This document is currently being converted. Please check back in a few minutes.
Out of Context, in Association: Human Remains Salvaged from
the Mini-athiliya Shell Midden, Sri Lanka
Samanti Kulatilake, Roshan D. Peiris, H. Nimal Perera, H. Jude Perera
Asian Perspectives, Volume 57, Number 1, 2018, pp. 51-82 (Article)
Published by University of Hawai'i Press
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/asi.2018.0002
For additional information about this article
https://muse.jhu.edu/article/693151
[ Access provided at 17 Jun 2022 02:15 GMT with no institutional affiliation ]
Out of Context, in Association: Human Remains
Salvaged from the Mini-athiliya Shell Midden,
Sri Lanka
Samanti KULATILAKE, Roshan D. PEIRIS, H. Nimal PERERA, and H. Jude PERERA
ABSTRACT
The skeletal evidence for early modern human occupation of South Asia is sparse. Sri
Lanka has been occupied by modern humans from the terminal Pleistocene, with a
skeletal record indicating continuity of occupation and settlement into the late
Holocene. This study focuses on the analysis of fragmented human remains dated to the
mid-Holocene recovered from a salvage archaeology operation conducted at a shell
midden in the coastal village of Mini-athiliya in southern Sri Lanka. The Mini-athiliya
site has been radiocarbon dated to ca. 3600 B.P. Large quantities of estuarine, marine,
and terrestrial shells, stone tools, lithic debris, and animal bones were associated with
the human skeletal remains recovered from this shell midden. The skeletal remains,
faunal remains, and stone tools from this site have been greatly disturbed by recent shell
mining activities. Much of the material collected from the piles of debris was mixed,
fragmented, and out of context. Our study refers to associations we make to the cultural
assemblage from this site to make inferences on the context of skeletal remains found.
The minimum number of individuals (MNI) identified from commingled remains is
five. In addition, another individual from an undisturbed context from this site was
previously reported. Based on tooth eruption and the presence and level of dental
attrition, the estimated age at death for these individuals ranges from 5 to 45 years.
Heavy attrition in the adult dentition indicates a highly abrasive diet with a marked
absence of caries among these relatively robust people. This study contributes to the
understanding of the bioarchaeological aspects of mid-Holocene aquatic foragers who
were contemporaries of early agricultural people of South Asia, while describing a
framework for managing a skeletal sample from a disturbed context. KEYWORDS:
shell midden, rescue archaeology, bioarchaeology, dental morphology, aquatic forager,
mid-Holocene, Sri Lanka.
Samanti Kulatilake is an Associate Professor of Biological Anthropology at the Department of
Sociology and Anthropology, Mount Royal University in Calgary, Canada. Roshan D. Peiris is a
Professor of Anatomy at the Division of Anatomy, Department of Basic Sciences, Faculty of Dental
Sciences, at the University of Peradeniya in Sri Lanka. H. Nimal Perera is the former Director of
Excavations at the National Archaeology Department of Sri Lanka and is currently Consultant to the
Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology in Sri Lanka. H. Jude Perera is affiliated with the Sri Lanka
Department of Archaeology.
Asian Perspectives, Vol. 57, No. 1 © 2018 by the University of Hawai‘i Press.
52
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
INTRODUCTION
THE REGION OF SOUTH ASIA HAS RECEIVED CONSIDERABLE ATTENTION in the discussion of
early dispersals of modern humans. While the skeletal record for anatomically modern
human occupation of South Asia is generally sparse, Sri Lanka is a notable exception.
Archaeological research in Sri Lanka over the last 150 years has yielded a wealth
of important information. Modern humans have occupied Sri Lanka from the
terminal Pleistocene, with early human remains from the island dated to 37,000 years
ago (H.N. Perera 2010). People from the late Pleistocene to the mid-Holocene of
Sri Lanka are commonly referred to as “Balangoda” people due to the discovery
of numerous prehistoric archaeological sites from the Balangoda district of southern
Sri Lanka. Archaeologically, these early hunter gatherer and aquatic forager
populations are associated with the Mesolithic cultural tradition popularly known
as the Balangoda culture (Deraniyagala 1992).
Early to mid-Holocene occupation of Sri Lanka is represented by several early
agricultural proto-historic and historic sites and a series of shell midden sites in the
southern parts of the island. Although many shell deposits encountered in the coastal
regions of Sri Lanka are attributed to natural processes such as intermittent lowering of
the sea levels during the mid-Holocene (Katupotha 1995), some shell patches and
mounds classified as shell middens have long been recognized as a class of sites of
archaeological significance. These sites include Pallemalala, Godawaya, and Miniathiliya, all located in the southern coastal belt of Sri Lanka (Deraniyagala 1958, 1992;
H.N. Perera 2010).
This study focuses on the shell midden site of Mini-athiliya (6°070 1200 N,80°560 4700 E),
near the town of Hungama (Fig. 1). Occasional human bones and teeth have been
previously encountered and reported by villagers working in the Mini-athiliya paddy
field and surrounding areas. Similar to shell midden exploitation occurring around the
world (Ceci 1984), the Mini-athiliya shell midden has been recently mined for
commercial purposes. During this mining operation, a village official had recognized
human skeletal remains among the mined midden material. He alerted the National
Archaeological Department and, under the direction of the third author, an excavation
team was deployed to undertake an emergency salvage archaeology operation to rescue
what was left of this site. The Hungama Mini-athiliya site and associated excavations are
identified as HMA 2007–2008 (H.N. Perera 2009). The excavation team intercepted
several piles of midden debris before they were sent to be crushed. During a follow-up
systematic excavation at Mini-athiliya, a single undisturbed burial (HMA 6) dated to ca.
3600 B.P.was recovered (Kulatilake et al. 2014). Here we have taken on the challenge of
sorting, identifying, describing, and analyzing the fragmented human remains recovered
out of context from the piles of midden debris.
It is pertinent to note at the onset that most of the contextual data for the
commingled remains are unavailable due to the nature of the rescue archaeology
operation, which recovered only some information on the location of the human
remains dug up by the shell miners (Fig. 2). Nonetheless, we describe the strategy we
adopted to manage this highly disturbed context and assess the information we
gleaned from limited and fragmented bioarchaeological material. Describing a rescue
archaeology excavation conducted at a shell midden site in South Africa, Orton
(2009) concludes that if the site had been discovered intact, it would have provided
one of the best archaeological sequences in the area. Similarly, the loss of contextual
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
53
Fig. 1. Map of Sri Lanka showing the location of Mini-athiliya and other midden sites.
data precludes the application of more refined techniques of data recovery and
analysis of the material from the salvage archaeology operation at Mini-athiliya.
Throughout this article, we describe the limitations we encountered, offer some
conclusions of which we are confident, and make further inferences that require
further testing.
A major objective of this article is to describe the mid-Holocene people of Miniathiliya, as represented by the small sample identified from this site. The data, although
limited by the nature of the disruption to the site, contributes to understanding the
biological anthropology of people within this regional and chronological framework.
The human skeletal and dental sample from Mini-athiliya includes a minimum of
five individuals identified from commingled midden remains. They are represented
primarily by their dentition along with a few fragmented cranial and postcranial
54
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
Fig. 2. A commercially dug up pile of shells at Mini-athiliya.
elements. In this study, we also describe the dentition of a sixth individual previously
excavated in situ. We examine the types of bio-cultural adaptations of these coastal
people as suggested by their dentition and skeletal remains and other lines of
archaeological evidence from this site. As well, we assess the bioarchaeological
evidence that places the Mini-athiliya skeletal assemblage within the context of other
mid-Holocene people documented so far from the region.
THE MID-HOLOCENE ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD OF SOUTH ASIA: THE
CHRONOLOGICAL CONTEXT FOR SHELL MIDDEN SITES IN SOUTHERN SRI LANKA
Few systematic survey and excavation reports of midden sites from peninsular South
Asia are available. One such survey report documents midden deposits radiocarbon
dated to ca. 7000 B.P. along the Indus delta (Sindh) and the coast of Las Bela
(Balochistan), where chipped stone artifacts together with marine and mangrove shells
were encountered (Biagi 2013). The shell accumulations and midden sites of Sri Lanka
have garnered more attention, however; several studies have been conducted there
since the late 1950s (Deraniyagala 1958; Kennedy 1965). The people associated with
mid-Holocene shell midden sites from Sri Lanka have been described as hunter
gatherers and aquatic foragers who used technological traditions that included
microlithic tools; they seem to be indicative of the Mesolithic archaeological phase of
South Asia (Deraniyagala 1992; Kennedy 2000).
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
55
The Neolithic cultural phase is well-documented throughout the Holocene in
peninsular South Asia. However, firm evidence of extensive early Neolithic
settlements is not recorded from Sri Lanka (cf. Premathilake 2006). Mid-Holocene
agricultural populations of South Asia and the people from the Harappan (Indus)
civilization and associated sites have been the primary focus of numerous
bioarchaeological and cemetery studies (Kennedy 1975, 1976, 2000; Lukacs 1984).
Represented by cremated remains within urn burials and the associated megalithic
cultural complex, early Iron Age agricultural people from the mid- to late Holocene of
peninsular South Asia and Sri Lanka have also been of interest (Kennedy 1975, 2000).
The contemporaries of those agricultural groups—the hunter-gatherer and aquatic
forager populations—have received relatively little attention, primarily due to limited
systematic archaeological investigations and hence a paucity of evidence. The absence
of secure radiocarbon dates for many of these sites poses an additional challenge.
In the early to mid-Holocene archaeological record of Sri Lanka, Bellan-bandi
Palassa (6°310 000 N,80°470 6000 E), stands out as a well-documented site where people
have subsisted on hunting and gathering as well as aquatic foraging. Located inland in
the Balangoda district adjacent to a tributary of the Walawe River, this kitchen midden
site has yielded the skeletal and dental remains of an estimated 30–35 individuals
(Deraniyagala 1958; Deraniyagala and Kennedy 1972; Kanthilatha et al. 2012;
Kennedy 2000; Kennedy and Elgart 1998). Some of these burials are described as being
positioned as flexed burials with associated grave goods (Deraniyagala 1958). The
skeletal remains are described as muscular and archaic by Kennedy (1965, 2000).
Multiple conflicting dates have been obtained for the Bellan-bandi Palassa site,
partly due to the mixing of prehistoric and historic contexts of the site following
natural processes and human activity, with the period of intensive habitation dated to
ca. 12,000 B.P. (H.N. Perera 2010). This date is supported by a colluvial depositional
history of long duration at the site (Simpson et al. 2008). Bellan-bandi Palassa has
yielded a variety of artifacts including bifacial choppers, scrapers, cores, pitted and
unpitted hammers, and microliths. Bone tools from Bellan-bandi Palassa include
digging implements and bone points made out of antler and horn (Deraniyagala 1958,
1992). The faunal remains from Bellan-bandi Palassa’s main habitation show a
higher reliance on ungulates and the presence of a diverse array of small mammals
including bones of domesticated dogs as well as shell species and a shark tooth
(H.N. Perera 2010).
In the southern coastal region of Sri Lanka, many shell midden sites have been
identified as conspicuous mounds and patches. These sites occur on the coastal stretch
from Tangalle to Hambantota, as well as within Yala National Park in the southeastern
quadrant of the island. Such sites often contain well-preserved cultural remains within
stratigraphically stable deposits, representing primarily the food remnants of aquatic
foragers (H.N. Perera 2009). The shell middens and habitations such as those located in
Pallemalala, Godawaya, and Mini-athiliya have revealed a clear anthropogenic
signature (Deraniyagala 1992; Karunaratne et al. 2016; Kulatilake 2009; Kulatilake
et al. 2014; Somadeva and Ranasinghe 2006; Wahl n.d.).
From the Pallemalala shell midden in the Hambantota district
(06°110 1800 N,81°100 0600 E), seven complete skeletons and fragments of six individuals
were recovered (Somadeva and Ranasinghe 2006). Encountered primarily as flexed
burials, these skeletal remains are described as having come from robust individuals, with
dentition showing a high degree of attrition, but an absence of caries (Kulatilake 2012;
56
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
Ranaweera 2002). The stone tool assemblage from Pallemalala includes a grindstone and
microliths fashioned mainly from quartz. The faunal remains recovered from the
Pallemalala shell midden represent diverse edible shell species, fish, and small mammals
including monkeys and deer (Somadeva and Ranasinghe 2006). A firm radiometric date
is unavailable for the Pallemalala shell midden site. Based on a date obtained by
Katupotha (1988) from the shell deposit in this locale, the timeframe suggested for this
site is estimated at 4050 ± 60 uncal. B.P.
The Godawaya site (06°060 2800 N,81°030 0400 E), located very close to the present
coastline at the mouth of the Walawe River in southern Sri Lanka, has been attributed
to the mid-Holocene. From an excavation carried out in 2007, this site has yielded the
remains of three individuals (Wahl n.d.). A subsequent systematic horizontal
excavation carried out at Godawaya yielded late Mesolithic stone tools, lithic debitage,
and charred faunal remains including an occupational surface associated with the
human remains recovered in the 2007 excavation (Karunaratne et al. 2016). A higher
reliance on marine resources is indicated from the fish bones of shark, barracuda, and
trevally present at Godawaya. The Godawaya site lacks evidence for the high
exploitation of shell species, one of the primary food sources among the Pallemalala
and Mini-athiliya people located further inland (Karunaratne et al. 2016; Kulatilake
et al. 2014; Somadeva and Ranasinghe 2006). The faunal remains, artifacts and burial
practices from the Pallemalala and Godawaya sites are similar to the finds and
observations from Mini-athiliya.
Shell midden sites from Sri Lanka are dated from approximately 12,000 B.P. in the
terminal Pleistocene or early Holocene to approximately 3000 B.P. After this
time, agricultural groups appear to further dominate the landscape (Deraniyagala 1992;
H.N. Perera 2010). The stratigraphic information from the upper levels of the Miniathiliya site indicate the recovery of wattle and daub remnants and pottery fragments
(H.N. Perera 2009). This could either be due to mixing while the land was being tilled
for paddy cultivation by recent agriculturalists or to early aquatic forager inhabitants
sharing elements of material culture with their agricultural contemporaries. Modern
day people of the region who subsist on fishing and agricultural activities do not
specialize in collecting and consuming large amounts of shellfish. Further evidence
from the region is required to shed more light on diffusion, shifting subsistence
patterns, and cultural transitions.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The excavation team that undertook the salvage archaeology operation at Miniathiliya noted that approximately 75 percent of the site, including several human
burials, had been destroyed prior to their arrival (H.N. Perera 2009). However, their
systematic archaeological excavation at the site uncovered an undisturbed skeleton of
an adult male. Charcoal samples obtained from sealed contexts from this excavation
yielded radiocarbon dates of 3680 ± 40 cal. B.P. and 3610 ± 40 cal. B.P. (Kulatilake et al.
2014). In the absence of contextual data that would normally accompany a systematic
excavation, we cautiously apply these dates to the associated midden material from the
pits dug up during the mining process.
A rough estimate of the area of this well-contained midden is stated as 38 m2 and the
weight of shells recovered is estimated at 40,000 kg (H.J. Perera 2012). The excavation
team identified up to seven large pits dug up by the shell miners. These pits, scattered
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
57
across the site, were labeled Pits 1–6 and Pit A. The soil, large quantities of shells, lithic
debitage, and human and animal bones dug up and piled alongside each pit were
intercepted and retained by the excavation team and transferred into large bags and
boxes and labeled accordingly. Site details including maps, drawings, and photographs
of provenance and stratigraphy were used to obtain additional contextual information
to facilitate the sorting of commingled human remains.
Standard human osteological identification techniques were used to identify the
commingled human remains. Stone tool debris and tools such as geometric microliths,
flakes, hammerstones, and grinders, shells, and charred or fragmented animal bones and
pottery fragments were identified and separated from the human remains (Bass 2005;
Brothwell 1981; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Ubelaker 1999; White et al. 2012). Bags
and boxes labeled as containing material from Pits 1, 2, 5, 6 and Pit A yielded human
remains. Only faunal remains and lithic debris were recovered from contents associated
with Pits 3 and 4. Preliminary cleaning was carried out and the identifiable human
bone fragments were separated according to element and side. The method described
by White and colleagues (2012:337–338) was used to establish a minimum number of
individuals (MNI). Taking age criteria into account, the paired and unpaired elements
were used to sort, number, and establish the MNI. For the adult remains, the most
numerous bone was the frontal bone. Also in the sample were skeletal and dental
remains of a child. The highly fragmented postcranial elements, unless clearly
articulated or closely associated with a particular set of cranial elements, were not
assigned to any specific individual.
As detailed below, a careful assessment of all available skeletal elements (some of
which were articulated) and teeth recovered from the shell miners’ pits enabled us to
establish that a minimum of five individuals were present (Table 1). They were labeled
HMA 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 (Kulatilake 2009). Where possible, cranial robusticity grades
developed by Lahr (1996) were applied to describe the skeletal sample.
Due to the paucity of diagnostic elements, among the five individuals identified
from the mixed debris, accurate sexing was not possible. However, the complete burial
(HMA 6) recovered in situ included ossa coxae and cranial elements that enabled
accurate sexing (Kulatilake et al. 2014).
Although the skeletal remains were highly fragmented and offered limited
opportunities for morphometric study and analysis, the salvaged human teeth provided
information on the demographics and dietary adaptations of these people. In this study,
we describe the teeth of HMA 1–5 and HMA 6 (from the burial that was excavated
separately). A total of 72 teeth, including 58 permanent teeth and 14 deciduous teeth,
were recorded for this assemblage.
The second author, a trained and calibrated independent observer, recorded all
metric and non-metric dental characteristics, thereby avoiding inter-observer error.
The associated mandibles and maxillae were positioned for dental imaging with
Cone Beam Computed Tomography (CBCT) scans. The CBCT scanner’s rotating
arm obtains up to 600 images for the reproduction of a three-dimensional image
using associated software. While CBCT scanning is typically used on living
subjects, we extended its usage to the morphometric study of the dental structures of
the Mini-athiliya people. The CBCT scans and associated images allowed us to
ascertain the dental eruption patterns of deciduous dentition and root morphology of
the Mini-athiliya people. These scans also aided verification of recorded metric
observations.
TABLE 1. SUMMARY
OF
HUMAN REMAINS
FROM THE
MINI-ATHILIYA SHELL MIDDEN
INDIVIDUAL ID
LOCATION
SEX
AGE RANGE
SKELETAL ELEMENTS PRESENT
HMA 1
Pit 1
n/a
n/a
HMA 2
Pit 2
n/a
17–22
HMA 3
Pit A
(Male?)
25–30
HMA 4
Pit 5
n/a
30–35
Mandible in two fragments,
weathered and fragmented
postcranial bones
HMA 5
Pit 6
n/a
3–5
Weathered mandible, maxilla and
cranial bone fragments
HMA 6
Excavation
(2007/8)
Male
40–45
Complete, vertically crushed,
weathered skeleton
Significantly damaged cranial and
postcranial bone fragments
Cranial and long bone fragments,
mandible fragment
Damaged calvarium, maxilla,
mandible fragment
DENTITION PRESENT
n/a
Mandible
Left – C, P3, P4, M1, M2
Maxilla
Right – I1, I2, C, P3, P4,
M1, M2, M3
Left – I1, I2, C, P3, P4,
M1, M2, M3
Mandible
Right – I1, I2, C, P3, P4,
M1, M2, M3
Mandible
Right – I2, C, P3, P4, M1,
M2, M3
Left – P1, P2, M1, M2
Maxilla
Right – di2, dc, dm1, dm2
Left – dc, dm1, dm2
Mandible
Right – di1, dc, dm1, dm2
Left – dc, dm1, dm2
Maxilla
Right – I2, C, P3, P4,
M1, M2
Left – I1, I2, C, P3, P4, M1
Mandible
Left – I1, C, P2, M1, M2, M3
Fig. 3. Standards of occlusal wear of molar teeth for age estimation (after Brothwell 1981).
Fig. 4. Molar crown measurements.
TABLE 2. CROWN DIMENSIONS
OF
MAXILLARY
AND
MANDIBULAR PERMANENT INCISORS, CANINES
OF THE MINI-ATHILIYA SAMPLE
AND
PREMOLARS
MD
TOOTH
AND
DECIDUOUS TEETH
BL
LEFT
RIGHT
LEFT
RIGHT
Maxillary permanent
I1
I2
C
P3
P4
9.19
6.87
6.76
7.29
7.36
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
3)
3)
3)
3)
3)
9.58
6.98
6.80
7.48
7.56
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
3)
3)
3)
3)
3)
7.38
6.22
7.75
9.47
9.60
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
3)
3)
3)
3)
3)
7.12
6.90
7.62
9.69
9.60
Deciduous (HMA 5)
di1
di2
dc
dm1
dm2
–
–
6.72
7.08
8.60
–
5.85
6.83
8.02
7.16
–
–
6.28
8.60
9.35
(Continued )
–
5.10
5.77
9.55
8.64
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
3)
3)
3)
3)
3)
TABLE 2. (Continued )
MD
TOOTH
BL
LEFT
RIGHT
LEFT
RIGHT
Mandibular permanent
I1
I2
C
P3
P4
–
–
6.82
5.78
7.91
6.88
9.27
7.46
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
2)
4)
2)
4)
2)
4)
5.38 (HMA 3)
6.41 (HMA 3)
6.44 (HMA 3)
7.45 (HMA 3)
7.68 (HMA 4)
–
–
8.51
6.88
9.03
7.79
8.54
7.43
6.80
–
5.32
7.67
9.78
–
–
5.71
6.57
7.82
6.62 (HMA 3)
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
2)
4)
2)
4)
2)
4)
5.85 (HMA 3)
6.45 (HMA 3)
6.79 (HMA 3)
8.56 (HMA 3)
7.36 (HMA 3)
8.63 (HMA 4)
Deciduous (HMA 5)
di1
di2
dc
dm1
dm2
–
–
5.50
7.61
9.78
MD, mesiodistal diameter; BL, buccolingual diameter.
–
–
5.76
5.81
7.36
TABLE 3. CROWN DIMENSIONS
TOOTH
OF
PERMANENT MAXILLARY
MD
BL
AND
MANDIBULAR MOLARS
TRMD
AMONG THE
MINI-ATHILIYA SAMPLE
TRBL
TLMD
TLBL
Maxillary
M1
M2
M3
Left
Right
Left
Right
Left
Right
11.07
12.07
10.87
–
9.49
8.04
(HMA 3)
(HMA 3)
(HMA 3)
(HMA 3)
(HMA 3)
11.87
11.43
11.62
11.19
11.65
10.95
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
3)
3)
3)
3)
3)
3)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Left
11.66
12.04
12.24
11.17
11.38
11.26
11.39
10.77
12.47
11.41
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
11.24
11.34
10.59
11.21
11.38
10.90
10.80
10.97
10.83
10.14
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
(HMA
2)
4)
3)
4)
2)
4)
3)
4)
4)
3)
5.61 (HMA 2)
5.84 (HMA 4)
5.20 (HMA 3)
10.93 (HMA 2)
10.68 (HMA 3)
6.64 (HMA 2)
7.03 (HMA 4)
6.45 (HMA 3)
11.14 (HMA 2)
10.89 (HMA 4)
10.69 (HMA 3)
5.67 (HMA 2)
5.63 (HMA 4)
5.67 (HMA 3)
10.87 (HMA 2)
10.76 (HMA 4)
10.83 (HMA 3)
6.51 (HMA 2)
5.95 (HMA 4)
6.20 (HMA 3)
11.52 (HMA 2)
9.83 (HMA 4)
10.25 (HMA 3)
6.02 (HMA 4)
5.70 (HMA 3)
10.83 (HMA 4)
10.32 (HMA 3)
6.25 (HMA 4)
6.43 (HMA 3)
10.33 (HMA 4)
9.83 (HMA 3)
Mandibular
M1
Right
M2
Left
Right
M3
Left
Right
2)
4)
3)
4)
2)
4)
3)
4)
4)
3)
MD, mesiodistal diameter; BL, buccolingual diameter; TRMD, trigonid mesiodistal diameter; TRBL, trigonid buccolingual diameter; TLMD, talonid mesiodistal
diameter; TLBL, talonid buccolingal diameter.
TABLE 4. EXPRESSION
OF
24 NON-METRIC CROWN TRAITS
IN
MINI-ATHILIYA SAMPLE
TRAIT EXPRESSION (L/R SIDE)
TRAIT
TOOTH
Winging (01)
Shoveling (02)
Double-shoveling (02)
Interruption groove (02)
Tuberculum dentale (02)
Canine distal accessory groove (03)
Mesial and distal accessory ridges (02)
Lingual cusp variation (04)
Cusp of Carabelli (02)
Hypocone (02)
Hypocone (01)
Hypocone (01)
Cusp 5 (Metaconule) (01)
Parastyle (01)
Cusp number (03)
Y groove pattern (03)
Y groove pattern (03)
Y groove pattern (02)
Anterior fovea (01)
Deflecting wrinkle (01)
Protostylid (02)
Cusp 6 (03)
Cusp 7 (03)
Distal trigonid ridge (03)
UI1
UI1
UI1
UI2
UI2
LC
UP3
LP3
UM1
UM1
UM2
UM3
UM1
UM3
LM2
LM1
LM2
LM3
LM1
LM1
LM1
LM1
LM1
LM1
EXPRESSION DICHOTOMY
HMA
(1–2)/(1–4)
(3–6)/(0–7)
(2–6)/(0–6)
(M, D, MD, Med)/(0–Med)
(1–6)/(0–6)
(2–5)/(0–5)
(1–3)/(0–3)
(1–9)/(0–9)
(2–7)/(0–7)
(2–5)/(0–5)
(2–5)/(0–5)
(2–5)/(0–5)
(1–5)/(0–5)
(2–6)/(0–6)
(4)/(4, 5)
(Y)/(Y, +, X)
(Y)/(Y, +, X)
(Y)/(Y, +, X)
(1–4)/(0–4)
(3)/(0–3)
(1–7)/(0–7)
(1–5)/(0–5)
(1–4)/(0–4)
(1)/(0–1)
–
–
–
–
–
3(L)
–
9(L)
–
–
–
–
–
–
5(L)
Y(L)
+(L)
–
2(L)
2(L)
1(L)
2(L)
0(L)
1(L)
2
HMA
3
1(L)
1(L), 1(R)
0(L), 0(R)
0(L), 0(R)
2(L), 2(R)
4(R)
1(L), 1(R)
6(R)
0(L), 0(R)
5(L), 5(R)
4(L)
1(L)
5(L)
0(L)
5(R)
Y(R)
+(R)
+(R)
–
–
–
4(R)
0(R)
1(R)
HMA
4
–
–
–
–
–
3(R)
–
5(L), 7(R)
–
–
–
–
–
–
4(R)
Y(R)
X(R)
+(R)
–
–
0(R)
4(R)
0(R)
1(R)
64
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
The sutural margins of cranial bones in this sample were obscured, damaged, or
calcified. Hence, age assessment was based primarily on tooth eruption and wear. Tooth
eruption is the primary method of age estimation for infants, children, adolescents, and
young adults. Since population-specific chronology of tooth formation and eruption is
rarely described for Sri Lankan populations, we used general standards to support our age
estimates of Mini-athiliya people (Brothwell 1981; White et al. 2012).
Dental attrition is generally affected by age (Hojo 1954; Richards and Miller 1991;
Tomenchuk and Mayhall 1979). Several detailed recording systems have been
developed to score and measure occlusal attrition in order to determine the
approximate age of an individual (Brothwell 1981; Scott 1979; Smith 1984).
Brothwell’s (1981) user-friendly dental attrition-based aging system is widely applied.
Originally based on the Miles (1963, 2001) method of estimating age through
macroscopic observation of wear on the occlusal surface of molar teeth, Brothwell’s
chart depicts the range of dentine exposure expected in permanent molars for four
different age groups. It was devised for use in the study of prehistoric to early medieval
British material, but since has been applied to archaeological populations worldwide
(Constandse-Westermann 1997; Robbins et al. 2009; Watson 2008).
In the present study, we used the Brothwell (1981) system to estimate the age of
subadult and adult individuals from Mini-athiliya. Figure 3 shows the Brothwell chart,
representing a simple ordinal scoring system for classifying age in the following
categories: 17–24 years, 25–34 years, 35–44 years, and 45 years or more. Each molar in
the Mini-athiliya assemblage was classified independently according to these
parameters. The classifications were conducted for all teeth on two different
occasions, in order to allow intra-observer reproducibility of determinations.
Standard dental measurements were taken on the left and right mandibular and
maxillary permanent and deciduous teeth of each individual using a digital vernier caliper
(recorded to the nearest 0.01 mm) (Fig. 4). The mesiodistal (MD) and buccolingual (BL)
crown diameters were obtained according to Fujita’s (1949) method. The MD and BL
crown diameters of two crown components, the trigonid and talonid, of mandibular
molars were also measured (Kondo et al. 1998; Yamada 1992) (Tables 2, 3).
The Arizona State University (ASU) dental anthropology system (Turner et al.
1991) was adopted for the classification of 24 non-metric dental traits (Table 4). The
heritability of these traits is generally recognized to be moderately high despite
environmental influences (Nichol 1989; Turner 1967, 1969). Accordingly, the
expression of these traits can be regarded as a component of the genetic characteristics
of the Mini-athiliya sample of people, aiding us in making some minimal yet useful
inferences regarding their differences with and affinities to other regional populations.
THE HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA
The human remains recovered from the rescue archaeology operation at Mini-athiliya
posed several challenges for identification and analysis. As noted previously, they were
highly fragmented and subjected to postmortem deformation due to recent haphazard
mining activity. Since most skeletal elements were fragmented or missing, it was clear that
the shell deposits containing mixed human bones from these burials had been completely
damaged or sent to be crushed before the excavation team was able to salvage them.
The sorting process yielded fragmented human and animal remains encrusted with
shells, calcium carbonate, and soil from the midden (Fig. 5). Table 1 summarizes the
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
65
Fig. 5. Damaged calvarium encrusted with shells (HMA 3).
human remains identified from Mini-athiliya. Below, we provide descriptive accounts
of the skeletal and dental elements assigned to HMA 1–6.
HMA 1
This individual was recognized based on an occipital bone that was articulated with a
partial left parietal, left temporal, and frontal bone. The occipital bone had a welldeveloped occipital torus where the supreme and superior nuchal lines were clearly
visible and joined medially. This feature was scored as OT 4, a relatively high robusticity
grade according to the grades established by Lahr (1996). Fragmented and deteriorated
cervical vertebrae and long bone fragments that likely belonged to this adult individual
were also identified from the debris in associated bags of midden material from Pit 1.
HMA 2
A large clump of midden material from debris in Pit 2 yielded a distorted inferior part of
a frontal bone with a relatively gracile supraorbital ridge. The nasal bones and the right
zygomatic arch were attached to the frontal bone. Based on the grades for supraorbital
ridges/torus in Lahr’s (1996) classification system, we scored it as ST 1, described as a
flat or very slightly projecting superciliary ridge and glabella. We were unable to obtain
a reliable grade measure for the profile of the infra glabellar notch due to post-mortem
66
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
damage to the region. Also in association within this clump of material was a
fragmented left mandible with teeth (C, P3, P4, M1, M2) showing mild attrition.
According to the Brothwell (1981) classification system, this mild pattern of wear is
typical of an individual falling within the 17–25 year age group. Interestingly, P4 in
HMA 2 showed five cusps (two buccal and three lingual) with a large talonid crown
component. In addition, two roots (mesiobuccal and distolingual) in P4 were also
evident in the CBCT images. We assess the age of this individual of unknown sex to be
within the lower boundary of the above age range, at 17–22 years.
HMA 3
A calvarium and lower facial skeleton were recovered from Pit A (Fig. 6). The
calvarium was comprised of a frontal bone, occipital bone, parietals, and temporals.
Although the upper facial skeleton was missing, a portion of the maxilla and right
mandible with teeth were found attached within the clay matrix (Fig. 6). The matching
occlusal wear facets of the maxillary and mandibular teeth further validated that these
elements and dentition belonged to the same individual. HMA 2 described above
presented a left mandible, but we ascertained that these right and left mandibles belonged
to two individuals based on differential dental eruption and wear.
The calvarium of HMA 3 had an estimated maximum cranial length of 180 mm
and a maximum cranial breadth of 131 mm. These measurements translate to a
Fig. 6. Maxillary teeth showing moderate attrition (HMA 3).
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
67
cranial index (CI) of 72.8 (CI = Maximum cranial breadth/maximum cranial
length 100). This measure falls in the range of dolichocrany (x 74.99)
representing a narrow and elongated cranium (Bass 2005). Moderate sagittal
keeling, where the parietal bones are angled towards the sagittal suture yet lack a
distinct ridge, was observed and scored as SK 2 according to the grades described by
Lahr (1996). The maxilla and right mandible of HMA 3 had a total of 24 teeth. The
teeth showed moderate attrition. Accordingly, we assigned this individual to a
moderate wear pattern typical of an adult within the 25–35 year age group following
Brothwell’s (1981) classification of tooth wear. No periodontal disease or caries were
observed in the teeth or associated bone. Based on the cranial and dental elements,
we narrowed the age range for this relatively robust young adult to 25–30 years.
While the absence of additional skeletal evidence hinders a firm assessment, we
cautiously indicate that HMA 3 was possibly male.
HMA 4
Commingled bones from Pit 5 yielded a fragmented mandible with several
posterior teeth showing moderate to severe attrition (Fig. 7). This wear pattern is
typically associated with an individual aged 25–35 years based on Brothwell’s
classification. The tooth wear pattern diverged significantly from that of the
mandibular dentition previously described and assigned to HMA 2 and HMA 3.
Fig. 7. Mandible fragment with teeth showing moderate to severe attrition (HMA 4).
68
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
The hyoid, several cervical vertebrae, the superior part of the left scapula,
fragments of the proximal left humerus, left clavicle, left radius, and the left femoral
shaft were found in close association. The fragmentary nature and absence of
diagnostic skeletal elements precluded the possibility of sexing this adult
individual, which we estimate to be within the upper boundary of the given
age range, at 30–35 years.
HMA 5
Among the remains mixed with charcoal recovered from Pit 6 were some very fragile
and fragmentary cranial bones and fragments of a mandible and maxilla, along with
several deciduous teeth. The age of this individual (a child) was estimated based on the
pattern of tooth eruption and the chronology of tooth developmental stages observed
in the CBCT scans, which showed permanent teeth of different developmental stages
within the maxilla and mandible. These scans allowed the accurate estimation of the
age of this child to be 3–5 years old.
HMA 6
This skeleton of a complete adult male was discovered intact during the systematic
excavation at the Mini-athiliya site (H.N. Perera 2009). It was placed in a plaster cast
with the surrounding matrix and was examined separately (Kulatilake et al. 2014). In this
study we assessed the dentition for this individual. Eighteen maxillary and mandibular
Fig. 8. In situ cranium and mandible (HMA 6).
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
69
Fig. 9. Mandible fragment with teeth demonstrating severe attrition (HMA 6).
teeth were observed (Figs. 8, 9). All teeth showed severe attrition, with exposed
secondary dentine or pulp cavity. Therefore, we were unable to observe or record metric
and non-metric data on this individual. The type of severe wear pattern seen in HMA 6
is associated with an individual of about 45 years age according to the Brothwell (1981)
chart of tooth wear. Moderate to severe alveolar bone loss adjacent to the anterior and
posterior teeth in the maxilla and mandible indicating chronic periodontal disease was
observed as well. Severe alveolar bone loss in HMA 6 may be partly related to that
individual’s advanced age and possibly to poor oral hygiene. Based on skeletal elements
and dental attrition, we estimate the age of HMA 6 to have been 40–45 years. This
individual was therefore the oldest at time of death among the skeletal assemblage sample
at Mini-athiliya.
METRIC AND NON-METRIC DENTAL TRAITS OF MINI-ATHILIYA PEOPLE
The data on tooth size among the Hungama Mini-athiliya (HMA) people are shown in
Tables 2 and 3. The overall tooth size becomes progressively smaller from M1 to M3,
with M1 being the largest tooth in both maxillary and mandibular dentition of the
sample. When comparing the tooth size of individuals from the HMA sample with that
of contemporary Sri Lankans, we found that the mean MD and BL diameters were
larger amongst these early people than those for modern Sri Lankans (Chandrasekara
and Nanayakkara 1999). This difference was more obvious in premolars and molars. In
addition, among the HMA adult sample, the third maxillary and mandibular molars
were fully erupted and comfortably seated within the arches, indicative of larger dental
arch sizes.
The expressions in grades or classes of 24 non-metric dental traits in the HMA
sample are shown in Table 4. The tuberculum dentale at the level of 1–6 in the
maxillary I2, the canine distal accessory groove at the level of 2–5 in the mandibular
canine, mesial and distal accessory ridges at the levels of 1–3 in the maxillary P3,
70
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
hypocone at the level of 2–5 in the maxillary M2, cusp 5 at the level of 1–5 in the
maxillary M1, and anterior fovea at the level of 1–4 in the mandibular M1 were
observed in all available teeth studied. Winging, shoveling, double shoveling in
maxillary I1 and a deflecting wrinkle and cusp 7 in mandibular M1 were not found in
the dentition of the people in this sample.
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL ASSEMBLAGE FROM MINI-ATHILIYA
The analysis of the faunal and lithic assemblages recovered from this salvage operation
is ongoing. We provide below a short description of information from the preliminary
reports compiled by the third and fourth authors of this article (H.J. Perera 2012;
H.N. Perera 2009). A detailed analysis of the archaeological assemblage is outside the
scope of this article. However, these initial bioarchaeological findings aid our
exploration of the lifeways and affinities of the Mini-athiliya people.
The non-vertebrates from the site, including diverse shell species, are of prime
importance in the examination of the Mini-athiliya people’s subsistence pattern and
diet (Fig. 10). A high reliance on shellfish is seen at the Mini-athiliya site, indicating
that these people were aquatic foragers. The vast majority of shells belong to the edible
saltwater clam species Meretrix meretrix. Also represented are other species such as
Anadara sp., Marcia sp., Gafrarium tumidum, and Turbinella pyrum. These varieties would
have been collected primarily from the inter-tidal zone near the Kalametiya lagoon and
beach area, adjacent to the Mini-athiliya site. In addition to these salt water and brine
varieties of shellfish, numerous terrestrial rainforest and freshwater mollusks were
recovered during the excavation, including Paludomus sp. and Pila sp. Arboreal
mollusks including Acavus superbus, Acavus phoenix, Acavus haemastoma, and Oligospira
sp. were also identified in the sample. Acavus sp. are humidity-adapted snails that are no
longer found in the vicinity of the site or within the dry and semi-arid zones of Sri
Lanka (Hausdorf and Perera 2000). Their presence in Mini-athiliya suggest that the site
may have been more humid in the past or that people collected these arboreal forms
from wet zone habitats further inland.
A significant proportion of Acavus shells from Mini-athiliya are burnt. Some have
circular perforations indicative of human modification, perhaps to extract the flesh.
Strong parallels to this activity are noted from major prehistoric cave sites such as
Fig. 10. Sample of shell species recovered from Mini-athiliya shell midden.
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
71
Batadomba Lena, Fa Hien Lena, Kitulgala Beli Lena in Sri Lankan wet zones. Snails
were consistently collected, processed, and consumed at these sites (Deraniyagala 1992;
H.N. Perera 2010; Wijeyapala 1997). Of significance is the identification of three
complete and several fragmented fish hooks fashioned primarily out of A. haemastoma
shells (H.J. Perera 2016). The anthropogenic signature of the Mini-athiliya site is
further established by the fact that gastropods such as mudflat shells (Cerithidea cingulata)
and telescope shells (Telescopium sp.), which are found naturally in nearby estuarine
locations, are notably less represented in the midden (H.N. Perera 2009).
A heavy concentration of shallow water, estuarine, and inshore habitat fish and
marine fish bones recovered from the site demonstrate that the Mini-athiliya people
relied on shallow water fishing. The shallow water fish remains identified within the
midden include bones of catfish (Mystus sp.), barbs (Puntius sp.), grouper (Epinephelus
sp.), emperor fish (Lethrinus sp.), barramundi (Lates sp.), and snapper (Lutjanus sp.).
Marine fish represented in the sample include bones of trevally (Caranx sp.), mahimahi (Coryphaena hippurus), sharks (Carcharhinus sp.) and barracuda (Sphyraena sp.).
Furthermore, the presence of large fish from shallow and deep waters suggests that the
people of Mini-athiliya used various advanced fishing techniques. Shark teeth have
been recovered from the ca. 13,000 B.P. level at Bellan-bandi Palassa and the ca.
20,000 B.P. level at Fa Hien cave, suggesting that these techniques may have been
known since the terminal Pleistocene (H.N. Perera 2010).
Reptilian bones from Mini-athiliya represent hard shelled terrapins (Melanochelys
sp.), soft shelled terrapins (Lyssemis sp.), crocodiles (Crocodylus porosus), and pythons
(Python sp.) and other unidentified snake species. The terrapin bones are charred,
suggesting that the flesh was extracted after roasting. The crocodile bones have cut
marks and were crushed and charred, also indicative of human modification. The site
of Bellan-bandi Palassa dated to the terminal Pleistocene (ca. 13,000 B.P.) has not
yielded crocodile bones although it is located in a riverine environment (Deraniyagala
and Kennedy 1972; H.N. Perera 2010). Only later populations of southern Sri Lanka,
namely the aquatic foragers of Mini-athiliya, may have become adept at hunting these
dangerous creatures (H.N. Perera 2009).
The mammalian faunal remains identified from Mini-athiliya include bones and
teeth of wild water buffalo (Bubalus arnee), spotted deer (Axis axis), sambar deer (Rusa
unicolor), mouse deer (Moschiola meminna), monkey species, mongoose (Herpestes sp.),
porcupine (Hystrix indica), wild pig (Sus scrofa), elephant (Elephas maximus), pangolin
(Manis crassicaudata), jackal (Canis aureus), giant squirrel (Ratufa macroura), palm cat
(Paradoxurus sp.), cattle (Bos sp.), and dog (Canis familiaris). Several bones of jungle fowl
(Gallus lafayetii) and other unidentified bird species were included in the faunal
assemblage from Mini-athiliya (Fig. 11).
The presence of this diverse array of small and large animals at the site provide
evidence that Mini-athiliya people relied upon hunting terrestrial animals as well as
fishing and foraging for aquatic food sources. The cut marks and charring observed in
the reptilian bones are also indicated on mammalian bones from the site. These bones
do not show evidence of having been gnawed by scavengers, however. The remains
of elephants in the sample were all of young animals. The majority of elephant bones
found at Bellan-bandi Palassa are also from young individuals, suggesting that people
strategically targeted manageable prey at both sites (H.N. Perera 2010). Of particular
significance is the recovery and identification of a mandible and maxilla with
premolars and/or molars and a complete metatarsal of a domesticated dog. Its
72
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
Fig. 11. Sample of faunal remains recovered at Mini-athiliya shell midden.
presence can be used to infer the existence of strategies that facilitated the successful
hunting of larger prey. Also of importance is the discovery of several bones and
teeth of domesticated cattle; these animals may have supplemented the diet of these
people.
The lithic assemblage from Mini-athiliya presented a large number of stone artifacts
and debris. These were recovered from the commingled remains salvaged from the site
and from the systematic excavation that followed. We present here a preliminary
summary to provide further context for the lifeways of the Mini-athiliya people
represented in the present sample. Cores, complete flakes, flake fragments, and
debitage have been recorded among the lithic assemblage from Mini-athiliya (Fig. 12).
Chert and at least three types of quartz (clear, milky, and granular) are represented as
raw materials for the stone tools, with the majority of tools being manufactured from
clear quartz. A variety of formal implement types were present, including microliths,
some of which had been backed or retouched, demonstrating use and wear. These
demonstrate a continuation of the microlithic tool-making tradition of Sri Lanka up to
the mid-Holocene.
Apart from the flaked lithic component of the assemblage, there were a few grinders
and grinding stones. The smooth surfaces and traces of pigment on some of these
grindstones indicate that they were used for grinding pigment such as red ochre. It is
also possible that these grindstones were used for processing plant matter (H.N. Perera
2009). A few bone tools were collected from the Mini-athiliya excavation. These were
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
73
Fig. 12. Lithic debris (flakes) recovered from commingled remains at Mini-athiliya.
made from tough animal material such as horn and could be identified as tools by the
polish, striations, and apparent wear damage through usage. The recorded bone
implements include spatulas, single points, and plates. The bone tools were better
preserved than other faunal material. Together with the presence of fish hooks made
out of snail shells described above (H.J. Perera 2016), they provide tantalizing evidence
of the versatility of the toolkit used by the Mini-athiliya people.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
Bioarchaeological studies that focus on early agriculturalists and large-scale civilizations
far outweigh the number of studies conducted on contemporary hunter-gatherer or
aquatic forager populations of South Asia. In this article, we describe the profiles of a
sample of aquatic foragers comprised of six individuals identified from the Miniathiliya shell midden dated to ca. 3600 B.P. Most of the human remains recovered from
Mini-athiliya shell midden were fragmented and poorly preserved. Given the
incomplete nature of the cranial, postcranial, and dental remains, very little could be
summarized regarding each individual’s physiological attributes. Nevertheless, some of
the skeletal and dental metric and non-metric observations offered an opportunity to
assess the morphological characteristics of these people. Specifically, the analysis of
dental non-metric traits could be used to make a few broad inferences on population
distances and affinities.
We examined associated bioarchaeological remains to obtain background
information on the sample of people from Mini-athiliya. Observations on the teeth
of the Mini-athiliya people, when investigated alongside the faunal and lithic
assemblage recovered in association, provided a lens for appreciating and inferring the
dietary profile of the group. In addition, the faunal and lithic remains provide insights
into the subsistence activities, technology, and lifeways of the Mini-athiliya people as
aquatic foragers. We also tentatively infer cultural parallels between these and other
contemporary populations from several locales in Sri Lanka. Due to the scarcity of data,
interpretations and discussion of the skeletal and dental metric and non-metric data are
74
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
limited. The assessments and conclusions we propose are informed by the limited
number of observations we were able to make through analysis of a small sample of
material salvaged from a disturbed context. However, the information gleaned from
these skeletal and dental remains as well as the associated archaeological remains may
shed some light on the demographics, morphology, affinities, and lifeways of these
mid-Holocene people.
Subsistence, Diet, and Dentition
A large number of shells from different habitats (estuarine, marine and terrestrial) and
charred animal bones were among the midden material found in association with the
human remains from Mini-athiliya. The presence of abundant, selected, edible,
disarticulated bivalve shells occurring in unsorted piles at the HMA site indicate that
the people who occupied it some 3600 years ago subsisted on shellfish flesh and
discarded the shells as kitchen refuse (Kulatilake et al. 2014). Since the faunal remains
included elements from large and small mammals, reptiles, fish, and birds, it is apparent
that the Mini-athiliya people exploited a variety of terrestrial and aquatic resources for
their subsistence and were successful foragers and hunters. The associated microlithic
tools and other stone tool implements, as well as the faunal tool assemblage, suggest
that the people of Mini-athiliya skillfully manufactured tools and implements to obtain
and process their food.
Caries-free teeth with minimal periodontal disease and moderate to severe attrition
signify a cariostatic, yet highly abrasive, unprocessed diet among these mid-Holocene
people. Among the Mini-athiliya skeletal sample, attrition as a result of tooth-to-tooth
wear leading to wear facets was observed on all adult teeth (Hillson 2008). Low,
moderate, severe and very severe attrition observed in HMA 2, HMA 3, HMA 4, and
HMA 6 respectively, are likely related to age, sex, and diet. The lingual cusps of the
upper molars and supporting buccal cusps of the lower molars wear more rapidly than
the rest of the tooth, so that progressive wear converts the classic Curve of Monson first
into a flat plane and then to a reversed curve (Hillson 1996:237–239). This wear
pattern is observed in the dentition of the mature adult individuals from Mini-athiliya.
The cariostatic nature of marine diets is well documented (Kelley et al. 1991; Larsen
et al. 1991). The associated archaeological assemblage and particularly the faunal
remains indicate that the Mini-athiliya people relied heavily on a diet from estuarine
and marine food sources. Diet is known as a dominant variable in the causation of
caries (Hunter 1988). Although differential susceptibility to caries may be impacted by
tooth wear, no caries were observed on the teeth of the Mini-athiliya people, not even
among the individuals whose teeth presented low to moderate attrition. The fact that
no caries were observed confirms that these aquatic foragers consumed a cariostatic diet
low in starches and sugars. Furthermore, except in HMA 6, minimal alveolar bone loss,
suggesting the absence of periodontal disease, was observed in the sample. This too
may be attributed to a high fibrous and low carbohydrate diet. Further studies of the
dentition, such as examining dental enamel hypoplasias, dental calculus, trace
elements, and isotopes would be needed to establish additional details concerning the
nutritional stresses and dietary patterns of the Mini-athiliya people.
Jaw and anterior tooth size are linked to the size of ingested food particles, while the
sizes of post canines depend on the deformation and external physical characterisitcs of
food particles (Lucas 2004). Therefore, the larger teeth and facial skeletal framework
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
75
observed in these mid-Holocene people may be attributed to their diet of tough
unprocessed food and the higher masticatory forces involved in chewing. They had
not undergone the microevolutionary changes associated with sedentism and a dietary
shift toward the consumption of more processed food.
The two-rooted mandibular premolar observed in one of the individuals can be
considered an ancestral trait in the continuum of the evolution of dental morphology
among humans. One trend in the variation in hominin mandibular premolar root form
has been described as a morphocline based on the presumed ancestral condition of
mandibular P3 and P4 root systems, leading towards root reduction from a two-rooted
to a one-rooted mandibular P3 and P4. This trend has been seen among Homo erectus
and Homo sapiens populations (Scott and Symons 1982; Wood et al. 1988).
Two-rooted mandibular premolars are rarely found in modern peoples, yet when they
are found, it is usually amongst South Asians (Goh 1957; Kraus et al. 1969; Shapira and
Delivanis 1982).
Bio-Cultural Similarities of the Mid-Holocene Aquatic Foragers of Sri Lanka
In southern Sri Lanka, numerous shell deposits and midden sites have been identified
by geologists and archaeologists (Deraniyagala 1992; Katupotha 1995). Some of these
sites have yielded human remains with dates for occupation recorded within the midHolocene. Anthropogenic shell middens sharing several features in southern Sri Lanka
have been recognized as a class of archaeological sites and have been described as a
cultural complex based on their common attributes (Deraniyagala 1992; Kulatilake
2016; Somadeva and Ranasinghe 2006). The primary exploitation of aquatic resources
along with other inland resources, microlithic and later stone tool types, and the
mortuary practice of flexed burials are among some of the cultural features shared by
the people who lived within this temporal and spatial context.
The cultural similarities between shell midden populations from Mini-athiliya,
Pallemalala, and Godawaya, located in close proximity to each other and presumed to
be contemporaneous, indicate that these local groups specialized in exploiting
resources in different ecosystems. The Godawaya people would have had direct
access to the open ocean and show elevated levels of marine resource exploitation
(Karunaratne et al. 2016), while the Mini-athiliya and Pallemalala sites are located
further inland and faunal evidence from these two sites indicate intensified exploitation
of shell species (Kulatilake et al. 2014; Somadeva and Ranasinghe 2006). High levels of
dental attrition observed among individuals belonging to this cultural complex suggests
an abrasive diet typical of people consuming relatively unprocessed food containing
grit from marine and estuarine environments (Kulatilake et al. 2014; Ranaweera 2002;
Wahl n.d.).
Striking similarities in the mortuary practices among these groups have also been
observed. The complete burial recovered in situ from Mini-athiliya was in a tightly
flexed fetal position with the head placed to the north (Kulatilake et al. 2014).
Although the Godawaya 2007 excavation project report is yet to be published, findings
reported in the popular media included photographs of a flexed burial (e.g., Amazing
Lanka 2017).1 This mortuary pattern is also observed at the Pallemalala site, where
most burials were in flexed positions with the skulls placed to the north (Somadeva and
Ranasinghe 2006). In addition, the high degree of skeletal robusticity and/or long,
narrow cranial shape observed among the mid-Holocene people of Mini-athiliya
76
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
(Kulatilake et al. 2014), Pallemalala (Kulatilake 2012; Ranaweera 2002), and
Godawaya (Wahl n.d.) suggest that these groups living in possible temporal and spatial
proximity may have shared biological links as well. We acknowledge that these
inferences need to be tested further before firm conclusions can be made. A serious
limitation faced is the paucity of published data from shell midden sites in southern Sri
Lanka as well as the absence of secure, calibrated radiocarbon dates from sites such as
Pallemalala and Godawaya.
The comparison of non-metric dental features has been valuable in assessing
affinities among human populations, since teeth represent intra-population homogeneity and inter-population variation (Scott and Turner 1997). A biological
continuum has been proposed for the early inhabitants of Sri Lanka (popularly known
as the Balangoda people) in relationship to the indigenous Vedda people of the island
(Deraniyagala 1958, 1992; Hawkey and Kennedy 1993; Kennedy 2000). Dental
anthropological analyses have shown that the traits shared by the early Balangoda
people and the indigenous Vedda distinguish these groups from later arrivals of the
Sinhala and Tamil peoples to Sri Lanka (Hawkey 2002). To understand these affinities
and distances, the South Asian dental pattern is referred to as the “Indodont” pattern
based on the internal homogeneity in several dental traits among South Asian groups,
including Sri Lankan ancient and recent people (Hawkey 1999, 2002).
The Indodont pattern is characterized relative to other world populations’ dental
trait averages as having high frequencies of the following traits: a hypocone in
maxillary M2, one-rooted maxillary P3, lingual cusp variation in mandibular P4, and
four cusps in mandibular M2. In addition, the Indodont pattern presents average
frequencies in the following traits: shoveling in maxillary I1, presence of an
interruption groove in maxillary I2, presence of a distal accessory ridge in the
permanent maxillary canine, cusp of Carabelli in maxillary M1, the Y-groove pattern
in mandibular M2, cusp 6 and cusp 7 in mandibular M1, the deflecting wrinkle in
mandibular M1, and protostylid in mandibular M1. The absence or low frequencies of
winging and double shovelling in maxillary I1 and enamel extension in maxillary M1
also characterize the Indodont pattern (Hawkey 1998). The Mini-athiliya sample does
not show the high prevalence of winging, shoveling, and double-shoveling in
maxillary I1 commonly found among Sinodonts, people of East Asian descent.
However, as expected, a high prevalence of a hypocone in maxillary M2 and low
prevalence of Carabelli’s cusp in maxillary M1 and winging in maxillary I1 situates the
(admittedly small) Mini-athiliya sample within the Indodont pattern of non-metric
traits associated with South Asians.
A common trend in modern human cranial evolution is gracilization, with the
reduction of robusticity and size (Lahr 1996). Higher cranial lengths are correlated more
with robusticity than are higher cranial breadths (Lahr 1996:253). Dolichocrany, which
refers to a relatively long and narrow cranial shape, is reported among the sample of
Mini-athiliya people and the Pallemalala people (Kulatilake 2012). Furthermore,
Kennedy (2000:237) describes the Bellan-bandi Palassa crania from the early to midHolocene time as robust and dolichocranic, providing an opportunity to infer that the
mid-Holocene people associated with the midden complexes of Sri Lanka were
relatively robust individuals overall. With regards to non-metric cranial traits, the adults
of this assemblage show a high degree of musculoskeletal robusticity as observed in their
cranial elements, reminiscent of the robusticity observed among other modern humans
from the mid-Holocene in Sri Lanka and other South Asian contexts (Kennedy 2000;
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
77
Kulatilake 2000). The extremely small sample size from Mini-athiliya and other sites in
the region poses a problem in presenting firm conclusions in these assessments, however.
Peiris and colleagues (2003) reported that the crown area values of the mandibular
molars and the maxillary second molar of the Pallemalala people were larger than
among contemporary populations of Sri Lanka. The results of the present study on the
Mini-athiliya people’s dentition are in agreement with the observations of the
Pallemalala sample. Larger molar sizes, along with the absence of crowding in the
dental arches as shown in this study, could be associated with a greater degree of
robusticity, a shared gene pool, and similar diets among these contemporaneous people
from the mid-Holocene.
The estimated age at death for the skeletal assemblage from Mini-athiliya is 5–45
years. The age range for the skeletal assemblage recovered from Pallemalala was
between 20 and 45+ years (Ranaweera 2002; Somadeva and Ranasinghe 2006). The
three skeletons recovered from Godawaya included a juvenile, young adult, and
mature adult (Wahl n.d.). The small and fragmentary samples from Mini-athiliya and
other sites in the region preclude an analysis of the lifespan of these people, but death
prior to completing the fifth decade of life could be attributed to trauma associated
with a harsh lifestyle (Kennedy 2000; Lukacs 1990). As indicated previously, more
evidence and the ability to apply refined techniques are required to test and verify the
observations and inferences we make here.
Shell Deposits as Sources of Bioarchaeological Information
The archaeological significance of several coastal shell middens in Sri Lanka is
undisputed. Since shell mounds are visually obvious in the landscape, they are often
quarried for lime to be used in construction and chicken-feed. Both Pallemalala and
Mini-athiliya archaeological sites were encountered accidentally during commercial
shell mining at those locales (Kulatilake et al. 2014; Somadeva and Ranasinghe 2006).
The Godawaya site area had been quarried for gravel and granite prior to 2007
(Karunaratne et al. 2016).
Recent large scale commercial exploitation of shell middens as coastal economic
resources challenges the protection of archaeological assemblages. Ancient peoples in
these areas consumed vast quantities of shellfish and discarded the shells along with
culturally modified faunal remains and tool assemblages; they even buried their dead
within the midden deposits. Although naturally occurring shell beds or shell deposits
may be suitable for exploitation (using responsible techniques) as a commercial
resource, the same cannot be said of shell middens exhibiting an archaeological
signature. Once excavated by local miners, both the naturally occurring shell deposits
and middens primarily comprised of shells (but occasionally containing human bones,
teeth, stone tools, and other archaeological evidence) would be transported for
crushing at local mills. Indiscriminate shell mining in the region has unfortunately
contributed to the loss of valuable bioarchaeological evidence, as seen at the Miniathiliya site. The damage accruing to archaeological resources due to unwitting
commercial exploitation of shell middens was highlighted during the salvage
archaeology operation at Mini-athiliya, which was only able to recover highly
fragmented remains of several individuals from the mined midden debris.
Here we have examined a skeletal sample representing a small-scale, aquatic forager
society of South Asia. This study diverges from the apparent bias in the region toward
78
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
focusing on agriculturalists, large scale settlements, and civilizations. The major
limitation we faced was that these skeletal remains were very damaged and fragmented.
Although the sample size of 72 teeth was extremely small, it represented approximately
40 percent of the total number of teeth possible for five adults and one child. A larger
sample would have allowed for a greater degree of reliability in the inferences we
proposed. Until further skeletal and dental evidence is available and testing can be
accomplished, we nonetheless maintain that the present study contributes toward
understanding the biological anthropology of the Mini-athiliya people and midHolocene aquatic foragers of the region in general.
This study presented archaeological and anthropological data from a highly
disturbed context and attempted to associate the findings with a broader cultural
assemblage. This research provided an opportunity to acknowledge and assess the
seldom studied mid-Holocene subsistence pattern of aquatic foraging/hunting and
gathering in South Asia and the biological anthropology of the people whose lifeways
were based upon it. Further studies on the finds from Mini-athiliya and other midden
sites, as well as systematic surveys and scientifically executed excavations, would
enhance our knowledge of the mid-Holocene bioarchaeological record of South Asia.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The salvage archaeology operation at Mini-athiliya was funded by the National
Department of Archaeology, Sri Lanka. Partial funding for post-excavation analyses was
provided by Mount Royal University. We acknowledge the assistance and contributions
of Senarath Dissanayake, Director General, Sri Lanka Department of Archaeology. We
are grateful to Siran U. Deraniyagala for his valuable insights. We thank the excavation
team and members of the Excavation Branch of the Sri Lanka Department of
Archaeology and volunteer students from the University of Sri Jayewardenepura,
Michael Allan, Aruna Jayaweera, Ruwan Jayasinghe, Kapila Arambawatta, Sudevi
Ranasinghe, and Priyantha Karunaratne. We thank the anonymous reviewers from Asian
Perspectives for providing useful feedback and suggestions for improvements.
NOTES
1. 2017 Godawaya Prehistoric Site (webpage) at Amazing Lanka (website), URL: amazinglanka.com/
wp/godawaya/
REFERENCES CITED
BASS, WILLIAM M.
2005 Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual. 5th ed. Springfield: Missouri Archaeological
Society.
BIAGI, PAOLO
2013 The shell middens of Las Bela coast and the Indus delta (Arabian Sea, Pakistan). Arabian
Archaeology and Epigraphy 24(1):9–14.
BROTHWELL, D. R.
1981 Digging up Bones: The Excavation, Treatment, and Study of Human Skeletal Remains. London:
British Museum (Natural History).
BUIKSTRA, J. E., AND D. H. UBELAKER, EDS.
1994 Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey
Research Series No. 44. Fayetteville, AR: Arkansas Archaeological Survey.
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
79
CECI, LYNN
1984 Shell midden deposits as coastal resources. World Archaeology 16(1):62–74.
CHANDRASEKARA, M., AND C. D. NANAYAKKARA
1999 Crown dimensions of the permanent teeth in Sri Lankans. Sri Lanka Dental Journal 28:15–18.
CONSTANDSE-WESTERMANN, T. S.
1997 Age estimation by dental attrition in an independently controlled early 19th century sample
from Zwolle, The Netherlands. Human Evolution 12(4):269–285.
DERANIYAGALA, P.E.P.
1958 An open-air habitation site of Homo sapiens balangodensis. Spolia Zeylanica 28(2):223–261.
DERANIYAGALA, SIRAN U.
1992 The Prehistory of Sri Lanka: An Ecological Perspective, vol. 1 & 2. Colombo: Department of
Archaeological Survey.
DERANIYAGALA, SIRAN U., AND KENNETH A. R. KENNEDY
1972 Bellan-Bandi Palassa: A Mesolithic burial site in Ceylon. Ancient Ceylon 2:18–47.
FUJITA, T.
1949 On the standard of the measurement of teeth. Journal of the Anthropological Society of Nippon
61:27–32 (in Japanese).
GOH, S. W.
1957 Variations in the morphology of mandibular premolar roots. British Dental Journal
102:311–314.
HAWKEY, DIANE E.
1998 Out of Asia: Dental Evidence for Affinities and Microevolution of Early Populations
from India/Sri Lanka. Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Anthropology, Arizona State
University.
1999 The Indodont dental pattern of prehistoric South Asia and early world affinities. American
Journal of Physical Anthropology S28:146–147.
2002 The peopling of South Asia: Evidence for affinities and microevolution of prehistoric
populations of India and Sri Lanka. Spolia Zeylanica 39:1–300.
HAWKEY, DIANE E., AND KENNETH A. R. KENNEDY
1993 Biological affinities of prehistoric Sri Lankans: A comparative study of dental morphology.
American Journal of Physical Anthropology S16:105.
HAUSDORF, BERNHARD, AND KALIKA K. PERERA
2000 Revision of the genus Acavus from Sri Lanka (Gastropoda: Acavidae). Journal of Molluscan
Studies 66:217–231.
HILLSON, S. W.
1996 Dental Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2008 Dental pathology, in Biological Anthropology of the Human Skeleton: 301–340, ed. M. A.
Katzenberg and S. R. Saunders. New York: Wiley-Liss.
HOJO, M.
1954 On the pattern of the dental abrasion. Okajimas Folia Anatomica Japonica 26:11–30.
HUNTER, P. B.
1988 Risk factors in dental caries. International Dental Journal 38(4):211–217.
KANTHILATHA, W.S.P.Y.N., S. G. YASAWARDENE, G. ADIKARI, W. E. BOYD, AND M. M. PATHMALAL
2012 Re-visiting the Bellan-Bandi Palassa human remains of the Mesolithic period, Sri Lanka. Man
and Environment 37(2):7–17.
KARUNARATNE, PRIYANTHA, SAMANTI KULATILAKE, H. NIMAL PERERA, H. JUDE PERERA, PIYAWATHI
VIDANAPATHIRANA, SAMPATH GARUSINGHE, HANS HARMSEN, K.M.G. JINAKA, RUWAN DISSANAYAKE
D. R. ABEYKOON, AND RATNASIRI PIERIS
2016 Excavation at Godawaya middle Holocene habitation site, summer 2014: Preliminary Report.
Sri Lanka: Postgraduate Institute of Archaeology.
KATUPOTHA, JINADASA
1988 Hiroshima University radiocarbon dates: West and south coasts of Sri Lanka. Radiocarbon 30
(3):341–346.
1995 Evolution and geological significance of Holocene emerged shell beds on the southern coastal
zone of Sri Lanka. Journal of Coastal Research 11(4):1042–1061.
80
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
KELLEY, MARC A., DIANNE R. LEVESQUE, AND ERIC WEIDL
1991 Contrasting patterns of dental disease in five early northern Chilean groups, in Advances in
Dental Anthropology: 203–213, ed. M. A. Kelley and C. S. Larsen. New York: Wiley Liss.
KENNEDY, KENNETH A. R.
1965 Human skeletal material from Ceylon, with an analysis of the island’s prehistoric and
contemporary populations. Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (Geology)
11:135–213.
1975 The Physical Anthropology of the Megalith-Builders of South India and Sri Lanka. Canberra:
Australian National University Press.
1976 Biological anthropology of prehistoric populations in South Asia: A survey of current research
efforts, in Ecological Backgrounds of South Asian Prehistory: 166–178, ed. Kenneth A. R. Kennedy
and G. L. Possehl. New York: Cornell University.
2000 God-Apes and Fossil Men: Paleoanthropology in South Asia. Ann Arbor: The University of
Michigan Press.
KENNEDY, KENNETH A. R., AND A. A. ELGART
1998 Hominid Remains. An Up-date. South Asia: India and Sri Lanka. Supplement to Anthropologie et
Préhistoire No. 8, ed. R. Orban and P. Semal. Brussels: Royal Belgian Institute of Natural
Sciences.
KONDO, S., T. FUNATSU, S. AMINO, R. SASA, AND E. WAKATSUKI
1998 An odontometrical analysis of the mandibular molariform teeth in the Japanese males. Pediatric
Dental Journal 8:73–77.
KRAUS, B. S., R. E. JORDAN, AND L. ABRAMS
1969 Dental Anatomy and Occlusion. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Co.
KULATILAKE, SAMANTI
2000 Cranial Diversity and the Evolutionary History of South Asians. Ph.D. Thesis. Department of
Biological Anthropology, University of Cambridge.
2009 Early occupation of coastal Sri Lanka, in Asian Perspectives on Human Evolution: 207–214, ed.
A. R. Sankhyan. New Delhi: Serials.
2012 A comparative study of human cranial and dental remains from Mini-athiliya and Pallemalala,
in Punkalasa: Research Papers of the National Archaeology Symposium: 151–163. Colombo:
Department of Archaeology.
2016 The peopling of Sri Lanka from prehistoric through historic times: Biological and
archaeological evidence, in A Companion to South Asia in the Past: 426–436, ed.
G. Robbins-Schug and S. Walimbe. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell.
KULATILAKE, SAMANTI, NIMAL PERERA, SIRAN U. DERANIYAGALA, AND JUDE PERERA
2014 The discovery and excavation of a human burial from the Mini-athiliya shell midden in
Southern Sri Lanka. Ancient Asia 5(3):1–8.
LAHR, MARTA M.
1996 The Evolution of Modern Human Diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
LARSEN, C. S., R. SHAVIT, AND M. C. GRIFFIN
1991 Dental caries evidence for dietary change: An archaeological context, in Advances in Dental
Anthropology: 179–202, ed. M. A. Kelley and C. S. Larsen. New York: Wiley Liss.
LUCAS, P. W.
2004 Dental Functional Morphology: How Teeth Work. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
LUKACS, J. R.
1984 The People of South Asia: The Biological Anthropology of India, Pakistan and Nepal. New York:
Plenum Press.
1990 On hunter-gatherers and their neighbors in prehistoric India: Contact and Pathology. Current
Anthropology 31(2):183–186.
MILES, A.E.W.
1963 The dentition in the assessment of individual age in skeletal material, in Dental Anthropology:
191–209, ed. D. R. Brothwell. London: Pergamon Press.
2001 The Miles method of assessing age from tooth wear revisited. Journal of Archaeological Science
28:973–982.
NICHOL, C. R.
1989 Complex segregation analysis of dental morphological variants. American Journal of Physical
Anthropology 78(1):37–59.
KULATILAKE ET AL. •
HUMAN REMAINS FROM MINI-ATHILIYA, SRI LANKA
81
ORTON, J.
2009 Rescue excavations at Diaz Street Midden, Saldanha Bay, South Africa. Archaeological Research
in Africa 44(1):107–120.
PEIRIS, H.R.D., R. SOMADEVA, I. KAGEYAMA, AND C. D. NANAYAKKARA
2003 An odontometric study of the permanent molars of a prehistoric population who lived in a
coastal region of Sri Lanka – Pallemalala. Anthropological Science 111(1):46.
PERERA, H. JUDE
2012 Hungama Mini-athiliya shell midden. Punkalasa: Research Papers of the National
Archaeology Symposium, vol. 2: 287–291. Colombo: Department of Archaeology (in
Sinhala).
2016 Earliest Fish hooks from Sri Lanka identified from the Prehistoric Mini-athiliya shell midden
deposit. Ancient Ceylon 25:157–168 (in Sinhala).
PERERA, H. NIMAL
2009 Mini-athiliya Excavation Report. Colombo: Department of Archaeology.
2010 Prehistoric Sri Lanka: Late Pleistocene Rock shelters and an Open Air Site. British Archaeological
Reports 2142. Oxford: Archaeopress.
PREMATHILAKE, R.
2006 Relationship of environmental changes in Central Sri Lanka to possible prehistoric land-use
and climate changes. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 240(3):468–496.
RANAWEERA, R.M.S.L.
2002 A Study of Human Skeletal Remains from Pallemalala Shell-Midden in Southern Sri Lanka.
B.Sc. Thesis. Department of Anatomy, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Nugegoda.
RICHARDS, M. B., AND S. MILLER
1991 Relationships between age and dental attrition in Australian Aboriginals. American Journal of
Physical Anthropology 84(2):159–164.
ROBBINS, G., V. MUSHRIF TRIPATHY, V. N. MISRA, R. K. MOHANTY, V. S. SHINDE, KELSEY M. GRAY, AND
MALCOLM D. SCHUG
2009 Ancient skeletal evidence for leprosy in India (2000 B.C.). PLoS ONE 4(5):e5669.
SCOTT, E.C.
1979 Dental wear scoring technique. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 51:213–218.
SCOTT, J. H., AND N.B.B. SYMONS
1982 Introduction to Dental Anatomy, 7th ed. London: Churchill Livingston.
SCOTT, G. R., AND C. G. TURNER II
1997 The Anthropology of Modern Human Teeth: Dental Morphology and its Variation in Recent Human
Populations. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
SHAPIRA, Y., AND P. DELIVANIS
1982 Multiple-rooted mandibular second premolars. Journal of Endodontics 8(5):231–232.
SIMPSON, IAN A., NIKOS KOURAMPAS, AND H. NIMAL PERERA
2008 Bellan-bandi Palassa, Sri Lanka: Formation process of a Mesolithic open-air site identified
through thin section micromorphology. Archaeologia, Journal of Archaeology 4:3–18.
SMITH, B. H.
1984 Patterns of molar wear in hunter-gatherers and agriculturalists. American Journal of Physical
Anthropology 63:39–56.
SOMADEVA, RAJ, AND SUDEVI RANASINGHE
2006 An excavation of a shell-midden at Pallemalla in southern littoral area of Sri Lanka: Some
evidence of a prehistoric Chenier occupation on c. 4th millennium BC. Ancient Asia 1:14–24.
TOMENCHUK, J., AND J. T. MAYHALL
1979 A correlation of tooth wear and age among modern Igloolik Eskimos. American Journal of
Physical Anthropology 51(1):67–78.
TURNER II, G. C.
1967 Dental genetics and microevolution in prehistoric and living Koniag Eskimos. Journal of Dental
Research 46:911–917.
1969 Microevolutionary interpretations from the dentition. American Journal of Physical Anthropology
30:421–426.
82
ASIAN PERSPECTIVES •
2018
•
57(1)
TURNER II, G. C., C. R. NICHOL, AND G. R. SCOTT
1991 Scoring procedures of key morphological traits of the permanent dentition: The Arizona State
University dental anthropology system, in Advances in Dental Anthropology: 13–31, ed. M. A.
Kelley and C. S. Larsen. New York: Wiley-Liss.
UBELAKER, D. H.
1999 Human Skeletal Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Interpretation, 3rd ed. Manuals on Archaeology 2.
Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
WAHL, JOACHIM
(n.d.) Godawaya (Sri Lanka) – Excavation 2008, Trench A: Anthropological Investigation,
unpublished report. Konstanz: Regierungspräsidium Stuttgart, Landesamt für Denkmalpflege.
WATSON, J. T.
2008 Changes in food processing and occlusal dental wear during the early agricultural period in
northwest Mexico. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 135(1):92–99.
WHITE, TIMOTHY D., M. T. BLACK, AND P. A. FOLKENS
2012 Human Osteology, 3rd ed. New York: Elsevier.
WIJEYAPALA, W. H.
1997 New Light on the Prehistory of Sri Lanka in the Context of Recent Investigations of Cave
Sites. Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Archaeology, University of Peradeniya.
WOOD, B. A., S. A. ABBOTT, AND H. UYTTERSCHAUT
1988 Analysis of the dental morphology of Plio-Pleistocene hominids IV. Mandibular postcanine
root morphology. Journal of Anatomy 156:107–139.
YAMADA, H.
1992 On the “Talonid” in Japanese lower molars. Shika Kiso Igakkai Zasshi [Japan Journal of Oral
Biology] 34:15–24.