise of water at 20 °C in a tube due to capillary action 1as opposed to pressure in the tube2 is less than h  1.0 mm? SOLUTION From Eq. 1.22 h 2s cos u gR R 2s cos u gh Note that as the allowable capillary rise is decreased, the diameter of the tube must be significantly increased. There is always some capillarity effect, but it can be minimized by using a large enough diameter tube. so that 100 For water at 20 °C 1from Table B.22, s  0.0728 Nm and g  9.789 kNm3. Since u ⬇ 0° it follows that for h  1.0 mm, 19.789  10 N m 211.0 mm2110  0.0149 m 3 3 3 D, mm 210.0728 N m2112 R 80 mmm2 60 40 (1 mm, 29.8 mm) 20 and the minimum required tube diameter, D, is D  2R  0.0298 m  29.8 mm (Ans) 0 0 0.5 of the capillary rise, h, the results shown in Fig. E1.8 are obtained. l 1.5 2 ■ Figure E1.8 Surface tension effects play a role in many fluid mechanics problems, including the movement of liquids through soil and other porous media, flow of thin films, formation of drops and bubbles, and the breakup of liquid jets. For example, surface tension is a main factor in the formation of drops from a leaking faucet, as shown in the photograph in the margin. Surface phenomena associated with liquid–gas, liquid–liquid, and liquid–gas–solid interfaces are exceedingly complex, and a more detailed and rigorous discussion of them is beyond the scope of this text. Fortunately, in many fluid mechanics problems, surface phenomena, as characterized by surface tension, are not important, since inertial, gravitational, and viscous forces are much more dominant. (Photograph copyright 2007 by Andrew Davidhazy, Rochester Institute of Technology.) F 1 h, mm COMMENT By repeating the calculations for various values u i d s i n Spreading of oil spills With the large traffic in oil tankers there is great interest in the prevention of and response to oil spills. As evidenced by the famous Exxon Valdez oil spill in Prince William Sound in 1989, oil spills can create disastrous environmental problems. A more recent example of this type of catastrophe is the oil spill that occurred in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010. It is not surprising that much attention is given to the rate at which an oil spill spreads. When spilled, most oils tend to spread horizontally into a smooth and slippery surface, called a t h e N e w s slick. There are many factors that influence the ability of an oil slick to spread, including the size of the spill, wind speed and direction, and the physical properties of the oil. These properties include surface tension, specific gravity, and viscosity. The higher the surface tension the more likely a spill will remain in place. Since the specific gravity of oil is less than one, it floats on top of the water, but the specific gravity of an oil can increase if the lighter substances within the oil evaporate. The higher the viscosity of the oil, the greater the tendency to stay in one place. 1.10 1.10 A Brief Look Back in History 27 A Brief Look Back in History Some of the earliest writings that pertain to modern fluid mechanics can be traced back to the ancient Greek civilization and subsequent Roman Empire. Before proceeding with our study of fluid mechanics, we should pause for a moment to consider the history of this important engineering science. As is true of all basic scientific and engineering disciplines, their actual beginnings are only faintly visible through the haze of early antiquity. But we know that interest in fluid behavior dates back to the ancient civilizations. Through necessity there was a practical concern about the manner in which spears and arrows could be propelled through the air, in the development of water supply and irrigation systems, and in the design of boats and ships. These developments were, of course, based on trial-and-error procedures without any knowledge of mathematics or mechanics. However, it was the accumulation of such empirical knowledge that formed the basis for further development during the emergence of the ancient Greek civilization and the subsequent rise of the Roman Empire. Some of the earliest writings that pertain to modern fluid mechanics are those of Archimedes 1287–212 B.C.2, a Greek mathematician and inventor who first expressed the principles of hydrostatics and flotation. Elaborate water supply systems were built by the Romans during the period from the fourth century B.C. through the early Christian period, and Sextus Julius Frontinus 1A.D. 40–1032, a Roman engineer, described these systems in detail. However, for the next 1000 years during the Middle Ages 1also referred to as the Dark Ages2, there appears to have been little added to further understanding of fluid behavior. As shown in Fig. 1.11, beginning with the Renaissance period 1about the fifteenth century2 a rather continuous series of contributions began that forms the basis of what we consider to be the science of fluid mechanics. Leonardo da Vinci 11452–15192 described through sketches and writings many different types of flow phenomena. The work of Galileo Galilei 11564–16422 marked the beginning of experimental mechanics. Following the early Renaissance period and during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, numerous significant contributions were made. These include theoretical and mathematical advances associated with the famous names of Newton, Bernoulli, Euler, and d’Alembert. Experimental aspects of fluid mechanics were also advanced during this period, but unfortunately the two different approaches, theoretical and experimental, developed along separate paths. Hydrodynamics was the term associated with the theoretical or mathematical study of idealized, frictionless fluid behavior, with the term hydraulics being used to describe the applied or experimental aspects of real fluid behavior, particularly the behavior of water. Further contributions and refinements were made to both theoretical hydrodynamics and experimental hydraulics during the nineteenth century, with the general differential equations describing fluid motions that are used in modern fluid mechanics being developed in this period. Experimental hydraulics became more of a science, and many of the results of experiments performed during the nineteenth century are still used today. At the beginning of the twentieth century, both the fields of theoretical hydrodynamics and experimental hydraulics were highly developed, and attempts were being made to unify the two. In 1904 a classic paper was presented by a German professor, Ludwig Prandtl 11875–19532, who introduced the concept of a “fluid boundary layer,” which laid the foundation for the unification of the theoretical and experimental aspects of fluid mechanics. Prandtl’s idea was that for flow next to Geoffrey Taylor Theodor von Karman Ludwig Prandtl Osborne Reynolds Ernst Mach George Stokes Jean Poiseuille Louis Navier Leonhard Euler Daniel Bernoulli Isaac Newton Galileo Galilei Leonardo da Vinci 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 Year ■ Figure 1.11 Time line of some contributors to the science of fluid mechanics. 2000 28 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction The rich history of fluid mechanics is fascinating, and many of the contributions of the pioneers in the field are noted in the succeeding chapters. a solid boundary a thin fluid layer 1boundary layer2 develops in which friction is very important, but outside this layer the fluid behaves very much like a frictionless fluid. This relatively simple concept provided the necessary impetus for the resolution of the conflict between the hydrodynamicists and the hydraulicists. Prandtl is generally accepted as the founder of modern fluid mechanics. Also, during the first decade of the twentieth century, powered flight was first successfully demonstrated with the subsequent vastly increased interest in aerodynamics. Because the design of aircraft required a degree of understanding of fluid flow and an ability to make accurate predictions of the effect of airflow on bodies, the field of aerodynamics provided a great stimulus for the many rapid developments in fluid mechanics that took place during the twentieth century. As we proceed with our study of the fundamentals of fluid mechanics, we will continue to note the contributions of many of the pioneers in the field. Table 1.9 provides a chronological Table 1.9 Chronological Listing of Some Contributors to the Science of Fluid Mechanics Noted in the Texta ARCHIMEDES 1287– 212 B.C.2 Established elementary principles of buoyancy and flotation. SEXTUS JULIUS FRONTINUS 1A.D. 40–1032 Wrote treatise on Roman methods of water distribution. Leonardo da Vinci LEONARDO da VINCI 11452–15192 Expressed elementary principle of continuity; observed and sketched many basic flow phenomena; suggested designs for hydraulic machinery. GALILEO GALILEI 11564–16422 Indirectly stimulated experimental hydraulics; revised Aristotelian concept of vacuum. EVANGELISTA TORRICELLI 11608–16472 Related barometric height to weight of atmosphere, and form of liquid jet to trajectory of free fall. BLAISE PASCAL 11623–16622 Finally clarified principles of barometer, hydraulic press, and pressure transmissibility. Isaac Newton LOUIS MARIE HENRI NAVIER 11785–18362 Extended equations of motion to include “molecular” forces. AUGUSTIN LOUIS de CAUCHY 11789–18572 Contributed to the general field of theoretical hydrodynamics and to the study of wave motion. GOTTHILF HEINRICH LUDWIG HAGEN 11797–18842 Conducted original studies of resistance in and transition between laminar and turbulent flow. JEAN LOUIS POISEUILLE 11799–18692 Performed meticulous tests on resistance of flow through capillary tubes. HENRI PHILIBERT GASPARD DARCY 11803–18582 HENRI de PITOT 11695–17712 JULIUS WEISBACH 11806–18712 DANIEL BERNOULLI 11700–17822 Experimented and wrote on many phases of fluid motion, coining name “hydrodynamics”; devised manometry technique and adapted primitive energy principle to explain velocity-head indication; proposed jet propulsion. WILLIAM FROUDE 11810–18792 Developed many towing-tank techniques, in particular the conversion of wave and boundary layer resistance from model to prototype scale. Explored various aspects of fluid resistance— inertial, viscous, and wave; discovered jet contraction. Performed extensive tests on filtration and pipe resistance; initiated open-channel studies carried out by Bazin. Incorporated hydraulics in treatise on engineering mechanics, based on original experiments; noteworthy for flow patterns, nondimensional coefficients, weir, and resistance equations. LEONHARD EULER 11707–17832 First explained role of pressure in fluid flow; formulated basic equations of motion and so-called Bernoulli theorem; introduced concept of cavitation and principle of centrifugal machinery. ROBERT MANNING 11816–18972 Proposed several formulas for open-channel resistance. Originated notion of velocity and acceleration components, differential expression of continuity, and paradox of zero resistance to steady nonuniform motion. ERNST MACH 11838–19162 One of the pioneers in the field of supersonic aerodynamics. JEAN le ROND d’ALEMBERT 11717–17832 Ernst Mach GIOVANNI BATTISTA VENTURI 11746–18222 Performed tests on various forms of mouthpieces— in particular, conical contractions and expansions. ISAAC NEWTON 11642–17272 Constructed double-tube device to indicate water velocity through differential head. Daniel Bernoulli ANTOINE CHEZY 11718–17982 Formulated similarity parameter for predicting flow characteristics of one channel from measurements on another. GEORGE GABRIEL STOKES 11819–19032 Derived analytically various flow relationships ranging from wave mechanics to viscous resistance— particularly that for the settling of spheres. 1.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 29 Table 1.9 (continued) OSBORNE REYNOLDS 11842–19122 Described original experiments in many fields— cavitation, river model similarity, pipe resistance— and devised two parameters for viscous flow; adapted equations of motion of a viscous fluid to mean conditions of turbulent flow. JOHN WILLIAM STRUTT, LORD RAYLEIGH Osborne Reynolds 11842–19192 Investigated hydrodynamics of bubble collapse, wave motion, jet instability, laminar flow analogies, and dynamic similarity. VINCENZ STROUHAL 11850–19222 Investigated the phenomenon of “singing wires.” EDGAR BUCKINGHAM 11867–19402 Stimulated interest in the United States in the use of dimensional analysis. Ludwig Prandtl MORITZ WEBER 11871–19512 Emphasized the use of the principles of similitude in fluid flow studies and formulated a capillarity similarity parameter. LUDWIG PRANDTL 11875–19532 Introduced concept of the boundary layer and is generally considered to be the father of present-day fluid mechanics. LEWIS FERRY MOODY 11880–19532 Provided many innovations in the field of hydraulic machinery. Proposed a method of correlating pipe resistance data that is widely used. THEODOR VON KÁRMÁN 11881–19632 One of the recognized leaders of twentieth century fluid mechanics. Provided major contributions to our understanding of surface resistance, turbulence, and wake phenomena. PAUL RICHARD HEINRICH BLASIUS 11883–19702 One of Prandtl’s students who provided an analytical solution to the boundary layer equations. Also demonstrated that pipe resistance was related to the Reynolds number. a Used by permission of IIHR—Hydroscience & Engineering, The University of Iowa. listing of some of these contributors and reveals the long journey that makes up the history of fluid mechanics. This list is certainly not comprehensive with regard to all past contributors but includes those who are mentioned in this text. As mention is made in succeeding chapters of the various individuals listed in Table 1.9, a quick glance at this table will reveal where they fit into the historical chain. It is, of course, impossible to summarize the rich history of fluid mechanics in a few paragraphs. Only a brief glimpse is provided, and we hope it will stir your interest. References 2 to 5 are good starting points for further study, and in particular Ref. 2 provides an excellent, broad, easily read history. Try it—you might even enjoy it! 1.11 Chapter Summary and Study Guide This introductory chapter discussed several fundamental aspects of fluid mechanics. Methods for describing fluid characteristics both quantitatively and qualitatively are considered. For a quantitative description, units are required, and in this text, two systems of units are used: the British Gravitational (BG) system (pounds, slugs, feet, and seconds) and the International (SI) System (newtons, kilograms, meters, and seconds). For the qualitative description the concept of dimensions is introduced in which basic dimensions such as length, L, time, T, and mass, M, are used to provide a description of various quantities of interest. The use of dimensions is helpful in checking the generality of equations, as well as serving as the basis for the powerful tool of dimensional analysis discussed in detail in Chapter 7. Various important fluid properties are defined, including fluid density, specific weight, specific gravity, viscosity, bulk modulus, speed of sound, vapor pressure, and surface tension. The ideal gas law is introduced to relate pressure, temperature, and density in common gases, along with a brief discussion of the compression and expansion of gases. The distinction between absolute and gage pressure is introduced and this important idea is explored more fully in Chapter 2. 30 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction fluid units basic dimensions dimensionally homogeneous density specific weight specific gravity ideal gas law absolute pressure gage pressure no-slip condition rate of shearing strain absolute viscosity Newtonian fluid non-Newtonian fluid kinematic viscosity bulk modulus speed of sound vapor pressure surface tension The following checklist provides a study guide for this chapter. When your study of the entire chapter and end-of-chapter exercises has been completed you should be able to write out meanings of the terms listed here in the margin and understand each of the related concepts. These terms are particularly important and are set in italic, bold, and color type in the text. determine the dimensions of common physical quantities. determine whether an equation is a general or restricted homogeneous equation. use both BG and SI systems of units. calculate the density, specific weight, or specific gravity of a fluid from a knowledge of any two of the three. calculate the density, pressure, or temperature of an ideal gas (with a given gas constant) from a knowledge of any two of the three. relate the pressure and density of a gas as it is compressed or expanded using Eqs. 1.14 and 1.15. use the concept of viscosity to calculate the shearing stress in simple fluid flows. calculate the speed of sound in fluids using Eq. 1.19 for liquids and Eq. 1.20 for gases. determine whether boiling or cavitation will occur in a liquid using the concept of vapor pressure. use the concept of surface tension to solve simple problems involving liquid–gas or liquid– solid–gas interfaces. Some of the important equations in this chapter are: Specific weight Specific gravity Ideal gas law Newtonian fluid shear stress Bulk modulus Speed of sound in an ideal gas Capillary rise in a tube g  rg r rH2O@4 °C p r RT du tm dy dp Ev   dV  V c  1kRT 2s cos u h gR SG  (1.6) (1.7) (1.8) (1.9) (1.12) (1.20) (1.22) References 1. Reid, R. C., Prausnitz, J. M., and Sherwood, T. K., The Properties of Gases and Liquids, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1977. 2. Rouse, H. and Ince, S., History of Hydraulics, Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, Iowa City, 1957, Dover, New York, 1963. 3. Tokaty, G. A., A History and Philosophy of Fluid Mechanics, G. T. Foulis and Co., Ltd., Oxfordshire, Great Britain, 1971. 4. Rouse, H., Hydraulics in the United States 1776–1976, Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, Iowa City, Iowa, 1976. 5. Garbrecht, G., ed., Hydraulics and Hydraulic Research—A Historical Review, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 1987. 6. Brenner, M. P., Shi, X. D., Eggens, J., and Nagel, S. R., Physics of Fluids, Vol. 7, No. 9, 1995. 7. Shi, X. D., Brenner, M. P., and Nagel, S. R., Science, Vol. 265, 1994. 31 Problems Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. GO Tutoring problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. Problem is related to a chapter video available in WileyPLUS. * † Problem to be solved with aid of programmable calculator or computer. Open-ended problem that requires critical thinking. These problems require various assumptions to provide the necessary input data. There are not unique answers to these problems. Review Problems Go to Appendix G (WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www. wiley.com/college/munson) for a set of review problems with answers. Detailed solutions can be found in the Student Solution Manual and Study Guide for Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, by Munson et al. © 2013 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.). Conceptual Questions 1.1C The correct statement for the definition of density is a) Density is the mass per unit volume. b) Density is the volume per unit mass. c) Density is the weight per unit volume. d) Density is the weight divided by gravity. e) Density is the mass divided by the weight. 1.2C Given the following equation where p is pressure in lb/ft2, is the specific weight in lb/ft3, V is the magnitude of velocity in ft/s, g is in ft/s2, and z is height in feet. If values are substituted into the equation, will the correct value of C be determined? p V2  zC g 2g a) Yes if the constant C has units of ft. b) Yes if the constant C is dimensionless. c) No, the equation cannot produce the correct value of C. d) Yes if the constant C has units of ft and the specific weight is multiplied by the conversion factor from lbm to lbf. 1.3C The no-slip condition is: a) An experimental observation that the velocity of a fluid in contact with a solid surface is equal to the velocity of the surface. b) Valid only for liquids. c) Useful only for very low density gases. d) Indicates that two solids in contact will not slip if the joining force is large. du 1.4C In fluids, the shearing strain rate for a Newtonian fluid dy has dimensions of: a) L/T2. b) 1/T. c) L2/T. d) L2/T2. 1.5C The laminar velocity profile for a Newtonian fluid is shown below. Height y Velocity u 0 Shear Stress Shear Stress τ Shear Stress τ 0 y Shear Stress τ 0 y Shear Stress τ 0 y τ 0 y 0 y Which figure best describes the variation of shear stress with distance from the plate? Additional conceptual questions are available in WileyPLUS at the instructor’s discretion. Problems Note: Unless specific values of required fluid properties are given in the problem statement, use the values found in the tables on the inside of the front cover. Answers to the even-numbered problems are listed at the end of the book. The Lab Problems as well as the videos that accompany problems can be accessed in WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. product of force times volume, and (c) kinetic energy divided by area. Section 1.2 Dimensions, Dimensional Homogeneity, and Units 1.4 Determine the dimensions, in both the FLT system and the MLT system, for (a) the product of force times acceleration, (b) the product of force times velocity divided by area, and (c) momentum divided by volume. 1.1 The force, F, of the wind blowing against a building is given by F  CD rV 2 A2, where V is the wind speed, r the density of the air, A the cross-sectional area of the building, and CD is a constant termed the drag coefficient. Determine the dimensions of the drag coefficient. 1.2 Determine the dimensions, in both the FLT system and the MLT system, for (a) the product of mass times velocity, (b) the 1.3 Verify the dimensions, in both the FLT and MLT systems, of the following quantities which appear in Table 1.1: (a) volume, (b) acceleration, (c) mass, (d) moment of inertia (area), and (e) work. 1.5 Verify the dimensions, in both the FLT and MLT systems, of the following quantities which appear in Table 1.1: (a) angular velocity, (b) energy, (c) moment of inertia (area), (d) power, and (e) pressure. 32 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction 1.6 Verify the dimensions, in both the FLT system and the MLT system, of the following quantities which appear in Table 1.1: (a) frequency, (b) stress, (c) strain, (d) torque, and (e) work. 1.7 If u is a velocity, x a length, and t a time, what are the dimensions 1in the MLT system2 of (a) 0u 0t, (b) 0 2u  0x0t, and (c) 兰 1 0u 0t2 dx? 1.8 Verify the dimensions, in both the FLT system and the MLT system, of the following quantities which appear in Table 1.1: (a) acceleration, (b) stress, (c) moment of a force, (d) volume, and (e) work. 1.9 If p is a pressure, V a velocity, and  a fluid density, what are the dimensions (in the MLT system) of (a) p/, (b) pV, and (c) p rV 2? 1.10 If P is a force and x a length, what are the dimensions (in the FLT system) of (a) dP/dx, (b) d 3P/dx3, and (c) 兰 P dx? 1.11 If V is a velocity, / a length, and n a fluid property (the kinematic viscosity) having dimensions of L2T 1, which of the following combinations are dimensionless: (a) V/n, (b) V/ n, (c) V 2n, (d) V/n? 1.12 If V is a velocity, determine the dimensions of Z, a, and G, which appear in the dimensionally homogeneous equation V  Z1a  12  G 1.13 The volume rate of flow, Q, through a pipe containing a slowly moving liquid is given by the equation pR4 ¢p Q 8m/ where R is the pipe radius, ¢p the pressure drop along the pipe, m a fluid property called viscosity 1FL2T2 , and / the length of pipe. What are the dimensions of the constant p 8? Would you classify this equation as a general homogeneous equation? Explain. 1.14 According to information found in an old hydraulics book, the energy loss per unit weight of fluid flowing through a nozzle connected to a hose can be estimated by the formula h  10.04 to 0.092 1Dd2 4V 22g where h is the energy loss per unit weight, D the hose diameter, d the nozzle tip diameter, V the fluid velocity in the hose, and g the acceleration of gravity. Do you think this equation is valid in any system of units? Explain. 1.15 The pressure difference, ¢p, across a partial blockage in an artery 1called a stenosis2 is approximated by the equation ¢p  Kv 2 mV A0  Ku a  1b rV 2 D A1 where V is the blood velocity, m the blood viscosity 1FL2T 2, r the blood density 1ML3 2, D the artery diameter, A0 the area of the unobstructed artery, and A1 the area of the stenosis. Determine the dimensions of the constants Kv and Ku. Would this equation be valid in any system of units? 1.16 Assume that the speed of sound, c, in a fluid depends on an elastic modulus, Ev, with dimensions FL2, and the fluid density, r, in the form c  1Ev 2 a 1r2 b. If this is to be a dimensionally homogeneous equation, what are the values for a and b? Is your result consistent with the standard formula for the speed of sound? 1See Eq. 1.19.2 1.17 A formula to estimate the volume rate of flow, Q, flowing over a dam of length, B, is given by the equation Q  3.09 BH 32 where H is the depth of the water above the top of the dam 1called the head2. This formula gives Q in ft3/s when B and H are in feet. Is the constant, 3.09, dimensionless? Would this equation be valid if units other than feet and seconds were used? 1.18 The force, P, that is exerted on a spherical particle moving slowly through a liquid is given by the equation P  3pmDV where m is a fluid property (viscosity) having dimensions of FL2T, D is the particle diameter, and V is the particle velocity. What are the dimensions of the constant, 3p? Would you classify this equation as a general homogeneous equation? †1.19 Cite an example of a restricted homogeneous equation contained in a technical article found in an engineering journal in your field of interest. Define all terms in the equation, explain why it is a restricted equation, and provide a complete journal citation 1title, date, etc.2. 1.20 Make use of Table 1.3 to express the following quantities in SI units: (a) 10.2 in.min, (b) 4.81 slugs, (c) 3.02 lb, (d) 73.1 fts2, (e) 0.0234 lb # sft2. 1.21 Make use of Table 1.4 to express the following quantities in BG units: (a) 14.2 km, (b) 8.14 Nm3, (c) 1.61 kgm3, (d) 0.0320 N # ms, (e) 5.67 mmhr. 1.22 Express the following quantities in SI units: (a) 160 acres, (b) 15 gallons (U.S.), (c) 240 miles, (d) 79.1 hp, (e) 60.3 °F. 1.23 For Table 1.3 verify the conversion relationships for: (a) area, (b) density, (c) velocity, and (d) specific weight. Use the basic conversion relationships: 1 ft  0.3048 m; 1 lb  4.4482 N; and 1 slug  14.594 kg. 1.24 For Table 1.4 verify the conversion relationships for: (a) acceleration, (b) density, (c) pressure, and (d) volume flowrate. Use the basic conversion relationships: 1 m  3.2808 ft; 1N  0.22481 lb; and 1 kg  0.068521 slug. 1.25 Water flows from a large drainage pipe at a rate of 1200 galmin. What is this volume rate of flow in (a) m3s, (b) liters min, and (c) ft3s? 1.26 Dimensionless combinations of quantities (commonly called dimensionless parameters) play an important role in fluid mechanics. Make up five possible dimensionless parameters by using combinations of some of the quantities listed in Table 1.1. 1.27 GO An important dimensionless parameter in certain types of fluid flow problems is the Froude number defined as V 1g/, where V is a velocity, g the acceleration of gravity, and ᐉ a length. Determine the value of the Froude number for V  10 fts, g  32.2 fts2, and /  2 ft. Recalculate the Froude number using SI units for V, g, and /. Explain the significance of the results of these calculations. Section 1.4 Measures of Fluid Mass and Weight 1.28 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the density or specific weight of a fluid is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 1.29 A tank contains 500 kg of a liquid whose specific gravity is 2. Determine the volume of the liquid in the tank. 1.30 Clouds can weigh thousands of pounds due to their liquid water content. Often this content is measured in grams per cubic meter (g/m3). Assume that a cumulus cloud occupies a volume of one cubic kilometer, and its liquid water content is 0.2 g/m3. (a) What is the volume of this cloud in cubic miles? (b) How much does the water in the cloud weigh in pounds? Problems 1.31 A tank of oil has a mass of 25 slugs. (a) Determine its weight in pounds and in newtons at the Earth’s surface. (b) What would be its mass 1in slugs2 and its weight 1in pounds2 if located on the moon’s surface where the gravitational attraction is approximately one-sixth that at the Earth’s surface? 1.32 A certain object weighs 300 N at the Earth’s surface. Determine the mass of the object 1in kilograms2 and its weight 1in newtons2 when located on a planet with an acceleration of gravity equal to 4.0 fts2. 3 1.33 The density of a certain type of jet fuel is 775 kg/m . Determine its specific gravity and specific weight. 1.34 A hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity of liquids. (See Video V2.8.) For a certain liquid, a hydrometer reading indicates a specific gravity of 1.15. What is the liquid’s density and specific weight? Express your answer in SI units. 1.35 The specific weight of a certain liquid is 85.3 lb/ft3. Determine its density and specific gravity. 1.36 An open, rigid-walled, cylindrical tank contains 4 ft3 of water at 40 °F. Over a 24-hour period of time the water temperature varies from 40 to 90 °F. Make use of the data in Appendix B to determine how much the volume of water will change. For a tank diameter of 2 ft, would the corresponding change in water depth be very noticeable? Explain. †1.37 Estimate the number of pounds of mercury it would take to fill your bathtub. List all assumptions and show all calculations. 1.38 A mountain climber’s oxygen tank contains 1 lb of oxygen when he begins his trip at sea level where the acceleration of gravity is 32.174 ft/s2. What is the weight of the oxygen in the tank when he reaches the top of Mt. Everest where the acceleration of gravity is 32.082 ft/s2? Assume that no oxygen has been removed from the tank; it will be used on the descent portion of the climb. 1.39 GO The information on a can of pop indicates that the can contains 355 mL. The mass of a full can of pop is 0.369 kg, while an empty can weighs 0.153 N. Determine the specific weight, density, and specific gravity of the pop and compare your results with the corresponding values for water at 20 °C. Express your results in SI units. 33 Section 1.5 Ideal Gas Law 1.44 Determine the mass of air in a 2 m3 tank if the air is at room temperature, 20 °C, and the absolute pressure within the tank is 200 kPa (abs). 1.45 Nitrogen is compressed to a density of 4 kg/m3 under an absolute pressure of 400 kPa. Determine the temperature in degrees Celsius. 1.46 The temperature and pressure at the surface of Mars during a Martian spring day were determined to be 50 °C and 900 Pa, respectively. (a) Determine the density of the Martian atmosphere for these conditions if the gas constant for the Martian atmosphere is assumed to be equivalent to that of carbon dioxide. (b) Compare the answer from part (a) with the density of the Earth’s atmosphere during a spring day when the temperature is 18 °C and the pressure 101.6 kPa (abs). 1.47 A closed tank having a volume of 2 ft3 is filled with 0.30 lb of a gas. A pressure gage attached to the tank reads 12 psi when the gas temperature is 80 °F. There is some question as to whether the gas in the tank is oxygen or helium. Which do you think it is? Explain how you arrived at your answer. 1.48 A tire having a volume of 3 ft3 contains air at a gage pressure of 26 psi and a temperature of 70 F. Determine the density of the air and the weight of the air contained in the tire. 1.49 A compressed air tank contains 5 kg of air at a temperature of 80 °C. A gage on the tank reads 300 kPa. Determine the volume of the tank. 1.50 A rigid tank contains air at a pressure of 90 psia and a temperature of 60 F. By how much will the pressure increase as the temperature is increased to 110 F? 1.51 The density of oxygen contained in a tank is 2.0 kg/m3 when the temperature is 25 C. Determine the gage pressure of the gas if the atmospheric pressure is 97 kPa. 1.52 The helium-filled blimp shown in Fig. P1.52 is used at various athletic events. Determine the number of pounds of helium within it if its volume is 68,000 ft3 and the temperature and pressure are 80 °F and 14.2 psia, respectively. *1.40 The variation in the density of water, r, with temperature, T, in the range 20 °C T 50 °C, is given in the following table. Density 1kg m32 Temperature 1°C2 998.2 20 997.1 995.7 25 30 994.1 992.2 35 40 990.2 988.1 45 50 Use these data to determine an empirical equation of the form r  c1  c2T  c3T 2 which can be used to predict the density over the range indicated. Compare the predicted values with the data given. What is the density of water at 42.1 °C? 3 1.41 If 1 cup of cream having a density of 1005 kg/m is turned into 3 cups of whipped cream, determine the specific gravity and specific weight of the whipped cream. 1.42 A liquid when poured into a graduated cylinder is found to weigh 8 N when occupying a volume of 500 ml (milliliters). Determine its specific weight, density, and specific gravity. †1.43 The presence of raindrops in the air during a heavy rainstorm increases the average density of the air–water mixture. Estimate by what percent the average air–water density is greater than that of just still air. State all assumptions and show calculations. ■ Figure P1.52 *1.53 Develop a computer program for calculating the density of an ideal gas when the gas pressure in pascals 1abs2, the temperature in degrees Celsius, and the gas constant in J kg # K are specified. Plot the density of helium as a function of temperature from 0 °C to 200 °C and pressures of 50, 100, 150, and 200 kPa (abs). Section 1.6 Viscosity (also see Lab Problems 1.1LP and 1.2LP) 1.54 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the viscosity of a fluid is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 34 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction 1.55 For flowing water, what is the magnitude of the velocity gradient needed to produce a shear stress of 1.0 N/m2? 1.63 A liquid has a specific weight of 59 lb/ft3 and a dynamic viscosity of 2.75 lb # s/ft2. Determine its kinematic viscosity. 1.56 Make use of the data in Appendix B to determine the dynamic viscosity of glycerin at 85 °F. Express your answer in both SI and BG units. 1.64 The kinematic viscosity of oxygen at 20 °C and a pressure of 150 kPa 1abs2 is 0.104 stokes. Determine the dynamic viscosity of oxygen at this temperature and pressure. 1.57 Make use of the data in Appendix B to determine the dynamic viscosity of mercury at 75 F. Express your answer in BG units. *1.65 1.58 One type of capillary-tube viscometer is shown in Video V1.5 and in Fig. P1.58. For this device the liquid to be tested is drawn into the tube to a level above the top etched line. The time is then obtained for the liquid to drain to the bottom etched line. The kinematic viscosity, , in m2/s is then obtained from the equation n  KR 4t where K is a constant, R is the radius of the capillary tube in mm, and t is the drain time in seconds. When glycerin at 20 C is used as a calibration fluid in a particular viscometer, the drain time is 1430 s. When a liquid having a density of 970 kg/m3 is tested in the same viscometer the drain time is 900 s. What is the dynamic viscosity of this liquid? Fluids for which the shearing stress, , is not linearly related to the rate of shearing strain, ᝽, are designated as nonNewtonian fluids. Such fluids are commonplace and can exhibit unusual behavior, as shown in Video V1.6. Some experimental data obtained for a particular non-Newtonian fluid at 80 F are shown below.  (lb/ft2) 1 ᝽ (s ) 0 2.11 7.82 18.5 31.7 0 50 100 150 200 Plot these data and fit a second-order polynomial to the data using a suitable graphing program. What is the apparent viscosity of this fluid when the rate of shearing strain is 70 s 1? Is this apparent viscosity larger or smaller than that for water at the same temperature? 1.66 Water flows near a flat surface and some measurements of the water velocity, u, parallel to the surface, at different heights, y, above the surface are obtained. At the surface y  0. After an analysis of the data, the lab technician reports that the velocity distribution in the range 0 6 y 6 0.1 ft is given by the equation Glass strengthening bridge u  0.81  9.2y  4.1  103y3 Etched lines with u in ft/s when y is in ft. (a) Do you think that this equation would be valid in any system of units? Explain. (b) Do you think this equation is correct? Explain. You may want to look at Video 1.4 to help you arrive at your answer. 1.67 Calculate the Reynolds numbers for the flow of water and for air through a 4-mm-diameter tube, if the mean velocity is 3 ms and the temperature is 30 °C in both cases 1see Example 1.42. Assume the air is at standard atmospheric pressure. Capillary tube 1.68 SAE 30 oil at 60 F flows through a 2-in.-diameter pipe with a mean velocity of 5 ft/s. Determine the value of the Reynolds number (see Example 1.4). ■ Figure P1.58 1.59 The viscosity of a soft drink was determined by using a capillary tube viscometer similar to that shown in Fig. P1.58 and Video V1.5. For this device the kinematic viscosity, , is directly proportional to the time, t, that it takes for a given amount of liquid to flow through a small capillary tube. That is, n  Kt. The following data were obtained from regular pop and diet pop. The corresponding measured specific gravities are also given. Based on these data, by what percent is the absolute viscosity, , of regular pop greater than that of diet pop? Regular pop Diet pop t(s) 377.8 300.3 SG 1.044 1.003 1.60 Determine the ratio of the dynamic viscosity of water to air at a temperature of 60 °C. Compare this value with the corresponding ratio of kinematic viscosities. Assume the air is at standard atmospheric pressure. 1.61 The viscosity of a certain fluid is 5  104 poise. Determine its viscosity in both SI and BG units. 1.62 The kinematic viscosity and specific gravity of a liquid are 3.5  104 m2/s and 0.79, respectively. What is the dynamic viscosity of the liquid in SI units? 1.69 For air at standard atmospheric pressure the values of the constants that appear in the Sutherland equation 1Eq. 1.102 are C  1.458  106 kg 1m # s # K12 2 and S  110.4 K. Use these values to predict the viscosity of air at 10 °C and 90 °C and compare with values given in Table B.4 in Appendix B. *1.70 Use the values of viscosity of air given in Table B.4 at temperatures of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 °C to determine the constants C and S which appear in the Sutherland equation 1Eq. 1.102. Compare your results with the values given in Problem 1.69. 1Hint: Rewrite the equation in the form 1 S T 3 2 a bT m C C and plot T 32m versus T. From the slope and intercept of this curve, C and S can be obtained.2 1.71 The viscosity of a fluid plays a very important role in determining how a fluid flows. (See Video V1.3.) The value of the viscosity depends not only on the specific fluid but also on the fluid temperature. Some experiments show that when a liquid, under the action of a constant driving pressure, is forced with a low velocity, V, through a small horizontal tube, the velocity is given by the equation V  Km. In this equation K is a constant for a given tube and pressure, and  is the dynamic viscosity. For a particular Problems liquid of interest, the viscosity is given by Andrade’s equation (Eq. 1.11) with D  5  10 7 lb # sft2 and B  4000 °R. By what percentage will the velocity increase as the liquid temperature is increased from 40 F to 100 F? Assume all other factors remain constant. 35 3.5  105 lb # sft2. Determine the thickness of the water layer under the runners. Assume a linear velocity distribution in the water layer. *1.72 Use the value of the viscosity of water given in Table B.2 at temperatures of 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 °C to determine the constants D and B which appear in Andrade’s equation 1Eq. 1.112. Calculate the value of the viscosity at 50 °C and compare with the value given in Table B.2. 1Hint: Rewrite the equation in the form ln m  1B2 1  ln D T and plot ln m versus 1 T. From the slope and intercept of this curve, B and D can be obtained. If a nonlinear curve-fitting program is available, the constants can be obtained directly from Eq. 1.11 without rewriting the equation.2 1.73 For a certain liquid m  7.1  105 lb # s/ft2 at 40 F and m  1.9  105 lb # s/ft2 at 150 F. Make use of these data to determine the constants D and B which appear in Andrade’s equation (Eq. 1.11). What would be the viscosity at 80 F? 1.74 GO For a parallel plate arrangement of the type shown in Fig. 1.5 it is found that when the distance between plates is 2 mm, a shearing stress of 150 Pa develops at the upper plate when it is pulled at a velocity of 1 m/s. Determine the viscosity of the fluid between the plates. Express your answer in SI units. 1.75 Two flat plates are oriented parallel above a fixed lower plate as shown in Fig. P1.75. The top plate, located a distance b above the fixed plate, is pulled along with speed V. The other thin plate is located a distance cb, where 0 c 1, above the fixed plate. This plate moves with speed V1, which is determined by the viscous shear forces imposed on it by the fluids on its top and bottom. The fluid on the top is twice as viscous as that on the bottom. Plot the ratio V1/V as a function of c for 0 c 1. V 2μ b V1 cb μ ■ Figure P1.75 1.76 There are many fluids that exhibit non-Newtonian behavior (see, for example, Video V1.6). For a given fluid the distinction between Newtonian and non-Newtonian behavior is usually based on measurements of shear stress and rate of shearing strain. Assume that the viscosity of blood is to be determined by measurements of shear stress, , and rate of shearing strain, du/dy, obtained from a small blood sample tested in a suitable viscometer. Based on the data given below, determine if the blood is a Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluid. Explain how you arrived at your answer. (N/m2) 1 du/dy (s ) 0.04 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.30 0.52 1.12 2.10 2.25 4.50 11.25 22.5 45.0 90.0 225 450 1.77 The sled shown in Fig. P1.77 slides along on a thin horizontal layer of water between the ice and the runners. The horizontal force that the water puts on the runners is equal to 1.2 lb when the sled’s speed is 50 ft/s. The total area of both runners in contact with the water is 0.08 ft2, and the viscosity of the water is ■ Figure P1.77 1.78 A 25-mm-diameter shaft is pulled through a cylindrical bearing as shown in Fig. P1.78. The lubricant that fills the 0.3-mm gap between the shaft and bearing is an oil having a kinematic viscosity of 8.0  104 m2s and a specific gravity of 0.91. Determine the force P required to pull the shaft at a velocity of 3 m/s. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear. Bearing Shaft Lubricant P 0.5 m ■ Figure P1.78 1.79 A piston having a diameter of 5.48 in. and a length of 9.50 in. slides downward with a velocity V through a vertical pipe. The downward motion is resisted by an oil film between the piston and the pipe wall. The film thickness is 0.002 in., and the cylinder weighs 0.5 lb. Estimate V if the oil viscosity is 0.016 lb # s/ft2. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear. 1.80 A 10-kg block slides down a smooth inclined surface as shown in Fig. P1.80. Determine the terminal velocity of the block if the 0.1-mm gap between the block and the surface contains SAE 30 oil at 60 °F. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear, and the area of the block in contact with the oil is 0.1 m2. V 0.1 mm gap 20° ■ Figure P1.80 1.81 A layer of water flows down an inclined fixed surface with the velocity profile shown in Fig. P1.81. Determine the magnitude and direction of the shearing stress that the water exerts on the fixed surface for U  2 ms and h  0.1 m. 36 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction h 1.85 The space between two 6-in.-long concentric cylinders is filled with glycerin 1viscosity ⫽ 8.5 ⫻ 10⫺3 lb # sⲐft2 2. The inner cylinder has a radius of 3 in. and the gap width between cylinders is 0.1 in. Determine the torque and the power required to rotate the inner cylinder at 180 revⲐmin. The outer cylinder is fixed. Assume the velocity distribution in the gap to be linear. U u y u y y2 __ = 2 __ – __2 U h h ■ Figure P1.81 1.82 A thin layer of glycerin flows down an inclined, wide plate with the velocity distribution shown in Fig. P1.82. For h ⫽ 0.3 in. and a ⫽ 20⬚, determine the surface velocity, U. Note that for equilibrium, the component of weight acting parallel to the plate surface must be balanced by the shearing force developed along the plate surface. In your analysis assume a unit plate width. 1.86 A pivot bearing used on the shaft of an electrical instrument is shown in Fig. P1.86. An oil with a viscosity of ␮ ⫽ 0.010 lb . s/ft2 fills the 0.001-in. gap between the rotating shaft and the stationary base. Determine the frictional torque on the shaft when it rotates at 5000 rpm. 5000 rpm 0.2 in. U α y u y y2 u = __ __ 2 – __2 h U h h 30° μ = 0.010 lb • s/ft2 0.001 in. ■ Figure P1.82 *1.83 Standard air flows past a flat surface, and velocity measurements near the surface indicate the following distribution: y 1ft2 u 1ftⲐs2 0.005 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.74 1.51 3.03 6.37 10.21 14.43 The coordinate y is measured normal to the surface and u is the velocity parallel to the surface. (a) Assume the velocity distribution is of the form u ⫽ C1y ⫹ C2 y3 and use a standard curve-fitting technique to determine the constants C1 and C2. (b) Make use of the results of part 1a2 to determine the magnitude of the shearing stress at the wall 1y ⫽ 02 and at y ⫽ 0.05 ft. 1.84 A new computer drive is proposed to have a disc, as shown in Fig. P1.84. The disc is to rotate at 10,000 rpm, and the reader head is to be positioned 0.0005 in. above the surface of the disc. Estimate the shearing force on the reader head as a result of the air between the disc and the head. ■ Figure P1.86 1.87 The viscosity of liquids can be measured through the use of a rotating cylinder viscometer of the type illustrated in Fig. P1.87. In this device the outer cylinder is fixed and the inner cylinder is rotated with an angular velocity, v. The torque t required to develop ␻ is measured and the viscosity is calculated from these two measurements. (a) Develop an equation relating m, v, t, /, Ro, and Ri. Neglect end effects and assume the velocity distribution in the gap is linear. (b) The following torque-angular velocity data were obtained with a rotating cylinder viscometer of the type discussed in part (a). Torque 1ft # lb2 13.1 26.0 39.5 52.7 64.9 78.6 Angular velocity 1radⲐs2 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 For this viscometer Ro ⫽ 2.50 in., Ri ⫽ 2.45 in., and / ⫽ 5.00 in. Make use of these data and a standard curve-fitting program to determine the viscosity of the liquid contained in the viscometer. ᐀ Liquid Stationary reader head ω 0.2-in.dia. 10,000 rpm 0.0005 in. 2 in. Rotating disc ■ Figure P1.84 Fixed outer cylinder Ri Ro Rotating inner cylinder ᐉ ■ Figure P1.87 Problems 1.88 One type of rotating cylinder viscometer, called a Stormer viscometer, uses a falling weight, ᐃ, to cause the cylinder to rotate with an angular velocity, v, as illustrated in Fig. P1.88. For this device the viscosity, m, of the liquid is related to ᐃ and v through the equation ᐃ  Kmv, where K is a constant that depends only on the geometry (including the liquid depth) of the viscometer. The value of K is usually determined by using a calibration liquid (a liquid of known viscosity). (a) Some data for a particular Stormer viscometer, obtained using glycerin at 20 C as a calibration liquid, are given below. Plot values of the weight as ordinates and values of the angular velocity as abscissae. Draw the best curve through the plotted points and determine K for the viscometer. ᐃ(lb) 0.22 0.66 1.10 1.54 2.20 v (rev/s) 0.53 1.59 2.79 3.83 5.49 (b) A liquid of unknown viscosity is placed in the same viscometer used in part (a), and the data given below are obtained. Determine the viscosity of this liquid. ᐃ(lb) 0.04 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 v (rev/s) 0.72 1.89 3.73 5.44 7.42 37 Section 1.7 Compressibility of Fluids 1.92 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the compressibility of a fluid is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 1.93 A sound wave is observed to travel through a liquid with a speed of 1500 m/s. The specific gravity of the liquid is 1.5. Determine the bulk modulus for this fluid. 1.94 A rigid-walled cubical container is completely filled with water at 40 F and sealed. The water is then heated to 100 F. Determine the pressure that develops in the container when the water reaches this higher temperature. Assume that the volume of the container remains constant and the value of the bulk modulus of the water remains constant and equal to 300,000 psi. 1.95 In a test to determine the bulk modulus of a liquid it was found that as the absolute pressure was changed from 15 to 3000 psi the volume decreased from 10.240 to 10.138 in.3 Determine the bulk modulus for this liquid. 1.96 Estimate the increase in pressure (in psi) required to decrease a unit volume of mercury by 0.1%. 1.97 A 1-m3 volume of water is contained in a rigid container. Estimate the change in the volume of the water when a piston applies a pressure of 35 MPa. 1.98 Determine the speed of sound at 20 °C in (a) air, (b) helium, and (c) natural gas (methane). Express your answer in m/s. 1.99 Calculate the speed of sound in m/s for (a) gasoline, (b) mercury, and (c) seawater. ω ᐃ Weight Liquid Rotating inner cylinder 1.100 Air is enclosed by a rigid cylinder containing a piston. A pressure gage attached to the cylinder indicates an initial reading of 25 psi. Determine the reading on the gage when the piston has compressed the air to one-third its original volume. Assume the compression process to be isothermal and the local atmospheric pressure to be 14.7 psi. Fixed outer cylinder 1.101 Repeat Problem 1.100 if the compression process takes place without friction and without heat transfer (isentropic process). ■ Figure P1.88 1.89 A 12-in.-diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed bottom plate with a 0.1-in. gap between the two plates filled with glycerin as shown in Fig. P1.89. Determine the torque required to rotate the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm. Assume that the velocity distribution in the gap is linear and that the shear stress on the edge of the rotating plate is negligible. Torque Rotating plate 0.1-in. gap 1.102 Carbon dioxide at 30 °C and 300 kPa absolute pressure expands isothermally to an absolute pressure of 165 kPa. Determine the final density of the gas. 1.103 Oxygen at 30 C and 300 kPa absolute pressure expands isothermally to an absolute pressure of 120 kPa. Determine the final density of the gas. 1.104 Natural gas at 70 °F and standard atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi (abs) is compressed isentropically to a new absolute pressure of 70 psi. Determine the final density and temperature of the gas. 1.105 Compare the isentropic bulk modulus of air at 101 kPa 1abs2 with that of water at the same pressure. *1.106 Develop a computer program for calculating the final gage ■ Figure P1.89 †1.90 Vehicle shock absorbers damp out oscillations caused by road roughness. Describe how a temperature change may affect the operation of a shock absorber. 1.91 Some measurements on a blood sample at 37 °C 198.6 °F2 indicate a shearing stress of 0.52 Nm2 for a corresponding rate of shearing strain of 200 s1. Determine the apparent viscosity of the blood and compare it with the viscosity of water at the same temperature. pressure of gas when the initial gage pressure, initial and final volumes, atmospheric pressure, and the type of process 1isothermal or isentropic2 are specified. Use BG units. Check your program against the results obtained for Problem 1.100. 1.107 Often the assumption is made that the flow of a certain fluid can be considered as incompressible flow if the density of the fluid changes by less than 2%. If air is flowing through a tube such that the air pressure at one section is 9.0 psi and at a downstream section it is 8.6 psi at the same temperature, do you think that this flow could be considered an incompressible flow? Support your answer with the necessary calculations. Assume standard atmospheric pressure. 38 Chapter 1 ■ Introduction 1.108 An important dimensionless parameter concerned with very high-speed flow is the Mach number, defined as V/c, where V is the speed of the object such as an airplane or projectile, and c is the speed of sound in the fluid surrounding the object. For a projectile traveling at 800 mph through air at 50 F and standard atmospheric pressure, what is the value of the Mach number? 1.109 Jet airliners typically fly at altitudes between approximately 0 to 40,000 ft. Make use of the data in Appendix C to show on a graph how the speed of sound varies over this range. 1.110 (See Fluids in the News article titled “This water jet is a blast,” Section 1.7.1.) By what percent is the volume of water decreased if its pressure is increased to an equivalent to 3000 atmospheres (44,100 psi)? Section 1.8 Vapor Pressure 1.111 During a mountain climbing trip it is observed that the water used to cook a meal boils at 90 °C rather than the standard 100 °C at sea level. At what altitude are the climbers preparing their meal? (See Tables B.2 and C.2 for data needed to solve this problem.) 1.112 When a fluid flows through a sharp bend, low pressures may develop in localized regions of the bend. Estimate the minimum absolute pressure 1in psi2 that can develop without causing cavitation if the fluid is water at 160 °F. 1.113 A partially filled closed tank contains ethyl alcohol at 68 F. If the air above the alcohol is evacuated, what is the minimum absolute pressure that develops in the evacuated space? 1.114 Estimate the minimum absolute pressure 1in pascals2 that can be developed at the inlet of a pump to avoid cavitation if the fluid is carbon tetrachloride at 20 °C. 1.115 When water at 70 °C flows through a converging section of pipe, the pressure decreases in the direction of flow. Estimate the minimum absolute pressure that can develop without causing cavitation. Express your answer in both BG and SI units. 1.116 At what atmospheric pressure will water boil at 35 °C? Express your answer in both SI and BG units. Section 1.9 Surface Tension 1.117 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the surface tension of a fluid is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 1.118 When a 2-mm-diameter tube is inserted into a liquid in an open tank, the liquid is observed to rise 10 mm above the free surface of the liquid (see Video V1.10). The contact angle between the liquid and the tube is zero, and the specific weight of the liquid is 1.2  104 N/m3. Determine the value of the surface tension for this liquid. 1.119 An open 2-mm-diameter tube is inserted into a pan of ethyl alcohol, and a similar 4-mm-diameter tube is inserted into a pan of water. In which tube will the height of the rise of the fluid column due to capillary action be the greatest? Assume the angle of contact is the same for both tubes. 1.120 Small droplets of carbon tetrachloride at 68 °F are formed with a spray nozzle. If the average diameter of the droplets is 200 mm, what is the difference in pressure between the inside and outside of the droplets? 1.121 A 12-mm-diameter jet of water discharges vertically into the atmosphere. Due to surface tension the pressure inside the jet will be slightly higher than the surrounding atmospheric pressure. Determine this difference in pressure. 1.122 Estimate the excess pressure inside a raindrop having a diameter of 3 mm. 1.123 What is the difference between the pressure inside a soap bubble and atmospheric pressure for a 3-in.-diameter bubble? Assume the surface tension of the soap film to be 70% of that of water at 70 F. 1.124 As shown in Video V1.9, surface tension forces can be strong enough to allow a double-edge steel razor blade to “float” on water, but a single-edge blade will sink. Assume that the surface tension forces act at an angle  relative to the water surface as shown in Fig. P1.124. (a) The mass of the double-edge blade is 0.64  10 3 kg, and the total length of its sides is 206 mm. Determine the value of  required to maintain equilibrium between the blade weight and the resultant surface tension force. (b) The mass of the single-edge blade is 2.61  10 3 kg, and the total length of its sides is 154 mm. Explain why this blade sinks. Support your answer with the necessary calculations. Surface tension force Blade θ ■ Figure P1.24 1.125 To measure the water depth in a large open tank with opaque walls, an open vertical glass tube is attached to the side of the tank. The height of the water column in the tube is then used as a measure of the depth of water in the tank. (a) For a true water depth in the tank of 3 ft, make use of Eq. 1.22 (with u ⯝ 0°) to determine the percent error due to capillarity as the diameter of the glass tube is changed. Assume a water temperature of 80 F. Show your results on a graph of percent error versus tube diameter, D, in the range 0.1 in. 6 D 6 1.0 in. (b) If you want the error to be less than 1%, what is the smallest tube diameter allowed? 1.126 Under the right conditions, it is possible, due to GO surface tension, to have metal objects float on water. (See Video V1.9.) Consider placing a short length of a small diameter steel (g  490 lb/ft3) rod on a surface of water. What is the maximum diameter that the rod can have before it will sink? Assume that the surface tension forces act vertically upward. Note: A standard paper clip has a diameter of 0.036 in. Partially unfold a paper clip and see if you can get it to float on water. Do the results of this experiment support your analysis? 1.127 An open, clean glass tube, having a diameter of 3 mm, is inserted vertically into a dish of mercury at 20 °C (see Video V1.10). How far will the column of mercury in the tube be depressed? 1.128 An open, clean glass tube 1u  0°2 is inserted vertically into a pan of water (see Video V1.10). What tube diameter is needed if the water level in the tube is to rise one tube diameter (due to surface tension)? 1.129 Determine the height that water at 60 °F will rise due to capillary action in a clean, 14-in.-diameter tube (see Video V1.10). What will be the height if the diameter is reduced to 0.01 in.? 1.130 Two vertical, parallel, clean glass plates are spaced a distance of 2 mm apart. If the plates are placed in water, how high will the water rise between the plates due to capillary action? Problems 1.131 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Walking on water,” Section 1.9.) (a) The water strider bug shown in Fig. P1.131 is supported on the surface of a pond by surface tension acting along the interface between the water and the bug’s legs. Determine the minimum length of this interface needed to support the bug. Assume the bug weighs 104 N and the surface tension force acts vertically upwards. (b) Repeat part (a) if surface tension were to support a person weighing 750 N. 39 ■ Lifelong Learning Problems 1.1 LL Although there are numerous non-Newtonian fluids that occur naturally (quicksand and blood among them), with the advent of modern chemistry and chemical processing, many new manufactured non-Newtonian fluids are now available for a variety of novel applications. Obtain information about the discovery and use of newly developed non-Newtonian fluids. Summarize your findings in a brief report. 1.2 LL For years, lubricating oils and greases obtained by refining crude oil have been used to lubricate moving parts in a wide variety of machines, motors, and engines. With the increasing cost of crude oil and the potential for the reduced availability of it, the need for non-petroleum-based lubricants has increased considerably. Obtain information about non-petroleum-based lubricants. Summarize your findings in a brief report. ■ Figure P1.131 ■ Lab Problems 1.1LP This problem involves the use of a Stormer viscometer to determine whether a fluid is a Newtonian or a non-Newtonian fluid. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H, which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www. wiley.com/college/munson. 1.2LP This problem involves the use of a capillary tube viscometer to determine the kinematic viscosity of water as a function of temperature. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H, which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 1.3 LL It is predicted that nano technology and the use of nano sized objects will allow many processes, procedures, and products that, as of now, are difficult for us to comprehend. Among new nano technology areas is that of nano scale fluid mechanics. Fluid behavior at the nano scale can be entirely different than that for the usual everyday flows with which we are familiar. Obtain information about various aspects of nano fluid mechanics. Summarize your findings in a brief report. ■ FE Exam Problems Sample FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) exam question for fluid mechanics are provided in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 2 Fluid Statics CHAPTER OPENING PHOTO: Floating iceberg: An iceberg is a large piece of fresh water ice that originated as snow in a glacier or ice shelf and then broke off to float in the ocean. Although the fresh water ice is lighter than the salt water in the ocean, the difference in densities is relatively small. Hence, only about one ninth of the volume of an iceberg protrudes above the ocean’s surface, so that what we see floating is literally “just the tip of the iceberg.” (© oversnap/iStockphoto.) Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: ■ determine the pressure at various locations in a fluid at rest. ■ explain the concept of manometers and apply appropriate equations to determine pressures. ■ calculate the hydrostatic pressure force on a plane or curved submerged surface. ■ calculate the buoyant force and discuss the stability of floating or submerged objects. In this chapter we will consider an important class of problems in which the fluid is either at rest or moving in such a manner that there is no relative motion between adjacent particles. In both instances there will be no shearing stresses in the fluid, and the only forces that develop on the surfaces of the particles will be due to the pressure. Thus, our principal concern is to investigate pressure and its variation throughout a fluid and the effect of pressure on submerged surfaces. The absence of shearing stresses greatly simplifies the analysis and, as we will see, allows us to obtain relatively simple solutions to many important practical problems. 2.1 Pressure at a Point As we briefly discussed in Chapter 1, the term pressure is used to indicate the normal force per unit area at a given point acting on a given plane within the fluid mass of interest. A question that immediately arises is how the pressure at a point varies with the orientation of the plane passing through the point. To answer this question, consider the free-body diagram, illustrated in Fig. 2.1, 40 2.1 Pressure at a Point 41 z ps δ x δ s θ δs py δ x δ z y δz δx θ δy x δx δyδz γ ________ 2 pz δ x δ y ■ Figure 2.1 Forces on an arbitrary wedge-shaped element of fluid. that was obtained by removing a small triangular wedge of fluid from some arbitrary location within a fluid mass. Since we are considering the situation in which there are no shearing stresses, the only external forces acting on the wedge are due to the pressure and the weight. For simplicity the forces in the x direction are not shown, and the z axis is taken as the vertical axis so the weight acts in the negative z direction. Although we are primarily interested in fluids at rest, to make the analysis as general as possible, we will allow the fluid element to have accelerated motion. The assumption of zero shearing stresses will still be valid as long as the fluid element moves as a rigid body; that is, there is no relative motion between adjacent elements. The equations of motion 1Newton’s second law, F  ma2 in the y and z directions are, respectively, a Fy  py dx dz  ps dx ds sin u  r dx dy dz ay 2 a Fz  pz dx dy  ps dx ds cos u  g dx dy dz dx dy dz r az 2 2 where ps, py, and pz are the average pressures on the faces, g and r are the fluid specific weight and density, respectively, and ay, az the accelerations. Note that a pressure must be multiplied by an appropriate area to obtain the force generated by the pressure. It follows from the geometry that dy  ds cos u dz  ds sin u so that the equations of motion can be rewritten as The pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is independent of direction. py  ps  ray dy 2 pz  ps  1raz  g2 dz 2 Since we are really interested in what is happening at a point, we take the limit as dx, dy, and dz approach zero 1while maintaining the angle u2, and it follows that py  ps py  pz py pz pz  ps or ps  py  pz. The angle u was arbitrarily chosen so we can conclude that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent of direction as long as there are no shearing stresses present. This important result is known as Pascal’s law, named in honor of Blaise Pascal 11623– 16622, a French mathematician who made important contributions in the field of hydrostatics. Thus, as shown by the photograph in the margin, at the junction of the side and bottom of the beaker, the pressure is the same on the side as it is on the bottom. In Chapter 6 it will be shown that for moving fluids in which there is relative motion between particles 1so that shearing stresses develop2, the normal stress at a point, which corresponds to pressure in fluids at rest, is not necessarily the same 42 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics in all directions. In such cases the pressure is defined as the average of any three mutually perpendicular normal stresses at the point. 2.2 Basic Equation for Pressure Field The pressure may vary across a fluid particle. ∂p δy ––– ––– ∂y 2 Although we have answered the question of how the pressure at a point varies with direction, we are now faced with an equally important question—how does the pressure in a fluid in which there are no shearing stresses vary from point to point? To answer this question, consider a small rectangular element of fluid removed from some arbitrary position within the mass of fluid of interest as illustrated in Fig. 2.2. There are two types of forces acting on this element: surface forces due to the pressure and a body force equal to the weight of the element. Other possible types of body forces, such as those due to magnetic fields, will not be considered in this text. If we let the pressure at the center of the element be designated as p, then the average pressure on the various faces can be expressed in terms of p and its derivatives, as shown in Fig. 2.2. We are actually using a Taylor series expansion of the pressure at the element center to approximate the pressures a short distance away and neglecting higher order terms that will vanish as we let dx, dy, and dz approach zero. This is illustrated by the figure in the margin. For simplicity the surface forces in the x direction are not shown. The resultant surface force in the y direction is dFy  ap  p 0p dy 0p dy b dx dz  ap  b dx dz 0y 2 0y 2 or δy ––– 2 y dFy   0p dx dy dz 0y Similarly, for the x and z directions the resultant surface forces are dFx   0p dx dy dz 0x dFz   0p dx dy dz 0z The resultant surface force acting on the element can be expressed in vector form as dFs  dFxî  dFy ĵ  dFzk̂ ( ) ∂p δ z p + ––– ––– δ x δ y ∂z 2 z δz ( ) ∂p δy p – ––– ––– δ x δ z ∂y 2 δx ( γ δx δyδz δy ( ^ k ^ ^ j ) ∂p δy p + ––– ––– δ x δ z ∂y 2 ) ∂p δ z p – ––– ––– δ x δ y ∂z 2 y i x ■ Figure 2.2 Surface and body forces acting on small fluid element. 2.3 The resultant surface force acting on a small fluid element depends only on the pressure gradient if there are no shearing stresses present. Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 43 or dFs  a 0p 0p 0p î  ĵ  k̂b dx dy dz 0x 0y 0z (2.1) where î, ĵ, and k̂ are the unit vectors along the coordinate axes shown in Fig. 2.2. The group of terms in parentheses in Eq. 2.1 represents in vector form the pressure gradient and can be written as 0p 0p 0p î  ĵ  k̂  §p 0x 0y 0z where §1 2  01 2 0x î  01 2 0y ĵ  01 2 0z k̂ and the symbol § is the gradient or “del” vector operator. Thus, the resultant surface force per unit volume can be expressed as dFs  §p dx dy dz Since the z axis is vertical, the weight of the element is dwk̂  g dx dy dz k̂ where the negative sign indicates that the force due to the weight is downward 1in the negative z direction2. Newton’s second law, applied to the fluid element, can be expressed as a dF  dm a where  dF represents the resultant force acting on the element, a is the acceleration of the element, and dm is the element mass, which can be written as r dx dy dz. It follows that a dF  dFs  dwk̂  dm a or §p dx dy dz  g dx dy dz k̂  r dx dy dz a and, therefore, §p  gk̂  ra (2.2) Equation 2.2 is the general equation of motion for a fluid in which there are no shearing stresses. We will use this equation in Section 2.12 when we consider the pressure distribution in a moving fluid. For the present, however, we will restrict our attention to the special case of a fluid at rest. 2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest For a fluid at rest a  0 and Eq. 2.2 reduces to §p  gk̂  0 or in component form 0p 0 0x 0p 0 0y 0p  g 0z (2.3) These equations show that the pressure does not depend on x or y. Thus, as we move from point to point in a horizontal plane 1any plane parallel to the x–y plane2, the pressure does not 44 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics For liquids or gases at rest, the pressure gradient in the vertical direction at any point in a fluid depends only on the specific weight of the fluid at that point. p dz g dp 1 dp ––– = −g dz z change. Since p depends only on z, the last of Eqs. 2.3 can be written as the ordinary differential equation dp  g dz (2.4) Equation 2.4 is the fundamental equation for fluids at rest and can be used to determine how pressure changes with elevation. This equation and the figure in the margin indicate that the pressure gradient in the vertical direction is negative; that is, the pressure decreases as we move upward in a fluid at rest. There is no requirement that g be a constant. Thus, it is valid for fluids with constant specific weight, such as liquids, as well as fluids whose specific weight may vary with elevation, such as air or other gases. However, to proceed with the integration of Eq. 2.4 it is necessary to stipulate how the specific weight varies with z. If the fluid is flowing (i.e., not at rest with a  0), then the pressure variation is usually much more complex than that given by Eq. 2.4. For example, the pressure distribution on your car as it is driven along the road varies in a complex manner with x, y, and z. This idea is covered in detail in Chapters 3, 6, and 9. 2.3.1 Incompressible Fluid Since the specific weight is equal to the product of fluid density and acceleration of gravity 1g  rg2, changes in g are caused by a change in either r or g. For most engineering applications the variation in g is negligible, so our main concern is with the possible variation in the fluid density. In general, a fluid with constant density is called an incompressible fluid. For liquids the variation in density is usually negligible, even over large vertical distances, so that the assumption of constant specific weight when dealing with liquids is a good one. For this instance, Eq. 2.4 can be directly integrated 冮 p2 dp  g p1 to yield dz z1 p2  p1  g1z2  z1 2 or V2.1 Pressure on a car 冮 z2 p1  p2  g1z2  z1 2 (2.5) where p1 and p2 are pressures at the vertical elevations z1 and z2, as is illustrated in Fig. 2.3. Equation 2.5 can be written in the compact form p1  p2  gh (2.6) p1  gh  p2 (2.7) or where h is the distance, z2  z1, which is the depth of fluid measured downward from the location of p2. This type of pressure distribution is commonly called a hydrostatic distribution, and Eq. 2.7 Free surface (pressure = p0) V2.2 Demonstration of atmospheric pressure. p2 z h = z2 – z1 z2 p1 z1 y ■ Figure 2.3 Notation for pressure variax tion in a fluid at rest with a free surface. 2.3 pA = 0 A = 1 in.2 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 45 shows that in an incompressible fluid at rest the pressure varies linearly with depth. The pressure must increase with depth to “hold up” the fluid above it. It can also be observed from Eq. 2.6 that the pressure difference between two points can be specified by the distance h since 23.1 ft h ᐃ = 10 lb p1  p2 g In this case h is called the pressure head and is interpreted as the height of a column of fluid of specific weight g required to give a pressure difference p1  p2. For example, a pressure difference of 10 psi can be specified in terms of pressure head as 23.1 ft of water 1g  62.4 lbft3 2, or 518 mm of Hg 1g  133 kNm3 2. As illustrated by the figure in the margin, a 23.1-ft-tall column of water with a cross-sectional area of 1 in.2 weighs 10 lb. Water pA = 10 lb F l u i d s i n Giraffe’s blood pressure A giraffe’s long neck allows it to graze up to 6 m above the ground. It can also lower its head to drink at ground level. Thus, in the circulatory system there is a significant hydrostatic pressure effect due to this elevation change. To maintain blood to its head throughout this change in elevation, the giraffe must maintain a relatively high blood pressure at heart level—approximately two and a half times that in humans. To prevent rupture of blood vessels in the high-pressure lower leg t h e N e w s regions, giraffes have a tight sheath of thick skin over their lower limbs that acts like an elastic bandage in exactly the same way as do the g-suits of fighter pilots. In addition, valves in the upper neck prevent backflow into the head when the giraffe lowers its head to ground level. It is also thought that blood vessels in the giraffe’s kidney have a special mechanism to prevent large changes in filtration rate when blood pressure increases or decreases with its head movement. (See Problem 2.17.) When one works with liquids there is often a free surface, as is illustrated in Fig. 2.3, and it is convenient to use this surface as a reference plane. The reference pressure p0 would correspond to the pressure acting on the free surface 1which would frequently be atmospheric pressure2, and thus if we let p2  p0 in Eq. 2.7 it follows that the pressure p at any depth h below the free surface is given by the equation: p  gh  p0 (2.8) As is demonstrated by Eq. 2.7 or 2.8, the pressure in a homogeneous, incompressible fluid at rest depends on the depth of the fluid relative to some reference plane, and it is not influenced by the size or shape of the tank or container in which the fluid is held. Thus, in Fig. 2.4 Liquid surface (p = p0) h B A ■ Figure 2.4 Fluid pressure in Specific weight γ containers of arbitrary shape. 46 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics the pressure is the same at all points along the line AB, even though the containers have very irregular shapes. The actual value of the pressure along AB depends only on the depth, h, the surface pressure, p0, and the specific weight, g, of the liquid in the container. E XAMPLE 2.1 Pressure–Depth Relationship GIVEN Because of a leak in a buried gasoline storage tank, Open water has seeped in to the depth shown in Fig. E2.1. The specific gravity of the gasoline is SG  0.68. FIND Determine the pressure at the gasoline–water interface and at the bottom of the tank. Express the pressure in units of lbft2, lb in.2, and as a pressure head in feet of water. 17 ft Gasoline (1) Water (2) SOLUTION 3 ft ■ Figure E2.1 Since we are dealing with liquids at rest, the pressure distribution will be hydrostatic, and therefore the pressure variation can be found from the equation: p  gh  p0 With p0 corresponding to the pressure at the free surface of the gasoline, then the pressure at the interface is p2  gH2O hH2O  p1 p1  SGgH2O h  p0  10.682162.4 lbft3 2117 ft2  p0  721  p0 1lbft2 2  162.4 lb ft3 213 ft2  721 lbft2  908 lbft2 If we measure the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure 1gage pressure2, it follows that p0  0, and therefore p1  721 lbft2 p1  721 lb ft2  5.01 lb in.2 144 in.2ft2 p1 721 lbft   11.6 ft gH2O 62.4 lb ft3 (Ans) p2  908 lb ft2  6.31 lbin.2 144 in.2 ft2 p2 908 lbft2   14.6 ft gH2O 62.4 lbft3 (Ans) (Ans) (Ans) (Ans) COMMENT Observe that if we wish to express these pres- (Ans) sures in terms of absolute pressure, we would have to add the local atmospheric pressure 1in appropriate units2 to the previous results. A further discussion of gage and absolute pressure is given in Section 2.5. 2 The transmission of pressure throughout a stationary fluid is the principle upon which many hydraulic devices are based. It is noted that a rectangular column of water 11.6 ft tall and 1 ft2 in cross section weighs 721 lb. A similar column with a 1-in.2 cross section weighs 5.01 lb. We can now apply the same relationship to determine the pressure at the tank bottom; that is, The required equality of pressures at equal elevations throughout a system is important for the operation of hydraulic jacks (see Fig. 2.5a), lifts, and presses, as well as hydraulic controls on aircraft and other types of heavy machinery. The fundamental idea behind such devices and systems is demonstrated in Fig. 2.5b. A piston located at one end of a closed system filled with a liquid, such as oil, can be used to change the pressure throughout the system, and thus transmit an applied force F1 to a second piston where the resulting force is F2. Since the pressure p acting on the faces of both pistons is the same 1the effect of elevation changes is usually negligible for this type of hydraulic device2, it follows that F2  1A2 A1 2F1. The piston area A2 can be made much larger than A1 and therefore a large mechanical advantage can be developed; that is, a small force applied at the smaller piston can be used to develop a large force at the larger piston. The applied force could be created manually through some type of mechanical device, such as a hydraulic jack, or through compressed air acting directly on the surface of the liquid, as is done in hydraulic lifts commonly found in service stations. 2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 47 A2 F2 = pA2 F1 = pA1 A2 A1 A1 (b) (a) ■ Figure 2.5 (a) Hydraulic jack, (b) Transmission of fluid pressure. 2.3.2 Compressible Fluid We normally think of gases such as air, oxygen, and nitrogen as being compressible fluids because the density of the gas can change significantly with changes in pressure and temperature. Thus, although Eq. 2.4 applies at a point in a gas, it is necessary to consider the possible variation in g before the equation can be integrated. However, as was discussed in Chapter 1, the specific weights of common gases are small when compared with those of liquids. For example, the specific weight of air at sea level and 60 °F is 0.0763 lb ft3, whereas the specific weight of water under the same conditions is 62.4 lb ft3. Since the specific weights of gases are comparatively small, it follows from Eq. 2.4 that the pressure gradient in the vertical direction is correspondingly small, and even over distances of several hundred feet the pressure will remain essentially constant for a gas. This means we can neglect the effect of elevation changes on the pressure for stationary gases in tanks, pipes, and so forth in which the distances involved are small. For those situations in which the variations in heights are large, on the order of thousands of feet, attention must be given to the variation in the specific weight. As is described in Chapter 1, the equation of state for an ideal 1or perfect2 gas is r If the specific weight of a fluid varies significantly as we move from point to point, the pressure will no longer vary linearly with depth. p RT where p is the absolute pressure, R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. This relationship can be combined with Eq. 2.4 to give gp dp  dz RT and by separating variables 冮 p2 p1 dp p2 g  ln   p p1 R 冮 z2 z1 dz T (2.9) where g and R are assumed to be constant over the elevation change from z1 to z2. Although the acceleration of gravity, g, does vary with elevation, the variation is very small 1see Tables C.1 and C.2 in Appendix C2, and g is usually assumed constant at some average value for the range of elevation involved. 48 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics 1 Before completing the integration, one must specify the nature of the variation of temperature with elevation. For example, if we assume that the temperature has a constant value T0 over the range z1 to z2 1isothermal conditions2, it then follows from Eq. 2.9 that p2 / p1 Isothermal 0.8 0.6 p2  p1 exp c  Incompressible 0 5000 10,000 z2 – z1, ft E XAMPLE g1z2  z1 2 RT0 d (2.10) This equation provides the desired pressure–elevation relationship for an isothermal layer. As shown in the margin figure, even for a 10,000-ft altitude change, the difference between the constant temperature 1isothermal2 and the constant density 1incompressible2 results is relatively minor. For nonisothermal conditions a similar procedure can be followed if the temperature–elevation relationship is known, as is discussed in the following section. 2.2 Incompressible and Isothermal Pressure–Depth Variations GIVEN In 2010, the world’s tallest building, the Burj Khalifa skyscraper, was completed and opened in the United Arab Emirates. The final height of the building, which had remained a secret until completion, is 2717 ft (828 m). FIND (a) Estimate the ratio of the pressure at the 2717-ft top of the building to the pressure at its base, assuming the air to be at a common temperature of 59 °F. (b) Compare the pressure calculated in part (a) with that obtained by assuming the air to be incompressible with g  0.0765 lbft3 at 14.7 psi 1abs2 1values for air at standard sea level conditions2. SOLUTION (a) For the assumed isothermal conditions, and treating air as a compressible fluid, Eq. 2.10 can be applied to yield g1z2  z1 2 p2  exp c  d p1 RT0  exp e   0.906 132.2 fts2 212717 ft2 f 11716 ft # lbslug # °R2 3 159  4602°R 4 (Ans) (b) If the air is treated as an incompressible fluid we can apply Eq. 2.5. In this case ■ Figure E2.2 (Figure courtesy of Emaar Properties, Dubai, UAE.) p2  p1  g1z2  z1 2 or g1z2  z1 2 p2 1 p1 p1 10.0765 lbft3 2 12717 ft2 1  0.902 114.7 lbin.2 21144 in.2 ft2 2 (Ans) COMMENTS Note that there is little difference between the two results. Since the pressure difference between the bottom and top of the building is small, it follows that the variation in fluid density is small and, therefore, the compressible fluid and incompressible fluid analyses yield essentially the same result. We see that for both calculations the pressure decreases by approximately 10% as we go from ground level to the top of this tallest building. It does not require a very large pressure difference to support a 2717-ft-tall column of fluid as light as air. This result supports the earlier statement that the changes in pressures in air and other gases due to elevation changes are very small, even for distances of hundreds of feet. Thus, the pressure differences between the top and bottom of a horizontal pipe carrying a gas, or in a gas storage tank, are negligible since the distances involved are very small. 2.4 2.4 49 Standard Atmosphere The standard atmosphere is an idealized representation of mean conditions in the earth’s atmosphere. 300 Space shuttle 150 An important application of Eq. 2.9 relates to the variation in pressure in the earth’s atmosphere. Ideally, we would like to have measurements of pressure versus altitude over the specific range for the specific conditions 1temperature, reference pressure2 for which the pressure is to be determined. However, this type of information is usually not available. Thus, a “standard atmosphere” has been determined that can be used in the design of aircraft, missiles, and spacecraft and in comparing their performance under standard conditions. The concept of a standard atmosphere was first developed in the 1920s, and since that time many national and international committees and organizations have pursued the development of such a standard. The currently accepted standard atmosphere is based on a report published in 1962 and updated in 1976 1see Refs. 1 and 22, defining the so-called U.S. standard atmosphere, which is an idealized representation of middle-latitude, year-round mean conditions of the earth’s atmosphere. Several important properties for standard atmospheric conditions at sea level are listed in Table 2.1, and Fig. 2.6 shows the temperature profile for the U.S. standard atmosphere. As is shown in this figure, the temperature decreases with altitude in the region nearest the earth’s surface 1troposphere2, then becomes essentially constant in the next layer 1stratosphere2, and subsequently starts to increase in the next layer. Typical events that occur in the atmosphere are shown in the figure in the margin. Since the temperature variation is represented by a series of linear segments, it is possible to integrate Eq. 2.9 to obtain the corresponding pressure variation. For example, in the troposphere, which extends to an altitude of about 11 km 1苲36,000 ft2, the temperature variation is of the form T  Ta  bz Aurora Meteor 50 Property SI Units BG Units Temperature, T Pressure, p 288.15 K 115 °C2 101.33 kPa 1abs2 Density, r Specific weight, g Viscosity, m 1.225 kgm3 12.014 Nm3 1.789  105 N # sm2 518.67 °R 159.00 °F2 2116.2 lbft2 1abs2 314.696 lbin.2 1abs2 4 0.002377 slugsft3 0.07647 lb ft3 3.737  107 lb # sft2 Ozone layer Mt. Everest *Acceleration of gravity at sea level  9.807 ms2  32.174 ft s2. -2.5 °C 0 50 47.3 km (p = 0.1 kPa) -44.5 °C Thunder storm Commercial jet (2.11) Table 2.1 Properties of U.S. Standard Atmosphere at Sea Level* 40 32.2 km (p = 0.9 kPa) 30 20 Stratosphere -56.5 °C 100 Altitude z, km Altitude z, km Standard Atmosphere 10 20.1 km (p = 5.5 kPa) 11.0 km (p = 22.6 kPa) p = 101.3 kPa (abs) 15 °C Troposphere 0 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 Temperature T, °C 0 +20 ■ Figure 2.6 Variation of temperature with altitude in the U.S. standard atmosphere. 50 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics where Ta is the temperature at sea level 1z ⫽ 02 and b is the lapse rate 1the rate of change of temperature with elevation2. For the standard atmosphere in the troposphere, b ⫽ 0.00650 KⲐm or 0.00357 °RⲐft. Equation 2.11 used with Eq. 2.9 yields p ⫽ pa a1 ⫺ bz gⲐRb b Ta (2.12) where pa is the absolute pressure at z ⫽ 0. With pa, Ta, and g obtained from Table 2.1, and with the gas constant R ⫽ 286.9 JⲐkg # K or 1716 ft # lbⲐslug # °R, the pressure variation throughout the troposphere can be determined from Eq. 2.12. This calculation shows that at the outer edge of the troposphere, where the temperature is ⫺56.5 °C 1⫺69.7 °F2, the absolute pressure is about 23 kPa 13.3 psia2. It is to be noted that modern jetliners cruise at approximately this altitude. Pressures at other altitudes are shown in Fig. 2.6, and tabulated values for temperature, acceleration of gravity, pressure, density, and viscosity for the U.S. standard atmosphere are given in Tables C.1 and C.2 in Appendix C. Measurement of Pressure Pressure is designated as either absolute pressure or gage pressure. Since pressure is a very important characteristic of a fluid field, it is not surprising that numerous devices and techniques are used in its measurement. As is noted briefly in Chapter 1, the pressure at a point within a fluid mass will be designated as either an absolute pressure or a gage pressure. Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum 1absolute zero pressure2, whereas gage pressure is measured relative to the local atmospheric pressure. Thus, a gage pressure of zero corresponds to a pressure that is equal to the local atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressures are always positive, but gage pressures can be either positive or negative depending on whether the pressure is above atmospheric pressure 1a positive value2 or below atmospheric pressure 1a negative value2. A negative gage pressure is also referred to as a suction or vacuum pressure. For example, 10 psi 1abs2 could be expressed as ⫺4.7 psi 1gage2, if the local atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psi, or alternatively 4.7 psi suction or 4.7 psi vacuum. The concept of gage and absolute pressure is illustrated graphically in Fig. 2.7 for two typical pressures located at points 1 and 2. In addition to the reference used for the pressure measurement, the units used to express the value are obviously of importance. As is described in Section 1.5, pressure is a force per unit area, and the units in the BG system are lbⲐft2 or lbⲐin.2, commonly abbreviated psf or psi, respectively. In the SI system the units are NⲐm2; this combination is called the pascal and written as Pa 11 NⲐm2 ⫽ 1 Pa2. As noted earlier, pressure can also be expressed as the height of a column of liquid. Then the units will refer to the height of the column 1in., ft, mm, m, etc.2, and in addition, the liquid in the column must be specified 1H2O, Hg, etc.2. For example, standard atmospheric pressure can be expressed as 760 mm Hg 1abs2. In this text, pressures will be assumed to be gage pressures unless specifically designated absolute. For example, 10 psi or 100 kPa would be gage pressures, whereas 10 psia or 100 kPa 1abs2 would refer to absolute pressures. It is to be 1 Gage pressure @ 1 Pressure 2.5 Local atmospheric pressure reference 2 Absolute pressure @1 Gage pressure @ 2 (suction or vacuum) Absolute pressure @2 ■ Figure 2.7 Graphical representation Absolute zero reference of gage and absolute pressure. 2.5 51 Measurement of Pressure pvapor A h patm B Mercury Water ■ Figure 2.8 Mercury barometer. noted that pressure differences are independent of the reference, so that no special notation is required in this case. The measurement of atmospheric pressure is usually accomplished with a mercury barometer, which in its simplest form consists of a glass tube closed at one end with the open end immersed in a container of mercury as shown in Fig. 2.8. The tube is initially filled with mercury 1inverted with its open end up2 and then turned upside down 1open end down2, with the open end in the container of mercury. The column of mercury will come to an equilibrium position where its weight plus the force due to the vapor pressure 1which develops in the space above the column2 balances the force due to the atmospheric pressure. Thus, patm  gh  pvapor (2.13) where g is the specific weight of mercury. For most practical purposes the contribution of the vapor pressure can be neglected since it is very small [for mercury, the fluid most commonly used in barometers, pvapor  0.000023 lbin.2 1abs2 at a temperature of 68 °F], so that patm ⬇ gh. It is conventional to specify atmospheric pressure in terms of the height, h, in millimeters or inches of mercury. Note that if water were used instead of mercury, the height of the column would have to be approximately 34 ft rather than 29.9 in. of mercury for an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia! This is shown to scale in the figure in the margin. The concept of the mercury barometer is an old one, with the invention of this device attributed to Evangelista Torricelli in about 1644. Mercury E XAMPLE 2.3 Barometric Pressure GIVEN A mountain lake has an average temperature of 10 °C and a maximum depth of 40 m. The barometric pressure is 598 mm Hg. FIND Determine the absolute pressure 1in pascals2 at the deepest part of the lake. SOLUTION The pressure in the lake at any depth, h, is given by the equation p  gh  p0 where p0 is the pressure at the surface. Since we want the absolute pressure, p0 will be the local barometric pressure expressed in a consistent system of units; that is pbarometric  598 mm  0.598 m gHg and for gHg  133 kNm3 p0  10.598 m2 1133 kNm3 2  79.5 kNm2 From Table B.2, gH2 O  9.804 kNm3 at 10 °C and therefore p  19.804 kNm3 2140 m2  79.5 kNm2  392 kNm2  79.5 kNm2  472 kPa 1abs2 (Ans) COMMENT This simple example illustrates the need for close attention to the units used in the calculation of pressure; that is, be sure to use a consistent unit system, and be careful not to add a pressure head 1m2 to a pressure 1Pa2. 52 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics F l u i d s i n Weather, barometers, and bars One of the most important indicators of weather conditions is atmospheric pressure. In general, a falling or low pressure indicates bad weather; rising or high pressure, good weather. During the evening TV weather report in the United States, atmospheric pressure is given as so many inches (commonly around 30 in.). This value is actually the height of the mercury column in a mercury barometer adjusted to sea level. To determine the true atmospheric pressure at a particular location, the elevation relative to sea level must be known. Another unit used by meteorologists to indicate atmospheric pressure is the bar, first used in 2.6 t h e N e w s weather reporting in 1914 and defined as 105 N m2. The definition of a bar is probably related to the fact that standard sealevel pressure is 1.0133  105 Nm2, that is, only slightly larger than one bar. For typical weather patterns, “sea-level equivalent” atmospheric pressure remains close to one bar. However, for extreme weather conditions associated with tornadoes, hurricanes, or typhoons, dramatic changes can occur. The lowest atmospheric sea-level pressure ever recorded was associated with a typhoon, Typhoon Tip, in the Pacific Ocean on October 12, 1979. The value was 0.870 bar (25.8 in. Hg). (See Problem 2.24.) Manometry Manometers use vertical or inclined liquid columns to measure pressure. A standard technique for measuring pressure involves the use of liquid columns in vertical or inclined tubes. Pressure-measuring devices based on this technique are called manometers. The mercury barometer is an example of one type of manometer, but there are many other configurations possible depending on the particular application. Three common types of manometers include the piezometer tube, the U-tube manometer, and the inclined-tube manometer. 2.6.1 Piezometer Tube Tube open at top Column of mercury The simplest type of manometer consists of a vertical tube, open at the top, and attached to the container in which the pressure is desired, as illustrated in Fig. 2.9. The figure in the margin shows an important device whose operation is based on this principle. It is a sphygmomanometer, the traditional instrument used to measure blood pressure. Since manometers involve columns of fluids at rest, the fundamental equation describing their use is Eq. 2.8 Container of mercury p  gh  p0 Arm cuff which gives the pressure at any elevation within a homogeneous fluid in terms of a reference pressure p0 and the vertical distance h between p and p0. Remember that in a fluid at rest pressure will increase as we move downward and will decrease as we move upward. Application of this equation to the piezometer tube of Fig. 2.9 indicates that the pressure pA can be determined by a measurement of h1 through the relationship pA  g1h1 where g1 is the specific weight of the liquid in the container. Note that since the tube is open at the top, the pressure p0 can be set equal to zero 1we are now using gage pressure2, with the height Open γ1 A h1 (1) ■ Figure 2.9 Piezometer tube. 2.6 Manometry 53 Open γ1 A (1) h2 h1 (2) (3) γ2 (gage fluid) ■ Figure 2.10 Simple U-tube manometer. h1 measured from the meniscus at the upper surface to point 112. Since point 112 and point A within the container are at the same elevation, pA  p1. Although the piezometer tube is a very simple and accurate pressure-measuring device, it has several disadvantages. It is suitable only if the pressure in the container is greater than atmospheric pressure 1otherwise air would be sucked into the system2, and the pressure to be measured must be relatively small so the required height of the column is reasonable. Also the fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be measured must be a liquid rather than a gas. 2.6.2 U-Tube Manometer The contribution of gas columns in manometers is usually negligible since the weight of the gas is so small. V2.3 Blood pressure measurement To overcome the difficulties noted previously, another type of manometer which is widely used consists of a tube formed into the shape of a U, as is shown in Fig. 2.10. The fluid in the manometer is called the gage fluid. To find the pressure pA in terms of the various column heights, we start at one end of the system and work our way around to the other end, simply utilizing Eq. 2.8. Thus, for the U-tube manometer shown in Fig. 2.10, we will start at point A and work around to the open end. The pressure at points A and 112 are the same, and as we move from point 112 to 122 the pressure will increase by g1h1. The pressure at point 122 is equal to the pressure at point 132, since the pressures at equal elevations in a continuous mass of fluid at rest must be the same. Note that we could not simply “jump across” from point 112 to a point at the same elevation in the right-hand tube since these would not be points within the same continuous mass of fluid. With the pressure at point 132 specified, we now move to the open end where the pressure is zero. As we move vertically upward the pressure decreases by an amount g2h2. In equation form these various steps can be expressed as pA  g1h1  g2h2  0 and, therefore, the pressure pA can be written in terms of the column heights as pA  g2h2  g1h1 (2.14) A major advantage of the U-tube manometer lies in the fact that the gage fluid can be different from the fluid in the container in which the pressure is to be determined. For example, the fluid in A in Fig. 2.10 can be either a liquid or a gas. If A does contain a gas, the contribution of the gas column, g1h1, is almost always negligible so that pA ⬇ p2 , and in this instance Eq. 2.14 becomes pA  g2h2 Thus, for a given pressure the height, h2, is governed by the specific weight, g2, of the gage fluid used in the manometer. If the pressure pA is large, then a heavy gage fluid, such as mercury, can be used and a reasonable column height 1not too long2 can still be maintained. Alternatively, if the pressure pA is small, a lighter gage fluid, such as water, can be used so that a relatively large column height 1which is easily read2 can be achieved. 54 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics E XAMPLE 2.4 Simple U-Tube Manometer GIVEN A closed tank contains compressed air and oil Pressure gage 1SGoil  0.902 as is shown in Fig. E2.4. A U-tube manometer using mercury 1SGHg  13.62 is connected to the tank as shown. The column heights are h1  36 in., h2  6 in., and h3  9 in. Air FIND Determine the pressure reading 1in psi2 of the gage. Open h1 Oil SOLUTION h3 Following the general procedure of starting at one end of the manometer system and working around to the other, we will start at the air–oil interface in the tank and proceed to the open end where the pressure is zero. The pressure at level 112 is h2 (1) Hg p1  pair  goil 1h1  h2 2 ■ Figure E2.4 This pressure is equal to the pressure at level 122, since these two points are at the same elevation in a homogeneous fluid at rest. As we move from level 122 to the open end, the pressure must decrease by gHgh3, and at the open end the pressure is zero. Thus, the manometer equation can be expressed as Since the specific weight of the air above the oil is much smaller than the specific weight of the oil, the gage should read the pressure we have calculated; that is, pair  goil 1h1  h2 2  gHgh3  0 pgage  or pair  1SGoil 21gH2O 2 1h1  h2 2  1SGHg 21gH2O 2 h3  0 440 lb ft2  3.06 psi 144 in.2ft2 (Ans) COMMENTS Note that the air pressure is a function of the height of the mercury in the manometer and the depth of the oil (both in the tank and in the tube). It is not just the mercury in the manometer that is important. Assume that the gage pressure remains at 3.06 psi, but the manometer is altered so that it contains only oil. That is, the mercury is replaced by oil. A simple calculation shows that in this case the vertical oil-filled tube would need to be h3  11.3 ft tall, rather than the original h3  9 in. There is an obvious advantage of using a heavy fluid such as mercury in manometers. For the values given 36  6 ftb 12 9  113.62 162.4 lbft3 2 a ftb 12 pair  10.92 162.4 lbft3 2 a so that pair  440 lbft2 Manometers are often used to measure the difference in pressure between two points. (2) The U-tube manometer is also widely used to measure the difference in pressure between two containers or two points in a given system. Consider a manometer connected between containers A and B as is shown in Fig. 2.11. The difference in pressure between A and B can be found B (5) h3 γ3 (4) γ1 γ2 A (1) h2 h1 (2) (3) ■ Figure 2.11 Differential U-tube manometer. 2.6 Manometry 55 by again starting at one end of the system and working around to the other end. For example, at A the pressure is pA, which is equal to p1, and as we move to point 122 the pressure increases by g1h1. The pressure at p2 is equal to p3, and as we move upward to point 142 the pressure decreases by g2h2. Similarly, as we continue to move upward from point 142 to 152 the pressure decreases by g3h3. Finally, p5  pB, since they are at equal elevations. Thus, γ1h1 γ2h2 pA  g1h1  g2h2  g3h3  pB pA Or, as indicated in the figure in the margin, we could start at B and work our way around to A to obtain the same result. In either case, the pressure difference is pA  pB  g2h2  g3h3  g1h1 When the time comes to substitute in numbers, be sure to use a consistent system of units! Capillarity due to surface tension at the various fluid interfaces in the manometer is usually not considered, since for a simple U-tube with a meniscus in each leg, the capillary effects cancel 1assuming the surface tensions and tube diameters are the same at each meniscus2, or we can make the capillary rise negligible by using relatively large bore tubes 1with diameters of about 0.5 in. or larger; see Section 1.92. Two common gage fluids are water and mercury. Both give a well-defined meniscus 1a very important characteristic for a gage fluid2 and have wellknown properties. Of course, the gage fluid must be immiscible with respect to the other fluids in contact with it. For highly accurate measurements, special attention should be given to temperature since the various specific weights of the fluids in the manometer will vary with temperature. pA − pB γ3h3 pB E XAMPLE 2.5 U-Tube Manometer GIVEN As will be discussed in Chapter 3, the volume rate of flow, Q, through a pipe can be determined by means of a flow nozzle located in the pipe as illustrated in Fig. E2.5a. The nozzle creates a pressure drop, pA  pB, along the pipe that is related to the flow through the equation Q  K 1pA  pB, where K is a constant depending on the pipe and nozzle size. The pressure drop is frequently measured with a differential U-tube manometer of the type illustrated. FIND 1a2 Determine an equation for pA  pB in terms of the specific weight of the flowing fluid, g1, the specific weight of the gage fluid, g2, and the various heights indicated. 1b2 For g1  9.80 kN m3, g2  15.6 kN m3, h1  1.0 m, and h2  0.5 m, what is the value of the pressure drop, pA  pB? γ1 (4) (5) (3) γ1 h2 (1) SOLUTION (2) h1 (a) Although the fluid in the pipe is moving, the fluids in the columns of the manometer are at rest so that the pressure variation in the manometer tubes is hydrostatic. If we start at point A and move vertically upward to level 112, the pressure will decrease by g1h1 and will be equal to the pressure at 122 and at 132. We can now move from 132 to 142 where the pressure has been further reduced by g2h2. The pressures at levels 142 and 152 are equal, and as we move from 152 to B the pressure will increase by g1 1h1  h2 2. Thus, in equation form pA  g1h1  g2h2  g1 1h1  h2 2  pB (Ans) COMMENT It is to be noted that the only column height of importance is the differential reading, h2. The differential A B Flow nozzle ■ Figure E2.5a manometer could be placed 0.5 or 5.0 m above the pipe (h1  0.5 m or h1  5.0 m), and the value of h2 would remain the same. (b) or pA  pB  h2 1g2  g1 2 Flow γ2 The specific value of the pressure drop for the data given is pA  pB  10.5 m2115.6 kNm3  9.80 kNm3 2 (Ans)  2.90 kPa COMMENT By repeating the calculations for manometer fluids with different specific weights, ␥2, the results shown in Fig. E2.5b are obtained. Note that relatively small pressure 56 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics 3 differences can be measured if the manometer fluid has nearly the same specific weight as the flowing fluid. It is the difference in the specific weights, ␥2  ␥1, that is important. Hence, by rewriting the answer as h2  1pA  pB 2  1g2  g1 2 it is seen that even if the value of pA  pB is small, the value of h2 can be large enough to provide an accurate reading provided the value of g2  g1 is also small. pA – pB, kPa (15.6 kN/m3, 2.90 kPa) 2 1 ␥2 = ␥1 0 8 10 12 ␥2, kN/m3 14 16 ■ Figure E2.5b 2.6.3 Inclined-Tube Manometer To measure small pressure changes, a manometer of the type shown in Fig. 2.12 is frequently used. One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle u, and the differential reading /2 is measured along the inclined tube. The difference in pressure pA  pB can be expressed as pA  g1h1  g2/2 sin u  g3 h3  pB or Inclined-tube manometers can be used to measure small pressure differences accurately. pA  pB  g2/2 sin u  g3 h3  g1h1 (2.15) where it is to be noted the pressure difference between points 112 and 122 is due to the vertical distance between the points, which can be expressed as /2 sin u. Thus, for relatively small angles the differential reading along the inclined tube can be made large even for small pressure differences. The inclined-tube manometer is often used to measure small differences in gas pressures so that if pipes A and B contain a gas, then pA  pB  g2/2 sin u or ᐉ2 ~ 1 sinθ ᐉ2 0 30 60 θ, deg /2  90 pA  pB g2 sin u (2.16) where the contributions of the gas columns h1 and h3 have been neglected. Equation 2.16 and the figure in the margin show that the differential reading /2 1for a given pressure difference2 of the inclined-tube manometer can be increased over that obtained with a conventional U-tube manometer by the factor 1sin u. Recall that sin u S 0 as u S 0. γ3 B γ1 h3 A (2) γ2 h1 ᐉ2 (1) θ ■ Figure 2.12 Inclined-tube manometer. 2.7 2.7 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure-Measuring Devices 57 Mechanical and Electronic Pressure-Measuring Devices A Bourdon tube pressure gage uses a hollow, elastic, and curved tube to measure pressure. V2.4 Bourdon gage Although manometers are widely used, they are not well suited for measuring very high pressures or pressures that are changing rapidly with time. In addition, they require the measurement of one or more column heights, which, although not particularly difficult, can be time consuming. To overcome some of these problems numerous other types of pressure-measuring instruments have been developed. Most of these make use of the idea that when a pressure acts on an elastic structure the structure will deform, and this deformation can be related to the magnitude of the pressure. Probably the most familiar device of this kind is the Bourdon pressure gage, which is shown in Fig. 2.13a. The essential mechanical element in this gage is the hollow, elastic curved tube 1Bourdon tube2 which is connected to the pressure source as shown in Fig. 2.13b. As the pressure within the tube increases the tube tends to straighten, and although the deformation is small, it can be translated into the motion of a pointer on a dial as illustrated. Since it is the difference in pressure between the outside of the tube 1atmospheric pressure2 and the inside of the tube that causes the movement of the tube, the indicated pressure is gage pressure. The Bourdon gage must be calibrated so that the dial reading can directly indicate the pressure in suitable units such as psi, psf, or pascals. A zero reading on the gage indicates that the measured pressure is equal to the local atmospheric pressure. This type of gage can be used to measure a negative gage pressure 1vacuum2 as well as positive pressures. The aneroid barometer is another type of mechanical gage that is used for measuring atmospheric pressure. Since atmospheric pressure is specified as an absolute pressure, the conventional Bourdon gage is not suitable for this measurement. The common aneroid barometer contains a hollow, closed, elastic element that is evacuated so that the pressure inside the element is near absolute zero. As the external atmospheric pressure changes, the element deflects, and this motion can be translated into the movement of an attached dial. As with the Bourdon gage, the dial can be calibrated to give atmospheric pressure directly, with the usual units being millimeters or inches of mercury. For many applications in which pressure measurements are required, the pressure must be measured with a device that converts the pressure into an electrical output. For example, it may be desirable to continuously monitor a pressure that is changing with time. This type of pressuremeasuring device is called a pressure transducer, and many different designs are used. One possible type of transducer is one in which a Bourdon tube is connected to a linear variable differential transformer 1LVDT2, as is illustrated in Fig. 2.14. The core of the LVDT is connected to the free end of the Bourdon tube so that as a pressure is applied the resulting motion of the end of the tube moves the core through the coil and an output voltage develops. This voltage is a linear function of the pressure and could be recorded on an oscillograph or digitized for storage or processing on a computer. (a) (b) ■ Figure 2.13 (a) Liquid-filled Bourdon pressure gages for various pressure ranges. (b) Internal elements of Bourdon gages. The “C-shaped” Bourdon tube is shown on the left, and the “coiled spring” Bourdon tube for high pressures of 1000 psi and above is shown on the right. (Photographs courtesy of Weiss Instruments, Inc.) 58 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics Bourdon C-tube Output LVDT Core Mounting block Pressure line ■ Figure 2.14 Pressure transducer that combines a linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) with a Bourdon gage. (From Ref. 4, used by permission.) Input Spring F l u i d s i n Tire pressure warning Proper tire inflation on vehicles is important for more than ensuring long tread life. It is critical in preventing accidents such as rollover accidents caused by underinflation of tires. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration is developing a regulation regarding four-tire tire-pressure monitoring systems that can warn a driver when a tire is more than 25% underinflated. Some of these devices are currently in operation on select vehicles; it is expected that they will soon be required on all vehicles. A typical tire-pressure monitoring It is relatively complicated to make accurate pressure transducers for the measurement of pressures that vary rapidly with time. t h e N e w s system fits within the tire and contains a pressure transducer (usually either a piezo-resistive or a capacitive-type transducer) and a transmitter that sends the information to an electronic control unit within the vehicle. Information about tire pressure and a warning when the tire is underinflated is displayed on the instrument panel. The environment (hot, cold, vibration) in which these devices must operate, their small size, and required low cost provide challenging constraints for the design engineer. One disadvantage of a pressure transducer using a Bourdon tube as the elastic sensing element is that it is limited to the measurement of pressures that are static or only changing slowly 1quasistatic2. Because of the relatively large mass of the Bourdon tube, it cannot respond to rapid changes in pressure. To overcome this difficulty, a different type of transducer is used in which the sensing element is a thin, elastic diaphragm that is in contact with the fluid. As the pressure changes, the diaphragm deflects, and this deflection can be sensed and converted into an electrical voltage. One way to accomplish this is to locate strain gages either on the surface of the diaphragm not in contact with the fluid, or on an element attached to the diaphragm. These gages can accurately sense the small strains induced in the diaphragm and provide an output voltage proportional to pressure. This type of transducer is capable of measuring accurately both small and large pressures, as well as both static and dynamic pressures. For example, strain-gage pressure transducers of the type shown in Fig. 2.15 are used to measure arterial blood pressure, which is a relatively small pressure that varies periodically with a fundamental frequency of about 1 Hz. The transducer is usually connected to the blood vessel by means of a liquid-filled, small-diameter tube called a pressure catheter. Although the strain-gage type of transducer can be designed to have very good frequency response 1up to approximately 10 kHz2, they become less sensitive at the higher frequencies since the diaphragm must be made stiffer to achieve the higher frequency response. As an alternative, the diaphragm can be constructed of a piezoelectric crystal to be used as both the elastic element and the sensor. When a pressure is applied to the crystal, a voltage develops because of the deformation of the crystal. This voltage is directly related to the applied pressure. Depending on the design, this type of transducer can be used to measure both very low and high pressures 1up to approximately 100,000 psi2 at high frequencies. Additional information on pressure transducers can be found in Refs. 3, 4, and 5. 2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 59 (a) Case Diaphragm stop Electrical connections Armature Diaphragm Link pin Beam (strain gages deposited on beam) (b) ■ Figure 2.15 (a) Photograph of a typical pressure transducer with a male thread fitting in front of the diaphragm for system connection and an electrical connector in the rear of the device. (b) Schematic diagram of a typical pressure transducer device (male thread connector not shown). Deflection of the diaphragm due to pressure is measured with a silicon beam on which strain gages and an associated bridge circuit have been deposited. 2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface V2.5 Hoover dam When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces develop on the surface due to the fluid. The determination of these forces is important in the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and other hydraulic structures. For fluids at rest we know that the force must be perpendicular to the surface since there are no shearing stresses present. We also know that the pressure will vary linearly with depth as shown in Fig. 2.16 if the fluid is incompressible. For a horizontal surface, such as the bottom of a liquidfilled tank 1Fig. 2.16a2, the magnitude of the resultant force is simply FR ⫽ pA, where p is the uniform pressure on the bottom and A is the area of the bottom. For the open tank shown, p ⫽ gh. Note that if atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the bottom, as is illustrated, the resultant force on the bottom is simply due to the liquid in the tank. Since the pressure is constant and uniformly distributed over the bottom, the resultant force acts through the centroid of the area as shown in Fig. 2.16a. As shown in Fig. 2.16b, the pressure on the ends of the tank is not uniformly distributed. Determination of the resultant force for situations such as this is presented as follows. 60 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics Free surface p=0 Free surface p=0 Specific weight = γ h Specific weight = γ p = γh FR p = γh p=0 p=0 (a) Pressure on tank bottom (b) Pressure on tank ends ■ Figure 2.16 (a) Pressure distribution and resultant hydrostatic force on the bottom of an open tank. (b) Pressure distribution on the ends of an open tank. The resultant force of a static fluid on a plane surface is due to the hydrostatic pressure distribution on the surface. For the more general case in which a submerged plane surface is inclined, as is illustrated in Fig. 2.17, the determination of the resultant force acting on the surface is more involved. For the present we will assume that the fluid surface is open to the atmosphere. Let the plane in which the surface lies intersect the free surface at 0 and make an angle u with this surface as in Fig. 2.17. The x–y coordinate system is defined so that 0 is the origin and y  0 (i.e., the x axis) is directed along the surface as shown. The area can have an arbitrary shape as shown. We wish to determine the direction, location, and magnitude of the resultant force acting on one side of this area due to the liquid in contact with the area. At any given depth, h, the force acting on dA 1the differential area of Fig. 2.172 is dF  gh dA and is perpendicular to the surface. Thus, the magnitude of the resultant force can be found by summing these differential forces over the entire surface. In equation form FR  冮 gh dA  冮 gy sin u dA A A Free surface 0 θ h hc y yc yR dF FR x x A c y xc xR CP dA Centroid, c Location of resultant force (center of pressure, CP) ■ Figure 2.17 Notation for hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface of arbitrary shape. 2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface 61 where h  y sin u. For constant g and u FR  g sin u 冮 y dA (2.17) A The integral appearing in Eq. 2.17 is the first moment of the area with respect to the x axis, so we can write 冮 y dA  y A c A where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid of area A measured from the x axis which passes through 0. Equation 2.17 can thus be written as FR  gAyc sin u The magnitude of the resultant fluid force is equal to the pressure acting at the centroid of the area multiplied by the total area. γ hc or more simply as FR  ghc A (2.18) where, as shown by the figure in the margin, hc is the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the area. Note that the magnitude of the force is independent of the angle u. As indicated by the figure in the margin, it depends only on the specific weight of the fluid, the total area, and the depth of the centroid of the area below the surface. In effect, Eq. 2.18 indicates that the magnitude of the resultant force is equal to the pressure at the centroid of the area multiplied by the total area. Since all the differential forces that were summed to obtain FR are perpendicular to the surface, the resultant FR must also be perpendicular to the surface. Although our intuition might suggest that the resultant force should pass through the centroid of the area, this is not actually the case. The y coordinate, yR, of the resultant force can be determined by summation of moments around the x axis. That is, the moment of the resultant force must equal the moment of the distributed pressure force, or FRyR  冮 y dF  冮 g sin u y dA 2 A A and, therefore, since FR  gAyc sin u FR = γhc A c 冮 y dA 2 A yR  A yc A The integral in the numerator is the second moment of the area (moment of inertia), Ix, with respect to an axis formed by the intersection of the plane containing the surface and the free surface 1x axis2. Thus, we can write Ix yR  yc A Use can now be made of the parallel axis theorem to express Ix as Ix  Ixc  Ay2c where Ixc is the second moment of the area with respect to an axis passing through its centroid and parallel to the x axis. Thus, yc FR c Ixc yc A yR  Ixc  yc yc A (2.19) As shown by Eq. 2.19 and the figure in the margin, the resultant force does not pass through the centroid but for nonhorizontal surfaces is always below it, since Ixcyc A 7 0. The x coordinate, xR, for the resultant force can be determined in a similar manner by summing moments about the y axis. Thus, FR xR  冮 g sin u xy dA A 62 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics The resultant fluid force does not pass through the centroid of the area. and, therefore, xR  冮 xy dA A  yc A Ixy yc A where Ixy is the product of inertia with respect to the x and y axes. Again, using the parallel axis theorem,1 we can write xR  Gate c FR FR right left Ixyc yc A  xc (2.20) where Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal coordinate system passing through the centroid of the area and formed by a translation of the x–y coordinate system. If the submerged area is symmetrical with respect to an axis passing through the centroid and parallel to either the x or y axis, the resultant force must lie along the line x  xc, since Ixyc is identically zero in this case. The point through which the resultant force acts is called the center of pressure. It is to be noted from Eqs. 2.19 and 2.20 that as yc increases the center of pressure moves closer to the centroid of the area. Since yc  hc sin u, the distance yc will increase if the depth of submergence, hc, increases, or, for a given depth, the area is rotated so that the angle, u, decreases. Thus, the hydrostatic force on the right-hand side of the gate shown in the margin figure acts closer to the centroid of the gate than the force on the left-hand side. Centroidal coordinates and moments of inertia for some common areas are given in Fig. 2.18. c a –– 2 x a –– 2 y b –– 2 b –– 2 A = ba A = π R2 1 ba3 Ixc = ––– R 12 x c 1 ab3 Iyc = ––– 12 Ixyc = 0 (b) Circle π R2 A = ––––– ab A = ––– d 2 2 Ixc = 0.1098R R x 4R ––– 3π R Iyc = 0.3927R4 ba3 Ixc = –––-– 36 2 Ixyc = –ba –––– (b – 2d) 4 c y 4 Ixyc = 0 y (a) Rectangle π R4 Ixc = Iyc = ––––– 72 a c x y Ixyc = 0 a –– 3 b+d ––––––– 3 b (c) Semicircle (d) Triangle π R2 A = ––––– 4R ––– 3π 4R ––– 3π c 4 Ixc = Iyc = 0.05488R4 x R Ixyc = –0.01647R4 y (e) Quarter circle ■ Figure 2.18 Geometric properties of some common shapes. 1 Recall that the parallel axis theorem for the product of inertia of an area states that the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal set of axes 1x–y coordinate system2 is equal to the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal set of axes parallel to the original set and passing through the centroid of the area, plus the product of the area and the x and y coordinates of the centroid of the area. Thus, Ixy  Ixyc  Axcyc. 2.8 u i d s i n The Three Gorges Dam The Three Gorges Dam being constructed on China’s Yangtze River will contain the world’s largest hydroelectric power plant when in full operation. The dam is of the concrete gravity type, having a length of 2309 m with a height of 185 m. The main elements of the project include the dam, two power plants, and navigation facilities consisting of a ship lock and lift. The power plants will contain 26 Francis-type turbines, each with a capacity of 700 megawatts. The spillway section, which is the center section of the dam, is 483 m long with 23 bottom outlets and 22 surface sluice gates. E XAMPLE t h e N e w s The maximum discharge capacity is 102,500 cu m per second. After more than 10 years of construction, the dam gates were finally closed, and on June 10, 2003, the reservoir had been filled to its interim level of 135 m. Due to the large depth of water at the dam and the huge extent of the storage pool, hydrostatic pressure forces have been a major factor considered by engineers. When filled to its normal pool level of 175 m, the total reservoir storage capacity is 39.3 billion cu m. All of the originally planned components of the project (except for the ship lift) were completed in 2008. (See Problem 2.111.) 2.6 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Circular Surface GIVEN The 4-m-diameter circular gate of Fig. E2.6a is located in the inclined wall of a large reservoir containing water 1g  9.80 kNm3 2. The gate is mounted on a shaft along its horizontal diameter, and the water depth is 10 m above the shaft. 0 60° (a) the magnitude and location of the resultant force exerted on the gate by the water and (b) the moment that would have to be applied to the shaft to open the gate. x –––10 y Stop yc 10 m FIND Determine 0 si –––m yR n 60–°–– l 63 = F Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface Shaft FR A 4m c c (b) A SOLUTION (a) To find the magnitude of the force of the water we can apply Eq. 2.18, Center of pressure (a) Oy FR ᐃ and since the vertical distance from the fluid surface to the centroid of the area is 10 m, it follows that FR  19.80  103 Nm3 2 110 m214p m2 2  1230  103 N  1.23 MN (Ans) To locate the point 1center of pressure2 through which FR acts, we use Eqs. 2.19 and 2.20, Ixyc yc A  xc yR  Ixc  yc yc A For the coordinate system shown, xR  0 since the area is symmetrical, and the center of pressure must lie along the diameter A-A. To obtain yR, we have from Fig. 2.18 Ixc  pR 4 4 and yc is shown in Fig. E2.6b. Thus, 1p4212 m2 4 10 m sin 60° 110 msin 60°2 14p m 2  0.0866 m  11.55 m  11.6 m yR  Ox M FR  ghc A xR  c 2  (c) ■ Figure E2.6a–c and the distance 1along the gate2 below the shaft to the center of pressure is yR  yc  0.0866 m (Ans) We can conclude from this analysis that the force on the gate due to the water has a magnitude of 1.23 MN and acts through a point along its diameter A-A at a distance of 0.0866 m 1along the gate2 below the shaft. The force is perpendicular to the gate surface as shown in Fig. E2.6b. COMMENT By repeating the calculations for various values of the depth to the centroid, hc, the results shown in Fig. E2.6d are obtained. Note that as the depth increases, the distance between the center of pressure and the centroid decreases. (b) The moment required to open the gate can be obtained with the aid of the free-body diagram of Fig. E2.6c. In this diagram w 64 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics is the weight of the gate and Ox and Oy are the horizontal and vertical reactions of the shaft on the gate. We can now sum moments about the shaft 0.5 0.4 yR – yc, m a Mc  0 and, therefore, M  FR 1 yR  yc 2  11230  103 N2 10.0866 m2  1.07  105 N # m 0.3 0.2 (10m, 0.0886 m) 0.1 (Ans) 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 hc, m ■ Figure E2.6d E XAMPLE 2.7 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Plane Triangular Surface GIVEN An aquarium contains seawater 1g  64.0 lbft3 2 to a depth of 1 ft as shown in Fig. E2.7a. To repair some damage to one corner of the tank, a triangular section is replaced with a new section as illustrated in Fig. E2.7b. FIND Determine (a) the magnitude of the force of the seawater on this triangular area, and (b) the location of this force. SOLUTION (a) The various distances needed to solve this problem are shown in Fig. E2.7c. Since the surface of interest lies in a vertical plane, yc  hc  0.9 ft, and from Eq. 2.18 the magnitude of the force is FR  ghc A  164.0 lb ft3 2 10.9 ft2 3 10.3 ft2 2 2 4  2.59 lb (Ans) COMMENT Note that this force is independent of the tank length. The result is the same if the tank is 0.25 ft, 25 ft, or 25 miles long. 0.3 ft 1 ft 0.3 ft 0.9 ft 2.5 ft (b) The y coordinate of the center of pressure 1CP2 is found from Eq. 2.19, yR  (b) Ixc  yc yc A x y and from Fig. 2.18 yc 1 ft c δA c CP 0.1 ft (c) ■ Figure E2.7b–d ■ Figure E2.7a (Photograph courtesy of Tenecor Median line 0.2 ft 0.1 ft Tanks, Inc.) yR xR CP 0.15 ft 0.15 ft (d ) 2.9 Ixc  10.3 ft210.3 ft2 3 0.0081 4  ft 36 36 xR  0.0081 36 ft4  0.9 ft 10.9 ft210.092 ft2 2  0.00556 ft  0.9 ft  0.906 ft yR  (Ans) Similarly, from Eq. 2.20 Ixyc yc A  xc and from Fig. 2.18 Ixyc  2.9 65 so that so that xR  Pressure Prism 10.3 ft210.3 ft2 2 0.0081 4 10.3 ft2  ft 72 72 0.008172 ft4  0  0.00278 ft 10.9 ft210.092 ft2 2 (Ans) COMMENT Thus, we conclude that the center of pressure is 0.00278 ft to the right of and 0.00556 ft below the centroid of the area. If this point is plotted, we find that it lies on the median line for the area as illustrated in Fig. E2.7d. Since we can think of the total area as consisting of a number of small rectangular strips of area dA 1and the fluid force on each of these small areas acts through its center2, it follows that the resultant of all these parallel forces must lie along the median. Pressure Prism An informative and useful graphical interpretation can be made for the force developed by a fluid acting on a plane rectangular area. Consider the pressure distribution along a vertical wall of a tank of constant width b, which contains a liquid having a specific weight g. Since the pressure must vary linearly with depth, we can represent the variation as is shown in Fig. 2.19a, where the pressure is equal to zero at the upper surface and equal to gh at the bottom. It is apparent from this diagram that the average pressure occurs at the depth h2 and, therefore, the resultant force acting on the rectangular area A  bh is h FR  pav A  g a b A 2 which is the same result as obtained from Eq. 2.18. The pressure distribution shown in Fig. 2.19a applies across the vertical surface, so we can draw the three-dimensional representation of the pressure distribution as shown in Fig. 2.19b. The base of this “volume” in pressure-area space is the plane surface of interest, and its altitude at each point is the pressure. This volume is called the pressure prism, and it is clear that the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the rectangular surface is equal to the volume of the pressure prism. Thus, for the prism of Fig. 2.19b the fluid force is The magnitude of the resultant fluid force is equal to the volume of the pressure prism and passes through its centroid. FR  volume  1 h 1gh21bh2  g a b A 2 2 where bh is the area of the rectangular surface, A. The resultant force must pass through the centroid of the pressure prism. For the volume under consideration the centroid is located along the vertical axis of symmetry of the surface and at a distance of h3 above the base 1since the centroid of a triangle is located at h 3 above its base2. This result can readily be shown to be consistent with that obtained from Eqs. 2.19 and 2.20. h p h CP FR h– 3 h– 3 FR b γh ( a) γh (b) ■ Figure 2.19 Pressure prism for vertical rectangular area. 66 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics h1 γ h1 B A y1 h2 F1 FR p yA y2 F2 C D E γ (h2 - h1) (a) (b) ■ Figure 2.20 Graphical representation of hydrostatic forces on a vertical rectangular surface. This same graphical approach can be used for plane rectangular surfaces that do not extend up to the fluid surface, as illustrated in Fig. 2.20a. In this instance, the cross section of the pressure prism is trapezoidal. However, the resultant force is still equal in magnitude to the volume of the pressure prism, and it passes through the centroid of the volume. Specific values can be obtained by decomposing the pressure prism into two parts, ABDE and BCD, as shown in Fig. 2.20b. Thus, FR  F1  F2 where the components can readily be determined by inspection for rectangular surfaces. The location of FR can be determined by summing moments about some convenient axis, such as one passing through A. In this instance FRyA  F1y1  F2 y2 The use of the pressure prism concept to determine the force on a submerged area is best suited for plane rectangular surfaces. and y1 and y2 can be determined by inspection. For inclined plane rectangular surfaces the pressure prism can still be developed, and the cross section of the prism will generally be trapezoidal, as is shown in Fig. 2.21. Although it is usually convenient to measure distances along the inclined surface, the pressures developed depend on the vertical distances as illustrated. The use of pressure prisms for determining the force on submerged plane areas is convenient if the area is rectangular so the volume and centroid can be easily determined. However, for other nonrectangular shapes, integration would generally be needed to determine the volume and centroid. In these circumstances it is more convenient to use the equations developed in the previous section, in which the necessary integrations have been made and the results presented in a convenient and compact form that is applicable to submerged plane areas of any shape. The effect of atmospheric pressure on a submerged area has not yet been considered, and we may ask how this pressure will influence the resultant force. If we again consider the pressure distribution on a plane vertical wall, as is shown in Fig. 2.22a, the pressure varies from zero at the surface to gh at the bottom. Since we are setting the surface pressure equal to zero, we are using γ h1 h1 h2 γ h2 ■ Figure 2.21 Pressure variation along an inclined plane area. 2.9 patm patm h p FR Pressure Prism 67 patm patm A patm A FR γh (a) (b) ■ Figure 2.22 Effect of atmospheric pressure on the resultant force acting on a plane vertical wall. The resultant fluid force acting on a submerged area is affected by the pressure at the free surface. E XAMPLE atmospheric pressure as our datum, and thus the pressure used in the determination of the fluid force is gage pressure. If we wish to include atmospheric pressure, the pressure distribution will be as is shown in Fig. 2.22b. We note that in this case the force on one side of the wall now consists of FR as a result of the hydrostatic pressure distribution, plus the contribution of the atmospheric pressure, patm A, where A is the area of the surface. However, if we are going to include the effect of atmospheric pressure on one side of the wall, we must realize that this same pressure acts on the outside surface 1assuming it is exposed to the atmosphere2, so that an equal and opposite force will be developed as illustrated in the figure. Thus, we conclude that the resultant fluid force on the surface is that due only to the gage pressure contribution of the liquid in contact with the surface— the atmospheric pressure does not contribute to this resultant. Of course, if the surface pressure of the liquid is different from atmospheric pressure 1such as might occur in a closed tank2, the resultant force acting on a submerged area, A, will be changed in magnitude from that caused simply by hydrostatic pressure by an amount ps A, where ps is the gage pressure at the liquid surface 1the outside surface is assumed to be exposed to atmospheric pressure2. 2.8 Use of the Pressure Prism Concept GIVEN A pressurized tank contains oil 1SG  0.902 and has a square, 0.6-m by 0.6-m plate bolted to its side, as is illustrated in Fig. E2.8a. The pressure gage on the top of the tank reads 50 kPa, and the outside of the tank is at atmospheric pressure. FIND What is the magnitude and location of the resultant force on the attached plate? p = 50 kPa γ h1 ps Oil surface Air h1 = 2 m Oil 2m 0.6 m F1 F2 0.6 m FR 0.2 m yO O γ (h2 – h1) (a) ■ Figure E2.8 h2 = 2.6 m (b) Plate 0.3 m 68 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics SOLUTION The pressure distribution acting on the inside surface of the plate is shown in Fig. E2.8b. The pressure at a given point on the plate is due to the air pressure, ps, at the oil surface and the pressure due to the oil, which varies linearly with depth as is shown in the figure. The resultant force on the plate 1having an area A2 is due to the components, F1 and F2, where F1 and F2 are due to the rectangular and triangular portions of the pressure distribution, respectively. Thus, F1  1 ps  gh1 2 A  350  103 Nm2  10.902 19.81  103 Nm3 212 m2 4 10.36 m2 2  24.4  103 N and  0.954  103 N 2.10 FR  F1  F2  25.4  103 N  25.4 kN (Ans) The vertical location of FR can be obtained by summing moments around an axis through point O so that FR yO  F1 10.3 m2  F2 10.2 m2 or yO  124.4  103 N210.3 m2  10.954  103 N210.2 m2 25.4  103 N  0.296 m (Ans) Thus, the force acts at a distance of 0.296 m above the bottom of the plate along the vertical axis of symmetry. h2  h1 F2  g a bA 2  10.902 19.81  103 Nm3 2 a The magnitude of the resultant force, FR, is therefore 0.6 m b 10.36 m2 2 2 COMMENT Note that the air pressure used in the calculation of the force was gage pressure. Atmospheric pressure does not affect the resultant force 1magnitude or location2, since it acts on both sides of the plate, thereby canceling its effect. Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface V2.6 Pop bottle The equations developed in Section 2.8 for the magnitude and location of the resultant force acting on a submerged surface only apply to plane surfaces. However, many surfaces of interest 1such as those associated with dams, pipes, and tanks2 are nonplanar. The domed bottom of the beverage bottle shown in the figure in the margin shows a typical curved surface example. Although the resultant fluid force can be determined by integration, as was done for the plane surfaces, this is generally a rather tedious process and no simple, general formulas can be developed. As an alternative approach, we will consider the equilibrium of the fluid volume enclosed by the curved surface of interest and the horizontal and vertical projections of this surface. For example, consider a curved portion of the swimming pool shown in Fig. 2.23a. We wish to find the resultant fluid force acting on section BC (which has a unit length perpendicular to the plane of the paper) shown in Fig. 2.23b. We first isolate a volume of fluid that is bounded by the surface of interest, in this instance section BC, the horizontal plane surface AB, and the vertical plane surface AC. The free-body diagram for this volume is shown in Fig. 2.23c. The magnitude and location of forces F1 and F2 can be determined from the relationships for planar surfaces. The weight, w, is simply the specific weight of the fluid times the enclosed volume and acts through the center of gravity 1CG2 of the mass of fluid contained within the volume. The forces FH and FV represent the components of the force that the tank exerts on the fluid. In order for this force system to be in equilibrium, the horizontal component FH must be equal in magnitude and collinear with F2, and the vertical component FV equal in magnitude and collinear with the resultant of the vertical forces F1 and w. This follows since the three forces acting on the fluid mass 1F2, the resultant of F1 and w, and the resultant force that the tank exerts on the mass2 must form a concurrent force system. That is, from the principles of statics, it is known that when a body is held in equilibrium by three nonparallel forces, they must be concurrent 1their lines of action intersect at a common point2 and coplanar. Thus, FH  F2 FV  F1  w and the magnitude of the resultant is obtained from the equation FR  21FH 2 2  1FV 2 2 2.10 69 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface F1 ᐃ A B A FR = √(FH)2 + (FV)2 B B CG F2 FH O O C C C FV (b) (a) (c) (d) ■ Figure 2.23 Hydrostatic force on a curved surface. (Photograph courtesy of Intex Marketing, Ltd.) The resultant FR passes through the point O, which can be located by summing moments about an appropriate axis. The resultant force of the fluid acting on the curved surface BC is equal and opposite in direction to that obtained from the free-body diagram of Fig. 2.23c. The desired fluid force is shown in Fig. 2.23d. E XAMPLE 2.9 Hydrostatic Pressure Force on a Curved Surface GIVEN A 6-ft-diameter drainage conduit of the type shown in Fig. E2.9a is half full of water at rest, as shown in Fig. E2.9b. FIND Determine the magnitude and line of action of the resultant force that the water exerts on a 1-ft length of the curved section BC of the conduit wall. 1.27 ft 3 ft A A B A FR = 523 lb B CG 32.5° ᐃ F1 FH 1 ft O 1 ft C C (a) FV (b) (c) (d) ■ Figure E2.9 (Photograph courtesy of CONTECH Construction Products, Inc.) SOLUTION We first isolate a volume of fluid bounded by the curved section BC, the horizontal surface AB, and the vertical surface AC, as shown in Fig. E2.9c. The volume has a length of 1 ft. The forces acting on the volume are the horizontal force, F1, which acts on the vertical surface AC, the weight, w, of the fluid contained within the volume, and the horizontal and vertical components of the force of the conduit wall on the fluid, FH and FV, respectively. The magnitude of F1 is found from the equation F1 ⫽ ghc A ⫽ 162.4 lbⲐft3 2 1 32 ft2 13 ft2 2 ⫽ 281 lb and this force acts 1 ft above C as shown. The weight w ⫽ gV ⫺, where ⫺ V is the fluid volume, is w ⫽ g⫺ V ⫽ 162.4 lbⲐft3 2 19pⲐ4 ft2 2 11 ft2 ⫽ 441 lb and acts through the center of gravity of the mass of fluid, which according to Fig. 2.18 is located 1.27 ft to the right of AC as shown. Therefore, to satisfy equilibrium FH ⫽ F1 ⫽ 281 lb FV ⫽ w ⫽ 441 lb and the magnitude of the resultant force is FR ⫽ 21FH 2 2 ⫹ 1FV 2 2 ⫽ 21281 lb2 2 ⫹ 1441 lb2 2 ⫽ 523 lb (Ans) The force the water exerts on the conduit wall is equal, but opposite in direction, to the forces FH and FV shown in Fig. E2.9c. Thus, the resultant force on the conduit wall is shown in Fig. E2.9d. This force acts through the point O at the angle shown. 70 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics COMMENT An inspection of this result will show that the line of action of the resultant force passes through the center of the conduit. In retrospect, this is not a surprising result since at each point on the curved surface of the conduit the elemental force due to the pressure is normal to the surface, and each line of action must pass through the center of the conduit. It therefore follows that the resultant of this concurrent force system must also pass through the center of concurrence of the elemental forces that make up the system. This same general approach can also be used for determining the force on curved surfaces of pressurized, closed tanks. If these tanks contain a gas, the weight of the gas is usually negligible in comparison with the forces developed by the pressure. Thus, the forces 1such as F1 and F2 in Fig. 2.23c2 on horizontal and vertical projections of the curved surface of interest can simply be expressed as the internal pressure times the appropriate projected area. F l u i d s i n Miniature, exploding pressure vessels Our daily lives are safer because of the effort put forth by engineers to design safe, lightweight pressure vessels such as boilers, propane tanks, and pop bottles. Without proper design, the large hydrostatic pressure forces on the curved surfaces of such containers could cause the vessel to explode with disastrous consequences. On the other hand, the world is a friendlier place because of miniature pressure vessels that are designed to explode under the proper conditions— popcorn kernels. Each grain of popcorn contains a small amount 2.11 t h e N e w s of water within the special, impervious hull (pressure vessel) which, when heated to a proper temperature, turns to steam, causing the kernel to explode and turn itself inside out. Not all popcorn kernels have the proper properties to make them pop well. First, the kernel must be quite close to 13.5% water. With too little moisture, not enough steam will build up to pop the kernel; too much moisture causes the kernel to pop into a dense sphere rather than the light fluffy delicacy expected. Second, to allow the pressure to build up, the kernels must not be cracked or damaged. Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 2.11.1 Archimedes’ Principle (Photograph courtesy of Cameron Balloons.) When a stationary body is completely submerged in a fluid 1such as the hot air balloon shown in the figure in the margin2, or floating so that it is only partially submerged, the resultant fluid force acting on the body is called the buoyant force. A net upward vertical force results because pressure increases with depth and the pressure forces acting from below are larger than the pressure forces acting from above, as shown by the figure in the margin. This force can be determined through an approach similar to that used in the previous section for forces on curved surfaces. V , that is immersed in a fluid as illustrated Consider a body of arbitrary shape, having a volume  in Fig. 2.24a. We enclose the body in a parallelepiped and draw a free-body diagram of the parallelepiped with the body removed as shown in Fig. 2.24b. Note that the forces F1, F2, F3, and F4 are simply the forces exerted on the plane surfaces of the parallelepiped 1for simplicity the forces in the x direction are not shown2, w is the weight of the shaded fluid volume 1parallelepiped minus body2, and FB is the force the body is exerting on the fluid. The forces on the vertical surfaces, such as F3 and F4, are all equal and cancel, so the equilibrium equation of interest is in the z direction and can be expressed as FB  F2  F1  w (2.21) If the specific weight of the fluid is constant, then F2  F1  g1h2  h1 2A where A is the horizontal area of the upper 1or lower2 surface of the parallelepiped, and Eq. 2.21 can be written as FB  g1h2  h1 2A  g3 1h2  h1 2A   V4 Simplifying, we arrive at the desired expression for the buoyant force  FB  gV (2.22) 2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 71 c h1 h2 A FB z B Centroid of displaced volume (d) y x D C Centroid (a) c F1 y1 y2 A V2.7 Cartesian Diver FB B ᐃ F3 yc F4 FB D (c) C F2 (b) ■ Figure 2.24 Buoyant force on submerged and floating bodies. V is the volume of the body. The effects of the spewhere g is the specific weight of the fluid and  cific weight (or density) of the body as compared to that of the surrounding fluid are illustrated by the figure in the margin. The direction of the buoyant force, which is the force of the fluid on the body, is opposite to that shown on the free-body diagram. Therefore, the buoyant force has a magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is directed vertically upward. This result is commonly referred to as Archimedes’ principle in honor of Archimedes 1287–212 B.C.2, a Greek mechanician and mathematician who first enunciated the basic ideas associated with hydrostatics. The location of the line of action of the buoyant force can be determined by summing moments of the forces shown on the free-body diagram in Fig. 2.24b with respect to some convenient axis. For example, summing moments about an axis perpendicular to the paper through point D we have γ1 < γ γ2 = γ γ γ3 > γ FByc  F2 y1  F1y1  wy2 and on substitution for the various forces Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force has a magnitude equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body and is directed vertically upward. F l  V yc   V Ty1  1V T   V 2 y2 (2.23) V T is the total volume 1h2  h1 2A. The right-hand side of Eq. 2.23 is the first moment of where  V with respect to the x–z plane so that yc is equal to the y coordinate of the the displaced volume  centroid of the volume  V . In a similar fashion, it can be shown that the x coordinate of the buoyant force coincides with the x coordinate of the centroid. Thus, we conclude that the buoyant force passes through the centroid of the displaced volume as shown in Fig. 2.24c. The point through which the buoyant force acts is called the center of buoyancy. u i d s i n Concrete canoes A solid block of concrete thrown into a pond or lake will obviously sink. But if the concrete is formed into the shape of a canoe it can be made to float. Of, course the reason the canoe floats is the development of the buoyant force due to the displaced volume of water. With the proper design, this vertical force can be made to balance the weight of the canoe plus passengers—the canoe floats. Each year since 1988 a National Concrete Canoe Competition for university teams is jointly spon- t h e N e w s sored by the American Society of Civil Engineers and Master Builders Inc. The canoes must be 90% concrete and are typically designed with the aid of a computer by civil engineering students. Final scoring depends on four components: a design report, an oral presentation, the final product, and racing. In 2011 California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, won the national championship with its 208-pound, 20-foot-long canoe. (See Problem 2.147.) 72 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics These same results apply to floating bodies that are only partially submerged, as illustrated in Fig. 2.24d, if the specific weight of the fluid above the liquid surface is very small compared with the liquid in which the body floats. Since the fluid above the surface is usually air, for practical purposes this condition is satisfied. In the derivations presented above, the fluid is assumed to have a constant specific weight, g. If a body is immersed in a fluid in which g varies with depth, such as in a layered fluid, the magnitude of the buoyant force remains equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. However, the buoyant force does not pass through the centroid of the displaced volume, but rather, it passes through the center of gravity of the displaced volume. V2.8 Hydrometer E XAMPLE 2.10 Buoyant Force on a Submerged Object GIVEN A Type I offshore life jacket (personal flotation device) of the type worn by commercial fishermen is shown in Fig. E2.10a. It is designed for extended survival in rough, open water. According to U.S. Coast Guard regulations, the life jacket must provide a minimum 22-lb net upward force on the user. Consider such a life jacket that uses a foam material with a specific weight of 2.0 lb/ft3 for the main flotation material. The remaining material (cloth, straps, fasteners, etc.) weighs 1.3 lb and is of negligible volume. FIND Determine the minimum volume of foam needed for this life jacket. SOLUTION A free-body diagram of the life jacket is shown in Fig. E2.10b, where FB is the buoyant force acting on the life jacket, ᐃF is the weight of the foam, ᐃS  1.3 lb is the weight of the remaining material, and FU  22 lb is the required force on the user. For equilibrium it follows that FB  ᐃF  ᐃS  FU (1) where from Eq. 2.22 FB  gwater V Here gwater  64.0 lbft3 is the specific weight of seawater and V is the volume of the foam. Also ᐃfoam  gfoam V , where gfoam  2.0 lbft3 is the specific weight of the foam. Thus, from Eq. 1 gwater V  gfoam V  ᐃS  FU FB ᐃF ■ Figure E2.10b or V  1ᐃS  FU 2  1gwater  gfoam 2  11.3 lb  22 lb2  164.0 lbft3  2.0 lbft3 2  0.376 ft3 (Ans) COMMENTS In this example, rather than using difficult-to- ᐃS FU ■ Figure E2.10a calculate hydrostatic pressure force on the irregularly shaped life jacket, we have used the buoyant force. The net effect of the pressure forces on the surface of the life jacket is equal to the upward buoyant force. Do not include both the buoyant force and the hydrostatic pressure effects in your calculations—use one or the other. There is more to the proper design of a life jacket than just the volume needed for the required buoyancy. According to regulations, a Type I life jacket must also be designed so that it provides proper protection to the user by turning an unconscious person in the water to a face-up position as shown in Fig. E2.10a. This involves the concept of the stability of a floating object (see Section 2.11.2). The life jacket should also provide minimum interference under ordinary working conditions so as to encourage its use by commercial fishermen. 2.11 l 73 The effects of buoyancy are not limited to the interaction between a solid body and a fluid. Buoyancy effects can also be seen within fluids alone, as long as a density difference exists. Consider the shaded portion of Fig. 2.24c to be a volume of fluid instead of a solid. This volume of fluid is submerged in the surrounding fluid and therefore has a buoyant force due to the fluid it displaces (like the solid). If this volume contains fluid with a density of r1, then the downward force due to weight is w  r1gV. In addition, if the surrounding fluid has the same density, then the buoyant . As expected, in this case force on the volume due to the displaced fluid will be FB  gV  r1gV the weight of the volume is exactly balanced by the buoyant force acting on the volume so there is no net force. However, if the density of fluid in the volume is r2, then w and FB will not balance and there will be a net force in the upward or downward direction depending on whether the density in the volume (r2) is less than or greater than, respectively, the density of the surrounding fluid. Note that this difference can develop from two different fluids with different densities or from temperature differences within the same fluid causing density variations in space. For example, smoke from a fire rises because it is lighter (due to its higher temperature) than the surrounding air. V2.9 Atmospheric buoyancy F Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability u i d s i n Explosive lake In 1986 a tremendous explosion of carbon dioxide (CO2) from Lake Nyos, west of Cameroon, killed more than 1700 people and livestock. The explosion resulted from a buildup of CO2 that seeped into the high-pressure water at the bottom of the lake from warm springs of CO2-bearing water. The CO2-rich water is heavier than pure water and can hold a volume of CO2 more than five times the water volume. As long as the gas remains dissolved in the water, the stratified lake (i.e., pure water on top, CO2 water on the bottom) is stable. But if some mechanism causes the gas t h e N e w s bubbles to nucleate, they rise, grow, and cause other bubbles to form, feeding a chain reaction. A related phenomenon often occurs when a pop bottle is shaken and then opened. The pop shoots from the container rather violently. When this set of events occurred in Lake Nyos, the entire lake overturned through a column of rising and expanding buoyant bubbles. The heavier-than-air CO2 then flowed through the long, deep valleys surrounding the lake and asphyxiated human and animal life caught in the gas cloud. One victim was 27 km downstream from the lake. 2.11.2 Stability V2.10 Density differences in fluids Another interesting and important problem associated with submerged or floating bodies is concerned with the stability of the bodies. As illustrated by the figure in the margin, a body is said to be in a stable equilibrium position if, when displaced, it returns to its equilibrium position. Conversely, it is in an unstable equilibrium position if, when displaced 1even slightly2, it moves to a new equilibrium position. Stability considerations are particularly important for submerged or floating bodies since the centers of buoyancy and gravity do not necessarily coincide. A small rotation can result in either a restoring or overturning couple. For example, for the completely submerged body shown in Fig. 2.25, which has a center of gravity below the center of buoyancy, a rotation from its equilibrium position will create a restoring couple formed by the weight, w, and the buoyant force, FB, which causes the body to rotate back to its original position. Thus, for this configuration the body is stable. It is to be noted that as long as the center of gravity falls below the center of buoyancy, this will always be true; that is, the body is in a stable equilibrium position with respect to small rotations. However, as is illustrated in Fig. 2.26, if the center of gravity of the Stable Unstable c The stability of a body can be determined by considering what happens when it is displaced from its equilibrium position. FB CG FB c CG CG ᐃ FB ᐃ Stable ᐃ CG c Restoring couple ■ Figure 2.25 Stability of a completely immersed body—center of gravity below centroid. ᐃ c FB Unstable Overturning couple ■ Figure 2.26 Stability of a completely immersed body—center of gravity above centroid. 74 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics ᐃ ᐃ V2.11 Stability of a floating cube CG CG c c' FB FB c = centroid of original c' = centroid of new displaced volume Restoring couple displaced volume Stable ■ Figure 2.27 Stability of a floating body—stable configuration. ᐃ ᐃ CG CG c FB Marginally stable c = centroid of original displaced volume c' FB c' = centroid of new displaced volume Overturning couple Unstable Very stable © RiverNorthPhotography/ iStockphoto V2.12 Stability of a model barge 2.12 ■ Figure 2.28 Stability of a floating body—unstable configuration. completely submerged body is above the center of buoyancy, the resulting couple formed by the weight and the buoyant force will cause the body to overturn and move to a new equilibrium position. Thus, a completely submerged body with its center of gravity above its center of buoyancy is in an unstable equilibrium position. For floating bodies the stability problem is more complicated, since as the body rotates the location of the center of buoyancy 1which passes through the centroid of the displaced volume2 may change. As is shown in Fig. 2.27, a floating body such as a barge that rides low in the water can be stable even though the center of gravity lies above the center of buoyancy. This is true since as the body rotates the buoyant force, FB, shifts to pass through the centroid of the newly formed displaced volume and, as illustrated, combines with the weight, w, to form a couple that will cause the body to return to its original equilibrium position. However, for the relatively tall, slender body shown in Fig. 2.28, a small rotational displacement can cause the buoyant force and the weight to form an overturning couple as illustrated. It is clear from these simple examples that determining the stability of submerged or floating bodies can be difficult since the analysis depends in a complicated fashion on the particular geometry and weight distribution of the body. Thus, although both the relatively narrow kayak and the wide houseboat shown in the figures in the margin are stable, the kayak will overturn much more easily than the houseboat. The problem can be further complicated by the necessary inclusion of other types of external forces such as those induced by wind gusts or currents. Stability considerations are obviously of great importance in the design of ships, submarines, bathyscaphes, and so forth; such considerations play a significant role in the work of naval architects 1see, for example, Ref. 62. Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion Although in this chapter we have been primarily concerned with fluids at rest, the general equation of motion 1Eq. 2.22 ⫺§p ⫺ gk̂ ⫽ ra Even though a fluid may be in motion, if it moves as a rigid body there will be no shearing stresses present. was developed for both fluids at rest and fluids in motion, with the only stipulation being that there were no shearing stresses present. Equation 2.2 in component form, based on rectangular coordinates with the positive z axis being vertically upward, can be expressed as ⫺ 0p ⫽ rax 0x ⫺ 0p ⫽ ray 0y ⫺ 0p ⫽ g ⫹ raz 0z (2.24) A general class of problems involving fluid motion in which there are no shearing stresses occurs when a mass of fluid undergoes rigid-body motion. For example, if a container of fluid 2.12 75 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion accelerates along a straight path, the fluid will move as a rigid mass 1after the initial sloshing motion has died out2 with each particle having the same acceleration. Since there is no deformation, there will be no shearing stresses and, therefore, Eq. 2.2 applies. Similarly, if a fluid is contained in a tank that rotates about a fixed axis, the fluid will simply rotate with the tank as a rigid body, and again Eq. 2.2 can be applied to obtain the pressure distribution throughout the moving fluid. Specific results for these two cases 1rigid-body uniform motion and rigid-body rotation2 are developed in the following two sections. Although problems relating to fluids having rigid-body motion are not, strictly speaking, “fluid statics” problems, they are included in this chapter because, as we will see, the analysis and resulting pressure relationships are similar to those for fluids at rest. There is no shear stress in fluids that move with rigidbody motion or with rigid-body rotation. 2.12.1 Linear Motion We first consider an open container of a liquid that is translating along a straight path with a constant acceleration a as illustrated in Fig. 2.29. Since ax  0, it follows from the first of Eqs. 2.24 that the pressure gradient in the x direction is zero 10p 0x  02. In the y and z directions 0p  ray 0y (2.25) 0p  r1g  az 2 0z (2.26) The change in pressure between two closely spaced points located at y, z, and y  dy, z  dz can be expressed as z dp  dy or in terms of the results from Eqs. 2.25 and 2.26 dz ay 0p 0p dy  dz 0y 0z dp  ray dy  r1g  az 2 dz g + az y (2.27) Along a line of constant pressure, dp  0, and therefore from Eq. 2.27 it follows that the slope of this line is given by the relationship ay dz  (2.28) dy g  az This relationship is illustrated by the figure in the margin. Along a free surface the pressure is constant, so that for the accelerating mass shown in Fig. 2.29 the free surface will be inclined if ay  0. In addition, all lines of constant pressure will be parallel to the free surface as illustrated. Free surface slope = dz/dy g + az ay p1 Constant p2 pressure p3 lines z x (a) az y (b) ■ Figure 2.29 Linear acceleration of a liquid with a free surface. a ay (c) 76 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics The pressure distribution in a fluid mass that is accelerating along a straight path is not hydrostatic. For the special circumstance in which ay  0, az  0, which corresponds to the mass of fluid accelerating in the vertical direction, Eq. 2.28 indicates that the fluid surface will be horizontal. However, from Eq. 2.26 we see that the pressure distribution is not hydrostatic, but is given by the equation dp  r 1g  az 2 dz For fluids of constant density this equation shows that the pressure will vary linearly with depth, but the variation is due to the combined effects of gravity and the externally induced acceleration, r1g  az 2, rather than simply the specific weight rg. Thus, for example, the pressure along the bottom of a liquid-filled tank which is resting on the floor of an elevator that is accelerating upward will be increased over that which exists when the tank is at rest 1or moving with a constant velocity2. It is to be noted that for a freely falling fluid mass 1az  g2, the pressure gradients in all three coordinate directions are zero, which means that if the pressure surrounding the mass is zero, the pressure throughout will be zero. The pressure throughout a “blob” of orange juice floating in an orbiting space shuttle 1a form of free fall2 is zero. The only force holding the liquid together is surface tension 1see Section 1.92. E XAMPLE 2.11 Pressure Variation in an Accelerating Tank ay GIVEN The cross section for the fuel tank of an experimental vehicle is shown in Fig. E2.11. The rectangular tank is vented to the atmosphere, and the specific gravity of the fuel is SG  0.65. A pressure transducer is located in its side as illustrated. During testing of the vehicle, the tank is subjected to a constant linear acceleration, ay. FIND (a) Determine an expression that relates ay and the pressure 1in lb ft2 2 at the transducer. (b) What is the maximum acceleration that can occur before the fuel level drops below the transducer? Vent z Air y z1 Fuel (2) (1) 0.75 ft 0.5 ft Transducer 0.75 ft ■ Figure E2.11 SOLUTION (a) For a constant horizontal acceleration the fuel will move as a rigid body, and from Eq. 2.28 the slope of the fuel surface can be expressed as ay dz  g dy since az  0. Thus, for some arbitrary ay, the change in depth, z1, of liquid on the right side of the tank can be found from the equation  where h is the depth of fuel above the transducer, and therefore p  10.652162.4 lb ft3 2 30.5 ft  10.75 ft21ayg2 4 ay (Ans)  20.3  30.4 g for z1 0.5 ft. As written, p would be given in lbft2. (b) The limiting value for 1ay 2 max 1when the fuel level reaches the transducer2 can be found from the equation ay z1  g 0.75 ft 0.5 ft  10.75 ft2 c 1ay 2 max g d or or ay z1  10.75 ft2 a b g Since there is no acceleration in the vertical, z, direction, the pressure along the wall varies hydrostatically as shown by Eq. 2.26. Thus, the pressure at the transducer is given by the relationship p  gh 1a y 2 max  2g 3 and for standard acceleration of gravity 1ay 2 max  23 132.2 ft s2 2  21.5 fts2 (Ans) COMMENT Note that the pressure in horizontal layers is not constant in this example since 0p  0y  ray  0. Thus, for example, p1  p2. 2.12 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion 77 2.12.2 Rigid-Body Rotation After an initial “start-up” transient, a fluid contained in a tank that rotates with a constant angular velocity v about an axis as is shown in Fig. 2.30 will rotate with the tank as a rigid body. It is known from elementary particle dynamics that the acceleration of a fluid particle located at a distance r from the axis of rotation is equal in magnitude to rv2, and the direction of the acceleration is toward the axis of rotation, as is illustrated in the figure. Since the paths of the fluid particles are circular, it is convenient to use cylindrical polar coordinates r, u, and z, defined in the insert in Fig. 2.30. It will be shown in Chapter 6 that in terms of cylindrical coordinates the pressure gradient § p can be expressed as A fluid contained in a tank that is rotating with a constant angular velocity about an axis will rotate as a rigid body. §p  0p 0p 1 0p ê  ê  ê r 0u u 0r r 0z z (2.29) Thus, in terms of this coordinate system ar  rv2 êr au  0 az  0 and from Eq. 2.2 0p  rrv2 0r 0p 0 0u 0p  g 0z (2.30) These results show that for this type of rigid-body rotation, the pressure is a function of two variables r and z, and therefore the differential pressure is dp  0p 0p dr  dz 0r 0z or dp  rrv2 dr  g dz p (2.31) On a horizontal plane (dz  0), it follows from Eq. 2.31 that dpdr  ␳␻2r, which is greater than zero. Hence, as illustrated in the figure in the margin, because of centrifugal acceleration, the pressure increases in the radial direction. Along a surface of constant pressure, such as the free surface, dp  0, so that from Eq. 2.31 1using g  rg2 z = constant dp dr dp ––– = rw2r dr dz rv2  g dr r Integration of this result gives the equation for surfaces of constant pressure as z v2r 2  constant 2g Axis of rotation (2.32) z ω r ar = rω 2 r θ ω y ez eθ x er (a) (b) ■ Figure 2.30 Rigid-body rotation of a liquid in a tank. (Photograph courtesy of Geno Pawlak.) (c) 78 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics z p1 p1 Constant pressure lines p2 p2 p3 p3 p4 p4 2 2 ω r ____ 2g r y ■ Figure 2.31 Pressure distribution in a rotating liquid. x The free surface in a rotating liquid is curved rather than flat. This equation reveals that these surfaces of constant pressure are parabolic, as illustrated in Fig. 2.31. Integration of Eq. 2.31 yields 冮 dp  rv 冮 r dr  g 冮 dz 2 or p rv2r 2  gz  constant 2 (2.33) where the constant of integration can be expressed in terms of a specified pressure at some arbitrary point r0, z0. This result shows that the pressure varies with the distance from the axis of rotation, but at a fixed radius, the pressure varies hydrostatically in the vertical direction as shown in Fig. 2.31. E XAMPLE 2.12 Free Surface Shape of Liquid in a Rotating Tank r GIVEN It has been suggested that the angular velocity, v, of a rotating body or shaft can be measured by attaching an open cylinder of liquid, as shown in Fig. E2.12a, and measuring with some type of depth gage the change in the fluid level, H  h0, caused by the rotation of the fluid. R Depth gage Initial depth r FIND Determine the relationship between this change in fluid level and the angular velocity. h h0 z SOLUTION H dr h 0 The height, h, of the free surface above the tank bottom can be determined from Eq. 2.32, and it follows that h v2r 2  h0 2g ω (a) (b) ■ Figure E2.12 The initial volume of fluid in the tank,  V i, is equal to  V i  pR2H The volume of the fluid with the rotating tank can be found with the aid of the differential element shown in Fig. E2.12b. This cylindrical shell is taken at some arbitrary radius, r, and its volume is dV   2prh dr 2.13 冮 0 R ra v2r 2 pv2R 4  h0 b dr   pR2h0 2g 4g H  h0  Since the volume of the fluid in the tank must remain constant 1assuming that none spills over the top2, it follows that pR 2H  F l u i 79 or The total volume is, therefore,  V  2p Chapter Summary and Study Guide pv2R 4  pR2h0 4g d s i n Rotating mercury mirror telescope A telescope mirror has the same shape as the parabolic free surface of a liquid in a rotating tank. The liquid mirror telescope (LMT) consists of a pan of liquid (normally mercury because of its excellent reflectivity) rotating to produce the required parabolic shape of the free surface mirror. With recent technological advances, it is possible to obtain the vibrationfree rotation and the constant angular velocity necessary to produce a liquid mirror surface precise enough for astronomical use. Construction of the largest LMT, located at the University of British v2R2 4g (Ans) COMMENT This is the relationship we were looking for. It shows that the change in depth could indeed be used to determine the rotational speed, although the relationship between the change in depth and speed is not a linear one. t h e N e w s Columbia, has recently been completed. With a diameter of 6 ft and a rotation rate of 7 rpm, this mirror uses 30 liters of mercury for its 1-mm thick, parabolic-shaped mirror. One of the major benefits of a LMT (compared to a normal glass mirror telescope) is its low cost. Perhaps the main disadvantage is that a LMT can look only straight up, although there are many galaxies, supernova explosions, and pieces of space junk to view in any part of the sky. The nextgeneration LMTs may have movable secondary mirrors to allow a larger portion of the sky to be viewed. (See Problem 2.163.) 2.13 Chapter Summary and Study Guide Pascal’s law surface force body force incompressible fluid hydrostatic pressure distribution pressure head compressible fluid U.S. standard atmosphere absolute pressure gage pressure vacuum pressure barometer manometer Bourdon pressure gage center of pressure buoyant force Archimedes’ principle center of buoyancy In this chapter the pressure variation in a fluid at rest is considered, along with some important consequences of this type of pressure variation. It is shown that for incompressible fluids at rest the pressure varies linearly with depth. This type of variation is commonly referred to as hydrostatic pressure distribution. For compressible fluids at rest the pressure distribution will not generally be hydrostatic, but Eq. 2.4 remains valid and can be used to determine the pressure distribution if additional information about the variation of the specific weight is specified. The distinction between absolute and gage pressure is discussed along with a consideration of barometers for the measurement of atmospheric pressure. Pressure-measuring devices called manometers, which utilize static liquid columns, are analyzed in detail. A brief discussion of mechanical and electronic pressure gages is also included. Equations for determining the magnitude and location of the resultant fluid force acting on a plane surface in contact with a static fluid are developed. A general approach for determining the magnitude and location of the resultant fluid force acting on a curved surface in contact with a static fluid is described. For submerged or floating bodies the concept of the buoyant force and the use of Archimedes’ principle are reviewed. The following checklist provides a study guide for this chapter. When your study of the entire chapter and end-of-chapter exercises has been completed, you should be able to write out meanings of the terms listed here in the margin and understand each of the related concepts. These terms are particularly important and are set in italic, bold, and color type in the text. calculate the pressure at various locations within an incompressible fluid at rest. calculate the pressure at various locations within a compressible fluid at rest using Eq. 2.4 if the variation in the specific weight is specified. use the concept of a hydrostatic pressure distribution to determine pressures from measurements using various types of manometers. determine the magnitude, direction, and location of the resultant hydrostatic force acting on a plane surface. 80 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics determine the magnitude, direction, and location of the resultant hydrostatic force acting on a curved surface. use Archimedes’ principle to calculate the resultant hydrostatic force acting on floating or submerged bodies. analyze, based on Eq. 2.2, the motion of fluids moving with simple rigid-body linear motion or simple rigid-body rotation. Some of the important equations in this chapter are: Pressure variation in a stationary incompressible fluid dp  g dz p1  gh  p2 Hydrostatic force on a plane surface FR  ghc A Pressure gradient in a stationary fluid Location of hydrostatic force on a plane surface Buoyant force Pressure gradient in rigid-body motion  0p  rax, 0x Pressure gradient in rigid-body rotation yR  0p  0, 0u (2.7) (2.18) Ixc  yc yc A Ixyc xR   xc ycA FB  g  V 0p 0p   ray,   g  raz 0y 0z 0p  rrv2, 0r (2.4) 0p  g 0z (2.19) (2.20) (2.22) (2.24) (2.30) References 1. The U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1962, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1962. 2. The U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1976. 3. Benedict, R. P., Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure, and Flow Measurements, 3rd Ed., Wiley, New York, 1984. 4. Dally, J. W., Riley, W. F., and McConnell, K. G., Instrumentation for Engineering Measurements, 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York, 1993. 5. Holman, J. P., Experimental Methods for Engineers, 4th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1983. 6. Comstock, J. P., ed., Principles of Naval Architecture, Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers, New York, 1967. 7. Hasler, A. F., Pierce, H., Morris, K. R., and Dodge, J., “Meteorological Data Fields ‘In Perspective’,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, Vol. 66, No. 7, July 1985. Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. GO Tutoring problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. Problem is related to a chapter video available in WileyPLUS. * † Problem to be solved with aid of programmable calculator or computer. Open-ended problem that requires critical thinking. These problems require various assumptions to provide the necessary input data. There are not unique answers to these problems. Review Problems Go to Appendix G (WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www. wiley.com/college/munson) for a set of review problems with answers. Detailed solutions can be found in the Student Solution Manual and Study Guide for Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, by Munson et al. (© 2013 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.). 81 Problems Conceptual Questions 2.1C Two tubes connected to two water reservoirs are as shown below. The tube on the left is straight, and that on the right is a cone with the top area four times that of the base. The bottom area of the cone equals that of the straight tube. The height of the water is the same for both cases. Atmosphere 4A Water H Water p1 p2 A A The relation between the pressures p1 and p2 at the base of the tubes is: 1 a) p2  4 p1. b) p2  2 p1. c) p2  p1. 2 1 d) p2  p1. e) p2  p1. 3 2.3C For a fluid element at rest, the forces acting on the element are: a) gravity, shear, and normal forces. b) gravity and normal forces. c) gravity and shear forces. d) normal and shear forces. 2.4C A tank is filled with a liquid, and the surface is exposed to the atmosphere. Which of the following accurately represents the absolute pressure distribution on the right-hand side of the tank? (a) (b) Force Final position wire F2 A1 (d) 2.5C A wire is attached to a block of metal that is submerged in a tank of water as shown below. The graph that most correctly describes the relation between the force in the wire and time as the block is pulled slowly out of the water is 2.2C A system filled with a liquid is shown below. On the left there is a piston in a tube of cross-sectional area A1 with a force F1 applied to it, and on the right there is a piston in a tube of crosssectional area A2 that is twice that of A1 and a force F2. The pistons are weightless. The two liquid levels are the same. F1 (c) Water Block initial position A2 = 2 A1 Force The relation between the force F2 and F1 is a) F2  F1 b) F2  4 F1 c) F2  2 F1 d) F2  F1/2 e) F2  F1/4 Time Time Time Time Time (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Additional conceptual questions are available in WileyPLUS at the instructor’s discretion. Problems Note: Unless specific values of required fluid properties are given in the problem statement, use the values found in the tables on the inside of the front cover. Answers to the evennumbered problems are listed at the end of the book. The Lab Problems as well as the videos that accompany problems can be accessed in WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. Section 2.3 Pressure Variation in a Fluid at Rest 2.1 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the fact that in a static fluid the pressure increases with depth is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 2.2 A closed, 5-m-tall tank is filled with water to a depth of 4 m. The top portion of the tank is filled with air which, as indicated by a pressure gage at the top of the tank, is at a pressure of 20 kPa. Determine the pressure that the water exerts on the bottom of the tank. 2.3 GO A closed tank is partially filled with glycerin. If the air pressure in the tank is 6 lb/in.2 and the depth of glycerin is 10 ft, what is the pressure in lb/ft2 at the bottom of the tank? 2.4 Blood pressure is usually given as a ratio of the maximum pressure (systolic pressure) to the minimum pressure (diastolic pressure). As shown in Video V2.3, such pressures are commonly measured with a mercury manometer. A typical value for this ratio for 82 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics a human would be 120/70, where the pressures are in mm Hg. (a) What would these pressures be in pascals? (b) If your car tire was inflated to 120 mm Hg, would it be sufficient for normal driving? very tall buildings so that the hydrostatic pressure difference is within acceptable limits. 2.5 An unknown immiscible liquid seeps into the bottom of an open oil tank. Some measurements indicate that the depth of the unknown liquid is 1.5 m and the depth of the oil (specific weight  8.5 kN/m3) floating on top is 5.0 m. A pressure gage connected to the bottom of the tank reads 65 kPa. What is the specific gravity of the unknown liquid? decreases with increasing elevation. In some situations, however, a temperature inversion may exist so that the air temperature increases with elevation. A series of temperature probes on a mountain give the elevation–temperature data shown in the table below. If the barometric pressure at the base of the mountain is 12.1 psia, determine by means of numerical integration the pressure at the top of the mountain. 2.6 The water level in an open standpipe is 80 ft above the ground. What is the static pressure at a fire hydrant that is connected to the standpipe and located at ground level? Express your answer in psi. 2.7 How high a column of SAE 30 oil would be required to give the same pressure as 700 mm Hg? 2.8 What pressure, expressed in pascals, will a skin diver be subjected to at a depth of 40 m in seawater? 2.9 Bathyscaphes are capable of submerging to great depths in the ocean. What is the pressure at a depth of 5 km, assuming that seawater has a constant specific weight of 10.1 kN/m3? Express your answer in pascals and psi. 2.10 For the great depths that may be encountered in the ocean the compressibility of seawater may become an important consideration. (a) Assume that the bulk modulus for seawater is constant and derive a relationship between pressure and depth which takes into account the change in fluid density with depth. (b) Make use of part (a) to determine the pressure at a depth of 6 km assuming seawater has a bulk modulus of 2.3  109 Pa and a density of 1030 kg/m3 at the surface. Compare this result with that obtained by assuming a constant density of 1030 kg/m3. 2.11 Sometimes when riding an elevator or driving up or down a hilly road a person’s ears “pop” as the pressure difference between the inside and outside of the ear is equalized. Determine the pressure difference (in psi) associated with this phenomenon if it occurs during a 150-ft elevation change. *2.15 Under normal conditions the temperature of the atmosphere Temperature (ⴗF ) Elevation (ft) 50.1 1base2 55.2 60.3 62.6 67.0 68.4 70.0 69.5 68.0 67.1 1top2 5000 5500 6000 6400 7100 7400 8200 8600 9200 9900 †2.16 Although it is difficult to compress water, the density of water at the bottom of the ocean is greater than that at the surface because of the higher pressure at depth. Estimate how much higher the ocean’s surface would be if the density of seawater were instantly changed to a uniform density equal to that at the surface. 2.17 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Giraffe’s blood pressure,” Section 2.3.1.) (a) Determine the change in hydrostatic pressure in a giraffe’s head as it lowers its head from eating leaves 6 m above the ground to getting a drink of water at ground level as shown in Fig. P2.17. Assume the specific gravity of blood is SG  1. (b) Compare the pressure change calculated in part (a) to the normal 120 mm of mercury pressure in a human’s heart. 2.12 Develop an expression for the pressure variation in a liquid in which the specific weight increases with depth, h, as g  Kh  g0, where K is a constant and g0 is the specific weight at the free surface. *2.13 In a certain liquid at rest, measurements of the specific weight at various depths show the following variation: h (ft) G (lbft3) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 70 76 84 91 97 102 107 110 112 114 115 The depth h  0 corresponds to a free surface at atmospheric pressure. Determine, through numerical integration of Eq. 2.4, the corresponding variation in pressure and show the results on a plot of pressure (in psf) versus depth (in feet). †2.14 Because of elevation differences, the water pressure in the second floor of your house is lower than it is in the first floor. For tall buildings this pressure difference can become unacceptable. Discuss possible ways to design the water distribution system in 6m Water ■ Figure P2.17 Section 2.4 Standard Atmosphere 2.18 What would be the barometric pressure reading, in mm Hg, at an elevation of 4 km in the U.S. standard atmosphere? (Refer to Table C.2 in Appendix C.) 2.19 An absolute pressure of 7 psia corresponds to what gage pressure for standard atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia? 2.20 Assume that a person skiing high in the mountains at an altitude of 15,000 ft takes in the same volume of air with each Problems breath as she does while walking at sea level. Determine the ratio of the mass of oxygen inhaled for each breath at this high altitude compared to that at sea level. 2.21 Pikes Peak near Denver, Colorado, has an elevation of 14,110 ft. (a) Determine the pressure at this elevation, based on Eq. 2.12. (b) If the air is assumed to have a constant specific weight of 0.07647 lb/ft3, what would the pressure be at this altitude? (c) If the air is assumed to have a constant temperature of 59 F, what would the pressure be at this elevation? For all three cases assume standard atmospheric conditions at sea level (see Table 2.1). 2.22 Equation 2.12 provides the relationship between pressure and elevation in the atmosphere for those regions in which the temperature varies linearly with elevation. Derive this equation and verify the value of the pressure given in Table C.2 in Appendix C for an elevation of 5 km. 2.23 As shown in Fig. 2.6 for the U.S. standard atmosphere, the troposphere extends to an altitude of 11 km where the pressure is 22.6 kPa (abs). In the next layer, called the stratosphere, the temperature remains constant at 56.5 C. Determine the pressure and density in this layer at an altitude of 15 km. Assume g  9.77 m/s2 in your calculations. Compare your results with those given in Table C.2 in Appendix C. 2.24 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Weather, barometers, and bars,” Section 2.5.) The record low sea-level barometric pressure ever recorded is 25.8 in. of mercury. At what altitude in the standard atmosphere is the pressure equal to this value? Section 2.5 Measurement of Pressure 2.25 On a given day, a barometer at the base of the Washington Monument reads 29.97 in. of mercury. What would the barometer reading be when you carry it up to the observation deck 500 ft above the base of the monument? 2.26 Aneroid barometers can be used to measure changes in altitude. If a barometer reads 30.1 in. Hg at one elevation, what has been the change in altitude in meters when the barometer reading is 28.3 in. Hg? Assume a standard atmosphere and that Eq. 2.12 is applicable over the range of altitudes of interest. 2.27 Bourdon gages (see Video V2.4 and Fig. 2.13) are commonly used to measure pressure. When such a gage is attached to the closed water tank of Fig. P2.27 the gage reads 5 psi. What is the absolute air pressure in the tank? Assume standard atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi. 2.28 On the suction side of a pump, a Bourdon pressure gage reads 40 kPa vacuum. What is the corresponding absolute pressure if the local atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa (abs)? 2.29 A Bourdon pressure gage attached to the outside of a tank containing air reads 77.0 psi when the local atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg. What will be the gage reading if the atmospheric pressure increases to 773 mm Hg? Section 2.6 Manometry 2.30 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the use of a manometer is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 2.31 A water-filled U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure inside a tank that contains air. The water level in the U-tube on the side that connects to the tank is 5 ft above the base of the tank. The water level in the other side of the U-tube (which is open to the atmosphere) is 2 ft above the base. Determine the pressure within the tank. 2.32 A barometric pressure of 29.4 in. Hg corresponds to what value of atmospheric pressure in psia, and in pascals? 2.33 For an atmospheric pressure of 101 kPa (abs) determine the heights of the fluid columns in barometers containing one of the following liquids: (a) mercury, (b) water, and (c) ethyl alcohol. Calculate the heights including the effect of vapor pressure and compare the results with those obtained neglecting vapor pressure. Do these results support the widespread use of mercury for barometers? Why? 2.34 The closed tank of Fig. P.2.34 is filled with water and is 5 ft long. The pressure gage on the tank reads 7 psi. Determine: (a) the height, h, in the open water column, (b) the gage pressure acting on the bottom tank surface AB, and (c) the absolute pressure of the air in the top of the tank if the local atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia. Open 7 psi Air h 2 ft Water 2 ft A Air 83 B ■ Figure P2.34 2.35 A mercury manometer is connected to a large reservoir of water as shown in Fig. P2.35. Determine the ratio, hw/hm, of the distances hw and hm indicated in the figure. 12 in. Bourdon gage Water 15 20 10 hw Water 25 30 5 0 hm 35 hm 6 in. Mercury ■ Figure P2.27 ■ Figure P2.35 84 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics 2.36 A U-tube mercury manometer is connected to a closed pressurized tank as illustrated in Fig. P2.36. If the air pressure is 2 psi, determine the differential reading, h. The specific weight of the air is negligible. pair = 2 psi Air 2 ft to 0.6. Determine the manometer reading, h, if the barometric pressure is 14.7 psia and the pressure gage reads 0.5 psi. The effect of the weight of the air is negligible. 2.39 GO A closed cylindrical tank filled with water has a hemispherical dome and is connected to an inverted piping system as shown in Fig. P2.39. The liquid in the top part of the piping system has a specific gravity of 0.8, and the remaining parts of the system are filled with water. If the pressure gage reading at A is 60 kPa, determine (a) the pressure in pipe B, and (b) the pressure head, in millimeters of mercury, at the top of the dome (point C). Hemispherical dome Water 2 ft 2 ft SG = 0.8 C pA = 60 kPa 4m 3m A 3m h Water 2m Mercury (SG = 13.6) B ■ Figure P2.36 Water 2.37 A U-tube manometer is connected to a closed tank containing air and water as shown in Fig. P2.37. At the closed end of the manometer the air pressure is 16 psia. Determine the reading on the pressure gage for a differential reading of 4 ft on the manometer. Express your answer in psi (gage). Assume standard atmospheric pressure and neglect the weight of the air columns in the manometer. ■ Figure P2.39 2.40 Two pipes are connected by a manometer as shown in Fig. P2.40. Determine the pressure difference, pA  pB, between the pipes. A Closed valve 0.5 m Water Air pressure = 16 psia 0.6 m 1.3 m 4 ft Air Gage fluid (SG = 2.6) Water 2 ft B Water ■ Figure P2.40 Gage fluid ( γ = 90 lb / ft 3 ) Pressure gage ■ Figure P2.37 2.41 An inverted open tank is held in place by a force R as shown in Fig. P2.41. If the specific gravity of the manometer fluid is 2.5, determine the value of h. 2.38 Compartments A and B of the tank shown in Fig. P2.38 are closed and filled with air and a liquid with a specific gravity equal 1-in.-diameter tube 0.5 psi Open R 2-ftdiameter tank Air 3 ft h A 2 ft 0.1 ft Water B ■ Figure P2.38 Liquid (SG = 0.6) h Air 1 ft Mercury (SG = 13.6) ■ Figure P2.41 Water 85 Problems 2.42 A U-tube manometer is connected to a closed tank as shown in Fig. P2.42. The air pressure in the tank is 0.50 psi and the liquid in the tank is oil (  54.0 lb/ft3). The pressure at point A is 2.00 psi. Determine: (a) the depth of oil, z, and (b) the differential reading, h, on the manometer. z 2.46 The cylindrical tank with hemispherical ends shown in Fig. P2.46 contains a volatile liquid and its vapor. The liquid density is 800 kg/m3, and its vapor density is negligible. The pressure in the vapor is 120 kPa (abs) and the atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa (abs). Determine: (a) the gage pressure reading on the pressure gage, and (b) the height, h, of the mercury, manometer. Open Air pressure p1  p2, is applied, a differential reading, h, develops. It is desired to have this reading sufficiently large (so that it can be easily read) for small pressure differentials. Determine the relationship between h and p1  p2 when the area ratio At /Ar is small, and show that the differential reading, h, can be magnified by making the difference in specific weights, 2  1, small. Assume that initially (with p1  p2) the fluid levels in the two reservoirs are equal. Oil h A Vapor 2 ft SG = 3.05 1m Water B Water A 3 in. 8 in. 3 in. h Liquid ■ Figure P2.42 2.43 For the inclined-tube manometer of Fig. P2.43, the pressure in pipe A is 0.6 psi. The fluid in both pipes A and B is water, and the gage fluid in the manometer has a specific gravity of 2.6. What is the pressure in pipe B corresponding to the differential reading shown? Open 1m 1m Mercury ■ Figure P2.46 2.47 Determine the elevation difference, h, between the water levels in the two open tanks shown in Fig. P2.47. SG = 0.90 SG = 2.6 30° 0.4 m ■ Figure P2.43 2.44 A flowrate measuring device is installed in a horizontal pipe through which water is flowing. A U-tube manometer is connected to the pipe through pressure taps located 3 in. on either side of the device. The gage fluid in the manometer has a specific weight of 112 lb/ft3. Determine the differential reading of the manometer corresponding to a pressure drop between the taps of 0.5 lb/in.2 2.45 Small differences in gas pressures are commonly measured with a micromanometer of the type illustrated in Fig. P2.45. This device consists of two large reservoirs each having a crosssectional area Ar which are filled with a liquid having a specific weight 1 and connected by a U-tube of cross-sectional area At containing a liquid of specific weight 2. When a differential gas p1 p2 γ1 γ1 Δh 1m Water ■ Figure P2.47 2.48 Water, oil, and an unknown fluid are contained in the vertical tubes shown in Fig. P2.48. Determine the density of the unknown fluid. 1-in. diameter 2-in. diameter 1 ft Oil, SG = 0.9 Water 2 ft h γ2 ■ Figure P2.45 1 ft ■ Figure P2.48 Unknown fluid 86 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics 2.49 For the configuration shown in Fig. P2.49 what must be the value of the specific weight of the unknown fluid? Express your answer in lb/ft3. Open Open Water 5.5 in. Valve pg 4.9 in. 3.3 in. Unknown fluid 1.4 in. *2.52 Both ends of the U-tube mercury manometer of Fig. P2.52 are initially open to the atmosphere and under standard atmospheric pressure. When the valve at the top of the right leg is open, the level of mercury below the valve is h1. After the valve is closed, air pressure is applied to the left leg. Determine the relationship between the differential reading on the manometer and the applied gage pressure, pg. Show on a plot how the differential reading varies with pg for h1  25, 50, 75, and 100 mm over the range 0 pg 300 kPa. Assume that the temperature of the trapped air remains constant. hi ■ Figure P2.49 Mercury 2.50 An air-filled, hemispherical shell is attached to the ocean floor at a depth of 10 in. as shown in Fig. P2.50. A mercury barometer located inside the shell reads 765 mm Hg, and a mercury U-tube manometer designed to give the outside water pressure indicates differential reading of 735 mm Hg as illustrated. Based on these data, what is the atmospheric pressure at the ocean surface? ■ Figure P2.52 2.53 The inverted U-tube manometer of Fig. P2.53 contains oil (SG  0.9) and water as shown. The pressure differential between pipes A and B, pA  pB, is 5 kPa. Determine the differential reading h. Ocean surface Oil Shell wall Seawater h 0.2 m 735 mm 360 mm 10 m A 0.3 m Water Mercury B Shell ■ Figure P2.53 ■ Figure P2.50 2.51 Water, oil, and salt water fill a tube as shown in Fig. P2.51. Determine the pressure at point 1 (inside the closed tube). 2.54 An inverted U-tube manometer containing oil (SG  0.8) is located between two reservoirs as shown in Fig. P2.54. The reservoir on the left, which contains carbon tetrachloride, is closed and pressurized to 8 psi. The reservoir on the right contains water and is open to the atmosphere. With the given data, determine the depth of water, h, in the right reservoir. Oil density Carbon tetrachloride = 1.20 slugs/ft3 1-in. diameter 2-in. diameter 3 ft (1) 2 ft Water ■ Figure P2.51 8 psi Salt water, SG = 1.20 0.7 ft 3 ft 4 ft 1 ft 1 ft ■ Figure P2.54 Oil Water h Problems 2.55 Three different liquids with properties as indicated fill the tank and manometer tubes as shown in Fig. P2.55. Determine the specific gravity of Fluid 3. B 0.4 m Fluid 1: specific weight = 62.4 lb/ft3 Fluid 2: density = 1.60 slugs/ft3 Fluid 3: specific gravity = ? Fluid 2 87 Oil A 7 ft Gasoline 0.3 m Mercury A Fluid 1 Fluid 3 6 ft 5 ft ■ Figure P2.58 3 ft 2.59 The mercury manometer of Fig. P2.59 indicates a differential reading of 0.30 m when the pressure in pipe A is 30-mm Hg vacuum. Determine the pressure in pipe B. ■ Figure P2.55 2.56 Determine the pressure of the water in pipe A shown in Fig. P2.56 if the gage pressure of the air in the tank is 2 psi. Water p = 2 psi 0.50 m Oil A SG = 0.9 Air Mercury 1 ft B 0.15 m 0.30 m 4 ft ■ Figure P2.59 2 ft A Water ■ Figure P2.56 2.57 In Fig. P2.57 pipe A contains carbon tetrachloride (SG  1.60) and the closed storage tank B contains a salt brine (SG  1.15). Determine the air pressure in tank B if the pressure in pipe A is 25 psi. 2.60 The inclined differential manometer of Fig. P2.60 contains carbon tetrachloride. Initially the pressure differential between pipes A and B, which contain a brine (SG  1.1), is zero as illustrated in the figure. It is desired that the manometer give a differential reading of 12 in. (measured along the inclined tube) for a pressure differential of 0.1 psi. Determine the required angle of inclination, u. A B Brine Air B A 4 ft 4 ft 3 ft Brine Brine 12 in. Carbon tetrachloride θ 3 ft Carbon tetrachloride ■ Figure P2.57 ■ Figure P2.60 2.58 In Fig. P2.58 pipe A contains gasoline (SG  0.7), pipe B contains oil (SG  0.9), and the manometer fluid is mercury. Determine the new differential reading if the pressure in pipe A is decreased 25 kPa, and the pressure in pipe B remains constant. The initial differential reading is 0.30 m as shown. 2.61 The manometer fluid in the manometer of Fig. P2.61 has a specific gravity of 3.46. Pipes A and B both contain water. If the pressure in pipe A is decreased by 1.3 psi and the pressure in pipe B increases by 0.9 psi, determine the new differential reading of the manometer. 88 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics crease in pressure of 5 psi in pipe A while the pressure in pipe B remains constant. A 2.65 The U-shaped tube shown in Fig. 2.65 initially contains water only. A second liquid with specific weight, , less than water is placed on top of the water with no mixing occurring. Can the height, h, of the second liquid be adjusted so that the left and right levels are at the same height? Provide proof of your answer. 2 ft Water Water 1 ft B 1 ft Gage fluid (SG = 3.46) γ h D1 = 1.5 D2 ■ Figure P2.61 D2 Water 2.62 Determine the new differential reading along the inclined leg of the mercury manometer of Fig. P2.62, if the pressure in pipe A is decreased 10 kPa and the pressure in pipe B remains unchanged. The fluid in A has a specific gravity of 0.9 and the fluid in B is water. A SG = 0.9 Water 100 mm 30° B 80 mm ■ Figure P2.65 *2.66 An inverted hollow cylinder is pushed into the water as is shown in Fig. P2.66. Determine the distance, /, that the water rises in the cylinder as a function of the depth, d, of the lower edge of the cylinder. Plot the results for 0 d H, when H is equal to 1 m. Assume the temperature of the air within the cylinder remains constant. 50 mm Mercury ■ Figure P2.62 Water H d 2.63 Determine the ratio of areas, A1/A2, of the two manometer legs of Fig. P2.63 if a change in pressure in pipe B of 0.5 psi gives a corresponding change of 1 in. in the level of the mercury in the right leg. The pressure in pipe A does not change. D ᐉ Open end ■ Figure P2.66 A B Section 2.8 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surface (also see Lab Problems 2.1LP, 2.2LP, 2.3LP, and 2.4LP) Oil (SG = 0.8) Area = A1 Water 2.67 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the hydrostatic force on a plane surface is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. Area = A2 2.68 The basic elements of a hydraulic press are shown in Fig. P2.68. The plunger has an area of 1 in.2, and a force, F1, can be applied to the plunger through a lever mechanism having a mechanical advantage of 8 to 1. If the large piston has an area of 150 in.2, what load, F2, can be raised by a force of 30 lb applied to the lever? Neglect the hydrostatic pressure variation. Mercury ■ Figure P2.63 2.64 Determine the change in the elevation of the mercury in the left leg of the manometer of Fig. P2.64 as a result of an inWater F2 Oil (SG = 0.9) A 18 in. 6 in. B 12 in. Plunger 1 _ -in.2 diameter 30° 1 _ -in.-diameter 4 Hydraulic fluid Mercury ■ Figure P2.64 ■ Figure P2.68 F1 Problems 2.69 A 0.3-m-diameter pipe is connected to a 0.02-m-diameter pipe, and both are rigidly held in place. Both pipes are horizontal with pistons at each end. If the space between the pistons is filled with water, what force will have to be applied to the larger piston to balance a force of 90 N applied to the smaller piston? Neglect friction. *2.70 A Bourdon gage (see Fig. 2.13 and Video V2.4) is often used to measure pressure. One way to calibrate this type of gage is to use the arrangement shown in Fig. P2.70a. The container is filled with a liquid and a weight, w, placed on one side with the gage on the other side. The weight acting on the liquid through a 0.4-in.-diameter opening creates a pressure that is transmitted to the gage. This arrangement, with a series of weights, can be used to determine what a change in the dial movement, u, in Fig. P2.70b, corresponds to in terms of a change in pressure. For a particular gage, some data are given below. Based on a plot of these data, determine the relationship between u and the pressure, p, where p is measured in psi. ᐃ (lb) u (deg.) 0 0 1.04 20 2.00 40 3.23 60 Bourdon gage 4.05 80 5.24 100 6.31 120 P Piston h Water h1 Mercury ■ Figure P2.73 2.74 A 6-in.-diameter piston is located within a cylinder that is connected to a 12-in.-diameter inclined-tube manometer as shown in Fig. P2.74. The fluid in the cylinder and the manometer is oil 1specific weight  59 lb ft3 2. When a weight, w, is placed on the top of the cylinder, the fluid level in the manometer tube rises from point (1) to (2). How heavy is the weight? Assume that the change in position of the piston is negligible. ᐃ ᐃ 6 in. 0.4-in.-diameter Liquid (2) (1) Piston θ (b) 89 30° Oil ( a) ■ Figure P2.70 ■ Figure P2.74 2.71 An inverted 0.1-m-diameter circular cylinder is partially filled with water and held in place as shown in Fig. P2.71. A force of 20 N is needed to pull the flat plate from the cylinder. Determine the air pressure within the cylinder. The plate is not fastened to the cylinder and has negligible mass. 2.76 A large, open tank contains water and is connected to a 6ft-diameter conduit as shown in Fig. P2.76. A circular plug is used to seal the conduit. Determine the magnitude, direction, and location of the force of the water on the plug. 0.1 m Air Water 2.75 A square gate (4 m by 4 m) is located on the 45 face of a dam. The top edge of the gate lies 8 m below the water surface. Determine the force of the water on the gate and the point through which it acts. 0.2 m 9 ft Plate Water Plug Open 6 ft F = 20 N ■ Figure P2.71 ■ Figure P2.76 2.72 You partially fill a glass with water, place an index card on top of the glass, and then turn the glass upside down while holding the card in place. You can then remove your hand from the card and the card remains in place, holding the water in the glass. Explain how this works. 2.77 A circular 2-m-diameter gate is located on the sloping side of a swimming pool. The side of the pool is oriented 60 relative to the horizontal bottom, and the center of the gate is located 3 m below the water surface. Determine the magnitude of the water force acting on the gate and the point through which it acts. 2.73 A piston having a cross-sectional area of 0.07 m2 is located in a cylinder containing water as shown in Fig. P2.73. An open U-tube manometer is connected to the cylinder as shown. For h1  60 mm and h  100 mm, what is the value of the applied force, P, acting on the piston? The weight of the piston is negligible. 2.78 A vertical rectangular gate is 8 ft wide and 10 ft long and weighs 6000 lb. The gate slides in vertical slots in the side of a reservoir containing water. The coefficient of friction between the slots and the gate is 0.03. Determine the minimum vertical force required to lift the gate when the water level is 4 ft above the top edge of the gate. 90 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics 2.79 A horizontal 2-m-diameter conduit is half filled with a liquid (SG  1.6) and is capped at both ends with plane vertical surfaces. The air pressure in the conduit above the liquid surface is 200 kPa. Determine the resultant force of the fluid acting on one of the end caps, and locate this force relative to the bottom of the conduit. 2.80 Concrete is poured into the forms as shown in Fig. P2.80 to produce a set of steps. Determine the weight of the sandbag needed to keep the bottomless forms from lifting off the ground. The weight of the forms is 85 lb, and the specific weight of the concrete is 150 lb/ft3. Open top 3 ft 8 in. risers Sand 10 in. tread Open bottom ■ Figure P2.80 2.81 Forms used to make a concrete basement wall are shown in Fig. P2.81. Each 4-ft-long form is held together by four ties—two at the top and two at the bottom as indicated. Determine the tension in the upper and lower ties. Assume concrete acts as a fluid with a weight of 150 lbft3. hinged on one edge. Determine the minimum air pressure, p1, within the container that will open the hatch. Neglect the weight of the hatch and friction in the hinge. 2.83 An open rectangular container contains a liquid that has a specific weight that varies according to the equation  c1  c2h, where c1 and c2 are constants and h is a vertical coordinate measured downward from the free surface. Derive an equation for the magnitude of the liquid force exerted on one wall of the container having a width b and height H and an equation that gives the vertical coordinate of this force. 2.84 A long, vertical wall separates seawater from fresh water. If the seawater stands at a depth of 7 m, what depth of freshwater is required to give a zero resultant force on the wall? When the resultant force is zero, will the moment due to the fluid forces be zero? Explain. 2.85 A gate having the shape shown in Fig. P2.85 is located in the vertical side of an open tank containing water. The gate is mounted on a horizontal shaft. (a) When the water level is at the top of the gate, determine the magnitude of the fluid force on the rectangular portion of the gate above the shaft and the magnitude of the fluid force on the semicircular portion of the gate below the shaft. (b) For this same fluid depth determine the moment of the force acting on the semicircular portion of the gate with respect to an axis that coincides with the shaft. Water 6m 10 in. Shaft 1 ft 3m Tie Side view of gate Concrete ■ Figure P2.85 10 ft Form 2.86 A pump supplies water under pressure to a large tank as shown in Fig. P2.86. The circular-plate valve fitted in the short discharge pipe on the tank pivots about its diameter A–A and is held shut against the water pressure by a latch at B. Show that the force on the latch is independent of the supply pressure, p, and the height of the tank, h. 1 ft ■ Figure P2.81 Pressure p 2.82 A structure is attached to the ocean floor as shown in Fig. P2.82. A 2-m-diameter hatch is located in an inclined wall and Free surface Water h Seawater 10 m 30° Hatch Hinge A A Air pressure, p1 B ■ Figure P2.82 ■ Figure P2.86 Supply 91 Problems 2.87 GO A homogeneous, 4-ft-wide, 8-ft-long rectangular gate weighing 800 lb is held in place by a horizontal flexible cable as shown in Fig. P2.87. Water acts against the gate, which is hinged at point A. Friction in the hinge is negligible. Determine the tension in the cable. 2.92 A vertical plane area having the shape shown in Fig. P2.92 is immersed in an oil bath (specific weight  8.75 kN/m3). Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on one side of the area as a result of the oil. 4m Cable 4m 45° 60° Oil bath ■ Figure P2.92 Water Gate 6 ft 8 ft Hinge A ■ Figure P2.87 2.93 GO A 3-m-wide, 8-m-high rectangular gate is located at the end of a rectangular passage that is connected to a large open tank filled with water as shown in Fig. P2.93. The gate is hinged at its bottom and held closed by a horizontal force, FH, located at the center of the gate. The maximum value for FH is 3500 kN. (a) Determine the maximum water depth, h, above the center of the gate that can exist without the gate opening. (b) Is the answer the same if the gate is hinged at the top? Explain your answer. 2.88 A rectangular gate 6 ft tall and 5 ft wide in the side of an open tank is held in place by the force F as indicated in Fig. P.2.88. The weight of the gate is negligible, and the hinge at O is frictionless. (a) Determine the water depth, h, if the resultant hydrostatic force of the water acts 2.5 ft above the bottom of the gate, i.e., it is collinear with the applied force F. (b) For the depth of part (a), determine the magnitude of the resultant hydrostatic force. (c) Determine the force that the hinge puts on the gate under the above conditions. h 4m FH 4m Hinge ■ Figure P2.93 Water Hinge 0 h Gate F 6 ft 2.5 ft ■ Figure P2.88 2.94 Two square gates close two openings in a conduit connected to an open tank of water as shown in Fig. P2.94. When the water depth, h, reaches 5 m it is desired that both gates open at the same time. Determine the weight of the homogeneous horizontal gate and the horizontal force, R, acting on the vertical gate that is required to keep the gates closed until this depth is reached. The weight of the vertical gate is negligible, and both gates are hinged at one end as shown. Friction in the hinges is negligible. †2.89 Sometimes it is difficult to open an exterior door of a building because the air distribution system maintains a pressure difference between the inside and outside of the building. Estimate how big this pressure difference can be if it is “not too difficult” for an average person to open the door. 2.90 An area in the form of an isosceles triangle with a base width of 6 ft and an attitude of 8 ft lies in the plane forming one wall of a tank that contains a liquid having a specific weight of 79.8 lb/ft3. The side slopes upward, making an angle of 60 with the horizontal. The base of the triangle is horizontal, and the vertex is above the base. Determine the resultant force the fluid exerts on the area when the fluid depth is 20 ft above the base of the triangular area. Show, with the aid of a sketch, where the center of pressure is located. 2.91 Solve Problem 2.90 if the isosceles triangle is replaced with a right triangle having the same base width and altitude as the isosceles triangle. Horizontal gate, 4m × 4m Hinge h 3m Water R Vertical gate, 4m × 4m Hinge ■ Figure P2.94 2.95 A gate having the cross section shown in Fig. 2.95 closes an opening 5 ft wide and 4 ft high in a water reservoir. The gate weighs 500 lb, and its center of gravity is 1 ft to the left of AC and 2 ft above BC. Determine the horizontal reaction that is developed on the gate at C. 92 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics Water 5 ft Water 8 ft A Hinge A 4 ft Moveable stop 12 ft Gate Brace θ ■ Figure P2.98 Gate C B force that the brace exerts on the gate is along the brace. (a) Plot the magnitude of the force exerted on the gate by the brace as a function of the angle of the gate, u, for 0 u 90 . (b) Repeat the calculations for the case in which the weight of the gate is negligible. Common on the result as u → 0. 3 ft ■ Figure P2.95 2.96 A gate having the cross section shown in Fig. P2.96 is 4 ft wide and is hinged at C. The gate weighs 18,000 lb, and its mass center is 1.67 ft to the right of the plane BC. Determine the vertical reaction at A on the gate when the water level is 3 ft above the base. All contact surfaces are smooth. 2.99 An open tank has a vertical partition and on one side contains gasoline with a density r  700 kg/m3 at a depth of 4 m, as shown in Fig. P2.99. A rectangular gate that is 4 m high and 2 m wide and hinged at one end is located in the partition. Water is slowly added to the empty side of the tank. At what depth, h, will the gate start to open? 5 ft Partition Hinge Stop C 9 ft Water Water surface 4m h Gasoline Hinge ■ Figure P2.99 3 ft B A ■ Figure P2.96 2.97 The massless, 4-ft-wide gate shown in Fig. P2.97 pivots about the frictionless hinge O. It is held in place by the 2000 lb counterweight, w. Determine the water depth, h. 2.100 A 4-ft by 3-ft massless rectangular gate is used to close the end of the water tank shown in Fig. P2.100. A 200-lb weight attached to the arm of the gate at a distance / from the frictionless hinge is just sufficient to keep the gate closed when the water depth is 2 ft, that is, when the water fills the semicircular lower portion of the tank. If the water were deeper, the gate would open. Determine the distance /. ᐉ 1 ft Water Gate Hinge Hinge 200 lb h Gate Water 2 ft radius 3 ft 4 ft ■ Figure P2.100 Pivot O Width = 4 ft 2 ft 3 ft ■ Figure P2.97 2.101 The rigid gate, OAB, of Fig. P2.101 is hinged at O and rests against a rigid support at B. What minimum horizontal force, P, is required to hold the gate closed if its width is 3 m? Neglect the weight of the gate and friction in the hinge. The back of the gate is exposed to the atmosphere. *2.98 A 200-lb homogeneous gate 10 ft wide and 5 ft long is hinged at point A and held in place by a 12-ft-long brace as shown in Fig. P2.98. As the bottom of the brace is moved to the right, the water level remains at the top of the gate. The line of action of the 2.102 A rectangular gate that is 2 m wide is located in the vertical wall of a tank containing water as shown in Fig. P2.102. It is desired to have the gate open automatically when the depth of water above the top of the gate reaches 10 m. (a) At what distance, d, should the frictionless horizontal shaft be located? (b) What is the magnitude of the force on the gate when it opens? ᐃ Problems 93 Open to atmosphere D Hinge B, C Water 3m A O Water 30° 4 ft 2 ft C y′ Stop Hinge B 4m y′ = 4(x′)2 A B A P Plan of gate x′ ■ Figure P2.104 2m ■ Figure P2.101 2.105 An open rectangular tank is 2 m wide and 4 m long. The tank contains water to a depth of 2 m and oil (SG  0.8) on top of the water to a depth of 1 m. Determine the magnitude and location of the resultant fluid force acting on one end of the tank. *2.106 An open rectangular settling tank contains a liquid suspension that at a given time has a specific weight that varies approximately with depth according to the following data: Water 10 m d h (m) G (N m3) 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.6 11.3 12.3 12.7 12.9 13.0 13.1 4m ■ Figure P2.102 2.103 GO A thin 4-ft-wide, right-angle gate with negligible mass is free to pivot about a frictionless hinge at point O, as shown in Fig. P2.103. The horizontal portion of the gate covers a 1-ft-diameter drain pipe that contains air at atmospheric pressure. Determine the minimum water depth, h, at which the gate will pivot to allow water to flow into the pipe. Width = 4 ft Right-angle gate h Water Hinge The depth h  0 corresponds to the free surface. Determine, by means of numerical integration, the magnitude and location of the resultant force that the liquid suspension exerts on a vertical wall of the tank that is 6 m wide. The depth of fluid in the tank is 3.6 m. 2.107 The closed vessel of Fig. P2.107 contains water with an air pressure of 10 psi at the water surface. One side of the vessel contains a spout that is closed by a 6-in.-diameter circular gate that is hinged along one side as illustrated. The horizontal axis of the hinge is located 10 ft below the water surface. Determine the minimum torque that must be applied at the hinge to hold the gate shut. Neglect the weight of the gate and friction at the hinge. O 1-ft-diameter pipe 10 psi 3 ft Air ■ Figure P2.103 2.104 The inclined face AD of the tank of Fig. P2.104 is a plane surface containing a gate ABC, which is hinged along line BC. The shape of the gate is shown in the plan view. If the tank contains water, determine the magnitude of the force that the water exerts on the gate. 10 ft Water Axis 6-in.-diameter gate 3 ■ Figure P2.107 4 94 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics 2.108 A 4-ft-tall, 8-in.-wide concrete (150 lb/ft3) retaining wall is built as shown in Fig. P2.108. During a heavy rain, water fills the space between the wall and the earth behind it to a depth h. Determine the maximum depth of water possible without the wall tipping over. The wall simply rests on the ground without being anchored to it. 2.111 (See Fluids in the News article titled “The Three Gorges Dam,” Section 2.8.) (a) Determine the horizontal hydrostatic force on the 2309-m-long Three Gorges Dam when the average depth of the water against it is 175 m. (b) If all of the 6.4 billion people on Earth were to push horizontally against the Three Gorges Dam, could they generate enough force to hold it in place? Support your answer with appropriate calculations. 8 in. Section 2.10 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surface 2.112 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the hydrostatic force on a curved surface is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 2.113 A 2-ft-diameter hemispherical plexiglass “bubble” is to be used as a special window on the side of an above-ground swimming pool. The window is to be bolted onto the vertical wall of the pool and faces outward, covering a 2-ft-diameter opening in the wall. The center of the opening is 4 ft below the surface. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the force of the water on the hemisphere. 4 ft h ■ Figure P2.108 2.109 Water backs up behind a concrete dam as shown in Fig. 2.109. Leakage under the foundation gives a pressure distribution under the dam as indicated. If the water depth, h, is too great, the dam will topple over about its toe (point A). For the dimensions given, determine the maximum water depth for the following widths of the dam, /  20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 ft. Base your analysis on a unit length of the dam. The specific weight of the concrete is 150 lb/ft3 2.114 Two round, open tanks containing the same type of fluid rest on a table top as shown in Fig. P2.114. They have the same bottom area, A, but different shapes. When the depth, h, of the liquid in the two tanks is the same, the pressure force of the liquids on the bottom of the two tanks is the same. However, the force that the table exerts on the two tanks is different because the weight in each of the tanks is different. How do you account for this apparent paradox? 80 ft Water h h B A Water hT = 10 ft pA = γ hT pB = γ h Area = A Area = A ■ Figure P2.114 ᐉ ■ Figure P2.109 2.110 The concrete dam of Fig. P2.110 weighs 23.6 kN/m3 and rests on a solid foundation. Determine the minimum coefficient of friction between the dam and the foundation required to keep the dam from sliding at the water depth shown. Assume no fluid uplift pressure along the base. Base your analysis on a unit length of the dam. 2.115 Two hemispherical shells are bolted together as shown in Fig. P2.115. The resulting spherical container, which weighs 300 lb, is filled with mercury and supported by a cable as shown. The container is vented at the top. If eight bolts are symmetrically located around the circumference, what is the vertical force that each bolt must carry? 2m Cable Water 5m Vent Sphere diameter = 3 ft 4m 6m ■ Figure P2.110 ■ Figure P2.115 95 Problems 2.116 A 4-m-long curved gate is located in the side of a reservoir containing water as shown in Fig. P2.116. Determine the magnitude of the horizontal and vertical components of the force of the water on the gate. Will this force pass through point A? Explain. Water Tank wall 18 ft A 6 ft Water B 6m ■ Figure P2.119 A 2m Gate ■ Figure P2.116 2.117 The 18-ft-long lightweight gate of Fig. P2.117 is a quarter circle and is hinged at H. Determine the horizontal force, P, required to hold the gate in place. Neglect friction at the hinge and the weight of the gate. 2.120 Hoover Dam (see Video 2.5) is the highest arch-gravity type of dam in the United States. A cross section of the dam is shown in Fig. P2.120(a). The walls of the canyon in which the dam is located are sloped, and just upstream of the dam the vertical plane shown in Figure P2.120(b) approximately represents the cross section of the water acting on the dam. Use this vertical cross section to estimate the resultant horizontal force of the water on the dam, and show where this force acts. 45 ft 880 ft P 6 ft Water 727 ft 715 ft. Gate H Hinge ■ Figure P2.117 660 ft 290 ft (a) 2.118 The air pressure in the top of the 2-liter pop bottle shown in Video V2.6 and Fig. P2.118 is 40 psi, and the pop depth is 10 in. The bottom of the bottle has an irregular shape with a diameter of 4.3 in. (a) If the bottle cap has a diameter of 1 in. what is the magnitude of the axial force required to hold the cap in place? (b) Determine the force needed to secure the bottom 2 in. of the bottle to its cylindrical sides. For this calculation assume the effect of the weight of the pop is negligible. (c) By how much does the weight of the pop increase the pressure 2 in. above the bottom? Assume the pop has the same specific weight as that of water. (b) ■ Figure P2.120 2.121 A plug in the bottom of a pressurized tank is conical in shape, as shown in Fig. P2.121. The air pressure is 40 kPa, and the liquid in the tank has a specific weight of 27 kN/m3. Determine the magnitude, direction, and line of action of the force exerted on the curved surface of the cone within the tank due to the 40-kPa pressure and the liquid. 40 kPa 1-in. diameter Air pair = 40 psi Liquid 12 in. 10 in. 3m 4.3-in. diameter 1m 60° ■ Figure P2.118 2.119 A tank wall has the shape shown in Fig. P2.119. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the force of the water on a 4-ft length of the curved section AB. ■ Figure P2.121 2.122 The homogeneous gate shown in Fig. P2.122 consists of one quarter of a circular cylinder and is used to maintain a water depth of 4 m. That is, when the water depth exceeds 4 m, the gate 96 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics 6 ft Pivot Bulge Water 4m 3 ft 1m ■ Figure P2.128 ■ Figure P2.122 pA opens slightly and lets the water flow under it. Determine the weight of the gate per meter of length. 2.123 The concrete (specific weight  150 lb/ft3) seawall of Fig. P2.123 has a curved surface and restrains seawater at a depth of 24 ft. The trace of the surface is a parabola as illustrated. Determine the moment of the fluid force (per unit length) with respect to an axis through the toe (point A). Air 4-ft diameter 20 psi 5 ft 2 ft Water 2 ft Seawater y = 0.2x2 Gage fluid (SG = 3.0) ■ Figure P2.129 24 ft y A x 15 ft 2.130 A 3-m-diameter open cylindrical tank contains water and has a hemispherical bottom as shown in Fig. P2.130. Determine the magnitude, line of action, and direction of the force of the water on the curved bottom. ■ Figure P2.123 2.124 A 12-in.-diameter pipe contains a gas under a pressure of 140 psi. If the pipe wall thickness is 14 in., what is the average circumferential stress developed in the pipe wall? 2.125 A cylindrical tank with its axis horizontal has a diameter of 2.0 m and a length of 4.0 m. The ends of the tank are vertical planes. A vertical 0.1-m-diameter pipe is connected to the top of the tank. The tank and the pipe are filled with ethyl alcohol to a level of 1.5 m above the top of the tank. Determine the resultant force of the alcohol on one end of the tank and show where it acts. 2.126 Imagine the tank of Problem 2.125 split by a horizontal plane. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force of the alcohol on the bottom half of the tank. 2.127 If the tank ends in Problem 2.125 are hemispherical, what is the magnitude of the resultant horizontal force of the alcohol on one of the curved ends? 2.128 GO An open tank containing water has a bulge in its vertical side that is semicircular in shape as shown in Fig. P2.128. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the force that the water exerts on the bulge. Base your analysis on a 1-ft length of the bulge. 2.129 A closed tank is filled with water and has a 4-ftdiameter hemispherical dome as shown in Fig. 2.129. A U-tube manometer is connected to the tank. Determine the vertical force of the water on the dome if the differential manometer reading is 7 ft and the air pressure at the upper end of the manometer is 12.6 psi. 8m Water 3m ■ Figure P2.130 2.131 Three gates of negligible weight are used to hold back water in a channel of width b as shown in Fig. P2.131. The force of the gate against the block for gate (b) is R. Determine (in terms of R) the force against the blocks for the other two gates. Section 2.11 Buoyancy, Flotation, and Stability 2.132 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which Archimede’s principle is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 2.133 A freshly cut log floats with one fourth of its volume protruding above the water surface. Determine the specific weight of the log. Problems h 2 97 V is floated in the liqcylinder of specific weight 2 and volume  uid (see Fig. P2.137b), the liquid level rises by an amount h  ( 2/ 1)  V /A. Hinge h h Block (a) (b) h 2 h 2.138 When the Tucurui Dam was constructed in northern GO Brazil, the lake that was created covered a large forest of valuable hardwood trees. It was found that even after 15 years underwater the trees were perfectly preserved and underwater logging was started. During the logging process a tree is selected, trimmed, and anchored with ropes to prevent it from shooting to the surface like a missile when cut. Assume that a typical large tree can be approximated as a truncated cone with a base diameter of 8 ft, a top diameter of 2 ft, and a height of 100 ft. Determine the resultant vertical force that the ropes must resist when the completely submerged tree is cut. The specific gravity of the wood is approximately 0.6. †2.139 Estimate the minimum water depth needed to float a canoe carrying two people and their camping gear. List all assumptions and show all calculations. (c) ■ Figure P2.131 2.134 A 3 ft  3 ft  3 ft wooden cube (specific weight  37 lb/ft3) floats in a tank of water. How much of the cube extends above the water surface? If the tank were pressurized so that the air pressure at the water surface was increased by 1.0 psi (i.e., 1 psig), how much of the cube would extend above the water surface? Explain how you arrived at your answer. 2.135 The homogeneous timber AB of Fig. P2.135 is 0.15 m by 0.35 m in cross section. Determine the specific weight of the timber and the tension in the rope. 2.140 An inverted test tube partially filled with air floats in a plastic water-filled soft drink bottle as shown in Video V2.7 and Fig. P2.140. The amount of air in the tube has been adjusted so that it just floats. The bottle cap is securely fastened. A slight squeezing of the plastic bottle will cause the test tube to sink to the bottom of the bottle. Explain this phenomenon. Air Test tube 0.15 m 2m B 8m Water A Rope Water Plastic bottle ■ Figure P2.140 ■ Figure P2.135 2.136 A river barge, whose cross section is approximately rectangular, carries a load of grain. The barge is 28 ft wide and 90 ft long. When unloaded, its draft (depth of submergence) is 5 ft. and with the load of grain the draft is 7 ft. Determine: (a) the unloaded weight of the barge, and (b) the weight of the grain. 2.141 An irregularly shaped piece of a solid material weighs 8.05 lb in air and 5.26 lb when completely submerged in water. Determine the density of the material. 2.142 A 1-ft-diameter, 2-ft-long cylinder floats in an open tank containing a liquid having a specific weight . A U-tube manometer is connected to the tank as shown in Fig. P2.142. When the 2.137 A tank of cross-sectional area A is filled with a liquid of specific weight 1 as shown in Fig. P2.137a. Show that when a V pa = – 0.1 psi 1 ft A Δh γ2 2 ft γ1 Cylinder Sp. wt. = g (a) ■ Figure P2.137 (b) ■ Figure P2.142 1 ft 2 ft 0.5 ft Water Gage fluid SG = 1.5 98 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics pressure in pipe A is 0.1 psi below atmospheric pressure, the various fluid levels are as shown. Determine the weight of the cylinder. Note that the top of the cylinder is flush with the fluid surface. replaced with a liquid having a specific gravity of 1.10, how much of the stem would protrude above the liquid surface? The hydrometer weighs 0.042 lb. 2.143 A 1-m-diameter cylindrical mass, M, is connected to a 2-mwide rectangular gate as shown in Fig. P2.143. The gate is to open when the water level, h, drops below 2.5 m. Determine the required value for M. Neglect friction at the gate hinge and the pulley. 2.146 A 2-ft-thick block constructed of wood (SG  0.6) is submerged in oil (SG  0.8) and has a 2-ft-thick aluminum (specific weight  168 lb/ft3) plate attached to the bottom as indicated in Fig. P2.146. Determine completely the force required to hold the block in the position shown. Locate the force with respect to point A. 4m 1-mdiameter Water h 6 ft Oil 1m ■ Figure P2.143 4 ft 2.144 The thin-walled, 1-m-diameter tank of Fig. P2.144 is closed at one end and has a mass of 90 kg. The open end of the tank is lowered into the water and held in the position shown by a steel block having a density of 7840 kg/m3. Assume that the air that is trapped in the tank is compressed at a constant temperature. Determine: (a) the reading on the pressure gage at the top of the tank, and (b) the volume of the steel block. Tank 0.6 m Air Water 3.0 m Open end Cable Aluminum 0.5 ft A 10 ft ■ Figure P2.146 2.147 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Concrete canoes,” Section 2.11.1.) How much extra water does a 147-lb concrete canoe displace compared to an ultralightweight 38-lb Kevlar canoe of the same size carrying the same load? 2.148 An iceberg (specific gravity 0.917) floats in the ocean (specific gravity 1.025). What percent of the volume of the iceberg is under water? Section 2.12 Pressure Variation in a Fluid with Rigid-Body Motion 2.149 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the pressure variation in a fluid with rigid-body motion is involved. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. ■ Figure P2.144 2.150 It is noted that while stopping, the water surface in a glass of water sitting in the cup holder of a car is slanted at an angle of 15 relative to the horizontal street. Determine the rate at which the car is decelerating. 2.145 When a hydrometer (see Fig. P2.145 and Video V2.8) having a stem diameter of 0.30 in. is placed in water, the stem protrudes 3.15 in. above the water surface. If the water is 2.151 An open container of oil rests on the flatbed of a truck that is traveling along a horizontal road at 55 mi/hr. As the truck slows uniformly to a complete stop in 5 s, what will be the slope of the oil surface during the period of constant deceleration? Steel block Hydrometer Fluid surface 2.152 A 5-gal, cylindrical open container with a bottom area of 120 in.2 is filled with glycerin and rests on the floor of an elevator. (a) Determine the fluid pressure at the bottom of the container when the elevator has an upward acceleration of 3 ft/s2. (b) What resultant force does the container exert on the floor of the elevator during this acceleration? The weight of the container is negligible. (Note: 1 gal  231 in.3) 2.153 An open rectangular tank 1 m wide and 2 m long contains gasoline to a depth of 1 m. If the height of the tank sides is 1.5 m, what is the maximum horizontal acceleration (along the long axis of the tank) that can develop before the gasoline would begin to spill? ■ Figure P2.145 2.154 If the tank of Problem 2.153 slides down a frictionless plane that is inclined at 30 with the horizontal, determine the angle the free surface makes with the horizontal. Problems 99 2.155 A closed cylindrical tank that is 8 ft in diameter and 24 ft long is completely filled with gasoline. The tank, with its long axis horizontal, is pulled by a truck along a horizontal surface. Determine the pressure difference between the ends (along the long axis of the tank) when the truck undergoes an acceleration of 5 ft/s2. 2.159 An open 1-m-diameter tank contains water at a depth of 0.7 m when at rest. As the tank is rotated about its vertical axis the center of the fluid surface is depressed. At what angular velocity will the bottom of the tank first be exposed? No water is spilled from the tank. 2.156 The open U-tube of Fig. P2.156 is partially filled with a liquid. When this device is accelerated with a horizontal acceleration a, a differential reading h develops between the manometer legs which are spaced a distance / apart. Determine the relationship between a, /, and h. 2.160 An open, 2-ft-diameter tank contains water to a depth of 3 ft when at rest. If the tank is rotated about its vertical axis with an angular velocity of 180 rev/min, what is the minimum height of the tank walls to prevent water from spilling over the sides? a h 2.161 A child riding in a car holds a string attached to a floating, helium-filled balloon. As the car decelerates to a stop, the balloon tilts backwards. As the car makes a right-hand turn, the balloon tilts to the right. On the other hand, the child tends to be forced forward as the car decelerates and to the left as the car makes a righthand turn. Explain these observed effects on the balloon and child. 2.162 A closed, 0.4-m-diameter cylindrical tank is completely filled with oil (SG  0.9) and rotates about its vertical longitudinal axis with an angular velocity of 40 rad/s. Determine the difference in pressure just under the vessel cover between a point on the circumference and a point on the axis. ᐉ ■ Figure P2.156 2.157 The U-tube of Fig. P2.157 is partially filled with water and rotates around the axis a–a. Determine the angular velocity that will cause the water to start to vaporize at the bottom of the tube (point A). 2.163 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Rotating mercury mirror telescope,” Section 2.12.2.) The largest liquid mirror telescope uses a 6-ft-diameter tank of mercury rotating at 7 rpm to produce its parabolic-shaped mirror as shown in Fig. P2.163. Determine the difference in elevation of the mercury, h, between the edge and the center of the mirror. Receiver a 4 in. Light rays 4 in. 6 ft Δh Mercury ω ω = 7 rpm ■ Figure P2.163 12 in. ■ Lab Problems A 2.1 LP This problem involves the force needed to open a gate that covers an opening in the side of a water-filled tank. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. a ■ Figure P2.157 2.158 The U-tube of Fig. P2.158 contains mercury and rotates about the off-center axis a–a. At rest, the depth of mercury in each leg is 150 mm as illustrated. Determine the angular velocity for which the difference in heights between the two legs is 75 mm. 2.3 LP This problem involves determining the weight needed to hold down an open-bottom box that has slanted sides when the box is filled with water. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley. com/college/munson. a ω 150 mm Mercury 220 mm 90 mm a ■ Figure P2.158 2.2 LP This problem involves the use of a cleverly designed apparatus to investigate the hydrostatic, pressure force on a submerged rectangle. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/ college/munson. 2.4 LP This problem involves the use of a pressurized air pad to provide the vertical force to support a given load. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. ■ Lifelong Learning Problems 2.1 LL Although it is relatively easy to calculate the net hydrostatic pressure force on a dam, it is not necessarily easy to design and 100 Chapter 2 ■ Fluid Statics construct an appropriate, long-lasting, inexpensive dam. In fact, inspection of older dams has revealed that many of them are in peril of collapse unless corrective action is soon taken. Obtain information about the severity of the poor conditions of older dams throughout the country. Summarize your findings in a brief report. 2.2 LL Over the years the demand for high-quality, first-growth timber has increased dramatically. Unfortunately, most of the trees that supply such lumber have already been harvested. Recently, however, several companies have started to reclaim the numerous high-quality logs that sank in lakes and oceans during the logging boom times many years ago. Many of these logs are still in excellent condition. Obtain information about the use of fluid mechanics concepts in harvesting sunken logs. Summarize your findings in a brief report. 2.3 LL Liquid-filled manometers and Bourdon tube pressure gages have been the mainstay for measuring pressure for many, many years. However, for many modern applications these triedand-true devices are not sufficient. For example, various new uses need small, accurate, inexpensive pressure transducers with digital outputs. Obtain information about some of the new concepts used for pressure measurement. Summarize your findings in a brief report. ■ FE Exam Problems Sample FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) exam questions for fluid mechanics are provided in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 3 Elementary Fluid Dynamics— The Bernoulli Equation CHAPTER OPENING PHOTO: Flow past a blunt body: On any object placed in a moving fluid there is a stagnation point on the front of the object where the velocity is zero. This location has a relatively large pressure and divides the flow field into two portions—one flowing to the left, and one flowing to the right of the body. 1Dye in water.2 Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: ■ discuss the application of Newton’s second law to fluid flows. ■ explain the development, uses, and limitations of the Bernoulli equation. ■ use the Bernoulli equation (stand-alone or in combination with the continuity equation) to solve simple flow problems. ■ apply the concepts of static, stagnation, dynamic, and total pressures. ■ calculate various flow properties using the energy and hydraulic grade lines. The Bernoulli equation may be the most used and abused equation in fluid mechanics. 3.1 In this chapter we investigate some typical fluid motions (fluid dynamics) in an elementary way. We will discuss in some detail the use of Newton’s second law (F  ma) as it is applied to fluid particle motion that is “ideal” in some sense. We will obtain the celebrated Bernoulli equation and apply it to various flows. Although this equation is one of the oldest in fluid mechanics and the assumptions involved in its derivation are numerous, it can be used effectively to predict and analyze a variety of flow situations. However, if the equation is applied without proper respect for its restrictions, serious errors can arise. Indeed, the Bernoulli equation is appropriately called the most used and the most abused equation in fluid mechanics. A thorough understanding of the elementary approach to fluid dynamics involved in this chapter will be useful on its own. It also provides a good foundation for the material in the following chapters where some of the present restrictions are removed and “more nearly exact” results are presented. Newton’s Second Law As a fluid particle moves from one location to another, it usually experiences an acceleration or deceleration. According to Newton’s second law of motion, the net force acting on the fluid particle under consideration must equal its mass times its acceleration, F  ma 101 102 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation In this chapter we consider the motion of inviscid fluids. That is, the fluid is assumed to have zero viscosity. If the viscosity is zero, then the thermal conductivity of the fluid is also zero and there can be no heat transfer 1except by radiation2. In practice there are no inviscid fluids, since every fluid supports shear stresses when it is subjected to a rate of strain displacement. For many flow situations the viscous effects are relatively small compared with other effects. As a first approximation for such cases it is often possible to ignore viscous effects. For example, often the viscous forces developed in flowing water may be several orders of magnitude smaller than forces due to other influences, such as gravity or pressure differences. For other water flow situations, however, the viscous effects may be the dominant ones. Similarly, the viscous effects associated with the flow of a gas are often negligible, although in some circumstances they are very important. We assume that the fluid motion is governed by pressure and gravity forces only and examine Newton’s second law as it applies to a fluid particle in the form: 1Net pressure force on particle2  1net gravity force on particle2  1particle mass2  1particle acceleration2 Inviscid fluid flow is governed by pressure and gravity forces. z x y Rectangular z θ r Cylindrical The results of the interaction between the pressure, gravity, and acceleration provide numerous useful applications in fluid mechanics. To apply Newton’s second law to a fluid 1or any other object2, we must define an appropriate coordinate system in which to describe the motion. In general the motion will be threedimensional and unsteady so that three space coordinates and time are needed to describe it. There are numerous coordinate systems available, including the most often used rectangular 1x, y, z2 and cylindrical 1r, u, z2 systems shown by the figures in the margin. Usually the specific flow geometry dictates which system would be most appropriate. In this chapter we will be concerned with two-dimensional motion like that confined to the x–z plane as is shown in Fig. 3.1a. Clearly we could choose to describe the flow in terms of the components of acceleration and forces in the x and z coordinate directions. The resulting equations are frequently referred to as a two-dimensional form of the Euler equations of motion in rectangular Cartesian coordinates. This approach will be discussed in Chapter 6. As is done in the study of dynamics 1Ref. 12, the motion of each fluid particle is described in terms of its velocity vector, V, which is defined as the time rate of change of the position of the particle. The particle’s velocity is a vector quantity with a magnitude 1the speed, V  0 V 0 2 and direction. As the particle moves about, it follows a particular path, the shape of which is governed by the velocity of the particle. The location of the particle along the path is a function of where the particle started at the initial time and its velocity along the path. If it is steady flow 1i.e., nothing changes with time at a given location in the flow field2, each successive particle that passes through a given point [such as point 112 in Fig. 3.1a] will follow the same path. For such cases the path is a fixed line in the x–z plane. Neighboring particles that pass on either side of point 112 follow their own paths, which may be of a different shape than the one passing through 112. The entire x–z plane is filled with such paths. For steady flows each particle slides along its path, and its velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the path. The lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the flow field are called streamlines. For many situations it is easiest to describe the flow in terms of the z z Fluid particle V (2) s (1) ᏾ = ᏾(s) n = n1 n n=0 V Streamlines (a) x (b) ■ Figure 3.1 (a) Flow in the x–z plane. (b) Flow in terms of streamline and normal coordinates. x 3.1 Fluid particles accelerate normal to and along streamlines. V3.1 Streamlines past an airfoil as = an = 0 103 “streamline” coordinates based on the streamlines as are illustrated in Fig. 3.1b. The particle motion is described in terms of its distance, s  s1t2, along the streamline from some convenient origin and the local radius of curvature of the streamline, r  r1s2. The distance along the streamline is related to the particle’s speed by V  dsdt, and the radius of curvature is related to the shape of the streamline. In addition to the coordinate along the streamline, s, the coordinate normal to the streamline, n, as is shown in Fig. 3.1b, will be of use. To apply Newton’s second law to a particle flowing along its streamline, we must write the particle acceleration in terms of the streamline coordinates. By definition, the acceleration is the time rate of change of the velocity of the particle, a  dVdt. For two-dimensional flow in the x–z plane, the acceleration has two components—one along the streamline, as, the streamwise acceleration, and one normal to the streamline, an, the normal acceleration. The streamwise acceleration results from the fact that the speed of the particle generally varies along the streamline, V  V1s2. For example, in Fig. 3.1a the speed may be 50 ft s at point 112 and 100 ft s at point 122. Thus, by use of the chain rule of differentiation, the s component of the acceleration is given by as  dVdt  10V0s21dsdt2  10V0s2V. We have used the fact that speed is the time rate of change of distance, V  dsdt. Note that the streamwise acceleration is the product of the rate of change of speed with distance along the streamline, 0V0s, and the speed, V. Since 0V0s can be positive, negative, or zero, the streamwise acceleration can, therefore, be positive (acceleration), negative (deceleration), or zero (constant speed). The normal component of acceleration, the centrifugal acceleration, is given in terms of the particle speed and the radius of curvature of its path. Thus, an  V 2 r, where both V and r may vary along the streamline. These equations for the acceleration should be familiar from the study of particle motion in physics 1Ref. 22 or dynamics 1Ref. 12. A more complete derivation and discussion of these topics can be found in Chapter 4. Thus, the components of acceleration in the s and n directions, as and an, are given by as  V as > 0 as < 0 Newton’s Second Law 0V , 0s an  V2 r (3.1) where r is the local radius of curvature of the streamline, and s is the distance measured along the streamline from some arbitrary initial point. In general there is acceleration along the streamline 1because the particle speed changes along its path, 0V0s  02 and acceleration normal to the streamline 1because the particle does not flow in a straight line, r  q 2. Various flows and the accelerations associated with them are shown in the figure in the margin. As discussed in Section 3.6.2, for incompressible flow the velocity is inversely proportional to the streamline spacing. Hence, converging streamlines produce positive streamwise acceleration. To produce this acceleration there must be a net, nonzero force on the fluid particle. To determine the forces necessary to produce a given flow 1or conversely, what flow results from a given set of forces2, we consider the free-body diagram of a small fluid particle as is shown in Fig. 3.2. The particle of interest is removed from its surroundings, and the reactions of the surroundings on the particle are indicated by the appropriate forces present, F1, F2, and so forth. For the present case, the important forces are assumed to be gravity and pressure. Other forces, an > 0 z Fluid particle F5 F4 θ as > 0, an > 0 Streamline F1 F3 F2 x ■ Figure 3.2 Isolation of a small fluid particle in a flow field. (Photo courtesy of Diana Sailplanes.) g 104 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation such as viscous forces and surface tension effects, are assumed negligible. The acceleration of gravity, g, is assumed to be constant and acts vertically, in the negative z direction, at an angle u relative to the normal to the streamline. 3.2 F ⴝ ma along a Streamline Consider the small fluid particle of size ds by dn in the plane of the figure and dy normal to the figure as shown in the free-body diagram of Fig. 3.3. Unit vectors along and normal to the streamline are denoted by ŝ and n̂, respectively. For steady flow, the component of Newton’s second law along the streamline direction, s, can be written as 0V 0V V a dFs  dm as  dm V 0s  r dV 0s (3.2) where g dFs represents the sum of the s components of all the forces acting on the particle, which has mass dm  r dV   ds dn dy is , and V 0V0s is the acceleration in the s direction. Here, dV the particle volume. Equation 3.2 is valid for both compressible and incompressible fluids. That is, the density need not be constant throughout the flow field. The gravity force 1weight2 on the particle can be written as dw  g dV , where g  rg is the specific weight of the fluid 1lbft3 or Nm3 2. Hence, the component of the weight force in the direction of the streamline is dws  dw sin u  g dV  sin u In a flowing fluid the pressure varies from one location to another. If the streamline is horizontal at the point of interest, then u  0, and there is no component of particle weight along the streamline to contribute to its acceleration in that direction. As is indicated in Chapter 2, the pressure is not constant throughout a stationary fluid 1§p  02 because of the fluid weight. Likewise, in a flowing fluid the pressure is usually not constant. In general, for steady flow, p  p1s, n2. If the pressure at the center of the particle shown in Fig. 3.3 is denoted as p, then its average value on the two end faces that are perpendicular to the streamline are p  dps and p  dps. Since the particle is “small,” we can use a one-term Taylor series expansion for the pressure field 1as was done in Chapter 2 for the pressure forces in static fluids2 to obtain dps  0p ds 0s 2 g  (p + δ pn) δ s δ y τ δs δ y = 0 Particle thickness = δ y θ n (p + δ ps) δ n δ y δs s δn δ n δ θ δ s (p – δ ps) δ n δ y δs δz θ Along streamline τ δs δ y = 0 θ δz δn (p – δ pn) δ s δ y Normal to streamline ■ Figure 3.3 Free-body diagram of a fluid particle for which the important forces are those due to pressure and gravity. F ⴝ ma along a Streamline 3.2 105 Thus, if dFps is the net pressure force on the particle in the streamline direction, it follows that dFps  1 p  dps 2 dn dy  1 p  dps 2 dn dy  2 dps dn dy 0p 0p    ds dn dy   dV 0s 0s The net pressure force on a particle is determined by the pressure gradient. Note that the actual level of the pressure, p, is not important. What produces a net pressure force is the fact that the pressure is not constant throughout the fluid. The nonzero pressure gradient, §p  0p  0s ŝ  0p 0n n̂, is what provides a net pressure force on the particle. Viscous forces, represented by t ds dy, are zero, since the fluid is inviscid. Thus, the net force acting in the streamline direction on the particle shown in Fig. 3.3 is given by 0p  a dFs  dws  dFps  ag sin u  0s b dV (3.3) By combining Eqs. 3.2 and 3.3, we obtain the following equation of motion along the streamline direction: g sin u  0p 0V  rV  ras 0s 0s (3.4) V, that appears in both the force and We have divided out the common particle volume factor, d  the acceleration portions of the equation. This is a representation of the fact that it is the fluid density 1mass per unit volume2, not the mass, per se, of the fluid particle that is important. The physical interpretation of Eq. 3.4 is that a change in fluid particle speed is accomplished by the appropriate combination of pressure gradient and particle weight along the streamline. For fluid static situations this balance between pressure and gravity forces is such that no change in particle speed is produced—the right-hand side of Eq. 3.4 is zero, and the particle remains stationary. In a flowing fluid the pressure and weight forces do not necessarily balance—the force unbalance provides the appropriate acceleration and, hence, particle motion. E XAMPLE 3.1 Pressure Variation along a Streamline GIVEN Consider the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow along the horizontal streamline A–B in front of the sphere of radius a, as shown in Fig. E3.1a. From a more advanced theory of flow past a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is V  V0 a1  a3 b x3 FIND Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from point A far in front of the sphere 1xA   and VA  V0 2 to point B on the sphere 1xB  a and VB  02. 1 Vo as shown in Fig. E3.1b. 0.75 Vo z V VA = VO ˆi V = V ˆi VB = 0 B A x a 0.5 Vo 0.25 Vo 0 –3a –2a –1a 0 x (b) (a) ∂__ p ∂x –3a –2a –a (c) p 0.610 ρV02/a 0 x 0.5 ρV02 –3a –2a –a (d) 0 x ■ Figure E3.1 106 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation SOLUTION Since the flow is steady and inviscid, Eq. 3.4 is valid. In addition, since the streamline is horizontal, sin u  sin 0°  0 and the equation of motion along the streamline reduces to 0p 0V  rV 0s 0s (1) With the given velocity variation along the streamline, the acceleration term is V 3V0 a3 0V 0V a3 V  V0 a1  3 b a 4 b 0s 0x x x 3 3 a a  3V 20 a1  3 b 4 x x 1ax2 6 a 3 d p  rV 20 c a b  x 2 3ra3V 20 11  a3x3 2 0p  0x x4 l u i d s n = constant n s p = p(s) VB  0, is the highest pressure along the streamline 1 pB  rV 20 22. As shown in Chapter 9, this excess pressure on the front of the sphere 1i.e., pB 7 02 contributes to the net drag force on the sphere. Note that the pressure gradient and pressure are directly proportional to the density of the fluid, a representation of the fact that the fluid inertia is proportional to its mass. (2) i n Incorrect raindrop shape The incorrect representation that raindrops are teardrop shaped is found nearly everywhere— from children’s books to weather maps on the Weather Channel. About the only time raindrops possess the typical teardrop shape is when they run down a windowpane. The actual shape of a falling raindrop is a function of the size of the drop and results from a balance between surface tension forces and the air pressure exerted on the falling drop. Small drops with a radius less than about 0.5 mm have a spherical shape because the surface tension effect (which is inversely proportional to drop Streamline (Ans) COMMENT The pressure at B, a stagnation point since where we have replaced s by x since the two coordinates are identical 1within an additive constant2 along streamline A–B. It follows that V 0V0s 6 0 along the streamline. The fluid slows down from V0 far ahead of the sphere to zero velocity on the “nose” of the sphere 1x  a2. Thus, according to Eq. 1, to produce the given motion the pressure gradient along the streamline is F This variation is indicated in Fig. E3.1c. It is seen that the pressure increases in the direction of flow 1 0p0x 7 02 from point A to point B. The maximum pressure gradient 10.610 rV 20 a2 occurs just slightly ahead of the sphere 1x  1.205a2. It is the pressure gradient that slows the fluid down from VA  V0 to VB  0 as shown in Fig. E3.1b. The pressure distribution along the streamline can be obtained by integrating Eq. 2 from p  0 1gage2 at x   to pressure p at location x. The result, plotted in Fig. E3.1d, is t h e N e w s size) wins over the increased pressure, rV 202, caused by the motion of the drop and exerted on its bottom. With increasing size, the drops fall faster and the increased pressure causes the drops to flatten. A 2-mm drop, for example, is flattened into a hamburger bun shape. Slightly larger drops are actually concave on the bottom. When the radius is greater than about 4 mm, the depression of the bottom increases and the drop takes on the form of an inverted bag with an annular ring of water around its base. This ring finally breaks up into smaller drops. Equation 3.4 can be rearranged and integrated as follows. First, we note from Fig. 3.3 that along the streamline sin u  dz ds. Also we can write V dVds  12d1V 2 2 ds. Finally, along the streamline the value of n is constant 1dn  02 so that dp  10p0s2 ds  10p0n2 dn  10p0s2 ds. Hence, as indicated by the figure in the margin, along a given streamline p(s, n)  p(s) and 0p0s  dpds. These ideas combined with Eq. 3.4 give the following result valid along a streamline g 2 dp dz 1 d1V 2   r ds ds 2 ds This simplifies to For steady, inviscid flow the sum of certain pressure, velocity, and elevation effects is constant along a streamline. dp  1 rd1V 2 2  g dz  0 2 1along a streamline2 (3.5) which, for constant acceleration of gravity, can be integrated to give  dp 1  V 2  gz  C r 2 1along a streamline2 (3.6) where C is a constant of integration to be determined by the conditions at some point on the streamline. 3.2 F ⴝ ma along a Streamline 107 In general it is not possible to integrate the pressure term because the density may not be constant and, therefore, cannot be removed from under the integral sign. To carry out this integration we must know specifically how the density varies with pressure. This is not always easily determined. For example, for a perfect gas the density, pressure, and temperature are related according to r  pRT, where R is the gas constant. To know how the density varies with pressure, we must also know the temperature variation. For now we will assume that the density and specific weight are constant 1incompressible flow2. The justification for this assumption and the consequences of compressibility will be considered further in Section 3.8.1 and more fully in Chapter 11. With the additional assumption that the density remains constant 1a very good assumption for liquids and also for gases if the speed is “not too high”2, Eq. 3.6 assumes the following simple representation for steady, inviscid, incompressible flow. V3.2 Balancing ball p  12 rV 2  gz  constant along streamline (3.7) This is the celebrated Bernoulli equation—a very powerful tool in fluid mechanics. In 1738 Daniel Bernoulli 11700–17822 published his Hydrodynamics in which an equivalent of this famous equation first appeared. To use it correctly we must constantly remember the basic assumptions used in its derivation: 112 viscous effects are assumed negligible, 122 the flow is assumed to be steady, 132 the flow is assumed to be incompressible, and 142 the equation is applicable along a streamline. In the derivation of Eq. 3.7, we assume that the flow takes place in a plane 1the x–z plane2. In general, this equation is valid for both planar and nonplanar 1three-dimensional2 flows, provided it is applied along the streamline. We will provide many examples to illustrate the correct use of the Bernoulli equation and will show how a violation of the basic assumptions used in the derivation of this equation can lead to erroneous conclusions. The constant of integration in the Bernoulli equation can be evaluated if sufficient information about the flow is known at one location along the streamline. V3.3 Flow past a biker E XAMPLE 3.2 The Bernoulli Equation GIVEN Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still air with velocity V0, as is shown in Fig. E3.2. V2 = 0 FIND Determine the difference in the pressure between points 112 and 122. (2) V1 = V0 (1) SOLUTION In a coordinate fixed to the ground, the flow is unsteady as the bicyclist rides by. However, in a coordinate system fixed to the bike, it appears as though the air is flowing steadily toward the bicyclist with speed V0. Since use of the Bernoulli equation is restricted to steady flows, we select the coordinate system fixed to the bike. If the assumptions of Bernoulli’s equation are valid 1steady, incompressible, inviscid flow2, Eq. 3.7 can be applied as follows along the streamline that passes through 112 and 122 p1  12 rV 21  gz1  p2  12 rV 22  gz2 We consider 112 to be in the free stream so that V1  V0 and 122 to be at the tip of the bicyclist’s nose and assume that z1  z2 and V2  0 1both of which, as is discussed in Section 3.4, are reasonable assumptions2. It follows that the pressure at 122 is greater than that at 112 by an amount p2  p1  12 rV 21  12 rV 20 (Ans) COMMENTS A similar result was obtained in Example 3.1 by integrating the pressure gradient, which was known because ■ Figure E3.2 the velocity distribution along the streamline, V1s2, was known. The Bernoulli equation is a general integration of F  ma. To determine p2  p1, knowledge of the detailed velocity distribution is not needed—only the “boundary conditions” at 112 and 122 are required. Of course, knowledge of the value of V along the streamline is needed to determine the pressure at points between 112 and 122. Note that if we measure p2  p1 we can determine the speed, V0. As discussed in Section 3.5, this is the principle on which many velocity-measuring devices are based. If the bicyclist were accelerating or decelerating, the flow would be unsteady 1i.e., V0  constant2 and the above analysis would be incorrect since Eq. 3.7 is restricted to steady flow. 108 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation The difference in fluid velocity between two points in a flow field, V1 and V2, can often be controlled by appropriate geometric constraints of the fluid. For example, a garden hose nozzle is designed to give a much higher velocity at the exit of the nozzle than at its entrance where it is attached to the hose. As is shown by the Bernoulli equation, the pressure within the hose must be larger than that at the exit 1for constant elevation, an increase in velocity requires a decrease in pressure if Eq. 3.7 is valid2. It is this pressure drop that accelerates the water through the nozzle. Similarly, an airfoil is designed so that the fluid velocity over its upper surface is greater 1on the average2 than that along its lower surface. From the Bernoulli equation, therefore, the average pressure on the lower surface is greater than that on the upper surface. A net upward force, the lift, results. F ⴝ ma Normal to a Streamline 3.3 V3.4 Hydrocyclone separator In this section we will consider application of Newton’s second law in a direction normal to the streamline. In many flows the streamlines are relatively straight, the flow is essentially one-dimensional, and variations in parameters across streamlines 1in the normal direction2 can often be neglected when compared to the variations along the streamline. However, in numerous other situations valuable information can be obtained from considering F  ma normal to the streamlines. For example, the devastating low-pressure region at the center of a tornado can be explained by applying Newton’s second law across the nearly circular streamlines of the tornado. We again consider the force balance on the fluid particle shown in Fig. 3.3 and the figure in the margin. This time, however, we consider components in the normal direction, n̂, and write Newton’s second law in this direction as a dFn   n V δm r dV  V2 dm V 2  r r (3.8) where g dFn represents the sum of n components of all the forces acting on the particle and dm is particle mass. We assume the flow is steady with a normal acceleration an  V 2r, where r is the local radius of curvature of the streamlines. This acceleration is produced by the change in direction of the particle’s velocity as it moves along a curved path. We again assume that the only forces of importance are pressure and gravity. The component of the weight 1gravity force2 in the normal direction is dwn  dw cos u  g dV  cos u To apply F  ma normal to streamlines, the normal components of force are needed. If the streamline is vertical at the point of interest, u  90°, and there is no component of the particle weight normal to the direction of flow to contribute to its acceleration in that direction. If the pressure at the center of the particle is p, then its values on the top and bottom of the particle are p  dpn and p  dpn, where dpn  10p0n21dn22. Thus, if dFpn is the net pressure force on the particle in the normal direction, it follows that dFpn  1 p  dpn 2 ds dy  1 p  dpn 2 ds dy  2 dpn ds dy  V3.5 Aircraft wing tip vortex 0p 0p ds dn dy   dV 0n 0n Hence, the net force acting in the normal direction on the particle shown in Fig 3.3 is given by 0p  a dFn  dwn  dFpn  ag cos u  0n b dV (3.9) By combining Eqs. 3.8 and 3.9 and using the fact that along a line normal to the streamline cos u  dzdn 1see Fig. 3.32, we obtain the following equation of motion along the normal direction: g 0p rV 2 dz   dn 0n r (3.10a) Weight and/or pressure can produce curved streamlines. 109 F ⴝ ma Normal to a Streamline 3.3 The physical interpretation of Eq. 3.10 is that a change in the direction of flow of a fluid particle 1i.e., a curved path, r 6 q 2 is accomplished by the appropriate combination of pressure gradient and particle weight normal to the streamline. A larger speed or density or a smaller radius of curvature of the motion requires a larger force unbalance to produce the motion. For example, if gravity is neglected 1as is commonly done for gas flows2 or if the flow is in a horizontal 1dz dn  02 plane, Eq. 3.10 becomes 0p rV 2  0n r (3.10b) This indicates that the pressure increases with distance away from the center of curvature 1 0p0n is negative since rV 2r is positive—the positive n direction points toward the “inside” of the curved streamline2. Thus, the pressure outside a tornado 1typical atmospheric pressure2 is larger than it is near the center of the tornado 1where an often dangerously low partial vacuum may occur2. This pressure difference is needed to balance the centrifugal acceleration associated with the curved streamlines of the fluid motion. (See Fig. E6.6a in Section 6.5.3.) V3.6 Free vortex E XAMPLE 3.3 Pressure Variation Normal to a Streamline y y GIVEN Shown in Figs. E3.3a,b are two flow fields with circular streamlines. The velocity distributions are V1r2  1V0 /r0 2r and V1r2  1V0 r0 2 r V = (V0 /r0)r for case (a) r= for case (b) V = (V0 r0)/r x n x (a) where V0 is the velocity at r  r0. (b) 6 FIND Determine the pressure distributions, p  p(r), for each, (a) given that p  p0 at r  r0. 4 2 SOLUTION p – p0 We assume the flows are steady, inviscid, and incompressible with streamlines in the horizontal plane (dz/dn  0). Because the streamlines are circles, the coordinate n points in a direction opposite that of the radial coordinate, ∂/∂n  ∂/∂r, and the radius of curvature is given by r  r. Hence, Eq. 3.10b becomes 0p rV 2  r 0r 0 (b) 2 4 6 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 r/r0 (c) For case (a) this gives ■ Figure E3.3 0p  r1V0 /r0 2 2r 0r whereas for case (b) it gives for case (a) and r1V0 r0 2 2 0p  0r r3 For either case the pressure increases as r increases since ∂p/∂r 0. Integration of these equations with respect to r, starting with a known pressure p  p0 at r  r0, gives p  p0  1rV0222 3 1r /r0 2 2  14 ρV 02/2 (Ans) p  p0  1rV0222 3 1  1r0 / r2 2 4 (Ans) for case (b). These pressure distributions are shown in Fig. E3.3c. COMMENT The pressure distributions needed to balance the centrifugal accelerations in cases (a) and (b) are not the same because the velocity distributions are different. In fact, for case (a) the 110 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation pressure increases without bound as r → q , whereas for case (b) the pressure approaches a finite value as r → q . The streamline patterns are the same for each case, however. Physically, case (a) represents rigid-body rotation (as obtained in a can of water on a turntable after it has been “spun up”) and The sum of pressure, elevation, and velocity effects is constant across streamlines. case (b) represents a free vortex (an approximation to a tornado, a hurricane, or the swirl of water in a drain, the “bathtub vortex”). See Fig. E6.6 for an approximation of this type of flow. If we multiply Eq. 3.10 by dn, use the fact that 0p0n  dpdn if s is constant, and integrate across the streamline 1in the n direction2 we obtain  dp  r  r dn  gz  constant across the streamline V2 (3.11) To complete the indicated integrations, we must know how the density varies with pressure and how the fluid speed and radius of curvature vary with n. For incompressible flow the density is constant and the integration involving the pressure term gives simply pr. We are still left, however, with the integration of the second term in Eq. 3.11. Without knowing the n dependence in V  V1s, n2 and r  r1s, n2 this integration cannot be completed. Thus, the final form of Newton’s second law applied across the streamlines for steady, inviscid, incompressible flow is pr  r dn  gz  constant across the streamline V2 (3.12) As with the Bernoulli equation, we must be careful that the assumptions involved in the derivation of this equation are not violated when it is used. 3.4 Physical Interpretation In the previous two sections, we developed the basic equations governing fluid motion under a fairly stringent set of restrictions. In spite of the numerous assumptions imposed on these flows, a variety of flows can be readily analyzed with them. A physical interpretation of the equations will be of help in understanding the processes involved. To this end, we rewrite Eqs. 3.7 and 3.12 here and interpret them physically. Application of F  ma along and normal to the streamline results in p  12 rV 2  gz  constant along the streamline (3.13) and pr z p + 1 rV2 + gz 2 = constant p + r  V dn + gz  2 = constant  V2 dn  gz  constant across the streamline r (3.14) as indicated by the figure in the margin. The following basic assumptions were made to obtain these equations: The flow is steady, and the fluid is inviscid and incompressible. In practice none of these assumptions is exactly true. A violation of one or more of the above assumptions is a common cause for obtaining an incorrect match between the “real world” and solutions obtained by use of the Bernoulli equation. Fortunately, many “real-world” situations are adequately modeled by the use of Eqs. 3.13 and 3.14 because the flow is nearly steady and incompressible and the fluid behaves as if it were nearly inviscid. The Bernoulli equation was obtained by integration of the equation of motion along the “natural” coordinate direction of the streamline. To produce an acceleration, there must be an unbalance of the resultant forces, of which only pressure and gravity were considered to be important. Thus, 3.4 Physical Interpretation 111 there are three processes involved in the flow—mass times acceleration 1the rV 22 term2, pressure 1the p term2, and weight 1the gz term2. Integration of the equation of motion to give Eq. 3.13 actually corresponds to the work– energy principle often used in the study of dynamics [see any standard dynamics text 1Ref. 12]. This principle results from a general integration of the equations of motion for an object in a way very similar to that done for the fluid particle in Section 3.2. With certain assumptions, a statement of the work–energy principle may be written as follows: The work done on a particle by all forces acting on the particle is equal to the change of the kinetic energy of the particle. The Bernoulli equation can be written in terms of heights called heads. E XAMPLE The Bernoulli equation is a mathematical statement of this principle. As the fluid particle moves, both gravity and pressure forces do work on the particle. Recall that the work done by a force is equal to the product of the distance the particle travels times the component of force in the direction of travel 1i.e., work  F ⴢ d2. The terms gz and p in Eq. 3.13 are related to the work done by the weight and pressure forces, respectively. The remaining term, rV 22, is obviously related to the kinetic energy of the particle. In fact, an alternate method of deriving the Bernoulli equation is to use the first and second laws of thermodynamics 1the energy and entropy equations2, rather than Newton’s second law. With the appropriate restrictions, the general energy equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. This approach is discussed in Section 5.4. An alternate but equivalent form of the Bernoulli equation is obtained by dividing each term of Eq. 3.7 by the specific weight, g, to obtain p V2   z  constant on a streamline g 2g Each of the terms in this equation has the units of energy per weight 1LFF  L2 or length 1feet, meters2 and represents a certain type of head. The elevation term, z, is related to the potential energy of the particle and is called the elevation head. The pressure term, p g, is called the pressure head and represents the height of a column of the fluid that is needed to produce the pressure p. The velocity term, V 22g, is the velocity head and represents the vertical distance needed for the fluid to fall freely 1neglecting friction2 if it is to reach velocity V from rest. The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the pressure head, the velocity head, and the elevation head is constant along a streamline. 3.4 Kinetic, Potential, and Pressure Energy GIVEN Consider the flow of water from the syringe shown in Fig. E3.4a. As indicated in Fig. E3.4b, a force, F, applied to the (3) g plunger will produce a pressure greater than atmospheric at point 112 within the syringe. The water flows from the needle, point 122, with relatively high velocity and coasts up to point 132 at the top of its trajectory. FIND Discuss the energy of the fluid at points 112, 122, and 132 by using the Bernoulli equation. (2) Energy Type (1) Point 1 2 3 F (a) ■ Figure E3.4 (b) Kinetic RV 22 Potential Gz Pressure p Small Large Zero Zero Small Large Large Zero Zero 112 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation SOLUTION If the assumptions 1steady, inviscid, incompressible flow2 of the Bernoulli equation are approximately valid, it then follows that the flow can be explained in terms of the partition of the total energy of the water. According to Eq. 3.13, the sum of the three types of energy 1kinetic, potential, and pressure2 or heads 1velocity, elevation, and pressure2 must remain constant. The table above indicates the relative magnitude of each of these energies at the three points shown in the figure. The motion results in 1or is due to2 a change in the magnitude of each type of energy as the fluid flows from one location to another. An alternate way to consider this flow is as follows. The F l u i d s i E XAMPLE COMMENT If friction 1viscous2 effects were important, there would be an energy loss between 112 and 132 and for the given p1 the water would not be able to reach the height indicated in the figure. Such friction may arise in the needle 1see Chapter 8 on pipe flow2 or between the water stream and the surrounding air 1see Chapter 9 on external flow2. n Armed with a water jet for hunting Archerfish, known for their ability to shoot down insects resting on foliage, are like submarine water pistols. With their snout sticking out of the water, they eject a high-speed water jet at their prey, knocking it onto the water surface where they snare it for their meal. The barrel of their water pistol is formed by placing their tongue against a groove in the roof of their mouth to form a tube. By snapping shut their gills, water is forced through the tube and directed with the tip of The pressure variation across straight streamlines is hydrostatic. pressure gradient between 112 and 122 produces an acceleration to eject the water from the needle. Gravity acting on the particle between 122 and 132 produces a deceleration to cause the water to come to a momentary stop at the top of its flight. t h e N e w s their tongue. The archerfish can produce a pressure head within their gills large enough so that the jet can reach 2 to 3 m. However, it is accurate to only about 1 m. Recent research has shown that archerfish are very adept at calculating where their prey will fall. Within 100 milliseconds (a reaction time twice as fast as a human’s), the fish has extracted all the information needed to predict the point where the prey will hit the water. Without further visual cues it charges directly to that point. A net force is required to accelerate any mass. For steady flow the acceleration can be interpreted as arising from two distinct occurrences—a change in speed along the streamline and a change in direction if the streamline is not straight. Integration of the equation of motion along the streamline accounts for the change in speed 1kinetic energy change2 and results in the Bernoulli equation. Integration of the equation of motion normal to the streamline accounts for the centrifugal acceleration 1V 2 r2 and results in Eq. 3.14. When a fluid particle travels along a curved path, a net force directed toward the center of curvature is required. Under the assumptions valid for Eq. 3.14, this force may be either gravity or pressure, or a combination of both. In many instances the streamlines are nearly straight 1r  q 2 so that centrifugal effects are negligible and the pressure variation across the streamlines is merely hydrostatic 1because of gravity alone2, even though the fluid is in motion. 3.5 Pressure Variation in a Flowing Stream GIVEN Water flows in a curved, undulating waterslide as shown in Fig. E3.5a. As an approximation to this flow, consider z (4) Free surface (p = 0) g (2) (3) h4-3 ^ n h2-1 C (1) A D  B ■ Figure E3.5b the inviscid, incompressible, steady flow shown in Fig. E3.5b. From section A to B the streamlines are straight, while from C to D they follow circular paths. ■ Figure E3.5a (Photo courtesy of Schlitterbahn® Waterparks.) FIND Describe the pressure variation between points 112 and 122 and points 132 and 142. 3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure 113 SOLUTION With the above assumptions and the fact that r   for the portion from A to B, Eq. 3.14 becomes With p4  0 and z4  z3  h4–3 this becomes p3  gh4–3  r p  gz  constant z3 The constant can be determined by evaluating the known variables at the two locations using p2  0 1gage2, z1  0, and z2  h2–1 to give p1  p2  g1z2  z1 2  p2  gh2–1 (Ans) Note that since the radius of curvature of the streamline is infinite, the pressure variation in the vertical direction is the same as if the fluid were stationary. However, if we apply Eq. 3.14, between points 132 and 142, we obtain 1using dn  dz2 p4  r  z4 z3 3.5  z4 V2 1dz2  gz4  p3  gz3 r V2 dz r (Ans) To evaluate the integral, we must know the variation of V and r with z. Even without this detailed information we note that the integral has a positive value. Thus, the pressure at 132 is less than the hydrostatic value, gh4–3, by an amount equal to r zz34 1V 2 r2 dz. This lower pressure, caused by the curved streamline, is necessary to accelerate the fluid around the curved path. COMMENT Note that we did not apply the Bernoulli equation 1Eq. 3.132 across the streamlines from 112 to 122 or 132 to 142. Rather we used Eq. 3.14. As is discussed in Section 3.8, application of the Bernoulli equation across streamlines 1rather than along them2 may lead to serious errors. Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure Each term in the Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as a form of pressure. A useful concept associated with the Bernoulli equation deals with the stagnation and dynamic pressures. These pressures arise from the conversion of kinetic energy in a flowing fluid into a “pressure rise” as the fluid is brought to rest 1as in Example 3.22. In this section we explore various results of this process. Each term of the Bernoulli equation, Eq. 3.13, has the dimensions of force per unit area—psi, lb ft2, Nm2. The first term, p, is the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid as it flows. To measure its value, one could move along with the fluid, thus being “static” relative to the moving fluid. Hence, it is normally termed the static pressure. Another way to measure the static pressure would be to drill a hole in a flat surface and fasten a piezometer tube as indicated by the location of point 132 in Fig. 3.4. As we saw in Example 3.5, the pressure in the flowing fluid at 112 is p1  gh3–1  p3, the same as if the fluid were static. From the manometer considerations of Chapter 2, we know that p3  gh4–3. Thus, since h3–1  h4–3  h it follows that p1  gh. The third term in Eq. 3.13, gz, is termed the hydrostatic pressure, in obvious regard to the hydrostatic pressure variation discussed in Chapter 2. It is not actually a pressure but does represent the change in pressure possible due to potential energy variations of the fluid as a result of elevation changes. The second term in the Bernoulli equation, rV 2 2, is termed the dynamic pressure. Its interpretation can be seen in Fig. 3.4 by considering the pressure at the end of a small tube inserted into the flow and pointing upstream. After the initial transient motion has died out, the liquid will fill the tube to a height of H as shown. The fluid in the tube, including that at its tip, 122, will be stationary. That is, V2  0, or point 122 is a stagnation point. If we apply the Bernoulli equation between points 112 and 122, using V2  0 and assuming that z1  z2, we find that p2  p1  12 rV 21 Open (4) H h h4-3 V h3-1 (3) ρ (1) (2) V1 = V V2 = 0 ■ Figure 3.4 Measurement of static and stagnation pressures. 114 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation Stagnation streamline Stagnation point Stagnation point (b) (a) ■ Figure 3.5 Stagnation points. Hence, the pressure at the stagnation point is greater than the static pressure, p1, by an amount rV 21 2, the dynamic pressure. It can be shown that there is a stagnation point on any stationary body that is placed into a flowing fluid. Some of the fluid flows “over” and some “under” the object. The dividing line 1or surface for three-dimensional flows2 is termed the stagnation streamline and terminates at the stagnation point on the body. 1See the photograph at the beginning of the chapter.2 For symmetrical objects 1such as a baseball2 the stagnation point is clearly at the tip or front of the object as shown in Fig. 3.5a. For other flows such as a water jet against a car as shown in Fig. 3.5b, there is also a stagnation point on the car. If elevation effects are neglected, the stagnation pressure, p  rV 2 2, is the largest pressure obtainable along a given streamline. It represents the conversion of all of the kinetic energy into a pressure rise. The sum of the static pressure, hydrostatic pressure, and dynamic pressure is termed the total pressure, pT. The Bernoulli equation is a statement that the total pressure remains constant along a streamline. That is, V3.7 Stagnation point flow p  12 rV 2  gz  pT  constant along a streamline (3.15) Again, we must be careful that the assumptions used in the derivation of this equation are appropriate for the flow being considered. F l u i d s i n Pressurized eyes Our eyes need a certain amount of internal pressure in order to work properly, with the normal range being between 10 and 20 mm of mercury. The pressure is determined by a balance between the fluid entering and leaving the eye. If the pressure is above the normal level, damage may occur to the optic nerve where it leaves the eye, leading to a loss of the visual field termed glaucoma. Measurement of the pressure within the eye can be done by several different noninvasive types of instru- t h e N e w s ments, all of which measure the slight deformation of the eyeball when a force is put on it. Some methods use a physical probe that makes contact with the front of the eye, applies a known force, and measures the deformation. One noncontact method uses a calibrated “puff” of air that is blown against the eye. The stagnation pressure resulting from the air blowing against the eyeball causes a slight deformation, the magnitude of which is correlated with the pressure within the eyeball. (See Problem 3.28.) Knowledge of the values of the static and stagnation pressures in a fluid implies that the fluid speed can be calculated. This is the principle on which the Pitot-static tube is based [H. de Pitot (1695–1771)]. As shown in Fig. 3.6, two concentric tubes are attached to two pressure gages 1or a differential gage2 so that the values of p3 and p4 1or the difference p3  p42 can be determined. The center tube measures the stagnation pressure at its open tip. If elevation changes are negligible, p3  p  12 rV 2 3.5 115 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure (3) (2) (1) (4) (1) V p (2) (a) (b) ■ Figure 3.6 The Pitot-static tube. where p and V are the pressure and velocity of the fluid upstream of point 122. The outer tube is made with several small holes at an appropriate distance from the tip so that they measure the static pressure. If the effect of the elevation difference between 112 and 142 is negligible, then p4  p1  p By combining these two equations we see that Pitot-static tubes measure fluid velocity by converting velocity into pressure. p3  p4  12 rV 2 which can be rearranged to give V  221 p3  p4 2 r (3.16) The actual shape and size of Pitot-static tubes vary considerably. A typical Pitot-static probe used to determine aircraft airspeed is shown in Fig. 3.7. (See Fig. E3.6a also.) F l u i d s i n t Bugged and plugged Pitot tubes Although a Pitot tube is a simple device for measuring aircraft airspeed, many airplane accidents have been caused by inaccurate Pitot tube readings. Most of these accidents are the result of having one or more of the holes blocked and, therefore, not indicating the correct pressure (speed). Usually this is discovered during takeoff when time to resolve the issue is short. The two most common causes for such a blockage are either that the pilot (or ground crew) has forgotten to remove the protective Pitot tube cover or that insects have built h e N e w s their nest within the tube where the standard visual check cannot detect it. The most serious accident (in terms of number of fatalities) caused by a blocked Pitot tube involved a Boeing 757 and occurred shortly after takeoff from Puerto Plata in the Dominican Republic. Incorrect airspeed data were automatically fed to the computer, causing the autopilot to change the angle of attack and the engine power. The flight crew became confused by the false indications; the aircraft stalled and then plunged into the Caribbean Sea killing all aboard. Four static pressure ports Heated outer case Stagnation pressure port V3.8 Airspeed indicator Mounting flange 2 in. Stagnation pressure fitting Static pressure fitting Heater leads (a) ■ Figure 3.7 Airplane Pitot-static probe. (a) Schematic, (b) Photograph. (Photograph courtesy of Aero-Instruments Co., LLC.) (b) 116 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation E XAMPLE 3.6 Pitot-Static Tube GIVEN An airplane flies 200 mph at an elevation of 10,000 ft in a standard atmosphere as shown in Fig. E3.6a. FIND Determine the pressure at point 112 far ahead of the air- plane, the pressure at the stagnation point on the nose of the airplane, point 122, and the pressure difference indicated by a Pitotstatic probe attached to the fuselage. SOLUTION (2) (1) V1 = 200 mph Pitot-static tube ■ Figure E3.6a (Photo courtesy of Hawker Beechcraft Corporation.) From Table C.1 we find that the static pressure at the altitude given is p1  1456 lbft2 1abs2  10.11 psia 1 Also the density is r  0.001756 slugft3. If the flow is steady, inviscid, and incompressible and elevation changes are neglected, Eq. 3.13 becomes 0.8 p1/p2 (Ans) rV 21 p2  p1  2 p2  1456 lbft2  10.001756 slugsft3 212932 ft2s2 2 2  11456  75.42 lbft2 1abs2 Hence, in terms of gage pressure p2  75.4 lbft2  0.524 psi (Ans) Thus, the pressure difference indicated by the Pitot-static tube is rV 21  0.524 psi 2 (Ans) COMMENTS Note that it is very easy to obtain incorrect results by using improper units. Do not add lb in.2 and lb ft2. Recall that 1slugft3 21ft2 s2 2  1slug # fts2 2  1ft2 2  lbft2. Accurate measurement of static pressure requires great care. 0.6 0.4 0.2 With V1  200 mph  293 fts and V2  0 1since the coordinate system is fixed to the airplane2, we obtain p2  p1  (200 mph, 0.951) 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 V1, mph ■ Figure E3.6b It was assumed that the flow is incompressible—the density remains constant from 112 to 122. However, since r  pRT, a change in pressure 1or temperature2 will cause a change in density. For this relatively low speed, the ratio of the absolute pressures is nearly unity 3i.e., p1p2  110.11 psia2  110.11  0.524 psia2  0.951 4, so that the density change is negligible. However, by repeating the calculations for various values of the speed, V1, the results shown in Fig. E3.6b are obtained. Clearly at the 500- to 600-mph speeds normally flown by commercial airliners, the pressure ratio is such that density changes are important. In such situations it is necessary to use compressible flow concepts to obtain accurate results. 1See Section 3.8.1 and Chapter 11.2 The Pitot-static tube provides a simple, relatively inexpensive way to measure fluid speed. Its use depends on the ability to measure the static and stagnation pressures. Care is needed to obtain these values accurately. For example, an accurate measurement of static pressure requires that none of the fluid’s kinetic energy be converted into a pressure rise at the point of measurement. This requires a smooth hole with no burrs or imperfections. As indicated in Fig. 3.8, such imperfections can cause the measured pressure to be greater or less than the actual static pressure. Also, the pressure along the surface of an object varies from the stagnation pressure at its stagnation point to values that may be less than the free stream static pressure. A typical pressure variation for a Pitot-static tube is indicated in Fig. 3.9. Clearly it is important that V p V p V p (1) (1) (1) p1 > p p1 < p p1 = p ■ Figure 3.8 Incorrect and correct design of static pressure taps. 3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation 117 p (2) V (1) Stagnation pressure at tip Tube Stagnation pressure on stem Stem (1) (2) 0 Static pressure ■ Figure 3.9 Typical pressure distribution along a Pitotstatic tube. β V p θ (3) (2) β (1) If θ = 0 p1 = p3 = p _ ρ V2 p2 = p + 1 2 ■ Figure 3.10 Cross section of a directional-finding Pitot-static tube. the pressure taps be properly located to ensure that the pressure measured is actually the static pressure. In practice it is often difficult to align the Pitot-static tube directly into the flow direction. Any misalignment will produce a nonsymmetrical flow field that may introduce errors. Typically, yaw angles up to 12 to 20° 1depending on the particular probe design2 give results that are less than 1% in error from the perfectly aligned results. Generally it is more difficult to measure static pressure than stagnation pressure. One method of determining the flow direction and its speed 1thus the velocity2 is to use a directional-finding Pitot tube as is illustrated in Fig. 3.10. Three pressure taps are drilled into a small circular cylinder, fitted with small tubes, and connected to three pressure transducers. The cylinder is rotated until the pressures in the two side holes are equal, thus indicating that the center hole points directly upstream. The center tap then measures the stagnation pressure. The two side holes are located at a specific angle 1b  29.5°2 so that they measure the static pressure. The speed is then obtained from V  321 p2  p1 2 r4 12. The above discussion is valid for incompressible flows. At high speeds, compressibility becomes important 1the density is not constant2 and other phenomena occur. Some of these ideas are discussed in Section 3.8, while others 1such as shockwaves for supersonic Pitot-tube applications2 are discussed in Chapter 11. The concepts of static, dynamic, stagnation, and total pressure are useful in a variety of flow problems. These ideas are used more fully in the remainder of the book. 3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation In this section we illustrate various additional applications of the Bernoulli equation. Between any two points, 112 and 122, on a streamline in steady, inviscid, incompressible flow the Bernoulli equation can be applied in the form p1  12 rV 21  gz1  p2  12 rV 22  gz2 (3.17) Obviously, if five of the six variables are known, the remaining one can be determined. In many instances it is necessary to introduce other equations, such as the conservation of mass. Such considerations will be discussed briefly in this section and in more detail in Chapter 5. 118 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation (1) V3.9 Flow from a tank h z (3)  (2) (2) d H (4) V ■ Figure 3.11 Vertical (5) flow from a tank. 3.6.1 Free Jets One of the oldest equations in fluid mechanics deals with the flow of a liquid from a large reservoir. A modern version of this type of flow involves the flow of coffee from a coffee urn as indicated by the figure in the margin. The basic principles of this type of flow are shown in Fig. 3.11 where a jet of liquid of diameter d flows from the nozzle with velocity V. 1A nozzle is a device shaped to accelerate a fluid.2 Application of Eq. 3.17 between points 112 and 122 on the streamline shown gives gh  12 rV 2 We have used the facts that z1  h, z2  0, the reservoir is large 1V1  02 and open to the atmosphere 1 p1  0 gage2, and the fluid leaves as a “free jet” 1 p2  02. Thus, we obtain V V The exit pressure for an incompressible fluid jet is equal to the surrounding pressure. B 2 gh  12gh r (3.18) which is the modern version of a result obtained in 1643 by Torricelli 11608–16472, an Italian physicist. The fact that the exit pressure equals the surrounding pressure 1 p2  02 can be seen by applying F  ma, as given by Eq. 3.14, across the streamlines between 122 and 142. If the streamlines at the tip of the nozzle are straight 1r  q 2, it follows that p2  p4. Since 142 is on the surface of the jet, in contact with the atmosphere, we have p4  0. Thus, p2  0 also. Since 122 is an arbitrary point in the exit plane of the nozzle, it follows that the pressure is atmospheric across this plane. Physically, since there is no component of the weight force or acceleration in the normal 1horizontal2 direction, the pressure is constant in that direction. Once outside the nozzle, the stream continues to fall as a free jet with zero pressure throughout 1 p5  02 and as seen by applying Eq. 3.17 between points 112 and 152, the speed increases according to V  12g 1h  H2 V=0 h V = 2gh where, as shown in Fig. 3.11, H is the distance the fluid has fallen outside the nozzle. Equation 3.18 could also be obtained by writing the Bernoulli equation between points 132 and 142 using the fact that z4  0, z3  /. Also, V3  0 since it is far from the nozzle, and from hydrostatics, p3  g1h  /2. As learned in physics or dynamics and illustrated in the figure in the margin, any object dropped from rest that falls through a distance h in a vacuum will obtain the speed V  12gh, the same as the water leaving the spout of the watering can shown in the figure in the margin on the next page. This is consistent with the fact that all of the particle’s potential energy is converted to kinetic energy, provided viscous 1friction2 effects are negligible. In terms of heads, the elevation head at point 112 is converted into the velocity head at point 122. Recall that for the case shown in Fig. 3.11 the pressure is the same 1atmospheric2 at points 112 and 122. For the horizontal nozzle of Fig. 3.12a, the velocity of the fluid at the centerline, V2, will be slightly greater than that at the top, V1, and slightly less than that at the bottom, V3, due to the differences in elevation. In general, d h as shown in Fig. 3.12b and we can safely use the centerline velocity as a reasonable “average velocity.” 3.6 h Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation d 119 h (1) (2) d (3) (a) (b) ■ Figure 3.12 Horizontal flow from a tank. (1) dh dj a (2) (3) a ■ Figure 3.13 Vena contracta effect for a sharp-edged orifice. (1) h V = √2gh (2) The diameter of a fluid jet is often smaller than that of the hole from which it flows. F l u If the exit is not a smooth, well-contoured nozzle, but rather a flat plate as shown in Fig. 3.13, the diameter of the jet, dj, will be less than the diameter of the hole, dh. This phenomenon, called a vena contracta effect, is a result of the inability of the fluid to turn the sharp 90° corner indicated by the dotted lines in the figure. Since the streamlines in the exit plane are curved 1r 6 q 2, the pressure across them is not constant. It would take an infinite pressure gradient across the streamlines to cause the fluid to turn a “sharp” corner 1r  02. The highest pressure occurs along the centerline at 122 and the lowest pressure, p1  p3  0, is at the edge of the jet. Thus, the assumption of uniform velocity with straight streamlines and constant pressure is not valid at the exit plane. It is valid, however, in the plane of the vena contracta, section a–a. The uniform velocity assumption is valid at this section provided dj h, as is discussed for the flow from the nozzle shown in Fig. 3.12. The vena contracta effect is a function of the geometry of the outlet. Some typical configurations are shown in Fig. 3.14 along with typical values of the experimentally obtained contraction coefficient, Cc  AjAh, where Aj and Ah are the areas of the jet at the vena contracta and the area of the hole, respectively. i d s i n Cotton candy, glass wool, and steel wool Although cotton candy and glass wool insulation are made of entirely different materials and have entirely different uses, they are made by similar processes. Cotton candy, invented in 1897, consists of sugar fibers. Glass wool, invented in 1938, consists of glass fibers. In a cotton candy machine, sugar is melted and then forced by centrifugal action to flow through numerous tiny orifices in a spinning “bowl.” Upon emerging, the thin streams of liquid sugar cool very quickly and become solid threads that are collected on a stick or cone. Making glass wool in- t h e N e w s sulation is somewhat more complex, but the basic process is similar. Liquid glass is forced through tiny orifices and emerges as very fine glass streams that quickly solidify. The resulting intertwined flexible fibers, glass wool, form an effective insulation material because the tiny air “cavities” between the fibers inhibit air motion. Although steel wool looks similar to cotton candy or glass wool, it is made by an entirely different process. Solid steel wires are drawn over special cutting blades that have grooves cut into them so that long, thin threads of steel are peeled off to form the matted steel wool. 120 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation dj dh (a) Knife edge CC = 0.61 CC = 1.0 CC = A j /A h = (dj /dh)2 (b) Well rounded CC = 0.50 CC = 0.61 (c) Sharp edge (d) Re-entrant ■ Figure 3.14 Typical flow patterns and contraction coefficients for various round exit configurations. (a) Knife edge, (b) Well rounded, (c) Sharp edge, (d) Re-entrant. 3.6.2 Confined Flows The continuity equation states that mass cannot be created or destroyed. V2 = 2V1 A2 (2) r1A1V1  r2A2V2 Q A1 = 2A2 V1 In many cases the fluid is physically constrained within a device so that its pressure cannot be prescribed a priori as was done for the free jet examples above. Such cases include nozzles and pipes of variable diameter for which the fluid velocity changes because the flow area is different from one section to another. For these situations it is necessary to use the concept of conservation of mass 1the continuity equation2 along with the Bernoulli equation. The derivation and use of this equation are discussed in detail in Chapters 4 and 5. For the needs of this chapter we can use a simplified form of the continuity equation obtained from the following intuitive arguments. Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume 1such as a syringe2 that has one inlet and one outlet as shown in Fig. 3.15a. If the flow is steady so that there is no additional accumulation of fluid within the volume, the rate at which the fluid flows into the volume must equal the rate at which it flows out of the volume 1otherwise, mass would not be conserved2. # # The mass flowrate from an outlet, m 1slugss or kgs2, is given by m  rQ, where Q 1ft3s or m3s2 is the volume flowrate. If the outlet area is A and the fluid flows across this area 1normal to the area2 with an average velocity V, then the volume of the fluid crossing this area in a time interval dt is VA dt, equal to that in a volume of length V dt and cross-sectional area A 1see Fig. 3.15b2. Hence, the vol# ume flowrate 1volume per unit time2 is Q  VA. Thus, m  rVA. To conserve mass, the inflow rate # # must equal the outflow rate. If the inlet is designated as 112 and the outlet as 122, it follows that m1  m2. Thus, conservation of mass requires If the density remains constant, then r1  r2, and the above becomes the continuity equation for incompressible flow A1V1  A2V2, or Q1  Q2 (3.19) (1) For example, if as shown by the figure in the margin the outlet flow area is one-half the size of the inlet flow area, it follows that the outlet velocity is twice that of the inlet velocity, since 3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation 121 V1 V2 (2) (1) V1 δ t V2 δ t Volume = V1 δ t A1 V2 V1 (2) Volume = V2 δ t A2 (1) Same parcel at t = δ t Fluid parcel at t = 0 ■ Figure 3.15 (a) Flow through a syringe. (b) Steady flow into and out of a volume. V2  A1V1A2  2V1. Use of the Bernoulli equation and the flowrate equation 1continuity equation2 is demonstrated by Example 3.7. E XAMPLE 3.7 Flow from a Tank—Gravity Driven GIVEN A stream of refreshing beverage of diameter d  0.01 m flows steadily from the cooler of diameter D  0.20 m as shown in Figs. E3.7a and b. FIND Determine the flowrate, Q, from the bottle into the cooler if the depth of beverage in the cooler is to remain constant at h  0.20 m. 1.10 Q (1) Q/Q0 1.05 D = 0.20 m h = 0.20 m (2) (3) d = 0.01 m (a) ■ Figure E3.7 (b) (0.05, 1.000003) 1.00 0 0.2 0.4 d/ D (c) 0.6 0.8 122 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation SOLUTION For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation applied between points 112 and 122 is p1  1 2 2 rV 1  gz1  p2  1 2 2 rV 2  gz2 (1) With the assumptions that p1  p2  0, z1  h, and z2  0, Eq. 1 becomes 1 2 2V1  gh  12 V 22 (2) Although the liquid level remains constant 1h  constant2, there is an average velocity, V1, across section 112 because of the flow from the tank. From Eq. 3.19 for steady incompressible flow, conservation of mass requires Q1  Q2, where Q  AV. Thus, A1V1  A2V2, or p 2 p D V1  d 2V2 4 4 Hence, d 2 V1  a b V2 D (3) Equations 1 and 3 can be combined to give V2  2gh B 1  1dD2 4  219.81 ms2 2 10.20 m2 B 1  10.01 m0.20 m2 4  1.98 ms Thus, Q  A1V1  A2V2  p 10.01 m2 2 11.98 ms2 4  1.56  10 4 m3s (Ans) COMMENTS In this example we have not neglected the kinetic energy of the water in the tank 1V1  02. If the tank diameter is large compared to the jet diameter 1D d2, Eq. 3 indicates that V1 V2 and the assumption that V1  0 would be reasonable. The error associated with this assumption can be seen by calculating the ratio of the flowrate assuming V1  0, denoted Q, to that assuming V1  0, denoted Q0. This ratio, written as 22gh 31  1dD2 4 4 Q V2 1    Q0 V2 0 D 22gh 21  1dD2 4 is plotted in Fig. E3.7c. With 0 6 dD 6 0.4 it follows that 1 6 QQ0 1.01, and the error in assuming V1  0 is less than 1%. For this example with d/D  0.01 m/0.20 m  0.05, it follows that Q/Q0  1.000003. Thus, it is often reasonable to assume V1  0. Note that this problem was solved using points (1) and (2) located at the free surface and the exit of the pipe, respectively. Although this was convenient (because most of the variables are known at those points), other points could be selected and the same result would be obtained. For example, consider points (1) and (3) as indicated in Fig. E3.7b. At (3), located sufficiently far from the tank exit, V3  0 and z3  z2  0. Also, p3  h since the pressure is hydrostatic sufficiently far from the exit. Use of this information in the Bernoulli equation applied between (3) and (2) gives the exact same result as obtained using it between (1) and (2). The only difference is that the elevation head, z1  h, has been interchanged with the pressure head at (3), p3/  h. The fact that a kinetic energy change is often accompanied by a change in pressure is shown by Example 3.8. E XAMPLE 3.8 Flow from a Tank—Pressure Driven GIVEN Air flows steadily from a tank, through a hose of diameter D  0.03 m, and exits to the atmosphere from a nozzle of diameter d  0.01 m as shown in Fig. E3.8. The pressure in the tank remains constant at 3.0 kPa 1gage2 and the atmospheric conditions are standard temperature and pressure. FIND Determine p1 = 3.0 kPa (1) Air D = 0.03 m d = 0.01 m Q (2) (3) ■ Figure E3.8a (a) the flowrate and (b) the pressure in the hose. SOLUTION (a) If the flow is assumed steady, inviscid, and incompressible, we can apply the Bernoulli equation along the streamline from (1) to (2) to (3) as p1  12 rV 21  gz1  p2  12 rV 22  gz2  p3  12 rV 23  gz3 With the assumption that z1  z2  z3 1horizontal hose2, V1  0 1large tank2, and p3  0 1free jet2, this becomes V3  2p1 B r and p2  p1  12 rV 22 (1) The density of the air in the tank is obtained from the perfect gas law, using standard absolute pressure and temperature, as 3.6 r  p1 RT1 13.0  1012 kN m2  103 NkN 3000 1286.9 N ᝽ mkg ᝽ K2115  2732K  1.26 kgm3 V3  B 1.26 kgm3 (0.01 m, 2963 N/m2) p2, N/m2 2000 Thus, we find that 213.0  103 Nm2 2 123 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation 1000  69.0 ms 0 or p p Q  A3 V3  d 2 V3  10.01 m2 2 169.0 ms2 4 4  0.00542 m3 s 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 d, m ■ Figure E3.8b (Ans) 0.05 COMMENT Note that the value of V3 is determined strictly by 0.04 Q, m3/s the value of p1 1and the assumptions involved in the Bernoulli equation2, independent of the “shape” of the nozzle. The pressure head within the tank, p1 g  13.0 kPa2  19.81 ms2 211.26 kgm3 2  243 m, is converted to the velocity head at the exit, V 222g  169.0 ms2 2 12  9.81 ms2 2  243 m. Although we used gage pressure in the Bernoulli equation 1 p3  02, we had to use absolute pressure in the perfect gas law when calculating the density. 0.03 0.02 0.01 (b) The pressure within the hose can be obtained from Eq. 1 and the continuity equation 1Eq. 3.192 0 (0.01 m, 0.00542 m3/s) 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 d, m A2V2  A3V3 ■ Figure E3.8c Hence, d V2  A3V3 A2  a b V3 D 0.01 m 2 a b 169.0 ms2  7.67 ms 0.03 m 2 and from Eq. 1 p2  3.0  103 Nm2  12 11.26 kgm3 217.67 ms2 2  13000  37.12Nm2  2963 Nm2 (Ans) COMMENTS In the absence of viscous effects, the pressure throughout the hose is constant and equal to p2. Physically, the decreases in pressure from p1 to p2 to p3 accelerate the air and increase its kinetic energy from zero in the tank to an intermediate value in the hose and finally to its maximum value at the nozzle exit. Since the air velocity in the nozzle exit is nine F l u i d s i n Hi-tech inhaler The term inhaler often brings to mind a treatment for asthma or bronchitis. Work is underway to develop a family of inhalation devices that can do more than treat respiratory ailments. They will be able to deliver medication for diabetes and other conditions by spraying it to reach the bloodstream through the lungs. The concept is to make the spray droplets fine enough to penetrate to the lungs’ tiny sacs, the alveoli, where exchanges between blood and the outside world take place. This is accomplished by use of a laser-machined nozzle containing an array of very fine holes that cause the liquid to divide into a mist of times that in the hose, most of the pressure drop occurs across the nozzle 1 p1  3000 Nm2, p2  2963 N m2, and p3  02. Since the pressure change from 112 to 132 is not too great 3 i.e., in terms of absolute pressure 1p1  p3 2 p1  3.0101  0.034, it follows from the perfect gas law that the density change is also not significant. Hence, the incompressibility assumption is reasonable for this problem. If the tank pressure were considerably larger or if viscous effects were important, application of the Bernoulli equation to this situation would be incorrect. By repeating the calculations for various nozzle diameters, d, the results shown in Figs. E3.8b,c are obtained. The flowrate increases as the nozzle is opened (i.e., larger d). Note that if the nozzle diameter is the same as that of the hose (d  0.03 m), the pressure throughout the hose is atmospheric (zero gage). t h e N e w s micron-scale droplets. The device fits the hand and accepts a disposable strip that contains the medicine solution sealed inside a blister of laminated plastic and the nozzle. An electrically actuated piston drives the liquid from its reservoir through the nozzle array and into the respiratory system. To take the medicine, the patient breathes through the device and a differential pressure transducer in the inhaler senses when the patient’s breathing has reached the best condition for receiving the medication. At that point, the piston is automatically triggered. 124 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation In many situations the combined effects of kinetic energy, pressure, and gravity are important. Example 3.9 illustrates this. E XAMPLE 3.9 Flow in a Variable Area Pipe GIVEN Water flows through a pipe reducer as is shown in Fig. E3.9. The static pressures at 112 and 122 are measured by the inverted U-tube manometer containing oil of specific gravity, SG, less than one. SG h FIND Determine the manometer reading, h. D2  SOLUTION (2) With the assumptions of steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation can be written as p1  12 rV 21  gz1  p2  12 rV 22  gz2 The continuity equation 1Eq. 3.192 provides a second relationship between V1 and V2 if we assume the velocity profiles are uniform at those two locations and the fluid incompressible: Q  A1V1  A2V2 p1  p2  g1z2  z1 2  2 (1) This pressure difference is measured by the manometer and can be determined by using the pressure–depth ideas developed in Chapter 2. Thus, p1  g 1z2  z1 2  g/  gh  SG gh  g/  p2 (2) As discussed in Chapter 2, this pressure difference is neither merely gh nor g1h  z1  z2 2. Equations 1 and 2 can be combined to give the desired result as follows: V3.10 Venturi channel Water θ or since V2  QA2 h  1QA2 2 2 1  1A2A1 2 2 2g11  SG2 (Ans) COMMENT The difference in elevation, z1  z2, was not or 11  SG2gh  (1) ■ Figure E3.9 3 1  1A2A1 2 4 p1  p2  g1z2  z1 2  11  SG2gh γ D1 By combining these two equations we obtain 1 2 2 rV 2 z2 – z1 needed because the change in elevation term in the Bernoulli equation exactly cancels the elevation term in the manometer equation. However, the pressure difference, p1  p2, depends on the angle u, because of the elevation, z1  z2, in Eq. 1. Thus, for a given flowrate, the pressure difference, p1  p2, as measured by a pressure gage would vary with u, but the manometer reading, h, would be independent of u. A2 2 1 rV22 c 1  a b d 2 A1 In general, an increase in velocity is accompanied by a decrease in pressure. For example, the velocity of the air flowing over the top surface of an airplane wing is, on the average, faster than that flowing under the bottom surface. Thus, the net pressure force is greater on the bottom than on the top—the wing generates a lift. If the differences in velocity are considerable, the differences in pressure can also be considerable. For flows of gases, this may introduce compressibility effects as discussed in Section 3.8 and Chapter 11. For flows of liquids, this may result in cavitation, a potentially dangerous situation that results when the liquid pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure and the liquid “boils.” 3.6 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation 125 Q (1) (2) (3) p (Absolute pressure) Small Q Moderate Q pv Large Q Incipient cavitation 0 x ■ Figure 3.16 Pressure variation and cavitation in a variable area pipe. Cavitation occurs when the pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure. Cavitation can cause damage to equipment. E XAMPLE ■ Figure 3.17 Tip cavitation from a propeller. (Photograph courtesy of The Pennsylvania State University, Applied Research Laboratory, Garfield Thomas Water Tunnel.) As discussed in Chapter 1, the vapor pressure, pv, is the pressure at which vapor bubbles form in a liquid. It is the pressure at which the liquid starts to boil. Obviously this pressure depends on the type of liquid and its temperature. For example, water, which boils at 212 °F at standard atmospheric pressure, 14.7 psia, boils at 80 °F if the pressure is 0.507 psia. That is, pv  0.507 psia at 80 °F and pv  14.7 psia at 212 °F. 1See Tables B.1 and B.2.2 One way to produce cavitation in a flowing liquid is noted from the Bernoulli equation. If the fluid velocity is increased 1for example, by a reduction in flow area as shown in Fig. 3.162, the pressure will decrease. This pressure decrease 1needed to accelerate the fluid through the constriction2 can be large enough so that the pressure in the liquid is reduced to its vapor pressure. A simple example of cavitation can be demonstrated with an ordinary garden hose. If the hose is “kinked,” a restriction in the flow area in some ways analogous to that shown in Fig. 3.16 will result. The water velocity through this restriction will be relatively large. With a sufficient amount of restriction the sound of the flowing water will change—a definite “hissing” sound is produced. This sound is a result of cavitation. In such situations boiling occurs 1though the temperature need not be high2, vapor bubbles form, and then they collapse as the fluid moves into a region of higher pressure 1lower velocity2. This process can produce dynamic effects 1imploding2 that cause very large pressure transients in the vicinity of the bubbles. Pressures as large as 100,000 psi 1690 MPa2 are believed to occur. If the bubbles collapse close to a physical boundary they can, over a period of time, cause damage to the surface in the cavitation area. Tip cavitation from a propeller is shown in Fig. 3.17. In this case the high-speed rotation of the propeller produced a corresponding low pressure on the propeller. Obviously, proper design and use of equipment are needed to eliminate cavitation damage. 3.10 Siphon and Cavitation GIVEN A liquid can be siphoned from a container as shown in Fig. E3.10a, provided the end of the tube, point (3), is below the free surface in the container, point (1), and the maximum elevation of the tube, point (2), is “not too great.” Consider water at 60 °F being siphoned from a large tank through a constant-diameter hose as shown in Fig. E3.10b. The end of the siphon is 5 ft below the bottom of the tank, and the atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia. FIND Determine the maximum height of the hill, H, over which the water can be siphoned without cavitation occurring. 126 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation SOLUTION (2) If the flow is steady, inviscid, and incompressible we can apply the Bernoulli equation along the streamline from 112 to 122 to 132 as follows: p1 ⫹ 12 rV 21 ⫹ gz1 ⫽ p2 ⫹ 12 rV 22 ⫹ gz2 ⫽ p3 ⫹ 12 rV 23 ⫹ gz3 (1) (1) With the tank bottom as the datum, we have z1 ⫽ 15 ft, z2 ⫽ H, and z3 ⫽ ⫺5 ft. Also, V1 ⫽ 0 1large tank2, p1 ⫽ 0 1open tank2, p3 ⫽ 0 1free jet2, and from the continuity equation A2V2 ⫽ A3V3, or because the hose is constant diameter, V2 ⫽ V3. Thus, the speed of the fluid in the hose is determined from Eq. 1 to be (3) V3 ⫽ 22g1z1 ⫺ z3 2 ⫽ 22132.2 ftⲐs2 2 315 ⫺ 1⫺52 4 ft ⫽ 35.9 ftⲐs ⫽ V2 Use of Eq. 1 between points 112 and 122 then gives the pressure p2 at the top of the hill as ■ Figure E3.10a p2 ⫽ p1 ⫹ 12 rV 21 ⫹ gz1 ⫺ 12 rV 22 ⫺ gz2 ⫽ g1z1 ⫺ z2 2 ⫺ 12 rV 22 (2) From Table B.1, the vapor pressure of water at 60 °F is 0.256 psia. Hence, for incipient cavitation the lowest pressure in the system will be p ⫽ 0.256 psia. Careful consideration of Eq. 2 and Fig. E3.10b will show that this lowest pressure will occur at the top of the hill. Since we have used gage pressure at point 112 1 p1 ⫽ 02, we must use gage pressure at point 122 also. Thus, p2 ⫽ 0.256 ⫺ 14.7 ⫽ ⫺14.4 psi and Eq. 2 gives (2) (1) H 15 ft Water 1⫺14.4 lbⲐin.2 21144 in.2 Ⲑft2 2 ⫽ 162.4 lbⲐft3 2115 ⫺ H2ft ⫺ 12 11.94 slugsⲐft3 2135.9 ftⲐs2 2 or 5 ft (3) ■ Figure E3.10b (Ans) 40 35 30 25 20 10 5 0 Carbon tet 15 Gasoline sure throughout 1p2 ⫽ 0.256 psia and p1 ⫽ 14.7 psia2 and obtained the same result. The lower the elevation of point 132, the larger the flowrate and, therefore, the smaller the value of H allowed. We could also have used the Bernoulli equation between 122 and 132, with V2 ⫽ V3, to obtain the same value of H. In this case it would not have been necessary to determine V2 by use of the Bernoulli equation between 112 and 132. The above results are independent of the diameter and length of the hose 1provided viscous effects are not important2. Proper design of the hose 1or pipe2 is needed to ensure that it will not collapse due to the large pressure difference 1vacuum2 between the inside and outside of the hose. Water COMMENTS Note that we could have used absolute pres- By using the fluid properties listed in Table 1.5 and repeating the calculations for various fluids, the results shown in Fig. E3.10c are obtained. The value of H is a function of both the specific weight of the fluid, g, and its vapor pressure, pv. Alcohol For larger values of H, vapor bubbles will form at point 122 and the siphon action may stop. H, ft H ⫽ 28.2 ft Fluid ■ Figure E3.10c 3.6.3 Flowrate Measurement Many types of devices using principles involved in the Bernoulli equation have been developed to measure fluid velocities and flowrates. The Pitot-static tube discussed in Section 3.5 is an example. Other examples discussed below include devices to measure flowrates in pipes and 3.6 (1) Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation 127 (2) Orifice Nozzle Venturi (1) ■ Figure 3.18 Typical devices for measuring (2) flowrate in pipes. conduits and devices to measure flowrates in open channels. In this chapter we will consider “ideal” flowmeters—those devoid of viscous, compressibility, and other “real-world” effects. Corrections for these effects are discussed in Chapters 8 and 10. Our goal here is to understand the basic operating principles of these simple flowmeters. An effective way to measure the flowrate through a pipe is to place some type of restriction within the pipe as shown in Fig. 3.18 and to measure the pressure difference between the low-velocity, high-pressure upstream section 112 and the high-velocity, low-pressure downstream section 122. Three commonly used types of flowmeters are illustrated: the orifice meter, the nozzle meter, and the Venturi meter. The operation of each is based on the same physical principles— an increase in velocity causes a decrease in pressure. The difference between them is a matter of cost, accuracy, and how closely their actual operation obeys the idealized flow assumptions. We assume the flow is horizontal 1z1  z2 2, steady, inviscid, and incompressible between points 112 and 122. The Bernoulli equation becomes p1  12 rV 21  p2  12 rV 22 1The effect of nonhorizontal flow can be incorporated easily by including the change in elevation, z1  z2, in the Bernoulli equation.2 If we assume the velocity profiles are uniform at sections 112 and 122, the continuity equation 1Eq. 3.192 can be written as The flowrate varies as the square root of the pressure difference across the flowmeter. Q Q ~ Δp Δ p = p1 – p2 Q  A1V1  A2V2 where A2 is the small 1A2 6 A1 2 flow area at section 122. Combination of these two equations results in the following theoretical flowrate Q  A2 21p1  p2 2 B r31  1A2 A1 2 2 4 (3.20) Thus, as shown by the figure in the margin, for a given flow geometry 1A1 and A2 2 the flowrate can be determined if the pressure difference, p1  p2, is measured. The actual measured flowrate, Qactual, will be smaller than this theoretical result because of various differences between the “real world” and the assumptions used in the derivation of Eq. 3.20. These differences 1which are quite consistent and may be as small as 1 to 2% or as large as 40%, depending on the geometry used2 can be accounted for by using an empirically obtained discharge coefficient as discussed in Section 8.6.1. 128 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation E XAMPLE 3.11 Venturi Meter GIVEN Kerosene 1SG  0.852 flows through the Venturi meter shown in Fig. E3.11a with flowrates between 0.005 and 0.050 m3s. Kerosene, SG = 0.85 D1 = 0.1 m (1) FIND Determine the range in pressure difference, p1  p2, needed to measure these flowrates. (2) D2 = 0.06 m Q 0.005 m3/s < Q < 0.050 m3/s ■ Figure E3.11a SOLUTION If the flow is assumed to be steady, inviscid, and incompressible, the relationship between flowrate and pressure is given by Eq. 3.20. This can be rearranged to give p1  p2  Q2r3 1  1A2A1 2 2 4 2 A22 With the density of the flowing fluid r  SG rH2O  0.8511000 kgm3 2  850 kgm3 and the area ratio A2 A1  1D2 D1 2 2  10.06 m0.10 m2 2  0.36 the pressure difference for the smallest flowrate is p1  p2  10.005 m3s2 2 1850 kgm3 2  1160 Nm  1.16 kPa 2 results presented here are independent of the particular flowmeter geometry—an orifice, nozzle, or Venturi meter 1see Fig. 3.182. It is seen from Eq. 3.20 that the flowrate varies as the square root of the pressure difference. Hence, as indicated by the numerical results and shown in Fig. E3.11b, a 10-fold increase in flowrate requires a 100-fold increase in pressure difference. This nonlinear relationship can cause difficulties when measuring flowrates over a wide range of values. Such measurements would require pressure transducers with a wide range of operation. An alternative is to use two flowmeters in parallel—one for the larger and one for the smaller flowrate ranges. 11  0.362 2 2 3 1p4210.06 m2 2 4 2 120 Likewise, the pressure difference for the largest flowrate is 11  0.362 2 p1–p2, kPa p1  p2  10.052 18502 2 2 3 1p42 10.062 2 4 2  1.16  105 Nm2  116 kPa (0.05 m3/s, 116 kPa) 100 80 60 40 (0.005 m3/s, 1.16 kPa) 20 Thus, 1.16 kPa p1  p2 116 kPa (Ans) 0 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 Q, m3/s COMMENTS These values represent the pressure differ- ■ Figure E3.11b ences for inviscid, steady, incompressible conditions. The ideal Other flowmeters based on the Bernoulli equation are used to measure flowrates in open channels such as flumes and irrigation ditches. Two of these devices, the sluice gate and the sharp-crested weir, are discussed below under the assumption of steady, inviscid, incompressible flow. These and other open-channel flow devices are discussed in more detail in Chapter 10. Sluice gates like those shown in Fig. 3.19a are often used to regulate and measure the flowrate in open channels. As indicated in Fig. 3.19b, the flowrate, Q, is a function of the water depth upstream, z1, the width of the gate, b, and the gate opening, a. Application of the Bernoulli equation and continuity equation between points 112 and 122 can provide a good approximation to the actual flowrate obtained. We assume the velocity profiles are uniform sufficiently far upstream and downstream of the gate. 3.6 129 Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation V1 (1) Sluice gate width = b Sluice gates b z1 a V2 Q (3) a ( a) z2 (2) (4) (b) ■ Figure 3.19 Sluice gate geometry. (Photograph courtesy of Plasti-Fab, Inc.) give Thus, we apply the Bernoulli equation between points on the free surfaces at 112 and 122 to p1  12 rV 21  gz1  p2  12 rV 22  gz2 Also, if the gate is the same width as the channel so that A1  bz1 and A2  bz2, the continuity equation gives Q  A1V1  bV1z1  A2V2  bV2z2 The flowrate under a sluice gate depends on the water depths on either side of the gate. With the fact that p1  p2  0, these equations can be combined and rearranged to give the flowrate as Q  z2b In the limit of z1 2g1z1  z2 2 B 1  1z2 z1 2 2 (3.21) z2 this result simply becomes Q  z2b12gz1 This limiting result represents the fact that if the depth ratio, z1z2, is large, the kinetic energy of the fluid upstream of the gate is negligible and the fluid velocity after it has fallen a distance 1z1  z2 2  z1 is approximately V2  12gz1. The results of Eq. 3.21 could also be obtained by using the Bernoulli equation between points 132 and 142 and the fact that p3  gz1 and p4  gz2 since the streamlines at these sections are straight. In this formulation, rather than the potential energies at 112 and 122, we have the pressure contributions at 132 and 142. The downstream depth, z2, not the gate opening, a, was used to obtain the result of Eq. 3.21. As was discussed relative to flow from an orifice 1Fig. 3.142, the fluid cannot turn a sharp 90° corner. A vena contracta results with a contraction coefficient, Cc  z2 a, less than 1. Typically Cc is approximately 0.61 over the depth ratio range of 0 6 az1 6 0.2. For larger values of az1 the value of Cc increases rapidly. E XAMPLE 3.12 Sluice Gate GIVEN Water flows under the sluice gate shown in Fig. E3.12a. FIND Determine the approximate flowrate per unit width of the channel. 130 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation SOLUTION 6.0 m Under the assumptions of steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, we can apply Eq. 3.21 to obtain Qb, the flowrate per unit width, as 5.0 m 2g1z1  z2 2 Q  z2 b B 1  1z2z1 2 2 Q In this instance z1  5.0 m and a  0.80 m so the ratio az1  0.16 6 0.20, and we can assume that the contraction coefficient is approximately Cc  0.61. Thus, z2  Cc a  0.61 10.80 m2  0.488 m and we obtain the flowrate 219.81 ms 2 15.0 m  0.488 m2 Q  10.488 m2 b B 1  10.488 m5.0 m2 2 2  4.61 m s (Ans) 0.8 m ■ Figure E3.12a 9 8 2 z2 and neglect the kinetic energy of the upstream fluid, we would have Q/b, m2/s COMMENT If we consider z1 7 6 5 (5m, 4.61 m2/s) 4 3 2 1 Q  z2 12gz1  0.488 m 2219.81 ms2 215.0 m2 b  4.83 m2s 0 0 5 z1, m 10 15 ■ Figure E3.12b In this case the difference in Q with or without including V1 is not too significant because the depth ratio is fairly large 1z1z2  5.00.488  10.22. Thus, it is often reasonable to neglect the kinetic energy upstream from the gate compared to that downstream of it. By repeating the calculations for various flow depths, z1, the results shown in Fig. E3.12b are obtained. Note that the flowrate is not directly proportional to the flow depth. Thus, for example, if during flood conditions the upstream depth doubled from z1  5 m to z1  10 m, the flowrate per unit width of the channel would not double but would increase only from 4.61 m2s to 6.67 m2s. Another device used to measure flow in an open channel is a weir. A typical rectangular, sharp-crested weir is shown in Fig. 3.20. For such devices the flowrate of liquid over the top of the weir plate is dependent on the weir height, Pw, the width of the channel, b, and the head, H, of the water above the top of the weir. Application of the Bernoulli equation can provide a simple approximation of the flowrate expected for these situations, even though the actual flow is quite complex. Between points 112 and 122 the pressure and gravitational fields cause the fluid to accelerate from velocity V1 to velocity V2. At 112 the pressure is p1  gh, while at 122 the pressure is essentially atmospheric, p2  0. Across the curved streamlines directly above the top of the weir plate 1section a–a2, the pressure changes from atmospheric on the top surface to some maximum value within the fluid stream and then to atmospheric again at the bottom surface. This distribution is indicated in Fig. 3.20. Such a pressure distribution, combined with the streamline curvature and gravity, produces a rather nonuniform velocity profile across this section. This velocity distribution can be obtained from experiments or a more advanced theory. b a Pressure distribution Width = b H h Q a V1 (1) Weir plate (2) V2 Pw Weir plate ■ Figure 3.20 Rectangular, sharpcrested weir geometry. 3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line 131 For now, we will take a very simple approach and assume that the weir flow is similar in many respects to an orifice-type flow with a free streamline. In this instance we would expect the average velocity across the top of the weir to be proportional to 12gH and the flow area for this rectangular weir to be proportional to Hb. Hence, it follows that Q Q  C1Hb 12gH  C1b 12g H32 Q ~ H3/2 H E XAMPLE where C1 is a constant to be determined. Simple use of the Bernoulli equation has provided a method to analyze the relatively complex flow over a weir. The correct functional dependence of Q on H has been obtained 1Q  H 32, as indicated by the figure in the margin), but the value of the coefficient C1 is unknown. Even a more advanced analysis cannot predict its value accurately. As is discussed in Chapter 10, experiments are used to determine the value of C1. 3.13 Weir GIVEN Water flows over a triangular weir, as is shown in Fig. _θ H tan 2 E3.13. θ FIND Based on a simple analysis using the Bernoulli equation, H determine the dependence of the flowrate on the depth H. If the flowrate is Q0 when H  H0, estimate the flowrate when the depth is increased to H  3H0. SOLUTION ■ Figure E3.13 With the assumption that the flow is steady, inviscid, and incompressible, it is reasonable to assume from Eq. 3.18 that the average speed of the fluid over the triangular notch in the weir plate is proportional to 12gH. Also, the flow area for a depth of H is H 3 H tan 1u22 4 . The combination of these two ideas gives Q  AV  H 2 tan u u 1C 12gH2  C2 tan 12g H 52 2 2 2 Q3H0 QH0  C2 tan1u22 12g 13H0 2 52 C2 tan1u22 12g 1H0 2 52  15.6 (Ans) (Ans) COMMENT Note that for a triangular weir the flowrate is where C2 is an unknown constant to be determined experimentally. Thus, an increase in the depth by a factor of three 1from H0 to 3H02 results in an increase of the flowrate by a factor of 3.7 H proportional to H 52, whereas for the rectangular weir discussed above, it is proportional to H 32. The triangular weir can be accurately used over a wide range of flowrates. The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line The hydraulic grade line and energy line are graphical forms of the Bernoulli equation. As was discussed in Section 3.4, the Bernoulli equation is actually an energy equation representing the partitioning of energy for an inviscid, incompressible, steady flow. The sum of the various energies of the fluid remains constant as the fluid flows from one section to another. A useful interpretation of the Bernoulli equation can be obtained through use of the concepts of the hydraulic grade line 1HGL2 and the energy line 1EL2. These ideas represent a geometrical interpretation of a flow and can often be effectively used to better grasp the fundamental processes involved. For steady, inviscid, incompressible flow the total energy remains constant along a streamline. The concept of “head” was introduced by dividing each term in Eq. 3.7 by the specific weight, g  rg, to give the Bernoulli equation in the following form p V2   z  constant on a streamline  H g 2g (3.22) 132 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation V12/2g 2 V ___ 2 2g V 2/2g p2/γ Energy line (EL) Hydraulic grade line (HGL) p/γ p1/ γ H Static z2 z Q z1 Datum Stagnation ■ Figure 3.21 Representation of the energy line and the hydraulic grade line. V 2/2g p/␥ H z Under the assumptions of the Bernoulli equation, the energy line is horizontal. Each of the terms in this equation has the units of length 1feet or meters2 and represents a certain type of head. The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the pressure head, the velocity head, and the elevation head is constant along a streamline. This constant is called the total head, H, and is shown in the figure in the margin. The energy line is a line that represents the total head available to the fluid. As shown in Fig. 3.21, the elevation of the energy line can be obtained by measuring the stagnation pressure with a Pitot tube. 1A Pitot tube is the portion of a Pitot-static tube that measures the stagnation pressure. See Section 3.5.2 The stagnation point at the end of the Pitot tube provides a measurement of the total head 1or energy2 of the flow. The static pressure tap connected to the piezometer tube shown, on the other hand, measures the sum of the pressure head and the elevation head, pg  z. This sum is often called the piezometric head. The static pressure tap does not measure the velocity head. According to Eq. 3.22, the total head remains constant along the streamline 1provided the assumptions of the Bernoulli equation are valid2. Thus, a Pitot tube at any other location in the flow will measure the same total head, as is shown in the figure. The elevation head, velocity head, and pressure head may vary along the streamline, however. The locus of elevations provided by a series of Pitot tubes is termed the energy line, EL. The locus provided by a series of piezometer taps is termed the hydraulic grade line, HGL. Under the assumptions of the Bernoulli equation, the energy line is horizontal. If the fluid velocity changes along the streamline, the hydraulic grade line will not be horizontal. If viscous effects are important 1as they often are in pipe flows2, the total head does not remain constant due to a loss in energy as the fluid flows along its streamline. This means that the energy line is no longer horizontal. Such viscous effects are discussed in Chapters 5 and 8. The energy line and hydraulic grade line for flow from a large tank are shown in Fig. 3.22. If the flow is steady, incompressible, and inviscid, the energy line is horizontal and at the elevation of the liquid in the tank 1since the fluid velocity in the tank and the pressure on the surface V1 = p1 = 0 H = z1 EL 2 V ___ 2 2g (1) p__2 γ HGL 2 V ___ 3 2g p3 = 0 (2) z2 z3 (3) ■ Figure 3.22 The energy line and hydraulic grade line for flow from a tank. 3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line EL 2 V __ 2g p<0 Q p/γ HGL p/γ p>0 For flow below (above) the hydraulic grade line, the pressure is positive (negative). E XAMPLE 133 z z ■ Figure 3.23 Use of the energy line and the hydraulic grade line. are zero2. The hydraulic grade line lies a distance of one velocity head, V 22g, below the energy line. Thus, a change in fluid velocity due to a change in the pipe diameter results in a change in the elevation of the hydraulic grade line. At the pipe outlet the pressure head is zero 1gage2, so the pipe elevation and the hydraulic grade line coincide. The distance from the pipe to the hydraulic grade line indicates the pressure within the pipe, as is shown in Fig. 3.23. If the pipe lies below the hydraulic grade line, the pressure within the pipe is positive 1above atmospheric2. If the pipe lies above the hydraulic grade line, the pressure is negative 1below atmospheric2. Thus, a scale drawing of a pipeline and the hydraulic grade line can be used to readily indicate regions of positive or negative pressure within a pipe. 3.14 Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line GIVEN Water is siphoned from the tank shown in Fig. E3.14 through a hose of constant diameter. A small hole is found in the hose at location 112 as indicated. FIND When the siphon is used, will water leak out of the hose, or will air leak into the hose, thereby possibly causing the siphon to malfunction? (1) HGL with valve closed and EL with valve open or closed 2 V __ 2g z p_ γ HGL with valve open SOLUTION Valve Whether air will leak into or water will leak out of the hose depends on whether the pressure within the hose at 112 is less than or greater than atmospheric. Which happens can be easily determined by using the energy line and hydraulic grade line concepts. With the assumption of steady, incompressible, inviscid flow it follows that the total head is constant—thus, the energy line is horizontal. Since the hose diameter is constant, it follows from the continuity equation 1AV  constant2 that the water velocity in the hose is constant throughout. Thus, the hydraulic grade line is a constant distance, V 22g, below the energy line as shown in Fig. E3.14. Since the pressure at the end of the hose is atmospheric, it follows that the hydraulic grade line is at the same elevation as the end of the hose outlet. The fluid within the hose at any point above the hydraulic grade line will be at less than atmospheric pressure. Thus, air will leak into the hose through the hole at point 112. (Ans) ■ Figure E3.14 COMMENT In practice, viscous effects may be quite impor- tant, making this simple analysis 1horizontal energy line2 incorrect. However, if the hose is “not too small diameter,” “not too long,” the fluid “not too viscous,” and the flowrate “not too large,” the above result may be very accurate. If any of these assumptions are relaxed, a more detailed analysis is required 1see Chapter 82. If the end of the hose were closed so that the flowrate were zero, the hydraulic grade line would coincide with the energy line 1V 22g  0 throughout2, the pressure at 112 would be greater than atmospheric, and water would leak through the hole at 112. The above discussion of the hydraulic grade line and the energy line is restricted to ideal situations involving inviscid, incompressible flows. Another restriction is that there are no “sources” or “sinks” of energy within the flow field. That is, there are no pumps or turbines involved. Alterations in the energy line and hydraulic grade line concepts due to these devices are discussed in Chapters 5 and 8. 134 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation 3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation Proper use of the Bernoulli equation requires close attention to the assumptions used in its derivation. In this section we review some of these assumptions and consider the consequences of incorrect use of the equation. 3.8.1 Compressibility Effects Δp Δp ~ V 2 V One of the main assumptions is that the fluid is incompressible. Although this is reasonable for most liquid flows, it can, in certain instances, introduce considerable errors for gases. In the previous section, we saw that the stagnation pressure, pstag, is greater than the static pressure, pstatic, by an amount ¢p  pstag  pstatic  rV 22, provided that the density remains constant. If this dynamic pressure is not too large compared with the static pressure, the density change between two points is not very large and the flow can be considered incompressible. However, since the dynamic pressure varies as V 2, the error associated with the assumption that a fluid is incompressible increases with the square of the velocity of the fluid, as indicated by the figure in the margin. To account for compressibility effects, we must return to Eq. 3.6 and properly integrate the term  dpr when r is not constant. A simple, although specialized, case of compressible flow occurs when the temperature of a perfect gas remains constant along the streamline—isothermal flow. Thus, we consider p  rRT, where T is constant. 1In general, p, r, and T will vary.2 For steady, inviscid, isothermal flow, Eq. 3.6 becomes RT  dp 1  V 2  gz  constant p 2 where we have used r  pRT. The pressure term is easily integrated and the constant of integration evaluated if z1, p1, and V1 are known at some location on the streamline. The result is V 21 p1 V 22 RT  z1  ln a b   z2 g p2 2g 2g The Bernoulli equation can be modified for compressible flows. (3.23) Equation 3.23 is the inviscid, isothermal analog of the incompressible Bernoulli equation. In the limit of small pressure difference, p1p2  1  1p1  p2 2 p2  1  e, with e 1 and Eq. 3.23 reduces to the standard incompressible Bernoulli equation. This can be shown by use of the approximation ln11  e2  e for small e. The use of Eq. 3.23 in practical applications is restricted by the inviscid flow assumption, since 1as is discussed in Section 11.52 most isothermal flows are accompanied by viscous effects. A much more common compressible flow condition is that of isentropic 1constant entropy2 flow of a perfect gas. Such flows are reversible adiabatic processes—“no friction or heat transfer”— and are closely approximated in many physical situations. As discussed fully in Chapter 11, for isentropic flow of a perfect gas the density and pressure are related by prk  C, where k is the specific heat ratio and C is a constant. Hence, the  dpr integral of Eq. 3.6 can be evaluated as follows. The density can be written in terms of the pressure as r  p1kC1k so that Eq. 3.6 becomes C1k p 1k dp  1 2 V  gz  constant 2 The pressure term can be integrated between points 112 and 122 on the streamline and the constant C evaluated at either point 1C1k  p11kr1 or C1k  p12kr2 2 to give the following: C1k  p2 p1 p 1k dp  C1k a a k b 3p21k12k  p11k12k 4 k1 p2 p1 k ba  b r1 k  1 r2 3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation 135 Thus, the final form of Eq. 3.6 for compressible, isentropic, steady flow of a perfect gas is a p1 V 21 p2 V 22 k k b ⫹ ⫹ gz1 ⫽ a b ⫹ ⫹ gz2 k ⫺ 1 r1 2 k ⫺ 1 r2 2 (3.24) The similarities between the results for compressible isentropic flow 1Eq. 3.242 and incompressible isentropic flow 1the Bernoulli equation, Eq. 3.72 are apparent. The only differences are the factors of 3k Ⲑ 1k ⫺ 12 4 that multiply the pressure terms and the fact that the densities are different 1r1 ⫽ r2 2. In the limit of “low-speed flow” the two results are exactly the same, as is seen by the following. We consider the stagnation point flow of Section 3.5 to illustrate the difference between the incompressible and compressible results. As is shown in Chapter 11, Eq. 3.24 can be written in dimensionless form as kⲐk⫺1 p2 ⫺ p1 k⫺1 ⫽ c a1 ⫹ Ma21 b ⫺ 1d p1 2 1compressible2 (3.25) where 112 denotes the upstream conditions and 122 the stagnation conditions. We have assumed z1 ⫽ z2, V2 ⫽ 0, and have denoted Ma1 ⫽ V1 Ⲑc1 as the upstream Mach number—the ratio of the fluid velocity to the speed of sound, c1 ⫽ 1kRT1. A comparison between this compressible result and the incompressible result is perhaps most easily seen if we write the incompressible flow result in terms of the pressure ratio and the Mach number. Thus, we divide each term in the Bernoulli equation, rV12Ⲑ2 ⫹ p1 ⫽ p2, by p1 and use the perfect gas law, p1 ⫽ rRT1, to obtain p2 ⫺ p1 V 21 ⫽ p1 2RT1 Since Ma1 ⫽ V1Ⲑ 1kRT1 this can be written as p2 ⫺ p1 kMa21 ⫽ p1 2 1incompressible2 (3.26) Equations 3.25 and 3.26 are plotted in Fig. 3.24. In the low-speed limit of Ma1 S 0, both of the results are the same. This can be seen by denoting 1k ⫺ 12Ma21 Ⲑ2 ⫽ e~ and using the binomial expan~ ⫹ n1n ⫺ 12 ~ sion, 11 ⫹ ~ e 2 n ⫽ 1 ⫹ ne e 2Ⲑ2 ⫹ p , where n ⫽ kⲐ 1k ⫺ 12, to write Eq. 3.25 as p2 ⫺ p1 kMa21 1 2⫺k ⫽ a1 ⫹ Ma21 ⫹ Ma41 ⫹ p b p1 2 4 24 1compressible2 For Ma1 Ⰶ 1 this compressible flow result agrees with Eq. 3.26. The incompressible and compressible equations agree to within about 2% up to a Mach number of approximately Ma1 ⫽ 0.3. For larger Mach numbers the disagreement between the two results increases. 1 0.8 Compressible (Eq. 3.25) 0.6 p1 p2 – p1 ______ For small Mach numbers the compressible and incompressible results are nearly the same. k = 1.4 0.4 Incompressible (Eq. 3.26) 0.2 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Ma1 0.8 1 ■ Figure 3.24 Pressure ratio as a function of Mach number for incompressible and compressible (isentropic) flow. 136 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation Thus, a rule of thumb is that the flow of a perfect gas may be considered as incompressible provided the Mach number is less than about 0.3. In standard air 1T1  59 °F, c1  1kRT1  1117 fts2 this corresponds to a speed of V1  Ma1c1  0.311117 fts2  335 fts  228 mihr. At higher speeds, compressibility may become important. E XAMPLE 3.15 Compressible Flow—Mach Number GIVEN The jet shown in Fig. E3.15 flies at Mach 0.82 at an altitude of 10 km in a standard atmosphere. FIND Determine the stagnation pressure on the leading edge of its wing if the flow is incompressible; and if the flow is compressible isentropic. SOLUTION From Tables 1.8 and C.2 we find that p1  26.5 kPa 1abs2, T1  49.9 °C, r  0.414 kgm3, and k  1.4. Thus, if we assume incompressible flow, Eq. 3.26 gives 10.822 2 p2  p1 kMa21   1.4  0.471 p1 2 2 ■ Figure E3.15 (© RobHowarth/iStockphoto) or p2  p1  0.471126.5 kPa2  12.5 kPa (Ans) On the other hand, if we assume isentropic flow, Eq. 3.25 gives 1.411.412 11.4  12 p2  p1  e c1  10.822 2 d  1f p1 2  0.555 or p2  p1  0.555 126.5 kPa2  14.7 kPa (Ans) lift and drag on the airplane; see Chapter 92 is approximately 14.712.5  1.18 times greater according to the compressible flow calculations. This may be very significant. As discussed in Chapter 11, for Mach numbers greater than 1 1supersonic flow2 the differences between incompressible and compressible results are often not only quantitative but also qualitative. Note that if the airplane were flying at Mach 0.30 1rather than 0.822 the corresponding values would be p2  p1  1.670 kPa for incompressible flow and p2  p1  1.707 kPa for compressible flow. The difference between these two results is about 2%. COMMENT We see that at Mach 0.82 compressibility effects are of importance. The pressure 1and, to a first approximation, the 3.8.2 Unsteady Effects The Bernoulli equation can be modified for unsteady flows. Another restriction of the Bernoulli equation 1Eq. 3.72 is the assumption that the flow is steady. For such flows, on a given streamline the velocity is a function of only s, the location along the streamline. That is, along a streamline V  V1s2. For unsteady flows the velocity is also a function of time, so that along a streamline V  V1s, t2. Thus when taking the time derivative of the velocity to obtain the streamwise acceleration, we obtain as  0V0t  V 0V0s rather than just as  V 0V0s as is true for steady flow. For steady flows the acceleration is due to the change in velocity resulting from a change in position of the particle 1the V 0V0s term2, whereas for unsteady flow there is an additional contribution to the acceleration resulting from a change in velocity with time at a fixed location 1the 0V0t term2. These effects are discussed in detail in Chapter 4. The net effect is that the inclusion of the unsteady term, 0V0t, does not allow the equation of motion to be easily integrated 1as was done to obtain the Bernoulli equation2 unless additional assumptions are made. The Bernoulli equation was obtained by integrating the component of Newton’s second law 1Eq. 3.52 along the streamline. When integrated, the acceleration contribution to this equation, the 1 2 2 rd1V 2 term, gave rise to the kinetic energy term in the Bernoulli equation. If the steps leading 3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation 137 to Eq. 3.5 are repeated with the inclusion of the unsteady effect 10VⲐ0t ⫽ 02, the following is obtained: r 0V 1 ds ⫹ dp ⫹ rd1V 2 2 ⫹ g dz ⫽ 0 0t 2 1along a streamline2 For incompressible flow this can be easily integrated between points 112 and 122 to give p1 ⫹ V3.11 Oscillations in a U-tube 1 rV 21 ⫹ gz1 ⫽ r 2 冮 s2 s1 0V 1 ds ⫹ p2 ⫹ rV 22 ⫹ gz2 0t 2 1along a streamline2 (3.27) Equation 3.27 is an unsteady form of the Bernoulli equation valid for unsteady, incompressible, inviscid flow. Except for the integral involving the local acceleration, 0VⲐ0t, it is identical to the steady Bernoulli equation. In general, it is not easy to evaluate this integral because the variation of 0VⲐ0t along the streamline is not known. In some situations the concepts of “irrotational flow” and the “velocity potential” can be used to simplify this integral. These topics are discussed in Chapter 6. E XAMPLE Unsteady Flow—U-Tube 3.16 Open tube GIVEN An incompressible, inviscid liquid is placed in a vertical, constant diameter U-tube as indicated in Fig. E3.16. When released from the nonequilibrium position shown, the liquid column will oscillate at a specific frequency. V2 (2) g z FIND Determine this frequency. z= 0 Equilibrium position (1) SOLUTION V1 The frequency of oscillation can be calculated by use of Eq. 3.27 as follows. Let points 112 and 122 be at the air–water interfaces of the two columns of the tube and z ⫽ 0 correspond to the equilibrium position of these interfaces. Hence, p1 ⫽ p2 ⫽ 0 and if z2 ⫽ z, then z1 ⫽ ⫺z. In general, z is a function of time, z ⫽ z1t2. For a constant diameter tube, at any instant in time the fluid speed is constant throughout the tube, V1 ⫽ V2 ⫽ V, and the integral representing the unsteady effect in Eq. 3.27 can be written as 冮 s2 s1 0V dV ds ⫽ 0t dt 冮 s2 ds ⫽ / s1 dV dt where / is the total length of the liquid column as shown in the figure. Thus, Eq. 3.27 can be written as g1⫺z2 ⫽ r/ dV ⫹ gz dt Since V ⫽ dzⲐdt and g ⫽ rg, this can be written as the secondorder differential equation describing simple harmonic motion ᐉ ■ Figure E3.16 which has the solution z1t2 ⫽ C1 sin1 12gⲐ/ t2 ⫹ C2 cos 1 12gⲐ/ t2. The values of the constants C1 and C2 depend on the initial state 1velocity and position2 of the liquid at t ⫽ 0. Thus, the liquid oscillates in the tube with a frequency v ⫽ 22g Ⲑ/ (Ans) COMMENT This frequency depends on the length of the col- umn and the acceleration of gravity 1in a manner very similar to the oscillation of a pendulum2. The period of this oscillation 1the time required to complete an oscillation2 is t0 ⫽ 2p1/Ⲑ2g. 2g d 2z ⫹ z⫽0 2 / dt In a few unsteady flow cases, the flow can be made steady by an appropriate selection of the coordinate system. Example 3.17 illustrates this. 138 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation E XAMPLE 3.17 Unsteady or Steady Flow GIVEN A submarine moves through seawater 1SG  1.032 at a depth of 50 m with velocity V0  5.0 ms as shown in Fig. E3.17. FIND Determine the pressure at the stagnation point 122. γ h = 50 m (1) SOLUTION In a coordinate system fixed to the ground, the flow is unsteady. For example, the water velocity at 112 is zero with the submarine in its initial position, but at the instant when the nose, 122, reaches point 112 the velocity there becomes V1  V0 î. Thus, 0V1 0t  0 and the flow is unsteady. Application of the steady Bernoulli equation between 112 and 122 would give the incorrect result that p1  p2  rV 20 2. According to this result, the static pressure is greater than the stagnation pressure—an incorrect use of the Bernoulli equation. We can either use an unsteady analysis for the flow 1which is outside the scope of this text2 or redefine the coordinate system so that it is fixed on the submarine, giving steady flow with respect to this system. The correct method would be p2  (2) V0 = 5 m/s x ■ Figure E3.17  112,900  505,0002 Nm2  518 kPa (Ans) similar to that discussed in Example 3.2. COMMENT If the submarine were accelerating, 0V0  0t  0, the flow would be unsteady in either of the above coordinate systems and we would be forced to use an unsteady form of the Bernoulli equation. rV 21  gh  3 11.032110002 kgm3 4 15.0 ms2 2 2 2  19.80  103 Nm3 2 11.032 150 m2 Some unsteady flows may be treated as “quasisteady” and solved approximately by using the steady Bernoulli equation. In these cases the unsteadiness is “not too great” 1in some sense2, and the steady flow results can be applied at each instant in time as though the flow were steady. The slow draining of a tank filled with liquid provides an example of this type of flow. 3.8.3 Rotational Effects Care must be used in applying the Bernoulli equation across streamlines. E XAMPLE Another of the restrictions of the Bernoulli equation is that it is applicable along the streamline. Application of the Bernoulli equation across streamlines 1i.e., from a point on one streamline to a point on another streamline2 can lead to considerable errors, depending on the particular flow conditions involved. In general, the Bernoulli constant varies from streamline to streamline. However, under certain restrictions this constant is the same throughout the entire flow field. Example 3.18 illustrates this fact. 3.18 Use of Bernoulli Equation across Streamlines Fluid particles spin GIVEN Consider the uniform flow in the channel shown in Fig. E3.18a. The liquid in the vertical piezometer tube is stationary. p5 = 0 FIND Discuss the use of the Bernoulli equation between points 112 and 122, points 132 and 142, and points 142 and 152. SOLUTION If the flow is steady, inviscid, and incompressible, Eq. 3.7 written between points 112 and 122 gives p1  12 rV 21  gz1  p2  12 rV 22  gz2  constant  C12 (5) H V0 (3) h (1) p1 = p0 V0 (a) ■ Figure E3.18 (4) z=h (2) z=0 (b) 3.9 Since V1  V2  V0 and z1  z2  0, it follows that p1  p2  p0 and the Bernoulli constant for this streamline, C12, is given by C12  12 rV 20  p0 Along the streamline from 132 to 142 we note that V3  V4  V0 and z3  z4  h. As was shown in Example 3.5, application of F  ma across the streamline 1Eq. 3.122 gives p3  p1  gh because the streamlines are straight and horizontal. The above facts combined with the Bernoulli equation applied between 132 and 142 show that p3  p4 and that the Bernoulli constant along this streamline is the same as that along the streamline between 112 and 122. That is, C34  C12, or p3  12 rV 23  gz3  p4  12 rV 24  gz4  C34  C12 Similar reasoning shows that the Bernoulli constant is the same for any streamline in Fig. E3.18. Hence, p  12 rV 2  gz  constant throughout the flow V3.12 Flow over a cavity Chapter Summary and Study Guide 139 Again from Example 3.5 we recall that p4  p5  gH  gH If we apply the Bernoulli equation across streamlines from 142 to 152, we obtain the incorrect result H  p4g  V 24 2g. The correct result is H  p4g. From the above we see that we can apply the Bernoulli equation across streamlines 112–122 and 132–142 1i.e., C12  C342 but not across streamlines from 142 to 152. The reason for this is that while the flow in the channel is “irrotational,” it is “rotational” between the flowing fluid in the channel and the stationary fluid in the piezometer tube. Because of the uniform velocity profile across the channel, it is seen that the fluid particles do not rotate or “spin” as they move. The flow is “irrotational.” However, as seen in Fig. E3.18b, there is a very thin shear layer between 142 and 152 in which adjacent fluid particles interact and rotate or “spin.” This produces a “rotational” flow. A more complete analysis would show that the Bernoulli equation cannot be applied across streamlines if the flow is “rotational” 1see Chapter 62. As is suggested by Example 3.18, if the flow is “irrotational” 1i.e., the fluid particles do not “spin” as they move2, it is appropriate to use the Bernoulli equation across streamlines. However, if the flow is “rotational” 1fluid particles “spin”2, use of the Bernoulli equation is restricted to flow along a streamline. The distinction between irrotational and rotational flow is often a very subtle and confusing one. These topics are discussed in more detail in Chapter 6. A thorough discussion can be found in more advanced texts 1Ref. 32. 3.8.4 Other Restrictions The Bernoulli equation is not valid for flows that involve pumps or turbines. 3.9 Another restriction on the Bernoulli equation is that the flow is inviscid. As is discussed in Section 3.4, the Bernoulli equation is actually a first integral of Newton’s second law along a streamline. This general integration was possible because, in the absence of viscous effects, the fluid system considered was a conservative system. The total energy of the system remains constant. If viscous effects are important the system is nonconservative 1dissipative2 and energy losses occur. A more detailed analysis is needed for these cases. Such material is presented in Chapter 5. The final basic restriction on use of the Bernoulli equation is that there are no mechanical devices 1pumps or turbines2 in the system between the two points along the streamline for which the equation is applied. These devices represent sources or sinks of energy. Since the Bernoulli equation is actually one form of the energy equation, it must be altered to include pumps or turbines, if these are present. The inclusion of pumps and turbines is covered in Chapters 5 and 12. In this chapter we have spent considerable time investigating fluid dynamic situations governed by a relatively simple analysis for steady, inviscid, incompressible flows. Many flows can be adequately analyzed by use of these ideas. However, because of the rather severe restrictions imposed, many others cannot. An understanding of these basic ideas will provide a firm foundation for the remainder of the topics in this book. Chapter Summary and Study Guide In this chapter, several aspects of the steady flow of an inviscid, incompressible fluid are discussed. Newton’s second law, F  ma, is applied to flows for which the only important forces are those due to pressure and gravity (weight)—viscous effects are assumed negligible. The result is the oftenused Bernoulli equation, which provides a simple relationship among pressure, elevation, and velocity variations along a streamline. A similar but less often used equation is also obtained to describe the variations in these parameters normal to a streamline. The concept of a stagnation point and the corresponding stagnation pressure is introduced, as are the concepts of static, dynamic, and total pressure and their related heads. 140 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation steady flow streamline Bernoulli equation elevation head pressure head velocity head static pressure dynamic pressure stagnation point stagnation pressure total pressure Pitot-static tube free jet volume flowrate continuity equation cavitation flowmeter hydraulic grade line energy line Several applications of the Bernoulli equation are discussed. In some flow situations, such as the use of a Pitot-static tube to measure fluid velocity or the flow of a liquid as a free jet from a tank, a Bernoulli equation alone is sufficient for the analysis. In other instances, such as confined flows in tubes and flowmeters, it is necessary to use both the Bernoulli equation and the continuity equation, which is a statement of the fact that mass is conserved as fluid flows. The following checklist provides a study guide for this chapter. When your study of the entire chapter and end-of-chapter exercises has been completed, you should be able to write out meanings of the terms listed here in the margin and understand each of the related concepts. These terms are particularly important and are set in italic, bold, and color type in the text. explain the origin of the pressure, elevation, and velocity terms in the Bernoulli equation and how they are related to Newton’s second law of motion. apply the Bernoulli equation to simple flow situations, including Pitot-static tubes, free jet flows, confined flows, and flowmeters. use the concept of conservation of mass (the continuity equation) in conjunction with the Bernoulli equation to solve simple flow problems. apply Newton’s second law across streamlines for appropriate steady, inviscid, incompressible flows. use the concepts of pressure, elevation, velocity, and total heads to solve various flow problems. explain and use the concepts of static, stagnation, dynamic, and total pressures. use the energy line and the hydraulic grade line concepts to solve various flow problems. explain the various restrictions on use of the Bernoulli equation. Some of the important equations in this chapter are: Streamwise and normal acceleration Force balance along a streamline for steady inviscid flow Bernoulli equation Pressure gradient normal to streamline for inviscid flow in absence of gravity Force balance normal to a streamline for steady, inviscid, incompressible flow Velocity measurement for a Pitot-static tube Free jet Continuity equation Flowmeter equation Sluice gate equation Total head as  V r 2V dp 1 2 0V , 0s  gz  C V2 r (3.1) 1along a streamline2 (3.6) an  p  12rV2  gz  constant along streamline rV2 0p  0n r pr (3.10b)  r dn  gz  constant across the streamline V2 V  22 1p3  p4 2 r gh V 2  12gh B r A1V1  A2V2, or Q1  Q2 Q  A2 (3.7) 21p1  p2 2 B r31  1A2 A1 2 2 4 2g1z1  z2 2 Q  z2b B 1  1z2 z1 2 2 p V2   z  constant on a streamline  H g 2g (3.12) (3.16) (3.18) (3.19) (3.20) (3.21) (3.22) Problems 141 References 1. Riley, W. F., and Sturges, L. D., Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics, 2nd Ed., Wiley, New York, 1996. 2. Tipler, P. A., Physics, Worth, New York, 1982. 3. Panton, R. L., Incompressible Flow, Wiley, New York, 1984. Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. GO Tutoring problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. Problem is related to a chapter video available in WileyPLUS. * † Problem to be solved with aid of programmable calculator or computer. Open-ended problem that requires critical thinking. These problems require various assumptions to provide the necessary input data. There are not unique answers to these problems. Review Problems Go to Appendix G (WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www. wiley.com/college/munson) for a set of review problems with answers. Detailed solutions can be found in the Student Solution Manual and Study Guide for Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, by Munson et al. (© 2013 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.). Conceptual Questions 3.1C In low-speed flow, the following device is called a diffuser: Wall Flow direction 3.3C The stagnation pressure for a fluid is a) the pressure due to the velocity of the fluid. b) not defined unless the fluid is moving. c) the total pressure when the fluid is brought to rest. d) the sum of the static and dynamic pressures. 3.4C Pitot tubes are placed in two ducts in which air is flowing and the static pressures of the flows are equal. The stagnation pressure tap and the static pressure tap are connected to manometers as shown. The manometer reading for duct A is height h, and that for duct B is 2h. The relation between the velocity VA in duct A and the velocity VB in duct B is Duct A VA The fluid velocity: a) increases in the direction of flow. b) decreases in the direction of flow. c) stays the same in the direction of flow. d) None of the above. 3.2C Consider constant altitude, steady flow along a streamline with a flow that satisfies the assumptions necessary for Bernoulli’s equation. Which of the following have a constant value along the streamline? a) Internal energy c) Stagnation or total pressure b) Static or local pressure d) Dynamic or velocity pressure Duct B VB h 2h a) VB equals VA/2. d) VB equals 2VA. b) VB equals 22VA. e) VB equals VA. c) VB equals 4VA. Additional conceptual questions are available in WileyPLUS at the instructor’s discretion. Problems Note: Unless specific values of required fluid properties are given in the problem statement, use the values found in the tables on the inside of the front cover. Answers to the even-numbered problems are listed at the end of the book. The Lab Problems as well as the videos that accompany problems can be accessed in WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. Section 3.2 F ⫽ ma along a Streamline 3.1 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation that can be analyzed by use of the Bernoulli equation. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 142 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation 3.2 Air flows steadily along a streamline from point (1) to point (2) with negligible viscous effects. The following conditions are measured: At point (1) z1  2 m and p1  0 kPa; at point (2) z2  10 m, p2  20 N/m2, and V2  0. Determine the velocity at point (1). 3.3 Water flows steadily through the variable area horizontal pipe shown in Fig. P3.3. The centerline velocity is given by V  1011  x2 î fts, where x is in feet. Viscous effects are neglected. (a) Determine the pressure gradient, 0p0x, 1as a function of x2 needed to produce this flow. (b) If the pressure at section 112 is 50 psi, determine the pressure at 122 by 1i2 integration of the pressure gradient obtained in (a), 1ii2 application of the Bernoulli equation. is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 3.11 Air flows along a horizontal, curved streamline with a 20 ft radius with a speed of 100 ft/s. Determine the pressure gradient normal to the streamline. 3.12 Water flows around the vertical two-dimensional bend with circular streamlines and constant velocity as shown in Fig. P3.12. If the pressure is 40 kPa at point 112, determine the pressures at points 122 and 132. Assume that the velocity profile is uniform as indicated. g V(x) Q 4m  = 3 ft (2) (1) (3) x 2m ■ Figure P3.3 1m V = 10m/s (2) 3.4 What pressure gradient along the streamline, dpds, is required to accelerate water in a horizontal pipe at a rate of 30 m s2? 3.5 GO At a given location the airspeed is 20 m/s and the pressure gradient along the streamline is 100 N/m3. Estimate the airspeed at a point 0.5 m farther along the streamline. 3.6 What pressure gradient along the streamline, dp/ds, is required to accelerate water upward in a vertical pipe at a rate of 30 ft/s2? What is the answer if the flow is downward? 3.7 The Bernoulli equation is valid for steady, inviscid, incompressible flows with constant acceleration of gravity. Consider flow on a planet where the acceleration of gravity varies with height so that g  g0  cz, where g0 and c are constants. Integrate “F  ma” along a streamline to obtain the equivalent of the Bernoulli equation for this flow. (1) ■ Figure P3.12 3.13 Water flows around the vertical two-dimensional bend with circular streamlines as is shown in Fig. P3.13. The pressure at point 112 is measured to be p1  25 psi and the velocity across section a–a is as indicated in the table. Calculate and plot the pressure across section a–a of the channel [p  p(z) for 0 z 2 ft]. z (ft) V (fts) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 0 8.0 14.3 20.0 19.5 15.6 8.3 6.2 3.7 2.0 0 3.8 An incompressible fluid flows steadily past a circular cylinder as shown in Fig. P3.8. The fluid velocity along the dividing streamline 1 x a2 is found to be V  V0 11  a2x2 2, where a is the radius of the cylinder and V0 is the upstream velocity. (a) Determine the pressure gradient along this streamline. (b) If the upstream pressure is p0, integrate the pressure gradient to obtain the pressure p1x2 for  x a. (c) Show from the result of part (b) that the pressure at the stagnation point 1x  a2 is p0  rV 20 2, as expected from the Bernoulli equation. Dividing streamline x=0 V0 p0 g x Stagnation point 20 ft a P1 = 25 psi ■ Figure P3.8 3.9 Consider a compressible liquid that has a constant bulk modulus. Integrate “F  ma” along a streamline to obtain the equivalent of the Bernoulli equation for this flow. Assume steady, inviscid flow. a (1) 2 ft V = V (z) z Section 3.3 F ⫽ ma Normal to a Streamline 3.10 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which Newton’s second law applied across the streamlines (as given by Eq. 3.12) a ■ Figure P3.13 Problems 3.14 Water in a container and air in a tornado flow in horizontal circular streamlines of radius r and speed V as shown in Video V3.6 and Fig. P3.14. Determine the radial pressure gradient, 0pⲐ0r, needed for the following situations: (a) The fluid is water with r ⫽ 3 in. and V ⫽ 0.8 ft Ⲑs. (b) The fluid is air with r ⫽ 300 ft and V ⫽ 200 mph. 143 p1 ⫺ p2, are generated to provide a fresh airflow within the burrow? 1.07 V0 V0 (2) (1) y Q V ■ Figure P3.20 r 3.21 A loon is a diving bird equally at home “flying” in the air or water. What swimming velocity under water will produce a dynamic pressure equal to that when it flies in the air at 40 mph? x †3.22 Estimate the pressure on your hand when you hold it in the stream of air coming from the air hose at a filling station. List all assumptions and show calculations. Warning: Do not try this experiment; it can be dangerous! ■ Figure P3.14 3.15 Air flows smoothly over the hood of your car and up past the windshield. However, a bug in the air does not follow the same path; it becomes splattered against the windshield. Explain why this is so. Section 3.5 Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure 3.16 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which the concept of the stagnation pressure is important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 3.17 At a given point on a horizontal streamline in flowing air, the static pressure is ⫺2.0 psi (i.e., a vacuum) and the velocity is 150 ft/s. Determine the pressure at a stagnation point on that streamline. †3.18 A drop of water in a zero-g environment (as in the International Space Station) will assume a spherical shape as shown in Fig. P3.18a. A raindrop in the cartoons is typically drawn as in Fig. P3.18b. The shape of an actual raindrop is more nearly like that shown in Fig. 3.18c. Discuss why these shapes are as indicated. (a) (b) (c) ■ Figure P3.18 3.19 GO When an airplane is flying 200 mph at 5000-ft altitude in a standard atmosphere, the air velocity at a certain point on the wing is 273 mph relative to the airplane. (a) What suction pressure is developed on the wing at that point? (b) What is the pressure at the leading edge (a stagnation point) of the wing? 3.20 Some animals have learned to take advantage of the Bernoulli effect without having read a fluid mechanics book. For example, a typical prairie dog burrow contains two entrances—a flat front door and a mounded back door as shown in Fig. P3.20. When the wind blows with velocity V0 across the front door, the average velocity across the back door is greater than V0 because of the mound. Assume the air velocity across the back door is 1.07V0. For a wind velocity of 6 m/s, what pressure differences, 3.23 A person holds her hand out of an open car window while the car drives through still air at 65 mph. Under standard atmospheric conditions, what is the maximum pressure on her hand? What would be the maximum pressure if the “car” were an Indy 500 racer traveling 220 mph? 3.24 GO A Pitot-static tube is used to measure the velocity of helium in a pipe. The temperature and pressure are 40 °F and 25 psia. A water manometer connected to the Pitot-static tube indicates a reading of 2.3 in. Determine the helium velocity. Is it reasonable to consider the flow as incompressible? Explain. 3.25 A Bourdon-type pressure gage is used to measure the pressure from a Pitot tube attached to the leading edge of an airplane wing. The gage is calibrated to read in miles per hour at standard sea level conditions (rather than psi). If the airspeed meter indicates 150 mph when flying at an altitude of 10,000 ft, what is the true airspeed? †3.26 Estimate the force of a hurricane strength wind against the side of your house. List any assumptions and show all calculations. 3.27 A 40-mph wind blowing past your house speeds up as it flows up and over the roof. If elevation effects are negligible, determine (a) the pressure at the point on the roof where the speed is 60 mph if the pressure in the free stream blowing toward your house is 14.7 psia. Would this effect tend to push the roof down against the house, or would it tend to lift the roof? (b) Determine the pressure on a window facing the wind if the window is assumed to be a stagnation point. 3.28 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Pressurized eyes,” Section 3.5.) Determine the air velocity needed to produce a stagnation pressure equal to 10 mm of mercury. Section 3.6.1 Free Jets 3.29 Water flows through a hole in the bottom of a large, open tank with a speed of 8 m/s. Determine the depth of water in the tank. Viscous effects are negligible. †3.30 GO Estimate the pressure needed at the pumper truck in order to shoot water from the street level onto a fire on the roof of a five-story building. List all assumptions and show all calculations. 3.31 Water flows from the faucet on the first floor of the building shown in Fig. P3.31 with a maximum velocity of 20 ft兾s. For steady inviscid flow, determine the maximum water velocity 144 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation from the basement faucet and from the faucet on the second floor 1assume each floor is 12 ft tall2. 3.35 Several holes are punched into a tin can as shown in Fig. P3.35. Which of the figures represents the variation of the water velocity as it leaves the holes? Justify your choice. 4 ft 8 ft (a) (b) (c) ■ Figure P3.35 V = 20 ft/s 4 ft 3.36 Water flows from a pressurized tank, through a 6-in.diameter pipe, exits from a 2-in.-diameter nozzle, and rises 20 ft above the nozzle as shown in Fig. P3.36. Determine the pressure in the tank if the flow is steady, frictionless, and incompressible. 12 ft 4 ft ■ Figure P3.31 3.32 Laboratories containing dangerous materials are often kept at a pressure slightly less than ambient pressure so that contaminants can be filtered through an exhaust system rather than leaked through cracks around doors, etc. If the pressure in such a room is 0.1 in. of water below that of the surrounding rooms, with what velocity will air enter the room through an opening? Assume viscous effects are negligible. †3.33 The “supersoaker” water gun shown in Fig. P3.33 can shoot more than 30 ft in the horizontal direction. Estimate the minimum pressure, p1, needed in the chamber in order to accomplish this. List all assumptions and show all calculations. 20 ft 2 in. Air 2 ft 6 in. ■ Figure P3.36 3.37 An inviscid, incompressible liquid flows steadily from the large pressurized tank shown in Fig. P.3.37. The velocity at the exit is 40 ft / s. Determine the specific gravity of the liquid in the tank. (1) 10 psi Air 5 ft Liquid ■ Figure P3.33 3.34 Streams of water from two tanks impinge upon each other as shown in Fig. P3.34. If viscous effects are negligible and point A is a stagnation point, determine the height h. 10 ft 40 ft/s ■ Figure P3.37 Section 3.6.2 Confined Flows (also see Lab Problems 3.1LP and 3.3LP) h Free jets A p1 = 25 psi Air 20 ft 8 ft ■ Figure P3.34 3.38 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation that involves a confined flow for which the Bernoulli and continuity equations are important. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 3.39 Air flows steadily through a horizontal 4-in.-diameter pipe and exits into the atmosphere through a 3-in.-diameter nozzle. The velocity at the nozzle exit is 150 ft/s. Determine the pressure in the pipe if viscous effects are negligible. 145 Problems 3.40 For the pipe enlargement shown in Fig. P3.40, the pressures at sections (1) and (2) are 56.3 and 58.2 psi, respectively. Determine the weight flowrate (lb/s) of the gasoline in the pipe. 3.44 Water flows steadily through the large tanks shown in Fig. P3.44. Determine the water depth, hA. Q Q 2.05 in. Gasoline 0.03–m diameter hA 3.71 in. (1) A (2) ■ Figure P3.40 hB = 2 m 0.05–m diameter B 3.41 GO A fire hose nozzle has a diameter of 118 in. According to some fire codes, the nozzle must be capable of delivering at least 250 galmin. If the nozzle is attached to a 3-in.-diameter hose, what pressure must be maintained just upstream of the nozzle to deliver this flowrate? 3.42 Water flowing from the 0.75-in.-diameter outlet shown in Video V8.15 and Fig. P3.42 rises 2.8 in. above the outlet. Determine the flowrate. ■ Figure P3.44 3.45 Water (assumed inviscid and incompressible) flows steadily in the vertical variable-area pipe shown in Fig. P3.45. Determine the flowrate if the pressure in each of the gages reads 50 kPa. 2m 10 m p = 50 kPa 2.8 in. 1m 0.75 in. Q Q ■ Figure P3.45 ■ Figure P3.42 3.43 Pop (with the same properties as water) flows from a 4-in.-diameter pop container that contains three holes as shown in Fig. P3.43 (see Video 3.9). The diameter of each fluid stream is 0.15 in., and the distance between holes is 2 in. If viscous effects are negligible and quasi-steady conditions are assumed, determine the time at which the pop stops draining from the top hole. Assume the pop surface is 2 in. above the top hole when t  0. Compare your results with the time you measure from the video. 3.46 Air is drawn into a wind tunnel used for testing automobiles as shown in Fig. P3.46. (a) Determine the manometer reading, h, when the velocity in the test section is 60 mph. Note that there is a 1-in. column of oil on the water in the manometer. (b) Determine the difference between the stagnation pressure on the front of the automobile and the pressure in the test section. Wind tunnel 60 mph Open h Surface at t = 0 2 in. 2 in. 2 in. 4 in. ■ Figure P3.43 0.15 in. Water Fan 1 in. Oil (SG = 0.9) ■ Figure P3.46 3.47 Natural gas (methane) flows from a 3-in.-diameter gas main, through a 1-in.-diameter pipe, and into the burner of a furnace at a rate of 100 ft3/hour. Determine the pressure in the gas main if the pressure in the 1-in. pipe is to be 6 in. of water greater than atmospheric pressure. Neglect viscous effects. 3.48 Small-diameter, high-pressure liquid jets can be used to cut various materials as shown in Fig. P3.48. If viscous effects are negligible, estimate the pressure needed to produce a 0.10-mm- 146 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation diameter water jet with a speed of 700 ms. Determine the flowrate. 3.51 Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in Fig. P3.51. For the given 0.2-m difference in manometer level, determine the flowrate as a function of the diameter of the small pipe, D. 0.2 m Q D 0.1 m 0.1 mm ■ Figure P3.51 3.52 Water flows through the pipe contraction shown in Fig. P3.52. For the given 0.2-m difference in the manometer level, determine the flowrate as a function of the diameter of the small pipe, D. ■ Figure P3.48 3.49 Water (assumed frictionless and incompressible) flows steadily from a large tank and exits through a vertical, constant diameter pipe as shown in Fig. P3.49. The air in the tank is pressurized to 50 kN/m2. Determine (a) the height h, to which the water rises, (b) the water velocity in the pipe, and (c) the pressure in the horizontal part of the pipe. 0.2 m 0.1 m Q D ■ Figure P3.52 Pipe exit 50 kN/m2 3.53 A 0.15-m-diameter pipe discharges into a 0.10-mdiameter pipe. Determine the velocity head in each pipe if they are carrying 0.12 m3s of kerosene. 3.54 Carbon tetrachloride flows in a pipe of variable diameter with negligible viscous effects. At point A in the pipe the pressure and velocity are 20 psi and 30 ft/s, respectively. At location B the pressure and velocity are 23 psi and 14 ft/s. Which point is at the higher elevation and by how much? h Air 4m 2m Water ■ Figure P3.49 3.50 Water (assumed inviscid and incompressible) flows steadily with a speed of 10 ft/s from the large tank shown in Fig. P3.50. Determine the depth, H, of the layer of light liquid 1specific weight  50 lb ft3 2 that covers the water in the tank. *3.55 Water flows from a 20-mm-diameter pipe with a flowrate Q as shown in Fig. P3.55. Plot the diameter of the water stream, d, as a function of distance below the faucet, h, for values of 0 h 1 m and 0 Q 0.004 m3/s. Discuss the validity of the one-dimensional assumption used to calculate d  d(h), noting, in particular, the conditions of small h and small Q. Q 20 mm 3 50 lb/ft 10 ft/s d H 5 ft Water ■ Figure P3.50 h 4 ft ■ Figure P3.55 3.56 Water flows upward through a variable area pipe with a constant flowrate, Q, as shown in Fig. P3.56. If viscous effects are Problems negligible, determine the diameter, D(z), in terms of D1 if the pressure is to remain constant throughout the pipe. That is, p(z)  p1. 147 will collapse and siphon will stop. If viscous effects are negligible, determine the minimum value of h allowed without the siphon stopping. 2m 4m h D(z) z ■ Figure P3.60 D1 (1) 3.61 Water is siphoned from the tank shown in Fig. P3.61. Determine the flowrate from the tank and the pressure at points (1), (2), and (3) if viscous effects are negligible. Q ■ Figure P3.56 3.57 The circular stream of water from a faucet is observed to taper from a diameter of 20 mm to 10 mm in a distance of 50 cm. Determine the flowrate. 2-in.-diameter hose 2 ft (3) 3 ft 3.58 GO Water is siphoned from the tank shown in Fig. P3.58. The water barometer indicates a reading of 30.2 ft. Determine the maximum value of h allowed without cavitation occurring. Note that the pressure of the vapor in the closed end of the barometer equals the vapor pressure. 8 ft (2) (1) ■ Figure P3.61 Closed end 3.62 Redo Problem 3.61 if a 1-in-diameter nozzle is placed at the end of the tube. 3-in. diameter 3.63 A smooth plastic, 10-m-long garden hose with an inside diameter of 20 mm is used to drain a wading pool as is shown in Fig. P3.63. If viscous effects are neglected, what is the flowrate from the pool? 30.2 ft 6 ft 0.2 m h 0.23 m 5-in.-diameter ■ Figure P3.63 ■ Figure P3.58 3.59 Water is siphoned from a tank as shown in Fig. P3.59. Determine the flowrate and the pressure at point A, a stagnation point. 3.64 Water exits a pipe as a free jet and flows to a height h above the exit plane as shown in Fig. P3.64. The flow is steady, incompressible, and frictionless. (a) Determine the height h. (b) Determine the velocity and pressure at section (1). 0.04-m diameter h 3m V = 16 ft/s A 6-in. diameter 8 ft ■ Figure P3.59 (1) 3.60 A 50-mm-diameter plastic tube is used to siphon water from the large tank shown in Fig. P3.60. If the pressure on the outside of the tube is more than 30 kPa greater than the pressure within the tube, the tube 4-in. diameter ■ Figure P3.64 148 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation 3.65 Water flows steadily from a large, closed tank as shown in Fig. P3.65. The deflection in the mercury manometer is 1 in. and viscous effects are negligible. (a) Determine the volume flowrate. (b) Determine the air pressure in the space above the surface of the water in the tank. 3.69 Determine the flowrate through the pipe in Fig. P3.69. ρm = 900 kg/m3 2.5 m Water Air 0.08 m Q ■ Figure P3.69 1-ft diameter 3-in. diameter 8 ft 3.70 The specific gravity of the manometer fluid shown in Fig. P3.70 is 1.07. Determine the volume flowrate, Q, if the flow is inviscid and incompressible and the flowing fluid is (a) water, (b) gasoline, or (c) air at standard conditions. 1 in. Mercury Q ■ Figure P3.65 0.05 m 3.66 Carbon dioxide flows at a rate of 1.5 ft3/s from a 3-in. pipe in which the pressure and temperature are 20 psi (gage) and 120 F into a 1.5-in. pipe. If viscous effects are neglected and incompressible conditions are assumed, determine the pressure in the smaller pipe. 3.67 Oil of specific gravity 0.83 flows in the pipe shown in Fig. P3.67. If viscous effects are neglected, what is the flowrate? 0.09-m diameter 20 mm 10 mm ■ Figure P3.70 3.71 Water flows steadily with negligible viscous effects through the pipe shown in Fig. P3.71. It is known that the 4-in.diameter section of thin-walled tubing will collapse if the pressure within it becomes less than 10 psi below atmospheric pressure. Determine the maximum value that h can have without causing collapse of the tubing. 4 in. Water 4 ft 4-in.-diameter thin-walled tubing SG = 0.83 3 in. Q 4 in. h 6 in. ■ Figure P3.67 ■ Figure P3.71 3.68 Water flows steadily through the variable area pipe shown in Fig. P3.68 with negligible viscous effects. Determine the manometer reading, H, if the flowrate is 0.5 m3/s and the density of the manometer fluid is 600 kg/m3. 3.73 Water is pumped from a lake through an 8-in. pipe at a rate of 10 ft3s. If viscous effects are negligible, what is the pressure in the suction pipe 1the pipe between the lake and the pump2 at an elevation 6 ft above the lake? Density = 600 kg/m3 H Area = 0.05 m2 ■ Figure P3.68 3.72 Helium flows through a 0.30-m-diameter horizontal pipe with a temperature of 20 °C and a pressure of 200 kPa (abs) at a rate of 0.30 kg/s. If the pipe reduces to 0.25-m-diameter, determine the pressure difference between these two sections. Assume incompressible, inviscid flow. Area = 0.07 m2 3.74 Air is drawn into a small open-circuit wing tunnel as shown in Fig. P3.74. Atmospheric pressure is 98.7 kPa (abs) and the temperature is 27 C. If viscous effects are negligible, determine the pressure at the stagnation point on the nose of the airplane. Also determine the manometer reading, h, for the manometer attached to the static pressure tap within the test section of the wind tunnel if the air velocity within the test section is 50 m/s. 149 Problems Test section Inlet nozzle x x=L x=0 L Diffuser V0 Q Q Fan h Inlet Air H(x) H0 Water ■ Figure P3.74 dmax 3.75 Air flows through the device shown in Fig. P3.75. If the flowrate is large enough, the pressure within the constriction will be low enough to draw the water up into the tube. Determine the flowrate, Q, and the pressure needed at section (1) to draw the water into section (2). Neglect compressibility and viscous effects. Free jet 25 mm (2) (1) Air Q d Water ■ Figure P3.78 *3.79 Water flows from a large tank and through a pipe of variable area as shown in Fig. 3.79. The area of the pipe is given by A  A0[1  x(1  x/ᐉ)/2ᐉ], where A0 is the area at the beginning (x  0) and end (x  ᐉ) of the pipe. Plot graphs of the pressure within the pipe as a function of distance along the pipe for water depths of h  1, 4, 10, and 25 m. 0.3 m 50 mm 50 mm Water ■ Figure P3.75 h 艎 3.76 Water flows steadily from the large open tank shown in Fig. 3.76. If viscous effects are negligible, determine (a) the flowrate, Q, and (b) the manometer reading, h. Free jet x x=0 ■ Figure P3.79 2m h 4m Q 0.10 m 0.08 m 3.80 If viscous effects are neglected and the tank is large, determine the flowrate from the tank shown in Fig. P3.80. Mercury ■ Figure P3.76 Oil, SG = 0.81 3.77 Water from a faucet fills a 16-oz glass (volume  28.9 in.3) in 20 s. If the diameter of the jet leaving the faucet is 0.60 in., what is the diameter of the jet when it strikes the water surface in the glass which is positioned 14 in. below the faucet? 3.78 Air flows steadily through a converging–diverging rectangular channel of constant width as shown in Fig. 3.78 and Video V3.10. The height of the channel at the exit and the exit velocity are H0 and V0 respectively. The channel is to be shaped so that the distance, d, that water is drawn up into tubes attached to static pressure taps along the channel wall is linear with distance along the channel. That is d  (dmax/L) x, where L is the channel length and dmax is the maximum water depth (at the minimum channel height: x  L). Determine the height, H(x), as a function of x and the other important parameters. 2m 0.7 m 50-mm diameter Water ■ Figure P3.80 3.81 Water flows steadily downward in the pipe shown in Fig. P.3.81 with negligible losses. Determine the flowrate. 150 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation Open 1 in. Oil SG = 0.7 Q = 2 gal/min 0.4-in.-diameter holes 1.5 m Stopper 1.2 m 2m 1m ■ Figure P3.84 ■ Figure P3.81 3.82 Water flows steadily from a large open tank and discharges into the atmosphere though a 3-in.-diameter pipe as shown in Fig. P3.82. Determine the diameter, d, in the narrowed section of the pipe at A if the pressure gages at A and B indicate the same pressure. 3.85 What pressure, p1, is needed to produce a flowrate of 0.09 ft3/s from the tank shown in Fig. P3.85? p1 Air B 9 ft Gasoline 2.0 ft Salt water SG = 1.1 3.6 ft 3-in. diameter 8 ft A 16 ft diameter = d 0.06-ft diameter ■ Figure P3.82 ■ Figure P3.85 3.83 Water flows from a large tank as shown in Fig. P3.83. Atmospheric pressure is 14.5 psia, and the vapor pressure is 1.60 psia. If viscous effects are neglected, at what height, h, will cavitation begin? To avoid cavitation, should the value of D1 be increased or decreased? To avoid cavitation, should the value of D2 be increased or decreased? Explain. 3.86 The vent on the tank shown in Fig. P3.86 is closed and the tank pressurized to increase the flowrate. What pressure, p1, is needed to produce twice the flowrate of that when the vent is open? p1 Vent 4 ft h Air D3 = 4 in. 10 ft Water D1 = 1 in. D2 = 2 in. Q ■ Figure P3.83 3.84 Water flows into the sink shown in Fig. P3.84 and Video V5.1 at a rate of 2 gal/min. If the drain is closed, the water will eventually flow through the overflow drain holes rather than over the edge of the sink. How many 0.4-in.-diameter drain holes are needed to ensure that the water does not overflow the sink? Neglect viscous effects. ■ Figure P3.86 3.87 Water is siphoned from the tank shown in Fig. P3.87. Determine the flowrate from the tank and the pressures at points (1), (2), and (3) if viscous effects are negligible. Problems 151 A (1) 3 ft (2) (3) 3 ft 4 ft 0.1 ft 5 ft 0.15-ft diameter Q 0.1-ft diameter ■ Figure P3.87 End of pipe ■ Figure P3.90 3.88 Water is siphoned from a large tank and discharges into the atmosphere through a 2-in.-diameter tube as shown in Fig. P3.88. The end of the tube is 3 ft below the tank bottom, and viscous effects are negligible. (a) Determine the volume flowrate from the tank. (b) Determine the maximum height, H, over which the water can be siphoned without cavitation occurring. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia, and the water vapor pressure is 0.26 psia. 3.91 JP-4 fuel (SG  0.77) flows through the Venturi meter shown in Fig. P3.91 with a velocity of 15 ft/s in the 6-in. pipe. If viscous effects are negligible, determine the elevation, h, of the fuel in the open tube connected to the throat of the Venturi meter. H 6 ft 6 in. 2-in. diameter 9 ft JP-4 fuel 8 in. 20° 4 in. h 3 ft 6 in. V = 15 ft/s ■ Figure P3.91 ■ Figure P3.88 3.89 Determine the manometer reading, h, for the flow shown in Fig. P3.89. 3.92 Water, considered an inviscid, incompressible fluid, flows steadily as shown in Fig. P3.92. Determine h. h Air Q = 4 ft3/s h 0.37 m Water 0.5-ft diameter 0.08-m diameter Free jet 1-ft diameter 3 ft 0.05-m diameter ■ Figure P3.89 3.90 Water flows steadily from the pipe shown in Fig. P3.90 with negligible viscous effects. Determine the maximum flowrate if the water is not to flow from the open vertical tube at A. ■ Figure P3.92 3.93 Determine the flowrate through the submerged orifice shown in Fig. P3.93 if the contraction coefficient is Cc  0.63. 152 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation ■ Figure P3.97 6 ft 4 ft 3-in. diameter 3.98 When the drain plug is pulled, water flows from a hole in the bottom of a large, open cylindrical tank. Show that if viscous effects are negligible and if the flow is assumed to be quasisteady, then it takes 3.41 times longer to empty the entire tank than it does to empty the first half of the tank. Explain why this is so. 2 ft ■ Figure P3.93 3.94 An ancient device for measuring time is shown in Fig. P3.94. The axisymmetric vessel is shaped so that the water level falls at a constant rate. Determine the shape of the vessel, R  R(z), if the water level is to decrease at a rate of 0.10 m/hr and the drain hole is 5.0 mm in diameter. The device is to operate for 12 hr without needing refilling. Make a scale drawing of the shape of the vessel. *3.99 The surface area, A, of the pond shown in Fig. P3.99 varies with the water depth, h, as shown in the table. At time t  0 a valve is opened and the pond is allowed to drain through a pipe of diameter D. If viscous effects are negligible and quasisteady conditions are assumed, plot the water depth as a function of time from when the valve is opened (t  0) until the pond is drained for pipe diameters of D  0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 ft. Assume h  18 ft at t  0. Area A R(z) h 3 ft z D ■ Figure P3.99 5.0-mm diameter ■ Figure P3.94 3.95 A long water trough of triangular cross section is formed from two planks as is shown in Fig. P3.95. A gap of 0.1 in. remains at the junction of the two planks. If the water depth initially was 2 ft, how long a time does it take for the water depth to reduce to 1 ft? 90° 2 ft h (ft) A [acres (1 acre ⫽ 43,560 ft2)] 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 0 0.3 0.5 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.5 1.8 2.4 2.8 3.100 Water flows through a horizontal branching pipe as shown in Fig. P3.100. Determine the pressure at section (3). 0.1 in. V3 A3 = 0.07 m2 ■ Figure P3.95 (3) *3.96 A spherical tank of diameter D has a drain hole of diameter d at its bottom. A vent at the top of the tank maintains atmospheric pressure at the liquid surface within the tank. The flow is quasisteady and inviscid and the tank is full of water initially. Determine the water depth as a function of time, h  h(t), and plot graphs of h(t) for tank diameters of 1, 5, 10, and 20 ft if d  1 in. †3.97 A small hole develops in the bottom of the stationary rowboat shown in Fig. P3.97. Estimate the amount of time it will take for the boat to sink. List all assumptions and show all calculations. (2) (1) V1 = 4 m/s p1 = 400 kPa A1 = 0.1 m2 ■ Figure P3.100 V2 p2 = 350 kPa A2 = 0.02 m2 Problems 3.101 Water flows through the horizontal Y-fitting shown in Fig. P3.101. If the flowrate and pressure in pipe (1) are Q1  2.3 ft3/s and p1  50 lb/ft3, determine the pressures p2 and p3, in pipes (2) and (3) under the assumption that the flowrate divides evenly between pipes (2) and (3). 153 3m 7m 0.03-m diameter 0.05-m diameter Q3 (1) (3) 0.02-m diameter ■ Figure P3.104 0.20 ft 0.3 ft Q1 3.105 Air, assumed incompressible and inviscid, flows into the outdoor cooking grill through nine holes of 0.40-in. diameter as shown in Fig. P3.105. If a flowrate of 40 in.3/s into the grill is required to maintain the correct cooking conditions, determine the pressure within the grill near the holes. (1) (2) 0.25 ft Q2 ■ Figure P3.101 3.102 Water flows through the branching pipe shown in Fig. P3.102. If viscous effects are negligible, determine the pressure at section (2) and the pressure at section (3). Q1 = 1 m3/s A1 = 0.1 m2 p1 = 300 kPa z1 = 0 A3 = 0.035 m2 z3 = 10 m 9 holes, each 0.40-in. diameter (3) V2 = 14 m/s A2 = 0.03 m2 z2 = 0 ■ Figure P3.105 (2) (1) ■ Figure P3.102 3.103 Water flows through the horizontal branching pipe shown in Fig. P3.103 at a rate of 10 ft3/s. If viscous effects are negligible, determine the water speed at section (2), the pressure at section (3), and the flowrate at section (4). A2 = 0.07 ft2 p2 = 5.0 psi 3.106 An air cushion vehicle is supported by forcing air into the chamber created by a skirt around the periphery of the vehicle as shown in Fig. P3.106. The air escapes through the 3-in. clearance between the lower end of the skirt and the ground (or water). Assume the vehicle weighs 10,000 lb and is essentially rectangular in shape, 30 by 65 ft. The volume of the chamber is large enough so that the kinetic energy of the air within the chamber is negligible. Determine the flowrate, Q, needed to support the vehicle. If the ground clearance were reduced to 2 in., what flowrate would be needed? If the vehicle weight were reduced to 5000 lb and the ground clearance maintained at 3 in., what flowrate would be needed? (2) A3 = 0.2 ft2 V3 = 20 ft /s (1) Fan Q Vehicle Skirt A1 = 1 ft2 Q1 = 10 ft3/s p1 = 10 psi (3) (4) 3 in. ■ Figure P3.103 ■ Figure P3.106 3.104 Water flows from a large tank through a large pipe that splits into two smaller pipes as shown in Fig. P3.104. If viscous effects are negligible, determine the flowrate from the tank and the pressure at point (1). 3.107 Water flows from the pipe shown in Fig. P3.107 as a free jet and strikes a circular flat plate. The flow geometry shown is axisymmetrical. Determine the flowrate and the manometer reading, H. 154 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation blows, the harder the card “sticks” to the spool. In fact by blowing hard enough it is possible to keep the card against the spool with the spool turned upside down. (Note: It may be necessary to use a thumb tack to prevent the card from sliding from the spool.) Explain this phenomenon. H 0.1-m diameter V Card 0.4 mm 0.2 m 0.01-m diameter Spool Pipe Q Q ■ Figure P3.107 3.108 A conical plug is used to regulate the airflow from the pipe shown in Fig. P3.108. The air leaves the edge of the cone with a uniform thickness of 0.02 m. If viscous effects are negligible and the flowrate is 0.50 m3/s, determine the pressure within the pipe. V Free jet ■ Figure P3.110 3.111 Observations show that it is not possible to blow the table tennis ball from the funnel shown in Fig. P3.111a. In fact, the ball can be kept in an inverted funnel, Fig P3.111b, by blowing through it. The harder one blows through the funnel, the harder the ball is held within the funnel. Explain this phenomenon. Pipe Q 0.20 m Q = 0.50 m3/s 0.23 m Cone 0.02 m V ■ Figure P3.108 Q 3.109 Water flows steadily from a nozzle into a large tank as shown in Fig. P3.109. The water then flows from the tank as a jet of diameter d. Determine the value of d if the water level in the tank remains constant. Viscous effects are negligible. 4 ft 0.1-ft diameter 0.15-ft diameter (a) (b) ■ Figure P3.111 3.112 Water flows down the sloping ramp shown in Fig. P3.112 with negligible viscous effects. The flow is uniform at sections (1) and (2). For the conditions given show that three solutions for the downstream depth, h2, are obtained by use of the Bernoulli and continuity equations. However, show that only two of these solutions are realistic. Determine these values. V1 = 10 ft/s h1 = 1 ft H = 2 ft h2 V2 d 3 ft 1 ft ■ Figure P3.109 3.110 A small card is placed on top of a spool as shown in Fig. P3.110. It is not possible to blow the card off the spool by blowing air through the hole in the center of the spool. The harder one ■ Figure P3.112 3.113 Water flows in a rectangular channel that is 2.0 m wide as shown in Fig. P3.113. The upstream depth is 70 mm. The water surface rises 40 mm as it passes over a portion where the channel bottom rises 10 mm. If viscous effects are negligible, what is the flowrate? Problems 100 mm 70 mm Q 10 mm 155 3.120 The flowrate in a water channel is sometimes determined by use of a device called a Venturi flume. As shown in Fig. P3.120, this device consists simply of a bump on the bottom of the channel. If the water surface dips a distance of 0.07 m for the conditions shown, what is the flowrate per width of the channel? Assume the velocity is uniform and viscous effects are negligible. ■ Figure P3.113 0.07 m Section 3.6.3 Flowrate Measurement (also see Lab Problems 3.2LP and 3.4LP) 3.114 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation that involves some type of flowmeter. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 3.115 A Venturi meter with a minimum diameter of 3 in. is to be used to measure the flowrate of water through a 4-in.-diameter pipe. Determine the pressure difference indicated by the pressure gage attached to the flowmeter if the flowrate is 0.5 ft3/s and viscous effects are negligible. 3.116 Determine the flowrate through the Venturi meter shown in Fig. P3.116 if ideal conditions exist. p1 = 735 kPa Q V1 V2 1.2 m 0.2 m ■ Figure P3.120 3.121 Water flows under the inclined sluice gate shown in Fig. P3.121. Determine the flowrate if the gate is 8 ft wide. p2 = 550 kPa 19 mm 31 mm 30° 6 ft γ = 9.1 kN/m3 ■ Figure P3.116 1.6 ft 1 ft 3.117 GO For what flowrate through the Venturi meter of Problem 3.116 will cavitation begin if p1  275 kPa gage, atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa (abs), and the vapor pressure is 3.6 kPa (abs)? ■ Figure P3.121 3.118 What diameter orifice hole, d, is needed if under ideal conditions the flowrate through the orifice meter of Fig. P3.118 is to be 30 gal/min of seawater with p1  p2  2.37 lb/in.2? The contraction coefficient is assumed to be 0.63. Section 3.7 The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line p1 p2 d Q 2-in. diameter ■ Figure P3.118 3.119 A weir (see Video V10.13) of trapezoidal cross section is used to measure the flowrate in a channel as shown in Fig. P3.119. If the flowrate is Q0 when H  /2, what flowrate is expected when H  /? 3.122 Water flows in a vertical pipe of 0.15-m diameter at a rate of 0.2 m3/s and a pressure of 200 kPa at an elevation of 25 m. Determine the velocity head and pressure head at elevations of 20 and 55 m. 3.123 Draw the energy line and the hydraulic grade line for the flow of Problem 3.83. 3.124 Draw the energy line and hydraulic grade line for the flow shown in Problem 3.71. Section 3.8 Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation 3.125 Obtain a photograph/image of a flow in which it would not be appropriate to use the Bernoulli equation. Print this photo and write a brief paragraph that describes the situation involved. 3.126 Listed below are typical flight speeds for two aircraft. For which of these conditions would it be reasonable to use the incompressible Bernoulli equation to study the aerodynamics associated with their flight? Explain. H 30° Flight speed, km/hr ᐉ ■ Figure P3.119 Aircraft Cruise Landing approach Boeing 787 F-22 fighter 913 1960 214 250 156 Chapter 3 ■ Elementary Fluid Dynamics—The Bernoulli Equation 3.127 A meteorologist uses a Pitot-static tube to measure the wind speed in a tornado. Based on the damage caused by the storm, the tornado is rated as EF5 on the Enhanced Fujita Scale. This means that the wind speed is estimated to be in the range of 261 to 318 mph. Is it reasonable to use the incompressible Pitot-tube equation (Eq. 3.16) to determine the actual wind speed, or must compressible effects to taken into account? Explain. ■ Lab Problems 3.1 LP This problem involves the pressure distribution between two parallel circular plates. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 3.2 LP This problem involves the calibration of a nozzle-type flowmeter. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley. com/college/munson. 3.3 LP This problem involves the pressure distribution in a twodimensional channel. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 3.4 LP This problem involves the determination of the flowrate under a sluice gate as a function of the water depth. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. ■ Lifelong Learning Problems 3.1 LL The concept of the use of a Pitot-static tube to measure the airspeed of an airplane is rather straightforward. However, the design and manufacture of reliable, accurate, inexpensive Pitotstatic tube airspeed indicators is not necessarily simple. Obtain information about the design and construction of modern Pitot-static tubes. Summarize your findings in a brief report. 3.2 LL In recent years damage due to hurricanes has been significant, particularly in the southeastern United States. The low barometric pressure, high winds, and high tides generated by hurricanes can combine to cause considerable damage. According to some experts, in the coming years hurricane frequency may increase because of global warming. Obtain information about the fluid mechanics of hurricanes. Summarize your findings in a brief report. 3.3 LL Orifice, nozzle, or Venturi flowmeters have been used for a long time to predict accurately the flowrate in pipes. However, recently there have been several new concepts suggested or used for such flowrate measurements. Obtain information about new methods to obtain pipe flowrate information. Summarize your findings in a brief report. 3.4 LL Ultra-high-pressure, thin jets of liquids can be used to cut various materials ranging from leather to steel and beyond. Obtain information about new methods and techniques proposed for liquid jet cutting and investigate how they may alter various manufacturing processes. Summarize your findings in a brief report. ■ FE Exam Problems Sample FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) exam questions for fluid mechanics are provided in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 4 Fluid Kinematics CHAPTER OPENING PHOTO: A vortex ring: The complex, three-dimensional structure of a smoke ring is indicated in this cross-sectional view. 1Smoke in air.2 3Photograph courtesy of R. H. Magarvey and C. S. MacLatchy 1Ref. 42.4 Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: ■ discuss the differences between the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions of fluid motion. ■ identify various flow characteristics based on the velocity field. ■ determine the streamline pattern and acceleration field given a velocity field. ■ discuss the differences between a system and control volume. ■ apply the Reynolds transport theorem and the material derivative. V4.1 Streaklines 4.1 In this chapter we will discuss various aspects of fluid motion without being concerned with the actual forces necessary to produce the motion. That is, we will consider the kinematics of the motion—the velocity and acceleration of the fluid, and the description and visualization of its motion. The analysis of the specific forces necessary to produce the motion 1the dynamics of the motion2 will be discussed in detail in the following chapters. A wide variety of useful information can be gained from a thorough understanding of fluid kinematics. Such an understanding of how to describe and observe fluid motion is an essential step to the complete understanding of fluid dynamics. The Velocity Field In general, fluids flow. That is, there is a net motion of molecules from one point in space to another point as a function of time. As is discussed in Chapter 1, a typical portion of fluid contains so many molecules that it becomes totally unrealistic 1except in special cases2 for us to attempt to account for the motion of individual molecules. Rather, we employ the continuum hypothesis and consider fluids to be made up of fluid particles that interact with each other and with their surroundings. Each particle contains numerous molecules. Thus, we can describe the flow of a fluid in terms of the motion of fluid particles rather than individual molecules. This motion can be described in terms of the velocity and acceleration of the fluid particles. The infinitesimal particles of a fluid are tightly packed together 1as is implied by the continuum assumption2. Thus, at a given instant in time, a description of any fluid property 1such as density, 157 158 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics z Particle A at time t + δ t Particle path Particle A at time t rA(t) rA(t + δ t) y x V4.2 Velocity field ■ Figure 4.1 Particle location in terms of its position vector. pressure, velocity, and acceleration2 may be given as a function of the fluid’s location. This representation of fluid parameters as functions of the spatial coordinates is termed a field representation of the flow. Of course, the specific field representation may be different at different times, so that to describe a fluid flow we must determine the various parameters not only as a function of the spatial coordinates 1x, y, z, for example2 but also as a function of time, t. Thus, to completely specify the temperature, T, in a room we must specify the temperature field, T ⫽ T 1x, y, z, t2, throughout the room 1from floor to ceiling and wall to wall2 at any time of the day or night. Shown in the margin figure is one of the most important fluid variables, the velocity field, w V u v z ^ j ^ k ^ x i V ⫽ u1x, y, z, t2î ⫹ v1x, y, z, t2ĵ ⫹ w1x, y, z, t2k̂ y where u, v, and w are the x, y, and z components of the velocity vector. By definition, the velocity of a particle is the time rate of change of the position vector for that particle. As is illustrated in Fig. 4.1, the position of particle A relative to the coordinate system is given by its position vector, rA, which 1if the particle is moving2 is a function of time. The time derivative of this position gives the velocity of the particle, drAⲐdt ⫽ VA. By writing the velocity for all of the particles, we can obtain the field description of the velocity vector V ⫽ V1x, y, z, t2. Since the velocity is a vector, it has both a direction and a magnitude. The magnitude of V, denoted V ⫽ 0V 0 ⫽ 1u2 ⫹ v2 ⫹ w2 2 1Ⲑ2, is the speed of the fluid. 1It is very common in practical situations to call V velocity rather than speed, i.e., “the velocity of the fluid is 12 m兾s.”2 As is discussed in the next section, a change in velocity results in an acceleration. This acceleration may be due to a change in speed and/or direction. V4.3 Cylindervelocity vectors F l u i d s i n Follow those particles Superimpose two photographs of a bouncing ball taken a short time apart and draw an arrow between the two images of the ball. This arrow represents an approximation of the velocity (displacement/time) of the ball. The particle image velocimeter (PIV) uses this technique to provide the instantaneous velocity field for a given cross section of a flow. The flow being studied is seeded with numerous micron-sized particles that are small enough to follow the flow yet big enough to reflect enough light to be captured by the camera. The flow is t h e N e w s illuminated with a light sheet from a double-pulsed laser. A digital camera captures both light pulses on the same image frame, allowing the movement of the particles to be tracked. By using appropriate computer software to carry out a pixel-by-pixel interrogation of the double image, it is possible to track the motion of the particles and determine the two components of velocity in the given cross section of the flow. By using two cameras in a stereoscopic arrangement, it is possible to determine all three components of velocity. (See Problem 4.18.) 4.1 E XAMPLE The Velocity Field 159 4.1 Velocity Field Representation GIVEN A velocity field is given by V ⫽ 1V0 Ⲑ/2 1⫺xî ⫹ yĵ2 where V0 and / are constants. FIND At what location in the flow field is the speed equal to V0? Make a sketch of the velocity field for x ⱖ 0 by drawing arrows representing the fluid velocity at representative locations. SOLUTION The x, y, and z components of the velocity are given by u ⫽ ⫺V0 xⲐ/, v ⫽ V0 yⲐ/, and w ⫽ 0 so that the fluid speed, V, is V ⫽ 1u2 ⫹ v2 ⫹ w2 2 1Ⲑ2 ⫽ V0 2 1x ⫹ y2 2 1Ⲑ 2 / (1) The speed is V ⫽ V0 at any location on the circle of radius / centered (Ans) at the origin 3 1x2 ⫹ y2 2 1Ⲑ2 ⫽ /4 as shown in Fig. E4.1a. The direction of the fluid velocity relative to the x axis is given in terms of u ⫽ arctan 1vⲐu2 as shown in Fig. E4.1b. For this flow tan u ⫽ V0 yⲐ/ y v ⫽ ⫽ u ⫺x ⫺V0 xⲐ/ Thus, along the x axis 1y ⫽ 02 we see that tan u ⫽ 0, so that u ⫽ 0° or u ⫽ 180°. Similarly, along the y axis 1x ⫽ 02 we obtain tan u ⫽ ⫾q so that u ⫽ 90° or u ⫽ 270°. Also, for y ⫽ 0 we find V ⫽ 1⫺V0 xⲐ/2iˆ, while for x ⫽ 0 we have V ⫽ 1V0yⲐ/2jˆ, indicating 1if V0 7 02 that the flow is directed away from the origin along the y axis and toward the origin along the x axis as shown in Fig. E4.1a. By determining V and u for other locations in the x–y plane, the velocity field can be sketched as shown in the figure. For example, on the line y ⫽ x the velocity is at a 45° angle relative to the x axis 1tan u ⫽ vⲐu ⫽ ⫺yⲐx ⫽ ⫺12. At the origin x ⫽ y ⫽ 0 so that V ⫽ 0. This point is a stagnation point. The farther from the origin the fluid is, the faster it is flowing 1as seen from Eq. 12. By careful consideration of the velocity field it is possible to determine considerable information about the flow. COMMENT The velocity field given in this example approximates the flow in the vicinity of the center of the sign shown in Fig. E4.1c. When wind blows against the sign, some air flows over the sign, some under it, producing a stagnation point as indicated. 2V0 y 2ᐉ V0 V ᐉ θ v u (b) V0/2 2V0 V0 0 x y −ᐉ V0 V=0 −2ᐉ 2V0 (c) (a) ■ Figure E4.1 x 160 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics The figure in the margin shows the velocity field (i.e., velocity vectors) at a given instant for flow past two square bars. It is possible to obtain much qualitative and quantitative information for complex flows by using plots such as this. 4.1.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow Descriptions Flow (Photograph courtesy of Alvaro Valencia) Flow (Courtesy of Chris Griffin) Either Eulerian or Lagrangian methods can be used to describe flow fields. There are two general approaches in analyzing fluid mechanics problems 1or problems in other branches of the physical sciences, for that matter2. The first method, called the Eulerian method, uses the field concept introduced above. In this case, the fluid motion is given by completely prescribing the necessary properties 1pressure, density, velocity, etc.2 as functions of space and time. From this method we obtain information about the flow in terms of what happens at fixed points in space as the fluid flows through those points. A typical Eulerian representation of the flow is shown by the figure in the margin which involves flow past an airfoil at angle of attack. The pressure field is indicated by using a contour plot showing lines of constant pressure, with gray shading indicating the intensity of the pressure. The second method, called the Lagrangian method, involves following individual fluid particles as they move about and determining how the fluid properties associated with these particles change as a function of time. That is, the fluid particles are “tagged” or identified, and their properties determined as they move. The difference between the two methods of analyzing fluid flow problems can be seen in the example of smoke discharging from a chimney, as is shown in Fig. 4.2. In the Eulerian method one may attach a temperature-measuring device to the top of the chimney 1point 02 and record the temperature at that point as a function of time. At different times there are different fluid particles passing by the stationary device. Thus, one would obtain the temperature, T, for that location 1x ⫽ x0, y ⫽ y0, and z ⫽ z0 2 as a function of time. That is, T ⫽ T 1x0, y0, z0, t2. The use of numerous temperature-measuring devices fixed at various locations would provide the temperature field, T ⫽ T1x, y, z, t2. The temperature of a particle as a function of time would not be known unless the location of the particle were known as a function of time. In the Lagrangian method, one would attach the temperature-measuring device to a particular fluid particle 1particle A2 and record that particle’s temperature as it moves about. Thus, one would obtain that particle’s temperature as a function of time, TA ⫽ TA 1t2. The use of many such measuring devices moving with various fluid particles would provide the temperature of these fluid particles as a function of time. The temperature would not be known as a function of position unless the location of each particle were known as a function of time. If enough information in Eulerian form is available, Lagrangian information can be derived from the Eulerian data—and vice versa. Example 4.1 provides an Eulerian description of the flow. For a Lagrangian description we would need to determine the velocity as a function of time for each particle as it flows along from one point to another. In fluid mechanics it is usually easier to use the Eulerian method to describe a flow—in either experimental or analytical investigations. There are, however, certain instances in which the Lagrangian method is more convenient. For example, some numerical fluid mechanics calculations are based on determining the motion of individual fluid particles 1based on the appropriate interactions among the particles2, thereby describing the motion in Lagrangian terms. Similarly, in y Location 0: T = T(x0, y0, t) 0 y0 Particle A: TA = TA(t) x x0 ■ Figure 4.2 Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions of temperature of a flowing fluid. 4.1 V4.4 Follow the particles (experiment) V4.5 Follow the particles (computer) The Velocity Field 161 some experiments individual fluid particles are “tagged” and are followed throughout their motion, providing a Lagrangian description. Oceanographic measurements obtained from devices that flow with the ocean currents provide this information. Similarly, by using X-ray opaque dyes, it is possible to trace blood flow in arteries and to obtain a Lagrangian description of the fluid motion. A Lagrangian description may also be useful in describing fluid machinery 1such as pumps and turbines2 in which fluid particles gain or lose energy as they move along their flow paths. Another illustration of the difference between the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions can be seen in the following biological example. Each year thousands of birds migrate between their summer and winter habitats. Ornithologists study these migrations to obtain various types of important information. One set of data obtained is the rate at which birds pass a certain location on their migration route 1birds per hour2. This corresponds to an Eulerian description—“flowrate” at a given location as a function of time. Individual birds need not be followed to obtain this information. Another type of information is obtained by “tagging” certain birds with radio transmitters and following their motion along the migration route. This corresponds to a Lagrangian description— “position” of a given particle as a function of time. 4.1.2 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows Most flow fields are actually threedimensional. V4.6 Flow past a wing Generally, a fluid flow is a rather complex three-dimensional, time-dependent phenomenon— V ⫽ V1x, y, z, t2 ⫽ uî ⫹ vĵ ⫹ wk̂. In many situations, however, it is possible to make simplifying assumptions that allow a much easier understanding of the problem without sacrificing needed accuracy. One of these simplifications involves approximating a real flow as a simpler one- or twodimensional flow. In almost any flow situation, the velocity field actually contains all three velocity components 1u, v, and w, for example2. In many situations the three-dimensional flow characteristics are important in terms of the physical effects they produce. (See the photograph at the beginning of Chapter 4.) For these situations it is necessary to analyze the flow in its complete three-dimensional character. Neglect of one or two of the velocity components in these cases would lead to considerable misrepresentation of the effects produced by the actual flow. The flow of air past an airplane wing provides an example of a complex three-dimensional flow. A feel for the three-dimensional structure of such flows can be obtained by studying Fig. 4.3, which is a photograph of the flow past a model wing; the flow has been made visible by using a flow visualization technique. In many situations one of the velocity components may be small 1in some sense2 relative to the two other components. In situations of this kind it may be reasonable to neglect the smaller component and assume two-dimensional flow. That is, V ⫽ uî ⫹ vĵ, where u and v are functions of x and y 1and possibly time, t2. It is sometimes possible to further simplify a flow analysis by assuming that two of the velocity components are negligible, leaving the velocity field to be approximated as a onedimensional flow field. That is, V ⫽ uî. As we will learn from examples throughout the remainder of the book, although there are very few, if any, flows that are truly one-dimensional, there are ■ Figure 4.3 Flow visualization of the complex three-dimensional flow past a delta wing. (Photograph courtesy of T. T. Lim and Y. D. Cui, National University of Singapore.) 162 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics many flow fields for which the one-dimensional flow assumption provides a reasonable approximation. There are also many flow situations for which use of a one-dimensional flow field assumption will give completely erroneous results. 4.1.3 Steady and Unsteady Flows Solenoid off,valve closed Spring Solenoid Diaphragm Outlet Inlet Solenoid on,valve open V4.7 Flow types F l u In the previous discussion we have assumed steady flow—the velocity at a given point in space does not vary with time, 0V0t  0. In reality, almost all flows are unsteady in some sense. That is, the velocity does vary with time. It is not difficult to believe that unsteady flows are usually more difficult to analyze 1and to investigate experimentally2 than are steady flows. Hence, considerable simplicity often results if one can make the assumption of steady flow without compromising the usefulness of the results. Among the various types of unsteady flows are nonperiodic flow, periodic flow, and truly random flow. Whether or not unsteadiness of one or more of these types must be included in an analysis is not always immediately obvious. An example of a nonperiodic, unsteady flow is that produced by turning off a faucet to stop the flow of water. Usually this unsteady flow process is quite mundane, and the forces developed as a result of the unsteady effects need not be considered. However, if the water is turned off suddenly 1as with the electrically operated valve in a dishwasher shown in the figure in the margin2, the unsteady effects can become important [as in the “water hammer” effects made apparent by the loud banging of the pipes under such conditions 1Ref. 12]. In other flows the unsteady effects may be periodic, occurring time after time in basically the same manner. The periodic injection of the air–gasoline mixture into the cylinder of an automobile engine is such an example. The unsteady effects are quite regular and repeatable in a regular sequence. They are very important in the operation of the engine. i d s i n New pulsed liquid-jet scalpel High-speed liquid-jet cutters are used for cutting a wide variety of materials such as leather goods, jigsaw puzzles, plastic, ceramic, and metal. Typically, compressed air is used to produce a continuous stream of water that is ejected from a tiny nozzle. As this stream impacts the material to be cut, a high pressure (the stagnation pressure) is produced on the surface of the material, thereby cutting the material. Such liquid-jet cutters work well in air but are difficult to control if the jet must pass through a liquid as often happens V4.8 Jupiter red spot t h e N e w s in surgery. Researchers have developed a new pulsed jet cutting tool that may allow surgeons to perform microsurgery on tissues that are immersed in water. Rather than using a steady water jet, the system uses unsteady flow. A high-energy electrical discharge inside the nozzle momentarily raises the temperature of the microjet to approximately 10,000 °C. This creates a rapidly expanding vapor bubble in the nozzle and expels a tiny fluid jet from the nozzle. Each electrical discharge creates a single, brief jet, which makes a small cut in the material. In many situations the unsteady character of a flow is quite random. That is, there is no repeatable sequence or regular variation to the unsteadiness. This behavior occurs in turbulent flow and is absent from laminar flow. The “smooth” flow of highly viscous syrup onto a pancake represents a “deterministic” laminar flow. It is quite different from the turbulent flow observed in the “irregular” splashing of water from a faucet onto the sink below it. The “irregular” gustiness of the wind represents another random turbulent flow. The differences between these types of flows are discussed in considerable detail in Chapters 8 and 9. It must be understood that the definition of steady or unsteady flow pertains to the behavior of a fluid property as observed at a fixed point in space. For steady flow, the values of all fluid properties 1velocity, temperature, density, etc.2 at any fixed point are independent of time. However, the value of those properties for a given fluid particle may change with time as the particle flows along, even in steady flow. Thus, the temperature of the exhaust at the exit of a car’s exhaust pipe may be constant for several hours, but the temperature of a fluid particle that left the exhaust pipe five minutes ago is lower now than it was when it left the pipe, even though the flow is steady. 4.1.4 Streamlines, Streaklines, and Pathlines Although fluid motion can be quite complicated, there are various concepts that can be used to help in the visualization and analysis of flow fields. To this end we discuss the use of streamlines, 4.1 dx v u x dy v  u dx V4.9 Streamlines (4.1) If the velocity field is known as a function of x and y 1and t if the flow is unsteady2, this equation can be integrated to give the equation of the streamlines. For unsteady flow there is no easy way to produce streamlines experimentally in the laboratory. As discussed below, the observation of dye, smoke, or some other tracer injected into a flow can provide useful information, but for unsteady flows it is not necessarily information about the streamlines. E XAMPLE 4.2 Streamlines for a Given Velocity Field GIVEN Consider the two-dimensional steady flow discussed in Example 4.1, V  1V0 /21xiˆ  yĵ2. FIND Determine the streamlines for this flow. SOLUTION Since y u  1V0 /2x and v  1V0 /2y (1) it follows that streamlines are given by solution of the equation 1V0/2y dy y v    u x dx 1V0/2x in which variables can be separated and the equation integrated to give 冮 or dy  y 冮 4 2 C=9 dx x C=4 ln y  ln x  constant 0 Thus, along the streamline xy  C, 163 streaklines, and pathlines in flow analysis. The streamline is often used in analytical work, while the streakline and pathline are often used in experimental work. A streamline is a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity field. If the flow is steady, nothing at a fixed point 1including the velocity direction2 changes with time, so the streamlines are fixed lines in space. (See the photograph at the beginning of Chapter 6.) For unsteady flows the streamlines may change shape with time. Streamlines are obtained analytically by integrating the equations defining lines tangent to the velocity field. As illustrated in the margin figure, for two-dimensional flows the slope of the streamline, dydx, must be equal to the tangent of the angle that the velocity vector makes with the x axis or y dy The Velocity Field where C is a constant C=1 2 4 C = –1 C = –4 (Ans) By using different values of the constant C, we can plot various lines in the x–y plane—the streamlines. The streamlines for x  0 are plotted in Fig. E4.2. A comparison of this figure with Fig. E4.1a illustrates the fact that streamlines are lines tangent to the velocity field. COMMENT Note that a flow is not completely specified by the shape of the streamlines alone. For example, the streamlines for the flow with V0/  10 have the same shape as those for the flow with V0/  10. However, the direction of the flow is opposite for these two cases. The arrows in Fig. E4.2 representing the flow direction are correct for V0/  10 since, from Eq. 1, u  10x and v  10y. That is, the flow is from right to left. For V0/  10 the arrows are reversed. The flow is from left to right. –2 –4 ■ Figure E4.2 C = –9 x 164 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics A streakline consists of all particles in a flow that have previously passed through a common point. Streaklines are more of a laboratory tool than an analytical tool. They can be obtained by taking instantaneous photographs of marked particles that all passed through a given location in the flow field at some earlier time. Such a line can be produced by continuously injecting marked fluid 1neutrally buoyant smoke in air or dye in water2 at a given location 1Ref. 22. (See Fig. 9.1.) If the flow is steady, each successively injected particle follows precisely behind the previous one, forming a steady streakline that is exactly the same as the streamline through the injection point. For unsteady flows, particles injected at the same point at different times need not follow the same path. An instantaneous photograph of the marked fluid would show the streakline at that instant, but it would not necessarily coincide with the streamline through the point of injection at that particular time nor with the streamline through the same injection point at a different time 1see Example 4.32. The third method used for visualizing and describing flows involves the use of pathlines. A pathline is the line traced out by a given particle as it flows from one point to another. The pathline is a Lagrangian concept that can be produced in the laboratory by marking a fluid particle 1dying a small fluid element2 and taking a time exposure photograph of its motion. (See the photograph at the beginning of Chapter 7.) V4.10 Streaklines F l u i d s i n Air bridge spanning the oceans It has long been known that large quantities of material are transported from one location to another by airborne dust particles. It is estimated that 2 billion metric tons of dust are lifted into the atmosphere each year. Most of these particles settle out fairly rapidly, but significant amounts travel large distances. Scientists are beginning to understand the full impact of this phenomenon—it is not only the tonnage transported, but the type of material transported that is significant. In addition to the mundane inert material we all term “dust,” it is now known that a wide variety of hazardous For steady flow, streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines are the same. E XAMPLE t h e N e w s materials and organisms are also carried along these literal particle paths. Satellite images reveal the amazing rate by which desert soils and other materials are transformed into airborne particles as a result of storms that produce strong winds. Once the tiny particles are aloft, they may travel thousands of miles, crossing the oceans and eventually being deposited on other continents. For the health and safety of all, it is important that we obtain a better understanding of the air bridges that span the oceans and also understand the ramification of such material transport. If the flow is steady, the path taken by a marked particle 1a pathline2 will be the same as the line formed by all other particles that previously passed through the point of injection 1a streakline2. For such cases these lines are tangent to the velocity field. Hence, pathlines, streamlines, and streaklines are the same for steady flows. For unsteady flows none of these three types of lines need be the same 1Ref. 32. Often one sees pictures of “streamlines” made visible by the injection of smoke or dye into a flow as is shown in Fig. 4.3. Actually, such pictures show streaklines rather than streamlines. However, for steady flows the two are identical; only the nomenclature is incorrectly used. 4.3 Comparison of Streamlines, Pathlines, and Streaklines GIVEN Water flowing from the oscillating slit shown in Fig. E4.3a produces a velocity field given by V  u0 sin 3v1t  y v0 2 4 î  v0 ĵ, where u0, v0, and v are constants. Thus, the y component of velocity remains constant 1v  v0 2, and the x component of velocity at y  0 coincides with the velocity of the oscillating sprinkler head 3u  u0 sin1vt2 at y  04 . FIND 1a2 Determine the streamline that passes through the origin at t  0; at t  p2v. 1b2 Determine the pathline of the particle that was at the origin at t  0; at t  p2. 1c2 Discuss the shape of the streakline that passes through the origin. SOLUTION (a) Since u  u0 sin 3 v1t  yv0 2 4 and v  v0, it follows from Eq. 4.1 that streamlines are given by the solution of dy v0 v   u dx u0 sin 3v1t  yv0 2 4 in which the variables can be separated and the equation integrated 1for any given time t2 to give 冮 u0 sin c v at  冮 y b d dy  v0 dx v0 4.1 The Velocity Field 165 This can be integrated to give the x component of the pathline as or u0 1v0v2 cos c v at  y b d  v0x  C v0 x   c u0 sin a (1) where C is a constant. For the streamline at t  0 that passes through the origin 1x  y  02, the value of C is obtained from Eq. 1 as C  u0v0 v. Hence, the equation for this streamline is vy u0 x c cos a b  1 d v0 v x0 x  u0 at  y vy u0 u0 p p b x  cos c v a  b d  cos a  v0 v0 v 2v v 2 p b and 2v y (3) (Ans) (6) (Ans) y  v0 at  p b 2v (7) (8) (Ans) Fig. E4.3c, are straight lines from the origin 1rays2. The pathlines and streamlines do not coincide because the flow is unsteady. not the same because the flow is unsteady. For example, at the origin 1x  y  02 the velocity is V  v0 ĵ at t  0 and V  u0î  v0 ĵ at t  p2v. Thus, the angle of the streamline passing through the origin changes with time. Similarly, the shape of the entire streamline is a function of time. (c) The streakline through the origin at time t  0 is the locus of particles at t  0 that previously 1t 6 02 passed through the origin. The general shape of the streaklines can be seen as follows. Each particle that flows through the origin travels in a straight line 1pathlines are rays from the origin2, the slope of which lies between v0u0 as shown in Fig. E4.3d. Particles passing through the origin at different times are located on different rays from the origin and at different distances from the origin. The net result is that a stream of dye continually injected at the origin 1a streakline2 would have the shape shown in Fig. E4.3d. Because of the unsteadiness, the streakline will vary with time, although it will always have the oscillating, sinuous character shown. (b) The pathline of a particle 1the location of the particle as a function of time2 can be obtained from the velocity field and the definition of the velocity. Since u  dxdt and v  dydt we obtain dy  v0 dt The y equation can be integrated 1since v0  constant2 to give the y coordinate of the pathline as y  v0 t  C1 v0 x u0 COMMENT The pathlines given by Eqs. 6 and 8, shown in COMMENT These two streamlines, plotted in Fig. E4.3b, are and y  v0 t The pathline can be drawn by plotting the locus of x1t2, y1t2 values for t  0 or by eliminating the parameter t from Eq. 7 to give or y dx  u0 sin c v at  b d v0 dt and Similarly, for the particle that was at the origin at t  p2v, Eqs. 4 and 5 give C1  pv0 2v and C2  pu0 2v. Thus, the pathline for this particle is (2) (Ans) vy u0 sin a b v0 v (5) where C2 is a constant. For the particle that was at the origin 1x  y  02 at time t  0, Eqs. 4 and 5 give C1  C2  0. Thus, the pathline is Similarly, for the streamline at t  p2v that passes through the origin, Eq. 1 gives C  0. Thus, the equation for this streamline is x C1v b d t  C2 v0 (4) COMMENT Similar streaklines are given by the stream of where C1 is a constant. With this known y  y1t2 dependence, the x equation for the pathline becomes water from a garden hose nozzle that oscillates back and forth in a direction normal to the axis of the nozzle. In this example neither the streamlines, pathlines, nor streaklines coincide. If the flow were steady, all of these lines would be the same. v0 t  C1 C1 v dx  u0 sin c v at  b d  u0 sin a b v0 v0 dt y y 2π v0/ω Streamlines through origin x 0 t=0 π v0/ω t = π /2ω Oscillating sprinkler head Q (a) –2u0/ω 0 (b) 2u0/ω x ■ Figure E4.3(a), (b) 166 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics y y t=0 v0 /u0 Pathlines of particles at origin at time t v0 t = π /2ω –1 0 1 Pathline u0 x x 0 (c) 4.2 Streaklines through origin at time t (d) ■ Figure E4.3(c), (d) The Acceleration Field V4.11 Pathlines Acceleration is the time rate of change of velocity for a given particle. As indicated in the previous section, we can describe fluid motion by either 112 following individual particles 1Lagrangian description2 or 122 remaining fixed in space and observing different particles as they pass by 1Eulerian description2. In either case, to apply Newton’s second law 1F  ma2 we must be able to describe the particle acceleration in an appropriate fashion. For the infrequently used Lagrangian method, we describe the fluid acceleration just as is done in solid body dynamics— a  a1t2 for each particle. For the Eulerian description we describe the acceleration field as a function of position and time without actually following any particular particle. This is analogous to describing the flow in terms of the velocity field, V  V 1x, y, z, t2, rather than the velocity for particular particles. In this section we will discuss how to obtain the acceleration field if the velocity field is known. The acceleration of a particle is the time rate of change of its velocity. For unsteady flows the velocity at a given point in space 1occupied by different particles2 may vary with time, giving rise to a portion of the fluid acceleration. In addition, a fluid particle may experience an acceleration because its velocity changes as it flows from one point to another in space. For example, water flowing through a garden hose nozzle under steady conditions 1constant number of gallons per minute from the hose2 will experience an acceleration as it changes from its relatively low velocity in the hose to its relatively high velocity at the tip of the nozzle. 4.2.1 The Material Derivative Consider a fluid particle moving along its pathline as is shown in Fig. 4.4. In general, the particle’s velocity, denoted VA for particle A, is a function of its location and the time. That is, VA  VA 1rA, t2  VA 3xA 1t2, yA 1t2, zA 1t2, t4 z VA(rA, t) Particle A at time t Particle path vA(rA, t) rA wA(rA, t) uA(rA, t) y zA(t) yA(t) x xA(t) ■ Figure 4.4 Velocity and position of particle A at time t. 4.2 The Acceleration Field 167 where xA  xA 1t2, yA  yA 1t2, and zA  zA 1t2 define the location of the moving particle. By definition, the acceleration of a particle is the time rate of change of its velocity. Since the velocity may be a function of both position and time, its value may change because of the change in time as well as a change in the particle’s position. Thus, we use the chain rule of differentiation to obtain the acceleration of particle A, denoted aA, as aA 1t2  dVA 0VA 0VA dxA 0VA dyA 0VA dzA     dt 0t 0x dt 0y dt 0z dt (4.2) Using the fact that the particle velocity components are given by uA  dxAdt, vA  dyAdt, and wA  dzAdt, Eq. 4.2 becomes aA  0VA 0VA 0VA 0VA  uA  vA  wA 0t 0x 0y 0z Since the above is valid for any particle, we can drop the reference to particle A and obtain the acceleration field from the velocity field as 0V 0V 0V 0V u v w 0t 0x 0y 0z a (4.3) This is a vector result whose scalar components can be written as ax  0u 0u 0u 0u u v w 0t 0x 0y 0z ay  0v 0v 0v 0v u v w 0t 0x 0y 0z az  0w 0w 0w 0w u v w 0t 0x 0y 0z (4.4) and The material derivative is used to describe time rates of change for a given particle. where ax, ay, and az are the x, y, and z components of the acceleration. The above result is often written in shorthand notation as DV Dt a where the operator D1 2 Dt ⬅ 01 2 0t u 01 2 0x v 01 2 0y w 01 2 0z (4.5) is termed the material derivative or substantial derivative. An often-used shorthand notation for the material derivative operator is T = T (x, y, z, t) D1 2 Dt V Particle A z x y  01 2 0t  1V ⴢ § 21 2 (4.6) The dot product of the velocity vector, V, and the gradient operator, § 1 2  01 2  0x î  0 1 2  0y ĵ  01 2  0z k̂ 1a vector operator2 provides a convenient notation for the spatial derivative terms appearing in the Cartesian coordinate representation of the material derivative. Note that the notation V ⴢ § represents the operator V ⴢ § 1 2  u01 2  0x  v01 2  0y  w01 2  0z. The material derivative concept is very useful in analysis involving various fluid parameters, not just the acceleration. The material derivative of any variable is the rate at which that variable changes with time for a given particle 1as seen by one moving along with the fluid—the Lagrangian description2. For example, consider a temperature field T  T1x, y, z, t2 associated with a given flow, like the flame shown in the figure in the margin. It may be of interest to determine the time rate of change of temperature of a fluid particle 1particle A2 as it moves through this temperature 168 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics field. If the velocity, V ⫽ V 1x, y, z, t2, is known, we can apply the chain rule to determine the rate of change of temperature as dTA 0TA 0TA dxA 0TA dyA 0TA dzA ⫽ ⫹ ⫹ ⫹ dt 0t 0x dt 0y dt 0z dt This can be written as DT 0T 0T 0T 0T 0T ⫽ ⫹u ⫹v ⫹w ⫽ ⫹ V ⴢ §T Dt 0t 0x 0y 0z 0t As in the determination of the acceleration, the material derivative operator, D1 2ⲐDt, appears. E XAMPLE 4.4 Acceleration along a Streamline y GIVEN An incompressible, inviscid fluid flows steadily past a tennis ball of radius R, as shown in Fig. E4.4a. According to a more advanced analysis of the flow, the fluid velocity along streamline A–B is given by V ⫽ u1x2î ⫽ V0 a1 ⫹ R A R3 b î x3 x B V0 where V0 is the upstream velocity far ahead of the sphere. (a) FIND Determine the acceleration experienced by fluid particles as they flow along this streamline. ax _______ (V02/R) SOLUTION –3 Along streamline A–B there is only one component of velocity 1v ⫽ w ⫽ 02 so that from Eq. 4.3 a⫽ –2 –1 x/R B A –0.2 0V 0u 0u 0V ⫹u ⫽ a ⫹ u b î 0t 0x 0t 0x –0.4 –0.6 or (b) ax ⫽ 0u 0u ⫹u , 0t 0x ay ⫽ 0, az ⫽ 0 ■ Figure E4.4 Since the flow is steady, the velocity at a given point in space does not change with time. Thus, 0uⲐ 0t ⫽ 0. With the given velocity distribution along the streamline, the acceleration becomes ax ⫽ u 0u R3 ⫽ V0 a1 ⫹ 3 b V0 3R3 1⫺3x⫺4 2 4 0x x or ax ⫽ ⫺31V 20 ⲐR2 1 ⫹ 1RⲐx2 3 1xⲐR2 4 (Ans) COMMENTS Along streamline A–B 1⫺ q ⱕ x ⱕ ⫺R and y ⫽ 02 the acceleration has only an x component, and it is negative 1a deceleration2. Thus, the fluid slows down from its upstream velocity of V ⫽ V0î at x ⫽ ⫺ q to its stagnation point velocity of V ⫽ 0 at x ⫽ ⫺R, the “nose” of the ball. The variation of ax along streamline A–B is shown in Fig. E4.4b. It is the same result as is obtained in Example 3.1 by using the streamwise component of the acceleration, ax ⫽ V 0VⲐ0s. The maximum deceleration occurs at x ⫽ ⫺1.205R and has a value of ax,max ⫽ ⫺0.610 V02ⲐR. Note that this maximum deceleration increases with increasing velocity and decreasing size. As indicated in the following table, typical values of this deceleration can be quite large. For example, the ax,max ⫽ ⫺4.08 ⫻ 10 4 ftⲐs2 value for a pitched baseball is a deceleration approximately 1500 times that of gravity. 4.2 Object Rising weather balloon Soccer ball Baseball Tennis ball Golf ball V0 1ftⲐs2 R 1ft2 ax,max 1ftⲐs2 2 1 20 90 100 200 4.0 0.80 0.121 0.104 0.070 ⫺0.153 ⫺305 ⫺4.08 ⫻ 10 4 ⫺5.87 ⫻ 104 ⫺3.49 ⫻ 10 5 The Acceleration Field 169 In general, for fluid particles on streamlines other than A–B, all three components of the acceleration 1ax, ay, and az 2 will be nonzero. 4.2.2 Unsteady Effects The local derivative is a result of the unsteadiness of the flow. V4.12 Unsteady flow As is seen from Eq. 4.5, the material derivative formula contains two types of terms—those involving the time derivative 3 01 2Ⲑ0t4 and those involving spatial derivatives 3 01 2 Ⲑ 0x, 0 1 2Ⲑ0y, and 0 1 2Ⲑ0z4. The time derivative portions are denoted as the local derivative. They represent effects of the unsteadiness of the flow. If the parameter involved is the acceleration, that portion given by 0VⲐ0t is termed the local acceleration. For steady flow the time derivative is zero throughout the flow field 3 01 2Ⲑ0t ⬅ 04, and the local effect vanishes. Physically, there is no change in flow parameters at a fixed point in space if the flow is steady. There may be a change of those parameters for a fluid particle as it moves about, however. If a flow is unsteady, its parameter values 1velocity, temperature, density, etc.2 at any location may change with time. For example, an unstirred 1V ⫽ 02 cup of coffee will cool down in time because of heat transfer to its surroundings. That is, DTⲐDt ⫽ 0TⲐ0t ⫹ V ⴢ § T ⫽ 0TⲐ0t 6 0. Similarly, a fluid particle may have nonzero acceleration as a result of the unsteady effect of the flow. Consider flow in a constant diameter pipe as is shown in Fig. 4.5. The flow is assumed to be spatially uniform throughout the pipe. That is, V ⫽ V0 1t2 î at all points in the pipe. The value of the acceleration depends on whether V0 is being increased, 0V0 Ⲑ0t 7 0, or decreased, 0V0Ⲑ0t 6 0. Unless V0 is independent of time 1V0 ⬅ constant2 there will be an acceleration, the local acceleration term. Thus, the acceleration field, a ⫽ 0V0 Ⲑ0t î, is uniform throughout the entire flow, although it may vary with time 1 0V0 Ⲑ0t need not be constant2. The acceleration due to the spatial variations of velocity 1u 0uⲐ0x, v 0vⲐ0y, etc.2 vanishes automatically for this flow, since 0uⲐ0x ⫽ 0 and v ⫽ w ⫽ 0. That is, a⫽ 0V0 0V 0V 0V 0V 0V ⫹u ⫹v ⫹w ⫽ ⫽ î 0t 0x 0y 0z 0t 0t 4.2.3 Convective Effects V2 > V1 V1 The portion of the material derivative 1Eq. 4.52 represented by the spatial derivatives is termed the convective derivative. It represents the fact that a flow property associated with a fluid particle may vary because of the motion of the particle from one point in space where the parameter has one value to another point in space where its value is different. For example, the water velocity at the inlet of the garden hose nozzle shown in the figure in the margin is different (both in direction and speed) than it is at the exit. This contribution to the time rate of change of the parameter for the particle can occur whether the flow is steady or unsteady. V0(t) x V0(t) ■ Figure 4.5 Uniform, unsteady flow in a constant diameter pipe. 170 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics Hot Water heater Tout > Tin Pathline ∂T = 0 ___ ∂t DT ≠ 0 ___ Dt Cold Tin The convective derivative is a result of the spatial variation of the flow. u 0 x ax 0 x ■ Figure 4.6 Steady-state operation of a water heater. (Photograph courtesy of American Water Heater Company.) It is due to the convection, or motion, of the particle through space in which there is a gradient 3 § 1 2 ⫽ 01 2 Ⲑ 0x î ⫹ 01 2 Ⲑ 0y ĵ ⫹ 01 2 Ⲑ 0z k̂4 in the parameter value. That portion of the acceleration given by the term 1V ⴢ § 2V is termed the convective acceleration. As is illustrated in Fig. 4.6, the temperature of a water particle changes as it flows through a water heater. The water entering the heater is always the same cold temperature, and the water leaving the heater is always the same hot temperature. The flow is steady. However, the temperature, T, of each water particle increases as it passes through the heater— Tout 7 Tin. Thus, DTⲐDt ⫽ 0 because of the convective term in the total derivative of the temperature. That is, 0TⲐ0t ⫽ 0, but u 0TⲐ0x ⫽ 0 1where x is directed along the streamline2, since there is a nonzero temperature gradient along the streamline. A fluid particle traveling along this nonconstant temperature path 1 0TⲐ0x ⫽ 02 at a specified speed 1u2 will have its temperature change with time at a rate of DTⲐDt ⫽ u 0TⲐ0x even though the flow is steady 10TⲐ0t ⫽ 02. The same types of processes are involved with fluid accelerations. Consider flow in a variable area pipe as shown in Fig. 4.7. It is assumed that the flow is steady and one-dimensional with velocity that increases and decreases in the flow direction as indicated. As the fluid flows from section 112 to section 122, its velocity increases from V1 to V2. Thus, even though 0VⲐ0t ⫽ 0 1steady flow2, fluid particles experience an acceleration given by ax ⫽ u 0uⲐ 0x 1convective acceleration2. For x1 6 x 6 x2, it is seen that 0uⲐ0x 7 0 so that ax 7 0 —the fluid accelerates. For x2 6 x 6 x3, it is seen that 0uⲐ0x 6 0 so that ax 6 0 —the fluid decelerates. This acceleration and deceleration are shown in the figure in the margin. If V1 ⫽ V3, the amount of acceleration precisely balances the amount of deceleration even though the distances between x2 and x1 and x3 and x2 are not the same. The concept of the material derivative can be used to determine the time rate of change of any parameter associated with a particle as it moves about. Its use is not restricted to fluid mechanics alone. The basic ingredients needed to use the material derivative concept are the field description of the parameter, P ⫽ P1x, y, z, t2, and the rate at which the particle moves through that field, V ⫽ V 1x, y, z, t2. u = V1 u = V2 > V1 u = V3 = V1 < V2 x x1 ■ Figure 4.7 x2 x3 Uniform, steady flow in a variable area pipe. 4.2 E XAMPLE 4.5 The Acceleration Field 171 Acceleration from a Given Velocity Field GIVEN Consider the steady, two-dimensional flow field dis- FIND Determine the acceleration field for this flow. cussed in Example 4.2. SOLUTION In general, the acceleration is given by y V a DV 0V a   1V ⴢ § 2 1V2 Dt 0t  Streamline 0V 0V 0V 0V u v w 0t 0x 0y 0z (1) where the velocity is given by V  1V0 /21xiˆ  yĵ2 so that u  1V0/2 x and v  1V0/2y. For steady 3 01 2  0t  0 4, twodimensional 3w  0 and 0 1 2  0z  04 flow, Eq. l becomes 0V 0V v 0x 0y 0u 0u 0v 0v  au  v b î  au  v b ĵ 0x 0y 0x 0y au x ■ Figure E4.5 Hence, for this flow the acceleration is given by a  c a V0 V0 V0 b 1x2 a b  a b 1y2102 d î / / /  c a Also, the acceleration vector is oriented at an angle u from the x axis, where V0 V0 V0 b 1x2102  a b 1y2 a b d ĵ / / / tan u  or ax  V 20 x /2 , ay  V 20 y /2 (Ans) COMMENTS The fluid experiences an acceleration in both the x and y directions. Since the flow is steady, there is no local acceleration—the fluid velocity at any given point is constant in time. However, there is a convective acceleration due to the change in velocity from one point on the particle’s pathline to another. Recall that the velocity is a vector—it has both a magnitude and a direction. In this flow both the fluid speed 1magnitude2 and flow direction change with location 1see Fig. E4.1a2. For this flow the magnitude of the acceleration is constant on circles centered at the origin, as is seen from the fact that 0a 0  1a2x  a2y  a2z 2 12  a E XAMPLE 4.6 V0 2 2 b 1x  y2 2 12 / ay ax  y x This is the same angle as that formed by a ray from the origin to point 1x, y2. Thus, the acceleration is directed along rays from the origin and has a magnitude proportional to the distance from the origin. Typical acceleration vectors 1from Eq. 22 and velocity vectors 1from Example 4.12 are shown in Fig. E4.5 for the flow in the first quadrant. Note that a and V are not parallel except along the x and y axes 1a fact that is responsible for the curved pathlines of the flow2 and that both the acceleration and velocity are zero at the origin 1x  y  02. An infinitesimal fluid particle placed precisely at the origin will remain there, but its neighbors 1no matter how close they are to the origin2 will drift away. (2) The Material Derivative GIVEN A fluid flows steadily through a two-dimensional nozzle of length / as shown in Fig. E4.6a. The nozzle shape is given by y /  ; 0.5 31  1x/2 4 If viscous and gravitational effects are negligible, the velocity field is approximately u  V0冤1  x/冥, v  V0y/ (1) 172 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics and the pressure field is p  p0  1rV 20 22 3 1x 2 V0  y 2 /  2x/4 2 2 where V0 and p0 are the velocity and pressure at the origin, x  y  0. Note that the fluid speed increases as it flows through the nozzle. For example, along the centerline 1y  02 , V  V0 at x  0 and V  2V0 at x  /. y 0 0.5 _y = _______  (1 + x/)  0.5 _y = – _______  (1 + x/) 2V0 FIND Determine, as a function of x and y, the time rate of x change of pressure felt by a fluid particle as it flows through the nozzle. SOLUTION The time rate of change of pressure at any given, fixed point in this steady flow is zero. However, the time rate of change of pressure felt by a particle flowing through the nozzle is given by the material derivative of the pressure and is not zero. Thus, Dp 0p 0p 0p 0p 0p  u v u v Dt 0t 0x 0y 0x 0y (2) ■ Figure E4.6a where the x and y components of the pressure gradient can be written as 0p rV20 x  a  1b 0x / / (3) rV20 y 0p  a b 0y / / (4) and Therefore, by combining Eqs. (1), (2), (3), and (4) we obtain COMMENT Lines of constant pressure within the nozzle are indicated in Fig. E4.6b, along with some representative streamlines of the flow. Note that as a fluid particle flows along its streamline, it moves into areas of lower and lower pressure. Hence, even though the flow is steady, the time rate of change of the pressure for any given particle is negative. This can be verified from Eq. (5) which, when plotted in Fig. E4.6c, shows that for any point within the nozzle Dp Dt 6 0. y rV20 x rV20 y Dp x  V0 a1  b a b a  1b  aV0 b a ba b Dt / / / / / / Dp/Dt _______ (ρV03/) or 2 Dp rV30 x y 2  c a  1b  a b d Dt / / / _y  –0.5 (5) (Ans) _x = 0  –1 p – p0 ______ /2 rV02 0.5 _x  1 –0.5 _y  0.5 0 –1.0 –1.5 –2.0 –2.5 –2.25 –3.0 _x = 0.5  _x 1  _x = 1  ■ Figure E4.6b ■ Figure E4.6c –4 4.2 The Acceleration Field 173 4.2.4 Streamline Coordinates V4.13 Streamline coordinates In many flow situations, it is convenient to use a coordinate system defined in terms of the streamlines of the flow. An example for steady, two-dimensional flows is illustrated in Fig. 4.8. Such flows can be described either in terms of the usual x, y Cartesian coordinate system 1or some other system such as the r, u polar coordinate system2 or the streamline coordinate system. In the streamline coordinate system the flow is described in terms of one coordinate along the streamlines, denoted s, and the second coordinate normal to the streamlines, denoted n. Unit vectors in these two directions are denoted by ŝ and n̂, as shown in the figure. Care is needed not to confuse the coordinate distance s 1a scalar2 with the unit vector along the streamline direction, ŝ. The flow plane is therefore covered by an orthogonal curved net of coordinate lines. At any point the s and n directions are perpendicular, but the lines of constant s or constant n are not necessarily straight. Without knowing the actual velocity field 1hence, the streamlines2 it is not possible to construct this flow net. In many situations, appropriate simplifying assumptions can be made so that this lack of information does not present an insurmountable difficulty. One of the major advantages of using the streamline coordinate system is that the velocity is always tangent to the s direction. That is, V  V ŝ V a an This allows simplifications in describing the fluid particle acceleration and in solving the equations governing the flow. For steady, two-dimensional flow we can determine the acceleration as as a DV  as ŝ  ann̂ Dt where as and an are the streamline and normal components of acceleration, respectively, as indicated by the figure in the margin. We use the material derivative because by definition the acceleration is the time rate of change of the velocity of a given particle as it moves about. If the streamlines y s = s2 n = n2 n = n1 s = s1 s=0 n=0 Streamlines ^ n ^ s V s x ■ Figure 4.8 Streamline coordinate system for two-dimensional flow. 174 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics are curved, both the speed of the particle and its direction of flow may change from one point to another. In general, for steady flow both the speed and the flow direction are a function of location— V  V1s, n2 and ŝ  ŝ1s, n2. For a given particle, the value of s changes with time, but the value of n remains fixed because the particle flows along a streamline defined by n  constant. 1Recall that streamlines and pathlines coincide in steady flow.2 Thus, application of the chain rule gives a D1V ŝ2 Dt  DV Dŝ ŝ  V Dt Dt or aa 0V 0V ds 0V dn 0ŝ 0ŝ ds 0ŝ dn   b ŝ  V a   b 0t 0s dt 0n dt 0t 0s dt 0n dt This can be simplified by using the fact that for steady flow nothing changes with time at a given point so that both 0V0t and 0ŝ0t are zero. Also, the velocity along the streamline is V  dsdt, and the particle remains on its streamline 1n  constant2 so that dndt  0. Hence, a  aV The orientation of the unit vector along the streamline changes with distance along the streamline. 0V 0ŝ b ŝ  V aV b 0s 0s The quantity 0ŝ0s represents the limit as ds S 0 of the change in the unit vector along the streamline, dŝ, per change in distance along the streamline, ds. The magnitude of ŝ is constant 1 0ŝ0  1; it is a unit vector2, but its direction is variable if the streamlines are curved. From Fig. 4.9 it is seen that the magnitude of 0ŝ0s is equal to the inverse of the radius of curvature of the streamline, r, at the point in question. This follows because the two triangles shown 1AOB and A¿O¿B¿ 2 are similar triangles so that dsr  0dŝ 0  0ŝ 0  0dŝ 0 , or 0dŝds 0  1r. Similarly, in the limit ds S 0, the direction of dŝds is seen to be normal to the streamline. That is, 0ŝ dŝ n̂  lim  0s dsS0 ds r Hence, the acceleration for steady, two-dimensional flow can be written in terms of its streamwise and normal components in the form aV 0V V2 0V ŝ  n̂ or as  V , 0s r 0s an  V2 r (4.7) The first term, as  V 0V0s, represents the convective acceleration along the streamline, and the second term, an  V 2 r, represents centrifugal acceleration 1one type of convective acceleration2 normal to the fluid motion. These components can be noted in Fig. E4.5 by resolving the acceleration vector into its components along and normal to the velocity vector. Note that the unit vector n̂ is directed from the streamline toward the center of curvature. These forms of the acceleration were used in Chapter 3 and are probably familiar from previous dynamics or physics considerations. O O δθ δθ   ^ n δs s A ^ s (s) B ^s (s + ) δs δs A ^s (s O' B ) δs + δθ B' ^ δs ^ s (s) ■ Figure 4.9 Relationship between the unit vector along the streamline, ŝ , and the radius of curvature of the streamline, r. A' 4.3 4.3 Control Volume and System Representations 175 Control Volume and System Representations Both control volume and system concepts can be used to describe fluid flow. (Photograph courtesy of NASA.) As is discussed in Chapter 1, a fluid is a type of matter that is relatively free to move and interact with its surroundings. As with any matter, a fluid’s behavior is governed by fundamental physical laws that are approximated by an appropriate set of equations. The application of laws such as the conservation of mass, Newton’s laws of motion, and the laws of thermodynamics forms the foundation of fluid mechanics analyses. There are various ways that these governing laws can be applied to a fluid, including the system approach and the control volume approach. By definition, a system is a collection of matter of fixed identity 1always the same atoms or fluid particles2, which may move, flow, and interact with its surroundings. A control volume, on the other hand, is a volume in space 1a geometric entity, independent of mass2 through which fluid may flow. A system is a specific, identifiable quantity of matter. It may consist of a relatively large amount of mass 1such as all of the air in the Earth’s atmosphere2, or it may be an infinitesimal size 1such as a single fluid particle2. In any case, the molecules making up the system are “tagged” in some fashion 1dyed red, either actually or only in your mind2 so that they can be continually identified as they move about. The system may interact with its surroundings by various means 1by the transfer of heat or the exertion of a pressure force, for example2. It may continually change size and shape, but it always contains the same mass. A mass of air drawn into an air compressor can be considered as a system. It changes shape and size 1it is compressed2, its temperature may change, and it is eventually expelled through the outlet of the compressor. The matter associated with the original air drawn into the compressor remains as a system, however. The behavior of this material could be investigated by applying the appropriate governing equations to this system. One of the important concepts used in the study of statics and dynamics is that of the free-body diagram. That is, we identify an object, isolate it from its surroundings, replace its surroundings by the equivalent actions that they put on the object, and apply Newton’s laws of motion. The body in such cases is our system—an identified portion of matter that we follow during its interactions with its surroundings. In fluid mechanics, it is often quite difficult to identify and keep track of a specific quantity of matter. A finite portion of a fluid contains an uncountable number of fluid particles that move about quite freely, unlike a solid that may deform but usually remains relatively easy to identify. For example, we cannot as easily follow a specific portion of water flowing in a river as we can follow a branch floating on its surface. We may often be more interested in determining the forces put on a fan, airplane, or automobile by air flowing past the object than we are in the information obtained by following a given portion of the air 1a system2 as it flows along. Similarly, for the Space Shuttle launch vehicle shown in the figure in the margin, we may be more interested in determining the thrust produced than we are in the information obtained by following the highly complex, irregular path of the exhaust plume from the rocket engine nozzle. For these situations we often use the control volume approach. We identify a specific volume in space 1a volume associated with the fan, airplane, or automobile, for example2 and analyze the fluid flow within, through, or around that volume. In general, the control volume can be a moving volume, although for most situations considered in this book we will use only fixed, nondeformable control volumes. The matter within a control volume may change with time as the fluid flows through it. Similarly, the amount of mass within the volume may change with time. The control volume itself is a specific geometric entity, independent of the flowing fluid. Examples of control volumes and control surfaces 1the surface of the control volume2 are shown in Fig. 4.10. For case 1a2, fluid flows through a pipe. The fixed control surface consists of the inside surface of the pipe, the outlet end at section 122, and a section across the pipe at 112. One portion of the control surface is a physical surface 1the pipe2, while the remainder is simply a surface in space 1across the pipe2. Fluid flows across part of the control surface but not across all of it. Another control volume is the rectangular volume surrounding the jet engine shown in Fig. 4.10b. If the airplane to which the engine is attached is sitting still on the runway, air flows through this control volume because of the action of the engine within it. The air that was within the engine itself at time t  t1 1a system2 has passed through the engine and is outside of the control volume at a later time t  t2 as indicated. At this later time other air 1a different system2 is within the engine. If the airplane is moving, the control volume is fixed relative to an observer on the airplane, but it 176 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics Jet engine Pipe Balloon V (1) (2) (a) Control volume surface (b) System at time t1 (c) System at time t2 > t1 ■ Figure 4.10 Typical control volumes: (a) fixed control volume, (b) fixed or moving control volume, (c) deforming control volume. The governing laws of fluid motion are stated in terms of fluid systems, not control volumes. 4.4 is a moving control volume relative to an observer on the ground. In either situation air flows through and around the engine as indicated. The deflating balloon shown in Fig. 4.10c provides an example of a deforming control volume. As time increases, the control volume 1whose surface is the inner surface of the balloon2 decreases in size. If we do not hold onto the balloon, it becomes a moving, deforming control volume as it darts about the room. The majority of the problems we will analyze can be solved by using a fixed, nondeforming control volume. In some instances, however, it will be advantageous, in fact necessary, to use a moving, deforming control volume. In many ways the relationship between a system and a control volume is similar to the relationship between the Lagrangian and Eulerian flow description introduced in Section 4.1.1. In the system or Lagrangian description, we follow the fluid and observe its behavior as it moves about. In the control volume or Eulerian description, we remain stationary and observe the fluid’s behavior at a fixed location. 1If a moving control volume is used, it virtually never moves with the system—the system flows through the control volume.2 These ideas are discussed in more detail in the next section. All of the laws governing the motion of a fluid are stated in their basic form in terms of a system approach. For example, “the mass of a system remains constant,” or “the time rate of change of momentum of a system is equal to the sum of all the forces acting on the system.” Note the word system, not control volume, in these statements. To use the governing equations in a control volume approach to problem solving, we must rephrase the laws in an appropriate manner. To this end we introduce the Reynolds transport theorem in the following section. The Reynolds Transport Theorem V We are sometimes interested in what happens to a particular part of the fluid as it moves about. Other times we may be interested in what effect the fluid has on a particular object or volume in space as fluid interacts with it. Thus, we need to describe the laws governing fluid motion using both system concepts 1consider a given mass of the fluid2 and control volume concepts 1consider a given volume2. To do this we need an analytical tool to shift from one representation to the other. The Reynolds transport theorem provides this tool. All physical laws are stated in terms of various physical parameters. Velocity, acceleration, mass, temperature, and momentum are but a few of the more common parameters. Let B represent any of these 1or other2 fluid parameters and b represent the amount of that parameter per unit mass. That is, B  mb m B b = B/m m 1 mV V 1 _ mV 2 2 1 _V 2 2 where m is the mass of the portion of fluid of interest. For example, as shown by the figure in the margin, if B  m, the mass, it follows that b  1. The mass per unit mass is unity. If B  mV 2 2, the kinetic energy of the mass, then b  V 2 2, the kinetic energy per unit mass. The parameters B and b may be scalars or vectors. Thus, if B  mV, the momentum of the mass, then b  V. 1The momentum per unit mass is the velocity.2 The parameter B is termed an extensive property, and the parameter b is termed an intensive property. The value of B is directly proportional to the amount of the mass being considered, whereas the value of b is independent of the amount of mass. The amount of an extensive property that a system possesses at a given instant, Bsys, can be determined by adding up the amount associated with each fluid particle in the system. For infinitesimal fluid particles of size d  V and mass r dV , 4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 177 this summation 1in the limit of dV ⫺ S 02 takes the form of an integration over all the particles in the system and can be written as Bsys ⫽ lim a bi 1ri dV ⫺i 2 ⫽ dV ⫺S0 i 冮 rb dV ⫺ sys The limits of integration cover the entire system—a 1usually2 moving volume. We have used the fact that the amount of B in a fluid particle of mass r d ⫺ V is given in terms of b by dB ⫽ br dV ⫺. Most of the laws governing fluid motion involve the time rate of change of an extensive property of a fluid system—the rate at which the momentum of a system changes with time, the rate at which the mass of a system changes with time, and so on. Thus, we often encounter terms such as dBsys dt da ⫽ 冮 sys rb dV ⫺b (4.8) dt To formulate the laws into a control volume approach, we must obtain an expression for the time rate of change of an extensive property within a control volume, Bcv, not within a system. This can be written as dBcv ⫽ dt 冮 rb dV⫺b cv (4.9) dt where the limits of integration, denoted by cv, cover the control volume of interest. Although Eqs. 4.8 and 4.9 may look very similar, the physical interpretation of each is quite different. Mathematically, the difference is represented by the difference in the limits of integration. Recall that the control volume is a volume in space 1in most cases stationary, although if it moves it need not move with the system2. On the other hand, the system is an identifiable collection of mass that moves with the fluid 1indeed it is a specified portion of the fluid2. We will learn that even for those instances when the control volume and the system momentarily occupy the same volume in space, the two quantities dBsys Ⲑdt and dBcv Ⲑdt need not be the same. The Reynolds transport theorem provides the relationship between the time rate of change of an extensive property for a system and that for a control volume—the relationship between Eqs. 4.8 and 4.9. Differences between control volume and system concepts are subtle but very important. E XAMPLE da 4.7 Time Rate of Change for a System and a Control Volume GIVEN Fluid flows from the fire extinguisher tank shown in Fig. E4.7a. FIND Discuss the differences between dBsys Ⲑdt and dBcvⲐdt if B represents mass. SOLUTION With B ⫽ m, the system mass, it follows that b ⫽ 1 and Eqs. 4.8 and 4.9 can be written as dBsys dt ⬅ dmsys dt da ⫽ 冮 sys r dV ⫺b dt and dBcv dmcv ⬅ ⫽ dt dt da 冮 r dV⫺b cv dt ■ Figure E4.7 (a) (© DNY59/iStockphoto) 178 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics Physically, these represent the time rate of change of mass within the system and the time rate of change of mass within the control volume, respectively. We choose our system to be the fluid within the tank at the time the valve was opened 1t  02 and the control volume to be the tank itself as shown in Fig. E4.7b. A short time after the valve is opened, part of the system has moved outside of the control volume as is shown in Fig. E4.7c. The control volume remains fixed. The limits of integration are fixed for the control volume; they are a function of time for the system. Clearly, if mass is to be conserved 1one of the basic laws governing fluid motion2, the mass of the fluid in the system is constant, so that da 冮 sys t=0 t>0 r d Vb dt System 0 On the other hand, it is equally clear that some of the fluid has left the control volume through the nozzle on the tank. Hence, the amount of mass within the tank 1the control volume2 decreases with time, or da The actual numerical value of the rate at which the mass in the control volume decreases will depend on the rate at which the fluid flows through the nozzle 1i.e., the size of the nozzle and the speed and density of the fluid2. Clearly the meanings of dBsys dt and dBcvdt are different. For this example, dBcv dt 6 dBsys dt. Other situations may have dBcvdt  dBsys dt. 冮 r dV b cv dt Control surface (b) (c) ■ Figure E4.7 6 0 4.4.1 Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem A simple version of the Reynolds transport theorem relating system concepts to control volume concepts can be obtained easily for the one-dimensional flow through a fixed control volume such as the variable area duct section shown in Fig. 4.11a. We consider the control volume to be that stationary volume within the duct between sections 112 and 122 as indicated in Fig. 4.11b. The system that we consider is that fluid occupying the control volume at some initial time t. A short time later, at time t  dt, the system has moved slightly to the right. The fluid particles that coincided with section 122 of the control surface at time t have moved a distance d/2  V2 dt to the right, where V2 is the velocity of the fluid as it passes section 122. Similarly, the fluid initially at section 112 has moved a distance d/1  V1 dt, where V1 is the fluid velocity at section 112. We assume the fluid flows across sections 112 and 122 in a direction normal to these surfaces and that V1 and V2 are constant across sections 112 and 122. As is shown in Fig. 4.11c, the outflow from the control volume from time t to t  dt is denoted as volume II, the inflow as volume I, and the control volume itself as CV. Thus, the system at time t consists of the fluid in section CV; that is, “SYS  CV” at time t. At time t  dt the system consists of the same fluid that now occupies sections 1CV  I2  II. That is, “SYS  CV  I  II” at time t  dt. The control volume remains as section CV for all time. The moving system flows through the fixed control volume. δ 2 = V2 δ t V1 δ 1 = V1 δ t V2 I CV – I (1) (1) (2) (2) Fixed control surface and system boundary at time t System boundary at time t + δ t (a) II (b) ■ Figure 4.11 Control volume and system for flow through a variable area pipe. (c) 4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 179 If B is an extensive parameter of the system, then the value of it for the system at time t is Bsys 1t2  Bcv 1t2 since the system and the fluid within the control volume coincide at this time. Its value at time t  dt is Bsys 1t  dt2  Bcv 1t  dt2  BI 1t  dt2  BII 1t  dt2 Thus, the change in the amount of B in the system, dBsys, in the time interval dt divided by this time interval is given by dBsys dt  Bsys 1t  dt2  Bsys 1t2 dt  Bcv 1t  dt2  BI 1t  dt2  BII 1t  dt2  Bsys 1t2 dt By using the fact that at the initial time t we have Bsys 1t2  Bcv 1t2, this ungainly expression may be rearranged as follows. The time rate of change of a system property is a Lagrangian concept. dBsys dt  dt  BI 1t  dt2 dt BII 1t  dt2  dt (4.10) In the limit dt S 0, the left-hand side of Eq. 4.10 is equal to the time rate of change of B for the system and is denoted as DBsys Dt. We use the material derivative notation, D1 2 Dt, to denote this time rate of change to emphasize the Lagrangian character of this term. 1Recall from Section 4.2.1 that the material derivative, DPDt, of any quantity P represents the time rate of change of that quantity associated with a given fluid particle as it moves along.2 Similarly, the quantity DBsys Dt represents the time rate of change of property B associated with a system 1a given portion of fluid2 as it moves along. In the limit dt S 0, the first term on the right-hand side of Eq. 4.10 is seen to be the time rate of change of the amount of B within the control volume lim V2 Bcv 1t  dt2  Bcv 1t2 dtS0 Bcv 1t  dt2  Bcv 1t2 dt 0Bcv   0t 0a 冮 rb dVb cv 0t (4.11) The third term on the right-hand side of Eq. 4.10 represents the rate at which the extensive parameter B flows from the control volume across the control surface. As indicated by the figure in the margin, during the time interval from t  0 to t  dt the volume of fluid that flows across section 122 is given by dV II  A2 d/2  A2 1V2dt2. Thus, the amount of B within region II, the outflow region, is its amount per unit volume, rb, times the volume BII 1t  dt2  1r2b2 21dV II 2  r2b2A2V2 dt (2) t=0 where b2 and r2 are the constant values of# b and r across section 122. Thus, the rate at which this property flows from the control volume, Bout, is given by δ VII V2δ t # BII 1t  dt2 Bout  lim  r2 A2V2 b2 dtS0 dt (4.12) Similarly, the inflow of B into the control volume across section 112 during the time interval dt corresponds to that in region I and is given by the amount per unit volume times the volume, dV I  A1 d/1  A1 1V1 dt2. Hence, BI 1t  dt2  1r1b1 21dV 1 2  r1b1A1V1 dt where b1 and r1 are the constant values #of b and r across section 112. Thus, the rate of inflow of the property B into the control volume, Bin, is given by (2) t = δt # BI 1t  dt2 Bin  lim  r1A1V1b1 dtS0 dt (4.13) 180 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics If we combine Eqs. 4.10, 4.11, 4.12, and 4.13, we see that the relationship between the time rate of change of B for the system and that for the control volume is given by DBsys # # 0Bcv  Bout  Bin dt (4.14) 0Bcv  r2A2V2b2  r1A1V1b1 0t (4.15) Dt  or DBsys Dt  This is a version of the Reynolds transport theorem valid under the restrictive assumptions associated with the flow shown in Fig. 4.11—fixed control volume with one inlet and one outlet having uniform properties 1density, velocity, and the parameter b2 across the inlet and outlet with the velocity normal to sections 112 and 122. Note that the time rate of change of B for the system 1the left-hand side of Eq. 4.15 or the quantity in Eq. 4.82 is not necessarily the same as the rate of change of B within the control volume 1the first term on the right-hand side of Eq. 4.15 or the quantity in Eq. 4.92. This is true because the inflow rate 1b1r1V1A1 2 and the outflow rate 1b2 r2V2 A2 2 of the property B for the control volume need not be the same. The time derivative associated with a system may be different from that for a control volume. E XAMPLE 4.8 Use of the Reynolds Transport Theorem GIVEN Consider again the flow from the fire extinguisher FIND Write the appropriate form of the Reynolds transport shown in Fig. E4.7. Let the extensive property of interest be the system mass 1B  m, the system mass, or b  12. theorem for this flow. SOLUTION Again we take the control volume to be the fire extinguisher and the system to be the fluid within it at time t  0. For this case there is no inlet, section 112, across which the fluid flows into the control volume 1A1  02. There is, however, an outlet, section 122. Thus, the Reynolds transport theorem, Eq. 4.15, along with Eq. 4.9 with b  1 can be written as Dmsys Dt 0a  冮 cv r d Vb 0t  r2 A2V2 0a (1) (Ans) law of conservation of mass, we may set the left-hand side of this equation equal to zero 1the amount of mass in a system is constant2 and rewrite Eq. 1 in the form 冮 cv r d Vb 0t Right Atrium Left Atrium Left Ventricle Right Ventricle  r2 A2V2 冮 r d Vb cv 0t COMMENT If we proceed one step further and use the basic 0a The physical interpretation of this result is that the rate at which the mass in the tank decreases in time is equal in magnitude but opposite to the rate of flow of mass from the exit, r2 A2V2. Note the units for the two terms of Eq. 2 1kg兾s or slugs兾s2. If there were both an inlet and an outlet to the control volume shown in Fig. E4.7, Eq. 2 would become (2)  r1 A1V1  r2 A2V2 (3) In addition, if the flow were steady, the left-hand side of Eq. 3 would be zero 1the amount of mass in the control would be constant in time2 and Eq. 3 would become r1 A1V1  r2 A2V2 This is one form of the conservation of mass principle discussed in Section 3.6.2—the mass flowrates into and out of the control volume are equal. Other more general forms are discussed in Chapter 5. Equation 4.15 is a simplified version of the Reynolds transport theorem. We will now derive it for much more general conditions. A general, fixed control volume with fluid flowing through it is shown in Fig. 4.12. The flow field may be quite simple 1as in the above one-dimensional flow considerations2, or it may involve a quite complex, unsteady, three-dimensional situation such as the flow through a human heart as illustrated by the figure in the margin. In any case we again consider the system to be the fluid within the control volume at the initial time t. A short time later a portion of the fluid 1region II2 has exited from the control volume, and additional fluid 1region I, not part of the original system2 has entered the control volume. 4.4 181 The Reynolds Transport Theorem V2 V3 Ib Inflow IIc II CV–I Ia IId V1 I V5 Outflow II b IIa Fixed control surface and system boundary at time t System boundary at time t + δ t ■ Figure 4.12 Control volume and system for flow through an arbitrary, fixed control volume. The simplified Reynolds transport theorem can be easily generalized. V4 V6 ■ Figure 4.13 Typical control volume with more than one inlet and outlet. We consider an extensive fluid property B and seek to determine how the rate of change of B associated with the system is related to the rate of change of B within the control volume at any instant. By repeating the exact steps that we did for the simplified control volume shown in Fig. 4.11, we see that Eq. 4.14 # is valid # for the general case also, provided that we give the correct interpretation to the terms Bout and Bin. In general, the control volume may contain more 1or less2 than one inlet and one outlet. A typical pipe system may contain several inlets and outlets as are shown in Fig. 4.13. In such instances we think of all inlets grouped together 1I  Ia  Ib  Ic  p 2 and all outlets grouped together 1II  IIa  IIb  IIc  p 2, at least conceptually. # The term Bout represents the net flowrate of the property B from the control volume. Its value can be thought of as arising from the addition 1integration2 of the contributions through each infinitesimal area element of size dA on the portion of the control surface dividing region II and the control volume. This surface is denoted CSout. As is indicated in Fig. 4.14, in time dt the volume of fluid that passes across each area element is given by dV   d/n dA, where d/n  d/ cos u is the height 1normal to the base, dA2 of the small volume element, and u is the angle between the velocity vector and the outward pointing normal to the surface, n̂. Thus, since d/  V dt, the amount of the property B carried across the area element dA in the time interval dt is given by dB  br dV   br1V cos u dt2 dA The # rate at which B is carried out of the control volume across the small area element dA, denoted dBout, is # 1rbV cos u dt2 dA rb dV  dBout  lim  lim  rbV cos u dA dtS0 dt dtS0 dt Outflow portion of control surface CSout δ V = δ n δ A n n δA θ δA V (a) δ n ^ ^ ^ n θ θ δ = Vδt V (b) ■ Figure 4.14 Outflow across a typical portion of the control surface. V δ (c) 182 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics Inflow portion of control surface CSin δ n δ  = V δt δA ^ n ^ n ^ n θ θ θ V (a) δ V δ V = δ n δ A (b) V (c) ■ Figure 4.15 Inflow across a typical portion of the control surface. By integrating over the entire outflow portion of the control surface, CSout, we obtain 冮 # Bout  # dBout  csout The flowrate of a parameter across the control surface is written in terms of a surface integral. 冮 rbV cos u dA csout The quantity V cos u is the component of the velocity normal to the area element dA. From the definition of the dot product, this can be written as V cos u  V ⴢ n̂. Hence, an alternate form of the outflow rate is # Bout  冮 rbV ⴢ n̂ dA (4.16) csout In a similar fashion, by considering the inflow portion of the control surface, CSin, as shown in Fig. 4.15, we find that the inflow rate of B into the control volume is 冮 # Bin   rbV cos u dA   csin 冮 rbV ⴢ n̂ dA (4.17) csin We use the standard notation that the unit normal vector to the control surface, n̂, points out from the control volume. Thus, as is shown in Fig. 4.16, 90° 6 u 6 90° for outflow regions 1the normal component of V is positive; V ⴢ n̂ 7 02. For inflow regions 90° 6 u 6 270° 1the normal component of V is negative; V ⴢ n̂ 6 02. The value of cos u is, therefore, positive on the CVout portions of the control surface and negative on the CVin portions. Over the remainder of the control surface, there is no inflow or outflow, leading to V ⴢ n̂  V cos u  0 on those portions. On such portions either V  0 1the fluid “sticks” to the surface2 or cos u  0 1the fluid “slides” along the surface without crossing it2 1see Fig. 4.162. Therefore, the net flux 1flowrate2 of parameter B across the entire control surface is # # Bout  Bin  冮 csout  rbV ⴢ n̂ dA  a 冮 rbV ⴢ n̂ dAb cs in 冮 rbV ⴢ n̂ dA (4.18) cs where the integration is over the entire control surface. CS CSin CSout V=0 ^ n ^ n ^ n V •^ n>0 V •^ n<0 (a) V •^ n=0 (b) (c) ■ Figure 4.16 Possible velocity configurations on portions of the control surface: (a) inflow, (b) no flow across the surface, (c) outflow. 4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 183 By combining Eqs. 4.14 and 4.18 we obtain DBsys Dt  0Bcv  0t 冮 rbV ⴢ n̂ dA cs This can be written in a slightly different form by using Bcv  兰cv rb dV  so that DBsys Dt  0 0t 冮 rb d V  冮 rb V ⴢ n̂ dA cv (4.19) cs Equation 4.19 is the general form of the Reynolds transport theorem for a fixed, nondeforming control volume. Its interpretation and use are discussed in the following sections. 4.4.2 Physical Interpretation Control surface V •^ n=0 V •^ n>0 V •^ n<0 The Reynolds transport theorem as given in Eq. 4.19 is widely used in fluid mechanics 1and other areas as well2. At first it appears to be a rather formidable mathematical expression—perhaps one to be steered clear of if possible. However, a physical understanding of the concepts involved will show that it is a rather straightforward, relatively easy-to-use tool. Its purpose is to provide a link between control volume ideas and system ideas. The left side of Eq. 4.19 is the time rate of change of an arbitrary extensive parameter of a system. This may represent the rate of change of mass, momentum, energy, or angular momentum of the system, depending on the choice of the parameter B. Because the system is moving and the control volume is stationary, the time rate of change of the amount of B within the control volume is not necessarily equal to that of the system. The first term on the right side of Eq. 4.19 represents the rate of change of B within the control volume as the fluid flows through it. Recall that b is the amount of B per unit mass, so that rb dV  is the amount of B in a small volume dV . Thus, the time derivative of the integral of rb throughout the control volume is the time rate of change of B within the control volume at a given time. The last term in Eq. 4.19 1an integral over the control surface2 represents the net flowrate of the parameter B across the entire control surface. As illustrated by the figure in the margin, over a portion of the control surface this property is being carried out of the control volume 1V ⴢ n̂ 7 02; over other portions it is being carried into the control volume 1V ⴢ n̂ 6 02. Over the remainder of the control surface there is no transport of B across the surface since bV ⴢ n̂  0, because either b  0, V  0, or V is parallel to the surface at those locations. The mass flowrate through area element dA, given by rV ⴢ n̂ dA, is positive for outflow 1efflux2 and negative for inflow 1influx2. Each fluid particle or fluid mass carries a certain amount of B with it, as given by the product of B per unit mass, b, and the mass. The rate at which this B is carried across the control surface is given by the area integral term of Eq. 4.19. This net rate across the entire control surface may be negative, zero, or positive depending on the particular situation involved. 4.4.3 Relationship to Material Derivative The Reynolds transport theorem is the integral counterpart of the material derivative. In Section 4.2.1 we discussed the concept of the material derivative D1 2Dt  01 20t  V ⴢ § 1 2  01 2 0t  u 0 1 20x  v 01 20y  w 01 20z. The physical interpretation of this derivative is that it provides the time rate of change of a fluid property 1temperature, velocity, etc.2 associated with a particular fluid particle as it flows. The value of that parameter for that particle may change because of unsteady effects [the 01 20t term] or because of effects associated with the particle’s motion [the V ⴢ § 1 2 term]. Careful consideration of Eq. 4.19 indicates the same type of physical interpretation for the Reynolds transport theorem. The term involving the time derivative of the control volume integral represents unsteady effects associated with the fact that values of the parameter within the control volume may change with time. For steady flow this effect vanishes—fluid flows through the control volume, but the amount of any property, B, within the control volume is constant in time. The term involving the control surface integral represents the convective effects associated with the flow of the system across the fixed control surface. The sum of these two terms gives the rate of change of the parameter B for the system. This corresponds to the interpretation of the material derivative, 184 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics D1 2 Dt  01 20t  V ⴢ § 1 2, in which the sum of the unsteady effect and the convective effect gives the rate of change of a parameter for a fluid particle. As is discussed in Section 4.2, the material derivative operator may be applied to scalars 1such as temperature2 or vectors 1such as velocity2. This is also true for the Reynolds transport theorem. The particular parameters of interest, B and b, may be scalars or vectors. Thus, both the material derivative and the Reynolds transport theorem equations represent ways to transfer from the Lagrangian viewpoint 1follow a particle or follow a system2 to the Eulerian viewpoint 1observe the fluid at a given location in space or observe what happens in the fixed control volume2. The material derivative 1Eq. 4.52 is essentially the infinitesimal 1or derivative2 equivalent of the finite size 1or integral2 Reynolds transport theorem 1Eq. 4.192. 4.4.4 Steady Effects Consider a steady flow 3 01 2  0t ⬅ 04 so that Eq. 4.19 reduces to DBsys  Dt Control volume Momentum out (Photograph courtesy of NASA.) The Reynolds transport theorem involves both steady and unsteady effects. 冮 rbV ⴢ n̂ dA (4.20) cs In such cases if there is to be a change in the amount of B associated with the system 1nonzero left-hand side2, there must be a net difference in the rate that B flows into the control volume compared with the rate that it flows out of the control volume. That is, the integral of rbV ⴢ n̂ over the inflow portions of the control surface would not be equal and opposite to that over the outflow portions of the surface. Consider steady flow through the “black box” control volume that is shown in Fig. 4.17. If the parameter B is the mass of the system, the left-hand side of Eq. 4.20 is zero 1conservation of mass for the system as discussed in detail in Section 5.12. Hence, the flowrate of mass into the box must be the same as the flowrate of mass out of the box because the right-hand side of Eq. 4.20 represents the net flowrate through the control surface. On the other hand, assume the parameter B is the momentum of the system. The momentum of the system need not be constant. In fact, according to Newton’s second law the time rate of change of the system momentum equals the net force, F, acting on the system. In general, the left-hand side of Eq. 4.20 will therefore be nonzero. Thus, the right-hand side, which then represents the net flux of momentum across the control surface, will be nonzero. The flowrate of momentum into the control volume need not be the same as the flux of momentum from the control volume. We will investigate these concepts much more fully in Chapter 5. They are the basic principles describing the operation of such devices as jet or rocket engines like the one shown in the figure in the margin. For steady flows the amount of the property B within the control volume does not change with time. The amount of the property associated with the system may or may not change with time, depending on the particular property considered and the flow situation involved. The difference between that associated with the control volume and that associated with the system is determined by the rate at which B is carried across the control surface—the term 兰cs rbV ⴢ n̂ dA. 4.4.5 Unsteady Effects Consider unsteady flow 3 0 1 2  0t 04 so that all terms in Eq. 4.19 must be retained. When they are viewed from a control volume standpoint, the amount of parameter B within the system may change because the amount of B within the fixed control volume may change with time Control volume Vin Vout F ■ Figure 4.17 control volume. Steady flow through a 4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 185 y ^ n = –i^ V2 = V0(t) V1 = V0(t) ^ V0i (1) x ^ ^ n=i (2) ^ n = –j ^ ■ Figure 4.18 Unsteady flow through a constant diameter pipe. Control surface For some flow situations, certain portions of the Reynolds transport theorem are automatically zero. 3 the 0 1 兰cv rb dV  2  0t term4 and because there may be a net nonzero flow of that parameter across the control surface 1the 兰cs rbV ⴢ n̂ dA term2. For the special unsteady situations in which the rate of inflow of parameter B is exactly balanced by its rate of outflow, it follows that 兰cs rbV ⴢ n̂ dA  0, and Eq. 4.19 reduces to DBsys Dt  0 0t 冮 rb dV  (4.21) cv For such cases, any rate of change in the amount of B associated with the system is equal to the rate of change of B within the control volume. This can be illustrated by considering flow through a constant diameter pipe as is shown in Fig. 4.18. The control volume is as shown, and the system is the fluid within this volume at time t0. We assume the flow is one-dimensional with V  V0î, where V0 1t2 is a function of time, and that the density is constant. At any instant in time, all particles in the system have the same velocity. We let B  system momentum  mV  mV0î, where m is the system mass, so that b  Bm  V  V0î, the fluid velocity. The magnitude of the momentum efflux across the outlet [section 122] is the same as the magnitude of the momentum influx across the inlet [section 112]. However, the sign of the efflux is opposite to that of the influx since V ⴢ n̂ 7 0 for the outflow and V ⴢ n̂ 6 0 for the inflow. Note that V ⴢ n̂  0 along the sides of the control volume. Thus, with V ⴢ n̂  V0 on section 112, V ⴢ n̂  V0 on section 122, and A1  A2, we obtain 冮 rbV ⴢ n̂ dA  冮 r1V î 21V ⴢ n̂2 dA  冮 r1V î21V 2 dA  冮 0 cs cs 112 0 0 122 r1V0î21V0 2 dA  rV 20 A1î  rV 20 A2î  0 It is seen that for this special case Eq. 4.21 is valid. The rate at which the momentum of the system changes with time is the same as the rate of change of momentum within the control volume. If V0 is constant in time, there is no rate of change of momentum of the system, and for this special case each of the terms in the Reynolds transport theorem is zero by itself. Consider the flow through a variable area pipe shown in Fig. 4.19. In such cases the fluid velocity is not the same at section 112 as it is at 122. Hence, the efflux of momentum from the control volume is not equal to the influx of momentum, so that the convective term in Eq. 4.20 [the integral of rV1V ⴢ n̂2 over the control surface] is not zero. These topics will be discussed in considerably more detail in Chapter 5. y V2 < V1 ^ ^ n = –i x V1 (1) Control surface ^ ^ n=i (2) ■ Figure 4.19 Flow through a variable area pipe. 186 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics Moving vane VCV = V0 Nozzle Control volume moves with speed V0 V0 V1 ■ Figure 4.20 Example of a moving control volume. 4.4.6 Moving Control Volumes The absolute and relative velocities differ by an amount equal to the control volume velocity. For most problems in fluid mechanics, the control volume may be considered as a fixed volume through which the fluid flows. There are, however, situations for which the analysis is simplified if the control volume is allowed to move or deform. The most general situation would involve a control volume that moves, accelerates, and deforms. As one might expect, the use of these control volumes can become fairly complex. A number of important problems can be most easily analyzed by using a nondeforming control volume that moves with a constant velocity. Such an example is shown in Fig. 4.20 in which a stream of water with velocity V1 strikes a vane that is moving with constant velocity V0. It may be of interest to determine the force, F, that the water puts on the vane. Such problems frequently occur in turbines where a stream of fluid 1water or steam, for example2 strikes a series of blades that move past the nozzle. To analyze such problems it is advantageous to use a moving control volume. We will obtain the Reynolds transport theorem for such control volumes. We consider a control volume that moves with a constant velocity as is shown in Fig. 4.21. The shape, size, and orientation of the control volume do not change with time. The control volume merely translates with a constant velocity, Vcv, as shown. In general, the velocity of the control volume and that of the fluid are not the same, so that there is a flow of fluid through the moving control volume just as in the stationary control volume cases discussed in Section 4.4.2. The main difference between the fixed and the moving control volume cases is that it is the relative velocity, W, that carries fluid across the moving control surface, whereas it is the absolute velocity, V, that carries the fluid across the fixed control surface. The relative velocity is the fluid velocity relative to the moving control volume—the fluid velocity seen by an observer riding along on the control volume. The absolute velocity is the fluid velocity as seen by a stationary observer in a fixed coordinate system. The difference between the absolute and relative velocities is the velocity of the control volume, Vcv  V  W, or V  W  Vcv (4.22) Since the velocity is a vector, we must use vector addition as is shown in Fig. 4.22 to obtain the relative velocity if we know the absolute velocity and the velocity of the control volume. Thus, if the water leaves the nozzle in Fig. 4.20 with a velocity of V1  100î fts and the vane has a velocity of V0  20î fts 1the same as the control volume2, it appears to an observer riding on the vane that the water approaches the vane with a velocity of W  V  Vcv  80î fts. In general, the absolute VA Particle A at t0 Particle B at t0 At t1 Control volume and system at time t0 Control volume at time t1 > t0 System at time t1 > t0 At t1 VB VCV = Control volume velocity ■ Figure 4.21 Typical moving control volume and system. 4.4 VA = Absolute velocity of A The Reynolds Transport Theorem 187 VB VCV VCV The Reynolds transport theorem for a moving control volume involves the relative velocity. WB = Velocity of B relative WA = Velocity of A relative to control volume to control volume ■ Figure 4.22 Relationship between absolute and relative velocities. velocity, V, and the control volume velocity, Vcv, will not be in the same direction so that the relative and absolute velocities will have different directions 1see Fig. 4.222. The Reynolds transport theorem for a moving, nondeforming control volume can be derived in the same manner that it was obtained for a fixed control volume. As is indicated in Fig. 4.23, the only difference that needs be considered is the fact that relative to the moving control volume the fluid velocity observed is the relative velocity, not the absolute velocity. An observer fixed to the moving control volume may or may not even know that he or she is moving relative to some fixed coordinate system. If we follow the derivation that led to Eq. 4.19 1the Reynolds transport theorem for a fixed control volume2, we note that the corresponding result for a moving control volume can be obtained by simply replacing the absolute velocity, V, in that equation by the relative velocity, W. Thus, the Reynolds transport theorem for a control volume moving with constant velocity is given by DBsys Dt  0 0t 冮 rb dV  cv 冮 rb W ⴢ n̂ dA (4.23) cs where the relative velocity is given by Eq. 4.22. 4.4.7 Selection of a Control Volume V4.14 Control volume Any volume in space can be considered as a control volume. It may be of finite size or it may be infinitesimal in size, depending on the type of analysis to be carried out. In most of our cases, the control volume will be a fixed, nondeforming volume. In some situations, we will consider control volumes that move with constant velocity. In either case, it is important that considerable thought go into the selection of the specific control volume to be used. The selection of an appropriate control volume in fluid mechanics is very similar to the selection of an appropriate free-body diagram in dynamics or statics. In dynamics, we select the body in which we are interested, represent the object in a free-body diagram, and then apply the appropriate governing laws to that body. The ease of solving a given dynamics problem is often very dependent on the specific object that we select for use in our free-body diagram. Similarly, the ease of solving a given fluid mechanics problem is often very dependent on the choice of the control volume used. Only by practice can we develop skill at selecting the “best” control volume. None are “wrong,” but some are “much better” than others. Solution of a typical problem will involve determining parameters such as velocity, pressure, and force at some point in the flow field. It is usually best to ensure that this point is located on the control surface, not “buried” within the control volume. The unknown will then appear in the convective term 1the surface integral2 of the Reynolds transport theorem. If possible, the control Control volume and system at time t System at time t + δt Pathlines as seen from the moving control volume W = V – VCV Flow as seen by an observer moving with velocity VCV ■ Figure 4.23 Control volume and system as seen by an observer moving with the control volume. 188 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics Control surface V (1) V (a) (1) (b) V (1) (c) ■ Figure 4.24 Various control volumes for flow through a pipe. ^ n θ V Control surface 4.5 surface should be normal to the fluid velocity so that the angle u 1V ⴢ n̂  V cos u as shown by the figure in the margin2 in the flux terms of Eq. 4.19 will be 0 or 180°. This will usually simplify the solution process. Figure 4.24 illustrates three possible control volumes associated with flow through a pipe. If the problem is to determine the pressure at point 112, the selection of the control volume 1a2 is better than that of 1b2 because point 112 lies on the control surface. Similarly, control volume 1a2 is better than 1c2 because the flow is normal to the inlet and exit portions of the control volume. None of these control volumes are wrong—1a2 will be easier to use. Proper control volume selection will become much clearer in Chapter 5 where the Reynolds transport theorem is used to transform the governing equations from the system formulation into the control volume formulation, and numerous examples using control volume ideas are discussed. Chapter Summary and Study Guide field representation velocity field Eulerian method Lagrangian method one-, two-, and threedimensional flow steady and unsteady flow streamline streakline pathline acceleration field material derivative local acceleration convective acceleration system control volume Reynolds transport theorem This chapter considered several fundamental concepts of fluid kinematics. That is, various aspects of fluid motion are discussed without regard to the forces needed to produce this motion. The concepts of a field representation of a flow and the Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches to describing a flow are introduced, as are the concepts of velocity and acceleration fields. The properties of one-, two-, or three-dimensional flows and steady or unsteady flows are introduced along with the concepts of streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines. Streamlines, which are lines tangent to the velocity field, are identical to streaklines and pathlines if the flow is steady. For unsteady flows, they need not be identical. As a fluid particle moves about, its properties (i.e., velocity, density, temperature) may change. The rate of change of these properties can be obtained by using the material derivative, which involves both unsteady effects (time rate of change at a fixed location) and convective effects (time rate of change due to the motion of the particle from one location to another). The concepts of a control volume and a system are introduced, and the Reynolds transport theorem is developed. By using these ideas, the analysis of flows can be carried out using a control volume (a volume, usually fixed, through which the fluid flows), whereas the governing principles are stated in terms of a system (a flowing portion of fluid). The following checklist provides a study guide for this chapter. When your study of the entire chapter and end-of-chapter exercises has been completed, you should be able to write out meanings of the terms listed here in the margin and understand each of the related concepts. These terms are particularly important and are set in italic, bold, and color type in the text. understand the concept of the field representation of a flow and the difference between Eulerian and Lagrangian methods of describing a flow. explain the differences among streamlines, streaklines, and pathlines. calculate and plot streamlines for flows with given velocity fields. use the concept of the material derivative, with its unsteady and convective effects, to determine time rate of change of a fluid property. determine the acceleration field for a flow with a given velocity field. understand the properties of and differences between a system and a control volume. interpret, physically and mathematically, the concepts involved in the Reynolds transport theorem. Conceptual Questions 189 Some of the important equations in this chapter are: dy v  u dx Equation for streamlines (4.1) 0V 0V 0V 0V (4.3) u v w 0t 0x 0y 0z D1 2 01 2 (4.6)   1V ⴢ § 21 2 Dt 0t 0V V2 (4.7) as  V , an  0s r DBsys 0Bcv   r2A2V2b2  r1A1V1b1 (4.15) Dt 0t DBsys 0  rb d  V  rb V ⴢ n̂ dA (4.19) Dt 0t cv cs V  W  Vcv (4.22) a Acceleration Material derivative Streamwise and normal components of acceleration Reynolds transport theorem (restricted form) Reynolds transport theorem (general form) Relative and absolute velocities 冮 冮 References 1. Streeter, V. L., and Wylie, E. B., Fluid Mechanics, 8th Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1985. 2. Goldstein, R. J., Fluid Mechanics Measurements, Hemisphere, New York, 1983. 3. Homsy, G. M., et al., Multimedia Fluid Mechanics CD-ROM, 2nd Ed., Cambridge University Press, New York, 2007. 4. Magarvey, R. H., and MacLatchy, C. S., The Formation and Structure of Vortex Rings, Canadian Journal of Physics, Vol. 42, 1964. Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. GO Tutoring problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. Problem is related to a chapter video available in WileyPLUS. * † Problem to be solved with aid of programmable calculator or computer. Open-ended problem that requires critical thinking. These problems require various assumptions to provide the necessary input data. There are not unique answers to these problems. Review Problems Go to Appendix G (WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www.wiley. com/college/munson) for a set of review problems with answers. Detailed solutions can be found in the Student Solution Manual and Study Guide for Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, by Munson et al. (© 2013 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.). Conceptual Questions 4.1C A velocity field is given by: V  6xĵ ms. Velocity fields are plotted below, where the arrows indicate the magnitude and direction of the velocity vectors. The picture that best describes the field is: 190 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics y y y 0 x (a) 0 x (b) 4.2C Consider the path of a football thrown by Brett Favre. Suppose that you are interested in determining how far the ball travels. Then you are interested in: a) neither Lagrangian nor Eulerian views. b) the Eulerian view of the field. c) the Lagrangian or particle view of the football. y 0 x 0 x (c) (d) a) The equations apply to a fixed quantity of mass. b) The equations are formulated in terms of extensive properties. c) The equations apply to a fixed volume. Additional conceptual questions are available in WileyPLUS at the instructor’s discretion. 4.3C The following is true of the system (versus control volume) form of the basic equations (mass, momentum, angular momentum, and energy): Problems Note: Unless specific values of required fluid properties are given in the problem statement, use the values found in the tables on the inside of the front cover. Answers to the evennumbered problems are listed at the end of the book. The Lab Problems as well as the videos that accompany problems can be accessed in WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www.wiley. com/college/munson. vθ vr r θ Section 4.1 The Velocity Field 4.1 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which a fluid is flowing. Print this photo and draw in some lines to represent how you think some streamlines may look. Write a brief paragraph to describe the acceleration of a fluid particle as it flows along one of these streamlines. 4.2 The velocity field of a flow is given by GO V  13y  22 î  1x  82 ĵ  5zk̂ ft s , where x, y, and z are in feet. Determine the fluid speed at the origin (x  y  z  0) and on the y axis (x  z  0). 4.3 The velocity field of a flow is given by V  2x2tî  [4y(t  1)  2x2t]ĵ m/s, where x and y are in meters and t is in seconds. For fluid particles on the x axis, determine the speed and direction of flow. 4.4 A two-dimensional velocity field is given by u  1  y and v  1. Determine the equation of the streamline that passes through the origin. On a graph, plot this streamline. 4.5 The velocity field of a flow is given by V  15z  32î  1x  42ĵ  4yk̂ fts, where x, y, and z are in feet. Determine the fluid speed at the origin 1x  y  z  02 and on the x axis 1y  z  02. 4.6 A flow can be visualized by plotting the velocity field as velocity vectors at representative locations in the flow as shown in Video V4.2 and Fig. E4.1. Consider the velocity field given in polar coordinates by vr  10r, and vu  10r. This flow approximates a fluid swirling into a sink as shown in Fig. P4.6. Plot the velocity field at locations given by r  1, 2, and 3 with u  0, 30, 60, and 90°. ■ Figure P4.6 4.7 The velocity field of a flow is given by V  20y 1x2  y2 2 12 î  20x 1x2  y2 2 12 ĵ fts, where x and y are in feet. Determine the fluid speed at points along the x axis; along the y axis. What is the angle between the velocity vector and the x axis at points 1x, y2  15, 02, 15, 52, and 10, 52? 4.8 The components of a velocity field are given by u  x  y, v  xy3  16, and w  0. Determine the location of any stagnation points 1V  02 in the flow field. 4.9 The x and y components of velocity for a two-dimensional flow are u  6y fts and v  3 fts, where y is in feet. Determine the equation for the streamlines and sketch representative streamlines in the upper half plane. 4.10 The velocity field of a flow is given by u  V0y(x2  2 1/2 y ) and v  V0 x(x2  y2)12, where V0 is a constant. Where in the flow field is the speed equal to V0? Determine the equation of the streamlines and discuss the various characteristics of this flow. 4.11 A velocity field is given by V  x î  x1x  121y  12ĵ, where u and v are in fts and x and y are in feet. Plot the streamline that passes through x  0 and y  0. Compare this streamline with the streakline through the origin. 191 Problems 4.12 From time t  0 to t  5 hr radioactive steam is released from a nuclear power plant accident located at x  1 mile and y  3 miles. The following wind conditions are expected: V  10 î  5 ĵ mph for 0 6 t 6 3 hr, V  15 î  8 ĵ mph for 3 6 t 6 10 hr, and V  5 î mph for t 7 10 hr. Draw to scale the expected streakline of the steam for t  3, 10, and 15 hr. 4.13 The x and y components of a velocity field are given by u  x2y and v  xy2. Determine the equation for the streamlines of this flow and compare it with those in Example 4.2. Is the flow in this problem the same as that in Example 4.2? Explain. 4.14 In addition to the customary horizontal velocity components of the air in the atmosphere 1the “wind”2, there often are vertical air currents 1thermals2 caused by buoyant effects due to uneven heating of the air as indicated in Fig. P4.14. Assume that the velocity field in a certain region is approximated by u  u0, v  v0 11  yh2 for 0 6 y 6 h, and u  u0, v  0 for y 7 h. Plot the shape of the streamline that passes through the origin for values of u0 v0  0.5, 1, and 2. 4.18 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Follow those particles,” Section 4.1.) Two photographs of four particles in a flow past a sphere are superposed as shown in Fig. P4.18. The time interval between the photos is ¢t  0.002 s. The locations of the particles, as determined from the photos, are shown in the table. (a) Determine the fluid velocity for these particles. (b) Plot a graph to compare the results of part (a) with the theoretical velocity which is given by V  V0 11  a3x3 2, where a is the sphere radius and V0 is the fluid speed far from the sphere. Particle x at t ⴝ 0 s 1ft2 x at t ⴝ 0.002 s 1ft2 1 2 3 4 0.500 0.250 0.140 0.120 0.480 0.232 0.128 0.112 y y, ft t=0 t = 0.002 s u0 –0.4 x, ft –0.2 a = 0.1 ft ■ Figure P4.18 0 x ■ Figure P4.14 4.15 As shown in Video V4.6 and Fig. P4.15, a flying airplane produces swirling flow near the end of its wings. In certain circumstances this flow can be approximated by the velocity field u  Ky 1x2  y2 2 and v  Kx 1x2  y2 2, where K is a constant depending on various parameters associated with the airplane (i.e., its weight, speed) and x and y are measured from the center of the swirl. (a) Show that for this flow the velocity is inversely proportional to the distance from the origin. That is, V  K  1x2  y2 2 12. (b) Show that the streamlines are circles. †4.19 Pathlines and streaklines provide ways to visualize flows. Another technique would be to instantly inject a line of dye across streamlines and observe how this line moves as time increases. For example, consider the initially straight dye line injected in front of the circular cylinder shown in Fig. P4.19. Discuss how this dye line would appear at later times. How would you calculate the location of this line as a function of time? Dye at t = 0 V y v u x ■ Figure P4.19 ■ Figure P4.15 Section 4.2 The Acceleration Field †4.16 For any steady flow the streamlines and streaklines are the same. For most unsteady flows this is not true. However, there are unsteady flows for which the streamlines and streaklines are the same. Describe a flow field for which this is true. 4.17 A 10-ft-diameter dust devil that rotates one revolution per second travels across the Martian surface (in the x-direction) with a speed of 5 ft/s. Plot the pathline etched on the surface by a fluid particle 10 ft from the center of the dust devil for time 0  t  3 s. The particle position is given by the sum of that for a stationary swirl [x  10 cos(2 t), y  10 sin(2 t)] and that for a uniform velocity (x  5t, y  constant), where x and y are in feet and t is in seconds. 4.20 A velocity field is given by u  cx2 and v  cy2, where c is a constant. Determine the x and y components of the acceleration. At what point 1points2 in the flow field is the acceleration zero? 4.21 Determine the acceleration field for a three-dimensional flow with velocity components u  x, v  4x2y2, and w  x  y. 4.22 A three-dimensional velocity field is given by u  2x, v  y, and w  z. Determine the acceleration vector. 4.23 Water flows through a constant diameter pipe with a uniform velocity given by V  (8/t  5)ĵ m/s, where t is in seconds. Determine the acceleration at time t  1, 2, and 10 s. 192 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics 4.24 The velocity of air in the diverging pipe shown in Fig. P4.24 is given by V1  4t fts and V2  2t fts, where t is in seconds. (a) Determine the local acceleration at points 112 and 122. (b) Is the average convective acceleration between these two points negative, zero, or positive? Explain. V1 = 4t ft/s 4.31 As a valve is opened, water flows through the diffuser shown in Fig. P4.31 at an increasing flowrate so that the velocity along the centerline is given by V  uî  V0 11  ect 2 11  x/2 î, where u0, c, and / are constants. Determine the acceleration as a function of x and t. If V0  10 fts and /  5 ft, what value of c 1other than c  02 is needed to make the acceleration zero for any x at t  1 s? Explain how the acceleration can be zero if the flowrate is increasing with time. V2 = 2t ft/s y (1) /2 (2) ■ Figure P4.24 4.25 Water flows in a pipe so that its velocity triples every 20 s. At t  0 it has u  5 fts. That is, V  u1t2 î  5 13t20 2î ft/s. Determine the acceleration when t  0, 10, and 20 s. u u = 1– V0(1 – e–ct) 2 x –ct u = V0(1 – e ) 4.26 When a valve is opened, the velocity of water in a certain pipe is given by u  1011  et 2, v  0, and w  0, where u is in ft兾s and t is in seconds. Determine the maximum velocity and maximum acceleration of the water. 4.27 The velocity of the water in the pipe shown in Fig. P4.27 is given by V1  0.50t ms and V2  1.0t ms, where t is in seconds. Determine the local acceleration at points (1) and (2). Is the average convective acceleration between these two points negative, zero, or positive? Explain. V1 = V2 = 1.0t m/s 0.50t m/s ■ Figure P4.31 4.32 The fluid velocity along the x axis shown in Fig. P4.32 changes from 6 m/s at point A to 18 m/s at point B. It is also known that the velocity is a linear function of distance along the streamline. Determine the acceleration at points A, B, and C. Assume steady flow. (2) (1) ■ Figure P4.27 4.28 A shock wave is a very thin layer (thickness  /) in a high-speed (supersonic) gas flow across which the flow properties (velocity, density, pressure, etc.) change from state (1) to state (2) as shown in Fig. P4.28. If V1  1800 fps, V2  700 fps, and /  104 in., estimate the average deceleration of the gas as it flows across the shock wave. How many g’s deceleration does this represent? V1 V2 V1 VB = 18 m/s A C B x 0.05 m 0.1 m V ■ Figure P4.32 V2  Shock wave VA = 6 m/s  x ■ Figure P4.28 †4.29 Estimate the average acceleration of water as it travels through the nozzle on your garden hose. List all assumptions and show all calculations. †4.30 A stream of water from the faucet strikes the bottom of the sink. Estimate the maximum acceleration experienced by the water particles. List all assumptions and show calculations. 4.33 A fluid flows along the x axis with a velocity given by V  1xt2 î, where x is in feet and t in seconds. (a) Plot the speed for 0  x  10 ft and t  3 s. (b) Plot the speed for x  7 ft and 2  t  4 s. (c) Determine the local and convective acceleration. (d) Show that the acceleration of any fluid particle in the flow is zero. (e) Explain physically how the velocity of a particle in this unsteady flow remains constant throughout its motion. 4.34 A hydraulic jump is a rather sudden change in depth of a liquid layer as it flows in an open channel as shown in Fig. P4.34 and Video V10.12. In a relatively short distance Problems 1thickness ⫽ /2 the liquid depth changes from z1 to z2, with a corresponding change in velocity from V1 to V2. If V1 ⫽ 1.20 ftⲐs, V2 ⫽ 0.30 ftⲐs, and / ⫽ 0.02 ft, estimate the average deceleration of the liquid as it flows across the hydraulic jump. How many g’s deceleration does this represent? s B A C D E F V0 1.5 V0 (a) Hydraulic jump V2 ᐉ 193 V1 V z2 1.5 V0 V0 z1 ■ Figure P4.34 A B C D E F (b) ■ Figure P4.38 4.35 A fluid particle flowing along a stagnation streamline, as shown in Video V4.9 and Fig. P4.35, slows down as it approaches the stagnation point. Measurements of the dye flow in the video indicate that the location of a particle starting on the stagnation streamline a distance s ⫽ 0.6 ft upstream of the stagnation point at t ⫽ 0 is given approximately by s ⫽ 0.6e⫺0.5t, where t is in seconds and s is in feet. (a) Determine the speed of a fluid particle as a function of time, Vparticle 1t2, as it flows along the streamline. (b) Determine the speed of the fluid as a function of position along the streamline, V ⫽ V1s2. (c) Determine the fluid acceleration along the streamline as a function of position, as ⫽ as 1s2. Stagnation point, s = 0 *4.39 Air flows steadily through a variable area pipe with a veloc- ity of V ⫽ u1x2î ftⲐs, where the approximate measured values of u1x2 are given in the table. Plot the acceleration as a function of x for 0 ⱕ x ⱕ 12 in. Plot the acceleration if the flowrate is increased by a factor of N 1i.e., the values of u are increased by a factor of N 2 for N ⫽ 2, 4, 10. x (in.) u (ft兾s) x (in.) u (ft兾s) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 10.0 10.2 13.0 20.1 28.3 28.4 25.8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 20.1 17.4 13.5 11.9 10.3 10.0 10.0 Fluid particle s V *4.40 ■ Figure P4.35 4.36 A nozzle is designed to accelerate the fluid from V1 to V2 in a linear fashion. That is, V ⫽ ax ⫹ b, where a and b are constants. If the flow is constant with V1 ⫽ 10 mⲐs at x1 ⫽ 0 and V2 ⫽ 25 mⲐs at x2 ⫽ 1 m, determine the local acceleration, the convective acceleration, and the acceleration of the fluid at points 112 and 122. As is indicated in Fig. P4.40, the speed of exhaust in a car’s exhaust pipe varies in time and distance because of the periodic nature of the engine’s operation and the damping effect with distance from the engine. Assume that the speed is given by V ⫽ V0 31 ⫹ ae⫺bx sin1vt2 4, where V0 ⫽ 8 fps, a ⫽ 0.05, b ⫽ 0.2 ft⫺1, and v ⫽ 50 radⲐs. Calculate and plot the fluid acceleration at x ⫽ 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 ft for 0 ⱕ t ⱕ pⲐ25 s. 5 ft V 4.37 Repeat Problem 4.36 with the assumption that the flow is not steady, but at the time when V1 ⫽ 10 mⲐs and V2 ⫽ 25 mⲐs, it is known that 0V1Ⲑ 0t ⫽ 20 mⲐs2 and 0V2Ⲑ 0t ⫽ 60 mⲐs2. ■ Figure P4.40 4.38 An incompressible fluid flows through the converging duct shown in Fig. P4.38a with velocity V0 at the entrance. Measurements indicate that the actual velocity of the fluid near the wall of the duct along streamline A–F is as shown in Fig. P4.38b. Sketch the component of acceleration along this streamline, a, as a function of s. Discuss the important characteristics of your result. 4.41 Water flows down the face of the dam shown in Fig. P4.41. The face of the dam consists of two circular arcs with radii of 10 and 20 ft as shown. If the speed of the water along streamline A–B is approximately V ⫽ (2gh)1/2, where the distance h is as indicated, plot the normal acceleration as a function of distance along the streamline, an ⫽ an(s). x V = V0[1 + ae–bx sin(ω t)] 194 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics V 4 ft s h A ᏾1 = 10 ft V0 20° 40° A a θ C ■ Figure P4.46 ᏾2 = 20 ft V B ■ Figure P4.41 4.47 The velocity components for steady flow through the nozzle shown in Fig. P4.47 are u  V0 x/ and v  V0 3 1  1y/2 4 , where V0 and / are constants. Determine the ratio of the magnitude of the acceleration at point (1) to that at point (2). y 4.42 Water flows over the crest of a dam with speed V as shown in Fig. P4.42. Determine the speed if the magnitude of the normal acceleration at point (1) is to equal the acceleration of gravity, g. (1) V (1) (2)  = 2 ft /2 x ■ Figure P4.47 ■ Figure P4.42 4.43 Water flows under the sluice gate shown in Fig. P4.43. If V1  3 m/s, what is the normal acceleration at point (1)? 4.48 Water flows through the curved hose shown in Fig. P4.48 with an increasing speed of V  10t ft/s, where t is in seconds. For t  2 s determine (a) the component of acceleration along the streamline, (b) the component of acceleration normal to the streamline, and (c) the net acceleration (magnitude and direction). Sluice gate V ᏾ = 20 ft ᏾ = 0.12 m (1) ■ Figure P4.48 V1 = 3 m/s ■ Figure P4.43 4.44 For the flow given in Problem 4.41, plot the streamwise acceleration, as, as a function of distance, s, along the surface of the dam from A to C. 4.45 Assume that the streamlines for the wingtip vortices from an airplane (see Fig. P4.15 and Video V4.6) can be approximated by circles of radius r and that the speed is V  K/r, where K is a constant. Determine the streamline acceleration, as, and the normal acceleration, an, for this flow. 4.46 A fluid flows past a sphere with an upstream velocity of V0  40 m/s as shown in Fig. P4.46. From a more advanced theory it is found that the speed of the fluid along the front part of the sphere is V  32V0 sin u. Determine the streamwise and normal components of acceleration at point A if the radius of the sphere is a  0.20 m. *4.49 A fluid flows past a circular cylinder of radius a with an upstream speed of V0 as shown in Fig. P4.49. A more advanced theory indicates that if viscous effects are negligible, the velocity of the fluid along the surface of the cylinder is given by V  2V0 sin u. Determine the streamline and normal components of acceleration on the surface of the cylinder as a function of V0, a, and u and plot graphs of as and an for 0  u  90° with V0  10 ms and a  0.01, 0.10, 1.0, and 10.0 m. V V0 θ a ■ Figure P4.49 Problems Disks 4.50 Determine the x and y components of acceleration for the flow u  c(x2  y2) and  2cxy, where c is a constant. If c 0, is the particle at point x  x0 0 and y  0 accelerating or decelerating? Explain. Repeat if x0  0. 4.51 When the floodgates in a channel are opened, water flows along the channel downstream of the gates with an increasing speed given by V  411  0.1t2 fts, for 0  t  20 s, where t is in seconds. For t 7 20 s the speed is a constant V  12 fts. Consider a location in the curved channel where the radius of curvature of the streamlines is 50 ft. For t  10 s, determine (a) the component of acceleration along the streamline, (b) the component of acceleration normal to the streamline, and (c) the net acceleration (magnitude and direction). Repeat for t  30 s. 4.52 Water flows steadily through the funnel shown in Fig. P4.52. Throughout most of the funnel the flow is approximately radial 1along rays from O2 with a velocity of V  cr 2, where r is the radial coordinate and c is a constant. If the velocity is 0.4 m兾s when r  0.1 m, determine the acceleration at points A and B. 0.12 m 195 R r V0 Pipe V ■ Figure P4.54 4.55 Air flows into a pipe from the region between a circular disk and a cone as shown in Fig. P4.55. The fluid velocity in the gap between the disk and the cone is closely approximated by V  V0 R2r2, where R is the radius of the disk, r is the radial coordinate, and V0 is the fluid velocity at the edge of the disk. Determine the acceleration for r  0.5 and 2 ft if V0  5 fts and R  2 ft. Cone Pipe V Disk r V R A ■ Figure P4.55 0.2 m B r Section 4.2.1 The Material Derivative 0.1 m 4.56 Air flows steadily through a long pipe with a speed of u  50  0.5x, where x is the distance along the pipe in feet, and u is in ft/s. Due to heat transfer into the pipe, the air temperature, T, within the pipe is T  300  10x °F. Determine the rate of change of the temperature of air particles as they flow past the section at x  5 ft. O ■ Figure P4.52 4.53 Water flows though the slit at the bottom of a twodimensional water trough as shown in Fig. P4.53. Throughout most of the trough the flow is approximately radial 1along rays from O2 with a velocity of V  cr, where r is the radial coordinate and c is a constant. If the velocity is 0.04 m兾s when r  0.1 m, determine the acceleration at points A and B. A V r 0.8 m B 0.2 m O ■ Figure P4.53 4.54 Air flows from a pipe into the region between two parallel circular disks as shown in Fig. P4.54. The fluid velocity in the gap between the disks is closely approximated by V  V0 Rr, where R is the radius of the disk, r is the radial coordinate, and V0 is the fluid velocity at the edge of the disk. Determine the acceleration for r  1, 2, or 3 ft if V0  5 fts and R  3 ft. 4.57 A gas flows along the x axis with a speed of V  5x m/s and a pressure of p  10x2 N/m2, where x is in meters. (a) Determine the time rate of change of pressure at the fixed location x  1. (b) Determine the time rate of change of pressure for a fluid particle flowing past x  1. (c) Explain without using any equations why the answers to parts (a) and (b) are different. 4.58 Assume the temperature of the exhaust in an exhaust pipe can be approximated by T  T0(1  aebx) [1  c cos(vt)], where T0  100 °C, a  3, b  0.03 m1, c  0.05, and v  100 rad/s. If the exhaust speed is a constant 3 m/s, determine the time rate of change of temperature of the fluid particles at x  0 and x  4 m when t  0. 4.59 GO A bicyclist leaves from her home at 9 A.M. and rides to a beach 40 mi away. Because of a breeze off the ocean, the temperature at the beach remains 60 °F throughout the day. At the cyclist’s home the temperature increases linearly with time, going from 60 °F at 9 A.M. to 80 °F by 1 P.M. The temperature is assumed to vary linearly as a function of position between the cyclist’s home and the beach. Determine the rate of change of temperature observed by the cyclist for the following conditions: (a) as she pedals 10 mph through a town 10 mi from her home at 10 A.M.; (b) as she eats lunch at a rest stop 30 mi from her home at noon; (c) as she arrives enthusiastically at the beach at 1 P.M., pedaling 20 mph. 4.60 The temperature distribution in a fluid is given by T  10x  5y, where x and y are the horizontal and vertical coordinates in meters and T is in degrees centigrade. Determine the time rate of change of temperature of a fluid particle traveling (a) horizontally with u  20 m s, v  0 or (b) vertically with u  0, v  20 m s. 196 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics Section 4.4 The Reynolds Transport Theorem 4.61 Obtain a photograph/image of a situation in which a fluid is flowing. Print this photo and draw a control volume through which the fluid flows. Write a brief paragraph that describes how the fluid flows into and out of this control volume. 4.62 Water flows through a duct of square cross section as shown in Fig. P4.62 with a constant, uniform velocity of V ⫽ 20 mⲐs. Consider fluid particles that lie along line A–B at time t ⫽ 0. Determine the position of these particles, denoted by line A¿⫺B¿, when t ⫽ 0.20 s. Use the volume of fluid in the region between lines A–B and A¿⫺B¿ to determine the flowrate in the duct. Repeat the problem for fluid particles originally along line C–D; along line E–F. Compare your three answers. B B' D F V = 20 m/s A' d dt 冮 x21t2 x11t2 C f 1x, t2dx ⫽ 冮 x2 x1 0f dx2 dx1 dx ⫹ f 1x2, t2 ⫺ f 1x1, t2 0t dt dt Discuss how this formula is related to the time derivative of the total amount of a property in a system and to the Reynolds transport theorem. 4.67 Air enters an elbow with a uniform speed of 10 m/s as shown in Fig. P4.67. At the exit of the elbow, the velocity profile is not uniform. In fact, there is a region of separation or reverse flow. The fixed control volume ABCD coincides with the system at time t ⫽ 0. Make a sketch to indicate (a) the system at time t ⫽ 0.01 s and (b) the fluid that has entered and exited the control volume in that time period. D 0.5 m 45° A †4.66 From calculus, one obtains the following formula 1Leibnitz rule2 for the time derivative of an integral that contains time in both the integrand and the limits of the integration: E 1m ■ Figure P4.62 V = 10 m/s A Control volume 4.63 Repeat Problem 4.62 if the velocity profile is linear from 0 to 20 m兾s across the duct as shown in Fig. P4.63. 1m 5 m/s Reverse B flow C 15 m/s 20 m/s ■ Figure P4.67 0 m/s ■ Figure P4.63 4.64 In the region just downstream of a sluice gate, the water may develop a reverse flow region as is indicated in Fig. P4.64 and Video V10.9. The velocity profile is assumed to consist of two uniform regions, one with velocity Va ⫽ 10 fps and the other with Vb ⫽ 3 fps. Determine the net flowrate of water across the portion of the control surface at section 122 if the channel is 20 ft wide. 4.68 A layer of oil flows down a vertical plate as shown in Fig. P4.68 with a velocity of V ⫽ 1V0 Ⲑh2 2 12hx ⫺ x2 2 ĵ where V0 and h are constants. (a) Show that the fluid sticks to the plate and that the shear stress at the edge of the layer 1x ⫽ h2 is zero. (b) Determine the flowrate across surface AB. Assume the width of the plate is b. (Note: The velocity profile for laminar flow in a pipe has a similar shape. See Video V6.13.) x v(x) Plate Control surface Sluice gate Vb = 3 ft/s A B 1.8 ft 1.2 ft (1) (2) Va = 10 ft/s Oil y h ■ Figure P4.64 ■ Figure P4.68 4.65 At time t ⫽ 0 the valve on an initially empty 1perfect vacuum, r ⫽ 02 tank is opened and air rushes in. If the tank has a volume of ⫺ V 0 and the density of air within the tank increases as r ⫽ rq 11 ⫺ e⫺bt 2, where b is a constant, determine the time rate of change of mass within the tank. 4.69 Water flows in the branching pipe shown in Fig. P4.69 with uniform velocity at each inlet and outlet. The fixed control volume indicated coincides with the system at time t ⫽ 20 s. Make a sketch to indicate (a) the boundary of the system at time t ⫽ 20.1 s, (b) the fluid that left the control volume during that 0.1-s interval, and (c) the fluid that entered the control volume during that time interval. Problems V1 = 2 m/s A D θ 0.8 m 0.5 m (1) 0.5 m V = 3 m/s (3) V3 = 2.5 m/s 197 C B Control surface ■ Figure P4.72 (2) 0.6 m 4.73 The wind blows across a field with an approximate velocity profile as shown in Fig. P4.73. Use Eq. 4.16 with the parameter b equal to the velocity to determine the momentum flowrate across the vertical surface A–B, which is of unit depth into the paper. V2 = 1 m/s Control volume ■ Figure P4.69 4.70 Two plates are pulled in opposite directions with speeds of 1.0 ft/s as shown in Fig. P4.70. The oil between the plates moves with a velocity given by V  10 y î ft/s, where y is in feet. The fixed control volume ABCD coincides with the system at time t  0. Make a sketch to indicate (a) the system at time t  0.2 s and (b) the fluid that has entered and exited the control volume in that time period. 15 ft/s B 20 ft y 0.2 ft B Control volume 0.2 ft C 10 ft 1 ft/s u(y) = 10y ft/s 0.1 ft A x 0.1 ft ■ Figure P4.73 1 ft/s A D ■ Figure P4.70 4.71 Water enters a 5-ft-wide, 1-ft-deep channel as shown in Fig. P4.71. Across the inlet the water velocity is 6 ft s in the center portion of the channel and 1 ft s in the remainder of it. Farther downstream the water flows at a uniform 2 fts velocity across the entire channel. The fixed control volume ABCD coincides with the system at time t  0. Make a sketch to indicate (a) the system at time t  0.5 s and (b) the fluid that has entered and exited the control volume in that time period. 1 ft/s A 6 ft/s 1 ft Nozzle B 2 ft 2 ft/s 5 ft 4.74 Water flows from a nozzle with a speed of V  10 m/s and is collected in a container that moves toward the nozzle with a speed of Vcv  2 m/s as shown in Fig. P4.74. The moving control surface consists of the inner surface of the container. The system consists of the water in the container at time t  0 and the water between the nozzle and the tank in the constant diameter stream at t  0. At time t  0.1 s what volume of the system remains outside of the control volume? How much water has entered the control volume during this time period? Repeat the problem for t  0.3 s. Stream diameter = 0.1 m Container at t = 0 Stream at t = 0 V = 10 m/s Vcv = 2 m/s 1 ft/s D 2 ft C Control surface 3m Moving control volume ■ Figure P4.74 ■ Figure P4.71 4.72 Water flows through the 2-m-wide rectangular channel shown in Fig. P4.72 with a uniform velocity of 3 m兾s. (a) Directly integrate Eq. 4.16 with b  1 to determine the mass flowrate 1kg兾s2 across section CD of the control volume. (b) Repeat part 1a2 with b  1r, where r is the density. Explain the physical interpretation of the answer to part (b). ■ Lifelong Learning Problems 4.1LL Even for the simplest flows it is often not easy to visually represent various flow field quantities such as velocity, pressure, or temperature. For more complex flows, such as those involving threedimensional or unsteady effects, it is extremely difficult to “show the data.” However, with the use of computers and appropriate software, 198 Chapter 4 ■ Fluid Kinematics novel methods are being devised to more effectively illustrate the structure of a given flow. Obtain information about methods used to present complex flow data. Summarize your findings in a brief report. 4.2LL For centuries people have obtained qualitative and quantitative information about various flow fields by observing the motion of objects or particles in a flow. For example, the speed of the current in a river can be approximated by timing how long it takes a stick to travel a certain distance. The swirling motion of a tornado can be observed by following debris moving within the tornado funnel. Recently, various high-tech methods using lasers and minute particles seeded within the flow have been developed to measure velocity fields. Such techniques include the laser doppler anemometer (LDA), the particle image velocimeter (PIV), and others. Obtain information about new laser-based techniques for measuring velocity fields. Summarize your findings in a brief report. ■ FE Exam Problems Sample FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) exam questions for fluid mechanics are provided in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 5 Finite Control Volume Analysis CHAPTER OPENING PHOTO: Wind turbine farms (this is the Middelgrunden Offshore Wind Farm in Denmark) are becoming more common. Finite control volume analysis can be used to estimate the amount of energy transferred between the moving air and each turbine rotor. (Photograph courtesy of Siemens Wind Power.) Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: ■ select an appropriate finite control volume to solve a fluid mechanics problem. ■ apply conservation of mass and energy and Newton’s second law of motion to the contents of a finite control volume to get important answers. ■ know how velocity changes and energy transfers in fluid flows are related to forces and torques. ■ understand why designing for minimum loss of energy in fluid flows is so important. Many fluid mechanics problems can be solved by using control volume analysis. To solve many practical problems in fluid mechanics, questions about the behavior of the contents of a finite region in space 1a finite control volume2 are answered. For example, we may be asked to estimate the maximum anchoring force required to hold a turbojet engine stationary during a test. Or we may be called on to design a propeller to move a boat both forward and backward. Or we may need to determine how much power it would take to move natural gas from one location to another many miles away. The bases of finite control volume analysis are some fundamental laws of physics, namely, conservation of mass, Newton’s second law of motion, and the first and second laws of thermodynamics. While some simplifying approximations are made for practicality, the engineering answers possible with the estimates of this powerful analysis method have proven valuable in numerous instances. Conservation of mass is the key to tracking flowing fluid. How much enters and leaves a control volume can be ascertained. Newton’s second law of motion leads to the conclusion that forces can result from or cause changes in a flowing fluid’s velocity magnitude and/or direction. Moment of force 1torque2 can result from or cause changes in a flowing fluid’s moment of velocity. These forces and torques can be associated with work and power transfer. 199 200 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of conservation of energy. The second law of thermodynamics identifies the loss of energy associated with every actual process. The mechanical energy equation based on these two laws can be used to analyze a large variety of steady, incompressible flows in terms of changes in pressure, elevation, speed, and of shaft work and loss. Good judgment is required in defining the finite region in space, the control volume, used in solving a problem. What exactly to leave out of and what to leave in the control volume are important considerations. The formulas resulting from applying the fundamental laws to the contents of the control volume are easy to interpret physically and are not difficult to derive and use. Because a finite region of space, a control volume, contains many fluid particles and even more molecules that make up each particle, the fluid properties and characteristics are often average values. Chapter 6 presents an analysis of fluid flow based on what is happening to the contents of an infinitesimally small region of space or control volume through which numerous molecules simultaneously flow (what we might call a point in space). 5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 5.1.1 Derivation of the Continuity Equation A system is defined as a collection of unchanging contents, so the conservation of mass principle for a system is simply stated as Time rate of change of the system mass  0 The amount of mass in a system is constant. or DMsys Dt 0 (5.1) where the system mass, Msys, is more generally expressed as Msys  冮 r dV  (5.2) sys and the integration is over the volume of the system. In words, Eq. 5.2 states that the system mass is equal to the sum of all the density-volume element products for the contents of the system. For a system and a fixed, nondeforming control volume that are coincident at an instant of time, as illustrated in Fig. 5.1, the Reynolds transport theorem 1Eq. 4.192 with B  mass and b  1 allows us to state that D Dt 冮 r dV  sys 0 0t 冮 cv r dV  冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA cs Control volume V2 (2) V1 System (a) (1) (b) (c) ■ Figure 5.1 System and control volume at three different instances of time. (a) System and control volume at time t ⴚ Dt. (b) System and control volume at time t, coincident condition. (c) System and control volume at time t ⴙ Dt. (5.3) 5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 201 or time rate of change Time rate of change of the mass of the of the mass of the   contents of the coincoincident system cident control volume net rate of flow of mass through the control surface In Eq. 5.3, we express the time rate of change of the system mass as the sum of two control volume quantities, the time rate of change of the mass of the contents of the control volume, 0 0t 冮 r dV  cv and the net rate of mass flow through the control surface, 冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA cs Control surface V ^ n ^ Vn > 0 When a flow is steady, all field properties 1i.e., properties at any specified point2 including density remain constant with time and the time rate of change of the mass of the contents of the control volume is zero. That is, 冮 0 0t V ^ n V^ n<0 r dV 0 cv The integrand, V ⴢ n̂ dA, in the mass flowrate integral represents the product of the component of velocity, V, perpendicular to the small portion of control surface and the differential area, dA. Thus, V ⴢ n̂ dA is the volume flowrate through dA and rV ⴢ n̂ dA is the mass flowrate through dA. Furthermore, as shown in the sketch in the margin, the sign of the dot product V ⴢ n̂ is “” for flow out of the control volume and “” for flow into the control volume since n̂ is considered positive when it points out of the control volume. When all of the differential quantities, rV ⴢ n̂ dA, are summed over the entire control surface, as indicated by the integral 冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA cs the result is the net mass flowrate through the control surface, or 冮 # # rV ⴢ n̂ dA  a mout  a min (5.4) cs The continuity equation is a statement that mass is conserved. # where m is the mass flowrate 1lbms, slug s or kg s2. If the integral in Eq. 5.4 is positive, the net flow is out of the control volume; if the integral is negative, the net flow is into the control volume. The control volume expression for conservation of mass, which is commonly called the continuity equation, for a fixed, nondeforming control volume is obtained by combining Eqs. 5.1, 5.2, and 5.3 to obtain 0 0t 冮 cv r dV  冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA  0 (5.5) cs In words, Eq. 5.5 states that to conserve mass the time rate of change of the mass of the contents of the control volume plus the net rate of mass flow through the control surface must equal zero. Actually, the same result could have been obtained more directly by equating the rates of mass flow into and out of the control volume to the rates of accumulation and depletion of mass within the control volume 1see Section 3.6.22. It is reassuring, however, to see that the Reynolds transport theorem works for this simple-to-understand case. This confidence will serve us well as we develop control volume expressions for other important principles. # An often-used expression for mass flowrate, m, through a section of control surface having area A is # m  rQ  rAV (5.6) 202 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis Mass flowrate equals the product of density and volume flowrate. where r is the fluid density, Q is the volume flowrate 1ft3s or m3s2, and V is the component of fluid velocity perpendicular to area A. Since # m 冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA A application of Eq. 5.6 involves the use of representative or average values of fluid density, r, and fluid velocity, V. For incompressible flows, r is uniformly distributed over area A. For compressible flows, we will normally consider a uniformly distributed fluid density at each section of flow and allow density changes to occur only from section to section. The appropriate fluid velocity to use in Eq. 5.6 is the average value of the component of velocity normal to the section area involved. This average value, V, defined as V V 冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA A rA (5.7) is shown in the figure in the margin. If the velocity, V, is considered uniformly distributed 1one-dimensional flow2 over the section area, A, then V V 冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA A rA V (5.8) and the bar notation is not necessary 1as in Example 5.12. When the flow is not uniformly distributed over the flow cross-sectional area, the bar notation reminds us that an average velocity is being used 1as in Examples 5.2 and 5.42. V5.1 Sink flow 5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume In many applications of fluid mechanics, an appropriate control volume to use is fixed and nondeforming. Several example problems that involve the continuity equation for fixed, nondeforming control volumes 1Eq. 5.52 follow. E XAMPLE 5.1 Conservation of Mass—Steady, Incompressible Flow GIVEN A great danger to workers in confined spaces involves the consumption of breathable air (oxygen) and its replacement with other gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2). To prevent this from happening, confined spaces need to be ventilated. Although there is no standard for air exchange rates, a complete change of the air every 3 minutes has been accepted by industry as providing effective ventilation. A worker is performing maintenance in a small rectangular tank with a height of 10 ft and a square base 6 ft by 6 ft. Fresh air enters through an 8-in.-diameter hose and exits through a 4-in.diameter port on the tank wall. The flow is assumed steady and incompressible. FIND (a) Determine the exchange rate needed (ft3/min) for this tank and (b) the velocity of the air entering and exiting the tank at this exchange rate. SOLUTION (a) The necessary exchange rate, which will provide the flowrate entering and exiting the space, is based on the volume, V, of the tank, where V  110 ft2 16 ft216 ft2  360 ft3 Thus, 360 ft3 of air is needed to provide one complete air exchange. As described in the problem statement, to provide effective ventilation this must be done every 3 minutes. 5.1 Therefore, the required flowrate, Q, is 360 ft3 Q  120 cfm 3 min (Ans) (b) The continuity equation, Eq. 5.5, can be used to calculate the velocities at the inlet and outlet. Thus, 0 0t 冮 r dV  a r outVoutAout  a rinV in Ain  0 (1) cv We consider the volume within the tank to be the control volume, Ain the cross-sectional area of the hose as it protrudes through the tank wall, and Aout the area of the port in the tank wall. Since the flow is assumed steady and incompressible, 0 0t 冮 rdV  0 cv and rout  rin Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 203 COMMENTS In this example it is quite apparent how much the problem is simplified by assuming the flow is steady and incompressible. It is important for engineers to understand when such assumptions can be made. Also one can see how the velocity through an outlet/inlet is directly related to the flowrate and geometry of the outlet/inlet. For example, if the air velocity through the outlet causes too much dust to be stirred up, the velocity could be decreased by increasing the diameter of the outlet. The relationship between velocity and diameter is shown in Fig. E5.1. As expected, the velocity is inversely proportional to the square of the diameter. As mentioned, there is no written standard for air exchange rates, but changing the air every 3 minutes has been accepted by industry. It is important for engineers to understand that individual industries and companies will have their own established safety precautions, depending on the nature of their work. As an engineer, one must heed these precautions. Safety is always a key component in the design process. Thus, Eq. 1 reduces to Vout Aout  Vin Ain  0 or Vout A out  Vin Ain  Q Vout (ft/s) Vout  E XAMPLE 5.2 (4 in., 22.9 ft/s) 20 which can be rearranged to solve for Vout and Vin. Q 120 ft2min   1380 ftmin  22.9 fts 2 Aout p 4 a b a ftb 4 12 Q 120 ft2 min Vin    343 ftmin  5.73 fts 2 Ain p 8 a ba ftb 4 12 25 (2) 15 10 5 0 0 (Ans) 2 4 6 8 Outlet diameter (in.) 10 12 ■ Figure E5.1 Conservation of Mass—Steady, Compressible Flow GIVEN Air flows steadily between two sections in a long, straight portion of 4-in. inside diameter pipe as indicated in Fig. E5.2. The uniformly distributed temperature and pressure at each section are given. The average air velocity 1nonuniform velocity distribution2 at section 122 is 1000 fts. FIND Calculate the average air velocity at section 112. SOLUTION The average fluid velocity at any section is that velocity which yields the section mass flowrate when multiplied by the section average fluid density and section area 1Eq. 5.72. We relate the flows at sections 112 and 122 with the control volume designated with a dashed line in Fig. E5.2. Equation 5.5 is applied to the contents of this control volume to obtain Pipe Control volume Flow Section (1) Section (2) D1 = D2 = 4 in. p1 = 100 psia T1 = 540 °R p2 = 18.4 psia T2 = 453 °R V2 = 1000 ft/s ■ Figure E5.2 0 1flow is steady2 0 0t 冮 cv r dV  冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA  0 cs The time rate of change of the mass of the contents of this control volume is zero because the flow is steady. The control surface 204 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis integral involves mass flowrates at sections 112 and 122 so that from Eq. 5.4 we get 冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA  m # 2 V1  #  m1  0 cs  or # # m1  m2 p2T1V2 p1T2 118.4 psia21540 °R211000 fts2 (1) and from Eqs. 1, 5.6, and 5.7 we obtain r1 A1V1  r2 A2V2 (2) or since A1  A2 V1  Thus, combining Eqs. 3 and 4 we obtain r2 V r1 2 1100 psia21453 °R2  219 fts (Ans) COMMENT We learn from this example that the continuity equation 1Eq. 5.52 is valid for compressible as well as incompressible flows. Also, nonuniform velocity distributions can be handled with the average velocity concept. Significant average velocity changes can occur in pipe flow if the fluid is compressible. (3) Air at the pressures and temperatures involved in this example problem behaves like an ideal gas. The ideal gas equation of state 1Eq. 1.82 is r E XAMPLE 5.3 p RT (4) Conservation of Mass—Two Fluids GIVEN The inner workings of a dehumidifier are shown in Fig. E5.3a. Moist air 1a mixture of dry air and water vapor2 enters the dehumidifier at the rate of 600 lbm兾hr. Liquid water drains out of the dehumidifier at a rate of 3.0 lbm兾hr. A simplified sketch of the process is provided in Fig. E5.3b. FIND Determine the mass flowrate of the dry air and the water vapor leaving the dehumidifier. Fan m• 4 Section (1) m• 5 Control volume Cooling coil Motor m• 1 = 600 lbm/hr m• 2 = ? Fan Cooling coil Section (2) Condensate (water) Section (3) m• 3 = 3.0 lbm/hr ■ Figure E5.3a ■ Figure E5.3b SOLUTION The unknown mass flowrate at section 122 is linked with the known flowrates at sections 112 and 132 with the control volume designated with a dashed line in Fig. E5.3b. The contents of the control volume are the air and water vapor mixture and the condensate 1liquid water2 in the dehumidifier at any instant. Not included in the control volume are the fan and its motor, and the condenser coils and refrigerant. Even though the flow in the vicinity of the fan blade is unsteady, it is unsteady in a cyclical way. Thus, the flowrates at sections 112, 122, and 132 appear steady, and the time rate of change of the mass of the contents of 5.1 the control volume may be considered equal to zero on a timeaverage basis. The application of Eqs. 5.4 and 5.5 to the control volume contents results in 冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA  m # 1 # #  m2  m3  0 cs or # # # m2  m1  m3  600 lbmhr  3.0 lbmhr  597 lbmhr (Ans) COMMENT Note that the continuity equation 1Eq. 5.52 can Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 205 The answer is the same with a control volume that includes the cooling coils to be within the control volume. The continuity equation becomes # # # # # (1) m2  m1  m3  m4  m5 # where m4 is the mass flowrate of the cooling fluid flowing # into the control volume, and m5 is the flowrate out of the control volume through the cooling coil. Since the flow # # through the coils is steady, it follows that m4  m 5. Hence, Eq. 1 gives the same answer as obtained with the original control volume. be used when there is more than one stream of fluid flowing through the control volume. E XAMPLE Conservation of Mass—Nonuniform Velocity Profile 5.4 GIVEN Incompressible, laminar water flow develops in a straight pipe having radius R as indicated in Fig. E5.4a. At section (1), the velocity profile is uniform; the velocity is equal to a constant value U and is parallel to the pipe axis everywhere. At section (2), the velocity profile is axisymmetric and parabolic, with zero velocity at the pipe wall and a maximum value of umax at the centerline. Section (1) Control volume R r u1 = U Pipe FIND (a) Section (2) dA2 = 2π r dr u2 = umax 1 - _r R [ ()] How are U and umax related? (b) How are the average velocity at section (2), V2, and umax related? 2 ■ Figure E5.4a SOLUTION (a) An appropriate control volume is sketched (dashed lines) in Fig. E5.4a. The application of Eq. 5.5 to the contents of this control volume yields 0 (flow is steady) 0 0t 冮 r d V  cv 冮 rV ⴢ n̂ d A  0 (1) cs At the inlet, section (1), the velocity is uniform with V1  U so that 冮 112 rV ⴢ n̂ dA  r1A1U (2) these infinitesimal areas the fluid velocity is denoted as u2. Thus, in the limit of infinitesimal area elements, the summation is replaced by an integration, and the outflow through section (2) is given by 冮 122 冮 u 2pr dr 2 (3) 0 By combining Eqs. 1, 2, and 3, we get R r2 冮 u 2pr dr  r A U  0 2 1 1 (4) 0 At the outlet, section (2), the velocity is not uniform. However, the net flowrate through this section is the sum of flows through numerous small washer-shaped areas of size dA2  2␲r dr as shown by the shaded area element in Fig. E5.4b. On each of Since the flow is considered incompressible, ␳1  ␳2. The parabolic velocity relationship for flow through section (2) is used in Eq. 4 to yield 2pumax 冮 0 dA2 dr R rV ⴢ n̂ dA  r2 R r 2 c 1  a b d r dr  A1U  0 R Integrating, we get from Eq. 5 r ■ Figure E5.4b 2pumax a r2 r4 R  2 b  pR2U  0 2 4R 0 (5) 206 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis or umax ⫽ 2U V2 = umax/2 (parabolic) (Ans) (b) Since this flow is incompressible, we conclude from Eq. 5.7 that U is the average velocity at all sections of the control volume. Thus, the average velocity at section (2), V2, is one-half the maximum velocity, umax, there or V2 ⫽ umax 2 (Ans) COMMENT The relationship between the maximum velocity at section (2) and the average velocity is a function of the “shape” of the velocity profile. For the parabolic profile assumed in this example, the average velocity, umax Ⲑ2, is the actual “average” of the maximum velocity at section (2), u2 ⫽ umax, and the minimum velocity at that section, u2 ⫽ 0. However, as shown in Fig. E5.4c, if the velocity profile is a different shape (nonparabolic), the average velocity is not necessarily one-half of the maximum velocity. E XAMPLE umax V2 = umax/2 (nonparabolic) ■ Figure E5.4c 5.5 Conservation of Mass—Unsteady Flow GIVEN Construction workers in a trench of the type shown in Fig. E5.5a are installing a new waterline. The trench is 10 ft long, 5 ft wide, and 8 ft deep. As a result of being near an intersection, carbon dioxide from vehicle exhaust enters the trench at a rate of 10 ft3/min. Because carbon dioxide has a greater density than air, it will settle to the bottom of the trench and displace the air the workers need to breathe. Assume that there is negligible mixing between the air and carbon dioxide. FIND (a) Estimate the time rate of change of the depth of carbon dioxide in the trench, 0hⲐ 0t, in feet per minute at any instant. (b) Calculate the time, th⫽6, it would take for the level of carbon dioxide to reach 6 ft, the approximate height to fully engulf the utility workers. ■ Figure E5.5a (Photo courtesy of Architect of the Capitol.) SOLUTION (a) We use the fixed, nondeforming control volume outlined with a dashed line in Fig. E5.5b. This control volume includes, at any instant, the carbon dioxide accumulated in the trench, some of the carbon dioxide flowing from the street into the trench, and some air. Application of Eqs. 5.5 and 5.6 to the contents of the control volume results in 0 0t 冮 air volume rair dV ⫺air ⫹ 0 0t 冮 co 2 volume rco 2 dV ⫺co2 the sum of the first two terms is the time rate of change of mass within the control volume. Note that the time rates of change of air mass and carbon dioxide mass are each not zero. Recognizing, however, that the air mass must be conserved, we know that the time rate of change of the mass of air in the control volume must be equal to the rate of air mass flow out of the control volume. Thus, applying Eqs. 5.5 and 5.6 to the air only and to the carbon dioxide only, we obtain # # ⫺ mco2 ⫹ mair ⫽ 0 (1) # # where mco2 and mair are the mass flowrates of carbon dioxide into and air out of the control volume. Recall that the mass, dm, of fluid contained in a small volume dV ⫺ is dm ⫽ rdV ⫺. Hence, the two integrals in Eq. 1 represent the total amount of air and carbon dioxide in the control volume, and 0 0t 冮 0 0t 冮 air volume # rair dV ⫺air ⫹ mair ⫽ 0 for air and co2 volume # rco2 dV ⫺co2 ⫽ mco2 (2) 5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 207 or Control volume 0h 10 ft3Ⲑmin ⫽ ⫽ 0.20 ftⲐmin 0t 50 ft2 QCO 2 (Ans) (b) To find the time it will take to engulf the workers at a depth of h ⫽ 6 ft, we need only to divide the height the level needs to reach by the time rate of change of depth. That is, 8 ft th⫽6 ⫽ h 5 ft ■ Figure E5.5b 10 ft co2 volume rco2 dV ⫺co2 ⫽ rco2 3 h110 ft215 ft2 4 Combining Eqs. 2 and 3, we obtain rco2 150 ft2 2 0h # ⫽ mco2 0t # and, thus, since m ⫽ rQ, Qco2 0h ⫽ 0t 50 ft 2 (Ans) COMMENTS As shown in this example, it would not take for carbon dioxide. The volume of carbon dioxide in the control volume is given by 冮 6 ft ⫽ 30 min 0.2 1ftⲐmin2 (3) long for the air within the confined space of the trench to be displaced enough to become a danger to the workers. Furthermore, by the time workers feel the effects of an oxygen-deficient atmosphere, they may be unable to remove themselves from the dangerous space. Note that the answer to part (b) can be easily obtained by realizing that the accumulated volume, ⫺ V , of a flow is the flowrate, Q, times the time it has been flowing, t. That is, ⫺ V⫽ Qt. For this example, the volume of the carbon dioxide in the trench when it is 6 ft deep (neglecting the volume of the workers and equipment within the trench) is ⫺ V ⫽ 5 ft ⫻ 10 ft ⫻ 6 ft ⫽ 300 ft3. Thus, with a flowrate of Q ⫽ 10 ft3/min, th ⫽ 6 ⫽ 300 ft3/10 ft3/min ⫽ 30 min in agreement with the foregoing answer. The preceding example problems illustrate some important results of applying the conservation of mass principle to the contents of a fixed, nondeforming control volume. The dot product V ⴢ n̂ is “⫹” for flow out of the control volume and “⫺” for flow into the control volume. Thus, mass flowrate out of the control volume is “⫹” and mass flowrate in is “⫺.” When the flow is steady, the time rate of change of the mass of the contents of the control volume The appropriate sign convention must be followed. 0 0t 冮 r dV ⫺ cv # is zero and the net amount of mass flowrate, m, through the control surface is, therefore, also zero # # (5.9) a mout ⫺ a m in ⫽ 0 V5.2 Shop vac filter If the steady flow is also incompressible, the net amount of volume flowrate, Q, through the control surface is also zero: a Qout ⫺ a Qin ⫽ 0 (5.10) An unsteady, but cyclical, flow can be considered steady on a time-average basis. When the flow is unsteady, the instantaneous time rate of change of the mass of the contents of the control volume is not necessarily zero and can be an important variable. When the value of V5.3 Flow through a contraction 0 0t 冮 r dV ⫺ cv is “⫹,” the mass of the contents of the control volume is increasing. When it is “⫺,” the mass of the contents of the control volume is decreasing. When the flow is uniformly distributed over the opening in the control surface 1one-dimensional flow2, # m ⫽ rAV 208 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis where V is the uniform value of the velocity component normal to the section area A. When the velocity is nonuniformly distributed over the opening in the control surface, # (5.11) m  rAV where V is the average value of the component of velocity normal to the section area A as defined by Eq. 5.7. For steady flow involving only one stream of a specific fluid flowing through the control volume at sections 112 and 122, as shown by the figure in the margin # (5.12) m  r1A1V1  r2A2V2 Section (1) – r1,A1,V1 Section (2) – r2,A2,V2 and for incompressible flow, Q  A1V1  A2V2 (5.13) For steady flow involving more than one stream of a specific fluid or more than one specific fluid flowing through the control volume, # # a m in  a mout The variety of example problems solved above should give the correct impression that the fixed, nondeforming control volume is versatile and useful. F l u i d s i n t h e N e w s that flushes properly with such a small amount of water is not simple. Today there are two basic types involved: those that are gravity powered and those that are pressure powered. Gravity toilets (typical of most currently in use) have rather long cycle times. The water starts flowing under the action of gravity and the swirling vortex motion initiates the siphon action that builds to a point of discharge. In the newer pressure-assisted models, the flowrate is large, but the cycle time is short and the amount of water used is relatively small. (See Problem 5.33.) New 1.6-gpf standards Toilets account for approximately 40% of all indoor household water use. To conserve water, the new standard is 1.6 gallons of water per flush (gpf ). Old toilets use up to 7 gpf; those manufactured after 1980 use 3.5 gpf. Neither is considered a low-flush toilet. A typical 3.2-person household in which each person flushes a 7-gpf toilet 4 times a day uses 32,700 gallons of water each year; with a 3.5-gpf toilet the amount is reduced to 16,400 gallons. Clearly the new 1.6-gpf toilets will save even more water. However, designing a toilet 5.1.3 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume Some problems are most easily solved by using a moving control volume. V W VCV It is sometimes necessary to use a nondeforming control volume attached to a moving reference frame. Examples include control volumes containing a gas turbine engine on an aircraft in flight, the exhaust stack of a ship at sea, and the gasoline tank of an automobile passing by. As discussed in Section 4.4.6, when a moving control volume is used, the fluid velocity relative to the moving control volume 1relative velocity2 is an important flow field variable. The relative velocity, W, is the fluid velocity seen by an observer moving with the control volume. The control volume velocity, Vcv, is the velocity of the control volume as seen from a fixed coordinate system. The absolute velocity, V, is the fluid velocity seen by a stationary observer in a fixed coordinate system. These velocities are related to each other by the vector equation V  W  Vcv (5.14) as illustrated by the figure in the margin. This is the same as Eq. 4.22, introduced earlier. For a system and a moving, nondeforming control volume that are coincident at an instant of time, the Reynolds transport theorem 1Eq. 4.232 for a moving control volume leads to DMsys Dt  0 0t 冮 r dV  cv 冮 rW ⴢ n̂ dA (5.15) cs From Eqs. 5.1 and 5.15, we can get the control volume expression for conservation of mass 1the continuity equation2 for a moving, nondeforming control volume, namely, 0 0t 冮 cv r dV  冮 cs rW ⴢ n̂ dA  0 (5.16) 5.1 209 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation Some examples of the application of Eq. 5.16 follow. E XAMPLE 5.6 Conservation of Mass—Compressible Flow with a Moving Control Volume GIVEN An airplane moves forward at a speed of 971 kmhr as 1050 kmhr. The engine exhaust area is 0.558 m2, and the exhaust gas density is 0.515 kgm3. shown in Fig. E5.6a. The frontal intake area of the jet engine is 0.80 m2 and the entering air density is 0.736 kgm3. A stationary observer determines that relative to the Earth, the jet engine exhaust gases move away from the engine with a speed of FIND Estimate the mass flowrate of fuel into the engine in kg hr. Vplane = 971 km/hr m• fuel in Control volume Vplane = 971 km/hr (a) V2 = 1050 km/hr W1 = 971 km/hr W2 = 1050 + 971 = 2021 km/hr Section (2) Section (1) (b) ■ Figure E5.6 SOLUTION The control volume, which moves with the airplane 1see Fig. E5.6b2, surrounds the engine and its contents and includes all fluids involved at an instant. The application of Eq. 5.16 to these contents of the control volume yields 0 1flow relative to moving control volume is considered steady on a time-average basis2 0 0t 冮 r d V  cv 冮 rW ⴢ n̂ dA  0 noted that the exhaust gases were moving away from the engine at a speed of 1050 km hr, the speed of the exhaust gases relative to the moving control volume, W2, is determined as follows by using Eq. 5.14 V2  W2  Vplane or W2  V2  Vplane  1050 kmhr  1971 kmhr2  2021 kmhr (1) cs Assuming one-dimensional flow, we evaluate the surface integral in Eq. 1 and get # mfuel  r1A1W1  r2A2W2  0 and is shown in Fig. E5.6b. From Eq. 2, # mfuel  10.515 kgm3 2 10.558 m2 2 12021 kmhr2 11000 mkm2 in in or # mfuel  r2A2W2  r1A1W1 (2) in We consider the intake velocity, W1, relative to the moving control volume, as being equal in magnitude to the speed of the airplane, 971 kmhr. The exhaust velocity, W2, also needs to be measured relative to the moving control volume. Since a fixed observer  10.736 kgm3 210.80 m2 21971 kmhr211000 mkm2  1580,800  571,7002 kghr # mfuel  9100 kghr (Ans) in COMMENT Note that the fuel flowrate was obtained as the difference of two large, nearly equal numbers. Precise values of W2 # and W1 are needed to obtain a modestly accurate value of mfuel. in 210 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis E XAMPLE 5.7 Conservation of Mass—Relative Velocity GIVEN A2 = 30 mm2 Water enters a rotating lawn sprinkler through its base at the steady rate of 1000 ml/s as sketched in Fig. E5.7. The exit area of each of the two nozzles is 30 mm2. Section (2) Control volume W2 Section (1) FIND Determine the average speed of the water leaving the Sprinkler head nozzle, relative to the nozzle, if (a) the rotary sprinkler head is stationary, Q Section (3) (b) the sprinkler head rotates at 600 rpm, and (c) the sprinkler head accelerates from 0 to 600 rpm. Q = 1000 ml/s ■ Figure E5.7 SOLUTION (a) We specify a control volume that contains the water in the rotary sprinkler head at any instant. This control volume is nondeforming, but it moves (rotates) with the sprinkler head. The application of Eq. 5.16 to the contents of this control volume for situation (a), (b), or (c) of the problem results in the same expression, namely, 0 flow is steady or the control volume is filled with an incompressible fluid 0 0t (1) The time rate of change of the mass of water in the control volume is zero because the flow is steady and the control volume is filled with water. Because there is only one inflow [at the base of the rotating arm, section (1)] and two outflows [the two nozzles at the tips of the arm, sections (2) and (3), each with the same area and fluid velocity], Eq. 1 becomes Care is needed to ensure that absolute and relative velocities are used correctly. W2  Q 2 A2 11000 ml / s210.001 m3liter21106 mm2m2 2 11000 ml/liter2122130 mm2 2  16.7 m/s cs r2A2W2  r3 A 3W3  r1A1W1  0 With Q  A1W1, A2  A3, and W2  W3 it follows that W2  or g rout Aout Wout  g rin Ain Win  0 A2W2  A3W3  A1W1  0 or 冮 r d V  冮 rW ⴢ n̂ dA  0 cv Hence, for incompressible flow with ␳1  ␳2  ␳3, Eq. 2 becomes (2) (Ans) (b), (c) The value of W2 is independent of the speed of rotation of the sprinkler head and represents the average velocity of the water exiting from each nozzle with respect to the nozzle for cases (a), (b), and (c). COMMENT The velocity of water discharging from each nozzle, when viewed from a stationary reference (i.e., V2), will vary as the rotation speed of the sprinkler head varies since from Eq. 5.14, V2  W2  U where U  ␻R is the speed of the nozzle and ␻ and R are the angular velocity and radius of the sprinkler head, respectively. When a moving, nondeforming control volume is used, the dot product sign convention used earlier for fixed, nondeforming control volume applications is still valid. Also, if the flow within the moving control volume is steady, or steady on a time-average basis, the time rate of change of the mass of the contents of the control volume is zero. Velocities seen from the control volume reference frame 1relative velocities2 must be used in the continuity equation. Relative and absolute velocities are related by a vector equation 1Eq. 5.142, which also involves the control volume velocity. 5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume Occasionally, a deforming control volume can simplify the solution of a problem. A deforming control volume involves changing volume size and control surface movement. Thus, the Reynolds 5.1 Conservation of Mass—The Continuity Equation 211 transport theorem for a moving control volume can be used for this case, and Eqs. 4.23 and 5.1 lead to DMsys Dt ⫽ 0 0t 冮 r dV ⫺⫹ cv 冮 rW ⴢ n̂ dA ⫽ 0 (5.17) cs The time rate of change term in Eq. 5.17, 0 0t 冮 r dV ⫺ cv is usually nonzero and must be carefully evaluated because the extent of the control volume varies with time. The mass flowrate term in Eq. 5.17, 冮 rW ⴢ n̂ dA cs must be determined with the relative velocity, W, the velocity referenced to the control surface. Since the control volume is deforming, the control surface velocity is not necessarily uniform and identical to the control volume velocity, Vcv, as was true for moving, nondeforming control volumes. For the deforming control volume, The velocity of the surface of a deforming control volume is not the same at all points on the surface. V ⫽ W ⫹ Vcs (5.18) where Vcs is the velocity of the control surface as seen by a fixed observer. The relative velocity, W, must be ascertained with care wherever fluid crosses the control surface. Two example problems that illustrate the use of the continuity equation for a deforming control volume, Eq. 5.17, follow. E XAMPLE 5.8 Conservation of Mass—Deforming Control Volume GIVEN A syringe 1Fig. E5.8a2 is used to inoculate a cow. The plunger has a face area of 500 mm2. The liquid in the syringe is to be injected steadily at a rate of 300 cm3Ⲑmin. The leakage rate past the plunger is 0.10 times the volume flowrate out of the needle. (a) (© James McQuillan/iStockphoto.) FIND With what speed should the plunger be advanced? Plunger motion SOLUTION Qleak = 0.1 Q2 ᐉ Ap = Vp Q2 = 300 cm3/min 500 mm2 Section (2) The control volume selected for solving this problem is the deforming one illustrated in Fig. E5.8b. Section 112 of the control surface moves with the plunger. The surface area of section 112, A1, is considered equal to the circular area of the face of the plunger, Ap , although this is not strictly true, since leakage occurs. The difference is small, however. Thus, A1 ⫽ Ap (1) Liquid also leaves the needle through section 122, which involves fixed area A2. The application of Eq. 5.17 to the contents of this control volume gives 0 0t 冮 # r d⫺ V ⫹ m2 ⫹ rQleak ⫽ 0 (2) cv Even though Qleak and the flow through section area A2 are steady, the time rate of change of the mass of liquid in the shrinking control volume is not zero because the control volume Control volume Section (1) (b) ■ Figure E5.8 is getting smaller. To evaluate the first term of Eq. 2, we note that 冮 cv r dV ⫺ ⫽ r1/A1 ⫹ ⫺ V needle 2 (3) where / is the changing length of the control volume 1see Fig. V needle is the volume of the needle. From Eq. 3, we E5.82 and ⫺ obtain 0 0/ (4) r dV ⫺ ⫽ rA1 0t cv 0t 冮 212 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis Solving Eq. 8 for Vp yields Note that Q2  Qleak A1 0/  Vp (5) 0t where Vp is the speed of the plunger sought in the problem statement. Combining Eqs. 2, 4, and 5 we obtain # rA1Vp  m2  rQleak  0 (6) Since Qleak  0.1Q2, Eq. 9 becomes However, from Eq. 5.6, we see that # m2  rQ2 and  (7) Vp  Vp  (9) Q2  0.1Q2 1.1Q2  A1 A1 11.121300 cm3min2 1000 mm3 a b 1500 mm2 2 cm3  660 mm min Vp  and Eq. 6 becomes rA1Vp  rQ2  rQleak  0 E XAMPLE (8) (Ans) 5.9 Conservation of Mass—Deforming Control Volume FIND Solve the problem of Example 5.5 using a deforming con- GIVEN Consider Example 5.5. trol volume that includes only the carbon dioxide accumulating in the trench. SOLUTION For this deforming control volume, Eq. 5.17 leads to 0 0t 冮 r d V  co2 volume 冮 rW ⴢ n̂ dA  0 (1) cs The first term of Eq. 1 can be evaluated as 0 0t 冮 r d V  co2 volume 0 3 rh110 ft215 ft2 4 0t  r 150 ft2 2 0h 0t Qco2 Vco2 Aco2 0h   0t 150 ft2  Aco2 2 150 ft2  Aco2 2 (2) 冮 r W ⴢ n̂ dA  r aV co2 cs or for Aco2  50 ft2 10 ft3min 0h  0.2 ft min  0t 150 ft2 2 The second term of Eq. 1 can be evaluated as 0h  b Aco2 0t that the velocity of the carbon dioxide entering the control surface and the velocity of the control surface are summed in Eq. 3 since they are in opposite directions and therefore, the relative velocity would be the two velocities combined (i.e. like the relative velocity of two cars passing each other going in opposite directions). The overall mass flow term is negative since the carbon dioxide is entering the control volume. Thus, from Eqs. 1, 2, and 3 we obtain (Ans) (3) where Aco2 and Vco2 are the cross-sectional area and velocity of the carbon dioxide flowing from the street down into the trench. Note COMMENT Note that these results using a deforming control volume are the same as those obtained in Example 5.5 with a fixed control volume. The conservation of mass principle is easily applied to the contents of a control volume. The appropriate selection of a specific kind of control volume 1for example, fixed and nondeforming, moving and nondeforming, or deforming2 can make the solution of a particular problem less complicated. In general, where fluid flows through the control surface, it is advisable to make the control surface perpendicular to the flow. In the sections ahead we learn that the conservation of mass principle is primarily used in combination with other important laws to solve problems. 5.2 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 213 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation V5.4 Smokestack plume momentum Newton’s second law of motion for a system is Time rate of change of the  sum of external forces linear momentum of the system acting on the system  is Since momentum is mass times velocity, the momentum of a small particle of mass rdV VrdV . Thus, the momentum of the entire system is 兰sysVrdV  and Newton’s law becomes D Dt Forces acting on a flowing fluid can change its velocity magnitude and/or direction. V5.5 Marine propulsion 冮 Vr dV   a Fsys (5.19) sys Any reference or coordinate system for which this statement is true is called inertial. A fixed coordinate system is inertial. A coordinate system that moves in a straight line with constant velocity and is thus without acceleration is also inertial. We proceed to develop the control volume formula for this important law. When a control volume is coincident with a system at an instant of time, the forces acting on the system and the forces acting on the contents of the coincident control volume 1see Fig. 5.22 are instantaneously identical, that is, a Fsys  a Fcontents of the (5.20) coincident control volume Furthermore, for a system and the contents of a coincident control volume that is fixed and nondeforming, the Reynolds transport theorem [Eq. 4.19 with b set equal to the velocity (i.e., momentum per unit mass), and Bsys being the system momentum] allows us to conclude that D Dt 冮 Vr dV  sys 0 0t 冮 Vr dV  cv 冮 VrV # n̂ dA (5.21) cs or time rate of change Time rate of change of the linear of the linear  momentum of the  momentum of the contents of the system control volume net rate of flow of linear momentum through the control surface Equation 5.21 states that the time rate of change of system linear momentum is expressed as the sum of the two control volume quantities: the time rate of change of the linear momentum of the contents of the control volume, and the net rate of linear momentum flow through the control surface. As particles of mass move into or out of a control volume through the control surface, they carry linear momentum in or out. Thus, linear momentum flow should seem no more unusual than mass flow. For a control volume that is fixed 1and thus inertial2 and nondeforming, Eqs. 5.19, 5.20, and 5.21 provide an appropriate mathematical statement of Newton’s second law of motion as 0 0t V5.6 Force due to a water jet 冮 Vr dV  cv 冮 VrV ⴢ n̂ dA  a Fcontents of the control volume cs We call Eq. 5.22 the linear momentum equation. Coincident control volume FB FC FD FE FA System ■ Figure 5.2 control volume. External forces acting on system and coincident (5.22) 214 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis Flow out Flow in Control volume Ffluid out ᐃ Fwall Ffluid in In our application of the linear momentum equation, we initially confine ourselves to fixed, nondeforming control volumes for simplicity. Subsequently, we discuss the use of a moving but inertial, nondeforming control volume. We do not consider deforming control volumes and accelerating 1noninertial2 control volumes. If a control volume is noninertial, the acceleration components involved 1for example, translation acceleration, Coriolis acceleration, and centrifugal acceleration2 require consideration. The forces involved in Eq. 5.22 are body and surface forces that act on what is contained in the control volume as shown in the sketch in the margin. The only body force we consider in this chapter is the one associated with the action of gravity. We experience this body force as weight, w. The surface forces are basically exerted on the contents of the control volume by material just outside the control volume in contact with material just inside the control volume. For example, a wall in contact with fluid can exert a reaction surface force on the fluid it bounds. Similarly, fluid just outside the control volume can push on fluid just inside the control volume at a common interface, usually an opening in the control surface through which fluid flow occurs. An immersed object can resist fluid motion with surface forces. The linear momentum terms in the momentum equation deserve careful explanation. We clarify their physical significance in the following sections. 5.2.2 Application of the Linear Momentum Equation The linear momentum equation for an inertial control volume is a vector equation 1Eq. 5.222. In engineering applications, components of this vector equation resolved along orthogonal coordinates, for example, x, y, and z 1rectangular coordinate system2 or r, u, and x 1cylindrical coordinate system2, will normally be used. A simple example involving steady, incompressible flow is considered first. E XAMPLE 5.10 Linear Momentum—Change in Flow Direction GIVEN As shown in Fig. E5.10a, a horizontal jet of water exits a nozzle with a uniform speed of V1  10 ft/s, strikes a vane, and is turned through an angle ␪. A similar situation is also shown in Video V5.6. FIND Determine the anchoring force needed to hold the vane stationary if gravity and viscous effects are negligible. SOLUTION We select a control volume that includes the vane and a portion of the water (see Figs. E5.10b, c) and apply the linear momentum equation to this fixed control volume. The only portions of the control surface across which fluid flows are section (1) (the entrance) and section (2) (the exit). Hence, the x and z components of Eq. 5.22 become 0 1flow is steady2 0 0t 冮 u r d V  cv 冮 u r V ⴢ n̂ dA  a Fx cs and 0 1flow is steady2 0 0t 冮 cv w r d V  冮 w r V ⴢ n̂ dA  a Fz cs or u2 rA2V2  u1rA1V1  gFx (1) w2 rA2V2  w1rA1V1  g Fz (2) and where V  u î  w k̂, and Fx and Fz are the net x and z components of force acting on the contents of the control volume. Depending on the particular flow situation being considered and the coordinate system chosen, the x and z components of velocity, u and w, can be positive, negative, or zero. In this example the flow is in the positive direction at both the inlet and the outlet. The water enters and leaves the control volume as a free jet at atmospheric pressure. Hence, there is atmospheric pressure surrounding the entire control volume, and the net pressure force on the control volume surface is zero. If we neglect the weight of the water and vane, the only forces applied to the control volume contents are the horizontal and vertical components of the anchoring force, FAx and FAz, respectively. With negligible gravity and viscous effects, and since p1  p2, the speed of the fluid remains constant so that V1  V2  10 ft/s (see the Bernoulli equation, Eq. 3.7). Hence, at section (1), u1  V1, w1  0, and at section (2), u2  V1 cos ␪, w2  V1 sin ␪. By using this information, Eqs. 1 and 2 can be written as V1cos u r A2V1  V1 r A1V1  FAx (3) 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations and θ V1sin u r A2V1  0 r A1V1  FAz A1 = 0.06 ft2 215 Vane Nozzle V1 (4) Equations 3 and 4 can be simplified by using conservation of mass, which states that for this incompressible flow A1V1  A2V2, or A1  A2 since V1  V2. Thus, FAx  rA1V 21  rA1V 21 cos u  rA1V 21 11  cos u2 (5) and (a) FAz  rA1V 21 sin u Control volume (6) With the given data we obtain FAx  11.94 slugs /ft3 210.06 ft2 2110 ft /s2 2 11  cos u2  11.6411  cos u2 slugs ⴢ ft /s2  11.6411  cos u2 lb (Ans) Nozzle V1 and FAz  11.94 slugs / ft3 210.06 ft2 2110 ft /s2 2 sin u  11.64 sin u lb (b) V2 θ (2) z V1 (1) x FAx FAz (c) 15 10 FAz FAx or FAz, lb 5 0 0 30 60 90 120 150 180 –5 –10 (Ans) COMMENTS The values of FAx and FAz as a function of ␪ are shown in Fig. E5.10d. Note that if ␪  0 (i.e., the vane does not turn the water), the anchoring force is zero. The inviscid fluid merely slides along the vane without putting any force on it. If ␪  90°, then FAx  11.64 lb and FAz  11.64 lb. It is necessary to push on the vane (and, hence, for the vane to push on the water) to the left (FAx is negative) and up in order to change the direction of flow of the water from horizontal to vertical. This momentum change requires a force. If ␪  180°, the water jet is turned back on itself. This requires no vertical force (FAz  0), but the horizontal force (FAx  23.3 lb) is two times that required if ␪  90°. This horizontal fluid momentum change requires a horizontal force only. Note that the anchoring force (Eqs. 5, 6) can be written in # terms of the mass flowrate, m  rA1V1, as # FAx  mV1 11  cos u2 and # FAz  mV1 sin u –15 FAx –20 –25 In this example exerting a force on a fluid flow resulted in a change in its direction only (i.e., change in its linear momentum). θ, deg (d) ■ Figure E5.10 F l u i d s i n Where the plume goes Commercial airliners have wheel brakes very similar to those on highway vehicles. In fact, antilock brakes now found on most new cars were first developed for use on airplanes. However, when landing, the major braking force comes from the engine rather than the wheel brakes. Upon touchdown, a piece of engine cowling translates aft and blocker doors drop down, directing the engine airflow into a honeycomb structure called a cascade. The cascade reverses the direction of the highspeed engine exhausts by nearly 180° so that it flows forward. As t h e N e w s predicted by the momentum equation, the air passing through the engine produces a substantial braking force—the reverse thrust. Designers must know the flow pattern of the exhaust plumes to eliminate potential problems. For example, the plumes of hot exhaust must be kept away from parts of the aircraft where repeated heating and cooling could cause premature fatigue. Also the plumes must not reenter the engine inlet, blow debris from the runway in front of the engine, or envelop the vertical tail. (See Problem 5.78.) 216 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis E XAMPLE 5.11 Linear Momentum—Weight, Pressure, and Change in Speed GIVEN As shown in Fig. E5.11a, water flows through a noz- FIND Determine the anchoring force required to hold the nozzle attached to the end of a laboratory sink faucet with a flowrate zle in place. of 0.6 liters/s. The nozzle inlet and exit diameters are 16 mm and 5 mm, respectively, and the nozzle axis is vertical. The mass of the nozzle is 0.1 kg. The pressure at section (1) is 464 kPa. SOLUTION The anchoring force sought is the reaction force between the faucet and nozzle threads. To evaluate this force, we select a control volume that includes the entire nozzle and the water contained in the nozzle at an instant, as is indicated in Figs. E5.11a and E5.11b. All of the vertical forces acting on the contents of this control volume are identified in Fig. E5.11b. The action of atmospheric pressure cancels out in every direction and is not shown. Gage pressure forces do not cancel out in the vertical direction and are shown. Application of the vertical or z direction component of Eq. 5.22 to the contents of this control volume leads to 0 1flow is steady2 0 0t 冮 wr d  V  cv 冮 wrV ⴢ n̂ dA  FA  wn  p1A1 cs  ww  p2A2 (1) where w is the z direction component of fluid velocity, and the various parameters are identified in the figure. Note that the positive direction is considered “up” for the forces. We will use this same sign convention for the fluid velocity, w, in Eq. 1. In Eq. 1, the dot product, V ⴢ n̂, is “” for flow out of the control volume and “” for flow into the control volume. For this particular example V ⴢ n̂ dA  FA x Control volume Control volume ᐃn D1 = 16 mm w1 p1A1 Section (1) h = 30 mm w1 z ᐃw FA = anchoring force that holds Section (2) p2 A2 nozzle in place ᐃn = weight of nozzle ᐃw = weight of water contained in the nozzle D2 = 5 mm p1 = gage pressure at section (1) A1 = cross section area at section (1) p2 = gage pressure at section (2) A2 = cross section area at w2 section (2) w1 = z direction velocity at control volume entrance w2 ■ Figure E5.11a (2) with the “” used for flow out of the control volume and “” used for flow in. To evaluate the control surface integral in Eq. 1, we need to assume a distribution for fluid velocity, w, and fluid density, r. For simplicity, we assume that w is uniformly distributed or constant, with magnitudes of w1 and w2 over cross-sectional areas A1 and A2. Also, this flow is incompressible so the fluid density, r, is constant throughout. Proceeding further we obtain for Eq. 1 # # 1m1 21w1 2  m2 1w2 2  FA  wn  p1A1  ww  p2A2 (3) # where m  rAV is the mass flowrate. z g 0w 0 dA ■ Figure E5.11b w2 = z direction velocity at control volume exit 5.2 Note that w1 and w2 are used because both of these veloc# ities are “down.” Also, m1 is used because it is associated with # flow into the control volume. Similarly, m2 is used because it is associated with flow out of the control volume. Solving Eq. 3 for the anchoring force, FA, we obtain # # (4) FA  m1w1  m2w2  wn  p1A1  ww  p2A2 From the conservation of mass equation, Eq. 5.12, we obtain # # # (5) m1  m2  m which when combined with Eq. 4 gives # FA  m 1w1  w2 2  wn  p1A1  ww  p2A2 (6) It is instructive to note how the anchoring force is affected by the different actions involved. As expected, the nozzle weight, wn, the water weight, ww, and gage pressure force at section 112, p1A1, all increase the anchoring force, while the gage pressure force at section 122, p2A2, acts to decrease the anchoring force. The change in the vertical momentum # flowrate, m 1w1  w2 2, will, in this instance, decrease the anchoring force because this change is negative 1w2 7 w1 2. To complete this example, we use quantities given in the problem statement to quantify the terms on the right-hand side of Eq. 6. From Eq. 5.6, # m  rw1A1  rQ  1999 kgm3 2 10.6 liters21103 m3liter2  0.599 kgs (7) and w1   Q Q  A1 p1D12 42 10.6 liters2110 3 m3liter2 p116 mm2 24110002 mm2m2 2  2.98 ms (8)  Q Q  A2 p1D2242 10.6 liters2 110 3 m3liter2 p15 mm2 24110002 mm2m2 2  c 116 mm2 2  15 mm2 2  116 mm215 mm2  2.84  106 m3 d Thus, ww  1999 kgm3 212.84  106 m3 219.81 ms2 2  0.0278 N FA  10.599 kgs212.98 ms  30.6 ms2  0.981 N p116 mm2 2  1464 kPa211000 PakPa2 4110002 mm2m2 2  0.0278 N  0 or FA  16.5 N  0.981 N  93.3 N  0.0278 N  77.8 N (Ans) Since the anchoring force, FA, is positive, it acts upward in the z direction. The nozzle would be pushed off the pipe if it were not fastened securely. COMMENT The control volume selected above to solve problems such as these is not unique. The following is an alternate solution that involves two other control volumes—one containing only the nozzle and the other containing only the water in the nozzle. These control volumes are shown in Figs. E5.11c and E5.11d along with the vertical forces acting on the contents of each control volume. The new force involved, Rz, represents the interaction between the water and the conical inside surface of the nozzle. It includes the net pressure and viscous forces at this interface. Application of Eq. 5.22 to the contents of the control volume of Fig. E5.11c leads to patm (9) The weight of the nozzle, wn, can be obtained from the nozzle mass, mn, with wn  mng  10.1 kg2 19.81 ms2 2  0.981 N (10) ᐃn The weight of the water in the control volume, ww, can be obtained from the water density, r, and the volume of water,  Vw, in the truncated cone of height h. That is, wg ww  rV where  Vw  121 ph1D21  D22  D1D2 2 130 mm2 1  p 12 11000 mm m2 (11) The gage pressure at section 122, p2, is zero since, as discussed in Section 3.6.1, when a subsonic flow discharges to the atmosphere as in the present situation, the discharge pressure is essentially atmospheric. The anchoring force, FA, can now be determined from Eqs. 6 through 11 with FA  30.6 ms 110002 mm2m2 2 FA  wn  Rz  patm 1A1  A2 2 Also from Eq. 5.6, w2  217 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations Rz ■ Figure E5.11c (12) 218 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis (p1 + patm)A1 equal to the pressure times the projection of the surface area on a plane perpendicular to the axis of the nozzle. The projection of this area on a plane perpendicular to the z direction is A1  A2. The effect of the atmospheric pressure on the internal area 1between the nozzle and the water2 is already included in Rz which represents the net force on this area. Similarly, for the control volume of Fig. E5.11d we obtain # Rz  m 1w1  w2 2  ww  1 p1  patm 2A1 (13)  1p2  patm 2A2 w1 ᐃw Rz (2) (p2 + patm)A2 w2 ■ Figure E5.11d The term patm 1A1  A2 2 is the resultant force from the atmospheric pressure acting on the exterior surface of the nozzle 1i.e., that portion of the surface of the nozzle that is not in contact with the water2. Recall that the pressure force on a curved surface 1such as the exterior surface of the nozzle2 is where p1 and p2 are gage pressures. From Eq. 13 it is clear that the value of Rz depends on the value of the atmospheric pressure, patm, since A1 A2. That is, we must use absolute pressure, not gage pressure, to obtain the correct value of Rz. From Eq. 13 we can easily identify which forces acting on the flowing fluid change its velocity magnitude and thus linear momentum. By combining Eqs. 12 and 13 we obtain the same result for FA as before 1Eq. 62: # FA  m 1w1  w2 2  wn  p1A1  Ww  p2A2 Note that although the force between the fluid and the nozzle wall, Rz, is a function of patm, the anchoring force, FA, is not. That is, we were correct in using gage pressure when solving for FA by means of the original control volume shown in Fig. E5.11b. Several important generalities about the application of the linear momentum equation 1Eq. 5.222 are apparent in the example just considered. V5.7 Air jet momentum flux VrV  ^ n>0 V V ^ ^ n n Control volume y x ^ ^ n n V V VrV  ^ n<0 1. When the flow is uniformly distributed over a section of the control surface where flow into or out of the control volume occurs, the integral operations are simplified. Thus, onedimensional flows are easier to work with than flows involving nonuniform velocity distributions. 2. Linear momentum is directional; it can have components in as many as three orthogonal coordinate directions. Furthermore, along any one coordinate, the linear momentum of a fluid particle can be in the positive or negative direction and thus be considered as a positive or a negative quantity. In Example 5.11, only the linear momentum in the z direction was considered 1all of it was in the negative z direction and was hence treated as being negative2. 3. The flow of positive or negative linear momentum into a control volume involves a negative V ⴢ n̂ product. Momentum flow out of the control volume involves a positive V ⴢ n̂ product. The correct algebraic sign 1 or 2 to assign to momentum flow 1VrV ⴢ n̂ dA2 will depend on the sense of the velocity 1  in positive coordinate direction,  in negative coordinate direction2 and the V ⴢ n̂ product 1  for flow out of the control volume,  for flow into the control volume2. This is shown in the figure in the margin. In Example 5.11, the momentum flow into the control volume past section 112 was a positive 1  2 quantity while the momentum flow out of the control volume at section 122 was a negative 12 quantity. 4. The time rate of change of the linear momentum of the contents of a nondeforming control 2 is zero for steady flow. The momentum problems considered in volume 1i.e., 00t 兰cv Vr dV this text all involve steady flow. 5. If the control surface is selected so that it is perpendicular to the flow where fluid enters or leaves the control volume, the surface force exerted at these locations by fluid outside the control volume on fluid inside will be due to pressure, as shown by the figure in the margin on the next page. Furthermore, when subsonic flow exits from a control volume into the atmosphere, atmospheric pressure prevails at the exit cross section. In Example 5.11, the flow was subsonic and so we set the exit flow pressure at the atmospheric level. The continuity equation 1Eq. 5.122 allowed us to evaluate the fluid flow velocities w1 and w2 at sections 112 and 122. 5.2 pout Aout Vout (out) Control volume (in) Vin pin Ain A control volume diagram is similar to a free-body diagram. F l u Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 219 6. The forces due to atmospheric pressure acting on the control surface may need consideration as indicated by Eq. 13 in Example 5.11 for the reaction force between the nozzle and the fluid. When calculating the anchoring force, FA, the forces due to atmospheric pressure on the control surface cancel each other 1for example, after combining Eqs. 12 and 13 the atmospheric pressure forces are no longer involved2 and gage pressures may be used. 7. The external forces have an algebraic sign—positive if the force is in the assigned positive coordinate direction and negative otherwise. 8. Only external forces acting on the contents of the control volume are considered in the linear momentum equation 1Eq. 5.222. If the fluid alone is included in a control volume, reaction forces between the fluid and the surface or surfaces in contact with the fluid [wetted surface1s2] will need to be in Eq. 5.22. If the fluid and the wetted surface or surfaces are within the control volume, the reaction forces between fluid and wetted surface1s2 do not appear in the linear momentum equation 1Eq. 5.222 because they are internal, not external forces. The anchoring force that holds the wetted surface1s2 in place is an external force, however, and must therefore be in Eq. 5.22. 9. The force required to anchor an object will generally exist in response to surface pressure and兾or shear forces acting on the control surface, to a change in linear momentum flow through the control volume containing the object, and to the weight of the object and the fluid contained in the control volume. In Example 5.11 the nozzle anchoring force was required mainly because of pressure forces and partly because of a change in linear momentum flow associated with accelerating the fluid in the nozzle. The weight of the water and the nozzle contained in the control volume influenced the size of the anchoring force only slightly. i d s i n Motorized surfboard When Bob Montgomery, a former professional surfer, started to design his motorized surfboard (called a jet board), he discovered that there were many engineering challenges to the design. The idea is to provide surfing to anyone, no matter where they live, near or far from the ocean. The rider stands on the device like a surfboard and steers it like a surfboard by shifting his or her body weight. A new, sleek, compact 45-hp engine and pump was designed to fit t h e N e w s within the surfboard hull. Thrust is produced in response to the change in linear momentum of the water stream as it enters through the inlet passage and exits through an appropriately designed nozzle. Some of the fluid dynamic problems associated with designing the craft included one-way valves so that water does not get into the engine (at both the intake or exhaust ports), buoyancy, hydrodynamic lift, drag, thrust, and hull stability. (See Problem 5.79.) To further demonstrate the use of the linear momentum equation 1Eq. 5.222, we consider another one-dimensional flow example before moving on to other facets of this important equation. E XAMPLE 5.12 Linear Momentum—Pressure and Change in Flow Direction GIVEN Water flows through a horizontal, 180° pipe bend as shown in Fig. E5.12a and illustrated in Fig. E5.12b. The flow cross-sectional area is constant at a value of 0.1 ft2 through the bend. The magnitude of the flow velocity everywhere in the bend is axial and 50 ftⲐs. The absolute pressures at the entrance and exit of the bend are 30 psia and 24 psia, respectively. FIND Calculate the horizontal 1x and y2 components of the anchoring force required to hold the bend in place. (a) ■ Figure E5.12 220 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis SOLUTION Since we want to evaluate components of the anchoring force to hold the pipe bend in place, an appropriate control volume 1see dashed line in Fig. E5.12b2 contains the bend and the water in the bend at an instant. The horizontal forces acting on the contents of this control volume are identified in Fig. E5.12c. Note that the weight of the water is vertical 1in the negative z direction2 and does not contribute to the x and y components of the anchoring force. All of the horizontal normal and tangential forces exerted on the fluid and the pipe bend are resolved and combined into the two resultant components, FAx and FAy. These two forces act on the control volume contents, and thus for the x direction, Eq. 5.22 leads to 冮 urV ⴢ n̂ dA  F At sections 112 and 122, the flow is in the y direction and therefore u  0 at both cross sections. There is no x direction momentum flow into or out of the control volume and we conclude from Eq. 1 that FAx  0 (Ans) For the y direction, we get from Eq. 5.22 Ay  p1A1  p2A2 (2) cs For one-dimensional flow, the surface integral in Eq. 2 is easy to evaluate and Eq. 2 becomes # # 1v1 2 1m1 2  1v2 21m2 2  FAy  p1A1  p2A2 (3) Note that the y component of velocity is positive at section 112 but is negative at section 122. Also, the mass flowrate term is negative at section 112 1flow in2 and is positive at section 122 1flow out2. From the continuity equation 1Eq. 5.122, we get # # # (4) m  m1  m2 and thus Eq. 3 can be written as # m 1v1  v2 2  FAy  p1A1  p2A2 V = 50 ft/s FAy  19.70 slugs s2150 fts  50 fts2  130 psia  14.7 psia21144 in.2ft2 210.1 ft2 2  124 psia  14.7 psia21144 in.2ft2 210.1 ft2 2 FAy  970 lb  220 lb  134 lb  1324 lb (Ans) The negative sign for FAy is interpreted as meaning that the y component of the anchoring force is actually in the negative y direction, not the positive y direction as originally indicated in Fig. E5.12c. COMMENT As with Example 5.11, the anchoring force for the pipe bend is independent of the atmospheric pressure. However, the force that the bend exerts on the fluid inside of it, Ry, depends on the atmospheric pressure. We can see this by using a control volume which surrounds only the fluid within the bend as shown in Fig. E5.12d. Application of the momentum equation to this situation gives # Ry  m 1v1  v2 2  p1A1  p2A2 where p1 and p2 must be in terms of absolute pressure because the force between the fluid and the pipe wall, Ry, is the complete pressure effect 1i.e., absolute pressure2. We see that forces exerted on the flowing fluid result in a change in its velocity direction 1a change in linear momentum2. Thus, we obtain Ry  19.70 slugss2150 fts  50 fts2  130 psia21144 in.2ft2 210.1 ft2 2  124 psia21144 in.2ft2 210.1 ft2 2  1748 lb (5) Solving Eq. 5 for FAy we obtain # FAy  m 1v1  v2 2  p1A1  p2A2 (6) A = 0.1 ft2 Section (1) For determining the anchoring force, FAy, the effects of atmospheric pressure cancel, and thus gage pressures for p1 and p2 are appropriate. By substituting numerical values of variables into Eq. 6 and using the fact that 1 lb  1 slug ⴢ fts2, we get (1) Ax cs 冮 vrV ⴢ n̂ dA  F # From the given data we can calculate the mass flowrate, m, from Eq. 5.6 as # m  r1A1v1  11.94 slugsft3 210.1 ft2 2150 fts2  9.70 slugss We can use the control volume that includes just the pipe bend 1without the fluid inside it2 as shown in Fig. E5.12e to Pipe bend and water z w z u v FAz p1A1 y v1 x y V= x Control volume 50 ft/s FAy p2 A2 v2 180° pipe bend Section (2) (b) ■ Figure E5.12 cont. (7) ᐃ Control volume FAx (c) 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations determine FAy, the anchoring force component in the y direction necessary to hold the bend stationary. The y component of the momentum equation applied to this control volume gives FAy  Ry  patm 1A1  A2 2 Water in 180° bend z w v u counted for by Ry. By combining Eqs. 7 and 8 and using the fact that patm  14.7 lbin.2 1144 in.2ft2 2  2117 lbft2, we obtain FAy  1748 lb  2117 lbft2 10.1 ft2  0.1 ft2 2  1324 lb (8) where Ry is given by Eq. 7. The patm 1A1  A2 2 term represents the net pressure force on the outside portion of the control volume. Recall that the pressure force on the inside of the bend is ac- in agreement with the original answer obtained using the control volume of Fig. E5.12c. Rz Pipe bend only p1A1 y 221 v1 x FAy Ry Ry patm(A1 + A2) p2A2 v2 ᐃ Control volume Rx Control volume (d) ( e) ■ Figure E5.12 cont. In Examples 5.10 and 5.12 the force exerted on a flowing fluid resulted in a change in flow direction only. This force was associated with constraining the flow, with a vane in Example 5.10, and with a pipe bend in Example 5.12. In Example 5.11 the force exerted on a flowing fluid resulted in a change in velocity magnitude only. This force was associated with a converging nozzle. Anchoring forces are required to hold a vane or conduit stationary. They are most easily estimated with a control volume that contains the vane or conduit and the flowing fluid involved. Alternately, two separate control volumes can be used, one containing the vane or conduit only and one containing the flowing fluid only. V5.8 Fire hose E XAMPLE 5.13 Linear Momentum—Pressure, Change in Speed, and Friction GIVEN Air flows steadily between two cross sections in a long, straight portion of 4-in. inside diameter pipe as indicated in Fig. E5.13, where the uniformly distributed temperature and pressure at each cross section are given. If the average air velocity at section 122 is 1000 ft兾s, we found in Example 5.2 that the average air velocity at section 112 must be 219 ft兾s. Assume uniform velocity distributions at sections 112 and 122. p1A1 V1 Control volume Section (1) Rx Pipe V2 = 1000 ft/s p2 A2 Flow y x Section (2) p2 = 18.4 psia T2 = 453 °R ■ Figure E5.13 The control volume of Example 5.2 is appropriate for this problem. The forces acting on the air between sections 112 and 122 are identified in Fig. E5.13. The weight of air is considered negligibly small. The reaction force between the wetted wall of the pipe and the flowing air, Rx, is the frictional force sought. Application of the axial component of Eq. 5.22 to this control volume yields cs the airflow between sections 112 and 122. p1 = 100 psia T1 = 540 °R SOLUTION 冮 FIND Determine the frictional force exerted by the pipe wall on urV ⴢ n̂ dA  Rx  p1A1  p2A2 (1) The positive x direction is set as being to the right. Furthermore, for uniform velocity distributions 1one-dimensional flow2, Eq. 1 becomes # # 1u1 21m1 2  1u2 21m2 2  Rx  p1A1  p2A2 (2) 222 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis From conservation of mass 1Eq. 5.122 we get # # # m  m1  m2 118.4 psia21144 in.2ft2 2 353.31ft # lb2  1lbm # °R2 4 1453 °R2 p14 in.2 2 11000 fts2  9.57 lbms  41144 in.2ft2 2 # Hence, m  (3) so that Eq. 2 becomes # m 1u2  u1 2  Rx  A2 1 p1  p2 2 (4) Thus, from Eqs. 5 and 8 Solving Eq. 4 for Rx, we get # Rx  A2 1 p1  p2 2  m 1u2  u1 2 Rx  (5) The equation of state gives p2 r2  RT2 Rx  793 lb pD22 4 COMMENT For this compressible flow, the pressure differ- p2 # ma ba b u2 RT2 4 English Engineering 1EE2 units are often used for this kind of flow. The gas constant, R, for air in EE units is 17161ft # lb2  1slug # °R2 32.1741lbmslug2 5.14 (Ans) (7) pD22 E XAMPLE 1100 psia  18.4 psia2 4  19.57 lbm211000 fts  219 fts2  or Thus, from Eqs. 3, 6, and 7 R p14 in.2 2 32.1741lbm ⴢ ft2  1lb ⴢ s2 2  1025 lb  232 lb (6) and the equation for area A2 is A2  (8) ence drives the motion, which results in a frictional force, Rx , and an acceleration of the fluid (i.e., a velocity magnitude increase). For a similar incompressible pipe flow, a pressure difference results in fluid motion with a frictional force only (i.e., no change in velocity magnitude).  53.31ft # lb2  1lbm # °R2 Linear Momentum—Weight, Pressure, Friction, and Nonuniform Velocity Profile GIVEN Consider the flow of Example 5.4 to be vertically upward as shown by Fig. E5.14. FIND Develop an expression for the fluid pressure drop that occurs between sections 112 and 122. SOLUTION A control volume 1see dashed lines in Fig. E5.142 that includes only fluid from section 112 to section 122 is selected. The forces acting on the fluid in this control volume are identified in Fig. E5.14. The application of the axial component of Eq. 5.22 to the fluid in this control volume results in 冮 wrV ⴢ n̂ dA  p1A1  Rz  w  p2A2 (1) cs where Rz is the resultant force of the wetted pipe wall on the fluid. Further, for uniform flow at section 112, and because the flow at section 122 is out of the control volume, Eq. 1 becomes # 1w1 2 1m1 2  冮 A2 1w2 2r1w2 dA2 2  p1A1  Rz  w  p2A2 (2) The positive direction is considered up. The surface integral over the cross-sectional area at section 122, A2, is evaluated by using the parabolic velocity profile obtained in Example 5.4, w2  2w1 31  1rR2 2 4, as 冮 w2rw2 dA2  r A2 冮 R w22 2pr dr 0  2pr 冮 0 R r 2 2 12w1 2 2 c 1  a b d r dr R or 冮 w2rw2 dA2  4prw21 A2 R2 3 (3) Combining Eqs. 2 and 3 we obtain w21rpR2  43w21rpR2  p1A1  Rz  w  p2A2 (4) Solving Eq. 4 for the pressure drop from section 112 to section 122, p1  p2, we obtain p1  p2  Rz rw21 w   3 A1 A1 (Ans) 5.2 223 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations COMMENT We see that the drop in pressure from section 112 to section 122 occurs because of the following: 1. The change in momentum flow between the two sections associated with going from a uniform velocity profile to a parabolic velocity profile, rw213 2. Pipe wall friction, Rz 3. The weight of the water column, w; a hydrostatic pressure effect If the velocity profiles had been identically parabolic at sections 112 and 122, the momentum flowrate at each section would have been identical, a condition we call “fully developed” flow. Then the pressure drop, p1  p2, would be due only to pipe wall friction and the weight of the water column. If in addition to being fully developed, the flow involved negligible weight effects 1for example, horizontal flow of liquids or the flow of gases in any direction2, the drop in pressure between any two sections, p1  p2, would be a result of pipe wall friction only. Note that although the average velocity is the same at section 112 as it is at section 122 1V1  V2  w1 2, the momentum flux across section 112 is not the same as it is across section 122. If it were, the left-hand side of Eq. 142 would be zero. For this nonuniform flow the momentum flux can be written in terms of the average velocity, V, and the momentum coefficient, b, as b where b1  1 1 b  1 for uniform flow2 and b2  43 1b 7 1 for any nonuniform flow2. Flow p2A2 –r w2 = 2w1 1 – R [ ()] 2 Section (2) r R ᐃ Fluid only Rz w1 Section (1) p1A1 z w u 冮 wrV ⴢ n̂ dA Control volume v y x ■ Figure E5.14 rV 2A Hence the momentum flux can be written as 冮 wrV ⴢ n̂ dA  b1w21rpR2  b2w21rpR2 cs E XAMPLE 5.15 Linear Momentum—Thrust GIVEN A static thrust stand as sketched in Fig. E5.15 is to be designed for testing a jet engine. The following conditions are known for a typical test: Intake air velocity  200 ms; exhaust gas velocity  500 ms; intake cross-sectional area  1 m2; intake static pressure  22.5 kPa  78.5 kPa 1abs2; intake static temperature  268 K; exhaust static pressure  0 kPa  101 kPa 1abs2. Control volume patm(A1 – A2) Section (2) FIND Estimate the nominal anchoring force for which to design. Section (1) z u ■ Figure E5.15 The cylindrical control volume outlined with a dashed line in Fig. E5.15 is selected. The external forces acting in the axial direction are also shown. Application of the momentum equation 1Eq. 5.222 to the contents of this control volume yields cs Fth x SOLUTION 冮 p2A2 u2 p1A1 u1 urV ⴢ n̂ dA  p1A1  Fth  p2A2  patm 1A1  A2 2 (1) where the pressures are absolute. Thus, for one-dimensional flow, Eq. 1 becomes # # 1u1 21m1 2  1u2 21m2 2  1 p1  patm 2A1  1 p2  patm 2A2  Fth (2) 224 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis The positive direction is to the right. The conservation of mass equation 1Eq. 5.122 leads to # # # (3) m  m1  r1A1u1  m2  r2A2u2 Thus, Combining Eqs. 2 and 3 and using gage pressure we obtain # m 1u2  u1 2  p1A1  p2A2  Fth Finally, combining Eqs. 5 and 6 and substituting given data with p2  0, we obtain (4) Solving Eq. 4 for the thrust force, Fth, we obtain # (5) Fth  p1A1  p2A2  m 1u2  u1 2 # We need to determine the mass flowrate, m, to calculate Fth, and # to calculate m  r1A1u1, we need r1. From the ideal gas equation of state 178.5 kPa211000 PakPa2 3 11Nm2 2 Pa 4 p1 r1   RT1 1286.9 Jkg # K2 1268 K211 N # mJ2  1.02 kg m3 F l u i d s i 5.16 (6) Fth  11 m2 2122.5 kPa211000 PakPa2 311Nm2 2 Pa 4  1204 kgs21500 ms  200 ms2 31 N 1kg # ms2 2 4 or Fth  22,500 N  61,200 N  83,700 N (Ans) COMMENT The force of the thrust stand on the engine is directed toward the right. Conversely, the engine pushes to the left on the thrust stand 1or aircraft2. n Bow thrusters In the past, large ships required the use of tugboats for precise maneuvering, especially when docking. Nowadays, most large ships (and many moderate to small ones as well) are equipped with bow thrusters to help steer in close quarters. The units consist of a mechanism (usually a ducted propeller mounted at right angles to the fore/aft axis of the ship) that takes water from one side of the bow and ejects it as a water jet on the other side. The momentum flux of this jet produces a starboard or port force on the ship for maneuvering. Sometimes a E XAMPLE # m  r1A1u1  11.02 kgm3 211 m2 21200 ms2  204 kgs t h e N e w s second unit is installed in the stern. Initially used in the bows of ferries, these versatile control devices have became popular in offshore oil servicing boats, fishing vessels, and larger oceangoing craft. They permit unassisted maneuvering alongside of oil rigs, vessels, loading platforms, fishing nets, and docks. They also provide precise control at slow speeds through locks, narrow channels, and bridges, where the rudder becomes very ineffective. (See Problem 5.80.) Linear Momentum—Nonuniform Pressure GIVEN A sluice gate across a channel (Fig. E5.16a) of width b is shown in the closed and open positions in Figs. E5.16b and E5.16c. FIND Is the anchoring force required to hold the gate in place larger when the gate is closed or when it is open? (a) ■ Figure E5.16a (Photograph courtesy of Pend Oreille Public Utility District.) SOLUTION We will answer this question by comparing expressions for the horizontal reaction force, Rx, between the gate and the water when the gate is closed and when the gate is open. The control volume used in each case is indicated with dashed lines in Figs. E5.16b and E5.16c. When the gate is closed, the horizontal forces acting on the contents of the control volume are identified in Fig. E5.16d. Application of Eq. 5.22 to the contents of this control volume yields 0 1no flow2 冮 cs urV ⴢ n̂ dA  12 gH2b  Rx (1) 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations Note that the hydrostatic pressure force, gH2b2, is used. From Eq. 1, the force exerted on the water by the gate 1which is equal to the force necessary to hold the gate stationary2 is Rx  12 gH2b Closed sluice gate Control volume urV ⴢ n̂ dA  12 gH2b  Rx  12 gh2b  Ff H (b) (4) Thus, Eqs. 3 and 4 combine to form ru21Hb  ru22hb  12 gH2b  Rx  12 gh2b  Ff (5) If H h, the upstream velocity, u1, is much less than u2 so that the contribution of the incoming momentum flow to the control surface integral can be neglected and from Eq. 5 we obtain Rx  12 gH2b  12 gh2b  Ff  ru22hb The linear momentum equation can be written for a moving control volume. (6) h (c) Water only Water only Control volume Control volume urV ⴢ n̂ dA  1u1 2r1u1 2Hb  1u2 2r1u2 2hb x H u cs cs Control volume z (3) Note that because the water at sections (1) and (2) is flowing along straight, horizontal streamlines, the pressure distribution at those locations is hydrostatic, varying from zero at the free surface to g times the water depth at the bottom of the channel (see Chapter 3, Section 3.4). Thus, the pressure forces at sections (1) and (2) (given by the pressure at the centroid times the area) are gH2b 2 and gh2b2, respectively. Also the frictional force between the channel bottom and the water is specified as Ff. The surface integral in Eq. 3 is nonzero only where there is flow across the control surface. With the assumption of uniform velocity distributions, 冮 Open sluice gate (2) which is equal in magnitude to the hydrostatic force exerted on the gate by the water. When the gate is open, the horizontal forces acting on the contents of the control volume are shown in Fig. E5.16e. Application of Eq. 5.22 to the contents of this control volume leads to 冮 225 u1 Rx (12_ γ H ) Hb ( Rx 1 _ γ H Hb 2 ) Section (2) u2 Section (1) (d) Ff (12_ γ h ) hb (e) ■ Figure E5.16 # By using the continuity equation, m  rbHu1  rbhu2, Eq. 6 can be rewritten as # Rx  12 gH2b  12 gh2b  Ff  m 1u2  u1 2 (7) Hence, since u2 7 u1 , by comparing the expressions for Rx (Eqs. 2 and 7), we conclude that the reaction force between the gate and the water (and therefore the anchoring force required to hold the gate in place) is smaller when the gate is open than when it is closed. (Ans) All of the linear momentum examples considered thus far have involved stationary and nondeforming control volumes which are thus inertial because there is no acceleration. A nondeforming control volume translating in a straight line at constant speed is also inertial because there is no acceleration. For a system and an inertial, moving, nondeforming control volume that are both coincident at an instant of time, the Reynolds transport theorem 1Eq. 4.232 is D Dt 冮 Vr dV  sys 0 0t 冮 cv Vr dV  冮 VrW ⴢ n̂ dA (5.23) cs where W is the relative velocity. When we combine Eq. 5.23 with Eqs. 5.19 and 5.20, we get 0 0t V5.9 Jellyfish 冮 Vr dV  cv 冮 VrW ⴢ n̂ dA  a Fcontents of the cs (5.24) control volume When the equation relating absolute, relative, and control volume velocities 1Eq. 5.142 is used with Eq. 5.24, the result is 0 0t 冮 cv 1W  Vcv 2r dV  冮 cs 1W  Vcv 2rW ⴢ n̂ dA  a Fcontents of the control volume (5.25) 226 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis For a constant control volume velocity, Vcv, and steady flow in the control volume reference frame, 0 0t V5.10 Running on water 1W ⫹ Vcv 2r dV ⫺⫽0 冮 cv (5.26) Also, for this inertial, nondeforming control volume 冮 cs 1W ⫹ Vcv 2rW ⴢ n̂ dA ⫽ 冮 WrW ⴢ n̂ dA ⫹ V 冮 rW ⴢ n̂ dA cv cs (5.27) cs For steady flow 1on an instantaneous or time-average basis2, Eq. 5.15 gives 冮 rW ⴢ n̂ dA ⫽ 0 (5.28) cs Combining Eqs. 5.25, 5.26, 5.27, and 5.28, we conclude that the linear momentum equation for an inertial, moving, nondeforming control volume that involves steady 1instantaneous or timeaverage2 flow is The linear momentum equation for a moving control volume involves the relative velocity. E XAMPLE 冮 WrW ⴢ n̂ dA ⫽ a F (5.29) contents of the control volume cs Example 5.17 illustrates the use of Eq. 5.29. 5.17 Linear Momentum—Moving Control Volume GIVEN A vane on wheels moves with constant velocity V0 when a stream of water having a nozzle exit velocity of V1 is turned 45° by the vane as indicated in Fig. E5.17a. Note that this is the same moving vane considered in Section 4.4.6 earlier. The speed of the water jet leaving the nozzle is 100 ft兾s, 45° A1 = 0.006 ft2 and the vane is moving to the right with a constant speed of 20 ft兾s. FIND Determine the magnitude and direction of the force, R, exerted by the stream of water on the vane surface. Moving vane Nozzle V1 V0 ■ Figure E5.17 (a) VCV = V0 Moving control volume Rz Moving vane 1 ft Nozzle V1 V0 x Rx (1) ᐃw (c) (b) (2) z 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 227 SOLUTION To determine the magnitude and direction of the force, R, exerted by the water on the vane, we apply Eq. 5.29 to the contents of the moving control volume shown in Fig. E5.17b. The forces acting on the contents of this control volume are indicated in Fig. E5.17c. Note that since the ambient pressure is atmospheric, all pressure forces cancel each other out. Equation 5.29 is applied to the contents of the moving control volume in component directions. For the x direction 1positive to the right2, we get 冮 W r W ⴢ n̂ dA ⫽ ⫺R x Combining results we get Rx ⫽ rW 21 A1 11 ⫺ cos 45°2 or Rx ⫽ 11.94 slugsⲐft3 2180 ftⲐs2 2 10.006 ft2 211 ⫺ cos 45°2 ⫽ 21.8 lb Also, Rz ⫽ rW 21 1sin 45°2A1 ⫹ ww where x ww ⫽ rgA1/ cs or # # 1⫹W1 2 1⫺m1 2 ⫹ 1⫹W2 cos 45°21⫹m2 2 ⫽ ⫺Rx (1) Thus, where # m1 ⫽ r1W1A1 and # m2 ⫽ r2W2A2. For the vertical or z direction 1positive up2 we get 冮 Combining the components we get R ⫽ 2R2x ⫹ R2z ⫽ 3 121.8 lb2 2 ⫹ 153 lb2 2 4 1Ⲑ2 ⫽ 57.3 lb Wz rW ⴢ n̂ dA ⫽ Rz ⫺ ww The angle of R from the x direction, a, is cs or # 1⫹W2 sin 45°2 1⫹m2 2 ⫽ Rz ⫺ ww Rz ⫽ 11.94 slugsⲐft3 2180 ftⲐs2 2 1sin 45°210.006 ft2 2 ⫹ 162.4 lbⲐft3 210.006 ft2 211 ft2 ⫽ 52.6 lb ⫹ 0.37 lb ⫽ 53 lb a ⫽ tan⫺1 (2) Rz Rx ⫽ tan⫺1 153 lbⲐ21.8 lb2 ⫽ 67.6° We assume for simplicity that the water flow is frictionless and that the change in water elevation across the vane is negligible. Thus, from the Bernoulli equation 1Eq. 3.72 we conclude that the speed of the water relative to the moving control volume, W, is constant or The force of the water on the vane is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction from R; thus it points to the right and down at an angle of 67.6° from the x direction and is equal in magnitude (Ans) to 57.3 lb. W1 ⫽ W2 COMMENT The force of the fluid on the vane in the x The relative speed of the stream of water entering the control volume, W1, is W1 ⫽ V1 ⫺ V0 ⫽ 100 ftⲐs ⫺ 20 ftⲐs ⫽ 80 ftⲐs ⫽ W2 The water density is constant so that direction, Rx ⫽ 21.8 lb, is associated with x-direction motion of the vane at a constant speed of 20 ftⲐs. Since the vane is not accelerating, this x-direction force is opposed mainly by a wheel friction force of the same magnitude. From basic physics we recall that the power this situation involves is the product of force and speed. Thus, p ⫽ RxV0 121.8 lb2120 ft Ⲑs2 ⫽ 5501ft ⴢ lb2 Ⲑ 1hp ⴢ s2 ⫽ 0.79 hp r1 ⫽ r2 ⫽ 1.94 slugsⲐft3 Application of the conservation of mass principle to the contents of the moving control volume 1Eq. 5.162 leads to # # m1 ⫽ r1W1A1 ⫽ r2W2A2 ⫽ m2 All of this power is consumed by friction. It is clear from the preceding examples that a flowing fluid can be forced to V5.11 Thrust from water nozzle 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. change direction speed up or slow down have a velocity profile change do only some or all of the above do none of the above A net force on the fluid is required for achieving any or all of the first four above. The forces on a flowing fluid balance out with no net force for the fifth. Typical forces considered in this book include (a) pressure (b) friction (c) weight 228 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis and involve some type of constraint such as a vane, channel, or conduit to guide the flowing fluid. A flowing fluid can cause a vane, channel, or conduit to move. When this happens, power is produced. The selection of a control volume is an important matter. For determining anchoring forces, consider including fluid and its constraint in the control volume. For determining force between a fluid and its constraint, consider including only the fluid in the control volume. 5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation1 In many engineering problems, the moment of a force with respect to an axis, namely, torque, is important. Newton’s second law of motion has already led to a useful relationship between forces and linear momentum flow. The linear momentum equation can also be used to solve problems involving torques. However, by forming the moment of the linear momentum and the moment of the resultant force associated with each particle of fluid with respect to a point in an inertial coordinate system, we will develop a moment-of-momentum equation that relates torques and angular momentum flow for the contents of a control volume. When torques are important, the moment-of-momentum equation is often more convenient to use than the linear momentum equation. Application of Newton’s second law of motion to a particle of fluid yields The angular momentum equation is derived from Newton’s second law. D 1Vr dV  2  dFparticle Dt (5.30) where V is the particle velocity measured in an inertial reference system, r is the particle density, dV  is the infinitesimally small particle volume, and dFparticle is the resultant external force acting on the particle. If we form the moment of each side of Eq. 5.30 with respect to the origin of an inertial coordinate system, we obtain rⴛ D 1Vr dV  2  r ⴛ dFparticle Dt (5.31) where r is the position vector from the origin of the inertial coordinate system to the fluid particle 1Fig. 5.32. We note that D1Vr d  V2 D Dr 3 1r ⴛ V2r d  V4  ⴛ Vr dV rⴛ Dt Dt Dt (5.32) and Dr V Dt (5.33) VⴛV0 (5.34) Thus, since by combining Eqs. 5.31, 5.32, 5.33, and 5.34, we obtain the expression D 3 1r ⴛ V2r d  V 4  r ⴛ dFparticle Dt (5.35) z V r d Fparticle y x 1 ■ Figure 5.3 Inertial coordinate system. This section may be omitted, along with Sections 5.2.4 and 5.3.5, without loss of continuity in the text material. However, these sections are recommended for those interested in Chapter 12. 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 229 Equation 5.35 is valid for every particle of a system. For a system 1collection of fluid particles2, we need to use the sum of both sides of Eq. 5.35 to obtain 冮 sys where D 3 1r ⴛ V2r dV  4  a 1r ⴛ F2 sys Dt (5.36) a r ⴛ dFparticle  a 1r ⴛ F2 sys (5.37) 1r ⴛ V2r dV  (5.38) We note that D Dt 冮 sys 冮 sys D 3 1r ⴛ V2r dV 4 Dt since the sequential order of differentiation and integration can be reversed without consequence. 1Recall that the material derivative, D1 2Dt, denotes the time derivative following a given system; see Section 4.2.1.2 Thus, from Eqs. 5.36 and 5.38 we get D Dt z T=r×F T r sys 1r ⴛ V2r d  V  a 1r ⴛ F2 sys (5.39) or Time rate of change of the  sum of external torques moment-of-momentum of the system acting on the system y x 冮 F The sketch in the margin illustrates what torque, T  r  F, is. For a control volume that is instantaneously coincident with the system, the torques acting on the system and on the control volume contents will be identical: (5.40) a 1r ⴛ F2 sys  a 1r ⴛ F2 cv Further, for the system and the contents of the coincident control volume that is fixed and nondeforming, the Reynolds transport theorem 1Eq. 4.192 leads to D Dt 冮 sys 1r ⴛ V2r dV  0 0t 冮 cv 1r ⴛ V2r dV  冮 cs 1r ⴛ V2rV ⴢ n̂ dA (5.41) or Time rate of change time rate of change net rate of flow of the moment-ofof the moment-ofof the moment-ofmomentum of the  momentum of the  momentum through system contents of the the control surface control volume For a control volume that is fixed 1and therefore inertial2 and nondeforming, we combine Eqs. 5.39, 5.40, and 5.41 to obtain the moment-of-momentum equation: For a system, the rate of change of moment-ofmomentum equals the net torque. 0 0t 冮 cv 1r ⴛ V2r dV  冮 cs 1r ⴛ V2rV ⴢ n̂ dA  a 1r ⴛ F2 contents of the (5.42) control volume An important category of fluid mechanical problems that is readily solved with the help of the moment-of-momentum equation 1Eq. 5.422 involves machines that rotate or tend to rotate around a single axis. Examples of these machines include rotary lawn sprinklers, ceiling fans, lawn mower blades, wind turbines, turbochargers, and gas turbine engines. As a class, these devices are often called turbomachines. 5.2.4 Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation2 We simplify our use of Eq. 5.42 in several ways: 1. We assume that flows considered are one-dimensional 1uniform distributions of average velocity at any section2. 2 This section may be omitted, along with Sections 5.2.3 and 5.3.5, without loss of continuity in the text material. However, these sections are recommended for those interested in Chapter 12. 230 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis z ^ e z ^ e r θ Control volume r ^ e θ Control volume W2 U2 ω Flow out Tshaft Flow out ω Section (2) Section (1) V2 r2 Vθ 2 Section (2) V5.12 Rotating lawn sprinkler Tshaft Section (1) U2 = r2ω W2 (b) Flow in (a) Control volume ■ Figure 5.4 (a) Rotary water sprinkler. (b) Section (1) Flow Rotary water sprinkler, plane view. (c) Rotary water sprinkler, side view. (c) 2. We confine ourselves to steady or steady-in-the-mean cyclical flows. Thus, 0 0t 冮 cv 1r ⴛ V2r dV 0 at any instant of time for steady flows or on a time-average basis for cyclical unsteady flows. 3. We work only with the component of Eq. 5.42 resolved along the axis of rotation. Change in moment of fluid velocity around an axis can result in torque and rotation around that same axis. Consider the rotating sprinkler sketched in Fig. 5.4. Because the direction and magnitude of the flow through the sprinkler from the inlet [section 112] to the outlet [section 122] of the arm changes, the water exerts a torque on the sprinkler head causing it to tend to rotate or to actually rotate in the direction shown, much like a turbine rotor. In applying the moment-of-momentum equation 1Eq. 5.422 to this flow situation, we elect to use the fixed and nondeforming control volume shown in Fig. 5.4. This disk-shaped control volume contains within its boundaries the spinning or stationary sprinkler head and the portion of the water flowing through the sprinkler contained in the control volume at an instant. The control surface cuts through the sprinkler head’s solid material so that the shaft torque that resists motion can be clearly identified. When the sprinkler is rotating, the flow field in the stationary control volume is cyclical and unsteady but steady in the mean. We proceed to use the axial component of the moment-of-momentum equation 1Eq. 5.422 to analyze this flow. The integrand of the moment-of-momentum flow term in Eq. 5.42, 冮 cs z V (1) r r×V 1r ⴛ V2rV ⴢ n̂ dA can be nonzero only where fluid is crossing the control surface. Everywhere else on the control surface this term will be zero because V ⴢ n̂  0. Water enters the control volume axially through the hollow stem of the sprinkler at section 112. At this portion of the control surface, the component of r ⴛ V resolved along the axis of rotation is zero because as illustrated by the figure in the margin, r ⴛ V lies in the plane of section (1), perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Thus, there is no axial moment-of-momentum flow in at section 112. Water leaves the control volume through each of the two nozzle openings at section 122. For the exiting flow, the magnitude of the axial component of r ⴛ V is r2Vu2, where r2 is the radius from the axis of rotation to the nozzle centerline and Vu2 is the value of the tangential component of the velocity of the flow exiting each nozzle as observed from a frame of reference attached to the fixed and nondeforming control volume. The fluid velocity measured relative to a fixed control surface is an absolute velocity, V. The velocity 5.2 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 231 of the nozzle exit flow as viewed from the nozzle is called the relative velocity, W. The absolute and relative velocities, V and W, are related by the vector relationship VWU (5.43) where U is the velocity of the moving nozzle as measured relative to the fixed control surface. The cross product and the dot product involved in the moment-of-momentum flow term of Eq. 5.42, 冮 cs The algebraic sign of r ⴛ V is obtained by the right-hand rule. 1r ⴛ V2rV ⴢ n̂ dA can each result in a positive or negative value. For flow into the control volume, V ⴢ n̂ is negative. For flow out, V ⴢ n̂ is positive. The relative directions of r, V and r ⴛ V as well as correct algebraic sign to assign the axis component of r ⴛ V can be ascertained by using the right-hand rule. The positive direction along the axis of rotation is the direction the thumb of the right-hand points when it is extended, and the remaining fingers are curled around the rotation axis in the positive direction of rotation as illustrated in Fig. 5.5. The direction of the axial component of r ⴛ V is similarly ascertained by noting the direction of the cross product of the radius from the axis of rotation, rêr, and the tangential component of absolute velocity, Vuêu. Thus, for the sprinkler of Fig. 5.4, we can state that c 冮 1r ⴛ V2rV ⴢ n̂ dA d cs axial #  1r2Vu2 21m 2 (5.44) # where, because of mass conservation, m is the total mass flowrate through both nozzles. As was demonstrated in Example 5.7, the mass flowrate is the same whether the sprinkler rotates or not. The correct algebraic sign of the axial component of r ⴛ V can be easily remembered in the following way: if Vu and U are in the same direction, use ; if Vu and U are in opposite directions, use . The torque term 3 g 1r ⴛ F2 contents of the control volume 4 of the moment-of-momentum equation 1Eq. 5.422 is analyzed next. Confining ourselves to torques acting with respect to the axis of rotation only, we conclude that the shaft torque is important. The net torque with respect to the axis of rotation associated with normal forces exerted on the contents of the control volume will be very small, if not zero. The net axial torque due to fluid tangential forces is also negligibly small for the control volume of Fig. 5.4. Thus, for the sprinkler of Fig. 5.4 a B1r ⴛ F2 contents of the R control volume  Tshaft (5.45) axial Note that we have entered Tshaft as a positive quantity in Eq. 5.45. This is equivalent to assuming that Tshaft is in the same direction as rotation. For the sprinkler of Fig. 5.4, the axial component of the moment-of-momentum equation 1Eq. 5.422 is, from Eqs. 5.44 and 5.45 # (5.46) r2Vu2m  Tshaft We interpret Tshaft being a negative quantity from Eq. 5.46 to mean that the shaft torque actually opposes the rotation of the sprinkler arms as shown in Fig. 5.4. The shaft torque, Tshaft, opposes rotation in all turbine devices. r×V + r V ■ Figure 5.5 Right-hand rule (a) (b) convention. 232 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis # We could evaluate the shaft power, Wshaft, associated with shaft torque, Tshaft, by forming the product of Tshaft and the rotational speed of the shaft, v. [We use the notation that # W  work, 1 # 2  d1 2 dt, and thus W  power. 4 Thus, from Eq. 5.46 we get # # Wshaft  Tshaft v  r2Vu2m v (5.47) Power is equal to angular velocity times torque. Since r2v is the speed of each sprinkler nozzle, U, we can also state Eq. 5.47 in the form # # Wshaft  U2Vu2m (5.48) # # # Shaft work per unit mass, wshaft, is equal to Wshaftm. Dividing Eq. 5.48 by the mass flowrate, m, we obtain wshaft  U2Vu2 V5.13 Impulse-type lawn sprinkler (5.49) Negative shaft work as in Eqs. 5.47, 5.48, and 5.49 is work out of the control volume, that is, work done by the fluid on the rotor and thus its shaft. The principles associated with this sprinkler example can be extended to handle most simplified turbomachine flows. The fundamental technique is not difficult. However, the geometry of some turbomachine flows is quite complicated. Example 5.18 further illustrates how the axial component of the moment-of-momentum equation 1Eq. 5.462 can be used. E XAMPLE 5.18 Moment-of-Momentum—Torque GIVEN Water enters a rotating lawn sprinkler through its base at the steady rate of 1000 ml/s as sketched in Fig. E5.18a. The exit area of each of the two nozzles is 30 mm2 and the flow leaving each nozzle is in the tangential direction. The radius from the axis of rotation to the centerline of each nozzle is 200 mm. r2 = 200 mm Nozzle exit area = 30 mm2 Control volume Flow out Flow out Tshaft FIND (a) Determine the resisting torque required to hold the sprinkler head stationary. (b) Determine the resisting torque associated with the sprinkler rotating with a constant speed of 500 rev/min. Q = 1000 ml/s (c) Determine the speed of the sprinkler if no resisting torque is applied. (a) SOLUTION To solve parts (a), (b), and (c) of this example we can use the same fixed and nondeforming, disk-shaped control volume illustrated in Fig. 5.4. As indicated in Fig. E5.18a, the only axial torque considered is the one resisting motion, Tshaft. (a) When the sprinkler head is held stationary as specified in part (a) of this example problem, the velocities of the fluid entering and leaving the control volume are shown in Fig. E5.18b. Equation 5.46 applies to the contents of this control volume. Thus, # (1) Tshaft  r2Vu2m Since the control volume is fixed and nondeforming and the flow exiting from each nozzle is tangential, Vu2  V2 V1 (b) V2 = Vθ 2 ω W2 U2 V2 V1 (c) ■ Figure E5.18 (3) U2 = r2ω W2 (2) Equations 1 and 2 give # Tshaft  r2V2m V2 = Vθ 2 V2 5.2 In Example 5.7, we ascertained that V2  16.7 m/s. Thus, from Eq. 3 with 11000 mls21103 m3liter21999 kgm3 2 # m  Qr  11000 mlliter2  0.999 kgs (c) When no resisting torque is applied to the rotating sprinkler head, a maximum constant speed of rotation will occur as demonstrated below. Application of Eqs. 3, 4, and 5 to the contents of the control volume results in # Tshaft  r2 1W2  r2v2m (6) For no resisting torque, Eq. 6 yields we obtain Tshaft   233 Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 1200 mm2 116.7 m /s210.999 kg/s2 31 1N /kg2 / 1m/ s2 2 4 11000 mm /m2 # 0  r2 1W2  r2v2m Thus, or v Tshaft  3.34 N ⴢ m W2 r2 (7) (Ans) (b) When the sprinkler is rotating at a constant speed of 500 rpm, the flow field in the control volume is unsteady but cyclical. Thus, the flow field is steady in the mean. The velocities of the flow entering and leaving the control volume are as indicated in Fig. E5.18c. The absolute velocity of the fluid leaving each nozzle, V2, is from Eq. 5.43, V2  W2  U2 In Example 5.4, we learned that the relative velocity of the fluid leaving each nozzle, W2, is the same regardless of the speed of rotation of the sprinkler head, ␻, as long as the mass # flowrate of the fluid, m, remains constant. Thus, by using Eq. 7 we obtain v (4) 116.7 m /s211000 mm /m2 W2   83.5 rad / s r2 1200 mm2 or where v W2  16.7 m /s as determined in Example 5.7. The speed of the nozzle, U2, is obtained from U2  r2v 183.5 rads2160 smin2 2 p radrev  797 rpm (Ans) For this condition (Tshaft  0), the water both enters and leaves the control volume with zero angular momentum. (5) COMMENT Note that forcing a change in direction of a Application of the axial component of the moment-of-momentum equation (Eq. 5.46) leads again to Eq. 3. From Eqs. 4 and 5, V2  16.7 m/ s  r2v 1200 mm21500 rev /min212p rad / rev2  16.7 m /s  11000 mm/m2160 s/ min2 or flowing fluid, in this case with a sprinkler, resulted in rotary motion and a useful “sprinkling” of water over an area. By repeating the calculations for various values of the angular velocity, v, the results shown in Fig. E5.18d are obtained. It is seen that the magnitude of the resisting torque associated with rotation is less than the torque required to hold the rotor stationary. Even in the absence of a resisting torque, the rotor maximum speed is finite. V2  16.7 m/ s  10.5 m /s  6.2 m /s ω, rpm 0 # Thus, using Eq. 3, with m  0.999 kgs (as calculated previously), we get 1200 mm2 16.2 ms2 0.999 kgs 31 1Nkg2  1ms2 2 4 11000 mmm2 or Tshaft  1.24 N ⴢ m (Ans) COMMENT Note that the resisting torque associated with sprinkler head rotation is much less than the resisting torque that is required to hold the sprinkler stationary. 200 –0.5 –1 TShaft , N . m Tshaft   0 –1.5 –2 –2.5 –3 –3.5 –4 ■ Figure E5.18d 400 600 800 234 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis F l u i d s i n Tailless helicopters Most helicopters use a gas turbine engine to power both the main horizontal lift-producing rotor and the vertical tail rotor. Without the tail rotor to cancel the torque from the main rotor, the helicopter body would spin out of control in the direction opposite to that of the main rotor. However, by use of the jet-rotor concept, the tail rotor can be eliminated. In this approach, gas from a source in the helicopter (either hot exhaust gases from the engine or air from a compressor) is directed through the blades themselves and exhausted from nozzles at the blade tips, perpendicular to the blade axis. The t h e N e w s concept uses the angular momentum principle and is essentially an expanded version of a rotating lawn sprinkler or a rotating water supply arm in a dishwasher. With no drive shaft supplying torque to turn the main rotor, the tail rotor is not needed. Although the jet-rotor helicopter concept was first demonstrated in 1941 and a few were built in the 1950s and 1960s, their performance was not good enough to warrant further development. Perhaps with the use of new materials and clever design, the tailless jet-rotor helicopter may someday replace the current design. (See Problem 5.89.) When the moment-of-momentum equation 1Eq. 5.422 is applied to a more general, onedimensional flow through a rotating machine, we obtain # # Tshaft  1min 21 rinVuin 2  mout 1 routVuout 2 rV > 0  r V W Vr V U (5.50) by applying the same kind of analysis used with the sprinkler of Fig. 5.4. The “” is used with # mass flowrate into the control volume, min, and the “” is used with mass flowrate out of the # control volume, mout, to account for the sign of the dot product, V ⴢ n̂, involved. Whether “” or “” is used with the rVu product depends on the direction of 1r ⴛ V2 axial. A simple way to determine the sign of the rVu product is to compare the direction of Vu and the blade speed, U. As shown in the margin, if Vu and U are in the same direction, then the rVu product is positive. If Vu and U are in opposite directions, the rVu product is negative. The sign of the shaft torque is “” if Tshaft is in the same direction along the axis of rotation as v, and “” otherwise. # The shaft power, Wshaft, is related to shaft torque, Tshaft, by # W shaft  Tshaft v (5.51) Thus, using Eqs. 5.50 and 5.51 with a “” sign for Tshaft in Eq. 5.50, we obtain # # # Wshaft  1min 21 rinvVuin 2  mout 1 routvVuout 2 r rV < 0 V Vr V W U When shaft torque and shaft rotation are in the same (opposite) direction, power is into (out of) the fluid. (5.52) or since rv  U # # # Wshaft  1min 21 UinVuin 2  mout 1 UoutVuout 2 (5.53) The “” is used for the UVu product when U and Vu are in the same direction; the “” is used # when U and Vu are in opposite directions. Also, since Tshaft was used to # obtain Eq. 5.53, when Wshaft is positive, power is into the fluid 1for example, a pump2, and when Wshaft, is negative, power is out of the fluid 1for example, a turbine2. # The shaft work per unit mass, wshaft, can be obtained from the shaft power, Wshaft, by divid# ing Eq. 5.53 by the mass flowrate, m. By conservation of mass, # # # m  min  mout From Eq. 5.53, we obtain wshaft  1 UinVuin 2  1 UoutVuout 2 (5.54) The application of Eqs. 5.50, 5.53, and 5.54 is demonstrated in Example 5.19. More examples of the application of Eqs. 5.50, 5.53, and 5.54 are included in Chapter 12. 5.2 E XAMPLE Newton’s Second Law—The Linear Momentum and Moment-of-Momentum Equations 235 Moment-of-Momentum—Power 5.19 GIVEN An air fan has a bladed rotor of 12-in. outside diameter and 10-in. inside diameter as illustrated in Fig. E5.19a. The height of each rotor blade is constant at 1 in. from blade inlet to outlet. The flowrate is steady, on a timeaverage basis, at 230 ft3/min and the absolute velocity of the air at blade inlet, V1, is radial. The blade discharge angle is 30 from the tangential direction. The rotor rotates at a constant speed of 1725 rpm. FIND Estimate the power required to run the fan. SOLUTION We select a fixed and nondeforming control volume that includes the rotating blades and the fluid within the blade row at an instant, as shown with a dashed line in Fig. E5.19a. The flow within this control volume is cyclical, but steady in the mean. The only torque we consider is the driving shaft torque, Tshaft. This torque is provided by a motor. We assume that the entering and leaving flows are each represented by uniformly distributed velocities and flow properties. Since shaft power is sought, Eq. 5.53 is appropriate. Application of Eq. 5.53 to the contents of the control volume in Fig. E5.19 gives # # Wshaft  m1 1 0 1V1 is radial2 # U1Vu1 2  m2 1 U2Vu2 2 (1) 12.38  103 slugft3 21230 ft3 min2 # m  rQ  160 smin2  0.00912 slugs 10.0766 lbmft3 21230 ft3 min2 #  0.294 lbms m  160 s min2 The rotor exit blade speed, U2, is From Eq. 1 we see that to calculate fan power, we need mass # flowrate, m, rotor exit blade velocity, U2, and fluid tangential ve# locity at blade exit, V␪2. The mass flowrate, m, is easily obtained from Eq. 5.6 as U2  r2v  16 in.211725 rpm212p radrev2  90.3 fts 112 in.ft2160 smin2 Section (1) 30° Fixed control volume Tshaft W2 V1 ω Section (2) D2 = 2r2 = 12 in. D1 = 2r1 = 10 in. h= 1 in. ω Tshaft (a) ■ Figure E5.19 Fixed control volume (2) Often, problems involving fans are solved using English Engineering units. Since 1 slug  32.174 lbm, we could have used as the density of air rair  12.38  103 slugft3 2132.174 lbmslug2  0.0766 lbmft3. Then U2 Wr2 W2 Vr2 V2 Vθ 2 30° (b) (3) 236 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis To determine the fluid tangential speed at the fan rotor exit, V␪2, we use Eq. 5.43 to get V2  W2  U2 Substituting known values into Eq. 10, we obtain W2  (4) By using this value of W2 in Eq. 5 we get Vu2  U2  W2 cos 30°  90.3 fts  129.3 fts210.8662  64.9 fts (5) To solve Eq. 5 for V␪2 we need a value of W2, in addition to the value of U2 already determined (Eq. 3). To get W2, we recognize that W2 sin 30°  Vr 2 Equation 1 can now be used to obtain # # Wshaft  m U2Vu2  (6) with BG units. With EE units where Vr2 is the radial component of either W2 or V2. Also, using Eq. 5.6, we obtain # (7) m  rA2Vr 2 # Wshaft  or since 10.00912 slug/s2190.3 ft / s2164.9 ft / s2 31 1slug ⴢ ft/s2 2 lb 4 3550 1ft ⴢ lb2 / 1hp ⴢ s2 4 10.294 lbm/s2190.3 ft /s2164.9 ft / s2 332.174 1lbm ⴢ ft2  1lbs2 2 4 3 550 1ft ⴢ lb2 / 1hp ⴢ s2 4 In either case A2  2 pr2h (8) where h is the blade height, Eqs. 7 and 8 combine to form # m  r2pr2hVr 2 Taking Eqs. 6 and 9 together we get # rQ m  W2  r2pr2h sin 30° r2pr2h sin 30° Q  2pr2h sin 30° 5.3 160 smin22p16 in.211 in.2 sin 30°  29.3 fts The vector addition of Eq. 4 is shown in the form of a “velocity triangle” in Fig. E5.19b. From Fig. E5.19b, we can see that Vu2  U2  W2 cos 30° 1230 ft3min2112 in.ft2112 in.ft2 # Wshaft  0.097 hp (Ans) (9) COMMENT Note that the “” was used with the U2V␪2 (10) product because U2 and V␪2 are in the same direction. This result, 0.097 hp, is the power that needs to be delivered through the fan shaft for the given conditions. Ideally, all of this power would go into the flowing air. However, because of fluid friction, only some of this power will produce useful effects (e.g., movement and pressure rise) on the air. How much useful effect depends on the efficiency of the energy transfer between the fan blades and the fluid. First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation 5.3.1 Derivation of the Energy Equation The first law of thermodynamics for a system is, in words, Time rate of net time rate of net time rate of increase of the energy addition by energy addition by   total stored energy heat transfer into work transfer into of the system the system the system In symbolic form, this statement is # # # # D er dV   a a Qin  a Qout b  a a Win  a Wout b Dt 冮 sys sys The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of conservation of energy. sys or D Dt 冮 sys # # er dV   1Qnet  Wnet 2 sys in (5.55) in Some of these variables deserve a brief explanation before proceeding further. The total stored energy per unit mass for each particle in the system, e, is related to the internal energy per unit mass, ǔ, the kinetic energy per unit mass, V 2 2, and the potential energy per unit mass, gz, by the equation e  ǔ  V2  gz 2 (5.56) 5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation 237 # The net rate of heat transfer into # the system is denoted with Qnet in, and the net rate of work transfer into the system is labeled Wnet in. Heat transfer and work transfer are considered “” going into the system and “” coming out. Equation 5.55 is valid for inertial and noninertial reference systems. We proceed to develop the control volume statement of the first law of thermodynamics. For the control volume that is coincident with the system at an instant of time # # # # 1Qnet  Wnet 2 sys  1Qnet  Wnet 2 coincident (5.57) in in in in control volume Furthermore, for the system and the contents of the coincident control volume that is fixed and nondeforming, the Reynolds transport theorem 1Eq. 4.19 with the parameter b set equal to e2 allows us to conclude that 冮 D Dt er dV  sys 0 0t 冮 er dV  cv 冮 erV ⴢ n̂ dA (5.58) cs or in words, Time rate time rate of increase of increase of the total stored of the total   energy of the contents stored energy of the control volume of the system net rate of flow of the total stored energy out of the control volume through the control surface Combining Eqs. 5.55, 5.57, and 5.58, we get the control volume formula for the first law of thermodynamics: The energy equation involves stored energy and heat and work transfer. • Q3 • Q2 • Q4 • Q1 • Control Volume • • • • Qnet = Q1 + Q2 – Q3 – Q4 in 0 0t 冮 er dV  cv 冮 erV ⴢ n̂ dA  1Q # cs net in #  Wnet 2 cv (5.59) in The total stored energy per unit mass, e, in Eq. 5.59 is for fluid particles entering, leaving, and within the control volume. Further explanation of the heat transfer and work transfer involved in this equation follows. # The heat transfer rate, Q, represents all of the ways in which energy is exchanged between the control volume contents and surroundings because of a temperature difference. Thus, radiation, conduction, and/or convection are possible. As shown by the figure in the margin, heat transfer into the control volume is considered positive; heat transfer out # is negative. In many engineering applications, the process is adiabatic; the heat # # # transfer rate, Q, is zero. The net heat transfer rate, Qnet in, can also be zero when g # Qin  g Qout  0. The work transfer rate, W, also called power, is positive when work is done on the contents of the control volume by the surroundings. Otherwise, it is considered negative. Work can be transferred across the control surface in several ways. In the following paragraphs, we consider some important forms of work transfer. In many instances, work is transferred across the control surface by a moving shaft. In rotary devices such as turbines, fans, and propellers, a rotating shaft transfers work across that portion of the control surface that slices through the shaft. Even in reciprocating machines like positive displacement internal combustion engines and compressors that utilize piston-in-cylinder arrangements, a rotating crankshaft is used. Since work is the dot product of force and related displacement, rate of work 1or power2 is the dot product of force and related displacement per unit time. For a rotat# ing shaft, the power transfer, Wshaft, is related to the shaft torque that causes the rotation, Tshaft, and the angular velocity of the shaft, v, by the relationship # Wshaft  Tshaftv When the control surface cuts through the shaft material, the shaft torque is exerted by shaft material at the control surface. To allow for consideration of problems involving more than one shaft we use the notation # # # Wshaft  a Wshaft  a Wshaft (5.60) net in in out 238 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis Section (1) R Control volume Section (2) umax r u1 = umax 1 - _r R [ ()] 2 Pipe umax u2 = umax 1 - _r R ■ Figure 5.6 Simple, fully developed [ ()] 2 pipe flow. Work transfer can also occur at the control surface when a force associated with fluid normal stress acts over a distance. Consider the simple pipe flow illustrated in Fig. 5.6 and the control volume shown. For this situation, the fluid normal stress, s, is simply equal to the negative of fluid pressure, p, in all directions; that is, s  p V F (5.61) This relationship can be used with varying amounts of approximation for many engineering problems 1see Chapter 62. # The power transfer, W, associated with a force F acting on an object moving with velocity V is given by the dot product F ⴢ V. This is illustrated by the figure in the margin. Hence, the power # transfer associated with normal stresses acting on a single fluid particle, dWnormal stress, can be evaluated as the dot product of the normal stress force, dFnormal stress, and the fluid particle velocity, V, as # dWnormal stress  dFnormal stress ⴢ V θ • W = F•V = FV cosθ If the normal stress force is expressed as the product of local normal stress, s  p, and fluid particle surface area, n̂ dA, the result is # dWnormal stress  sn̂ dA ⴢ V  pn̂ dA ⴢ V  pV ⴢ n̂ dA For all fluid particles on the# control surface of Fig. 5.6 at the instant considered, power transfer due to fluid normal stress, Wnormal stress, is # Wnormal  stress τ V ^ n • δ Wtangential stress = 0 cs (5.62) cs # Note that the value of Wnormal stress #for particles on the wetted inside surface of the pipe is zero because V ⴢ n̂ is zero there. Thus, Wnormal stress can be nonzero only where fluid enters and leaves the control volume. Although only a simple pipe flow was considered, Eq. 5.62 is quite general, and the control volume used in this example can serve as a general model for other cases. Work transfer can also occur at the control surface because of tangential stress forces. Rotating shaft work is transferred by tangential stresses in the shaft material. For a fluid particle, shear # stress force power, dWtangential stress, can be evaluated as the dot product of tangential stress force, dFtangential stress, and the fluid particle velocity, V. That is, # dWtangential stress  dFtangential stress ⴢ V Work is transferred by rotating shafts, normal stresses, and tangential stresses. p 冮 sV ⴢ n̂ dA  冮 pV ⴢ n̂ dA For the control volume of Fig. 5.6, the fluid particle velocity is zero everywhere on the wetted inside surface of the pipe. Thus, no tangential stress work is transferred across that portion of the control surface. Furthermore, if we select the control surface so that it is perpendicular to the fluid particle velocity, then the tangential stress force is also perpendicular to the velocity. Therefore, the tangential stress work transfer is zero on that part of the control surface. This is illustrated in the figure in the margin. Thus, in general, we select control volumes like the one of Fig. 5.6 and consider fluid tangential stress power transfer to be negligibly small. Using the information we have developed about power, we can express the first law of thermodynamics for the contents of a control volume by combining Eqs. 5.59, 5.60, and 5.62 to obtain 0 0t 冮 cv er dV  冮 erV ⴢ n̂ dA  Q # cs net in #  Wshaft  net in 冮 pV ⴢ n̂ dA cs (5.63) 5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation 239 When the equation for total stored energy 1Eq. 5.562 is considered with Eq. 5.63, we obtain the energy equation: 0 0t 冮 er dV  cv 冮 cs aǔ  # # p V2   gzb rV ⴢ n̂ dA  Qnet  Wshaft r 2 in net in (5.64) 5.3.2 Application of the Energy Equation In Eq. 5.64, the term 0  0t 兰cv er dV  represents the time rate of change of the total stored energy, e, of the contents of the control volume. This term is zero when the flow is steady. This term is also zero in the mean when the flow is steady in the mean 1cyclical2. In Eq. 5.64, the integrand of 冮 cs aǔ  p V2   gzb rV ⴢ n̂ dA r 2 can be nonzero only where fluid crosses the control surface 1V ⴢ n̂ 02. Otherwise, V ⴢ n̂ is zero and the integrand is zero for that portion of the control surface. If the properties within parentheses, ǔ, pr, V 2 2, and gz, are all assumed to be uniformly distributed over the flow cross-sectional areas involved, the integration becomes simple and gives 冮 aǔ  r  p cs p V2 V2 #  gzb rV ⴢ n̂ dA  a aǔ    gzb m r 2 2 flow out p V2 #  a aǔ    gzb m r 2 flow (5.65) in Furthermore, if there is only one stream entering and leaving the control volume, then 冮 cs aǔ  p V2   gzb rV ⴢ n̂ dA  r 2 aǔ  p p V2 V2 # #   gzb mout  aǔ    gzb min r r 2 2 out in (5.66) Uniform flow as described above will occur in an infinitesimally small diameter streamtube as illustrated in Fig. 5.7. This kind of streamtube flow is representative of the steady flow of a particle of fluid along a pathline. We can also idealize actual conditions by disregarding nonuniformities in a finite cross section of flow. We call this one-dimensional flow, and although such uniform flow rarely occurs in reality, the simplicity achieved with the one-dimensional approximation often justifies its use. More details about the effects of nonuniform distributions of velocities and other fluid flow variables are considered in Section 5.3.4 and in Chapters 8, 9, and 10. If shaft work is involved, the flow must be unsteady, at least locally 1see Refs. 1 and 22. The flow in any fluid machine that involves shaft work is unsteady within that machine. For example, the velocity and pressure at a fixed location near the rotating blades of a fan are unsteady. However, upstream and downstream of the machine, the flow may be steady. Most often shaft work is associated with flow that is unsteady in a recurring or cyclical way. On a time-average basis for flow that is one-dimensional, cyclical, and involves only one stream of fluid entering and leaving m• out dA Streamtube • min V ■ Figure 5.7 Streamtube flow. 240 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis m• out • min m• in = m• out = m• the control volume, such as the hair dryer shown in the figure in the margin, Eq. 5.64 can be simplified with the help of Eqs. 5.9 and 5.66 to form # # p p V 2out  V 2in # m c ǔout  ǔin  a b  a b   g1zout  zin 2 d  Q net  W shaft r out r in 2 in net in (5.67) We call Eq. 5.67 the one-dimensional energy equation for steady-in-the-mean flow. Note that Eq. 5.67 is valid for incompressible and compressible flows. Often, the fluid property called enthalpy, ȟ, where ȟ  ǔ  The energy equation is sometimes written in terms of enthalpy. p r (5.68) is used in Eq. 5.67. With enthalpy, the one-dimensional energy equation for steady-in-the-mean flow 1Eq. 5.672 is # # V 2out  V 2in # m c ȟout  ȟin   g1zout  zin 2 d  Qnet  Wshaft 2 in net in (5.69) Equation 5.69 is often used for solving compressible flow problems. Examples 5.20 and 5.21 illustrate how Eqs. 5.67 and 5.69 can be used. E XAMPLE Energy—Pump Power 5.20 • GIVEN A pump delivers water at a steady rate of 300 gal/min as shown in Fig. E5.20. Just upstream of the pump [section (1)] where the pipe diameter is 3.5 in., the pressure is 18 psi. Just downstream of the pump [section (2)] where the pipe diameter is 1 in., the pressure is 60 psi. The change in water elevation across the pump is zero. The rise in internal energy of water, ǔ2  ǔ1, associated with a temperature rise across the pump is 93 ft ⴢ lb/lbm. The pumping process is considered to be adiabatic. Wshaft = ? Control volume D2 = 1 in. Q= 300 gal/min. D1 = Pump 3.5 in. Section (2) Section (1) p1 = 18 psi FIND Determine the power (hp) required by the pump. p2 = 60 psi ^ ^ u2 – u1 = 93 ft • lb/lbm ■ Figure E5.20 SOLUTION We include in our control volume the water contained in the pump between its entrance and exit sections. Application of Eq. 5.67 to the contents of this control volume on a time-average basis yields 0 (no elevation change) p p V 22  V 21 #  g1z2  z1 2 d m c ǔ2  ǔ1  a b  a b  r 2 r 1 2 0 (adiabatic flow) # # (1)  Qnet  Wshaft in out of the pump, V2. All other quantities in Eq. 1 are given in the problem statement. From Eq. 5.6, we get 11.94 slugsft3 21300 galmin2132.174 lbmslug2 # m  rQ  17.48 galft3 2160 smin2  41.8 lbms (2) Also from Eq. 5.6, V net in so We # can solve directly for the power required by the pump, Wshaft net in, from Eq. 1, after we first determine the mass flowrate, # m, the speed of flow into the pump, V1, and the speed of the flow V1  Q Q  A pD24 1300 galmin24 112 in.ft2 2 Q  A1 17.48 galft3 2160 smin2p 13.5 in.2 2  10.0 ft s (3) 5.3 and V2  First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation  123 ft s 11.94 slugsft3 2132.174 lbmslug2 1123 fts2 2  110.0 fts2 2  d 23 32.174 1lbmⴢft2  1lbⴢs2 2 4 (4)  Substituting the values of Eqs. 2, 3, and 4 and values from the problem statement into Eq. 1 we obtain  141.8 lbms2 c 193 ftⴢlblbm2 # Wshaft net in  1  32.2 hp 35501ftⴢlbs2 hp4 (Ans) COMMENT Of the total 32.2 hp, internal energy change accounts for 7.09 hp, the pressure rise accounts for 7.37 hp, and the kinetic energy increase accounts for 17.8 hp. 160 psi2 1144 in.2ft2 2 11.94 slugsft3 2132.174 lbmslug2 E XAMPLE 118 psi21144 in.2ft2 2  1300 galmin24 112 in.ft2 2 Q  A2 17.48 galft3 2160 smin2p 11 in.2 2 241 5.21 Energy—Turbine Power per Unit Mass of Flow GIVEN A steam turbine generator unit used to produce electricity is shown in Fig. E5.21a. Assume the steam enters a turbine with a velocity of 30 m/s and enthalpy, ȟ1, of 3348 kJ/kg (see Fig. E5.21b). The steam leaves the turbine as a mixture of vapor and liquid having a velocity of 60 m/s and an enthalpy of 2550 kJ/kg. The flow through the turbine is adiabatic, and changes in elevation are negligible. FIND Determine the work output involved per unit mass of steam through-flow. SOLUTION We use a control volume that includes the steam in the turbine from the entrance to the exit as shown in Fig. E5.21b. Applying Eq. 5.69 to the steam in this control volume we get ■ Figure E5.21a Control volume 0 (elevation change is negligible) 0 (adiabatic flow) # m c ȟ2  ȟ1  V 22  2 V 21 Steam turbine # #  g1z2  z1 2 d  Qnet  Wshaft in (1) net in The work output per unit mass of steam through-flow, wshaft net in, can # be obtained by dividing Eq. 1 by the mass flowrate, m, to obtain # Wshaft V 22  V 21 net in (2) wshaft  #  ȟ2  ȟ1  m 2 net in Since wshaft net out  wshaft net in, we obtain wshaft  ȟ1  ȟ2  net out V 21  V 22 2 or wshaft  3348 kJkg  2550 kJ kg net out  3 130 ms2 2  160 ms2 2 4 31 J 1Nⴢm2 4 2 31 1kgⴢm2  1Nⴢs2 2 4 11000 JkJ2 Section (1) V ^1 = 30 m/s h1 = 3348 kJ/kg wshaft = ? Section (2) V ^2 = 60 m/s h2 = 2550 kJ/kg ■ Figure E5.21b Thus, wshaft  3348 kJkg  2550 kJkg  1.35 kJkg net out  797 kJ /kg (Ans) COMMENT Note that in this particular example, the change in kinetic energy is small in comparison to the difference in enthalpy involved. This is often true in applications involving steam # turbines. To determine the power output, Wshaft , we must know # the mass flowrate, m. 242 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis If the flow is steady throughout, one-dimensional, and only one fluid stream is involved, then the shaft work is zero and the energy equation is # p p V 2out  V 2in # m c ǔout  ǔin  a b  a b   g1zout  zin 2 d  Qnet r out r in 2 in (5.70) We call Eq. 5.70 the one-dimensional, steady-flow energy equation. This equation is valid for incompressible and compressible flows. For compressible flows, enthalpy is most often used in the one-dimensional, steady-flow energy equation and, thus, we have V5.14 Pelton wheel turbine # V 2out  V 2in # m c ȟout  ȟin   g1zout  zin 2 d  Qnet 2 in (5.71) An example of the application of Eq. 5.70 follows. E XAMPLE 5.22 Energy—Temperature Change GIVEN The 420-ft waterfall shown in Fig. E5.22a involves steady flow from one large body of water to another. FIND Determine the temperature change associated with this flow. SOLUTION To solve this problem, we consider a control volume consisting of a small cross-sectional streamtube from the nearly motionless surface of the upper body of water to the nearly motionless surface of the lower body of water as is sketched in Fig. E5.22b. We need to determine T2  T1. This temperature change is related to the change of internal energy of the water, ǔ2  ǔ1, by the relationship T2  T1  ǔ2  ǔ1 č (1) Section (1) ■ Figure E5.22a Control volume [Photograph of Akaka Falls (Hawaii) courtesy of Scott and Margaret Jones.] where č  1 Btu1lbm # °R2 is the specific heat of water. The application of Eq. 5.70 to the contents of this control volume leads to 420 ft Section (2) p p V 22  V 21 # m c ǔ2  ǔ1  a b  a b   g1z2  z1 2 d r 2 r 1 2 # (2)  Qnet in # We assume that the flow is adiabatic. Thus Qnet in  0. Also, ■ Figure E5.22b p p a b a b r 1 r 2 (3) 5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation because the flow is incompressible and atmospheric pressure prevails at sections 112 and 122. Furthermore, V1  V2  0 (4) because the surface of each large body of water is considered motionless. Thus, Eqs. 1 through 4 combine to yield T2  T1  g1z1  z2 2 č 243 so that with č  3 1 Btu 1lbm # °R2 4 1778 ft # lbBtu2  3 778 ft # lb 1lbm # °R2 4 132.2 fts2 21420 ft2 3778 ft # lb 1lbm # °R2 4 3 32.2 1lbm # ft2  1lb # s2 2 4  0.540 °R (Ans) T2  T1  COMMENT Note that it takes a considerable change of potential energy to produce even a small increase in temperature. A form of the energy equation that is most often used to solve incompressible flow problems is developed in the next section. 5.3.3 Comparison of the Energy Equation with the Bernoulli Equation When the one-dimensional energy equation for steady-in-the-mean flow, Eq. 5.67, is applied to a flow that is steady, Eq. 5.67 becomes the one-dimensional, steady-flow energy # equation, Eq. 5.70. The only difference between Eq. 5.67 and Eq. 5.70 is that shaft power, W shaft net in, is zero if the flow is steady throughout the control volume 1fluid machines involve locally unsteady flow2. If in addition to being steady, the flow is incompressible, we get from Eq. 5.70 # pin V 2out  V 2in pout #   m c ǔout  ǔin   g1zout  zin 2 d  Qnet r r 2 in # Dividing Eq. 5.72 by the mass flowrate, m, and rearranging terms we obtain V 2out V 2in pout pin    gzout   gzin  1ǔout  ǔin  qnet 2 r r 2 2 in (5.72) (5.73) where # Qnet in qnet  # m in is the heat transfer rate per mass flowrate, or heat transfer per unit mass. Note that Eq. 5.73 involves energy per unit mass and is applicable to one-dimensional flow of a single stream of fluid between two sections or flow along a streamline between two sections. If the steady, incompressible flow we are considering also involves negligible viscous effects 1frictionless flow2, then the Bernoulli equation, Eq. 3.7, can be used to describe what happens between two sections in the flow as pout  rV 2out rV 2in  gzout  pin   gzin 2 2 (5.74) where g  rg is the specific weight of the fluid. To get Eq. 5.74 in terms of energy per unit mass, so that it can be compared directly with Eq. 5.73, we divide Eq. 5.74 by density, r, and obtain pout V 2out pin V 2in   gzout    gzin r r 2 2 (5.75) A comparison of Eqs. 5.73 and 5.75 prompts us to conclude that ǔout  ǔin  qnet  0 (5.76) in when the steady incompressible flow is frictionless. For steady incompressible flow with friction, we learn from experience (second law of thermodynamics) that ǔout  ǔin  qnet 7 0 in (5.77) 244 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis In Eqs. 5.73 and 5.75, we can consider the combination of variables p V2   gz r 2 as equal to useful or available energy. Thus, from inspection of Eqs. 5.73 and 5.75, we can conclude that ǔout  ǔin  qnet in represents the loss of useful or available energy that occurs in an incompressible fluid flow because of friction. In equation form we have Minimizing loss is the central goal of fluid mechanical design. ǔout  ǔin  qnet  loss (5.78) in For a frictionless flow, Eqs. 5.73 and 5.75 tell us that loss equals zero. It is often convenient to express Eq. 5.73 in terms of loss as pout V 2out V 2in pin    gzout   gzin  loss r r 2 2 (5.79) An example of the application of Eq. 5.79 follows. E XAMPLE 5.23 Energy—Effect of Loss of Available Energy GIVEN As shown in Fig. E5.23a, air flows from a room through two different vent configurations: a cylindrical hole in the wall having a diameter of 120 mm and the same diameter cylindrical hole in the wall but with a well-rounded entrance. The room pressure is held constant at 1.0 kPa above atmospheric pressure. Both vents exhaust into the atmosphere. As discussed in Section 8.4.2, the loss in available energy associated with flow through the cylindrical vent from the room to the vent SOLUTION exit is 0.5V22/2 where V2 is the uniformly distributed exit velocity of air. The loss in available energy associated with flow through the rounded entrance vent from the room to the vent exit is 0.05V22/2, where V2 is the uniformly distributed exit velocity of air. FIND Compare the volume flowrates associated with the two different vent configurations. Control volume We use the control volume for each vent sketched in Fig. E5.23a. What is sought is the flowrate, Q  A2V2, where A2 is the vent exit cross-sectional area, and V2 is the uniformly distributed exit velocity. For both vents, application of Eq. 5.79 leads to V 22 (1) D2 = 120 mm where 1loss2 is the loss between sections (1) and (2). Solving Eq. 1 for V2 we get V2  B 2ca p1  p2 b  1loss2 d r (2) V 22 2 (3) V2 Section (2) Section (1) for both vents is in the room and involves V1 = 0 p1 = 1.0 kPa 0 (no elevation change) p2 p1 V 21   gz2    gz1  1loss2 r r 2 2 0 1V1 ⬇ 02 D2 = 120 mm V2 Section (2) Control volume Since 1loss2  KL where KL is the loss coefficient (KL  0.5 and 0.05 for the two vent configurations involved), we can combine Eqs. 2 and 3 to get V2  B 2ca p1  p2 V 22 d b  KL r 2 (4) ■ Figure E5.23a Solving Eq. 4 for V2 we obtain V2  p1  p2 B r 3 11  KL 2 24 (5) 5.3 Therefore, for flowrate, Q, we obtain Q  A2V2  p1  p2 4 B r3 11  KL 2 24 pD 22 (6) For the rounded entrance cylindrical vent, Eq. 6 gives Q  245 First Law of Thermodynamics — The Energy Equation p1120 mm2 2 411000 mmm2 2 11.0 kPa2 11000 PakPa2 311Nm2 2  1Pa2 4 B 11.23 kg m3 2 3 11  0.052 2 4 311Nⴢs2 2  1kgⴢm2 4 COMMENT By repeating the calculations for various values of the loss coefficient, KL, the results shown in Fig. E5.23b are obtained. Note that the rounded entrance vent allows the passage of more air than does the cylindrical vent because the loss associated with the rounded entrance vent is less than that for the cylindrical one. For this flow the pressure drop, p1  p2, has two purposes: (1) overcome the loss associated with the flow, and (2) produce the kinetic energy at the exit. Even if there were no loss (i.e., KL  0), a pressure drop would be needed to accelerate the fluid through the vent. 0.5 or Q  0.445 m3 s (Ans) 0.4 (0.05, 0.445 m3/s) (0.5, 0.372 m3/s) Q  Q, m3/s For the cylindrical vent, Eq. 6 gives us p1120 mm2 2 411000 mm m2 2 11.0 kPa211000 PakPa2 3 11Nm2 2  1Pa2 4 B 11.23 kgm3 2 3 11  0.52 2 4 3 11Nⴢs2 2  1kgⴢm2 4 or Q  0.372 m3 s 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 (Ans) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 KL ■ Figure E5.23b An important group of fluid mechanics problems involves one-dimensional, incompressible, steady-in-the-mean flow with friction and shaft work. Included in this category are constant density flows through pumps, blowers, fans, and turbines. For this kind of flow, Eq. 5.67 becomes # # pout pin V 2out  V 2in # m c ǔout  ǔin     g1zout  zin 2 d  Qnet  Wshaft r r 2 in net in (5.80) # # Dividing Eq. 5.80 by mass flowrate and using the work per unit mass, wshaft  Wshaft m, we net in net in obtain The mechanical energy equation can be written in terms of energy per unit mass. pout V 2out pin V 2in   gzout    gzin  wshaft  1ǔout  ǔin  qnet 2 r r 2 2 net in in If the flow is steady throughout, Eq. 5.81 becomes identical to Eq. 5.73, and the previous observation that ǔout  ǔin  qnet in equals the loss of available energy is valid. Thus, we conclude that Eq. 5.81 can be expressed as pout V 2out pin V 2in   gzout    gzin  wshaft  loss r r 2 2 net in V5.15 Energy transfer (5.81) (5.82) This is a form of the energy equation for steady-in-the-mean flow that is often used for incompressible flow problems. It is sometimes called the mechanical energy equation or the extended Bernoulli equation. Note that Eq. 5.82 involves energy per unit mass 1ft # lbslug  ft2s2 or N # m  m2s2 2. According to Eq. 5.82, when the shaft work is into the control volume, as for example with a pump, a larger amount of loss will result in more shaft work being required for the same rise in available energy. Similarly, when the shaft work is out of the control volume 1for example, a turbine2, a larger loss will result in less shaft work out for the same drop in available energy. Designers spend a great deal of effort on minimizing losses in fluid flow components. The following examples demonstrate why losses should be kept as small as possible in fluid systems. 246 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis E XAMPLE 5.24 Energy—Fan Work and Efficiency GIVEN An axial-flow ventilating fan driven by a motor that FIND Determine how much of the work to the air actually pro- delivers 0.4 kW of power to the fan blades produces a 0.6-mdiameter axial stream of air having a speed of 12 m/s. The flow upstream of the fan involves negligible speed. duces useful effects, that is, fluid motion and a rise in available energy. Estimate the fluid mechanical efficiency of this fan. SOLUTION We select a fixed and nondeforming control volume as is illustrated in Fig. E5.24. The application of Eq. 5.82 to the contents of this control volume leads to 0 (atmospheric pressures cancel) Section (1) Stream surface V1 = 0 0 (V1 ⬇ 0) Control volume p2 p1 V 22 V 21   gz2 b  a   gz1 b (1) r r 2 2 wshaft  loss  a net in D2 = 0.6 m Fan motor Fan 0 (no elevation change) Section (2) V2 = 12 m/s where wshaft net in  loss is the amount of work added to the air that produces a useful effect. Equation 1 leads to wshaft  loss  net in 112 m s2 2 V 22  2 2 311kgⴢm2  1Nⴢs2 2 4  72.0 Nⴢm/kg (2) (Ans) ■ Figure E5.24 A reasonable estimate of efficiency, ␩, would be the ratio of amount of work that produces a useful effect, Eq. 2, to the amount of work delivered to the fan blades. That is, h wshaft net in # Wshaft wshaft   loss net in (3) wshaft net in  To calculate the efficiency, we need a value of w # shaft net in, which is related to the power delivered to the blades, Wshaft net in. We note that # Wshaft (4) net in wshaft  # m net in or From Eqs. 2, 3, and 6 we obtain h pD 22 # m  rAV  r V2 4 i d s 72.0 Nⴢm/kg  0.752 95.8 Nⴢm/kg (Ans) (5) For fluid density, ␳, we use 1.23 kg/m3 (standard air) and, thus, from Eqs. 4 and 5 we obtain u (6) net in # l 11.23 kgm3 2 3 1p210.6 m2 244 112 ms2 wshaft  95.8 Nⴢm/kg where the mass flowrate, m, is (from Eq. 5.6) F net in 1rpD 2242V2 10.4 kW2 3 1000 1Nm2  1skW2 4 i n Curtain of air An air curtain is produced by blowing air through a long rectangular nozzle to produce a high-velocity sheet of air, or a “curtain of air.” This air curtain is typically directed over a doorway or opening as a replacement for a conventional door. The air curtain can be used for such things as keeping warm air from infiltrating dedicated cold spaces, preventing dust and other contaminants from entering a clean environment, and even just keeping insects out of the workplace, still allowing people to enter or exit. A disadvantage over conventional doors is the added COMMENT Note that only 75% of the power that was delivered to the air resulted in useful effects and, thus, 25% of the shaft power is lost to air friction. t h e N e w s power requirements to operate the air curtain, although the advantages can outweigh the disadvantage for various industrial applications. New applications for current air curtain designs continue to be developed. For example, the use of air curtains as a means of road tunnel fire security is currently being investigated. In such an application, the air curtain would act to isolate a portion of the tunnel where fire has broken out and not allow smoke and fumes to infiltrate the entire tunnel system. (See Problem 5.127.) 5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics — The Energy Equation 247 If Eq. 5.82, which involves energy per unit mass, is multiplied by fluid density, r, we obtain pout  V5.16 Water plant aerator rV 2out rV 2in  gzout  pin   gzin  rwshaft  r1loss2 2 2 net in (5.83) where g  rg is the specific weight of the fluid. Equation 5.83 involves energy per unit volume and the units involved are identical with those used for pressure 1ft # lbft3  lbft2 or N # mm3  Nm2 2. If Eq. 5.82 is divided by the acceleration of gravity, g, we get pout V 2out pin V 2in   zout    zin  hs  hL g g 2g 2g (5.84) where # # Wshaft Wshaft net in net in hs  wshaft net in g  #  mg gQ is the shaft work head and hL  lossg is the head loss. Equation 5.84 involves energy per unit weight 1ft # lblb  ft or N # mN  m2. In Section 3.7, we introduced the notion of “head,” which is energy per unit weight. Units of length 1for example, ft, m2 are used to quantify the amount of head involved. If a turbine is in the control volume, hs is negative because it is associated with shaft work out of the control volume. For a pump in the control volume, hs is positive because it is associated with shaft work into the control volume. We can define a total head, H, as follows: H p V2  z g 2g Then Eq. 5.84 can be expressed as Hout  Hin  hs  hL Some important possible values of Hout in comparison to Hin are shown in Fig. 5.8. Note that hL (head loss) always reduces the value of Hout, except in the ideal case when it is zero. Note also that hL lessens the effect of shaft work that can be extracted from a fluid. When hL  0 (ideal condition) the shaft work head, hs, and the change in total head are the same. This head change is sometimes called ideal head change. The corresponding ideal shaft work head is the minimum required to achieve a desired effect. For work out, it is the maximum possible. Designers usually strive to minimize loss. In Chapter 12 we learn of one instance when minimum loss is sacrificed for survivability of fish coursing through a turbine rotor. Hout hs hs – hL Hin hs + hL hL > 0, hs < 0 hL = 0, hs < 0 hL > 0, hs > 0 hs hL = 0, hs > 0 hL > 0, hs = 0 hL hL = 0, hs = 0 The energy equation written in terms of energy per unit weight involves heads. (5.85) ■ Figure 5.8 Total-head change in fluid flows. 248 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis E XAMPLE 5.25 Energy—Head Loss and Power Loss GIVEN The pump shown in Fig. E5.25a adds 10 horsepower Section (2) to the water as it pumps water from the lower lake to the upper lake. The elevation difference between the lake surfaces is 30 ft and the head loss is 15 ft. Control volume FIND Determine (a) 30 ft the flowrate and Flow (b) the power loss associated with this flow. Section (1) SOLUTION (a) Pump The energy equation (Eq. 5.84) for this flow is Flow p2 p1 V22 V12    z2   z1  hs  hL g g 2g 2g (1) where points 2 and 1 (corresponding to “out” and “in” in Eq. 5.84) are located on the lake surfaces. Thus, p2  p1  0 and V2  V1  0 so that Eq. 1 becomes hs  hL  z2  z1 (2) where z 2  30 ft, z1  0, and hL  15 ft. The pump head is obtained from Eq. 5.85 as # hs  Wshaft net in g Q  110 hp2 1550 ft # lbshp2162.4 lb ft3 2 Q  88.1Q where hs is in ft when Q is in ft3s. Hence, from Eq. 2, 88.1 Q  15 ft  30 ft or Q  1.96 ft3s (Ans) COMMENT Note that in this example the purpose of the ■ Figure E5.25a (a 15-ft head); it does not, overall, alter the water’s pressure or velocity. (b) The power lost due to friction can be obtained from Eq. 5.85 as # Wloss  g QhL  162.4 lb / ft3 211.96 ft3/s2115 ft2  1830 ft # lb /s 11 hp550 ft # lb /s2 (Ans)  3.33 hp COMMENTS The remaining 10 hp  3.33 hp  6.67 hp that the pump adds to the water is used to lift the water from the lower to the upper lake. This energy is not “lost,” but it is stored as potential energy. By repeating the calculations for various head losses, hL, the results shown in Fig. E5.25b are obtained. Note that as the head loss increases, the flowrate decreases because an increasing portion of the 10 hp supplied by the pump is lost and, therefore, not available to lift the fluid to the higher elevation. pump is to lift the water (a 30-ft head) and overcome the head loss 3.5 3 Q, ft3/s 2.5 (15 ft, 1.96 ft3/s) 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 5 10 15 hL, ft ■ Figure E5.25b 20 25 5.3 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation 249 A comparison of the energy equation and the Bernoulli equation has led to the concept of loss of available energy in incompressible fluid flows with friction. In Chapter 8, we discuss in detail some methods for estimating loss in incompressible flows with friction. In Section 5.4 and Chapter 11, we demonstrate that loss of available energy is also an important factor to consider in compressible flows with friction. F l u i d s i n Smart shocks Vehicle shock absorbers are dampers used to provide a smooth, controllable ride. When going over a bump, the relative motion between the tires and the vehicle body displaces a piston in the shock and forces a viscous fluid through a small orifice or channel. The viscosity of the fluid produces a head loss that dissipates energy to dampen the vertical motion. Current shocks use a fluid with fixed viscosity. However, recent technology has been developed that uses a synthetic oil with millions of tiny iron balls suspended in it. These tiny balls react to a magnetic field t h e N e w s generated by an electric coil on the shock piston in a manner that changes the fluid viscosity, going anywhere from essentially no damping to a solid almost instantly. A computer adjusts the current to the coil to select the proper viscosity for the given conditions (i.e., wheel speed, vehicle speed, steering-wheel angle, lateral acceleration, brake application, and temperature). The goal of these adjustments is an optimally tuned shock that keeps the vehicle on a smooth, even keel while maximizing the contact of the tires with the pavement for any road conditions. (See Problem 5.110.) 5.3.4 Application of the Energy Equation to Nonuniform Flows The forms of the energy equation discussed in Sections 5.3.2 and 5.3.3 are applicable to onedimensional flows, flows that are approximated with uniform velocity distributions where fluid crosses the control surface. If the velocity profile at any section where flow crosses the control surface is not uniform, inspection of the energy equation for a control volume, Eq. 5.64, suggests that the integral V2 rV ⴢ n̂ dA cs 2 冮 The kinetic energy coefficient is used to account for nonuniform flows. will require special attention. The other terms of Eq. 5.64 can be accounted for as already discussed in Sections 5.3.2 and 5.3.3. For one stream of fluid entering and leaving the control volume, we can define the relationship ainV 2in V2 # aoutV 2out rV ⴢ n̂ dA  m a  b 2 2 cs 2 冮 where a is the kinetic energy coefficient and V is the average velocity defined earlier in Eq. 5.7. From the above we can conclude that # maV 2  2 V2 rV ⴢ n̂ dA A 2 冮 for flow through surface area A of the control surface. Thus, a Parabolic (laminar) ~ ~ 1.08 Turbulent 冮 1V 22rV ⴢ n̂ dA 2 =2 A # mV 22 (5.86) It can be shown that for any velocity profile, a  1, with a  1 only for uniform flow. Some typical velocity profile examples for flow in a conventional pipe are shown in the sketch in the margin. Therefore, for nonuniform velocity profiles, the energy equation on an energy per unit mass basis for the incompressible flow of one stream of fluid through a control volume that is steady in the mean is =1 Uniform pout aoutV 2out pin ainV 2in   gzout    gzin  wshaft  loss r r 2 2 net in (5.87) 250 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis On an energy per unit volume basis we have pout  raoutV 2out rainV 2in  gzout  pin   gzin  rwshaft  r1loss2 2 2 net in (5.88) and on an energy per unit weight or head basis we have pout aoutV 2out ainV 2in pin    zout   zin  g g 2g 2g wshaft net in g  hL (5.89) The following examples illustrate the use of the kinetic energy coefficient. E XAMPLE 5.26 Energy—Effect of Nonuniform Velocity Profile GIVEN The small fan shown in Fig. E5.26 moves air at a mass flowrate of 0.1 kg兾min. Upstream of the fan, the pipe diameter is 60 mm, the flow is laminar, the velocity distribution is parabolic, and the kinetic energy coefficient, a1, is equal to 2.0. Downstream of the fan, the pipe diameter is 30 mm, the flow is turbulent, the velocity profile is quite uniform, and the kinetic energy coefficient, a2, is equal to 1.08. The rise in static pressure across the fan is 0.1 kPa, and the fan motor draws 0.14 W. FIND Compare the value of loss calculated: (a) assuming uniform velocity distributions, (b) considering actual velocity distributions. D2 = 30 mm Turbulent flow Section (2) α 2 = 1.08 Control volume D1 = 60 mm SOLUTION Section (1) α 1 = 2.0 Application of Eq. 5.87 to the contents of the control volume shown in Fig. E5.26 leads to 0 1change in gz is negligible2 p2 p1 a2V 22 a1V 21   gz2    gz1 r r 2 2  loss  wshaft • ■ Figure E5.26 (1) net in  net in p2  p1 a1V 21 a2V 22 b  r 2 2 (2) To proceed further, we need values of wshaft net in, V1, and V2. These quantities can be obtained as follows. For shaft work wshaft  net in power to fan motor # m wshaft  net in 0.1 kgmin  84.0 N # mkg For the average velocity at section 122, V2, V2  10.1 kgmin2 11 min60 s2 11000 mmm2 2 11.23 kgm3 2 3p130 mm2 244  1.92 ms (5) (a) For the assumed uniform velocity profiles 1a1  a2  1.02, Eq. 2 yields or 10.14 W2 3 11 N # ms2 W4 10.1 kgmin2 11 min60 s2 11000 mmm2 2 11.23 kgm3 2 3p160 mm2 244  0.479 ms or solving Eq. 1 for loss we get loss  wshaft  a Laminar flow m = 0.1 kg/min loss  wshaft  a 160 s min2 net in (3) For the average velocity at section 112, V1, from Eq. 5.11 we obtain # m V1  rA1 # m  (4) r1pD21 42 p2  p1 V 21 V 22 b  r 2 2 (6) Using Eqs. 3, 4, and 5 and the pressure rise given in the problem statement, Eq. 6 gives loss  84.0 10.1 kPa211000 PakPa211 Nm2 Pa2 N#m  kg 1.23 kgm3 5.3  or 10.479 m s2 2 11.92 ms2 2  2 31 1kg # m2  1N # s2 2 4 23 1 1kg # m2  1N # s2 2 4 loss  84.0 N # mkg  81.3 N # mkg  0.115 N # mkg  1.84 N # mkg  0.975 N # mkg  1.0811.92 m s2 2 210.479 m s2 2  23 1 1kg # m2  1N # s2 2 4 23 1 1kg # m2  1 # s2 2 4 or loss  84.0 N # mkg  81.3 N # mkg  0.230 N # mkg  1.99 N # mkg  0.940 N # mkg (Ans) (b) For the actual velocity profiles 1a1  2, a2  1.082, Eq. 1 gives p2  p1 V 21 V 22 loss  wshaft  a b  a1  a2 r 2 2 net in 251 First Law of Thermodynamics—The Energy Equation (7) (Ans) COMMENT The difference in loss calculated assuming uniform velocity profiles and actual velocity profiles is not large compared to wshaft net in for this fluid flow situation. If we use Eqs. 3, 4, and 5 and the given pressure rise, Eq. 7 yields loss  84 N # mkg  E XAMPLE 10.1 kPa211000 PakPa211 Nm2Pa2 1.23 kgm3 5.27 Energy—Effect of Nonuniform Velocity Profile GIVEN Consider the flow situation of Example 5.14. FIND Apply Eq. 5.87 to develop an expression for the fluid pressure drop that occurs between sections 112 and 122. By compar- ing the equation for pressure drop obtained presently with the result of Example 5.14, obtain an expression for loss between sections 112 and 122. SOLUTION Application of Eq. 5.87 to the flow of Example 5.14 1see Fig. E5.142 leads to Then, substituting Eq. 4 into Eq. 3, we obtain 0 1no shaft work2 p2 p1 a2w 22 a1w 21    gz2   gz1  loss  wshaft r r 2 2 net in r8w 232p a2  # mw 22 a2  冮 0 R 16 R2 2 a2  (2) (3) Substituting the parabolic velocity profile equation into Eq. 3 we obtain r 12w1 2 3 31  1rR2 2 4 3 2pr dr 1rA2w2 2w 22 冮 R 0 3 1  31rR2 2  31rR2 4  1rR2 6 4 r dr (5) Now we combine Eqs. 2 and 5 to get p1  p2  r c 2.0w 22 1.0w 21   g1z2  z1 2  loss d 2 2 (6) However, from conservation of mass w2  w1  w so that Eq. 6 becomes p1  p2  rw 2  rg1z2  z1 2  r1loss2 2 (7) rg1z2  z1 2  (8) The term associated with change in elevation, rg1z2  z1 2, is equal to the weight per unit cross-sectional area, wA, of the water contained between sections 112 and 122 at any instant, w A Thus, combining Eqs. 7 and 8 we get From conservation of mass, since A1  A2 w1  w2 3 1  1rR2 2 4 3r dr or rw 32 dA2 A2 R rpR2 w 32 (1) Since the fluid velocity at section 112, w1, is uniformly distributed over cross-sectional area A1, the corresponding kinetic energy coefficient, a1, is equal to 1.0. The kinetic energy coefficient at section 122, a2, needs to be determined from the velocity profile distribution given in Example 5.14. Using Eq. 5.86 we get 冮 0 a2  Solving Eq. 1 for the pressure drop, p1  p2, we obtain a2w 22 a1w 21   g1z2  z1 2  loss d p1  p2  r c 2 2 冮 (4) p1  p2  rw 2 w   r1loss2 2 A (9) 252 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis The pressure drop between sections 112 and 122 is due to: 1. The change in kinetic energy between sections 112 and 122 associated with going from a uniform velocity profile to a parabolic velocity profile. 2. The weight of the water column, that is, hydrostatic pressure effect. 3. Viscous loss. Comparing Eq. 9 for pressure drop with the one obtained in Example 5.14 1i.e., the answer of Example 5.142, we obtain Rz rw 2 rw 2 w w   r1loss2    2 A 3 A A (10) or loss  Rz rA  w2 6 (Ans) COMMENT We conclude that while some of the pipe wall friction force, Rz, resulted in loss of available energy, a portion of this friction, rAw 26, led to the velocity profile change. 5.3.5 Combination of the Energy Equation and the Moment-of-Momentum Equation3 If Eq. 5.82 is used for one-dimensional incompressible flow through a turbomachine, we can use Eq. 5.54, developed in Section 5.2.4 from the moment-of-momentum equation 1Eq. 5.422, to evaluate shaft work. This application of both Eqs. 5.54 and 5.82 allows us to ascertain the amount of loss that occurs in incompressible turbomachine flows as is demonstrated in Example 5.28. E XAMPLE 5.28 Energy—Fan Performance GIVEN Consider the fan of Example 5.19. ciency equation and a practical means for estimating lost shaft energy. FIND Show that only some of the shaft power into the air is converted into useful effects. Develop a meaningful effi- SOLUTION We use the same control volume used in Example 5.19. Application of Eq. 5.82 to the contents of this control volume yields p2 p1 V 22 V 21   gz2    gz1  wshaft  loss r r 2 2 net in (1) useful effect  wshaft  loss net in a V 21 p1 p2   gz2 b  a   gz1 b r r 2 2 (2) (Ans) In other words, only a portion of the shaft work delivered to the air by the fan blades is used to increase the available energy of the air; the rest is lost because of fluid friction. A meaningful efficiency equation involves the ratio of shaft work converted into a useful effect 1Eq. 22 to shaft work into the air, wshaft net in. Thus, we can express efficiency, h, as wshaft h net in  loss wshaft net in 3 wshaft  U2Vu2 (4) net in As in Example 5.26, we can see with Eq. 1 that a “useful effect” in this fan can be defined as V 22 However, when Eq. 5.54, which was developed from the momentof-momentum equation 1Eq. 5.422, is applied to the contents of the control volume of Fig. E5.19, we obtain (3) Combining Eqs. 2, 3, and 4, we obtain h  5 3 1p2r2  1V 22 22  gz2 4  3 1 p1r2  1V 2122  gz1 4 6 U2Vu2 (5) (Ans) Equation 5 provides us with a practical means to evaluate the efficiency of the fan of Example 5.19. Combining Eqs. 2 and 4, we obtain loss  U2Vu2  c a a p2 V 22  gz2 b  r 2 p1 V 21   gz1 b d r 2 (6) (Ans) COMMENT Equation 6 provides us with a useful method of evaluating the loss due to fluid friction in the fan of Example 5.19 in terms of fluid mechanical variables that can be measured. This section may be omitted without loss of continuity in the text material. This section should not be considered without prior study of Sections 5.2.3 and 5.2.4. All of these sections are recommended for those interested in Chapter 12. 5.5 5.4 Chapter Summary and Study Guide 253 Second Law of Thermodynamics—Irreversible Flow This section is available on WileyPLUS. Note that this entire section may be omitted without loss of continuity in the text material. 5.5 Chapter Summary and Study Guide conservation of mass continuity equation mass flowrate linear momentum equation moment-ofmomentum equation shaft power shaft torque first law of thermodynamics heat transfer rate energy equation loss shaft work head head loss kinetic energy coefficient In this chapter the flow of a fluid is analyzed by using important principles including conservation of mass, Newton’s second law of motion, and the first law of thermodynamics as applied to control volumes. The Reynolds transport theorem is used to convert basic system-oriented laws into corresponding control volume formulations. The continuity equation, a statement of the fact that mass is conserved, is obtained in a form that can be applied to any flow—steady or unsteady, incompressible or compressible. Simplified forms of the continuity equation enable tracking of fluid everywhere in a control volume, where it enters, where it leaves, and within. Mass or volume flowrates of fluid entering or leaving a control volume and rate of accumulation or depletion of fluid within a control volume can be estimated. The linear momentum equation, a form of Newton’s second law of motion applicable to flow of fluid through a control volume, is obtained and used to solve flow problems. Net force results from or causes changes in linear momentum (velocity magnitude and/or direction) of fluid flowing through a control volume. Work and power associated with force can be involved. The moment-of-momentum equation, which involves the relationship between torque and changes in angular momentum, is obtained and used to solve flow problems dealing with turbines (energy extracted from a fluid) and pumps (energy supplied to a fluid). The steady-state energy equation, obtained from the first law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy), is written in several forms. The first (Eq. 5.69) involves power terms. The second form (Eq. 5.82 or 5.84) is termed the mechanical energy equation or the extended Bernoulli equation. It consists of the Bernoulli equation with extra terms that account for energy losses due to friction in the flow, as well as terms accounting for the work of pumps or turbines in the flow. The following checklist provides a study guide for this chapter. When your study of the entire chapter and end-of-chapter exercises has been completed, you should be able to write out meanings of the terms listed here in the margin and understand each of the related concepts. These terms are particularly important and are set in italic, bold, and color type in the text. select an appropriate control volume for a given problem and draw an accurately labeled control volume diagram. use the continuity equation and a control volume to solve problems involving mass or volume flowrate. use the linear momentum equation and a control volume, in conjunction with the continuity equation as necessary, to solve problems involving forces related to linear momentum change. use the moment-of-momentum equation to solve problems involving torque and related work and power due to angular momentum change. use the energy equation, in one of its appropriate forms, to solve problems involving losses due to friction (head loss) and energy input by pumps or extraction by turbines. use the kinetic energy coefficient in the energy equation to account for nonuniform flows. Some of the important equations in this chapter are: Conservation of mass Mass flowrate 0 0t 冮 cv r dV  冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA  0 (5.5) cs # m  rQ  rAV (5.6) 254 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis V Average velocity Moving control volume mass conservation 冮 0 0t DMsys Dt Force related to change in linear momentum A 0 0t 冮 r dV  cv  冮 rW ⴢ n̂ dA  0 0 0t 冮 r dV  cv Vr dV  冮 VrV ⴢ n̂ dA  a Fcontents of the 冮 WrW ⴢ n̂ dA  a F 冮 Conservation of power Conservation of mechanical energy cv contents of the control volume cs VWU er dV   Tshaft # # # Wshaft  1min 21 UinVuin 2  mout 1 UoutVuout 2 冮 cs aǔ  (5.22) (5.29) (5.43) (5.45) axial # # Tshaft  1min 21 rinVuin 2  mout 1 routVuout 2 Shaft power related to change in moment-of-momentum (angular momentum) (5.17) control volume cs control volume 0 0t 冮 rW ⴢ n̂ dA  0 a B1r ⴛ F2 contents of the R Shaft torque related to change in moment-of-momentum (angular momentum) (5.16) cs Vector addition of absolute and relative velocities Shaft torque from force (5.9) cs cv Moving control volume force related to change in linear momentum First law of thermodynamics (Conservation of energy) (5.7) rA # # a mout  a m in  0 Steady-flow mass conservation Deforming control volume mass conservation 冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA (5.50) (5.53) # # p V2   gzb rV ⴢ n̂ dA  Qnet  Wshaft (5.64) r 2 in net in # # V 2out  V 2in # m c ȟout  ȟin   g1zout  zin 2 d  Qnet  Wshaft (5.69) 2 in net in pout V 2out pin V 2in   gzout    gzin  wshaft  loss r r 2 2 net in (5.82) References 1. Eck, B., Technische Stromungslehre, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, 1957. 2. Dean, R. C., “On the Necessity of Unsteady Flow in Fluid Machines,” ASME Journal of Basic Engineering 81D; 24–28, March 1959. 3. Moran, M. J., and Shapiro, H. N., Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 6th Ed., Wiley, New York, 2008. Problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. GO Tutoring problem available in WileyPLUS at instructor’s discretion. Problem is related to a chapter video available in WileyPLUS. * † Problem to be solved with aid of programmable calculator or computer. Open-ended problem that requires critical thinking. These problems require various assumptions to provide the necessary input data. There are not unique answers to these problems. Problems 255 Review Problems Go to Appendix G (WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www. wiley.com/college/munson) for a set of review problems with answers. Detailed solutions can be found in the Student Solution Manual and Study Guide for Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, by Munson et al. (© 2013 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.). Conceptual Questions 5.1C A fluid flows steadily through a pipe with a uniform crosssectional area. The density of the fluid decreases to half its initial value as it flows through the pipe. The correct statement about the average velocity V is r1 r2 = r1/2 5.3C The nozzle on a fire hose is connected to the hose via a coupling. When the fire hose is in use with water flowing through it and the hose is stationary, the coupling is: a) in equilibrium, so there is no force on the coupling. b) in tension. c) in compression. Flow V2 = ? V1 a) V2 equals 2 V1. d) V2 equals V1/4. b) V2 equals V1/2. e) V2 equals 4 V1. c) V2 equals V1. 5.2C Water flows steadily into and out of the system with four pipes shown below. The mass flowrate through three of the pipes in kg/s is indicated. 3 kg/s 5.4C Two fluid jets are pointed at surfaces as shown in the following figures. The fluids are incompressible, and the effects of gravity can be neglected. The mass flowrates and the velocities of the jets are identical. The cross-sectional areas of the jets do not change significantly as the fluid flows. The correct statement regarding the horizontal forces is a) F1 equals 2 F2. b) F1 is greater than 0 and F2 equals 0. c) F1 equals F2/2. d) F1 equals 0 and F2 is greater than 0. e) F1 equals F2. Surface 6 kg/s System m• Nozzle F1 Fluid stream Surface 4 kg/s Nozzle # The mass flowrate m in the fourth pipe is a) 13 kg/s. b) 9 kg/s. d) 5 kg/s. e) 4kg/s. c) 6 kg/s. F2 Fluid stream Additional conceptual questions are available in WileyPLUS at the instructor’s discretion. Problems Note: Unless specific values of required fluid properties are given in the problem statement, use the values found in the tables on the inside of the front cover. Answers to the even-numbered problems are listed at the end of the book. The Lab Problems as well as the videos that accompany problems can be accessed in WileyPLUS or the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. Section 5.1.1 Derivation of the Continuity Equation 5.1 Use the Reynolds transport theorem (Eq. 4.19) with B  volume and, therefore, b  volume/mass  1/density to obtain the continuity equation for steady or unsteady incompressible flow through a fixed control volume: 冮 V ⴢ n̂ dA  0. cv 5.2 An incompressible fluid flows horizontally in the x–y plane with a velocity given by u  301y h2 12 ms, v  0 where y and h are in meters and h is a constant. Determine the average velocity for the portion of the flow between y  0 and y  h. 256 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis Section 5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume— Section (1) Uniform Velocity Profile or Average Velocity 5.3 Water flows steadily through the horizontal piping system shown in Fig. P5.3. The velocity is uniform at section (1), the mass flowrate is 10 slugs/s at section (2), and the velocity is nonuniform D at section (3). (a) Determine the value of the quantity rdV , Dt sys where the system is the water contained in the pipe bounded by sections (1), (2), and (3). (b) Determine the mean velocity at section (2). (c) Determine, if possible, the value of the integral Pump V2 Section (2) D2 冮 冮 rV ⴢ n̂ dA over section (3). If it is not possible, explain what ■ Figure P5.6 additional information is needed to do so. 5.7 Water flows into a sink as shown in Video V5.1 and Fig. P5.7 at a rate of 2 gal/min. Determine the average velocity through each of the three 0.4-in.-diameter overflow holes if the drain is closed and the water level in the sink remains constant. 132 10 slugs/s Area = 0.3 ft2 (2) 15 ft/s Three 0.4-in.-diameter overflow holes Q = 2 gal/min (1) Area = 0.7 ft2 (3) Area = 0.7 ft2 ■ Figure P5.3 Drain 5.4 Water flows out through a set of thin, closely spaced blades as shown in Fig. P5.4 with a speed of V  10 fts around the entire circumference of the outlet. Determine the mass flowrate through the inlet pipe. ■ Figure P5.7 Inlet 0.08-ft diameter 0.1 ft 5.8 The wind blows through a 7 ft  10 ft garage door opening with a speed of 5 ft兾s as shown in Fig. P5.8. Determine the average speed, V, of the air through the two 3 ft  4 ft openings in the windows. Blades 0.6 ft V V 3 ft 3 ft 60° 16 ft 10 ft 5 ft/s V = 10 ft/s 20° ■ Figure P5.4 22 ft † 5.5 Estimate the rate (in gal/hr) that your car uses gasoline when it is being driven on an interstate highway. Determine how long it would take to empty a 12-oz soft-drink container at this flowrate. List all assumptions and show calculations. 5.6 The pump shown in Fig. P5.6 produces a steady flow of 10 gal/s through the nozzle. Determine the nozzle exit diameter, D2, if the exit velocity is to be V2  100 fts. ■ Figure P5.8 5.9 The human circulatory system consists of a complex branching pipe network ranging in diameter from the aorta (largest) to the capillaries (smallest). The average radii and the number of these vessels are shown in the table. Does the average blood velocity increase, decrease, or remain constant as it travels from the aorta to the capillaries? Problems Vessel Aorta Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Average Radius, mm Number 12.5 2.0 0.03 0.006 1 159 1.4  107 3.9  109 257 5.13 An evaporative cooling tower (see Fig. P5.13) is used to cool water from 110 to 80 °F. Water enters the tower at a rate of 250,000 lbm  hr. Dry air (no water vapor) flows into the tower at a rate of 151,000 lbm  hr. If the rate of wet airflow out of the tower is 156,900 lbm  hr, determine the rate of water evaporation in lbm  hr and the rate of cooled water flow in lbm  hr. Wet air • m = 156,900 lbm/hr 5.10 Air flows steadily between two cross sections in a long, straight section of 0.1-m-inside-diameter pipe. The static temperature and pressure at each section are indicated in Fig. P5.10. If the average air velocity at section 112 is 205 m兾s, determine the average air velocity at section 122. Warm water • m = 250,000 lbm/hr D = 0.1 m Section (1) Section (2) p1 = 77 kPa (abs) T1 = 268 K V1 = 205 m/s p2 = 45 kPa (abs) T2 = 240 K ■ Figure P5.10 5.11 A hydraulic jump (see Video V10.11) is in place downstream from a spillway as indicated in Fig. P5.11. Upstream of the jump, the depth of the stream is 0.6 ft and the average stream velocity is 18 ft兾s. Just downstream of the jump, the average stream velocity is 3.4 ft兾s. Calculate the depth of the stream, h, just downstream of the jump. Cooled water Dry air • m = 151,000 lbm/hr ■ Figure P5.13 5.14 At cruise conditions, air flows into a jet engine at a steady rate of 65 lbm/s. Fuel enters the engine at a steady rate of 0.60 lbm/s. The average velocity of the exhaust gases is 1500 ft/s relative to the engine. If the engine exhaust effective cross-sectional area is 3.5 ft2, estimate the density of the exhaust gases in lbm/ft3. 5.15 Water at 0.1 m3/s and alcohol (SG  0.8) at 0.3 m3/s are mixed in a y-duct as shown in Fig. 5.15. What is the average density of the mixture of alcohol and water? Water and alcohol mix Water Q = 0.1 m3/s 0.6 ft h 3.4 ft/s 18 ft/s Alcohol (SG = 0.8) Q = 0.3 m3/s ■ Figure P5.11 ■ Figure P5.15 5.12 Water enters a rigid, sealed, cylindrical tank at a steady rate of 100 liters/hr and forces gasoline (SG  0.68) out as is indicated in Fig. P5.12. What is the time rate of change of mass of gasoline contained in the tank? 5.16 Oil having a specific gravity of 0.9 is pumped as illustrated in Fig. P5.16 with a water jet pump. The water volume flowrate is 1 m3/s. The water and oil mixture has an average specific gravity of 0.95. Calculate the rate, in m3/s, at which the pump moves oil. Section (1) Section (3) Gasoline (SG = 0.68) Water Q1 = 1 m3/s Water and oil mix (SG = 0.95) Section (2) Water Oil (SG = 0.9) ■ Figure P5.12 ■ Figure P5.16 258 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis 5.17 Fresh water flows steadily into an open 55-gal drum initially filled with seawater. The fresh water mixes thoroughly with the seawater, and the mixture overflows out of the drum. If the fresh water flowrate is 10 gal/min, estimate the time in seconds required to decrease the difference between the density of the mixture and the density of fresh water by 50%. 0.8 V 30 ft 70 ft 3 ft/s V 50 ft Section 5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume— Nonuniform Velocity Profile 5.18 A water jet pump 1see Fig. P5.182 involves a jet crosssectional area of 0.01 m2, and a jet velocity of 30 m/s. The jet is surrounded by entrained water. The total cross-sectional area associated with the jet and entrained streams is 0.075 m2. These two fluid streams leave the pump thoroughly mixed with an average velocity of 6 m/s through a cross-sectional area of 0.075 m2. Determine the pumping rate 1i.e., the entrained fluid flowrate2 involved in liters/s. 6 m/s Entrained water Depth = 3 ft 80 ft Depth = 5 ft 4 ft/s ■ Figure P5.20 5.21 Various types of attachments can be used with the shop vac shown in Video V5.2. Two such attachments are shown in Fig. P5.21—a nozzle and a brush. The flowrate is 1 ft3s. (a) Determine the average velocity through the nozzle entrance, Vn. (b) Assume the air enters the brush attachment in a radial direction all around the brush with a velocity profile that varies linearly from 0 to Vb along the length of the bristles as shown in the figure. Determine the value of Vb. 30 m/s jet Q = 1 ft3/s Entrained water Q = 1 ft3/s ■ Figure P5.18 *5.19 To measure the mass flowrate of air through a 6-in.-insidediameter pipe, local velocity data are collected at different radii from the pipe axis (see Table). Determine the mass flowrate corresponding to the data listed in the following table. 1.5 in. 2-in. dia. Vn r (in.) Axial Velocity (ft/s) 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 2.9 2.95 2.98 3.00 30 29.71 29.39 29.06 28.70 28.31 27.89 27.42 26.90 26.32 25.64 24.84 23.84 22.50 20.38 18.45 16.71 14.66 0 Vb 3-in. dia. ■ Figure P5.21 5.22 An appropriate turbulent pipe flow velocity profile is V  uc a R  r 1n b î R where uc  centerline velocity, r  local radius, R  pipe radius, and î  unit vector along pipe centerline. Determine the ratio of average velocity, u, to centerline velocity, uc, for (a) n  4, (b) n  6, (c) n  8, (d) n  10. Compare the different velocity profiles. 5.23 GO As shown in Fig. P5.23, at the entrance to a 3-ft-wide channel the velocity distribution is uniform with a velocity V. Further downstream the velocity profile is given by u  4y  2y2, where u is in ft兾s and y is in ft. Determine the value of V. V 0.75 ft y 1 ft u = 4y – 2y2 x ■ Figure P5.23 5.20 Two rivers merge to form a larger river as shown in Fig. P5.20. At a location downstream from the junction 1before the two streams completely merge2, the nonuniform velocity profile is as shown and the depth is 6 ft. Determine the value of V. 5.24 An incompressible flow velocity field (water) is given as 1 1 V   eˆ r  eˆu ms r r Problems where r is in meters. (a) Calculate the mass flowrate through the cylindrical surface at r  1 m from z  0 to z  1 m as shown in Fig. P5.24a. (b) Show that mass is conserved in the annular control volume from r  1 m to r  2 m and z  0 to z  1 m as shown in Fig. P5.24b. z 259 5.27 Estimate the time required to fill with water a coneshaped container (see Fig. P5.27) 5 ft high and 5 ft across at the top if the filling rate is 20 galmin. 5 ft z 2m 1m 1m 1m 5 ft 1m ■ Figure P5.27 5.28 How long would it take to fill a cylindrical-shaped swimming pool having a diameter of 8 m to a depth of 1.5 m with water from a garden hose if the flowrate is 1.0 liter/s? (a) (b) Section 5.1.3 Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume ■ Figure P5.24 5.25 Flow of a viscous fluid over a flat plate surface results in the development of a region of reduced velocity adjacent to the wetted surface as depicted in Fig. P5.25. This region of reduced flow is called a boundary layer. At the leading edge of the plate, the velocity profile may be considered uniformly distributed with a value U. All along the outer edge of the boundary layer, the fluid velocity component parallel to the plate surface is also U. If the x-direction velocity profile at section 122 is y 1 7 u a b U d develop an expression for the volume flowrate through the edge of the boundary layer from the leading edge to a location downstream at x where the boundary layer thickness is d. †5.29 For an automobile moving along a highway, describe the control volume you would use to estimate the flowrate of air across the radiator. Explain how you would estimate the velocity of that air. Section 5.1.4 Deforming Control Volume 5.30 A hypodermic syringe (see Fig. P5.30) is used to apply a vaccine. If the plunger is moved forward at the steady rate of 20 mm/s and if vaccine leaks past the plunger at 0.1 of the volume flowrate out the needle opening, calculate the average velocity of the needle exit flow. The inside diameters of the syringe and the needle are 20 mm and 0.7 mm. Qleak Qout ■ Figure P5.30 Section (2) U Section (1) Outer edge of boundary layer U δ x ■ Figure P5.25 Section 5.1.2 Fixed, Nondeforming Control Volume— Unsteady Flow 5.26 Air at standard conditions enters the compressor shown in Fig. P5.26 at a rate of 10 ft3s. It leaves the tank through a 1.2-in.diameter pipe with a density of 0.0035 slugsft3 and a uniform speed of 700 fts. (a) Determine the rate 1slugss2 at which the mass of air in the tank is increasing or decreasing. (b) Determine the average time rate of change of air density within the tank. Compressor Tank volume = 20 ft3 10 ft3/s 0.00238 slugs/ft3 ■ Figure P5.26 1.2 in. 700 ft/s 0.0035 slugs/ft3 5.31 The Hoover Dam (see Video V2.4) backs up the Colorado River and creates Lake Mead, which is approximately 115 miles long and has a surface area of approximately 225 square miles. If during flood conditions the Colorado River flows into the lake at a rate of 45,000 cfs and the outflow from the dam is 8000 cfs, how many feet per 24-hour day will the lake level rise? 5.32 Storm sewer backup causes your basement to flood at the steady rate of 1 in. of depth per hour. The basement floor area is 1500 ft2. What capacity 1gal兾min2 pump would you rent to (a) keep the water accumulated in your basement at a constant level until the storm sewer is blocked off, and (b) reduce the water accumulation in your basement at a rate of 3 in.兾hr even while the backup problem exists? 5.33 (See Fluids in the News article “New 1.6-gpf standards,” Section 5.1.2.) When a toilet is flushed, the water depth, h, in the tank as a function of time, t, is as given in the table. The size of the rectangular tank is 19 in. by 7.5 in. (a) Determine the volume of water used per flush, gpf. (b) Plot the flowrate for 0  t  6 s. t (s) h (in.) 0 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 5.70 5.33 4.80 3.45 2.40 1.50 0.75 0 260 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis Section 5.2.1 Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation 5.34 A fluid flows steadily in the x direction through a control volume. Measurements indicate that to cause this flow the force acting on the contents of the control volume is 120 N in the negative x direction. Determine the net rate of flow of linear momentum through the control surface. 5.35 Consider the unsteady flow of a fluid in the x direction through a control volume. The linear momentum of the fluid within the control volume is a function of time given by 200 t î slug ⴢ fts, where t is in seconds and î is a unit vector in the x direction. Measurements indicate that to cause this flow the force acting on the contents of the control volume is 40 î lb. Determine the net rate of flow of linear momentum through the control surface. D1 = 0.6 in. Section (1) 1.2 in. Section (2) D2 = 0.2 in. Q = 10 gal/min ■ Figure P5.38 Section 5.2.2 Application of the Linear Momentum Equation (also see Lab Problems 5.1LP, 5.2LP, 5.3LP, and 5.4LP) 5.36 A 10-mm-diameter jet of water is deflected by a homogeneous rectangular block (15 mm by 200 mm by 100 mm) that weighs 6 N as shown in Video V5.6 and Fig. P5.36. Determine the minimum volume flowrate needed to tip the block. 5.39 Water flows through a horizontal, 180 pipe bend as is illustrated in Fig. P5.39. The flow cross-sectional area is constant at a value of 9000 mm2. The flow velocity everywhere in the bend is 15 m/s. The pressures at the entrance and exit of the bend are 210 and 165 kPa, respectively. Calculate the horizontal (x and y) components of the anchoring force needed to hold the bend in place. z 0.015 m 0.010 m Q y 0.10 m 0.050 m x ■ Figure P5.39 ■ Figure P5.36 †5.37 When a baseball player catches a ball, the force of the ball on her glove is as shown as a function of time in Fig. P5.37. Describe how this situation is similar to the force generated by the deflection of a jet of water by a vane. Note: Consider many baseballs being caught in quick succession. 5.40 Water flows through a horizontal bend and discharges into the atmosphere as shown in Fig. P5.40. When the pressure gage reads 10 psi, the resultant x-direction anchoring force, FAx, in the horizontal plane required to hold the bend in place is shown on the figure. Determine the flowrate through the bend and the y-direction anchoring force, FAy, required to hold the bend in place. The flow is not frictionless. F 10 psi Bend Q=? Water FAx = 1440 lb Area = 0.2 ft2 t FAy = ? Area = 0.1 ft2 ■ Figure P5.37 45° 5.38 Determine the anchoring force required to hold in place the conical nozzle attached to the end of the laboratory sink faucet shown in Fig. P5.38 when the water flowrate is 10 gal/min. The nozzle weight is 0.2 lb. The nozzle inlet and exit inside diameters are 0.6 and 0.2 in., respectively. The nozzle axis is vertical, and the axial distance between sections (1) and (2) is 1.2 in. The pressure at section (1) is 68 psi. ■ Figure P5.40 5.41 A free jet of fluid strikes a wedge as shown in Fig. P5.41. Of the total flow, a portion is deflected 30; the remainder is not deflected. The horizontal and vertical components of force needed Problems to hold the wedge stationary are FH and FV, respectively. Gravity is negligible, and the fluid speed remains constant. Determine the force ratio, FH/FV. D = 12 in. Section (1) FH Free jet FV V ■ Figure P5.41 5.42 Water enters the horizontal, circular cross-sectional, sudden contraction nozzle sketched in Fig. P5.42 at section (1) with a uniformly distributed velocity of 25 ft/s and a pressure of 75 psi. The water exits from the nozzle into the atmosphere at section (2) where the uniformly distributed velocity is 100 ft/s. Determine the axial component of the anchoring force required to hold the contraction in place. Section (2) p1 = 690 kPa (abs) T1 = 300 K V q = 30° V 261 p2 = 127 kPa (abs) T2 = 252 K V2 = 320 m/s ■ Figure P5.45 5.46 Water flows steadily from a tank mounted on a cart as shown in Fig. 5.46. After the water jet leaves the nozzle of the tank, it falls and strikes a vane attached to another cart. The cart’s wheels are frictionless, and the fluid is inviscid. (a) Determine the speed of the water leaving the tank, V1, and the water speed leaving the cart, V2. (b) Determine the tension in rope A. (c) Determine the tension in rope B. Nozzle area = 0.01 m2 2m Horizontal free jets V1 4m V2 Section (2) p2 = D1 = 3 in. p1 = 75 psi V1 = 25 ft/s 0 psi V2 = 100 ft/s Rope A Rope B ■ Figure P5.46 Section (1) ■ Figure P5.42 †5.43 A truck carrying chickens is too heavy for a bridge that it needs to cross. The empty truck is within the weight limits; with the chickens it is overweight. It is suggested that if one could get the chickens to fly around the truck (i.e., by banging on the truck side) it would be safe to cross the bridge. Do you agree? Explain. 5.44 Exhaust (assumed to have the properties of standard air) leaves the 4-ft-diameter chimney shown in Video V5.4 and Fig. P5.44 with a speed of 6 ft/s. Because of the wind, after a few diameters downstream the exhaust flows in a horizontal direction with the speed of the wind, 15 ft/s. Determine the horizontal component of the force that the blowing wind exerts on the exhaust gases. 5.47 Determine the magnitude and direction of the anchoring force needed to hold the horizontal elbow and nozzle combination shown in Fig. P5.47 in place. Atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa(abs). The gage pressure at section (1) is 100 kPa. At section (2), the water exits to the atmosphere. 160 mm V2 y Section (2) x 300 mm V1 Water Section (1) 15 ft/s p1 = 100 kPa V1 = 2 m/s 15 ft/s ■ Figure P5.47 6 ft/s 4 ft 5.48 Water is added to the tank shown in Fig. P5.48 through a vertical pipe to maintain a constant (water) level. The tank is placed Constant water level ■ Figure P5.44 5.45 Air flows steadily between two cross sections in a long, straight section on 12-in.-inside-diameter pipe. The static temperature and pressure at each section are indicated in Fig P5.45. If the average air velocity at section (2) is 320 m/s, determine the average air velocity at section (1). Determine the frictional force exerted by the pipe wall on the air flowing between sections (1) and (2). Assume uniform velocity distributions at each section. Jet area = 1250 mm2 1m 1m F Frictionless surface ■ Figure P5.48 Jet area = 625 mm2 262 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis intake air velocity  700 fts exhaust gas velocity  1640 ft s intake cross section area  10 ft2 intake static pressure  11.4 psia intake static temperature  480 °R exhaust gas pressure  0 psi on a horizontal plane which has a frictionless surface. Determine the horizontal force, F, required to hold the tank stationary. Neglect all losses. 5.49 GO Water flows as two free jets from the tee attached to the pipe shown in Fig. P5.49. The exit speed is 15 m/s. If viscous effects and gravity are negligible, determine the x and y components of the force that the pipe exerts on the tee. estimate a nominal thrust to design for. V = 15 m/s Area = 0.3 m2 Area = 1 m2 y x V = 15 m/s 5.53 A vertical jet of water leaves a nozzle at a speed of 10 m/s and a diameter of 20 mm. It suspends a plate having a mass of 1.5 kg as indicated in Fig. P5.53. What is the vertical distance h? Area = 0.5 m2 Pipe Tee ■ Figure P5.49 h 5.50 A nozzle is attached to a vertical pipe and discharges water into the atmosphere as shown in Fig. P5.50. When the discharge is 0.1 m3/s, the gage pressure at the flange is 40 kPa. Determine the vertical component of the anchoring force required to hold the nozzle in place. The nozzle has a weight of 200 N, and the volume of water in the nozzle is 0.012 m3. Is the anchoring force directed upward or downward? 30° Area = 0.01 m2 ■ Figure P5.53 5.54 A horizontal, circular cross-sectional jet of air having a diameter of 6 in. strikes a conical deflector as shown in Fig. P5.54. A horizontal anchoring force of 5 lb is required to hold the cone in place. Estimate the nozzle flowrate in ft3/s. The magnitude of the velocity of the air remains constant. Nozzle g 60° 6 in. Area = 0.02 m2 p = 40 kPa FA = 5 lb ■ Figure P5.54 0.10 m3/s ■ Figure P5.50 5.51 The hydraulic dredge shown in Fig. P5.51 is used to dredge sand from a river bottom. Estimate the thrust needed from the propeller to hold the boat stationary. Assume the specific gravity of the sand/water mixture is SG  1.4. 2-ft diameter 5.55 A vertical, circular cross-sectional jet of air strikes a conical deflector as indicated in Fig. P5.55. A vertical anchoring force of 0.1 N is required to hold the deflector in place. Determine the mass (kg) of the deflector. The magnitude of velocity of the air remains constant. FA = 0.1 N 30 ft/s 30° 60° 9 ft 7 ft Prop 0.1 m ■ Figure P5.51 5.52 A static thrust stand is to be designed for testing a specific jet engine, knowing the following conditions for a typical test. V = 30 m/s ■ Figure P5.55 263 Problems 5.56 A vertical jet of water having a nozzle exit velocity of 15 ft/s with a diameter of 1 in. suspends a hollow hemisphere as indicated in Fig. P5.56. If the hemisphere is stationary at an elevation of 12 in., determine its weight. 5.59 Two water jets of equal size and speed strike each other as shown in Fig. P5.59. Determine the speed, V, and direction, u, of the resulting combined jet. Gravity is negligible. V θ 12 in. V2 = 10 ft /s 0.1 ft 90° 0.1 ft ■ Figure P5.56 5.57 Air flows into the atmosphere from a nozzle and strikes a vertical plate as shown in Fig. P5.57. A horizontal force of 12 N is required to hold the plate in place. Determine the reading on the pressure gage. Assume the flow to be incompressible and frictionless. V1 =10 ft /s ■ Figure P5.59 5.60 GO Assuming frictionless, incompressible, one-dimensional flow of water through the horizontal tee connection sketched in Fig. P5.60, estimate values of the x and y components of the force exerted by the tee on the water. Each pipe has an inside diameter of 1 m. p=? z Section (3) Section (2) 12N Q3 = 10 m3/s y 2 Area = 0.003 m x Area = 0.01 m2 Section (1) V1 = 6 m/s p1 = 200 kPa ■ Figure P5.57 ■ Figure P5.60 5.58 Water flows from a large tank into a dish as shown in Fig. P5.58. (a) If at the instant shown the tank and the water in it weigh W1 lb, what is the tension, T1, in the cable supporting the tank? (b) If at the instant shown the dish and the water in it weigh W2 lb, what is the force, F2, needed to support the dish? 5.61 Water discharges into the atmosphere through the device shown in Fig. P5.61. Determine the x component of force at the flange required to hold the device in place. Neglect the effect of gravity and friction. A = 0.4 ft2 T1 30 ft/s 10 psi Flange Tank 20 ft/s 10 ft A = 0.8 ft2 43° A = 0.8 ft2 V ■ Figure P5.61 0.1-ft diameter 12 ft 2 ft F2 ■ Figure P5.58 Dish 5.62 Determine the magnitude of the horizontal component of the anchoring force required to hold in place the sluice gate shown in Fig. 5.62. Compare this result with the size of the horizontal component of the anchoring force required to hold in place the sluice gate when it is closed and the depth of water upstream is 10 ft. 264 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis hold the plate stationary; (b) the fraction of mass flow along the plate surface in each of the two directions shown; (c) the magnitude of FA, the anchoring force required to allow the plate to move to the right at a constant speed of 10 m/s. 10 ft 1.5 ft 5.66 Air discharges from a 2-in.-diameter nozzle and strikes a curved vane, which is in a vertical plane as shown in Fig. P5.66. A stagnation tube connected to a water U-tube manometer is located in the free air jet. Determine the horizontal component of the force that the air jet exerts on the vane. Neglect the weight of the air and all friction. 4 ft/s ■ Figure P5.62 5.63 Water flows steadily into and out of a tank that sits on frictionless wheels as shown in Fig. P5.63. Determine the diameter D so that the tank remains motionless if F  0. Stagnation tube Air 2-in. dia. Open d Fixed vane Water Free air jet 7 in. 30° F ■ Figure P5.66 D 5.67 Water is sprayed radially outward over 180 as indicated in Fig. P5.67. The jet sheet is in the horizontal plane. If the jet velocity at the nozzle exit is 20 ft/s, determine the direction and magnitude of the resultant horizontal anchoring force required to hold the nozzle in place. d ■ Figure P5.63 5.64 The rocket shown in Fig. P5.64, is held stationary by the horizontal force, Fx, and the vertical force, Fz. The velocity and pressure of the exhaust gas are 5000 ft/s and 20 psia at the nozzle exit, which has a cross section area of 60 in.2. The exhaust mass flowrate is constant at 21 lbm/s. Determine the value of the restraining force Fx. Assume the exhaust flow is essentially horizontal. 8 in. 0.5 in. V= 20 ft/s ■ Figure P5.67 Fx 5.68 A sheet of water of uniform thickness (h  0.01 m) flows from the device shown in Fig. P5.68. The water enters vertically through the inlet pipe and exits horizontally with a speed that varies linearly from 0 to 10 m/s along the 0.2-m length of the slit. Determine the y component of anchoring force necessary to hold this device stationary. Fz ■ Figure P5.64 Q 5.65 GO A horizontal circular jet of air strikes a stationary flat plate as indicated in Fig. P5.65. The jet velocity is 40 m/s and the jet diameter is 30 mm. If the air velocity magnitude remains constant as the air flows over the plate surface in the directions shown, determine: (a) the magnitude of FA, the anchoring force required to V2 Dj = 30 mm x h = 0.01 m 0.2 m 90° Vj = 40 m/s 10 m/s 30° y 0 m/s V3 ■ Figure P5.65 FA ■ Figure P5.68 Problems 5.69 The results of a wind tunnel test to determine the drag on a body (see Fig. P5.69) are summarized below. The upstream [section (1)] velocity is uniform at 100 ft/s. The static pressures are given by p1  p2  14.7 psia. The downstream velocity distribution, which is symmetrical about the centerline, is given by 冟 y冟 冟 y冟  3 ft u  100  30 a1  b 3 u  100 冟y冟 7 3 ft where u is the velocity in ft/s and y is the distance on either side of the centerline in feet (see Fig. P5.69). Assume that the body shape does not change in the direction normal to the paper. Calculate the drag force (reaction force in x direction) exerted on the air by the body per unit length normal to the plane of the sketch. V2 = 100 ft/s u 3 ft r 2 u  uc c 1  a b d R as is illustrated in Fig. P5.72. Compare the axial direction momentum flowrate calculated with the average velocity, u, with the axial direction momentum flowrate calculated with the nonuniform velocity distribution taken into account. r R u uc ■ Figure P5.72 5.74 A Pelton wheel vane directs a horizontal, circular cross-sectional jet of water symmetrically as indicated in Fig. P5.74 and Video V5.6. The jet leaves the nozzle with a velocity of 100 ft/s. Determine the x-direction component of anchoring force required to (a) hold the vane stationary, (b) confine the speed of the vane to a value of 10 ft/s to the right. The fluid speed magnitude remains constant along the vane surface. 3 ft Section (1) 5.72 In a laminar pipe flow that is fully developed, the axial velocity profile is parabolic. That is, †5.73 Water from a garden hose is sprayed against your car to rinse dirt from it. Estimate the force that the water exerts on the car. List all assumptions and show calculations. V1 = 100 ft/s Body 265 Section (2) ■ Figure P5.69 45° 5.70 A variable mesh screen produces a linear and axisymmetric velocity profile as indicated in Fig. P5.70 in the airflow through a 2-ft-diameter circular cross-sectional duct. The static pressures upstream and downstream of the screen are 0.2 and 0.15 psi and are uniformly distributed over the flow cross-sectional area. Neglecting the force exerted by the duct wall on the flowing air, calculate the screen drag force. 45° 100 ft/s y 100 ft/s 10 ft/s x D = 1 in. D = 1 in. 45° 45° Variable mesh screen (a) (b) ■ Figure P5.74 D = 2 ft Section (1) Section (2) p1 = 0.2 psi V1 = 100 ft/s p2 = 0.15 psi 5.75 The thrust developed to propel the jet ski shown in Video V9.18 and Fig. P5.75 is a result of water pumped through the vehicle and exiting as a high-speed water jet. For the conditions shown in the figure, what flowrate is needed to produce a 300-lb thrust? Assume the inlet and outlet jets of water are free jets. ■ Figure P5.70 5.71 Consider unsteady flow in the constant diameter, horizontal pipe shown in Fig. P5.71. The velocity is uniform throughout the entire pipe, but it is a function of time: V  u1t2 î. Use the x component of the unsteady momentum equation to determine the pressure difference p1  p2. Discuss how this result is related to Fx  max. 3.5-in.-diameter outlet jet 30° 25-in.2 inlet area u (t) ᐉ ■ Figure P5.75 D x ρ = density (1) ■ Figure P5.71 (2) 5.76 Thrust vector control is a technique that can be used to greatly improve the maneuverability of military fighter aircraft. It consists of using a set of vanes in the exit of a jet engine to deflect the exhaust gases as shown in Fig. P5.76. (a) Determine the pitching moment (the moment tending to rotate the nose of the aircraft 266 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis pout = 0 Vout = 1500 ft/s Vin = 300 ft/s pin = 0 Vane θ = 8 deg the flowrate and the velocity of the exiting jet if the thrust is to be 300 lb. Neglect the momentum of the water entering the pump. cg 20 ft m• in = m• out = 16 slugs/s ■ Figure P5.76 up) about the aircraft’s mass center (cg) for the conditions indicated in the figure. (b) By how much is the thrust (force along the centerline of the aircraft) reduced for the case indicated compared to normal flight when the exhaust is parallel to the centerline? 5.77 The exhaust gas from the rocket shown in Fig. P5.77a leaves the nozzle with a uniform velocity parallel to the x axis. The gas is assumed to be discharged from the nozzle as a free jet. (a) Show that the thrust that is developed is equal to rAV 2, where A ⫽ pD2/4. (b) The exhaust gas from the rocket nozzle shown in Fig. P5.77b is also uniform, but rather than being directed along the x axis, it is directed along rays from point 0 as indicated. Determine the thrust for this rocket. m• ■ Figure P5.79 5.80 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Bow Thrusters,” Section 5.2.2.) The bow thruster on the boat shown in Fig. P5.80 is used to turn the boat. The thruster produces a 1-m-diameter jet of water with a velocity of 10 m/s. Determine the force produced by the thruster. Assume that the inlet and outlet pressures are zero and that the momentum of the water entering the thruster is negligible. D V V = 10 m/s (a) D=1m O m• q D ■ Figure P5.80 V (b) ■ Figure P5.77 5.78 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Where the Plume goes,” Section 5.2.2.) Air flows into the jet engine shown in Fig. P5.78 at a rate of 9 slugs/s and a speed of 300 ft/s. Upon landing, the engine exhaust exits through the reverse thrust mechanism with a speed of 900 ft/s in the direction indicated. Determine the reverse thrust applied by the engine to the airplane. Assume the inlet and exit pressures are atmospheric and that the mass flowrate of fuel is negligible compared to the air flowrate through the engine. 5.81 Water flows from a two-dimensional open channel and is diverted by an inclined plate as illustrated in Fig. P5.81. When the velocity at section (1) is 10 ft/s, what horizontal force (per unit width) is required to hold the plate in position? At section (1) the pressure distribution is hydrostatic, and the fluid acts as a free jet at section (2). Neglect friction. 20° Section (1) Plate V3 = 900 ft/s 10 ft/s 4 ft (3) 4-ft diameter (1) V1 = 300 ft/s Section (2) 30° 1.0 ft (2) V2 = 900 ft/s ■ Figure P5.78 5.79 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Motorized Surfboard,” Section 5.2.2.) The thrust to propel the powered surfboard shown in Fig. P5.79 is a result of water pumped through the board that exits as a high-speed 2.75-in.-diameter jet. Determine ■ Figure P5.81 †5.82 If a valve in a pipe is suddenly closed, a large pressure surge may develop. For example, when the electrically operated shutoff valve in a dishwasher closes quickly, the pipes supplying the dishwasher may rattle or “bang” because of this large pressure pulse. Explain the physical mechanism for this “water hammer” phenomenon. How could this phenomenon be analyzed? Problems 5.83 A snowplow mounted on a truck clears a path 12 ft through heavy wet snow, as shown in Figure P5.83. The snow is 8 in. deep and its density is 10 lbm/ft3. The truck travels at 30 mph. The snow is discharged from the plow at an angle of 45⬚ from the direction of travel and 45⬚ above the horizontal, as shown in Figure P5.83. Estimate the force required to push the plow. 267 Nozzle exit area = 0.04 in.2 r = 8 in. U = 30 mph θ = 45° (in plane of blade) Q = 16 gal/min d = 8 in. ■ Figure P5.87 ■ Figure P5.83 Section 5.2.3 Derivation of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 5.84 Describe a few examples (include photographs/images) of turbines where the force/torque of a flowing fluid leads to rotation of a shaft. 5.88 GO Five liters/s of water enter the rotor shown in Video V5.10 and Fig. P5.88 along the axis of rotation. The cross-sectional area of each of the three nozzle exits normal to the relative velocity is 18 mm2. How large is the resisting torque required to hold the rotor stationary? How fast will the rotor spin steadily if the resisting torque is reduced to zero and (a) u ⫽ 0⬚, (b) u ⫽ 30⬚, (c) u ⫽ 60⬚? 5.85 Describe a few examples (include photographs/images) of pumps where a fluid is forced to move by “blades” mounted on a rotating shaft. 5.86 An incompressible fluid flows outward through a blower as indicated in Fig. P5.86. The shaft torque involved, Tshaft, is estimated with the following relationship: # Tshaft ⫽ mr2Vu2 # where m ⫽ mass flowrate through the blower, r2 ⫽ outer radius of blower, and Vu2 ⫽ tangential component of absolute fluid velocity leaving the blower. State the flow conditions that make this formula valid. Nozzle exit area normal to relative velocity = 18 mm2 r = 0.5m θ Q = 5 liters/s ■ Figure P5.88 5.89 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Tailless Helicopters,” Section 5.2.4.) Shown in Fig. P5.89 is a toy “helicopter” powered V2 Vθ2 r2 r1 ω ω ■ Figure P5.86 Section 5.2.4 Application of the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 5.87 Water enters a rotating lawn sprinkler through its base at the steady rate of 16 gal/min as shown in Fig. P5.87. The exit cross-sectional area of each of the two nozzles is 0.04 in.2, and the flow leaving each nozzle is tangential. The radius from the axis of rotation to the centerline of each nozzle is 8 in. (a) Determine the resisting torque required to hold the sprinkler head stationary. (b) Determine the resisting torque associated with the sprinkler rotating with a constant speed of 500 rev/min. (c) Determine the angular velocity of the sprinkler if no resisting torque is applied. Balloon ■ Figure P5.89 268 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis Q = 230 ft3/min by air escaping from a balloon. The air from the balloon flows radially through each of the three propeller blades and out through small nozzles at the tips of the blades. Explain physically how this flow can cause the rotation necessary to rotate the blades to produce the needed lifting force. 30° 5.90 A water turbine wheel rotates at the rate of 50 rpm in the direction shown in Fig. P5.90. The inner radius, r2, of the blade row is 2 ft, and the outer radius, r1, is 4 ft. The absolute velocity vector at the turbine rotor entrance makes an angle of 20 with the tangential direction. The inlet blade angle is 60 relative to the tangential direction. The blade outlet angle is 120. The flowrate is 20 ft3/s. For the flow tangent to the rotor blade surface at inlet and outlet, determine an appropriate constant blade height, b, and the corresponding power available at the rotor shaft. V1 12 in. 5 in. 1725 rpm b 1 in. 20° ■ Figure P5.92 V1 W1 60° 50 rpm 120° measured with respect to the tangential direction at the outside diameter of the rotor. (a) What would be a reasonable blade inlet angle (measured with respect to the tangential direction at the inside diameter of the rotor)? (b) Find the power required to run the fan. r1 = 4 ft r2 = 5.93 The radial component of velocity of water leaving the centrifugal pump sketched in Fig. P5.93 is 30 ft/s. The magnitude of the absolute velocity at the pump exit is 60 ft/s. The fluid enters the pump rotor radially. Calculate the shaft work required per unit mass flowing through the pump. 2 ft W2 Section (1) Section (2) VR2 = 30 ft/s Q = 20 ft3/s ■ Figure P5.90 0.5 ft V2 = 60 ft/s V1 5.91 A water turbine with radial flow has the dimensions shown in Fig. P5.91. The absolute entering velocity is 50 ft/s, and it makes an angle of 30 with the tangent to the rotor. The absolute exit velocity is directed radially inward. The angular speed of the rotor is 120 rpm. Find the power delivered to the shaft of the turbine. 0.2 ft 2000 rpm V1 = 50 ft/s 30° 1 ft ■ Figure P5.93 r1 = 2 ft 5.94 An axial flow turbomachine rotor involves the upstream (1) and downstream (2) velocity triangles shown in Fig. P5.94. Is this turbomachine a turbine or a fan? Sketch an appropriate blade section and determine energy transferred per unit mass of fluid. V2 r2 = 1 ft 120 rpm W1 = W2 W1 Section (1) W2 U1 = 30 ft/s U2 = 30 ft/s Section (2) ■ Figure P5.91 1 V1 = 20 ft/s 60° ■ Figure P5.94 5.92 A fan (see Fig. P5.92) has a bladed rotor of 12-in. outside diameter and 5-in. inside diameter and runs at 1725 rpm. The width of each rotor blade is 1 in. from blade inlet to outlet. The volume flowrate is steady at 230 ft3/min, and the absolute velocity of the air at blade inlet, V1, is purely radial. The blade discharge angle is 30 5.95 An inward flow radial turbine (see Fig. P5.95) involves a nozzle angle, 1, of 60 and an inlet rotor tip speed, U1, of 6 m/s. The ratio of rotor inlet to outlet diameters is 1.8. The absolute velocity leaving the rotor at section (2) is radial with a magnitude of 269 Problems Section 5.3.2 Application of the Energy Equation—No Shaft Work and Section 5.3.3 Comparison of the Energy Equation with the Bernoulli Equation Section (1) α1 5.100 A 100-ft-wide river with a flowrate of 2400 ft3/s flows over a rock pile as shown in Fig. P5.100. Determine the direction of flow and the head loss associated with the flow across the rock pile. r1 r2 V2 = 12 m/s (1) Section (2) (2) 4 ft 2 ft Rock pile ■ Figure P5.100 ■ Figure P5.95 12 m/s. Determine the energy transfer per unit mass of fluid flowing through this turbine if the fluid is (a) air, (b) water. 5.96 A sketch of the arithmetic mean radius blade sections of an axial-flow water turbine stage is shown in Fig. P5.96. The rotor speed is 1000 rpm. (a) Sketch and label velocity triangles for the flow entering and leaving the rotor row. Use V for absolute velocity, W for relative velocity, and U for blade velocity. Assume flow enters and leaves each blade row at the blade angles shown. (b) Calculate the work per unit mass delivered at the shaft. 5.101 A horizontal Venturi flow meter consists of a converging–diverging conduit as indicated in Fig. P5.101. The diameters of cross sections (1) and (2) are 6 and 4 in. The velocity and static pressure are uniformly distributed at cross sections (1) and (2). Determine the volume flowrate (ft3/s) through the meter if p1  p2  3 psi, the flowing fluid is oil (p  56 lbm/ft3), and the loss per unit mass from (1) to (2) is negligibly small. D1 = 6 in. Section (1) D2 = 4 in. rm = 6 in. Section (2) 1000 rpm Rotor Stator U 70° U 45° Blade sections at the arithmetic mean radius ■ Figure P5.101 5.102 Oil (SG  0.9) flows downward through a vertical pipe contraction as shown in Fig. P5.102. If the mercury manometer reading, h, is 100 mm, determine the volume flowrate for frictionless flow. Is the actual flowrate more or less than the frictionless value? Explain. 45° 300 mm ■ Figure P5.96 5.97 By using velocity triangles for flow upstream (1) and downstream (2) of a turbomachine rotor, prove that the shaft work in per unit mass flowing through the rotor is wshaft net in  V22  V21  U22  U21  W21  W22 2 0.6 m where V  absolute flow velocity magnitude, W  relative flow velocity magnitude, and U  blade speed. h Section 5.3.1 Derivation of the Energy Equation 5.98 Distinguish between shaft work and other kinds of work associated with a flowing fluid. ■ Figure P5.102 5.99 An incompressible fluid flows along a 0.20-m-diameter pipe with a uniform velocity of 3 m/s. If the pressure drop between the upstream and downstream sections of the pipe is 20 kPa, determine the power transferred to the fluid due to fluid normal stresses. 5.103 An incompressible liquid flows steadily along the pipe shown in Fig. P5.103. Determine the direction of flow and the head loss over the 6-m length of pipe. 100 mm 270 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis 0.75 m 1.0 m 3m 12 in. 6m 1.5 m ■ Figure P5.103 24 in. 5.104 A siphon is used to draw water at 70 F from a large container as indicated in Fig. P5.104. The inside diameter of the siphon line is 1 in. and the pipe centerline rises 3 ft above the essentially constant water level in the tank. Show that by varying the length of the siphon below the water level, h, the rate of flow through the siphon can be changed. Assuming frictionless flow, determine the maximum flowrate possible through the siphon. The limiting condition is the occurrence of cavitation in the siphon. Will the actual maximum flow be more or less than the frictionless value? Explain. ■ Figure P5.106 5.107 A gas expands through a nozzle from a pressure of 300 psia to a pressure of 5 psia. The enthalpy change involved, ȟ1  ȟ2, is 150 Btu/lbm. If the expansion is adiabatic but with frictional effects and the inlet gas speed is negligibly small, determine the exit gas velocity. 5.108 For the 180 elbow and nozzle flow shown in Fig. P5.108, determine the loss in available energy from section (1) to section (2). How much additional available energy is lost from section (2) to where the water comes to rest? 3 ft 6 in. y Section (2) h x 12 in. p1 = 15 psi V1 = 5 ft/s 1 in. Section (1) ■ Figure P5.108 ■ Figure P5.104 5.105 A water siphon having a constant inside diameter of 3 in. is arranged as shown in Fig. P5.105. If the friction loss between A and B is 0.8V 2/2, where V is the velocity of flow in the siphon, determine the flowrate involved. 4 ft A 12 ft 4 ft 5.109 An automobile engine will work best when the back pressure at the interface of the exhaust manifold and the engine block is minimized. Show how reduction of losses in the exhaust manifold, piping, and muffler will also reduce the back pressure. How could losses in the exhaust system be reduced? What primarily limits the minimization of exhaust system losses? 5.110 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Smart Shocks,” Section 5.3.3.) A 200-lb force applied to the end of the piston of the shock absorber shown in Fig. P5.110 causes the two ends of the shock absorber to move toward each other with a speed of 5 ft/s. Determine the head loss associated with the flow of the oil through the channel. Neglect gravity and any friction force between the piston and cylinder walls. 3 in. B Gas Oil ■ Figure P5.105 5.106 Water flows through a valve (see Fig. P5.106) at the rate of 1000 lbm/s. The pressure just upstream of the valve is 90 psi and the pressure drop across the valve is 50 psi. The inside diameters of the valve inlet and exit pipes are 12 and 24 in. If the flow through the valve occurs in a horizontal plane, determine the loss in available energy across the valve. p=0 Piston Channel 1-in. diameter 200 lb ■ Figure P5.110 Problems Section 5.3.2 Application of the Energy Equation— With Shaft Work †5.111 Based on flowrate and pressure rise information, estimate the power output of a human heart. 5.112 What is the maximum possible power output of the hydroelectric turbine shown in Fig. P5.112? 271 pressure at the 4-in.-diameter outlet of the hydrant is 10 psi. If head losses are negligibly small, determine the power that the pump must add to the water. 5.115 The hydroelectric turbine shown in Fig. P5.115 passes 8 million gal/min across a head of 600 ft. What is the maximum amount of power output possible? Why will the actual amount be less? 50 m 600 ft 1m 6 m/s ■ Figure P5.112 Turbine 5.113 GO Oil (SG  0.88) flows in an inclined pipe at a rate of 5 ft3/s as shown in Fig. P5.113. If the differential reading in the mercury manometer is 3 ft, calculate the power that the pump supplies to the oil if head losses are negligible. Turbine ■ Figure P5.115 5.116 A pump is to move water from a lake into a large, pressurized tank as shown in Fig. P5.116 at a rate of 1000 gal in 10 min or less. Will a pump that adds 3 hp to the water work for this purpose? Support your answer with appropriate calculations. Repeat the problem if the tank were pressurized to 3, rather than 2, atmospheres. 6 in. p = 2 atm h P Air Oil H 20 ft Pump 12 in. 3 ft ■ Figure P5.116 ■ Figure P5.113 5.114 The pumper truck shown in Fig. P5.114 is to deliver 1.5 ft3/s to a maximum elevation of 60 ft above the hydrant. The 5.117 Water is supplied at 150 ft3/s and 60 psi to a hydraulic turbine through a 3-ft inside-diameter inlet pipe as indicated in Fig. P5.117. The turbine discharge pipe has a 4-ft inside diameter. The static pressure at section (2), 10 ft below the turbine inlet, is 10-in. Hg vacuum. If the turbine develops 2500 hp, determine the power lost between sections (1) and (2). Section (1) p1 = 60 psi Q = 150 ft3/s D1 = 3 ft 60 ft Turbine 10 psi 4-in. diameter 10 ft p2 = 10-in. Hg vacuum D2 = 4 ft Hydrant ■ Figure P5.114 Section (2) ■ Figure P5.117 272 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis 5.118 Water is pumped from the tank shown in Fig. P5.118a. The head loss is known to be 1.2 V 2/2g, where V is the average velocity in the pipe. According to the pump manufacturer, the relationship between the pump head and the flowrate is as shown in Fig. P5.118b: hp  20  2000 Q2, where hp is in meters and Q is in m3/s. Determine the flowrate, Q. p4 p3 h 12 in. T 12 in. 20 hp, m Free jet 6m ■ Figure P5.121 10 hp = 20–2000Q2 0 0 Pump 0.05 0.10 Q, m3/s 0.07 m ( b) (a) ■ Figure P5.118 5.122 Water is pumped from a tank, point (1), to the top of a water plant aerator, point (2), as shown in Video V5.16 and Fig. P5.122 at a rate of 3.0 ft3/s. (a) Determine the power that the pump adds to the water if the head loss from (1) to (2) where V2  0 is 4 ft. (b) Determine the head loss from (2) to the bottom of the aerator column, point (3), if the average velocity at (3) is V3  2 ft/s. Aerator column (2) 5.119 Water is pumped from the large tank shown in Fig. P5.119. The head loss is known to be equal to 4V2/2g and the pump head is hp  20  4Q2, where hp is in ft when Q is in ft3/s. Determine the flowrate. 10 ft (1) (3) 5 ft 13 ft Q V 3 ft Pump Pump Pipe area = 0.10 ft2 ■ Figure P5.122 ■ Figure P5.119 5.120 Water flows by gravity from one lake to another as sketched in Fig. P5.120 at the steady rate of 80 gpm. What is the loss in available energy associated with this flow? If this same amount of loss is associated with pumping the fluid from the lower lake to the higher one at the same flowrate, estimate the amount of pumping power required. 5.123 Water is to be moved from one large reservoir to another at a higher elevation as indicated in Fig. P5.123. The loss of available energy associated with 2.5 ft3/s being pumped from sections (1) to (2) is loss  61V 2  2 ft2 s2, where V is the average velocity of water in the 8-in. inside-diameter piping involved. Determine the amount of shaft power required. Section (2) 8-in. insidediameter pipe 50 ft 50 ft Section (1) Pump ■ Figure P5.123 ■ Figure P5.120 5.121 The turbine shown in Fig. P5.121 develops 100 hp when the flowrate of water is 20 ft3/s. If all losses are negligible, determine (a) the elevation h, (b) the pressure difference across the turbine, and (c) the flowrate expected if the turbine were removed. 5.124 A 34-hp motor is required by an air ventilating fan to produce a 24-in.-diameter stream of air having a uniform speed of 40 ft/s. Determine the aerodynamic efficiency of the fan. 5.125 A pump moves water horizontally at a rate of 0.02 m3/s. Upstream of the pump where the pipe diameter is 90 mm, the pressure is 120 kPa. Downstream of the pump where the pipe diameter Problems is 30 mm, the pressure is 400 kPa. If the loss in energy across the pump due to fluid friction effects is 170 N ⴢ m/kg, determine the hydraulic efficiency of the pump. 5.126 Water is to be pumped from the large tank shown in Fig. P5.126 with an exit velocity of 6 m/s. It was determined that the original pump (pump 1) that supplies 1 kW of power to the water did not produce the desired velocity. Hence, it is proposed that an additional pump (pump 2) be installed as indicated to increase the flowrate to the desired value. How much power must pump 2 add to the water? The head loss for this flow is hL ⫽ 250 Q2, where hL is in m when Q is in m3/s. 273 of the object to a location in the wake at the exit plane of the pipe. (b) Determine the force that the air exerts on the object. Air 4 m/s Wake 1-m dia. 2-m-dia. 12 m/s Exit p = 50 N/m2 V = 10 m/s ■ Figure P5.129 2 V = 6 m/s Nozzle area = 0.01 m Pipe area = 0.02 m2 Pump #2 Pump #1 2m 5.130 Near the downstream end of a river spillway, a hydraulic jump often forms, as illustrated in Fig. P5.130 and Video V10.11. The velocity of the channel flow is reduced abruptly across the jump. Using the conservation of mass and linear momentum principles, derive the following expression for h2, h2 ⫽ ⫺ ■ Figure P5.126 5.127 (See Fluids in the News article titled “Curtain of Air,” Section 5.3.3.) The fan shown in Fig. P5.127 produces an air curtain to separate a loading dock from a cold storage room. The air curtain is a jet of air 10 ft wide, 0.5 ft thick moving with speed V ⫽ 30 ft/s. The loss associated with this flow is loss ⫽ KLV2/2, where KL ⫽ 5. How much power must the fan supply to the air to produce this flow? h1 h1 2 2V 21h1 ⫹ a b ⫹ g 2 B 2 The loss of available energy across the jump can also be determined if energy conservation is considered. Derive the loss expression g1h2 ⫺ h1 2 3 jump loss ⫽ 4h1h2 Fan h1 V = 30 ft/s Air curtain (0.5-ft thickness) Open door 10 ft ■ Figure P5.127 Section 5.3.3 Application of the Energy Equation— Combined with Linear Momentum 5.128 If a 34-hp motor is required by a ventilating fan to produce a 24-in. stream of air having a velocity of 40 ft/s as shown in Fig. P5.128, estimate (a) the efficiency of the fan and (b) the thrust of the supporting member on the conduit enclosing the fan. V1 ■ Figure P5.130 5.131 Water flows steadily down the inclined pipe as indicated in Fig P5.131. Determine the following: (a) the difference in pressure p1 ⫺ p2, (b) the loss between sections (1) and (2), (c) the net axial force exerted by the pipe wall on the flowing water between sections (1) and (2). Flo w 5 ft Section (1) 24 in. h2 6 in. 40 ft/s 30° Section (2) ■ Figure P5.128 5.129 Air flows past an object in a pipe of 2-m diameter and exits as a free jet as shown in Fig. P5.129. The velocity and pressure upstream are uniform at 10 m/s and 50 N/m2, respectively. At the pipe exit the velocity is nonuniform as indicated. The shear stress along the pipe wall is negligible. (a) Determine the head loss associated with a particle as it flows from the uniform velocity upstream 6 in. Mercury ■ Figure P5.131 274 Chapter 5 ■ Finite Control Volume Analysis 5.132 Water flows steadily in a pipe and exits as a free jet through an end cap that contains a filter as shown in Fig. P5.132. The flow is in a horizontal plane. The axial component, Ry, of the anchoring force needed to keep the end cap stationary is 60 lb. Determine the head loss for the flow through the end cap. Ry = 60 lb Area = 0.10 ft2 Rx Filter 30° Pipe Area = 0.12 ft2 V = 10 ft/s area is uniform. At section (2), the velocity profile is V  wc a R  r 1 7 b k̂ R where V  local velocity vector, wc  centerline velocity in the axial direction, R  pipe inside radius, and r  radius from pipe axis. Develop an expression for the loss in available energy between sections (1) and (2). 5.136 A small fan moves air at a mass flowrate of 0.004 lbm/s. Upstream of the fan, the pipe diameter is 2.5 in., the flow is laminar, the velocity distribution is parabolic, and the kinetic energy coefficient, a1, is equal to 2.0. Downstream of the fan, the pipe diameter is 1 in., the flow is turbulent, the velocity profile is quite flat, and the kinetic energy coefficient, a2, is equal to 1.08. If the rise in static pressure across the fan is 0.015 psi and the fan shaft draws 0.00024 hp, compare the value of loss calculated: (a) assuming uniform velocity distributions, (b) considering actual velocity distributions. ■ Figure P5.132 5.133 When fluid flows through an abrupt expansion as indicated in Fig. P5.133, the loss in available energy across the expansion, lossex, is often expressed as lossex  a1  A1 2 V 12 b A2 2 where A1  cross-sectional area upstream of expansion, A2  cross-sectional area downstream of expansion, and V1  velocity of flow upstream of expansion. Derive this relationship. Section (1) Section (2) ■ Figure P5.133 5.134 Two water jets collide and form one homogeneous jet as shown in Fig. P5.134. (a) Determine the speed, V, and direction, u, of the combined jet. (b) Determine the loss for a fluid particle flowing from (1) to (3), from (2) to (3). Gravity is negligible. Section 5.3.5 Combination of the Energy Equation and the Moment-of-Momentum Equation 5.137 Air enters a radial blower with zero angular momentum. It leaves with an absolute tangential velocity, Vu, of 200 ft/s. The rotor blade speed at rotor exit is 170 ft/s. If the stagnation pressure rise across the rotor is 0.4 psi, calculate the loss of available energy across the rotor and the rotor efficiency. 5.138 Water enters a pump impeller radially. It leaves the impeller with a tangential component of absolute velocity of 10 m/s. The impeller exit diameter is 60 mm, and the impeller speed is 1800 rpm. If the stagnation pressure rise across the impeller is 45 kPa, determine the loss of available energy across the impeller and the hydraulic efficiency of the pump. 5.139 Water enters an axial-flow turbine rotor with an absolute velocity tangential component, Vu, of 15 ft/s. The corresponding blade velocity, U, is 50 ft/s. The water leaves the rotor blade row with no angular momentum. If the stagnation pressure drop across the turbine is 12 psi, determine the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine. 5.140 An inward flow radial turbine (see Fig. P5.140) involves a nozzle angle, a1, of 60 and an inlet rotor tip speed, U1, of 30 ft/s. The ratio of rotor inlet to outlet diameters is 2.0. The radial component of velocity remains constant at 20 ft/s through the rotor, and the flow leaving the rotor at section (2) is without angular momentum. If the flowing fluid is water and the stagnation pressure drop across the rotor is 16 psi, determine the loss of available energy across the rotor and the hydraulic efficiency involved. V 0.12 m (3) θ V2 = 6 m/s 60° (2) 90° 0.10 m Vr1 = 20 ft/s (1) V1 = 4 m/s U1 = 30 ft/s ■ Figure P5.134 Section 5.3.4 Application of the Energy Equation to Nonuniform Flows 5.135 Water flows vertically upward in a circular cross-sectional pipe. At section (1), the velocity profile over the cross-sectional ■ Figure P5.140 r1 r2 2 1 Problems Section 5.3.4 Application of the Energy Equation to Nonuniform Flows 5.141 The distribution of axial direction velocity, u, in a pipe flow is linear from zero at the wall to maximum of uc at the centerline. Determine the average velocity, u, and the kinetic energy coefficient, a. ■ Lab Problems 5.1LP This problem involves the force that a jet of air exerts on a flat plate as the air is deflected by the plate. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H, which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 5.2LP This problem involves the pressure distribution produced on a flat plate that deflects a jet of air. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H, which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 5.3LP This problem involves the force that a jet of water exerts on a vane when the vane turns the jet through a given angle. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H, which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 275 5.4LP This problem involves the force needed to hold a pipe elbow stationary. To proceed with this problem, go to Appendix H, which is located in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www. wiley.com/college/munson. ■ Lifelong Learning Problems 5.1LL What are typical efficiencies associated with swimming and how can they be improved? 5.2LL Explain how local ionization of flowing air can accelerate it. How can this be useful? 5.3LL Discuss the main causes of loss of available energy in a turbo-pump and how they can be minimized. What are typical turbo-pump efficiencies? 5.4LL Discuss the main causes of loss of available energy in a turbine and how they can be minimized. What are typical turbine efficiencies? ■ FE Exam Problems Sample FE (Fundamentals of Engineering) exam questions for fluid mechanics are provided in WileyPLUS or on the book’s web site, www.wiley.com/college/munson. 6 Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow CHAPTER OPENING PHOTO: Flow past an airfoil at angle of attack: The flow of air around a model airfoil is made visible by smoke line flow visualization. Note the flow separation on the upper surface—see Ch. 9 for more details. (Photograph courtesy of NASA.2 Learning Objectives After completing this chapter, you should be able to: ■ determine various kinematic elements of the flow given the velocity field. ■ explain the conditions necessary for a velocity field to satisfy the continuity equation. ■ apply the concepts of stream function and velocity potential. ■ characterize simple potential flow fields. ■ analyze certain types of flows using the Navier–Stokes equations. In the previous chapter attention is focused on the use of finite control volumes for the solution of a variety of fluid mechanics problems. This approach is very practical and useful, since it does not generally require detailed knowledge of the pressure and velocity variations within the control volume. Typically, we found that only conditions on the surface of the control volume were needed, and thus problems could be solved without detailed knowledge of the flow field. Unfortunately, many situations arise in which the details of the flow are important and the finite control volume approach will not yield the desired information. For example, we may need to know how the velocity varies over the cross section of a pipe, or how the pressure and shear stress vary along the surface of an airplane wing. In these circumstances we need to develop relationships that apply at a point, or at least in a very small infinitesimal region within a given flow field. This approach, which involves an infinitesimal control volume, as distinguished from a finite control volume, is commonly referred to as differential analysis, since 1as we will soon discover2 the governing equations are differential equations. In this chapter we will provide an introduction to the differential equations that describe 1in detail2 the motion of fluids. Unfortunately, we will also find that these equations are rather complicated, nonlinear partial differential equations that cannot be solved exactly except in a few cases, where 276 6.1 V6.1 Spinning football-pressure contours V6.2 Spinning football-velocity vectors 6.1 Fluid Element Kinematics 277 simplifying assumptions are made. Thus, although differential analysis has the potential for supplying very detailed information about flow fields, this information is not easily extracted. Nevertheless, this approach provides a fundamental basis for the study of fluid mechanics. We do not want to be too discouraging at this point, since there are some exact solutions for laminar flow that can be obtained, and these have proved to be very useful. A few of these are included in this chapter. In addition, by making some simplifying assumptions, many other analytical solutions can be obtained. For example, in some circumstances it may be reasonable to assume that the effect of viscosity is small and can be neglected. This rather drastic assumption greatly simplifies the analysis and provides the opportunity to obtain detailed solutions to a variety of complex flow problems. Some examples of these so-called inviscid flow solutions are also described in this chapter. It is known that for certain types of flows the flow field can be conceptually divided into two regions—a very thin region near the boundaries of the system in which viscous effects are important, and a region away from the boundaries in which the flow is essentially inviscid. By making certain assumptions about the behavior of the fluid in the thin layer near the boundaries, and using the assumption of inviscid flow outside this layer, a large class of problems can be solved using differential analysis. These boundary layer problems are discussed in Chapter 9. Finally, it is to be noted that with the availability of powerful computers it is feasible to attempt to solve the differential equations using the techniques of numerical analysis. Although it is beyond the scope of this book to delve extensively into this approach, which is generally referred to as computational fluid dynamics 1CFD2, the reader should be aware of this approach to complex flow problems. CFD has become a common engineering tool, and a brief introduction can be found in Appendix A. To introduce the power of CFD, two animations based on the numerical computations are provided as shown in the margin. We begin our introduction to differential analysis by reviewing and extending some of the ideas associated with fluid kinematics that were introduced in Chapter 4. With this background the remainder of the chapter will be devoted to the derivation of the basic differential equations 1which will be based on the principle of conservation of mass and Newton’s second law of motion2 and to some applications. Fluid Element Kinematics Fluid element motion consists of translation, linear deformation, rotation, and angular deformation. In this section we will be concerned with the mathematical description of the motion of fluid elements moving in a flow field. A small fluid element in the shape of a cube that is initially in one position will move to another position during a short time interval dt as illustrated in Fig. 6.1. Because of the generally complex velocity variation within the field, we expect the element not only to translate from one position but also to have its volume changed 1linear deformation2, to rotate, and to undergo a change in shape 1angular deformation2. Although these movements and deformations occur simultaneously, we can consider each one separately as illustrated in Fig. 6.1. Since element motion and deformation are intimately related to the velocity and variation of velocity throughout the flow field, we will briefly review the manner in which velocity and acceleration fields can be described. Element at t0 Element at t0 + δ t = General motion + Translation + Linear deformation ■ Figure 6.1 Types of motion and deformation for a fluid element. + Rotation Angular deformation 278 Chapter 6 ■ Differential Analysis of Fluid Flow 6.1.1 Velocity and Acceleration Fields Revisited As discussed in detail in Section 4.1, the velocity field can be described by specifying the velocity V at all points, and at all times, within the flow field of interest. Thus, in terms of rectangular coordinates, the notation V 1x, y, z, t2 means that the velocity of a fluid particle depends on where it is located within the flow field 1as determined by its coordinates, x, y, and z2 and when it occupies the particular point 1as determined by the time, t2. As is pointed out in Section 4.1.1, this method of describing the fluid motion is called the Eulerian method. It is also convenient to express the velocity in terms of three rectangular components so that V  uî  vĵ  wk̂ z V w ^ k ^ i x ^ j v y u (6.1) where u, v, and w are the velocity components in the x, y, and