Bayerisches Landesamt für Denkmalpflege · Deutsche Limeskommission C. Sebastian Sommer, Suzana Matešić (Hrsg.) Limes XXIII Proceedings of the 23rd International Congress of Roman Frontier Studies Ingolstadt 2015 Akten des 23. Internationalen Limeskongresses in Ingolstadt 2015 B E I T R Ä G E Z U M W E LT E R B E L I M E S Sonderband 4 / II 2018 · In Kommission: Nünnerich-Asmus Verlag · Mainz MARTIN LEMKE The Water Supply of the Legionary Fortress of Novae (Bulgaria) MARTIN LEMKE The Water Supply of the Legionary Fortress of Novae (Bulgaria) ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Die römische Armee war notwendigerweise darum bemüht, eine stabile Wasserversorgung für ihre Legionslager sicherzustellen. In Novae brachten zwei Hauptaquädukte das Wasser in die Nähe des Lagers, von wo es über zwei große Reservoire (castella aquae) durch ein Netzwerk von Rohren und Kanälen zu den jeweiligen Endabnehmern befördert wurde. Schließlich wurde das Abwasser in die Donau geleitet. Spuren von Wasserleitungen wurden in allen Grabungsabschnitten der letzten 50 Jahre gefunden, also in den principia, den Bädern, dem Lazarett, dem scamnum tribunorum sowie entlang der Straßen und unter den Toren. The Roman army went to great lengths to ensure a stable water supply in their camps . Providing several thousand soldiers with water was an immediate necessity, both in temporary camps in unknown territory as well as in the permanent garrisons of the legions, where facilities like thermae or latrines, but also workshops and drinking water for men and animals required huge amounts of this natural resource . Moreover, a network of channels was built along with the castra themselves, because it was easier to do so at that point: the denser the architecture, the more difficult it was to add subterranean water conduits afterwards . Hence, water supply was a priority of army logistics1 . A set of methods including a “Plan B” (e . g . for harsh winters) was also necessary, because the supply would depend on the given hydrographic conditions, resulting from geology, terrain relief, vegetation, overall climate and the weather at a given moment . Therefore, the Roman army was competent at acquiring and distributing the precious element in various ways . Likewise to other logistical aspects, the Roman army could count on the availability of drinking water near native settlements2, making them a convenient marker for a possible camp location 3 . In Moesia inferior, even in areas without major tributaries of the Danube, the Roman army sought places close to the mouths of smaller streams . In the upper reaches of these rivers the desired springs of fresh water usually could be found and constructing an aqueduct along a river valley was easier for the engineers . Other than aqueducts connecting to springs, water could be obtained from rivers and lakes, by collecting rainwater in cisterns or accessing groundwater through wells, but springs were clearly preferred, both for the quality and quantity of the water . The Roman legionary fortress of Novae, once the headquarters for legio I Italica in the province of Moesia inferior, lies in northern Bulgaria, not far from modern Svištov, on the right bank of the Danube . Excavations have been in progress here for more than 50 years now4 . Overall, the water supply presented itself as follows: a spring, usually in a nearby river valley, was equipped with a structure for catching the water (caput aquae) whence the aqueduct (built of stones or terracotta pipes) carried the water to the end reservoir (castellum aquae) . From here the distribution to the various receivers in the camp was established using terracotta and lead pipes as well as conduits built of stone and/or bricks . The drains and sewers usually consisted of stone channels only . Depending on the location, different types of lime mortar were used for sealing the masonry channels . Mostly this was a form of waterproof opus caementicium, but in several instances, especially in the large drains of the Flavian baths (see below), rock-hard opus signinum was used, possibly because it was more durable against the heat . After half a century of excavations, the network of the aqueduct/drainage system at Novae still shows more blank spots than established elements . However, many parts of the principal structures have been investigated: the scamnum tribunorum, principia, thermae, valetudinarium, parts of the canabae, some barracks, the gates, streets, towers, etc . (Fig . 1) 5 . And virtually everywhere excavations have brought to light at least some small part of the water supply network . AQUEDUCTS When building an aqueduct, Roman army engineers were keen on taking advantage of the natural terrain shape, leading the conduit along valley slopes, avoiding obstacles and usually not exceeding a length of 20 km with features providing an even water flow 6 . In open terrain the aqueduct was designed in a straight line7 . We know that at Novae the main aqueducts collected wa- 1015 1016 Limes XXIII · Kapitel 22 · Session 19 – How to build a Roman Camp Fig. 1: Novae. Plan of the legionary fortress in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD (Based on an outline plan by J. Kaniszewski and data provided by T. Sarnowski, L. Kovalevskaya, P. Zakrzewski, P. Dyczek, M. Lemke; Graphics: P. Zakrzewski). ter from four springs and delivered it to the fortress from the west and south, while the excess and sewage water was eventually disposed of into the Danube . One of the main drains ended in the northeast corner of the camp8 . The main aqueduct with two branches connected to the headwaters of the River Dermen near the village of Tzarevetz (Fig . 2) . The conduit runs along the left bank of the river towards the Danube in the north . The castellum aquae was located south outside the camp9, on the site of the 3rd century extension of the fortification walls (“Novae II”)10 . A second major conduit, 7 km long, brought water from the area of modern Svishtov in the west and ran along the Danube . A structure interpreted as the end reservoir for this conduit was discovered 130 m west of the camp’s north-western corner11 . A third, shorter aqueduct with a length of 2,400 m brought water from the hill Dervenski Bair12 . The southern castellum (or castella) aquae may not have been investigated yet, but a little further along the southern conduit a filter cistern was found (Fig. 3). It is a rectangular, 16 m long and 5.5 m wide water tank, initially exca- vated in the 1960s13 and recently reinvestigated14 . The V-shaped water tank was built of medium size stones bonded with conventional mortar and also covered inside with a layer of white hydraulic mortar . The capacity is estimated at 15,000 litres, the filter cistern has been tentatively dated to the 2 nd century AD . GATES AND STREETS Inside the camp’s walls the aqueducts and conduits ran parallel to the street grid at least to some degree, crossing onto and off the areas underneath the main gates . The earliest detected water conduits connecting with the southern castellum aquae ran underneath the southern gate and towards the north in the portico along the via decumana . This aqueduct was made of mortar bonded terracotta and lead pipes15 . Another street-aligned masonry channel covered with slabs, 1.40 m deep inside and 0.60 m wide, ran also from south to north, this time in the intervallum along the eastern section of the via sagularis and through the above mentioned filter tank. In the praetentura of the camp, excavations revealed sev- MARTIN LEMKE The Water Supply of the Legionary Fortress of Novae (Bulgaria) Fig. 2: The aqueducts of Novae (after Dyczek 2008, 36). eral sections of the central drains . One ran in the middle of a street to the west of the military hospital . The depth of this big channel was 1 m, the width almost 0.70 m. The wastewater flushed a nearby latrine located in the north-western corner of the hospital (see below) and then was disposed of via an outlet channel into the Danube . Another drain, for rainwater, ran in the middle of the via praetoria. This drain was 1.10 m deep and 0.60 m wide. Water from the eastern side of the camp was conducted into a natural ravine, which drops towards the Danube, through an outlet channel running along the north-eastern corner tower16 . One can easily deduce that the street and drain network were planned together for clarity and convenience . THERMAE The two large bathhouses, operating successively, were certainly among the largest water consuming facilities in the camp . The overall plan of the Flavian baths at Novae17 differs in some ways from other baths known within the provinces, including the succeeding thermae built west of the principia (see below) . The Flavian baths were large (claiming a surface of almost 1 ha) and their layout resembles elaborate civil bathhouses rather than modest and practical military installations and shows influences of Italic civilian architecture . As a consequence, the enormous amount of water required for the thermae was disposed of by a complex drainage network (Fig . 4) . A total of six channels were found, made of stone and mortar (frequently using a reddish opus signinum for maximum waterproofness) . The drains ran below the western part of the building, as a result of the general layout as well as terrain properties . After having been destroyed, likely by an earthquake18, the channels were not repaired, but instead equipped with bypasses to circumvent the leaking parts . The thermae built west of the principia (Sector 11) in the 2 nd century19 replaced the earlier baths in sector 4 and, obviously, also required a sophisticated water supply system . Interestingly, as a result of a certain difference in levels, a separate aqueduct for these baths had to be raised in the last section apparently on massive piers of ashlar masonry 20 . In the south-eastern part of the baths’ palaestra, a section of a drain running from west to east and covered with monolithic stone slabs was found . The width is between 0.76 and 0.83 m and its maximum depth 1.04 m. The lower part of this drain was made of stone blocks bonded with lime mortar, while the upper part included two or three layers of bricks. Two smaller drains joined the first one from a natatio in the baths . Southwest of the drain a gutter, 1.20 m long and 0.77 m wide, covered with ceramic slabs was also found . It disposed of rainwater from the roof of the baths directly into the drain 21 . PRINCIPIA The headquarters did not require as much water as the baths, but still a number of drainage channels for excess 1017 1018 Limes XXIII · Kapitel 22 · Session 19 – How to build a Roman Camp Fig. 3: Filter cistern in the intervallum (Photo T. Sarnowski). Fig. 4: Drains of the Flavian baths (Photo J. Recław). MARTIN LEMKE The Water Supply of the Legionary Fortress of Novae (Bulgaria) Fig. 5: Sector 12 after the 2013 campaign (M. Lemke): 1) early wooden structures; 2) open channel; 3) 1st century rubbish pits; 4) “meandering” channel; 5) N-S main drainage channel; 6) basin; 7) latrine; 8) Late Antique ghost walls; 9) tributary channel; 10) course of the pipeline discovered in 2015 (see Fig. 6) (Photo M. Lemke). Fig. 6: Pipeline made of imbrices discovered in 2015 (Photo M. Lemke). 1019 1020 Limes XXIII · Kapitel 22 · Session 19 – How to build a Roman Camp Fig. 7: Producer’s stamps on terracotta pipes (Photographers, from left to right: T. Biniewski, M. Bogacki, M. Lemke). (rain) water were discovered and also a well in the main courtyard . Moreover, a conduit of ceramic pipes (each 1.45 m long and with a 14 cm internal diameter) was investigated in six spots in the south-western part of the headquarters building . It was replaced or supplemented by a further aqueduct in the early 2 nd century, this time a stone built channel (0.30–0.70 m wide and 0.70–1 m deep), whose remains were found at the rear of the headquarters building and in the street running along the western wall of the principia 22 . VALETUDINARIUM Given its enormous size, the water related installations in the valetudinarium are relatively modest . They consist of a drainage system for the internal courtyard, two small cisterns collecting rainwater23 next to its portico, as well as a rather spacious latrine in the northwest corner of the hospital, where some earlier channels of the Flavian thermae could be reused for the sewers . In the latrine a system of drains was in operation built of medium-sized stones and grey hydraulic mortar and a base of tegulae bearing the stamps of the 1st Italic Legion . These internal channels of the latrine were connected with the main sewers via two intermediate outlets. The first one was located in the south-western corner of the latrine and brought water from a conduit running along the western edge of the hospital. The water flushed the latrine and was disposed of through the second connector in the northern part of the latrine into the sewer to the north . The height difference between the connectors measured 90 cm which together with the sloped bottom of the latrine resulted in a quick water flow24 . The drainage channel from the courtyard runs towards the latrine in the northwest and curves beneath the floor of several rooms in the valetudinarium25, but above the installations of the earlier thermae . SCAMNUM TRIBUNORUM The complex excavated in the scamnum for the senior officers26 consisted of two rows of rectangular rooms separated by corridors or narrow passages without a roof . Within the investigated area, a water conduit built of bricks ran down the middle of a passage between the front and central part of the complex, then down a wider passage between the central part and taverns lining the via praetoria . A stone installation resembling another settling tank was also located here27, fed by a further conduit made of ceramic pipes bearing in some cases the stamp of a private producer (see below) . SECTOR 12 Sector 12 is the most recent fieldwork area at the moment, designated in 2011 . Even though the nature of the principal legionary building has not yet been established with certainty 28, one can certainly admire the sophisticated network of conduits built here (Fig . 5), thus I will discuss them in some detail . There also might have been instances of wooden cisterns for collecting rainwater, like in other camps contemporary with the earliest phase of Novae29 . A large channel without traces of a covering running north-south was possibly also designed for rainwater30, while the main sewage channel for the legionary building in the late 1st–3rd century runs along the current eastern edge of the excavation area, precisely on a north-south axis . There is also a third channel meandering southeast-northwest, draining water from a small basin added later to the structure . The main drainage channel runs along the eastern side of the current trench, passing under several walls . It is large and solid, consisting of medium-sized stones and bricks, which had been dug into the loess soil and were held together by white hydraulic mortar . The last level of the side walls, underneath the covering stones, was made of flat tiles . The covers are big stone slabs while the base comprised tegulae. The depth measures ca. 0.60 m, the internal width 0.20 m, while the entire construction is 0.60 m wide . Towards the northern end of the trench, an additional tributary channel directs its waters into this drain, while at the southern edge of the excavated area a pipe made of imbrices set in virgin soil and feeding into the channel was discovered in 2015 (Fig . 6) . This large conduit and its tributaries were in all likelihood constructed as part of the initial drainage layout within the first stone phase of the fortress. It was intersected when a basin unearthed in the southern part of the trench was built . The “meandering” channel with a depth of ca. 0.35 m is also very interesting, not only from a hydro-technical point of view, but also for its chronological implications . Its walls are made of large stones and a layer of bricks beneath the covering and its width gradually decreases on the excavated stretch from 25 to 12 cm (possibly to increase water pressure before reaching a latrine) . Interestingly, the cover slabs are tegulae of legiones I Italica and I Minervia MARTIN LEMKE The Water Supply of the Legionary Fortress of Novae (Bulgaria) Fig. 8: Conduits in Sector 12 (top: M. Lemke) and Sector 4 (bottom: J. Recław). pia fidelis . The bottom also consists of tegulae, sometimes stamped LEG I ITAL, but also with a number of stamps of legio XI Claudia . Apparently, this channel was built along with the small basin at a time of reorganization within the fortress, perhaps towards the end of the 1st century, when on the eve of Trajan’s First Dacian War the existing bathhouse was torn down and the new thermae were built west of the principia . The availability of both spare material from the disassembled baths, as well as professionals specialized in building hydraulic constructions, maybe from detachments of legiones XI Claudia and I Minervia 31, might have been taken advantage of to also construct smaller features, like a basin and latrine within a possible senior officer’s house/praetorium . A hint supporting this theory is the fact that the stamps on the base tiles of the channel, bearing stamps of the 1st legion, represent early, Flavian types 32 – like those used in the early thermae . On the other hand, the layout and building material of the small basin may hint at a Late Antique dating of this feature33 . FINDS OF PARTICULAR INTEREST Many of the terracotta water conduits from Novae included ceramic building material bearing stamps of legio I Italica and less frequently also of other legions . However, there are also some stamps made by private producers (Fig . 7) . This is somewhat surprising, given the autonomous building capacities of the Roman army, which was well known for training and providing specialists rather than requiring them . During the exploration of the supposed western castellum aquae, three 1 m long ceramic pipes were found, with stamps in planta pedis deciphered tentatively34 as TRAꜛEX, the presumed name of a private producer35 . Three more ceramic pipes, bearing the producer’s name ARRIVS, also in planta pedis, were discovered during excavations in Novae in 200936 . The pipes came from a water conduit supplying a natatio of the Flavian bath and measured 74 cm in length with an inner diameter of 11–12 cm. Two more elaborate private producer stamps were found on terracotta pipes beyond the settling tank in the scamnum tribunorum . One of them is again linked to the produc- 1021 1022 Limes XXIII · Kapitel 22 · Session 19 – How to build a Roman Camp er Arrius . Here legio I Italica is stated as the recipient of a pipe made by M . A[r]rius Geminus37 . These pottery pipes lead one to the conclusion that to some extent the water supply systems in the given areas were constructed of building materials provided by private workshops, at least towards the end of the 1st century, an early example of logistical diversification, which would become more prominent in later centuries38 . PERSPECTIVES With the water sources in the south and west and the drainage towards the Danube in the north and the enormous amount of water in question, there must have been a sophisticated grid for all the features described above to function properly, as well as precautions for a drought . This leads us to the question of how far this network can be reconstructed and to what degree structural elements have discernible features revealing them as parts of one phase and one network . Even though the various conduits basically served the same purpose, they usually differ visibly in their appearance . However, the main sewage channel from Sector 12 mentioned above seems to have contemporaries in style: a similarly constructed channel was found in 2007 in one of the trenches probing the thermae beneath the valetudinarium39 (i. e. 200 m to the north; Fig. 8) and also the principal sewage channel of the 2nd century baths with its stone covering slabs 40 and the conduit feeding into the filter cistern appear very similar in layout . Since they were all built quite similar, the question arises whether they were built at the same time in the principal phase of consolidation towards the end of the 1st century, when an overall transition from wooden towards stone structures took place . Even though comparative studies of the unearthed water installations may hint at common features and design phases, additional fieldwork in key locations, such as the castellum aquae of the southern aqueduct or points of convergence of the different water supply and sewage channels would be desirable for further investigating the subject . Dr . Martin Lemke Antiquity of South-Eastern Europe Research Centre Uniwersytet Warszawski Krakowskie Przedmieście 26/28 00-927 Warsaw Poland m.lemke@uw.edu.pl 1 2 3 4 Lemke 2016. Conrad/Stančev 2002, 676. Lemke 2015a, 846. Derda et al. 2008; Sarnowski 2012. Our research is kindly supported by the University of Warsaw and the Ministry of Science and Higher Education, DEC-2014/13/B/HS3/04836. In the past, M. Biernacka-Lubańska made several approaches towards the topic of water supply in the camp: BiernackaLubańska 1997 with further literature. 5 Novae has been divided into designated fieldwork zones. The excavation team split the entire fortress into an eastern (Bulgarian) and western (Polish) part, with a number of subdivisions, called “Sectors” (see Dyczek 2008 for excavation history). The principal areas of interest are Sector 11 (the headquarters building (principia) with the 2nd century baths), Sector 4 (the army hospital and adjacent buildings in the scamnum tribunorum), as well as the recently initiated Sector 12 east of the principia. 6 Giorgetti 1995, 248. 7 Biernacka-Lubańska 1973, 116. 8 Sarnowski/Kaniszewski 2007, 227–230. 9 Biernacka-Lubańska 1997, 14; Tsarov 2012, 202. 10 Lemke 2015c, 94–95. 11 Biernacka-Lubańska 1997, 39–40. Contra: Tsarov 2012, 205. 12 Tsarov 2007, 223. 13 Dimitrov et al. 1974; Biernacka-Lubańska 1997, 37–39. 14 Sarnowski et al. 2014, 88–90. 15 Sarnowski 2012, 46. 16 Sarnowski 2005, 151. 17 Lemke 2011; Dyczek 2009. 18 Dyczek 2011, 106. 19 Biernacki et al. 2016; Biernacki 2002; Biernacki 2003. 20 Biernacki 2002, 650 with fig. 10. 21 Biernacki 2003, 9–10. 22 Sarnowski 2012, 48. 23 Dyczek 2006, 134. 24 Press et al. 1987, 155. 25 Dyczek 2006, 134. 26 Milcheva/Gencheva 1994. 27 Sarnowski 2012, 74. 28 The structure being the house of a high-ranking officer, possibly even the praetorium, is a conceivable possibility at the moment: Lemke 2015b. For further information on Sector 12 see Lemke 2012; Lemke 2013; Lemke 2014. 29 Lemke 2014, 189. 30 Probably designed for disposing of excess rainwater from the roofs: Lemke 2012, 196. Cf. Jacobi 1934, 51. 31 Sarnowski 1987, 112–118. 32 Personal communication Michał Duch. Cf. 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