Homogeneity In Iraq

Intentionally kept blank Homogeneity in Iraq: As found in Literature amoung different ethnic communities By Amer Ali Dahham Published by Digital Press Hyderabad, India Homogeneity in Iraq by Amer Ali Dahham M.A., M.Phil., Ph.D Casual Babylon, Iraq Published by Digital Press Hyderabad India First Edition : 2017 No. of Copies : 1000 ISBN : 978-81-934407-0-4 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduce or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system without permission in writing from the publisher. Acknowledgements I would like to express my gratitudes to all Indian people especially my professors and mentors, who supported me in my studies. I could not forget my best freind in India Mr. Zeeshan Abbas for his precious contributions and eminent encouragements in my academic studies. It is also my duty to acknowledge to my family who has been a driving force for me in all my endeavours. I also want to submit my salutations to all the people of Iraq who are suffering from terrorism. Intentionally kept blank Preface Iraq is a unique country with great diversity in ethnicities, race, religion, language, culture, and in every other aspect of the human society. Iraqi civilization is one of the oldest in the world and primarily consists of Arabs, Kurds, Turkamen, Assyrians, Jews and other minorities. History suggests that this land was home to the earliest of civilizations, because of the natural resources it offers; different ethnic communities inhabit this land from ages. Moreover, the Iraq's nationalism, accounting to a plethora of cultural extravaganza, religions, etc. is the reason that the country is seen more as a seat for a major world civilization than a mere nation-state. The heterogeneity among these various groups based on their territory, religion, language, culture, tribe, etc., creates a gap between them. This issue is the root of vulnerability in the people of Iraq. During my studies in India, I found the people here in spite of diverse ethnicities and religions are living together in harmony. Hence I took up this project of research on the homogeneity in Iraq, as found in different ethnic communities through their literature. To examine this I have zeroed on the top evidence of literature from each ethnic group and research what is the coherence among them. It was a herculean task as the evidences were in different languages and I needed to translate that into English. Intentionally kept blank TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction …………………………………….. 11 Arabs …………………………………….. 25 Kurds …………………………………….. 36 Turkmen …………………………………….. 46 Assyrian …………………………………….. 57 Jews …………………………………….. 67 Other Minorities …………………………….. 78 Conclusion …………………………….. 91 Bibliography …………………………….. 98 Intentionally kept blank 11 | Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION The purpose of writing this book about homogeneity in Iraq is to examine certain issues regarding political and crucial events among different ethnic groups. I would like to cover the events which affect Iraqi writers. Iraqi literature as a dynamic force is capable of reflecting wider and more meaningful visions of reality. Not just politics and war, Iraqi writers have continued to write about love, music, nature and the human spirit. Iraq’s troubles have in fact energized its literary scene, although writing under the kind of relentless national catastrophes is not necessarily beneficial to creative expressions; indeed, they can be quite determinate. But in Iraq they have opened up new terrains, and narrative writing has flourished. Literature of the 1950s and 1960s is powerful and has influenced literary trends which was uncontroversial in terms of theme; and was traditional in terms of style. By the mid- Homogeneity in Iraq | 12 1960s Iraqi writers shook off the structures of social realism to produce work with more collective demand. The emergence of several capable voices is witnessed in the 1970s and there writing is by no means less realistic than of pervious eras. “Ferial Ghazon remarks that modern Iraqi literature thrives on realism, partly because the real got lost in the dominant political and social discourse. Life in Iraq is depicted in juxtaposed scenes rather than plots. Continuity is privileged over causality. The confidence in a hopeful future has given way to a consciousness of the absurd of the monstrous” (Mustafa) “In the past two decades, scenes of the tragic and a scene of absurd have apparently fed Iraqi literature and art and shifted from traditional social themes. War and sanctions have forced many writers out of the country and brought them into more extensive contact with the cultural traditions of their host countries, dealing with matters of identity, roots and belonging to Iraq” (Mustafa). Significant selection of the texts is on the basis of their reflection of trauma and anxiety in times of crises and war. All the texts manifest the desire to transcend the devastation and retain human dignity. Introduction 13 | 1.1. Homogeneity Homogeneity is derived from Greek, homo-, means "same," and genos means "race" or "kind". So homogeneity is the quality of being "the same kind" (Stevenson) “Modern Iraq covers almost the same area as ancient Mesopotamia, the land between Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamia, which is also referred to as the Fertile Crescent, was an important center of early civilization and saw the rise and fall of many cultures and settlements. In the medieval era, Iraq was the name of an Arab province that made up the southern half of the modern-day country” (Melvin Ember). People in Iraq use different languages, dialects and customs although they are involved in persistent social interaction. Large social groups such as Arabs, Kurds, Turkmen, Assyrian and other small groups share the same area, which haves the same political authority. Ninety Five percent population of Republic of Iraq claim a belief in Islam and follow it as the state religion. The majority of Iraqi communities are dominated by Arabic culture. The second-largest ethnic community is the Kurds, who lives in mountains of the north Iraq, there settlement is autonomous in nature. They occupy the major cities such as Dahuk, Sulaymaniyah and Irbil, they also share other neighboring cities with Arab and other com- Homogeneity in Iraq | 14 munities, which is commonly referred to as Kurdistan. In this book, I will discuss the issues regarding homogeneity in Iraq, the effects on languages and cultures of in this region and what could unify such diverse religious, cultural and political situations. The role of the significant ethnic groups in Iraq would be discussed in this book. My endeavor to study different and diverse ethnic groups in Iraq is to assess the homogeneity in languages, cultural, social, and political among the people. This is to understand whether the matter is related to individuals or is social in nature. I would also like to showcase issues of homogeneity in Iraq to understand, in these conditions of so much chaos, what could be the solutions to unify the people. 1.2 Languages of Iraq To understand the languages of Iraq, we have to trace the history via the Quran. History says there were three sons to Prophet Noah, Shem, Japheth and Ham. When they travelled to different parts of the land, “I mean to the dispersion of the posterity of Noah into several countries of the earth where they settled” (Rollin). Shem and his people formed a part of West Asia and the languages they spoke were Arabic, Assyrian, Hebrew and Aramaic. Most of the Nations talk in these languages which belong to Shem’s sons, Elam and Lud. Japheth moved to Europe and his descendants spoke Greek, 15 | Introduction Latin and Roman. The people of Ham formed nations in southern Europe and Coastal Africa and spoke Hamitic, Coptic, and little of Hebrew (Wahhab). Aramaic language is the longest used language in Iraq, dating back centuries or more and exists in today’s Neo-Aramaic languages. The ancient recorded languages of Mesopotamia were Sumerian and Akkadian. The languages and dialects which are spoken majorly in Iraq show diverse forms of homogeneity, examined under various literature and essays. In addition, details of vernaculars in other minority group of the society in Iraq must be taken into consideration. “Benedict Anderson spoke about the role of the novel in creating and spreading national identity. Through a creation of an “imagined community” with shared notions of time and space. The Iraqi novel was and still is committed to this idea and most Iraqi (Arab) novelists were partisans of Iraqi nationalism that strongly supports the integrity of Iraq in its current borders and envisions a nationalism that contains all of Iraq’s communities. Urban life enabled an unprecedented coexistence among the neighborhood which represents the “fanaticism” of all varieties of population” (Salloum). Homogeneity in Iraq | 16 Several ancient civilizations inhabited the area of Mesopotamia. Initially Sumerians ruled the land, who invented the system to irrigate the fields, developed agriculture, created the earliest form of alphabets, a numbering system on which time in the modern world is based, the also invented wheel, and the first plow with the help of domestic castles. The work in Literature was recorded, including the first known story, the Epic of Gilgamesh. “ The Epic of Gilgamesh was discovered on twelve clay tablets in King Ashurbanipal’s literary at Nineveh, written in ancient Akkadian Language” (Kalman). While Egyptian civilization believed in pharaoh as the lord of the lands, Sumerians believed in private properties, still followed in modern Iraq. In the year 762 AD, Baghdad was founded as the capital city of Iraq. It became centre for education, trade and cultural hub. The commercial traders from all over the world traveling across the city boosted the cities incredible philosophical and scientific works by both Arab and Persian thinkers. The modern day’s territory of Iraq has been defined by the British Rulers who invaded Iraq in twentieth century, and in doing so paid little attention to ethnic divisions. The Arabs who most of them Muslims had ruled during the medieval period and had the cultural impact on modern Iraq. There are two main sects in Iraqi Muslims, One is Sunnis and the other is Shias (Shiites). The Shias are the majority in Iraq. “The largest minority in Iraq, the Kurds, continually battle 17 | Introduction with the majority Arabs, and the sparring between these two cultural groups has contributed to a survivalist mentality for the Kurds. The Turkomans, who populate the northern mountainous areas, also have had strained relations with the Kurds due to their historical role as buffers between Arab and Kurdish areas. Other cultural groups who are sometimes subject to the will of the Arab majority are the Yazidis, who are of Kurdish descent, but differ from the Kurds because of their unique religion. There are the Assyrians, who are direct descendents of the ancient Mesopotamian people and speak Aramaic. They are mainly Christian, and though they compose a significant minority in Iraq, the government does not officially recognize them as an ethnic group. Regarding relations with other countries, Iraq's Shias have been the traditional enemies of Persians for centuries; this contributed to Iraq fighting Iran in a costly war from 1980 to 1988 over a land dispute. The Iraqi Kurdish population is surrounded by fellow Kurds in the countries of Iran, Turkey, Syria, and Azerbaijan” (Melvin Ember). Iraq’s seemingly endless tragic ordeals in the recent years have made the headlines, particularly following the 2003 American invasion. This is not surprising given the fact that Iraq for many years has been the victim of the most vicious tyranny, senseless war (Iraq – Iran 1980-1988) Iraq-Kuwait (1990); the 1991 Gulf War and latest American invasion. Homogeneity in Iraq | 18 Figure 1 Showing Distribution of Ethnic Groups in Iraq designed by me. 1.3 Literature Review Contemporary Iraqi Fiction an Anthology has tried to shed some light on the rich diversity of Iraqi writers. I have included selections by Abd Al-Khalid al Rikab, Ahmed Saadawi, Bachhtiar Ali Mohammed, Shmuel Moreh and Rosei Malek. Other minorities in Iraq such as Shabaks, Yazidis, 19 | Introduction Feyli, Sabian Mandaean, although each voice is unique in term of writing about Iraq and its different ethnic communities who has been suffering from war, occupations, dictatorships and suppression of freedom of expression. These literary works display their conceptual realities, themes, genres, in different aesthetic expressions ranging from phrases to forms. Iraqi fiction has been particularly well suited to keeping pace with troubling realities in Iraq. The past quarter of a century alone has seen along brutal war with Iran from 1980 to 1988; the two Gulf war of 1991 and 2003, a thirteen-year economic embargo that crippled the country’s infrastructure, and the decline of the country’s middle class, the demise of a cruel regime, and the foreign occupation that must remind many Iraqis of their country’s vulnerability. From the recent events it should not be drawn that Iraqi fiction writers have stayed away from all other themes and concerns. Fiction as a dynamic force is capable of imposing itself on the most engulfing of preoccupations to enable wider and perhaps more meaningful visions of reality. Iraqi writers have continued to write about love, music, gardens and the spirit, but one would have to wonder about the credibility of their writing if did not also reflect the weight of the dismal reality a step or two from the writer’s desk. I have selected such Iraqi writers who have works on realism, because all the literature is taking Homogeneity in Iraq | 20 about true events which occurred in Iraqi history. Iraq’s trouble seems to have energized its literary scene. Writing under the kind of relentless surveillance the country has suffered since the early of 1970. Gradually stagnates creativity, confines of mundane themes and treatment. The new fiction is by no means less realistic than that of previous eras, “Ferial Chazoul remarks that Modern Iraqi fiction has thrived on realizing partly because its rise coincided with the prevalence of the realist trend, and partly because the real got lost in the dominant political and social discourse” (Mustafa). We can say the fiction in the 1980’s started to lose the realistic themes and were influenced by the government to write about their glorifications. As a result of this policy the literary works and writers were either forced to oblige or face discrimination. Therefore a new era has dawned. “A sense of tragic and a sense of absurd in the past two decades have apparently liberated Iraqi literature and art from traditional and predominantly social themes, as well as from an aesthetic tepid in its adherence to realism. Salih Atoma rightly claims that for much of the second half of the twentieth century, traditional themes and treatments actually narrowed the opportunities for wider circulation of Iraqi writers in other languages. Fiction writers grew holder in approaching both private and public subjects. The fiction of the late 1960s and 1970s brought Iraqi writers to wider audiences in the Arab world and beyond. It is not surprising, then, 21 | Introduction that more Iraqi works were translated during this period and that Iraqi fiction started to reach other readerships” (Mustafa). Another development that has proved with it is migration. War and sanctions have forced many writers out of the country and brought them into more extensive contact with cultural traditions of their host countries. They led with matters of identity, roots, and belonging that would have been unimaginable if these writers translated here live and write outside Iraq, their fiction, however, draws on their multiple sources, and some of these sources of course relate to Iraq and the native tradition. Iraq obviously continue to write about many subjects and increasingly number of literary works in poetry, fiction, short stories, drama and other genres. What have been missing or marginally represented are Iraqi humanistic contribution to Arabic Literature and Arts. Despite of the fact that Iraqi writers, poets, novelist under the strict conditions writes in their respective Diasporas in Arab and Western countries. It is also the Arabic literature accepted wider attention in growing corpus of literary studies. Homogeneity in Iraq | 22 1.4 Research Questions This book will raise certain questions like: 1.What is homogeneity in Iraq like? 2.In recent history what contemporary kinds of literature have been developed in Iraq? 3.What demonstrates homogeneity in literature among the different ethnic groups of Iraq? 4.Can there be a theme to unify the Iraqi people who are divided into different ethnic groups? 5.How to promote national heritage, identity, and sense of belonging in Iraq? 1.5 Methodology My study is to gather information about Iraq and its ethnic groups which live in harmony and coexist side by side from centuries. I search and look for homogeneity in people of Iraq through their literary works. The information garnered is mostly in Arabic language and hence needed to be translated by me for the readers to understand the essence of integration of the people of Iraq. I have reviewed many novels, short stories, book and reports to find out the history and culture of the ethnic groups. The reason was to sum- 23 | Introduction maries suggestions for unification of the people through social, cultural, religion and languages studies. The literary works of some of the Iraqi nationals living abroad shows their willingness to come back to their homeland because they still love the places and the people. They wrote in very emotional styles of literature representing their views of homogeneity, human values and morals. The non availability of some English writers and most of literary work available in local languages only gave me very difficult situation to trace their works and translate in English. To find the answers to my research questions I have to study the novels, essays, book and short stories which was significant for my research work. 1.6 Chapter Plan The discussion is divided into seven chapters, each chapter discussing a particular ethnic group, its social, cultural, history and literature. The focus will be on representatives’ novelists from each of these groups and analyze their work. Chapter II focuses on Arabs and the prominent novelist, Abdul Khalid Al Rikabi and his work Arab Altar. Chapter III, is focused on Kurdish Novel by Backtiar Ali’s, The City of White Musicians. In chapter IV, I will write about Homogeneity in Iraq | 24 Turkmen Novelist Ahmed Saadawi’s Frankenstein in Baghdad. Chapter V Assyrian Rosie Malek-Yonan Work The Crimson Field is discussed. Chapter VI is about Jews Shmuel Moreh’s poem Departure and the last chapter VII is on for minorities group in Iraq. In conclusion I want to present and summarize the suggestions for the homogeneity in Iraq, through its literature, some issues as found in the representative literature of different ethnic communities. Despite of the suffering and badly treated government policies people believes in forgiveness and tolerance which shows their integrity and love for the country. Arabs 25 | Chapter 2 ARABS IN IRAQ This Chapter is focused on Arabs in Iraq, their origin, history, culture and literary works. I have searched many works of Iraqi novelist, essayist, story writers and poets who have great capabilities to showcase their art in their literature. Abd al Khaliq al Rikabi a prominent and popular figure in Iraqi Literature and his work Arab Altar shows the crucial time in Iraq during the war between Iraq-Iran. He portrays the Arabs in Iraq in sequential events where people were unaware of the nitty gritty of the war. The author and his fiancé were of deciding on their wedding when the war broke out and in spite of the author and his mother insisting on the wedding, his fiancé postponed it many times. After the wedding the character Maryam refuses to give birth because of the tarnished atmosphere. The events in this novel reflect people’s lives in a war zone with corpses and destruction everywhere. Even in these circumstances the novel depicts the peoples wish to bring in new generations in the hope of the situation getting better. Homogeneity in Iraq | 26 2.1 Origin The Iraqi Arabs are the descendents of Arabs of Canaan. Arabs inhabited Arabian Peninsula and later migrated to North Africa and as Fareast as Iran. Most people consider Arabs from the Arabian Peninsula to be the original Arabs. We do not know when the first nomads came to the Arabian Peninsula, and we certainly do not know which language they spoke. It is usually assumed that their settlement of the peninsula took place in the second millennium B.C.E. “Though the inhabitants of Arabia lived on the periphery of the great empires, they were of great importance to them. Firstly their homeland occupies the central position between India, Africa, Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean world, which meant that people or goods passing from one to the other would often be obliged to have dealings with them” (Hoyland). It was then that Arab migrations began, leading to the expansion of the Arabs in the Middle East. Modern day Iraq is the home of the ancient Sumerian, Assyrian, and Babylonian empires. Iraqi Arabs have settled in cities abetting the two rivers that is Tigris and Euphrates, tribal affiliations for merchandising and agriculture were the prime occupations for them. All goods and persons passing through town are strictly controlled though fortress-like villages were houses have windows on all sides and is built facing the outside of the village. 27 | Arabs 2.2 Culture “From many centuries the Arabian culture has developed through tribes of nomads and villagers who lived in the Arabian Desert” (Hoyland). The Arabs extremely like social life; they spent quality time sitting on mattresses in Mudeef (Guest Rooms) chatting and drinking coffee from cups without handles. They are also very hospitable and serve delicious Arabian Non Veg. dishes to their guests. Most of them are agriculture based growing wheat, barley, rice, vegetables, coffee, melons, dates, and pomegranates. Domestic animals are kept to supply milk and eggs. Arabs try to preserve their culture by only marring inside their own families and tribes. It was arranged by the parents or tribal heads; however, it is becoming more acceptable these days for young men to choose their brides. At present day in the era of technological revolution, people have more freedom and rights, particularly Iraqi women now have the right in education and equality with men. The education has developed them in thinking, independent decision making, especially in marriages, and also in jobs. The society in general became free from all the issues and restrictions of the previous era where men where in the helm of the affairs. Now we can see the women taking part in politics, defense, education, health and all other fields. Homogeneity in Iraq Figure 2, Showing Shia & Sunni Arab areas (Iraq) | 28 29 | Arabs 2.3 Language & Literary Works “Arabic is the official language of Iraq and the mother tongue of over 79% of the people” (Kurian). Arabic spoken in south have a different regional dialect from Arabic spoken in the Assyrian highlands in north. “Arabic belongs to a group of languages collectively known as the Semitic language. The earliest attested Semitic language is Akkadian, a language spoken in Mesopotamia between 2500 and 600 B.C.E. ; from 2000 B.C.E onwards it was differentiated into Babylonian and Assyrian” (Versteegh). “Modern Iraqi literature and poetry started to evolve in the early 20th century. Although a country with one of the oldest written traditions in the world Neo classism in the late of 19th century, romanticism after World War I and modernism after 1967, Iraqi writers are less known for novels but rather for short stories and their most distinguished achievements not prose works but poetry” (Rohde). In twentieth century saw the emergence of contemporary Iraqi literature. The selection of social realism by Abd al-Khaliq al-Rikabi’s in his novel The Arab Altar expresses tremendous amount of human violence which signifies war stained fabric of Iraq. Homogeneity in Iraq | 30 2.3.1 Abd al-Khaliq al-Rikabi Abd al-Khaliq al-Rikabi was born 1946 in Diyalah, Iraq. He studied at the University of Baghdad; he started to write poems, later turned to fiction writing. From his notable literary works, seven novels and two collections of short stories were published. He is a popular figure and a pioneer for Iraqi literature. He used a new technique in all his novels that keeps the reader on the past events and links it with the future. He creates characters to reflect the reality. His work Arab Altar is commendable and read around the world. 2.3.2 Arab Altar (Arabic : 1995) I have read the novel in Arabic and offer my view that the writer of Arab Altar, Abd al Khaliq al Rikabi tries to create scenes which cannot be obliterated from the memories of the people. The events start at the University of Baghdad when the peaceful and serene environment is disrupted by the sirens which alarm all before the bombing by Iranian aircrafts. The writer portrays himself as busily planning his wedding with Maryam. The sound of the Dushka (Anti aircraft weapons) is heard resulting chaos which prevails everywhere. 31 | Arabs Maryam is engaged to the writer since long time and they were trying to fix a date for their wedding, but she was postponing the wedding day on some excuses. She tries to be close to him by assisting him in his MA contemporary literature studies at the University. In these circumstances the war sirens and sounded. Eventually the mother reproaches her son for postponing the wedding repeatedly and the changing circumstances due to the war erupted between Iraq - Iran. Obviously the mother does not know the exact reason for the war as the commoners don’t know the exact reasons and asks her son why the sirens were sounded. When the news is aired on national television about the war with Iran, the channel displayed the casualties and the people are encouraged to take part in defending the country and attack Iran. The real reason was that Saddam Hussein the president saw the success of the Iranian revolution and was not happy with it. Eventually Iraq captures some cities of Iran violating international borders which led to the war. During these events Israel manipulated the situation by attacking the nuclear sites of Iraq, to stop the ambitious President from possessing nuclear weapons. The writer’s mother wages another undeclared and one-sided war against Maryam who she is deliberately postponing the wedding. The writer’s mother and father are getting old with their health deteriorate, with us domestic help Homogeneity in Iraq | 32 for their household. This led to the writer admitting the mistake of not marrying at early. Then with the help of Maryam’s aunt persuades Maryam for the wedding. She eventually agrees with the condition of keeping it very simple and quiet. Amid the devastating war and depressed atmosphere the wedding takes place as per Maryam’s wishes. The writer relatives attended this wedding with the traditional and popular way. After few days of wedding in middle of the year 1982, another war breaks out, in Lebanon this time, adding anxiety to Maryam as she fears Baghdad will again become a target of Iranian planes and missiles. Maryam’s brothers Muhammed and Fuad who are studying in Lebanon are also pose concern for her. The situation and her anxiety led to the apprehensions of the writer’s mother to think that the something is wrong in the relations of the newlywed couple. When the months passed she would indirectly ask about it to her son to a positive and gently response that everything was all right. On the unrest and the feeling of not having a grandson after a long gap of months the writer’s mother suggests they consult a gynecologist. Maryam agrees to check with a physician who reports that everything is normal. But in fact Maryam uses birth control pills to avoid pregnancy without the knowledge of her in laws. The reason is that she does not want to give birth to another victim to be slaughtered in a war as she has no desire for a son who will one day become a bloated corpes for flies to swarm over. 33 | Arabs The story continues with the depredations of war which finally ends but at the cost of the writer’s father death. Conditions deteriorate further when Iraq accuses Kuwait and the Emirates of economic warfare by flooding the oil market with excess oil resulting in the attack of Iraq in 1990 over Kuwait. In this novel the description about Saddam Hussein rule was dictatorship in nature and the common man in his regime was not able to express his free will leading to fanatics’ and war after war. The economic has worsened and people suffered tremendous losses of wealth and lives (Al-Rikabi). 2.3.3 Critical Analysis In my analysis of the novel Arab Altar which is a work of Abd Al Khaliq Al Rikabi in Arabic, I notice that the writer portrays himself as a citizen of Iraq busy in his studies at the University and planning his wedding with his fiancée who assists him at his research, but she refuses an early wedding. The serenity of the country’s capital Baghdad is disturbed by the sounds and alerts of sirens. The events in this novel showcase the disturbances, chaos and emergency alike of situations prevailing. In the context of this anarchy, people do not know the exact reason for the war show different images of love, harmony, and togetherness among themselves. I find the people unified behind the Iraqi Flag and the National Anthem in spite of the government encouraging them to take Homogeneity in Iraq | 34 part in the war. The wedding ceremony in this novel shows the homogeneity in Iraq where people even during the war behave calm. There is participation and togetherness among the guests at the ceremony indicating reciprocity of their culture. When Saddam Hussein was appointed as Vice President by Ahmed al Bakr, in response to the Islamic Revolution’s victory in Iran, the authorities here have deliberately substituted young leaders for older ones, with an eye on the Islamic forces mobilizing in Iraq. The events in this novel suggest the apprehensions of the main character Maryam who believes that war is inevitable. Maryam who neither wants to marry nor give birth to a child since she has a feeling that in a battle field with so many calamities and corpses all round if she gives birth, her son one day will become a victim of the next war. Maryam’s obsession is not only for the current invasion of Iran, but also for her brothers who study in Lebanon where a new war begins. She had a dream wherein she begs to her mother, father, or another family member staying in their stone house in the Saraya al-Sitt section of old Jerusalem for help. but they ignore her, because as they were watching Israeli fighter planes flying low. Here the maturity of Maryam which leads to her prediction of the war, and also about Saddam who has put hardships on his people by his arrogance and dictatorial attitude to have control over the region. Conditions continue to deteriorate and Iraq in- 35 | Arabs vades Kuwait. As was noted earlier such an opposition is not limited to state – sponsored or pro – Saddam Hussein poets or extremist groups hostile to the United States but some writers who can be viewed as sympathetic to the former regime in contrast to other writers and poets in exile. The suggestion from this novel indicates that the common people are alienated from the specific policies of the government. They should be as vigilant as the main character Maryam in this novel. The writers should also not be enlisted to glorify the ruler or its unethical policies. The people for the national integrity should be tolerant, love each other, and forgive any mistakes of others, in spite of living in diversified groups become one nation. The history suggest that people who does not want to see the progress or self reliance of Iraq, through immense planning make it more vulnerable to attacks on the secular fabric of the country, therefore the people should participate in developing relationships, national consciousness, economy and respect cultures of different ethnic groups. Homogeneity in Iraq | 36 Chapter 3 KURDS IN IRAQ This Chapter focuses on Kurds in Iraq, their origin, history, culture and literary works. In my search of Iraqi Kurdish literature I have found that there have been a tremendous outflow of the writers and authors outside country, who were forced to pursue their work in foreign countries. Out of them I found Bakhtiyar Ali, a Kurdish intellectual and novelist. Since 1990 he is living in Germany. He often adapt methods of western literary philosophy to interpret the issues of the people of his community. He portrayed the Kurds in Iraq in sequential events. His art of essaying beautiful scene and background which eventually becomes active for readers, his contemporary work of The City of White Musician displays the same. The events in this novel deals with various subjects, such as Halabja (Anfal genocide campaign), the relationship between the power and intellectuals and other philosophical issue reflects the people lives in a war zone where corpses and destruction everywhere, even in these circumstances the novel shows forgiveness, tolerance and condemnation of violence. 37 | Kurds 3.1 Origin “The Kurds are one of the indigenous people of the Mesopotamian plains and the highlands in what are now south-eastern Turkey, north-eastern Syria, northern Iraq, north-western Iran and south-western Armenia” (Who are the Kurds?). “It is extremely doubtful that the Kurds form an ethnically coherent whole in the sense that they have a common ancestry. The majority of Kurds are probably descended from waves of indo-European tribes” (MacDowall). “Iraq’s Kurds live mainly in northern part of the country known as Kurdish autonomous region, or Iraqi Kurdistan” (Kalman). “The Kurdish region comprises the greater part of Iraq’s three northernmost governorates: Dohuk, Erbil and Sulaymaniyah, plus small parts of three neighboring governorates to south” (UK government policy on the kurdistan region of iraq) Figure 3 Showing Kurdish inhabited area (Who are the Kurds?) Homogeneity in Iraq | 38 3.2 Culture Unlike the Muslims the Kurdish people participate in mixed dancing during feast and celebrations. It is more similar to east European culture where in men and women participate in cultural activities. “Kurdish folklore in its various forms-stories, fables, fairytales, epics, lyrics, proverbs, anecdotes, charms and riddles- embraces a great diversity of themes, love, patriotism, war and hospitality are favorite subjects” (Jwaidh). In fact the Kurdish people consider their culture as very close to the Iranian culture as evident in celebration of Eid Nowroze. 3.3 Language and Literary Works Kurdish is the official language in Kurdistan, “Two major languages or dialects exist today, Kurmanji spoken by northern Kurds, and Surani spoken by most southern Kurds” (MacDowall). “Kurdish Iraqis are known for their fantasy stories, as well as for their chanted poems about war and love” (Kalman). Research undertaken mainly in Europe and US has compared Kurdish literature with the historical and political aspects of the Kurds, both Sorani and Kurmanji dialects, has 39 | Kurds increased considerably in recent years. 3.3.1 Bakhtiyar Ali Muhammed Bakhtiyar Ali Muhammed was born in Iraqi Kurdistan in 1960. He is well known Kurdish novelist, essayist, literary critic and poet. Ali started out as a poet and essayist, but has established collections as well as essay books. He is living in Bonn, Germany since the mid-1990s. His works includes 1988 Saddam-era Anfal genocide campaign; his contemporary work of The City of White Musician. 3.3.2 The City of White Musician The novel is originally written in Kurdish language and later translated in Arabic. The City of White Musician is talking about Halabja (Anfal Genocide of 1988) against the Kurds in the north of Iraq. The events of the novel begin with three characters coming together Dalia Sirajdeen a Kurdish prostitute who wanted to rescue her lover from the jail, Musa Babak an art-loving Kurdish doctor who wanted to work in arts but go underground because of Saddam Hussein the dictator, Samir Al-Babilee an Arab General who was repenting on his past full of his atrocities against people and Jeladet the Dove Homogeneity in Iraq | 40 an Anfal survivor who is obsessed with truth and justice. Through the characters' dreams, nightmares and searches I discover a captivating world of oppression, genocide, regret, survival and perseverance. During the Anfal campaign Jeladet the Dove is captured and is transported to the mass graves in the south of Iraq. On his way on the back side of military truck he started playing his flute which was so rhythmic that it engulfs the imagination of the brutal General Samir Al-Babilee. The long journey and bleeding wounds made Jaladet unconscious. He takes the wounded musician unto the prostitute Daila Sirajadeen the only person whom he can trust. The wounds and bleeding cause the Jaladet almost his life but by the efforts of the Daila along with Dr Musa Babek, Jaladet recovered. When he gain consciousness he does not remember what has happened to him and what has happened to his friends who were captured with him in the mountains. Samir Al-Babilee the General has taken part in an unsuccessful military coup against the dictator and is now on the run. He came to Daila for refuge; she has asked him to hide in Jeladet’s room. Upon introduction he befriends Jaladet. General started confessing about his crimes and atrocities to Jaladet and how he tortuned and killeds his victims, how he gained a reputation for being brutal and how because of this he was promoted to the top. Jeladet the Dove upon listening the atrocities cries for the victims, for his friends whom he would never see again, he also 41 | Kurds cries for Samir Al-Babilee who is haunted by his past. Samir Al-Babilee becomes Jeladet’s prisoner of his own accord. After the uprising of 1991 they headed north and hide themselves in an isolated half destroyed hotel. When the survivors of his atrocities came to know about his presence, they wanted to take revenge from their oppressor, but they believe killing and taking revenge will not bring peace to earth and returned the lives of the victims. In fact a lady victim Nasreen Ghafur who was raped said that she believes the honour and chastity of the women who are raped cannot be returned in spite if she tries to forgive her oppressors. The novel ends with the people taking a call not to take revenge and forgiving the General for his atrocities and crimes because forgiveness is the only remedy for any tolerating society to flourish (Muhammed). 3.3.3 Critical Analysis The novel is talking about the atrocities of Saddam by attacking the innocent civilians by chemical weapons. This genocide was committed by the dictator in a small town of Anfal in 1988. The writer of this novel uses title the city of white musician as a sign of representing the attack with chemical weapons, white colour represents chemicals and music is the whine of the victims who were killed in this attack. Homogeneity in Iraq | 42 The writer begins his novel with few survivors from this massacre who are again arrested by the brutal government of Saddam and sent to dungeons in the south desert. The story is told by the leading character of the novel who is a prostitute in a brothel; her name is Dalia Sirajadeen, other character is Dr. Musa Babak, a Kurdish doctor who is arrested by the General Samir Al Babilee, another character is Jeladet who is a survivor in the Anfal genocide. One of the most touching aspects in this novel is the fondness that grows between Jeladet and Samir, the victim and the victimizer. The two men become friends because Samir Al-Babilee confesses and regrets. On the other hand the survivors want to know what has happened to their loved ones, and how they were killed. Most of all they want an apology, recognition that what they endured was inhumane and unjustifiable. When Samir Al-Babilee confesses and reconciled with Jeladet, by telling him all the truth, and he tried to convince others for his forgiveness by telling the people that by taking revenge and killing Samir Al-Babilee they will not bring peace to earth; it will not heal anyone's wounds or return the dead. What they call justice is merely their thirst for revenge. Many people tried to get revenge from the oppressor but they understand that revenge will never bring justice for people. While Nasreen Ghafur who was raped by an army for a week and then had her hands cut off by Samir Al-Babilee believes he should die. She believes one can forgive the 43 | Kurds loss of limbs but not that of honour, in spite of her begs for help and not being raped. In a place where honour is still tied to women's sexual chastity, obviously women are being ready to sacrifice on any part of her body except the honour and morality cases. The women under arrest who were badly treated by her captivators requested them to free her for her chastity. Being raped women if at all taken revenge will not get back her chastity in society. This phenomenon is not only with the Kurdish women but for womanhood. It captures the difficulties that societies have to face when dictatorships end. There are choices to be made about forgiveness, truth and reconciliation which will affect the future of the community. The writer endeavor to find the justice for those people who were killed in this massacre, however here, Jeladet represents the voice of forgiveness when General Samir gets a refuge in his city. The General regrets about his atrocities and torture by living with the victims’ families. Many people try to revenge their oppressors but they also read that revenge will never bring justice for people. The voices of victims is obviously heard in the novel, the victims appeal for their lives to survive, the people of Anfal who were wounded requested to rescue their lives but no one listen. The women under arrest who were badly treated by her captivators requested them to free her for her chastity. In The City of White Musicians the most interesting part is the conversations of truth, forgiveness, justice, beauty Homogeneity in Iraq | 44 and morality. Dr Musa thinks that only beautiful things can protect the ugliness of violence. Jeladet The Dove, thinks that justice should be done regarding to Samir Al-Babilee even though he likes Samir. The General Samir Al-Babilee thinks that by confessing about his atrocities to the victims, his soul will be at peace. Shewaz accuses Jeladet of thinking in a stupid way because of his distorted looks done by Samir’s brutality. On the other hand Nasrin, worries about what people will say about her being raped, pointing to a very important violence in communities because the rape victims will be further victimized by the society. The women wish to die instead facing humiliation by the community. The blame is shifted onto the victims who endured the injustices and had no power to evade them. The stigmatization of being raped is continued with her in-laws who believed she was not a good mother and took her children away from her. She had no one to turn to, no legal help or community support available to her and for over ten years she was unable to see her children. The village women who survived were mostly illiterate, without any job skills. They became the sole breadwinners in their families and were left to fend for themselves in the cities. They worked as servants, farmers, and laborers for other people and inevitably some of them were exploited and abused. At the end, victims of Anfal remain divided over what to do with Samir Al-Babilee who is regretting his works with shame and grief. But he was ready for any punishment they 45 | Kurds give him even his death sentenced and he can only live normally if they forgive him. Ultimately those who cannot find peace are his victims. Some of them know that nothing can bring back their loved ones. They understand that by punishing Samir Al-Bailee will not make them happy or same again. The dilemmas that survivors face are skillfully portrayed here. Some people will never forgive and they carry this burden for rest of their lives. The others who wanted revenge will also not feel better. Even those who can forgive, like Haleem Shewaz, are scarred forever. Their lives are disrupted by violence and nothing can make them feel whole again. Some of the women asked for compensation, or a formal apology from the new Iraqi government. But as one of them told me while touching her heart: ‘Nothing can make this feel better, nothing.’. In the end of this novel it is concluded that the fair trail of the oppressor like Saddam and his Generals who later regretted their doings has been found guilty and later punished by the court, while the victims still mourn of their love ones. It states that being prejudiced by the situations the people of Iraq has tremendous virtue of forgiveness, tolerance and reconciliation. This reflects the homogeneity in the context of war trodden country. Homogeneity in Iraq | 46 Chapter 4 TURKMEN IN IRAQ This Chapter focuses on the Turkmen in Iraq, their origin, history, culture and literary works. In my search of Iraqi Turkmen literature I found a novel Frankenstein in Baghdad which has been queued with original Merry Sherry’s novel Frankenstein. Ahmed Al Saadawi the Iraqi novelist tells the story of a character, Hadi Al-Attag, who haunts the streets of the Al Bataween in Baghdad, the events takes place when a crowded market is bombed by the terrorist and Hadi Al-Attag tries to search for fresh human body parts to sew together a human corpse. Once completed, the corpse embarks on a journey of revenge on to those who have killed it on behalf of whose organs constitute its body. 4.1 Origin “Descending of the Turkish – speaking Oguz tribes from central Asia, Turkmen migrate to Mesopotamia over 47 | Turkmen several hundred years starting in the 7th Century AD. Turkmen are Sunnis while other Shia communities exist in Tuz Khurmado, Tauq, Qara Tupa, Taza Khurmado, Bashir al Tisim and Tel Afar. There are also about 30,000 Christian Catholics and some Jews living in Iraq” (Dabrowska). They are concentrated mainly in north and central Iraq. “There are estimated to be some three million Turkmen in Iraq, but despite being the third largest ethnic and cultural group (after the Arabs and Kurds) they make up less than 2% of overall population”. (Dabrowska). Turkmen in Iraq consider themselves as catalyst of integration between the Kurdish and Arab people and they are against the division of Iraq on the lines of ethnic groups. 4.2 Culture “The dresses worn by Turkmen women add color and style to the streets of Turkmen towns. They are long dresses of silk or velvet, descending to the ankle, most frequently a burgundy color though deep blue and green are also favored; the necks are enlivened with intricately embroidered trims. They also have uniform at the school and university for both girls and boys” (Brummell) “As marriages between Turks and Kurds seem to be quiet frequent, many speakers have mixed Turkish-Kurdish background and are fluent in both languages. Arabic, as the third language, is acquired through Homogeneity in Iraq | 48 mass media and at the school” (Verlag). The Turkmen areas overlap with other communities in Iraq that has turned the Turkmen into a balancing and pacifying factor between Arabs, Kurds and other communities. For example they lived with the Christians and other communities in Kirkuk in harmony and in agreement for centuries. Prophet Daniel cemetery in Al Qalat neighborhood of Kirkuk contains the graves and tombs of Muslims, Jews and Christian in one place. “They also have their own social customs, traditions, behavior, fashions and folklore etc.” (Salloum). “Turkmen playing significant roles as artisans, trade men, and merchants, during this period their wealth grew and they became land owners in major cities such as Baghdad, Kirkuk and Mosul. They also began to integrate and assimilate with Arabs and Kurds in their region” (Rubin). Turkmen people wants independence from the Kurdish dominance from the territories and in the oil rich city of Kirkuk where the Turkmen are in majority. They wish to make Kirkuk a special territory with joint administration with a separate governorate in order to offer good services to their people. The Kurdish policy here is to make Kirkuk as a part of independent Kurdish state. Turkmen 49 | Figure :4 The Area Showing in Green is Turkmeneli 4.3 Language and Literary Works Turkmen have their own language (Turkmen), they have a distinct dialect which is very close to Azerbaijani Language. “With regard to phonology, vocabulary, morphonology and syntax, the Turkmen varieties spoken in Iraq show traces both Ottomon and of Azeri Turkish” (Verlag). “All these languages were established as result of series of conquest and migrations of nomadic Turkik people” (Dalby). “In Iraq their officially accepted language – their language of Homogeneity in Iraq | 50 education is Istanbul Turkish” (Shawi). 4.3.1 Ahmed Al - Saadawi Ahmed Al -Saadawi was born in 1973 in Baghdad, he is novelist, story writer and documentary film maker. He published three novels The Beautiful Country, Indeed He Dreams or Plays or Dies and Frankenstein in Baghdad. He has been awarded with many prizes for his works. He worked as a journalist in countries across the Arab world including Tunisia, Oman, Lebanon and Egypt. He immediately gain fame with the publication of his third novel, Frankenstein in Baghdad. 4.3.2 Frankenstein in Baghdad The events of the novel are taking place in alBataween nieghbourhood of Baghdad. In the year 2005, due to a terrorist bombing of a crowded market the bodies were charred of the victims. The writer takes the body parts of those killed in explosions and sews them together to create a new body. When a displaced soul enters the body, a new being comes to life. Frankenstein begins a campaign of revenge against those who killed the parts constituting its body. Hadi who is the main character representing Frankenstein usually 51 | Turkmen sits in Aziz the Egyptian’s coffee shop. The characters in Frankenstein in Baghdad are General Surur Majid who works in the Department of Investigation and handed over the case to detect this strange criminal, Mahmoud al-Sawadi, a young journalist who gets the opportunity to interview Frankenstein. In the novel the events shows where people live in fear of the haunted ghost who wanted to take revenge of its killers. In this novel most of the events are talking about Abu Zaidoun who is a part of Baath party and responsible for many crimes, one of crime that killed Salim who refuses to join the army. Umm Salim sees horrible scene about the person who killed Abu Zaidoun. Everyone is convinced that someone is behind this death, but the post mortem report shows normalcy, resulting in paradigm shift of Abu Zaidoun’s sons not to take revenge. In the end Hadi was arrested by the General Surur Majid and upon investigation confesses in front of the media that he was responsible for all the events after the bomb blast in which his friends were killed. He was the creator of the Frankenstein and subsequently the people celebrated the end of a nightmare of Baghdad (Saadawi). 4.3.3 Critical Analysis Mary Shelley’s Novel, Frankenstein and the novel by Ahmed Saadawi’s Frankentein in Baghdad suggest intertextual connections. Mary Shelley’s novel Frankenstein begins Homogeneity in Iraq | 52 with the portrayal the character of a scientist called Victor who is inspired by the oldest form of chemistry called alchemy and wants to mingle it with the new form to create a new being. Victor’s combination of old and new science leads him down on a path of self destruction. The main them is how one can harness the knowledge that can be utilized to benefit the mankind. Victor created a new creature out of cadavers with a horrible face and shape which eventually escapes from the laboratory. This creature named after its creator. Frankenstein requests his creator to fashion a lady companion for him. Victor refuses because he believes this to be dangerous. Frankenstein kills Victor’s brother by mistake during their first meeting. Frankenstein learns to read and write from a farmer’s family by listening to them. He also tries to get hold of their daughter. Frankenstein goes back to the laboratory to create for himself a companion but is stopped. Victor rushes to burn his notes. Frankenstein tries to take revenge on Victor and others. On the day of Victor’s marriage Frankenstein kills Victor’s bride leading to the latter’s despair. Victor tries to trace Frankenstein to destroy him, and begins his journey to North Pole. During his journey on the ship, he narrates his story to the passengers. Unfortunately Victor dies soon; Frankenstein tries to immolate himself out of remorse. 53 | Turkmen Frankenstein in Baghdad: Ahmed Al Saadawi’s novel Frankenstein in Baghdad is inspired by the theme and locates in the back streets of Al-Bataween in Baghdad, where Hadi al Attag earns his livelihood by repairing old items in the market and reselling them. One busy day in the winter of 2005, a terrorist bombing in the crowded market kills many innocent people. Hadi Al Attag sees this terrifying incident with charred bodies, blooding streets, and razed buildings. Without being conscious, he picks up body parts and stitch’s them to bring his dead friends back to life, he ends with creating a new Frankenstein in Baghdad. The flesh from different ethnic, cultural, language and religion persons makes the body of the new creature and the soul from his friend who was a watchman at the restaurant. This new creature after coming into existence starts hunting for the members of the Baath Party and other terrorists since they tried to divide the people on ethnic, religious lines to rule them. Frankenstein roams the streets of Baghdad to take revenge and because of his appearance people called him a ghost. Later after killing most of the terrorists, his story as ghost revenging becomes popular. Umm Salim a mother of a victim of Abu Zaidoun who was brutal Baath Party member says no one knows what will happen in future, she claims that when she was sitting in front of her house she saw a terrifying creature wrapped in a muffler around his face and his face was not visible. He was Homogeneity in Iraq | 54 looking at the ground, in the direction of Abu Zaidoun’s barber’s shop. When he past her she saw a part of his face. It was the most horrible thing she had ever seen, and was astonish to believe that God could create such a face. She claims that he killed old Abu Zaidoun. The son’s of Abu Zaidoun come to her house and threaten her for revealing a fictitious story, the reason was that their father has died of a heart attack. They said to her that her stories are frightening people. Hadi overlooking the street outside his window sat in a corner of his room seeing the cars and the passers-by. He lit a ciggrate and started smoking. Deep in his mind he was fearing the real happening of his dream from the past. The mysterious creature he has seen and knew: the horrible face with a deep cut across the jaw, big scars on his forehead and down the cheeks. The fear of people is disappearing with no logical reason, and his wish to be alive without amassing a fortune. In the evening when he was returning home he was astonished by seeing American soldiers with full milatary equipments and gazing at everyone suspiciously. He saw Faraj in dishdasha and with his black prayer beads talking with one of them. Hadi knows that were doing their routine checks for weapons, especially with reports that there has been a heavy shooting the night before. He slowly started to walk along the wall, and tried to avoid any eye contact with them. He reached his house and close the heavy wooden door firmly shut. He stood next to the door and kept his ears at 55 | Turkmen any movements in the lane and expected them to knock the door to carry out their search, or kick it to open. He waited for some time until they have left the area. He waited by doing some of his routine repairing works here and there and passes the time. Hadi buys half a bottle of arak from wine shop and some white cheese, olives and other things in the stores nearby. At night he started to consume the arak slowly and quietly. In the light of a dim and sooty lantern he hears sounds of news on the radio. He toasted his glass of wine high in the air as if he was sitting in a bar with his ghostly companions. He downs his last glass and the door swings wide open and he saw a shadow of tall man in the doorway. His blood freezes in his veins when he saw the figure advances towards him. When it came near him the face of the stranger was lit in the light of the lantern with his features clearly visible – a face with lines of stitches, a mouth like a gaping wound and a large nose. The story ends when the General Sarur from special department of investigation arrests Hadi and asks him to convey this on national media to convince the people about Frankenstein.Comparison between the two versions of Frankenstein: As a matter of fact, the writer Ahmed alSaadawi’s novel Frankenstein in Baghdad idea has been derived from Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Homogeneity in Iraq | 56 When we compare between Ahmed al Saadawi & Mary Shelley’s novels, they derive their ideas from two different events to create the Frankensteins. Ahmed al Saadawi illustrates different purposes in the story of Frankenstein. He uses one illiterate person to be in Victor’s Character as Hadi al-Attag, The comparison between Victor and Hadi is that Victor is a scientist and Hadi is a technician. One takes place in the Laboratory of University and another on the streets of Al-Bataween a popular neighborhood in Baghdad, to create a being from the dark to take a revenge for the creator. Frankenstein in both stories treats to be inhuman and evil as Victor’s Frankenstein is from chemical combinations and Hadi’s Frankenstein creates from the flesh of the dead bodies. Frankenstein in Mary Shelley’s novel is of a demonic nature and engulfed by wild thoughts and actions. Whereas Frankenstein in Baghdad is a character although ugly has a purpose of killing those tyrants who want to divide people on religious and ethnic lines. Ahmed al-Saadawi his message is to convey that the terrorists go on rampaging and killing innocent people without any concern for creed, religion, ethnicity, culture, etc. Frankenstein survival depends on taking revenge of the atrocities of terrorists and the then ruling Baath party. The story begins with the tragic incident of terrible bomb blast. Hadi, after his arrest by the officials, confesses that he is behind the plots and machinations of the terrorism meted out to the public of Iraq. Assyrians 57 | Chapter 5 ASSYRIANS IN IRAQ This Chapter focuses on the Assyrian in Iraq, their origin, history, culture and literary works. In my search of Iraqi Assyrian literature I have found The Crimson Field a fascinating novel. It was not surprising that Assyrian novelist Rosie Malek-Yonan writes wonderfully showing the genocide against Assyrian people. The novel also depicts the Assyrian people suffering atrocities and is on the verge of extinction. The wishes of these people to prevail and live with harmony with other ethnic groups are mentioned in her novel. 1.1 Origin “The term Assyrian is derived from the word Ashur, who was the God that was worshipped by Assyrians” (McDaniel). Assyrians are a Semitic ethno religious group or community. “Assyrians are the indigenous people of Iraq, more specifically the locations between the northern Mesopotamia and Turkey, until the Euphrates River in Syria as far east as Homogeneity in Iraq | 58 Lake Urmi in Iran. The urban dwellings include Mosul, Erbil, Kirkuk, Zakho and Dohuk in the north of Iraq and in some neighborhood of Baghdad. The land between four countries was known as Assyria and the history of these ancient people reached back over 5000 years ago” (McDaniel). “The ancient Assyrian is one of the many states flourishing in the Middle East in the millennia before the beginning of Common Era” (Radner). They are basically followers of Christianity, they are descended from Abraham's grandson Dedan son of Jokshan, progenitor of the ancient Assyrians as mentioned in the traditions of the Assyrian Church of the East. “Most of whom were converted from the Church of Orthodox to the Catholicism primarily via Dominican missions” (Donabed), they differ in religion from their counterparts in other countries. Figure 5 showing Babylonia overlapping Assyrian Empire (Empires Attack the Promised Land) Assyrians 59 | “Christianity in Iraq dates back to the first century. Islam entered the area in the 7th century, but Christians have remained today, they total around one million about 4% of population” (Shawi). 5.2 Culture “The Assyrian culture is at once familiar and strange. We may share the Assyrian taste of food wines, but perhaps would not choose locusts on a stick for nibbles” (Donabed). Assyrians don’t fear of mixing with other peoples to celebrate many kinds of traditions within their communities, they are agriculture based and they have develop the irrigation system in their villages. The word Assyria means the land of farms, the trade is the second to agriculture in economic importance, for internal trade they use currency of metals, such as gold, silver, copper and bronze as a medium of exchange, while in the international trade they import timber, wine, precious metals and stones for exchange with textiles produced in their palace, temples and villages. They have hybrid culture which is assimilated much of Mesopotamian civilization; they consider themselves as guardians of other civilizations. “Among the best-known objects of Assyrian art are the relief sculptures found in the royal palaces in three of the Assyrian capital cities, Nimrud, Nineveh and Khorsabad” (Spielvogel). Homogeneity in Iraq 5.3 | 60 Language and Literary Works From the ancient times the Assyrians spoke a dialect of Akkadian language. “Assyrians have spoken two languages though the course of their history, the first being ancient Assyrian, known as Akkadian, and the second being modern Assyrian” (McDaniel). “It is a Semitic language like modern Arabic and Hebrew” (Radner). In the course of time the languages spoken by the Assyrian people lost its sheen and where getting influenced by other modern languages started. “Many were urban dwellers, some having lost their native Assyrian-Aramaic language to Arabic and were that Arabised. Others who had retained their mother tongue lived in large semi-rural regions” (Donabed). The people from north are recognized from other Assyrians by the specific dialect called Alqosh. “Assyrian has become more set in its vocabulary, form and even pronunciation, although in the recent years efforts have been made to standardize, and write in other vernaculars especially the dialect of Alqosh, spoken in northern Iraq” (Joseph) 5.3.1 Rosie Malek-Yonan Rosie Malek-Yonan is a descendant of one of the oldest and most prominent Assyrian families, tracing her Assyrian roots back nearly 11 centuries. 61 | Assyrians The Malek family or tribe comes from the Assyrian village of Geogtapa, in the Urmia region of northwestern Iran. Geogtapa was the largest Assyrian Christian village in the region and much of it belonged to the Malek-Yonan family with the oldest plot in the family graveyard dating back to 1100. Rosie Malek-Yonan is a classically trained composer, pianist, actor, director, writer, and documentary filmmaker. She has appeared in numerous notable television shows, films and stage plays appearing opposite many of Hollywood's leading actors. She is an outspoken advocate of issues concerning Assyrians, in particular bringing attention to the Assyrian Genocide (1914-1918) and the plight of today's Assyrians in Iraq since the U.S. lead invasion of Iraq in 2003. When The Crimson Field was brought to the attention of Washington insiders, on June 30, 2006, the author was invited to testify on Capitol Hill before a Congressional Committee of the 109th Congress on religious freedom regarding the genocide, massacres and persecution of Assyrian Christians in Iraq (R. M. Yonan) 5.3.2 The Crimson Field Rosie Malek-Yonan's The Crimson Field is based on real events about Assyrian Massacres (1914-1918). The name of the novel itself refers the bloody scene of the fields at villages of Assyrian people. It is talking about facts of Assyrian community which has never been healed from their wounds and atrocities. Despite living in United States since she was Homogeneity in Iraq | 62 only fifteen years old, Rosie can’t separate herself from the Assyrians heritage. She writes her novel using grandmother Maghdleta as a main character, who narrates her this story of the genocide. The other main character includes Pari, Mghdleta’s daughter and other one Maghdleta’s granddaughter. She also has some supporting characters such as Soeur Marie, Zahra Khanoom, Shakar and Madam Gaudin. The novel’s plot takes place in the historical significant Urmia village. The suffering of Assyrian people in this era have been narrated by her Grandmother in such as way that a flash back of the genocide were brought in front of the eyes of the author. The emotional feminine prevalence creates passion and though the small girl named Fibronia who has a tragic loss of her family in that genocide showcases the old maxim that the measures of the entire world cannot redeem a single tear of a weeping child. The suffering continued after the genocide also when the widows were asked by the government to work as slaves or get killed. The annihilation against the Assyrian villages and people are still very much alive in the minds of the survivors. At the end of the novel the women who were the victims of that genocide forgive the atrocities and crimes conducted against their men by tolerating the sufferings because of the love of their home land (Yonan). 63 | Assyrians 5.3.3 Critical Analysis In my view, The Crimson Field is about race, nationality and colour. It is also about the love and faith. The events of the book happen ninety years ago, it is a realistic novel and the events are true about people and the nation. As personified by the girl who will become the authors grandmother. The essence of the events which has happened against the Assyrian people in Iraq was the genocide and terrible crimes committed against them and how survivors deal with that crime and interpret those events to their descendants. Assyrians had being expelled from their motherland in 1918. The Crimson Field is the evidence of the massacre which happened in the recent history against the Assyrian community. The city of Urmia is the main headquarters for the modern day Assyrians. The word Urmia is a compound word, in modern Assyrian, the word Ur means place or City, while Mia means Water. Urmia is also meant Coinages in Assyrian Aramic. It distinguished itself as one of the most significant historical sites. The uniqueness of people of the city of Urmia is that they are highly urbanized and have adapted western culture; the people from new generation become alienated economic opportunities and jobs. Novel The Crimson Field is about the people who belong to this village Urmia. They faced bloodshed and exodus to remove them from their indigenous places, the only reason that they were Assyrians. The writer talks about the latest genocide occurred Homogeneity in Iraq | 64 against her people, although all the events are recited through her grandmother whose name is Maghdleta. She wanted to write about her family’s history that cannot be isolated from her background of Assyrian heritage and historical events. It is a kind of reconstruction of history and to remind of the resilience of the people. She laments upon the wounded, losing and nation bereaved victims. It is also a glimpse of the suffering, massacre and genocide against her community, to imagine the unbearable situation on the women who was tortured and badly hurt. Rosie selects women from old generation (the women from the same time when the campaign of genocide occurred against her community) such as Pari, Maghdleta and Maghdleta’s granddaughter, the supporting main characters such as Soeur Marie, Zahra Khanoom, Shakar and Madam Gaudin are all women. The main reason to select women in her novel is to reveal the difficulties and tragic events faced by the women after the massacre, by their wisdom they slowly overcomes that tragedy and bloodbath. Their overwhelming passion and emotion will keep the excitement to the readers about a little girl whose name is Fibronia. The writer says an old maxim that the treasure of the entire world will not heal and recompense the families and return the life. The author Rosie Malek Yonan despite living away from Iraq, her ancestral ties with the region, reflects sincere 65 | Assyrians emotions and feelings for the Assyrian people in Iraq and for their identity. She is considered a popular figure among the Assyrian writers. I prefer her novel for analysis of the representative of the Assyrian community. Rosie expresses her desire to forgive and be tolerant with the other communities. Assyrians people look for peace and love among the others, they believe that their love and loyalty to their homeland is by no means lesser than any patriot in the world. It is not easy to forgive those who killed them or exile them from their own homeland. Even today Assyrians being deported wish to return to their homeland. These wishes also show their love and readiness to be a part of peaceful Iraq. I would like to cite a few lines from a beautiful poem “a trip to your body” by JohnHommeh, to conclude the love, tolerance and forgiveness of the people of Assyria. My beloved, My pen is the Tower of Babel My ink is the breaths of Nineveh And my blade is the Assyrian mountains (Ashitha). By these few lines we can understand the strength of the people of Assyria which has been compared with the huge mountains. The word blade used in this poem shows the toughness of them and also shows the spirit of not giving hope to any atrocities and genocide campaigns against them. Homogeneity in Iraq | 66 The tower of Babel which is a landmark for standing from centuries depicts their history of civilization that they are indigenous people of the land who are the pioneers in reading and writing in the world. In fact Assyrian were the people who started writing on scriptures. The two rivers depicted as fluid ink which gives inspiration of living and love of the land in a form of fresh breath. I would like to state here that the Assyrian people now are fighting for their identity, existence and nationality which is audible through the work of Rosie Malek - Yonan. She says none can alienate her from the roots and her identity of being an Assyrian. Her patriotism to village, river and the past events is more touchable; the countries where she has resided or the one she presently reside in are just address and they do not define her identity. She dedicates her skills, experience and knowledge to impose or tell the critical events which annihilate her people from their own property and lands. Jews 67 | Chapter 6 JEWS IN IRAQ This Chapter focuses on the Jews in Iraq, their origin, history, culture and literary works. In my search of Jew’s literature I have found the poem Departure by Shmuel Moreh, which has profound theme, sentiments and meaning. It gives a sense of nostalgia of Iraqi Jews for their homeland. The poem exposes too many events of Iraq Jewish people; it is also showing their love to return back to their ancestral homes. 6.1 Origin “The Jews of Iraq constituted one of the oldest and most deeply rooted Jewish communities in the world. But in the early 1950s most of them left for Israel, under circumstances that remain the subject of heated controversy” (Shiblak). The Jewish people suffered two exiles in history. The first exodus was when “Nebuchadnezzar II King of Babylonia (605-562 BC) invaded the Kingdom of Judah. King Neb- Homogeneity in Iraq | 68 uchadnezzar II after the destruction of the first temple brought forty thousand Jewish prisoners to his capital in Babylon. The Persian King Cyrus II occupied Babylon in 538 BC and allowed the Jews to return to their home land. Some returned and many stayed back” (Salloum). Here I would like to put a link between two exoduses through the history, during 1950-51 Iraqi Jewish people expelled from Iraq despite of staying more than 2500 years in Iraq. “The story I shall tell ends with tragic departure of some 100,000 Jews from Iraq in the year 1949-51, a country they had considered a homeland for many years” (Bashkin). Leaving Iraq was difficult for them, but since United Nations has declared the Israel as independent country in Palestine, Iraqi Jews were anxious to leave Iraq, therefore in 1947 only 15 persons left, but in subsequent years that is in 1949 about 1708 people migrated, and triggered large scale immigration to 32000 and 89000 in 1950-51. However the Jewish people from Iraq who stay in Israel now are concerned about Iraq’s political, economical and national interest. Iraqi Jewish face distinguishable difference from other Jewish who comes from other countries, Iraqi Jewish people are different from other Jewish groups, because they still love their country Iraq. Iraqi Jews are looking for the proper time to come back to the original country Iraq. They are waiting the Iraqi government to achieve the security and equality with all the people. They wish the government 69 | Jews to consider their request to accept Iraqi Jewish people to come back to Iraq in order to re-live the history and holy places of the Jewish. They want their children understand that they belong to this land. Fig.6 Showing the Jews Migration from Babylon 6.2 Culture The question arises here is what kind of homogeneity is there between the Jews and the other communities of Iraq? “To Spivak, the promotion of multilingualism (recognizing that there are many first languages) democracy, comparative criticism and pluralism means under doing this nationalist appropriation. Similarly Iraqi Jews grew up speaking and reading in Arabic” (Bashkin). Here the Iraqi Jewish community was able to maintain communal identity, culture and traditions throughout the centuries. They purchased land and established Yeshivot (Religious houses of study), their social and Homogeneity in Iraq | 70 religious life was based upon Talmudic (pertaining to Talmud of the rabbinic writings on Jewish civil and religious laws). At the same time they were well integrated into the country in all aspects of political, social and economical, and thoroughly used Arabic in their language. They keep their language alive by speaking and writing especially in their religious practices and social traditions. They also try to participate with Arab compatriots in many festivals and social occasions. They dream to stay in Iraq beside other ethnics in peace, tolerance and love. The heterogeneity among the Iraqi ethnic groups with Jewish people can be explained from these events. The first was political move from Iraqi government after facing many bomb blasts to disturb the harmony, the government accused Jewish people for this fall out, and Iraqi government felt Jews betrayed them in helping British army. Aref confiscated the remainder of the Jewish cemetery, denied Jews passports and enacted a series of other discrimination measures against Jews including excluding from colleges and stripping any Jew of her/ his citizenship if she/he were out for more than three months. This community face atrocity from the government more than any communities, they send out from public and private sector jobs, denying their national identity and passports, they also suffer from restriction on travel inside as well outside the Iraq. Bank accounts had been frozen and business license revoked. The second phase after the announcement 71 | Jews of the independent country of Israel, the war between Israel and Arab countries is erupted as a result creates in large scale migration of the Jews. 6.3 Language & Literary Works Over a period the Hebrew language faced many difficulties especially when Jews were exiled from Babylon after the destruction of their local government. These people persist to keep their language alive through the practice, speaking and writing in the Hebrew language. It maintains itself as a language over the history through religious schools. It survived through the scholars who were talking and writing in Hebrew language. Hebrew and Aramaic are considered oldest and ancient languages from Arabic Language. Jews and Aramaic is basically nomad people shifting from one place to other place between the deserts of Iraq and Syria, which is considered indigenous place for nomadic people. However Jew people could talk and write since ancient history that is before 2000 BC. Today we find many manuscripts found in the Hebrew language which are in safe keeping in museums around the world. “They were most prestigious in their knowledge and culture. Hebrew and its language flourished in Babylon” (Ghanimah). Homogeneity in Iraq | 72 6.3.1 Shmuel Moreh “Shmuel Moreh Grew up in Baghdad and began publishing his own poetry as well as translation of English poems in Iraqi newspapers. He left Iraq for Israel in 1951, but pursued his interest in Arabic literature in the following years, earning a doctorate in modern Arabic poetry in 1965. Valuable scholarship informs much of his published work on Arabic literature and criticism as well as on Jewish writers of Arab descent. He is the founder and chairman of the Association of Jewish Academics from Iraq and chairman of the Academic Committee of the Babylonian Jewry Heritage Center, Or-Yehuda, Israel” (Mustafa). 6.3.2 Departure (2010) The poem Departure in English has very important theme about the homogeneity among Iraqi Jewish community towards all other Iraqi people. The part of the poem goes as follows: Last night, my mother visited me in my dream! Asking anxiously:”Haven’t you visited Iraq yet? Have you forgotten to kiss the Mezuzot? To visit the tombs of our prophets?” 73 | Jews He begins the poem with a dream conversation with his mother. His mother asks why you don’t visit Iraq and reproaches him for delaying his visit to Iraq. The Iraq holds great place in their heart and mind and reproached him of forgetting their homeland and holy place as well. She scolds him for delaying the visit to the tombs of the holy prophets. Iraq embraced many holy shrines of Jews, Christians, and Muslims and various other ethnic groups. His mother emphasizes the need of Moreh’s visit to Iraq and kiss Mezuzot. He replied, “Mummy! Surely I miss Babylon! But our home in Baghdad has been destroyed! And the way back is so dangerous and far beyond! Everything there is in ruins, even the glory of Haroun-al-Rashid Here the poet replies his mother in his dream with more confidence that he does not forget Baghdad and he is missing Babylon, He tries to convince his mother that our home is in Baghdad, hinting to recall their history because Babylon represents the homeland for him. The poet wants to tell us that their home in Baghdad has been destroyed, which tries to focus on the farhoud events. He wants to tell us after the Farhoud there is no life for Jewish people in Baghdad. Haroun-al-Rashid, the city center with its unique glory which the poet wants to describe it as it has been turned Homogeneity in Iraq | 74 in to ruins. Today, on every inch in Iraq there are graves, The waters of the Tigris and the Euphrates As in the time of the Tatars, Are flowing with blood and tears! The masts are destroyed and the sails are torn, So how it is possible to set sail and return? (Svetlova, Baghdad revisited). The poet describes Iraq at present with graves everywhere, comparing it to historical times of tartars where the situation is war torn to an extent that the rivers are flowing with blood. In this period the poet emphasizes his inability to return home. He is giving a picture that the situation has become worse and there is no leader to save the country and stops the bloodshed and immigrate the people back home igniting his thoughts of possibility of him to return. 6.3.3 Critical Analysis Moreh shows us obsession of the bloody events in his poem which creates a chaos and humiliation against his community, the events is called (Farhud) against Jewish minority in Iraq. “In June 1941 a wave of urban riots against Baghdadi Jews, known as the Farhud, left over 170 Jews dead and turned the attention of young Iraqi Jews to Zionism” 75 | Jews (Bashkin). The Palestinian took active part in the incitement against the Jews. The life of Jews became unbearable as frequent arrests were made on false charges of spying. Many Jewish merchants from Basra were accused of selling arms to Zionists in Palestine and killing the prominent Jews such as Shafiq Adas took place. After the Farhud, life has changed drastically for the city’s Jews. Many Muslim friends like Hadded (Sympathetic) protected Jewish people, they stopped the looting or firing of Jew houses. “In fact, the attachment of the community to Iraq was so tenacious that even after such a horrible event, most Jews continued to believe that Iraq was their homeland” (Bashkin). Moreh is talking about his deeply compassionate and nostalgic feeling for Baghdad where he was born and tasted water over the world from Tigris. The image of Baghdad in his mind, heart and writing cannot be separated his soul. He sadly expresses the exodus from his original country. It is not easy for him to leave his home, city and country and none can feel on his pain except those who stay outside the homeland. Moreh cannot separate himself from the past although that past is too painful for him: He is so grateful for those who visit the homeland and seen Baghdad. He feels that Baghdad is devastated and her glory is vanished. But he insists that the Jews will comeback once again to rebuild it, Jews peo- Homogeneity in Iraq | 76 ple can do it because they have all the qualification to reconstruct and flourished it again as it was before they left it. Moreh expresses about his feelings to see Iraq once again. His happiness for those who have visited his/her old country, imagining the love of this country as innate love in their heart, the imagination of country as a holy place to do pilgrimage trip. He says that country is not as he leaves, as if a curse to exile the Jews from their country. He is talking about the Jews who will reconstruct the Iraq and they will develop the country if they get an opportunity to share Iraqi on original country. He says Jews are smart and great people. Moreh is proud of Jews and said that they can play a vital role in developing Iraq as an auspicious land. I can figure out what is on Moreh’s mind that he is optimistic about Jews coming back when it is conducive to bring about reconciliation among all Iraqis. This will also promote help and support among people to reconstruct the country which lost its gaiety due to inner events as well as international wars. Moreh laments the lost glory of Baghdad which is in the context of beauty of Baghdad, her glory and majestic has being vanished, it is also her melody of Music and theatre is becoming silent. The Baghdadi cultural heritage of forgiveness, tolerance, love, and co-existence, etc. is well depicted by Moreh. Baghdad does not believe in hatred and enmity. Baghdad is the heart of Iraq and it is the impulse of love, respect and tolerance. He laments the music, theatre, and various 77 | Jews forms of arts, education and cultural tradition spring from Baghdad and widely spread all over the world. Moreh can find a theme to unify Iraqi Jewish with other ethnic communities in 1946, Jewish schools arrange an organize scout camp in Northern Iraq. His friend Maurice Haddad and he are ordered to raise the Iraqi flag at the entrance of the camp. He salutes the flag and started singing the Iraqi national anthem. He listens to Maurice Singing and is horrified. He was cursing the flag, wishing it perdition. He tries to slap him on his face for insulting our flag. He starts weeping and shouts back. “Do you call it our flag; they kill my father when he tries to save my sister and mother from being raped. He is sobbing and murmuring all night long, they rape my mother and sister and kill my father, and you tell me that this is our flag” (Svetlova, Baghdad revisited). Despite a badly offence, the Iraqi Jews still love and respect the Iraqi flag and saluted it. The flag does not represent one ethnic group in Iraq but it represents all Iraqi people without discrimination between them. I can affirm that in spite of the atrocities meted out to the Iraqi Jews, the love of Iraq in their minds still attracts them to their homeland. Moreh is deeply connected with Iraq in his love and wishes to visit Iraq even while living outside Iraq. He still speaks in Iraqi mother tongue and dialect. Furthermore he reflects his patriotism towards Iraqi soil in his writing. Homogeneity in Iraq | 78 Chapter 7 OTHER MINORITIES IN IRAQ The other minorities in Iraq have been discussed in this chapter collectively. The various groups in this section have been taken into consideration, namely the Yazidis, Shabaks, Mandaens and Faylis. The origin, culture and their literary works have been formulated under each group respectively. The writers from these minorities because of the backwardness and ignorance have very less representation in the literary scene, and hence it is very difficult for me to have their works for my research. However I try to compile some of their literary works. 7.1 Yazidis “Yezid means God (Ye zdai) means the creator in Kurdish and (Ezwan-Ezdan) means God in Persian. So a Yazidi means slave of the creator So Yazidis would call a member of their community a Yazid which means he created me, and hence it is not derived from Yazid” (Salloum). 79 | Other Minorities Yazidi society is well organized with the chief Sheikh as the religious figurehead and an Emir as the secular head. Their main religious text is the black book ( Meshaf I Resh). Sheikhi who is said to have been a reincarnatin of Malak Taus, was author of a 500 word scripture known as Revelation (Khiwa). The burial place of Sheikh Adi in the vaillage of Lalish is a Yazidi shrine and has a magical atmosphere. The entrance to tomb is adorned with black stone snake inside fires burn (Dabrowska). “They mainly live in north and Western-north of Iraq, namely in the area surrounding Sinjar Mountain to the west of Mosul (120 km), in Shekhan District to the eastern- north of it, in some villages and towns of Talkeef District, in Beshiqa , in Zkaho and semel districts in Dohuk” (Salloum). Yazidis suffer from other ethnic communities because they consider them as faithless and unbeliever. The government tries to enforce them to change their identity and language. They live in cities which are called common territory between Musol and Kurdistan, the place of Lalish is located at Kurdish territory in Dohuk to create a good relation between them. In the recent time Yazidis are killed and many women who arrested and raped from ISIS. Homogeneity in Iraq | 80 7.1.1 Religion and Culture “Yazidis believe in one eternal God named Xwede who is the creator of the Universe. All - forgiving and merciful. He is good and owner of every motion and sensation on the earth. Nevertheless he is not active and has delegated his power to the seven angels or seven mysterious heft sir, who assist him” (Acihyildiz). According to Yazidis ideologies and believes there is seven angles one of them on the sitting on the bird, Tawusi Malek, the peacock angle who is the main representative of God. They also consider him as the God of fertility, is the symbol of immortality of the soul, rebirth and unification of opposites. Second of them is a young man, Sultan Ezi, another one is an old man who is sheik adi a historical personality and reformer of Yazidi religion. Nevertheless Muslim and Christian neigbours of Yazidis consider the peocock angle as the embodiment of Satan and an evil. Yazidi consider Satan is the true lover of God, when God orders Satan to bow to Adam to test his obedience but Satan refuses to bow for everyone except to the God. Then God makes Satan the chief of his angels that is peacock angel. 7.1.2 Creation and Early History of the World So Sultan Ezi endowed him with mystical power. The saintly Adam drank from the cup The mystical power of what cup came to him 81 | Other Minorities So God sent him the houri Eve. What the mystical power of what cup Bythe mystical power of what cup both the Hashemites and Quraysh Came from her. After the period A people appeared with them In whose hearts there was no respect for the faith (Philip G. Kreyenbroek). The poem is showing the historical events about the beginning of creation, from the first line is talking about super power of Ezi that means he has spiritual power and try to keep a connection with Adam but from different vision that we know the story about Adam and Eve, Adam did not drank from the cup but he ate from prohibited tree. In this poem is prescribing the beauty of Eve, the mother for all mankind. Basically the Adi had mysterious power about the spirituality and supernatural power. It is also talking about the unity and there is not different between Hashimtes and Quraysh which implies that all from the mother. They are two Arab tribes, they feel the indigenous of Arab tribes. It is also revealed about the faith in the Yazidis poem that there is no faith in their hearts and less of respect for the saint ones. Homogeneity in Iraq | 82 7.1.3 Critical Analysis In my view the Yezidi Community is one of the oldest ethnic and religious groups in Iraq. The origin of their religion dates back thousands of years in Mesopotamia. They currently face challenges for their existence from annihilation. Yezidis region make them as a part of the problem between Kurdistan and Baghdad. The dispute of the border territories created many problems. Embracing with Kurdistan allures them to have protection and have their worshipping temple (Lalish) which is 45 km east of Dahuk which is a city of Kurdistan region. Their religion suggests having secret rituals which isolate them from other religions considering them as faithless. At the period of Baath Party regime Yazidi community faces extremism under the disguise of protection from the government by changing their names, identity and registering them as Arab nationals. 7.2 Shabak “The Shabaks are minority group living in northern Iraq which has been there home for approximately five centuries. They are Muslim with a majority of Shiites and a minority of Sunnis. Their language differs from both Arabic and Kurdish. They live with other religious minorities like 83 | Other Minorities Christian, Yazaidis and Kak is in Nineveh plain of Mosul” (Salloum). “Shabaks are an ethnic and religious minority living mainly in the village of Ali Rash, Khazna, Yangidja and Tallara in Nineveh province, who have retained their own distinct pre-Islamic religion. An Indo-European (Aryan) people, they speak Shabaki, an Indo-Eurapean language with elements of Kurdish and Arabic infused. despite having their own language and culture unique from other groups Kurdish authorities have attempted to Kurdify the Shabaks by designating them Kurdish Shabaks and there have been clashed with the democratic Shabak coalition, a group which wants to separate representation for Shabak community” (Dabrowska). 7.2.1 Religious beliefs “Some historian believe that the Shabaks embrace the Bektashi Qazallash creed, that they have own holy books, such as the Buyruk and the Kelbenk, which means ‘the orders’; these books are written in Turkmen. These books are indeed relevant to Shabaks but they are not holy ones” (Salloum). Shabaks community is related with other Iraqi minorities in a way that they also love their homeland as other com- Homogeneity in Iraq | 84 munities and their language is derived from Arabic, Kurdish, Turkmeni and Assyrian. The obsessions of the Shabak people lets them to be in isolation because of many accusation for them to have independent religion or faith that is different from Muslims faith, in fact Shabak people follow Muslim Sharia (Shia), and the relationship between Shabak and other minorities specially with Yazidi’s does not mean that the belong or belief their rituals. “There was a dispute over the land in Mosul and a legitimate justification was needed to confiscate and occupy the Shabak’s lands” (Salloum). They tried to enforce them to imitate to their ethnic group. I mean that to become a part from Kurdish or Arab territories’. The policies of Bath Party regime to change the demography of the Shabak community by enforcing them to use Arabic Language, at the present day the Kurdish policies try to embrace them to their language and culture, further more to their territories’. The Shabak people always try to be part of Iraq by contributing to its diverse culture and languages without getting influenced by other majority communities and without losing their identity (Salloum) 7.2.2 Literary Work Shabaks consider the poetry of Ismail I to be revealed by God, and they recite the poetry during religious meetings. Other Minorities 85 | Following is an example of the poetry Today I have come to the world as a Master. Know truly that I am Haydar's son. I am Fereydun, Khosrow, Jamshid, and Zahak. I am Zal's son (Rostam) and Alexander. The mystery of I am the truth is hidden in this my heart. I am the Absolute Truth and what I say is Truth. I belong to the religion of the "Adherent of the Ali" and on the Shah's path I am a guide to everyone who says: "I am a Muslim." My sign is the "Crown of Happiness". I am the signet-ring on Sulayman's finger. Muhammad is made of light, Ali of Mystery. I am a pearl in the sea of Absolute Reality. I am Khatai, the Shah's slave full of shortcomings. At thy gate I am the smallest and the last [servant] (Minorsky) 7.3 Mandaeans Iraqis colloquially call these people “Subba” (Subia in classical Arabic) The Sebians or Mandaeans. It is noteworthy that although the name is reportedly rooted in Aramaic the work in Arabic is also related to Pouring of Water. Homogeneity in Iraq | 86 7.3.1 Origin “Tracing the ‘Sabian Mandaeans’ history is not easy, for many reasons; mainly the lack of research and investigations in the areas where they exist, especially in the deltas of the Tigris and Euphrates in South Iraq due to the are’s nature and its continuous change because of floods and alluvial additions. Another reason is their strict religious isolation over long periods of time, which came as a result of the severe persecution they faced; hence they preferred to isolate themselves to maintain their beliefs. In addition, a lot of books addressing their history and heritage have been lost or destroyed. Most researchers believe that their first existence was in Iraq, because there are historical testimonies indicating that they lived in Iraq long before the appearance of John the Baptist and that, at the beginning of the first millennium A.D., they emigrated from Palestine to Iraq where the flowing water they needed for their religious ceremonies and rituals was available and climate was suitable to perform them. It’s also the Tigris and Euphrates was mentioned in their ancient literature and religious texts. Furthermore, the ceremonies and traditions are similar to those of the Mesopotamians” (Salloum). “The Mandaeans appear to succeed, for the religion flourished, with intense scribal activity Mandaean texts are collected, compared and consolidated as conscious leaders 87 | Other Minorities among the priestly copyists exert themselves to weed our local variation in ritual texts” (Buckley). “It is estimated that they are around 50,000 of them. Their communities tend to concentrate near the major river basins in south of Iraq, because naturally running water is central to many of their religious rituals. The central rule of water in their faith has led many people to believe that they are followers of John the Baptist they believe that their teachings were received by Adam directly from God. They have prophets, notably Sheet and Sam son of Noah. Their last great teacher was yahya bin Zakarya (or John the Baptist)” (Shawi). 7.3.2 Language “The Sabian Mandaeans speak Mandaean, a dialect of the Eastern Aramaic language. Academics and specialists of semitic languages say it is the purest branch of Eastern Aramaic that, besides Mandaean, includes Babylionian and Syriac. The reason for this is that Mandaean has not been influenced by Hebrew vocabulary as was the case with Jewish dialects, nor by Greek vocabulary as was the case with the Christian dialects. After Sumerian it was the language of early Iraqis and it was common in the middle and south of Iraq” (Salloum). Mandaeans speak their own dialect of Aramaic known as Mandiac. “Classical Mandiac (a semitic language which is Homogeneity in Iraq | 88 another member of Eastern Aramic Sub-family related to language of the Aramaic portions of the Babylonian Talmud), is used by a section of Mandaean community in liturgical rites and is related to Syriaic” (Dawisha). 7.3.3 Critical Analysis In my view Mandaeans sharing with other ethnic groups the wish to develop themselves and their community. They live with other minorities in Iraq in harmony without any problem especially with Arab Muslims in the south of Iraq. They consider Islam as their religion. Mandaeans never indulge in fighting or extremism activities against other communities, they participate in construction of mosques, shrines and other religious places, they are rich and largely in goldsmith profession. They give alms to the poor and suffering people and shelter, bread and water. Mandaeans face several problems such as they forbid inter sect marriages which affect their existence and survivals. However, others consider them as faithless and non believers which leads to their killings from the extremist fanatics. In fact the new Mandaeans generation is integrated into the foreign cultures forget their origin, rituals and culture. 89 | Other Minorities 7.4 Feyli “The Feyli Kurds are a minority with a compound identity. While ethnically they are Kurds, they belong to the Shia sect (most Kurds are Sunni Muslims embracing Shafi’I doctrine). Another distinctive feature is that they speak a different dialect( Feyli Luri and Bakhtiari), which differ from the rest of Kurdish dialects Sorani, Badini and Zazki”(Salloum). “The Luri-Feili Kurdish is classed among the southern Kurdish dialects spoken essentially in west Iran” (MacDowall). 7.4.1 Origin “There are different views about the origin and meaning of the word “Feyli”. While the researchers believe it is used to refer to revolutionaries, rebels or insurgents, others believe it has the meaning of bravery or courage, qualities, characterizing mountain inhabitants. Others believe that the term is derived from Fahlawi, the language of Fahlaw, the language of Feylis ancestors, the language of sacred Parsee faith and other pertinent faiths. Researcher Shopril pointed out that the Feylis are Kurdish tribes that inhabited the mountainous areas between Turkey and Iran. Iraq’s name was mentioned at the time, because it was part of the Ottoman Empire” (Salloum). Homogeneity in Iraq | 90 “The Feyli live along the Iran-Iraq borders in the Zagros Mountains from Jalawla, Khanaqin, Mandali and Balad Ruz in the north to Ali Eli-Gharbi to the south through Badra, Jassan, Zurbatiya, Al-Kut, Numaniya and Aziziyah, mostly in Wasit Province, in addition to some villages in Maysan Province and including the provinces of Kermanshah, Ilam and Khurstan and its cities from north to south, including Khosravi, Shirin Palace, Kermanshah, Islamabad to the west and Sarpol Zahab, Elam and Badra in Iran and Mehran and Andimeshk, bordering Iraq in Mayson Province” (Salloum). 7.4.2 Critical Analysis In my view the Feyli minority group and tribes are Shia Kurds living in Baghdad and surrounding area, and along the Iran – Iraq border. They have a distinctive dialect which differs from Kurdish. Iraqi regime considers the Feyli to be Iranian as a result many were deported to Iran and confiscated their properties. Feylis have been ill-treated because of the Kurdish anti government group which was against Bath Party regime and because of their social and economical influences. Till the present day even they are out-law. Feyli people consider themselves as the indigenous people of the Iraq and they try to participate in all national activities. Conclusion 91 | Chapter 8 CONCLUSION Although Iraq's history in the twentieth century, has witnessed conflicts, it can be described as a Kurdish Arab conflicts, but any study of the conditions of internal and external influences that surrounded them, and the characters who led it, will lead to the conclusion that, it did not ever been a case of a social civil conflict between Arabs and Kurds, in fact it has always been a political conflict between the government and opposition. In the social aspect if we take a note that of the case of the merger between Arabs and Kurds, we have some of the neighboring Kurdish and Arab tribes, such as some sections of Bani Rabia, Aqaysian, Jabour, Tamim and Bayat prevail. These tribes speak in Kurdish language, as well as Turkmen, along with the Arabic language. The use of the Arabic language in the Kurdish side, and even when some politicians of Kurdish nationalists speak the language of the other ethnic group indicate the absence of a fanatical look over the other, and the existence of a social Homogeneity in Iraq | 92 channel linking. There are some critical moments in history of Iraq which demonstrated that the homogeneity and social intermingling between Arabs, Kurds and Turkmen, does not stop at the borders of convergence, but elevated to full unity in the position of national issues as in the direction of the Mujahideen of the Kurds and Turkmen to repel the British occupation, fighting alongside Iraqi Arabs, or in the case of a dispute over the ownership of the Mosul Vilayet which was claimed by Turkey, as when the grandson of Sheikh Mahmoud emphasizing before the international committee to investigate the residents' views on the issue of Mosul. “British were more sensitive to Kurdish political and cultural demands then the Arab government and population in Iraq” (Dabrowska). It is clear that the external challenges like the British occupation of Iraq 1914-1918 were occasions to confirm the cohesion of the Iraqi social fabric, and formed revolted as confirmed by Ali Al Bazargan, who was catalyst in the merger between the Iraqi factions, the Shiites have joined politically in those years, and included the families of the Euphrates who were residents of the city of Baghdad, Sunni-Shiite jointly held celebrations alternately in the mosques of Sunnis and Shiites . 93 | Conclusion The intermingling of Shiite-Sunni, extend to religious intermingling between Muslims and Christians, in Baghdad, and when some Christians practicing their religion, the gathering of Muslims throwing roses, perfumed water sprinkled it on the procession as it passed, shouting glory of Jesus Christ, Christians are our brothers lived, lived the unity of Iraq, Christians including priests answered by shouting, long live Mohammedans, long live our brothers the Arab. Muslims then entered the church and remained to the end of the procession. Certainly, the previous models are only a part, to the composite social – cultural mosaic here are many other instances that shows social homogeneity exist. Even if sectarian and ethnic conflict appears, the relative course does not need or bother to be proved. For examples the evidence of diversity in social relations in Iraq is like a confrontation base, the motives of the conflict is needed to be analyzed. We understand that there are distinctions and specific characteristics between Shiites and Sunnis, in some aspects of the origins of belief, and the principles of jurisprudence and its branches, as well as in some ritual formalism, such as placing your hands in prayer, or the use of soil or not, the things that might give the implications of a confrontation. Homogeneity in Iraq | 94 Overlap and coexistence of ethnic, sectarian and religious groups in some provinces are the true promise of miniature models of the Iraqi diversity such as Mosul and Kirkuk . In his study Dr. Shaker khasbak discreet "Iraq's northern" in a recent exhibition on Mosul, saying: "We can say that Nineveh province, represents the most northern provinces complexes both groups (religious and ethnic), which is in fact more like a museum. In this province all groups (ethnic groups) the Arab, the Kurdish, Assyrian, Turkmen and others live side by side. In many cases the positions of these groups overlap, deeply intertwined so that it seems difficult to determine their own areas, as well as the varied religions and a belief among these groups varies considerably, there is a prevailing Islamic religion, and there is Christianity also Yezidi ". This coexistence in a specific geographic area, categorizes of ethnic and religious variety, and long historical period, emphasizes harmony, or at least not jarring, and we mentioned earlier the records of the foreign travelers for the amount of tolerance that fortuned the Jews in Mosul, or the position of the Galileans Christians when besieged Nadir Shah of Mosul, and will not underestimate this coexistence, some of the bloody events in Mosul, as in the March 1959 events , which probably indicates extremism between the groups, but the progress of their motives and intentions gives other indications. 95 | Conclusion In Kirkuk Kurdish coexist alongside with Arab, Turkmen and others. It is noted that the clan (Bayat) residing in Kirkuk, is a mixed clan of Arab and Turcoman, and speak Turkish, Kurdish, Arabic. The record number of foreign travelers their observations on the homogeneity relations between ethnic groups in Kirkuk, including the report by the Dutch journalist Malepard who visited Iraq in the fifties of the twentieth century, says: "live here on the interval between the north and south borders [Kirkuk] Arabs and Kurds in peace and harmony side by side". The same applies to the relationship between the Kurds and Turkmen, and it refers Dr. Kamal Ahmed said: "It is necessary to point out that better relations were linking between Kurds and Turkmen in both Kirkuk, or in other areas", it must be stressed here, that the social phenomenon in general is one of the phenomena that may vary according to time and place, and different variables and most important political factor therein affect them. That may lead to find fanatical expressions and a confrontation between the groups. Which takes the form of socio-political sectarianism, as is visible in the Persian Ottoman conflict. Studies dealing with political parties to define how to conglomerate or organize a group of people, brought together by certain interests and principles, aiming to reach the power, is by representation from all social, economic, political and cultural ethnic groups expressing their ideologies, pro- Homogeneity in Iraq | 96 grams, and goals. In the recent history the Bath Party represented by the self proclaimed dictator Saddam Hussein took the reins of Iraq in a bloody coup. In his rule Saddam requested the then top Shia Clergy Ayatullah Mohsin al Hakeem to issue a Fatwa (a religious decree) against the Kurds, subsequently the Shia Clergy refuses and rejected his demand showing the homogeneity within the tissues of people of Iraq. Till the present day the Kurdish people thanks the Arabs for their noble attitude towards them. Iraqi Literary Works : Literature has been developed from the writers whose rejection of dominant ideology and resistance to the wars in Iraq compelled them to formulate a 'brutally raw realism' characterized by a shocking sense of modernity. Even in those situations the writers from Iraq expressed their true feelings about the political events in their literary works. I take this opportunity to appreciate Abd al Khaliq al Rikabi, Bakhtiyar Ali Mohammed, Ahmed Saadawi, Rosie Malik Yonan (Despite being a foreigner to Iraq, she has traced her ancestral lineage to find her people and homeland), Samuel and other writers from the different ethnics and minority groups. Here I wanted to suggest and encourage the authors for writing about their homeland in a way to express 97 | Conclusion its true love, affection, tolerance and homogeneity. I also wanted to suggest that all the ethnic groups in Iraq to look at much diversified country like India where there are different religions, ideologies, states, languages and dialects. The people here are living in harmony, homogeneity, tolerance and forgiveness for each other. This showcase Indians are a very complex society wherein the people respects others religion. This shows the tolerance and acceptability among the ethnic groups and rejection of such political demands unites them to the core. The political influences on society should be limited only to the economical developmental works, and not on the lines of religion or ethnicity. Literature of all Iraqi writers should be targeting through their works to unite the society and become a mirror to it. We are an unexplainable, indefinable and incomprehensible nation. We can’t be understood on the semantics of tolerance and intolerance. In Iraq, wisdom, wealth and power are manifested as gifts of god, while globally; we rank lowest in women empowerment. Finally I would like my people to accept each other as there are and forgive any atrocities and violence, People should avoid any kind of hatred discussions about religions, ethnics, languages and culture, because war will never give its inhabitant prosperity and peace. Hence the unity among ethnic groups is the unity of Iraq. Homogeneity in Iraq | 98 Bibliography Acihyildiz, Birgul. The Yazidis : the history of a community, culture and religion. London: I.B. Touris and Co. Ltd., 2010. Al-Rikabi, Abd Al Khaliq. The Arab Altar. Baghdad: Beirut Publishing House, 1995. Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: Verso, 1983. Ashitha, Audisha. "A Trip to your Body." Journal of Ma'alta 2014: 19. Ashitha, Audisho Malko. Semele Catastropein 1933. Trans. Self Duhok: Beirut Publishing, 2013. Bashkin, Orit. A New Babylonians : A History of Jews in Modern Iraq. California: Stanford University Press, 2012. Brummell, Paul. Turkmenistan. England: Bradt Travel Guides Ltd., 2005. Buckley, Jorunn Jacobsen. The Mandaens Ancient Texts and Modern People. New York: Oxford University Press Inc., 2002. Dabrowska, Geoff Hann Karen. Iraq The Ancient Sites and Iraq Kurdistan. Ed. second. USA: The Globle Requot Press inc, 2015. Dalby, Andrew. Dictionary of Languages. London: A and C Black Publishers Ltd., 1998. Dawisha, Adeed. A Political History from Independence to Occupation. Bucks, England: Bradt Travek Guides Ltd., 2002. Donabed, Sargon George. Reforging A Forgetten History Iraq and Assyrian in the twentieth century. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd., 2015. Empires Attack the Promised Land. 2000-2016. <http://m.wol.jw.org/en/wol/ml/r1/lp-e/1>. 25 Febraury 2016 Freindship, Europe Turkmen. Turkmens, Turkmeneli and the Musul Region. 24 May 99 | 2008. 2 February 2016 <https://merryabla64.wordpress.com/2008/05/24/map-ofturkmeneli/>. Ghanimah, Yusuf Rizk-Allah. A Nostalgic Trip into the History of the Jews in Iraq. Boston: University America Press, 1998. Hoyland, Robert G. Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. London: Routledge, 2001. Iraq. <https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_world-regional-geography-people-placesand-globalization/s11-06-iraq-turkey-and-iran.html>. Joseph, John. The Modern Assyrian of the Middle East Encounters with Western Christian Missions, Archeologists, & Colonial Powers. Boston: Brill, 2000. Jwaidh, Wadie. Kurdish Literature and Culture Activities. new york: syracuse university press, 2006. Kalman. April Feast. USA: Crabtee publishing company, 2005. Kimanj, Sherko. Identity and Nation in Iraq. USA: Lynne Rienner Publisher, 2013. Kurian, George Thomas. Encyclopedia of the Third World, Volume 2. Michigan: Facts on File, 1982. MacDowall, David. "A Modern History Of The Kurds." London: L.BTauris and Co Ltd, 2004. 8. McDaniel, Maegan BetGivargis. Assyrians of New Britain. Chicago: Arcadia Publishing, 2007. Melvin Ember, Carol R. Ember. Countries and Their Cultures: Denmark to Kyrgyzstan. New York: Macmillan Reference USA, 2001. Minorsky, V. The Poetry of Shah Ismail I , Bulletin of School of Oriental and African Studies. London: University of London, 1942. Muhammed, Bakhtiyar Ali. The City of White Musicians. Bonn: Ranj Publications, 2005. Mustafa, Shakir. Contemporary Iraqi Fiction An Anthology. New York: Syracuse University Press, 2008. Philip G. Kreyenbroek, Khalī l Jindī Rashow. God and Sheikh Adi are Perfect: Sacred Poems and Religious Narratives from Yazidi Tradition. Wiesbaden: Verlag, 2005. Radner, Karen. Ancient Assyria. London: Oxford University Press, 2005. Homogeneity in Iraq | 100 Rohde, Achim. State-Society Relations in Ba'thist Iraq facing dictatorship. New York: Routledge, 2010. Rollin, Charles. The Ancient Histrory of the Egyptians, Christians, Assyrians, Medes and Persians, Grecians and Macedonians. Vol. 1. New York: Pratt, Woodford and Co., 1844. Rubin, Barry. The Middlke East : A Guide to Politics, Econonics, Society, Culture. London: Taylor and Francis Group, 2012. Saadawi, Ahmed Al. Frankestein in Baghdad. Baghdad: Beirut Publication, 2013. Salloum, Sa'ad. Minorities in Iraq Memony, Identity and Challenges. Baghdad - Beirut: Masarat for Culture and Media Development, 2013. Shawi, Ibrahim M. Al -. A Glimpse of Iraq. Baghdad: Abu Khaleel, 2006. Shiblak, Abbas. Iraqi Jews: A History of Mass Exodus. London: Saqi, 2005. Spielvogel, Jackson J. Western Civilization: A Brief History. USA: Cengage Learning, 2009. Stevenson, Angus. Oxford Dictionary of English. London: Oxford University Press, 2010. Svetlova, Ksenia. "Baghdad revisited." The Jerusalem Post (2010). UK government policy on the Kurdistan region of Iraq. Eighth report of session. london: House of commons foreign affairs committee, 2014-2015. Verlag, Harrassowitz. Studies on Turkish and Turkic Languages. Wesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 2000. Versteegh, Kees. The Arabic Language. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2001. Wahhab, Ramadan Abd Al. Semitic Languages Jurisprudence. Trans. Self Translation. Riyadh: Al Riyadh Publishers, 1977. Who are the Kurds? 14 March 2016. 11 <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29702440>. March 2016 Yonan, Rosie Malek -. The Crimson Field. California: Pearlida Publishing, 2005. Yonan, Rosie Malek. Family ties. 2016. 2 March 2016 <http://www.rosiemalekyonan.com/biography-rosiem.html>. Intentionally kept blank