HANDBOOK OF RELIGION A Christian Engagement with Traditions, Teachings, and Practices TERRY C. MUCK, HAROLD A. NETLAND, AND GERALD R. McDERMOTT EDITORS K Terry C. Muck, Harold A. Netland and Gerald R. McDermott, eds., Handbook of Religion Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2014. Used by permission. (Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group) Contents Preface xi 9. Hinduism: Current Issues 69 Richard Fox Young Part 1 Introduction 1 1. The Christian Study of World Religion 3 Terry C. Muck 2. The Study of Religion 11 Terry C. Muck 3. A Christian Theology of Religions 19 Harold A. Netland 4. Christian Interaction with Other Religions 27 Paul Louis Metzger 10. Hinduism: Adherent Essay 76 Arvind Sharma 11. Buddhism: History, Beliefs, Practices 81 Terry C. Muck 12. Buddhism: Christian Contacts 87 Terry C. Muck 13. Buddhism: Theological Exchanges 96 Terry C. Muck 14. Buddhism: Current Issues 104 Terry C. Muck Part 2 World Religions 41 5. World Religions Introduction 43 Terry C. Muck 6. Hinduism: History, Beliefs, Practices 49 Richard Fox Young 7. Hinduism: Christian Contacts 56 Richard Fox Young 8. Hinduism: Theological Exchanges 63 Richard Fox Young 15. Buddhism: Adherent Essay 111 Rita M. Gross 16. Judaism: History, Beliefs, Practices 115 Richard Robinson 17. Judaism: Christian Contacts 123 Richard Robinson 18. Judaism: Theological Exchanges 130 Richard Robinson 19. Judaism: Current Issues 137 Richard Robinson v Terry C. Muck, Harold A. Netland and Gerald R. McDermott, eds., Handbook of Religion Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2014. Used by permission. (Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group) Contents vi 20. Judaism: Adherent Essay 144 Yaakov Ariel 21. Islam: History, Beliefs, Practices 151 Larry Poston 22. Islam: Christian Contacts 157 Larry Poston 23. Islam: Theological Exchanges 165 Larry Poston 24. Islam: Current Issues 171 Larry Poston 25. Islam: Adherent Essay 177 Sarmad Qutub and Musa Qutub Part 3 Indigenous Religions 181 26. Indigenous Religions Introduction 183 Terry C. Muck 27. India: History, Beliefs, Practices 187 Eloise Hiebert Meneses 28. India: Christian Contacts 194 Eloise Hiebert Meneses 29. India: Theological Exchanges 202 Eloise Hiebert Meneses 30. India: Current Issues 209 Eloise Hiebert Meneses 31. China: History, Beliefs, Practices 216 Jonathan Seitz 32. China: Christian Contacts 222 Jonathan Seitz 33. China: Theological Exchanges 228 Jonathan Seitz 34. China: Current Issues 235 Jonathan Seitz 35. Southeast Asia: History, Beliefs, Practices 240 Russell H. Bowers 36. Southeast Asia: Christian Contacts 248 Russell H. Bowers 37. Southeast Asia: Theological Exchanges 255 Russell H. Bowers 38. Southeast Asia: Current Issues 262 Russell H. Bowers 39. North Asia: History, Beliefs, Practices 269 Sebastian Kim 40. North Asia: Christian Contacts 276 Sebastian Kim 41. North Asia: Theological Exchanges 282 Sebastian Kim 42. North Asia: Current Issues 289 Sebastian Kim 43. Europe: History, Beliefs, Practices 295 Richard Shaw 44. Europe: Christian Contacts 301 Richard Shaw 45. Europe: Theological Exchanges 307 Richard Shaw 46. Europe: Current Issues 313 Richard Shaw 47. Middle East: History, Beliefs, Practices 320 J. Andrew Dearman 48. Middle East: Christian Contacts 327 J. Andrew Dearman 49. Middle East: Theological Exchanges 332 J. Andrew Dearman 50. Middle East: Current Issues 338 J. Andrew Dearman 51. Africa: History, Beliefs, Practices 343 Irving Hexham Terry C. Muck, Harold A. Netland and Gerald R. McDermott, eds., Handbook of Religion Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2014. Used by permission. (Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group) Contents 52. Africa: Christian Contacts 352 Irving Hexham 53. Africa: Theological Exchanges 359 Irving Hexham 54. Africa: Current Issues 367 Irving Hexham 55. Oceania: History, Beliefs, Practices 374 Charles Farhadian 56. Oceania: Christian Contacts 382 Charles Farhadian 57. Oceania: Theological Exchanges 389 Charles Farhadian 58. Oceania: Current Issues 395 Charles Farhadian 59. North America: History, Beliefs, Practices 401 Christopher Vecsey 60. North America: Christian Contacts 408 Christopher Vecsey 61. North America: Theological Exchanges 414 Christopher Vecsey 62. North America: Current Issues 420 Christopher Vecsey 63. Meso- and South America: History, Beliefs, Practices 426 William Svelmoe 64. Meso- and South America: Christian Contacts 434 William Svelmoe 65. Meso- and South America: Theological Exchanges 441 William Svelmoe 66. Meso- and South America: Current Issues 448 William Svelmoe vii Part 4 New Religious Movements 455 67. New Religious Movements (NRM) Introduction 457 Terry C. Muck 68. NRM: Christian Derivatives Introduction 461 Terry C. Muck 69. Church of Jesus Christ of LatterDay Saints: History, Beliefs, Practices 463 Craig Blomberg 70. Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 468 Craig Blomberg 71. Church of Jesus Christ of LatterDay Saints: Adherent Essay 472 Robert L. Millet 72. Jehovah’s Witnesses: History, Beliefs, Practices 476 George Chryssides 73. Jehovah’s Witnesses: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 481 George Chryssides 74. Jehovah’s Witnesses: Adherent Essay 485 Rolf Furulli 75. Church of Christ, Scientist: History, Beliefs, Practices 489 John K. Simmons 76. Church of Christ, Scientist: Adherent Essay 494 Shirley Paulson 77. NRM: World Religion Derivatives Introduction 498 Terry C. Muck 78. Nation of Islam: History, Beliefs, Practices 500 Steven Tsoukalas 79. Nation of Islam: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 505 Steven Tsoukalas Terry C. Muck, Harold A. Netland and Gerald R. McDermott, eds., Handbook of Religion Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2014. Used by permission. (Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group) Contents viii 80. Transcendental Meditation: History, Beliefs, Practices 510 Geof Gilpin 81. Transcendental Meditation: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 515 Geof Gilpin 82. Soka Gakkai: History, Beliefs, Practices 520 Guy McCloskey 83. Soka Gakkai: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 525 William Aiken 84. Soka Gakkai: Adherent Essay 529 Virginia Benson 85. NRM: Nature Religions Introduction 533 Terry C. Muck 86. Paganism and Neopaganism: History, Beliefs, Practices 535 John Morehead 87. Paganism and Neopaganism: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 539 John Morehead 88. Paganism and Neopaganism: Adherent Essay 543 Gus diZerega 89. Gnosticism: History, Beliefs, Practices 547 Carl Raschke 90. Gnosticism: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 552 Carl Raschke 91. Environmentalism: History, Beliefs, Practices 557 Calvin DeWitt 92. Environmentalism: Adherent Essay 562 Roger S. Gottlieb 93. NRM: A-Religions Introduction 566 Terry C. Muck 94. Cults: History, Beliefs, Practices 568 Suzanne Newcombe 95. Cults: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 573 Sarah Harvey 96. Satanism: History, Beliefs, Practices 578 Kennet Granholm 97. Satanism: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 583 Kennet Granholm 98. Satanism: Adherent Essay 588 Don Webb 99. Atheism: History, Beliefs, Practices 592 James A. Beverley 100. Atheism: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 597 James A. Beverley 101. Atheism: Adherent Essay 602 Ed Buckner 102. NRM: Psychological Religions Introduction 606 Terry C. Muck 103. Scientology: History, Beliefs, Practices 608 Douglas Cowan 104. Scientology: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 615 Douglas Cowan 105. Transpersonal Psychology: History, Beliefs, Practices 620 Frances S. Adeney 106. Transpersonal Psychology: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 625 Frances S. Adeney 107. New Age: History, Beliefs, Practices 629 J. Gordon Melton 108. New Age: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 635 J. Gordon Melton Terry C. Muck, Harold A. Netland and Gerald R. McDermott, eds., Handbook of Religion Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2014. Used by permission. (Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group) Contents 109. NRM: Political and Economic Religions Introduction 641 Terry C. Muck 110. Civil Religion: History, Beliefs, Practices 643 Arthur Remillard 111. Civil Religion: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 648 Arthur Remillard 112. Christian Identity: History, Beliefs, Practices 653 Michael Barkun 113. Christian Identity: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 658 Michael Barkun 114. Marxism: History, Beliefs, Practices 663 James Thobaben 115. Marxism: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 669 James Thobaben 116. Marxism: Adherent Essay 675 Roger S. Gottlieb 117. NRM: Social Religions Introduction 679 Terry C. Muck 118. Unification Church: History, Beliefs, Practices 681 James A. Beverley 119. Unification Church: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 686 James A. Beverley 120. Freemasonry: History, Beliefs, Practices 690 Steven Tsoukalas 121. Freemasonry: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 694 Steven Tsoukalas ix 122. The Family International: History, Beliefs, Practices 699 James Chancellor 123. The Family International: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 705 James Chancellor 124. The Family International: Adherent Essay 710 Claire Borowik 125. Baha’i: History, Beliefs, Practices 714 Christopher Buck 126. Baha’i: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 720 Christopher Buck Part 5 Essays 725 127. Essays Introduction 727 Terry C. Muck 128. Religion and Science 729 S. Mark Heim 129. Religion and Gender 736 Ursula King 130. Religion and the Environment 746 Sandra L. Richter 131. Religion and Politics 756 Richard V. Pierard 132. Religion and Violence 764 Sallie B. King 133. Religion and Human Rights 774 Frances S. Adeney 134. Religion and the Family 781 Desiree L. Segura-April List of Contributors 791 Index 795 Terry C. Muck, Harold A. Netland and Gerald R. McDermott, eds., Handbook of Religion Baker Academic, a division of Baker Publishing Group, © 2014. Used by permission. (Unpublished manuscript—copyright protected Baker Publishing Group) 125 Baha’i: History, Beliefs, Practices CHRISTOPHER BUCK History The Baha’i Faith was founded by two men: the Bab (the “Gate,” 1819–1850) and Baha’u’llah (the “Glory of God,” 1817–1892). Baha’i history begins on May 22, 1844, when a young merchant, Sayyid ‘Ali-Muhammad Shirazi, proclaimed himself to be a Messenger of God and Herald of a greater One to follow. The Bab’s religious claims outraged the clerics of Shi‘a Islam, the predominant religion in Persia, who pronounced the death sentence on the Bab. He was executed before a firing squad of 750 soldiers in Tabriz on July 9, 1850. The Bab’s primary purpose was to prepare the way for the advent of a messianic figure greater than himself. Baha’is believe that this was none other than Mirza Husayn-‘Ali Nuri Mazandarani, known by his spiritual title, Baha’u’llah. In 1852, Baha’u’llah was arrested because he was a Babi leader, and was thrown in jail in the capital of Persia, Tehran. During four months of imprisonment Baha’u’llah experienced prophetic visions that bade him arise for the uplift of humanity and the unification of the world in a federation of nations. After his release in 1853, Baha’u’llah was exiled, first to Baghdad, then to Constantinople and later Adrianople in 1863, and finally, in 1868, to a penal colony at Akka in Palestine (now Israel). After several years, he was released to live in the house of Udi Khammar, where Baha’u’llah revealed the Kitab-i-Aqdas (“The Most Holy Book”) as his laws for the new Faith. Throughout his nearly 40-year prophetic career, Baha’u’llah revealed a prodigious corpus of writings that comprise the heart of Baha’i scripture—the equivalent of a hundred books. Baha’u’llah passed away on May 29, 1892. Baha’i: History, Beliefs, Practices 715 Study Aid #228 Baha’i Timeline The Bab (d. 1850) ‘Abdul-Baha (d. 1921) Kitab-i-Aqdas revealed (1873) Shoghi Effendi (d. 1957) Baha’u’llah (d. 1892) Universal House of Justice established in Haifa, Israel (1963) In his Will and Testament, Baha’u’llah designated his son ‘Abdu’l-Baha—who had long emerged as the natural and obvious leader—as his successor. ‘Abdu’l-Baha had traveled throughout North Africa, Europe, the United States and Canada in 1910–1913, promoting Baha’u’llah’s gospel of social salvation—justice, virtue, and unity. ‘Abdu’l-Baha led the Baha’i world until his passing in 1921. His grandson, Shoghi Effendi, who was studying at Oxford University at the time of ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s “ascension” (as Baha’is honorifically refer to his death), assumed the leadership of the Baha’i community, as explicitly provided for in ‘Abdu’l-Baha’s own Will and Testament. Shoghi Effendi orchestrated the worldwide development and expansion of the Baha’i religion through a series of global initiatives, or “Plans,” that proved highly successful in the systematic growth of the new religious community. As a result, the Baha’i Faith now comes close to being the most widespread religious community in the world today— exceeded only by Christianity. Five years after Shoghi Effendi’s passing in 1957, Baha’i representatives from the various National Spiritual Assemblies (democratically elected Baha’i councils) worldwide, met in 1963 in Haifa, Israel, to elect the first Universal House of Justice, a nine-member international council (elected every five years) that now directs the affairs of the Baha’i world, with its seat on Mt. Carmel in Haifa, Israel. This is considered a divine institution, as Baha’u’llah had explicitly ordained the Universal House of Justice Not all places in the world are open to the Baha’i tradition. Ever since the Islamic Revolution of 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran has systematically oppressed the Baha’i community. Through draconian measures that exclude the Baha’is from the protections of the Iran’s Constitution, the regime bars Baha’is from the constitutional rights enjoyed, at least in theory, by other religious minorities. Beliefs Baha’i belief acknowledges one true God as an “unknowable Essence,” far beyond the reach and ken of men. In other words, God may not be comprehended Baha’i: History, Beliefs, Practices 716 but only apprehended. God is a profound mystery, yet with clues everywhere, pervading creation. Since God cannot be known by essence, only the nature and will of God can be appreciated. “Progressive Revelation” is the Baha’i belief that Messengers of God successively appear throughout history to establish world religions that renew and amplify spiritual teachings and declare new social laws suited for that day and age. These Messengers of God reveal, from age to age, God’s will and purpose. Baha’is consider such religious figures as Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Christ and Muhammad to be such Messengers of God. Many world religions look forward to a time when the world would be saved by a world-messiah. Baha’is see these messianic expectations as convergent. In 1863 in Baghdad, Baha’u’llah proclaimed himself to be the “Promised One” of all religions, and as the one whom Christ foretold would come in the spirit and power of Christ himself— not as a reincarnation, nor as the Incarnation, but as the “Manifestation” of God. Baha’is believe that Baha’u’llah symbolically fulfills many religions prophecies, for example, Baha’is regard Baha’u’llah as the return of Christ. Baha’is also believe that Baha’u’llah has come, in fulfillment of Jewish prophecies, as the Lord of Hosts and “Everlasting Father” (even though these were not traditionally believed to be prophetic titles). Baha’u’llah, moreover, is seen by Baha’is as the return of Jesus in Sunni Islam; as the return of Husayn in Shi‘a Islam; as Shah Bahram Varjavand for the Zoroastrians; as Maitreya, or the Fifth Buddha, in Buddhist millennial belief; as Kalki Viṣṇuyaśas in Hindu (Vaisnavaite) chiliasm. Many Native American Baha’is also believe in Baha’u’llah as the return of White Buffalo Calf Woman for the Lakota, the return of Deganawida among the Iroquois, and the return of Viracocha among the Quechua Indians. In a word, they believe that Baha’u’llah is the world-messiah. A Baha’i accepts the teachings of Baha’u’llah and the interpretive authority of ‘Abdu’l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi, as well as the ongoing governing authority of the Universal House of Justice. Baha’is live according to the laws and precepts revealed by Baha’u’llah in the Most Holy Book, as further elucidated by ‘Abdu’l-Baha and Shoghi Effendi, and as extended and adapted, by the Universal House of Justice, to new situations in which Baha’i principles may be wisely applied. Study Aid #229 Baha’i Beliefs One God Equality of Women and Men Oneness of Humanity Elimination of Prejudice Common Foundations of All Religions Universal Education Harmony of Science and Religion Baha’i: History, Beliefs, Practices 717 Study Aid #230 Baha’i Demographics Number of Baha’is in the world: 7,447,000. Percentage of world population: 0.1 percent. Countries where Baha’is more than 50 percent: None Baha’is have promoted their message of unity in more countries than any other smaller religion. The Baha’i religious tradition is the only religion to have grown faster in every United Nations region over the past 100 years than the population. Hence it is the fastest growing religion over that period. Baha’is have viable communities in every country of the world except North Korea and the Vatican. Baha’is often talk about the “Three Onenesses”: that there is but one, almighty God; that world religions, in their pure form, impart divine truths; and that humanity— metaphorically, biologically and spiritually—is “one family.” The purpose of the Baha’i Faith is to unify the world by establishing a common foundation for harmonious and prosperous individual and social life. Some of the more prominent Baha’i beliefs include the equality of men and women, the harmony of science and religion, the need for a universal language, peace among nations, races and religions, disarmament, world selfgovernance through international law, the elimination of prejudices of all kinds, where the purpose of justice is understood to be precondition for the appearance of true unity and prosperity. On each continent, Baha’is have built magnificent temples which are open to everyone who wishes to experience their architectural beauty and soulful atmosphere. Perhaps the most celebrated Baha’i house of worship is the Lotus Temple in New Delhi, India, which attracts more visitors annually than the Taj Mahal. In 2008, UNESCO designated the Shrine of the Bab (and surrounding Baha’i terraces and gardens at the Baha’i World Centre on Mount Carmel in Haifa, Israel) and the Shrine of Baha’u’llah in ‘Akka as “World Heritage sites”—the first modern religious edifices to be so designated. Baha’i Practices The purpose of life, in the Baha’i view, is to know and worship God, to acquire virtues, and to carry forward an ever-advancing civilization. Individually, Baha’is pray, fast, meditate, and work. Baha’u’llah teaches that when done in the spirit of service to humanity, work is a sacred undertaking and thus is a form of worship. Baha’is promote unity through non-political means. Baha’is have a spiritual, solar calendar of nineteen months of nineteen days each, with four or five intercalary days to round out each solar year. Each day, month, year and cycle of years is given a name that reflects one of the attributes Baha’i: History, Beliefs, Practices 718 Study Aid #231 Baha’is by World Region Asia 3,551,000 Africa 2,176,000 Latin America 941,000 North America 527,000 Europe 144,000 Oceania 108,000 of God, as manifested in such human perfections as Honor, Justice, Mercy, Generosity, Grandeur, and the like. By keeping these sterling qualities of character in mind, Baha’is learn, over time, what it means to be honorable, just, merciful, generous, and noble. The Baha’i year begins on the first day of Spring (March 21), following a nineteenday period of fasting, from sunrise to sunset, lasting from March 2–20. At the beginning of every Baha’i month, each Baha’i community gathers for a Nineteen-Day Feast, consisting of spiritual, consultative, and social portions. Baha’is observe nine Holy Days, on which work is suspended. Baha’is participate in a series of open “study circles,” a guided group self-study in a dynamic sequence of brief courses. Each course equips participants with not only fundamental knowledge about the Baha’i religion, but with basic skills necessary to effectively teach the Baha’i Faith to others, and to organize children’s classes, lead activities among junior youth and youth, hold inspirational devotional gatherings open to all, and facilitate the learning process among believers and those interested in the Faith. The world, Baha’is believe, evolves not only physically, but spiritually and socially. Baha’is understand that, in this day and age, the will of God for humanity is to bring about global unity through diversity as the next logical stage in the world’s social evolution. Baha’i principles and social teachings are for the world at large. If carried out in socially and scientifically enlightened ways, Baha’is believe that these divinely revealed precepts and practices will have a leavening influence and will eventually transform the world. Sources ‘Abdu’l-Baha. The Works of ‘Abdu’l-Baha. Baha’i Reference Library (“BRL”). http:// reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/. Baha’u’llah. The Works of Baha’u’llah. BRL. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/b/. Christopher Buck. Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baha’i Faith. State University of New York Press, 1999. Baha’i: History, Beliefs, Practices 719 ——— . Symbol & Secret: Qur’án Commentary in Bahá’u’lláh’s Kitáb-i Íqan. Kalimat Press, 2004. Shoghi Effendi. The Works of Shoghi Effendi. BRL. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/. Brian Lepard. In the Glory of the Father: The Baha’i Faith and Christianity. Baha’i Publishing, 2008. Peter Smith. An Introduction to the Baha’i Faith. Cambridge University Press, 2008. Michael Sours. Preparing for a Baha’i/Christian Dialogue, 3 vols. Oneworld, 1990–1994. Universal House of Justice. The Works of the Universal House of Justice/Baha’i International Community Documents and Statements. BRL. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/uhj/. 126 Baha’i: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues CHRISTOPHER BUCK Issues that arise in the course of Baha’i-Christian interfaith encounters, beginning with issues arising from Baha’i-Christian religious dialogue, may be briefly summarized as follows. Individual Salvation and Social Salvation The Baha’i Faith has a simultaneous emphasis on both personal and social transformation. Shoghi Effendi, great-grandson of Baha’u’llah and “Guardian” of the Baha’i Faith from 1921 to 1957, has written that the Baha’i Faith’s mission is “the salvation, through unification, of the entire planet.” (Effendi 1980, 116.) Baha’u’llah came for the salvation of entire societies as well as souls. From the Baha’i perspective, salvation history is a process that has progressively unfolded throughout the course of prophetic history, and which has reached its most advanced stage in the advent of Baha’u’llah: The declared purpose of history’s series of prophetic revelations, therefore, has been not only to guide the individual seeker on the path of personal salvation, but to prepare the whole of the human family for the great eschatological Event lying ahead, through which the life of the world will itself be entirely transformed. (Baha’i World Centre, 2006, 54.) Baha’i: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 721 Study Aid #232 Typology of Baha’i-Christian Contacts Witness Disinterest Interest Polemics Dialogue The Baha’i statement issued by the Baha’i World Centre, “One Common Faith,” begins with the observation that, in the early 20th century, the “dominant world faith” was not Christianity, but “a materialistic interpretation of reality” (ibid., 3). Yet, as the twentieth century approached its close, “a sudden resurgence of religion as a subject of consuming global importance” emerged as a worldwide phenomenon (ibid., 5). The concomitant “search for justice and the promotion of the cause of international peace” had the effect of “arousing new perceptions of the individual’s role in society” (ibid., 6– 7) insofar as the “rational soul does not merely occupy a private sphere, but is an active participant in a social order” (ibid., 15). The Baha’i Faith and Christianity The most important recent Baha’i outreach to Christian leaders is the letter addressed “To the World’s Religious Leaders” in April 2002 by the Universal House of Justice. The nine members of the Universal House of Justice are elected—by plurality vote, with no nominations or campaigning allowed—by members of Baha’i national councils (each known as a “National Spiritual Assembly”), who convene once every five years in Haifa, Israel, site of the Baha’i World Centre. In “To the World’s Religious Leaders,” interfaith dialogue is highly regarded: “In the context of the transformation taking place in the human race’s conception of itself, the most promising new religious development seemed to be the interfaith movement.” In “To The World’s Religious Leaders,” the Universal House of Justice addresses the primary role of religion, Christianity included, as follows: Religion, as we are all aware, reaches to the roots of motivation. When it has been faithful to the spirit and example of the transcendent Figures who gave the world its great belief systems, it has awakened in whole populations capacities to love, to forgive, to create, to dare greatly, to overcome prejudice, to sacrifice for the common good and to discipline the impulses of animal instinct. Unquestionably, the seminal force in the civilizing of human nature has been the influence of the succession of these Manifestations of the Divine that extends back to the dawn of recorded history. The Universal House of Justice, “as the governing council of one of the world religions,” urges religious leaders, in a “spirit of goodwill,” to act concertedly to address the greatest problems that face the world today: “Vast numbers of people Baha’i: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 722 Study Aid #233 Baha’i–Christian Theological Exchanges Baha’i is fulfillment of Christianity All religions are one Baha’u’llah is successor to Jesus Reject original sin, the Trinity, Satan continue to endure the effects of ingrained prejudices of ethnicity, gender, nation, caste and class.” “Tragically, organized religion,” the Universal House of Justice goes on to say, “has long lent its credibility to fanaticism.” The problem is that “the greater part of organized religion stands paralyzed at the threshold of the future, gripped in those very dogmas and claims of privileged access to truth that have been responsible for creating some of the most bitter conflicts dividing the earth’s inhabitants.” Acknowledging that there are “certainly wide differences among the world’s major religious traditions with respect to social ordinances and forms of worship,” the Universal House of Justice maintains that religion, ideally, has “the unique power” to better the world. The Universal House of Justice’s letter extends an open invitation to the world’s religious leaders—leaders of Christianity included—to work collaboratively through interfaith endeavors: “Inspired by this perspective, the Baha’i community has been a vigorous promoter of interfaith activities from the time of their inception.” Current Social Issues of Deep Concern to Baha’is Before “social justice” served as the secular philosophy of modern democracies in the twentieth century, the Baha’i Faith had already established ethical principles and social laws for the ennobling of individuals and the ordering of societies. Social justice can only be universal if predicated on the unity of the human race. Justice and unity are thus the hallmarks of Baha’i precept and praxis, as Baha’u’llah declared: “The well-being of mankind, its peace and security, are unattainable unless and until its unity is firmly established” (Baha’u’llah 1978, 167.) As a collective ethical orientation, the Baha’i concept of social justice is dynamically linked with the principle of unity. “The purpose of justice,” Baha’u’llah declared, “is the appearance of unity among men.” (ibid., 67.) A Baha’i theory of social justice can be articulated from the Baha’i sacred writings themselves, and amplified by policy statements made by the Baha’i International Community, a religious non-governmental organization (NGO) with consultative status at the United Nations (UN). Formed in 1948 as an NGO at the United Nations, the Baha’i International Community (BIC) represents an association of democratically-elected national and regional (as in the case of Alaska and Hawaii) Baha’i governing bodies known as National Spiritual Assemblies. In 1970, the BIC was granted consultative status (now called “special” consultative status) with the UN Economic and Social Baha’i: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 723 Council (ECOSOC), followed by consultative status with the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) in 1976 and with the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) in 1989, when working relations with the World Health Organization (WHO) were also established. In close association with the UN Environment Program (UNEP), the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the UN Development Program (UNDP), the BIC has served as the primary channel for promoting Baha’i universal values for the common good at the international level. Social issues of deep concern to Baha’is, as represented by statements of the Baha’i International Community (BIC), include, inter alia, the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance. Human Rights Reform. Right to Freedom of Religion or Belief. Advancement of Women. Freedom of Conscience. Social Development. Minority Issues. Religious Persecution. Climate Change. Eradication of Violence Against Women and Girls. Eradicating Poverty. Full Employment and Decent Work. Mobilizing Institutional, Legal and Cultural Resources to Achieve Gender Equality. Situation of the Baha’is in the Islamic Republic of Iran. Situation of the Baha’is in Egypt. A New Framework for Global Prosperity. Search for Values in an Age of Transition. Sustainable Development. Overcoming Corruption and Safeguarding Integrity in Public Institutions. The Right to Education. Protection of Minorities. Women and Health. Study Aid #234 Baha’i Social Issues Racism Advancement of Women Eradicating Poverty Human Rights Sustainable Development Full Employment Freedom of Religion Climate Change Right to Education Baha’i: Theological Exchanges, Current Issues 724 Study Aid #235 Current Baha’i and Baha’i–Christian Issues Persecution in Iran and Egypt Individual Salvation/Social Salvation One common faith Baha’i Outreach to Christians Christ and Baha’u’llah Baha’is believe these current issues transcend religious and national boundaries. As problems without borders, their solutions must likewise cross religious boundaries. Baha’i Social Action and Public Discourse Baha’is are currently engaged in “three broad areas of action”: (1) “expansion and consolidation of the Baha’i community itself ”; (2) participation in “social action” and in (3) “the discourses of society” on such issues as “governance, the environment, climate change, the equality of men and women, human rights, to mention a few.” (Universal House of Justice, letter dated January 4, 2009 to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha’is of Australia.) Sources Baha’i International Community (BIC). Statements and Reports. http://www.bic.org/ statements-and-reports/statements. Baha’i World Centre. “The Kitab-i-Aqdas: Its Place in Baha’i Literature.” The Baha’i World. Baha’i World Centre, 1993. ———. One Common Faith (“OCF”). BRL. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bic/OCF/. ———. “To The World’s Religious Leaders.” http://www.bahai.org/selected-writings/ message-worlds-religious-leaders/. Baha’u’llah. Tablets of Baha’u’llah Revealed after the Kitab-i-Aqdas. Baha’i Publishing Trust, 1978. Christopher Buck, “Baha’i Faith and Social Action.” Encyclopedia of Activism and Social Justice, edited by Gary L. Anderson & Kathryn G. Herr. 1, 208–213. Sage, 2007. Shoghi Effendi, The World Order of Baha’u’llah. BRL. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/ WOB/. ———. The Promised Day Is Come (“PDC”). BRL. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/ PDC/. Paul Lample. Revelation & Social Reality: Learning to Translate What Is Written into Reality. Palabra Publications, 2009. Michael L. Penn and Aditi Malik. “The Protection and Development of the Human Spirit: An Expanded Focus for Human Rights Discourse.” Human Rights Quarterly 32, no. 3 (2010): 665–88.