Scientific review by prof. PaedDr. Pavol Bartík, PhD
Copyright © Wydawnictwo Naukowe Katedra 2018
Copyright © Wojciech J. Cynarski
The Lykeion Library series, Vol. 25
First printing
Gdańsk 2019
Photo cover © Oleksandr Pankovets | Stock.adobe.com
ISBN 978-83-66107-18-2
Wydawnictwo Naukowe Katedra
http://wnkatedra.pl
email: redakcja@wnkatedra.pl
Contains
CHAPTER 1.
Introduction ...................................................................................................................
7
CHAPTER 2.
Towards which General Theory of Fighting Arts ..........................................
19
CHAPTER 3.
State of knowledge on fighting arts.....................................................................
CHAPTER 4.
Individual self-defence in the perspective
of general theory of martial arts...........................................................................
37
87
CHAPTER 5.
Expressive dimension of martial arts................................................................. 113
CHAPTER 6.
About evolution of martial arts ............................................................................. 137
CHAPTER 7.
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization ..................................... 161
CHAPTER 8.
Training............................................................................................................................
8.1. Ideological conditioning of martial arts training ................................
8.2. Training in chosen traditional martial arts ...........................................
8.3. Complementary training ................................................................................
189
189
206
226
CHAPTER 9.
Women in martial arts and combat sports: archetypical patterns ....... 243
CHAPTER 10.
Structures and relations ........................................................................................... 255
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
CHAPTER 11.
A Christian and the martial arts path ................................................................. 275
CHAPTER 12.
Rugby – a team sport with elements of close combat................................. 295
CHAPTER 13.
Kenjutsu – the art of traditional fencing ............................................................ 313
CHAPTER 14.
Ido as a healing or self-healing .............................................................................. 325
CHAPTER 15.
Yoga and martial way: kinship and applications ........................................... 341
Appendix. List of abbreviations and acronyms ............................................. 353
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Idea of the General Theory
Traditionally, knowledge of martial arts, preparation for battle and
fighting, was passed directly from master to student or from father
to son. It was knowledge resulting from our own experience and the
message of previous generations of experts. The master, according
to his knowledge and intuition, passed the secrets through demonstration and verbal instruction. The student had to mature to accept this knowledge – develop his psycho-physical abilities. In turn,
the championship meant not only master skills, but life wisdom. To
this day, self-respecting organizations admit master degrees only to
adults, and the highest grades – achieving a high-level over-technical
level.
Science enables avoiding errors, faster achievement of skills and
reliable knowledge, and in particular a better understanding of the
analysed phenomena. Such a cultural phenomenon is martial arts
and martial arts coming from them. They require a multifaceted,
7
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
interdisciplinary study. In particular, the preparation of martial arts
instructor or martial arts requires equipping him with quite a broad
knowledge. The leaders of some martial arts organizations and researchers are trying to collect and transmit this knowledge [cf. Kernspecht 1988, 2011; Tokarski 1989; Pieter, Heijmans 1997; Sterkowicz 1998].
The idea of the general theory has been gradually growing, at
least since 2009, when under the patronage of the Idokan Poland
Association, but the author’s own edition has published a book (simultaneously a monograph and a textbook) Sztuki walki – Ido i Idokan /
Martial Arts – Ido & Idokan. This book contains references to both the
Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts (HTMA), as well as to the theory of
sport, physical education theory and methodology of teaching physical
exercises [Cynarski 2009]. Moreover, the concept of a theoretical approach consistent with the assumptions of the new systemic paradigm
is in harmony with the theoretical approach of the new pedagogy [cf.
Cynarski, Blazejewski, Pasterniak 2016].
The name of the General Theory of Fighting Arts, first appeared
in the development of the next stage of summarizing international
research within the framework of the IPA [Cynarski, Sieber 2012].
Meijin Lothar Sieber 10 dan, as an expert in self-defence and real
combat, has a significant contribution to the development of martial
arts science. The author studies the budo under his supervision and
has been carrying out scientific and research cooperation since 1992.
Very inspiring is also the author of long-term cooperation with
experts from the International Martial Arts Federation (IMAF), and
then the Japanese Academy of Budo (JAB), also from 1992. Multiple
presence in Japan and exchange of knowledge at numerous scientific
conferences have an impact that is difficult to overestimate.
8
Introduction
Scientific cooperation under IPA and IMACSSS made it possible to
confront different theoretical concepts, empirically test them through
research, and especially valuable hints during the discussion. The
author owes a lot to his Colleagues from this milieu, but also to his
master teachers (scientists and practitioners of martial arts), as well
as to students, graduates and doctoral students.
The author’s lectures at the Masaryk University in Brno in autumn 2014 already contained a summary of the state of research and
theoretical reflection at the time. This is shown in the second chapter, with only minor updates and corrections. Repetitions of some of
the content in further parts of this book are a deliberate procedure,
allowing to determine how the further development of this original
concept progressed.
Plenary speech at the International Martial Art and Combat
Sports Scientific Society (IMACSSS) Congress in Portuguese Rio
Maior in 2016 [Cynarski 2016, 2017], and introductory lecture at
the National Scientific Conference “Inoculation of Japanese culture
in Poland – health, social, educational and philosophical martial arts”
in Łódź in 2017 are a description of the scope of the issues covered
by the proposed the General Theory of Fighting Arts. This content
is included in Chapter 3.
Next 12 chapters is a discussion of individual dimensions and
aspects of broadly understood martial arts – from utilitarian (self-defence, self-healing), through teaching and training methodology, to
philosophical and sociological issues. In some cases, these are texts
that are a continuation of research and work previously published,
while others are completely new.
The author does not take up topics in which he is not competent, such as “legal aspects of practicing martial arts”. These were
9
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
shown well in the book edited by Marzena Netczuk-Gwozdziewicz
and Robert Netczuk [2017], or earlier by Raczkowski [2008]. Separate
works show biomedical aspects – nutrition, attitudes towards health
or rehabilitation [Zeng, Cynarski, Xie 2013; Netczuk-Gwozdziewicz,
Netczuk 2017: 183–266] or psychological [Vit, Reguli 2011; Krzyzanowski, Przybylska 2012; Skorupa 2017].
Studies in the field of biomechanics in martial arts are, so far, well
designed for judo [Erdmann, Zieniawa 2011], and in dispersed articles
– for taekwondo and karate. This issue requires further, team-based
studies, already implemented under IPA and IMACSSS [cf. Maroteaux
2012].
Sociology and philosophy of martial arts, already taken in earlier
works of the author [cf. Kim, Back 2000; Cynarski, Obodyński 2003;
Cynarski 2004, 2010, 2012; Bolelli 2008; Shahar 2008], perhaps they
deserve a separate, broader study. The author tried not to repeat the
content published in his previous books here.
Remarks to the typology of fighting arts
The names of individual martial arts varieties do not explain much.
They should not be specifically suggested, especially their literal translation. It is more important to know what is hidden under the name of
a given martial art, style or school – what teaching content and how
leaders explain its ideological content.
For example, judo – literally the way (or “moral way”) of softness,
flexibility, is more a sport similar to wrestling than strictly a martial
art and educational system (contrary to the idea of Jigoro Kano). From
the year 2020, karate will become an Olympic sport. Will it preserve
the meaning of karatedo according to the idea of Gichin Funakoshi?
Will next martial arts become combat sports, like judo and taekwondo
10
Introduction
WTF1? Sport jujutsu is already a little like classical jujutsu. Sport fencing is like a caricature of historical fencing. Sports competition is also
implemented in demonstration forms, including in wushu. Combat
versions (combat systems) and various forms of self-defence for all
are taught. There are also new fighting styles, mainly of conglomerate
and eclectic character.
Among the various typologies, the Bolelli proposal is quite sensible. His typology contains:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Performance arts
Internal arts
Weapons arts
Self-defence arts
Combat sports (5.1 – grappling; 5.2 – striking; 5.3 – combined)
[Bolelli 2008: 115–140].
This division, however, is too simplified in a situation where there
are many martial arts schools, where both hand-to-hand combat and
weapons are taught. This applies in particular to old, classic schools
(Japanese ko-ryu) [Hall 2012] and so-called complete systems [Cynarski, Buchhold 2006]. Especially, however, the curriculum, the teacher
and the transmission line are important, which allows to define the
school and style.
Generally, we adopt the nomenclature and definitions of individual terms according to the dictionary published in the quarterly “Ido
Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology” (www.
imcjournal.com) [Cynarski, Skowron 2014]. This is the conceptual
language of HTMA and the holistic martial arts anthropology.
1
WTF – World Taekwondo Federation. As sport discipline taekwondo is constantly
evolving [cf. Moenig 2015].
11
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Methodology
A new paradigm of systemic, humanistic and cultural approaches is
adopted here [cf. Jones 2002; Cynarski 2014]. It enforces multi-faceted and interdisciplinary studies. Therefore, various test methods
are used, mainly qualitative ones. In most cases the author uses the
participant observation method, since he has been active in the international martial arts and combat sports arena for 40 years. This
is accompanied by an analysis of the content of the subject literature
(scientific studies), analysis of documents and electronic sources,
analysis of mass media content, in total – a broad discourse [Krippendorf 2004], and expert statements (method of expert courts).
Throughout the book, the IPA record is used [cf. www.imcjournal.
com]. Consequently, in the majority of cases, the recording of long Japanese phones and other diacritics has been abandoned. Incidentally,
the author of this style of bibliographic record, used, among others,
in the Lykeion Library publishing series, it is undersigned.
Particular chapters and subchapters are descriptive fragments
or separate empirical studies. In the latter case, they have a separate
research methodology. Abstracts and keywords were also used so that
the Reader could easily find fragments of interest.
The author’s interests and his experience from many years of
practice make him look at the subjective assessment of him and his
teachers, and a greater accent falls on these varieties of martial arts
and combat sports, which he got to know himself better. In addition,
despite the trip to China, Japan, Korea, Thailand and other countries, it
is necessarily the perspective of Central Europe. The author describes
the facts “seen” mainly from the Polish perspective. Another thing is
that a fully objective description is not possible.
12
Introduction
Because the accent is here mainly on qualitative analysis, the theory proposed here (and its methodology) definitely goes beyond the
field of health-, sport science, etc. This approach is closer to cultural
and anthropological research – multidisciplinary.
Sources
The author refers to various categories of sources, which characterizes the monographic method. However, it is rather an analysis of a
group of cases. It is not the aim of the author to create an encyclopedia,
but only to illustrate his theses with examples.
The book quotes the opinions of competent judges, documents,
popularizing magazines and internet sources, as in the list below.
1. (Informants interview, conversations, correspondence, e.g.)
Bluming, Jon. Kyokushin karate 10 dan, hapkido 10 dan, judo 9 dan – conversations in Hockenheim, May 2017.
Bujak, Zbigniew. PhD; taekwon-do 8 dan – conversations and correspondence, 1995–2016.
Gomaratut, Chuchchai. PhD; GM of Krabi Krabong and Muai Thai, conversations and correspondence, 2010–2017.
Hatakeyama, Goro. Menkyo kaiden Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu, kobudo
9 dan, hanshi – conversations and correspondence, 1989–1997.
Kernspecht, Keith. PhD; GM of WingTsun kung-fu, 10 toan; 8 dan karate,
leader of EWTO – conversations and correspondence, 2004–2017.
Kondratowicz, Krzysztof. PhD; GM of Goshin-ryu jujutsu, 10 dan – conversations and correspondence, 1988–2009.
Nakamura, Hisashi. Soke of Takeda-ryu Gen-ryu Nakamura-ha, 10 dan – interview in Liege, May 1995.
Newman, William, GM (Latosa) escrima, 10 master degree, EWTO – informants interview, conversations, 2010–2016.
13
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Sato, Shizuya. Meijin of Nihon jujutsu, 10 dan; hanshi in judo, 9 dan, leader
of IMAF – interview in Tokyo, April 2000.
Schoellauf, Hans. Soke of Idokan, 10 dan – informants interview, conversations, correspondence, 1993–2001.
Sieber, Lothar. Soke of Zendo karate Tai-te-tao, meijin in karate and jujutsu,
10 dan; 10 dan judo-do ido and bujutsu ido; 7 dan iaido, kyoshi – informants interview, conversations, correspondence, 1992–2017.
Słopecki, Jan. PhD; Soke of Mukashi to Kindai jujutsu, 10 dan – conversations
and correspondence, 2004–2017.
Tose, Kenji. Meijin of iaido, 10 dan; licenced in Musojikiden Eishin-ryu – interview and conversation in Tokyo, 2000.
Zabłocki, Wojciech. PhD; GM of Polish historical sabre fencing, 10 dan – informants interview, conversations, correspondence, 1992–2017.
Zhang, Guodong. GM of Plum Blossom boxing kung-fu – informants interview, conversations, correspondence, 2011–2016.
2. Cooperation
IMACSSS Board Members, e.g. Prof. Dr Abel A. Figueiredo (vice-president, 7 dan karate Goju-ryu), Prof. Dr Fuminori Nakiri (vice-president,
and president of JAB, 7 dan kendo), extensive collaboration, 2008–2017.
3. Documents of
Idokan Poland Association / Stowarzyszenie Idokan Polska (1993–2017)
IMACSSS (2010–2017)
Private own, authors collection
Private collection of shihan Lothar Sieber
4. Electronic sources
http://imacsss.com/recommended-bibliography.html
https://www.ddbv.de/
www.idokan.pl
14
Introduction
www.imacsss.com
www.imcjournal.com
This is the 25th volume in the Lykeion Library publishing series, published under the patronage of IPA and IMACSSS. In turn, the subsequent books of this author are devoted respectively – the martial arts
tourism (monograph) and authentic masters of various martial arts
schools (lexicon). We encourage you to read.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Mr Lothar Sieber, Professor EMAC, whom I
owe the most to within 40 years of practical studies of fighting arts.
I would like to thank other excellent experts who have enriched
my knowledge. Thank you to my colleagues from the Faculty of
PE at University of Rzeszow, from Idokan Poland Association and
IMACSSS.
References
Bolelli D. (2008), On the Warrior’s Path. Philosophy, Fighting, and Martial
Arts Mythology, 2nd edn., Blue Snake Books, Berkeley, CA.
Cynarski W.J. (2004), Teoria i praktyka dalekowschodnich sztuk walki w perspektywie europejskiej, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow [in Polish,
with English abstract].
Cynarski W.J. (2009), Sztuki walki – Ido i Idokan / Martial Arts – Idō & Idōkan,
IPA, Rzeszow.
Cynarski W.J. (2010), Spotkania, konflikty, dialogi. Analiza wybranych obszarów kultury fizycznej i turystyki kulturowej, completed 2nd edn., Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow [in Polish, with English abstract].
Cynarski W.J. (2012), Antropologia sztuk walki. Studia i szkice z socjologii
i filozofii sztuk walki, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow [in Polish].
15
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J. (2014), The New Paradigm of Science Suitable for the 21st Century, “Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences”, vol. 149, pp. 269–275.
Cynarski W.J. (2016), Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts, ”Revista
de Artes Marciales Asiáticas”, vol. 11, no. 2s, pp. 4–5; doi: 10.18002/
rama.v11i2s.4146.
Cynarski W.J. (2017), Towards a General Theory of Fighting Arts, ”Phys Activ
Rev”, no. 5, pp. 83–90.
Cynarski W.J., Blazejewski W., Pasterniak W. (2016), Pedagogika nowoparadygmatyczna. W poszukiwaniu nowych inspiracji i aplikacji pedagogicznych. Monografia tematyczna, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow
[in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Buchhold M. (2006), Complete budō systems, ”Ido – Ruch dla
Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 6, pp. 83–91.
Cynarski W.J., Obodynski K. [eds.] (2003), Humanistyczna teoria sztuk i sportów walki – koncepcje i problemy, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow
[in Polish, with English abstracts].
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2012), Report of the International Idokan Poland
Association’s research / Towards a General Theory of Fighting Arts [in:]
W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Martial Arts Phenomenon and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp. 16–26.
Cynarski W.J., Skowron J. (2014), An analysis of the conceptual language
used for the general theory of martial arts – Japanese, Polish and English
terminology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 49–66; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.7.
Erdmann W.S., Zieniawa R. (2011), Biomechanika Judo, AWFiS, Gdańsk [in
Polish].
Hall D.A. (2012), Encyclopedia of Japanese Martial Arts, Kodansha USA, New York.
Jones D.E. [ed.] (2002), Combat, Ritual, and Performance. Anthropology of
the Martial Arts, Praeger, Westport, Connecticut – London.
Kernspecht K.R. (1988), Vom Zweikampf. Strategie, Taktik, Physiologie, Psychologie und Geschichte der waffenlosen Selbstverteidigung, Burg-Fehmarn [in German].
16
Introduction
Kernspecht K.R. (2011), Kampflogik 3: die Praxis des Treffens & Nicht-getroffen-Werdens, EWTO-Verlag [in German].
Kim D., Back A. (2000), The way to go: philosophy in martial arts practice,
Nanam, Seoul, Korea.
Krippendorf K. (2004), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology,
Thousand Oaks, CA.
Krzyzanowski A., Przybylska E. (2012), The personality profile and level of
aggression in people practising karate [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Martial
Arts Phenomenon and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp. 228–240.
Maroteaux R.J. (2012), The Mobile Stability of the Body (Traditional Martial
Arts and Combat Sports), autoedition, Avignon [in English].
Moenig U. (2015), Taekwondo – From a martial art to a martial sport, Routledge, London.
Netczuk-Gwozdziewicz M., Netczuk R. (2017), Współczesne problemy uprawiania sportów, sztuk i systemów walki, Oficyna Wydawnicza von Velke,
Wroclaw.
Pieter W., Heijmans J. (1997), Scientific coaching for Olympic taekwondo,
Meyer & Meyer Verlag, Aachen.
Raczkowski K. (2008), Sztuka walki i samoobrony w aspekcie historycznym,
prawnym, psychologicznym, Difin, Warsaw [in Polish].
Shahar M. (2008), The Shaolin Monastery. History, Religion, and the Chinese
Martial Arts, University of Hawai’I Press, Honolulu.
Skorupa A. (2017), Sztuki walki – konteksty psychologiczne [w:] M. Netczuk-Gwozdziewicz, R. Netczuk, Współczesne problemy uprawiania sportów, sztuk i systemów walki, Oficyna Wydawnicza von Velke, Wroclaw,
s. 115–128.
Sterkowicz S. (1998), Ju-jitsu. Wybrane aspekty sztuki walki obronnej, Wyd.
AWF, Kraków [in Polish].
Tokarski S. (1989), Sztuki walki. Ruchowe formy ekspresji filozofii Wschodu, Glob, Szczecin [in Polish].
17
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Vit M., Reguli Z. (2011), Motivation and value orientation of combative systems trainers, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 52–59.
Zeng H.Z., Cynarski W.J., Xie L. (2013), Martial Arts Anthropology, Participants’ Motivation and Behaviours. Martial Arts in Chanshu: Participants’
Motivation, Practice Times and Health Behaviours, Lambert Academic
Publishing, Saarbrücken.
CHAPTER 2
Towards which General Theory
of Fighting Arts2
KEY WORDS
fighting art, martial art, combat sport, physical culture, anthropology
ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION. The fighting arts are an interesting area for researchers from many scientific disciplines around the world. Scientific investigations need to choose appropriate theory, language and methods.
The first theory that gives us a special language is the Humanistic
Theory of Martial Arts, HTMA. The second is the Anthropology of Martial Arts, AMA [Cynarski 2012a].
AIM. The problem considered in this study is how we should study
the martial arts & combat sports & systems, or ‘combatives’; what
theoretical framework should we use. It is the author’s proposal for a
2
It was the keynote lecture during the 5th World Scientific Congress of Combat Sports
and Martial Arts in Rio Maior, Portugal, October 6–8, 2016, on similar topic [see also:
Cynarski 2016b, 2017].
19
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
scientific perspective which should be useful; an elaboration the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts (HTMA) and definitions, the General
Theory of Fighting Arts (GTFA), and the Anthropology of Martial Arts.
METHODOLOGY. Participant observation, and qualitative content analysis of the literature were used. Methodology of research (in the area
of the fighting arts) was also analyzed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION.
A. The Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts – HTMA
This new-paradigmatic theory gives us the Language of the Theory.
Terms, such as physical culture, martial arts, ways of martial arts (budo),
combat sports and combat systems are important to the creation of
the General Theory of Fighting Arts (GTFA).
B. The Anthropology of Martial Arts – AMA
AMA is the second step in the development of a scientific framework
for Combat Sports & Martial Arts. From the anthropological perspective of the human being, their personal, physical and psychological
being is the centre of attention. The body is not undervalued here,
but bodily practice is related to the path of spiritual development.
The pursuit of perfection affects both the skills of hand-to-hand
fighting and of wielding weapons, as well as morality and the pursuit of full humanity. Grand Masters of martial arts schools introduce
philosophical elements from various philosophical and religious traditions in their training.
Wally Strauss’ philosophy of Ido (‘perpetual movement’, ‘endless
road’, or ‘infinite way’) is particularly interesting [Cynarski 2009], and
adopted by a group of today’s warriors of the pathway. This philosophy unites new Budo with the European chivalric ethos, the ethics of
brotherhood and personal self-realization.
C. General Theory of Fighting Arts – GTFA
In the GTFA we can study and explain a broad area of fighting arts and
the related problems. These are:
20
Towards which General Theory of Fighting Arts
1. Cultural areas of martial arts & combat sports & combat systems
(according to AMA and HTMA);
2. Teaching concepts (technical and tactical issues), combat strategy
(for self-defence and in combat sports), aspects of real fighting –
interdisciplinary;
3. Bio-technical issues – from the perspective of sports sciences.
The Research methodology for traditional East Asian martial arts requires its own practice and a high level of sophistication – at best, in
more than one martial art. It is a qualitative method of participant observation associated with the experience of metaphysical dimensions.
This special method is the ‘shugyo’ (Jap. shūgyō) – psychophysical
study and experience from practicing psycho-physical systems. Michael
Maliszewski was one of first researchers using this method (cf. Maliszewski, 1996; Cynarski, 2012a; Spencer, 2012).
CONCLUSION. The GTFA is the sum of HTMA (humanistic, social and
cultural issues), AMA (philosophical, cultural and biological approaches), and a part of Sport Sciences, for coaching, bio-technical and bio-
-medical issues, the methodology of teaching, etc. The GTFA now created should give us the opportunity to research and explain complicated
problems of fighting arts, according to this new, holistic paradigm.
Introduction
Fighting arts is an interesting area for researcher from many scientific disciplines worldwide. Scientific investigations need choosing an
appropriate theory, language and method. Such investigations and
discourse have been realized since about 2000 – in some scientific
institutions.
Some scientific conferences were ‘prequels’ for world congress-
es of IMACSSS – the International Martial Arts and Combat Sports
21
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Scientific Society, active since 2010. For instance, the Humanistic
Conference on Budo – Kakugi – Jindo in Rzeszow, 2008 [Szajna, Kunysz, Cynarski 2008]. Today, the discussion is realized in cooperation
among specialists from East Asia, Europe and both Americas, under
umbrella of IMACSSS.
The Japanese Academy of Budo (JAB) has undertaken the discussion on Budo and other terms. In the debate leaders and experts JAB
and IMACSSS was established that Budo is a designate of the concept
of ‘martial arts’, while kakugi are ‘combat sports’ [Cynarski, March
2013; Nakiri 2015; cf. Cynarski, Kubala 2013; Pawelec et al. 2015].
Budo is associated with high, ethos culture; and of the national heritage of Japan. “Pathways of Warriors” are derived from the culture
of chivalry (of Japanese bushi) [Matsunaga et al. 2009; Sasaki 2009;
Cynarski 2012a].
The longitudinal participant observation, and qualitative content
analysis of the literature [Krippendorf 2004] were used in this study.
Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts – HTMA
Basic inspirations of the theory were:
• ”Theory of Cultural Dialogue” by M. Eliade and S. Tokarski;
• ”Radical Humanism” by E. Fromm;
• New-paradigmatic human and social sciences (not only F. Capra).
The Theory of Cultural Dialogue by Eliade was developed by Tokarski.
Stanisław Tokarski, a philosopher, Orientalist (Indologist and scholar of Eliade) and judo coach (5 dan), explains the meaning of martial
arts in accordance with Jigoro Kano’s ideas. He identifies martial
arts and combat sports, pointing out common elements of the Asian
psycho-physical practice forms: self-expression, self-realization and
22
Towards which General Theory of Fighting Arts
self-defense. Martial arts are described as “forms of activity of the
Eastern philosophy expression” [Tokarski 1989]. His application for
martial arts studies was an inspiration for Cynarski [cf. Tokarski 1976;
Cynarski 2000a; Obodynski 2009].
The Cynarski’s Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts points also
the humanistic ethics and anthropology proposed by Fromm [1989],
personality of teaching by John Paul II, and some other theoretic approaches, like the Holistic Pedagogy by Andrzej Szyszko-Bohusz
[2009].
How we should understand the new paradigm? Only a holistic
perception of human and system testing will give us knowledge to
meet the requirements of today’s challenges. The new paradigmatic
science suitable for the 21st century will create areas of breaking the
nineteenth-century schemes and requiring a broader knowledge of
scholars. Contrary to preserved till today the nineteenth-century institutional structure of science, the field of inter- and multidisciplinary
sciences is what best meets the objectives of the new paradigm of
science. The new paradigm must be humanistic, cultural, systemic
and holistic [cf. Prigogine, Stengers 1978; Capra 1982; Raimondo,
Coccia, Ceccarelli 2013; Cynarski 2014a].
Language of the Theory
Let’s start the study with a definition of basic concepts of the HTMA.
“Physical culture is a relatively integrated and established system
of behaviours in the field of care of physical development, movement
fitness, health, bodily beauty, human physical perfection and expression, which take place according to patterns which are obligatory in
a given community, as well as results of those behaviours” [Krawczyk
1995: 28].
23
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
We use here and talk about the physical culture in the holistic
perspective [Cynarski 2005], according the Krawczyk’s Polish School
of Sociology and Theory of Physical Culture. Martial arts and martial
ways are a part of the physical culture, and a part of symbolic culture
[cf. Kim, Back 2000; Bolelli 2008; Cynarski, Sieber, Szajna 2014; Cynarski et al. 2015].
Matsunaga et al. [2009: 16] write on the philosophy of Budō in
this way: “Budō, the martial ways of Japan, have their origins in the
tradition of bushidō – the way of the warrior. Budō is a time-honored
form of physical culture comprising of jūdō, kendō, kyūdō, sumō, kara-
tedō, aikidō, shōrinji kenpō, naginata and jūkendō. Practitioners study
the skills while striving to unify mind, technique and body, develop
his or her character; enhance their sense of morality; and to cultivate
a respectful and courteous demeanor. Practiced steadfastly, these
admirable traits become intrinsic to the character of the practitioner.
The Budō arts serve as a path to self-perfection. This elevation of the
human spirit will contribute to social prosperity and harmony, and
ultimately, benefit the people of the world”. Also, they use the term
physical culture to define the ‘martial ways’.
Martial arts are defined as “a historic category of flawless meth-
ods of unarmed combat fights and use of weapons combined with a
spiritual element” [Cynarski, Skowron 2014: 63]. Ways of martial
arts include certain forms of physical (psychophysical) culture, which,
based on tradition of warrior cultures lead, through training of fighting
techniques, to psychophysical improvement and self-realization. At the
same time, they are the processes of education and positive ascetics.
The positive asceticism combines corporal exercise with conscious
self-discipline and is oriented towards moral and spiritual progress
[Cynarski 2013a].
24
Towards which General Theory of Fighting Arts
Combat sport is understood as “derivative of the martial arts
traditions of the East or the West, whose distinctive feature is sports
rivalry. The fight may be direct (but the rules protect the health of
players) or in the form of expression of motion (demonstrational forms).
Sometimes there are different formulas for competitive sports (as
in kick-boxing) or competitions (as in taekwondo ITF)” [Cynarski,
Skowron 2014: 61].
Combat system is “a simplified technical and tactical training
programme of hand-to-hand combat or with the use of weapons in a
fight at close range, performed especially in the uniformed services
(as well as in a popular / commercialized version as a self-defence
course)” [Cynarski, Skowron 2014: 61].
The term “fighting arts” combines the skills, forms or fighting
behaviour, which are mistakenly called martial arts by cultural anthropologists and hoplologists. The term describes also self-defence
and other combat sports, training programmes within this scope etc.
[Cynarski 2013a; Fig. 1]. According to the typology by Bolelli [2008:
115–140] there are five varieties of fighting arts (or combative) that
can be analyzed: 1) performance arts; 2) internal arts; 3) weapons
arts; 4) self-defence arts; 5) combat sports (grappling, striking, and
combined).
A special glossary has been published in the quarterly “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology” [Cynarski,
Skowron 2014; cf. Cynarski, Sieber 2012].
Anthropology of Martial Arts – AMA
The Anthropology of Martial Arts is a development of HTMA, the effect
of sociological, anthropological, and philosophical research, and the
experience of many years of practice – practical studies of different
25
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
varieties of martial arts and combat sports [Obodynski 2009; Cynarski
2012a, b]. What were the most important sources of inspiration here?
• Anthropology of psychophysical progress [Cynarski 2000b];
• Personal approach – Person and act by K. Wojtyła (John Paul
II) [Wojtyła 1994];
• Cultural and philosophical anthropology (Anthropology of
Warrior’s Way) [Jones 2002; Bolelli 2008; Cynarski 2012a];
and also
• Philosophical anthropology [Kim, Back 2000; Cynarski 2013b];
• Ido philosophy [Cynarski 2009, 2012a].
From the anthropological perspective the human being, personal,
physical and psychological is in the centre of attention. The body here
is not undervalued but bodily practice is related to the path of spiritual
development. The pursuit of perfection affects both the skills of handto-hand fighting and of wielding weapons, as well as the morality and
the pursuit of full humanity.
Grand Masters of martial arts schools introduce philosophical
elements from various philosophical and religious traditions. Particularly interesting is Wally Strauss’ philosophy of Ido (‘perpetual movement’, ‘endless road’, or ‘infinite way’) [Cynarski 2009], and adopted
by a group of today’s warriors of the pathway. This philosophy unites
new Budo with European chivalric ethos, ethics of brotherhood and
personal self-realization.
General Theory of Fighting Arts – GTFA
In the GTFA we can study and explain a broad area of fighting arts /
combatives and related problems [Fig. 1]. There are:
26
Towards which General Theory of Fighting Arts
1. Cultural areas of martial arts & combat sports & combat systems (according to AMA and HTMA);
2. Conceptions of teaching (technical and tactical issues), strategy of combat (in self-defence and combat sports), aspects of
real fighting – interdisciplinary;
3. Bio-technical issues – from perspective of the sport sciences.
In physical, bio-technical aspects fighting arts are similar to other
sports. And sport science or sport sciences are appropriate for explaining the issues. Sometimes the specialty is called the ‘martial arts
sciences” or ‘science of martial arts’.
Technical and tactical aspects of real fighting and self-defence has
his originality, however is similar to other scientific disciplines (psychology of sport, logic of combat, secure, methodology of teaching). It
should be studied according both traditional knowledge and scientific
one (inter-, multi-, and trans-disciplinary) [Brizin, Kernspecht 2014;
Słopecki et al. 2015; Cynarski 2016a]. Ergo, teaching of Grand Masters
are interesting, too.
Hoplology is only a part of the holistic anthropology [Fig. 2.1].
Combat sports, martial arts and combat systems are elements of fighting arts. Big part of the term exists in area of physical culture [Fig.
2.2]. Very useful are also adaptations of fighting arts for disabled, like
adapted sport/physical education. It can be used for medical therapies,
integration and socialisation/resocialisation.
The GTFA contains in one hand the humanistic and social/cultural dimensions and, in the second hand, the dimensions known and
studied in sport sciences, for example coaching. Scientific knowledge
is in the methodology of coaching a protection against the risk of
overloads and injuries.
27
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
We can speak about one more element (or subsystem) of the
fighting arts phenomenon – the martial arts tourism. People travel to
learn or teach martial arts or fighting arts. It is a kind of non-enter-
taining excursion, which should be analyzed in the perspective of the
systemic-holistic anthropology of tourism [Cynarski 2012c; Cynarski,
Sieber, Mytskan 2015].
FIGURE 2.1.
Interrelationship among GTFA and fighting arts and areas of interests
[source: own study]
28
Towards which General Theory of Fighting Arts
FIGURE 2.2.
Physical education as a basic component of physical culture [source:
Cynarski 2014b]
Figure 2.2 shows the relationship between concepts: sport – physical culture – martial arts. Martial arts are partially element of physical
culture [Cynarski, Sieber, Szajna 2014]. However, they (martial arts)
fall entirely within the concept psycho-physical culture [Cynarski et
al. 2015].
The same, holistic-humanistic-anthropological paradigm helps
to explain such complicated phenomenon as fighting arts and its elements – people, institutions and sub-systems.
Methodology – qualitative
The new paradigm breaks some old patterns, but does not so much
displace the old ideas of reality and science, as supplement them. It
29
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
is recommended to include group (of) interdisciplinary research and
synergistic pursuit for synthesis of knowledge in sciences concerning
humans and culture. Systemic recognition of human and culture also
requires systemic, nonlinear and holistic thinking, not in terms of
structures, but in net processes and relationships.
In anthropological research, holistic approaches and cultural studies are preferred, and their applications [cf. Anderson 2001;
Cynarski 2001; Jones 2002; Cieszkowski, Sieber 2006; Sieber, Cieszkowski 2009; Spencer 2012; Zeng, Cynarski, Xie 2013; Zeng, Cynarski
2016], and qualitative methods, like participant observation [Spencer
2012]. It helps us to find human needs, values and social/cultural
problems, e.g. barriers.
Research methodology for East Asian martial arts requires (to
avoid confusion) its own practice and a high level of sophistication
– at best, in more than one martial art. It is a qualitative method of
participant observation associated with the experience of metaphysical dimensions. This special method is the ‘shugyo’ (shūgyō) – psychophysical study and experience from practicing of psycho-physical
systems. Michael Maliszewski was one of first researchers using the
method [cf. Maliszewski 1996; Cynarski 2012a].
In the HTMA the combined acquisition of knowledge and practical
experience through many years of training is parallel called ‘Budo
studies’. Despite the fact that such terminology is not used, consciously
or not, the method itself is currently used by many researchers, such
as D.F. Draeger (9 dan iaido), K.R. Kernspecht (10th master degree in
Wing Tsun kung fu), and others. For someone studying martial arts,
when this person is also a master-teacher, the group practising in the
dojo serves as a kind of laboratory. When someone practises several
martial arts disciplines, he or she gains a fuller picture of the way of
30
Towards which General Theory of Fighting Arts
the warrior. A wider practical knowledge gives you greater understanding of their former and present sense. Relationships with the
masters-teachers of the highest rank play an important role. A sense
of one’s own practice and experience also applies to non-Asian martial
arts. E.g. descriptions of capoeira made by an outside observer would
probably have little value. However observation “from the inside”
meets the standard of humanistic coefficient [Cynarski 2013c].
Conclusions
The GTFA is a sum of HTMA (humanistic, social and cultural issues),
AMA (philosophical, cultural and biological approaches), and a part of
sport sciences, for coaching, bio-technical, bio-medical issues, methodology of teaching, etc.:
HTMA + AMA + sport sciences (specialty: martial arts science)
= GTFA
The GTFA created now should give us the possibility to research and
explain complicated problems of fighting arts, according to the new,
holistic paradigm.
References
Anderson A.D. (2001), Asian martial arts cinema, dance, and the cultural
languages of gender, “Asian Journal of Communication”, vol. 11, no. 2,
pp. 58–78.
Bolelli D. (2008), On the Warrior’s Path. Philosophy, Fighting, and Martial
Arts Mythology, 2nd edn., Blue Snake Books, Berkeley, CA.
Brizin D., Kernspecht K.R. (2014), Introduction to Combat Logic – A General
Theory, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 24–30; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.4.3.
31
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Capra F. (1982), The Turning Point. Science, Society, and the Rising Culture,
Simon and Schuster, New York.
Cieszkowski S., Sieber L. (2006), Far Eastern martial arts in the perspective
of cultural sciences, “International Journal of Eastern Sports & Physical
Education”, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 217–226.
Cynarski W.J. (2000a), Budo martial arts in the western culture, WSP, Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2000b), W kierunku nowej, humanistycznej nauki o człowieku. Antropologia psychofizycznego postępu [Towards a new, humanistic science of man. Anthropology of psychophysical progress],
”Idō – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 1, pp. 99–103
[in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2001), Martial Arts Phenomenon in Mass Culture, ”Physical
Education and Sport”, no. 2, pp. 261–270.
Cynarski W.J. (2005), Physical culture in the holistic perspective [in:] J. Kosiewicz [ed.], Sport, Culture and Society. In Honour of Professor Zbigniew
Krawczyk, AWF, Warsaw, pp. 196–204.
Cynarski W.J. (2009), Martial Arts – Ido & Idokan, IPA, Rzeszow.
Cynarski W.J. (2012a), Anthropology of Martial Arts. Studies and Essays from
Sociology and Philosophy of Martial Arts, Rzeszow University Press,
Rzeszow, pp. 284. ISBN 978-83-7338-777-5 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2012b), Martial Arts Phenomenon – Research and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp. 242.
ISBN 978-83-7338-772-0.
Cynarski W.J. (2012c), Non-entertaining excursion in the perspective of the
systemic-holistic anthropology of tourism [in:] I. Jirasek, J. Kosiewicz,
D.N. Roberson [eds.], Sport and Physical Education in the Mirror of
the Social Sciences. 3rd Conference of the ISSSS, Palacky University,
Fac Phys Culture, Olomouc, Czech Rep. http://apps.webofknowledge.
com, pp. 124–130.
Cynarski W.J. (2013a), Budo, Martial Arts and Combat Sports – Definitions,
Ideas, Theories, “Research Journal of Budo”, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 222–241.
32
Towards which General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J. (2013b), General reflections about the philosophy of martial
arts, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”,
vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 1–6.
Cynarski W.J. (2013c), Humanities in the study of Budo – problems and methodology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 1–6; doi: 10.14589/ido.13.4.1.
Cynarski W.J. (2014a), The New Paradigm of Science Suitable for the 21st Century, “Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences”, vol. 149, pp. 269–275.
Cynarski W.J. (2014b), Polish achievements in the theory of physical education and new directions, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 1–14; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.2.1.
Cynarski W.J. (2016a), The meaning of self-defence: an expert definition. A
contribution to the theory of self-defence and combat [in:] M. Zvonař,
Z. Sajdlová [eds.], Proceedings of 10th International Conference on
Kinanthropology: “Sport and Quality of Life”, MU, Brno, Nov. 18–20,
2015, pp. 463–474.
Cynarski W.J. (2016b), Towards the general theory of fighting arts, ”Revista
de Artes Marciales Asiáticas”, vol. 11, no. 2s, pp. 4–5; doi: 10.18002/
rama.v11i2s.4146.
Cynarski W.J. (2017), Towards a General Theory of Fighting Arts, ”Phys Activ
Rev”, no. 5, pp. 83–90.
Cynarski W.J., Kubala K. (2013), JAB and IMACSSS Conference – Tsukuba 2013.
On scientific, budo studies and cultural tourism, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 25–34.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2012), Towards a general theory of fighting arts [in:]
Cynarski W.J. [ed.], Martial Arts Phenomenon – Research and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszów University Press, Rzeszów, pp. 16–26.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Szajna G. (2014), Martial arts in physical culture,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
14, no. 4, pp. 39–45; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.4.5.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Mytskan T. (2015), Study trip to Munich. Casus of
scientific and martial arts tourism, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal
33
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 49–57; doi: 10.14589/
ido.15.4.7.
Cynarski W.J., Skowron J. (2014), An analysis of the conceptual language
used for the general theory of martial arts – Japanese, Polish and English
terminology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 49–66; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.7.
Cynarski W.J., Yu J.H., Warchol K., Bartik P. (2015), Martial arts in psycho-physical culture, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts
Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 33–38; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.4.5.
Fromm E. (1989), To Have or To Be, Klub Otrycki, Warsaw [in Polish].
Jones D.E. [ed.] (2002), Combat, Ritual, and Performance. Anthropology of
the Martial Arts, Praeger, Westport, Connecticut – London.
Kim D., Back A. (2000), The Way do Go: Philosophy in Martial Arts Practice,
Nanam, Seoul.
Krawczyk Z. [ed.] (1995), Sociology of Physical Culture, AWF, Warsaw [in
Polish].
Krippendorf K. (2004), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology,
Sage, Thosend Oaks, Ca.
Maliszewski M. (1996), Spiritual Dimensions of the Martial Arts, C.E. Tuttle
Company, Rutland-Tokyo.
Matsunaga H. et al. (2009), Budo: The Martial Way of Japan, Nippon Budokan, Tokyo.
Nakiri F. (2015), Concept of budo and the history and activities of the Japanese Academy of Budo, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 11–25; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.1.2.
Obodynski K. (2009), Anthropology of martial arts as a scientific perspective
for research [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Martial Arts and Combat Sports –
Humanistic Outlook, UR, Rzeszow, pp. 35–50.
Pawelec P., Słopecki J., Sieber L., Rut P. (2015), Scientific and martial arts’
tourism. The case study of the 3rd IMACSSS International Conference and
Congress, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 46–56; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.1.7.
34
Towards which General Theory of Fighting Arts
Prigogine I., Stengers I. (1978), La Nouvelle Alliance. Métamorphose de la
science, Gallimard, Paris [in French].
Raimondo S., Coccia G., Ceccarelli G. (2013), Martial Arts and Contemporary
Dance. Rhythmic Convergences of the Human Body, “Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 20–26;
doi: 10.14589/ido.13.2.2.
Sasaki T. (2009), Budo (the martial arts) as Japanese culture: the outlook on
the techniques and the outlook on the human being [in:] W.J. Cynarski
[ed.], Martial Arts and Combat Sports – Humanistic Outlook, Rzeszow
University Press, Rzeszow, pp. 12–19.
Sieber L., Cieszkowski S. (2009), Far Eastern martial arts in the perspective
of cultural sciences AD 2008, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of
Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 9, pp. 123–129.
Słopecki J., Böschen P., Macas H., Litwiniuk A. (2015), The reality of teaching self-defence as a desired model of education, “Scientific Review of
Physical Culture”, no. 3, pp. 119–130.
Spencer D.C. (2012), Ultimate fighting and embodiment. Violence, gender,
and Mixed Martial Arts, Routledge, New York.
Szajna G., Kunysz M., Cynarski W.J. (2008), “Martial arts, combat sports,
humanism – budō, kakugi, jindō”, 2nd International Scientific Conference of Experts – Researchers on Martial Arts and Humanists, Targowiska-Krosno, April 25 th-26 th, 2008, “Archives of Budo”, vol. 4,
pp. 56–58.
Szyszko-Bohusz A. (2009), Holistic Pedagogy and Theory of Genetic Immortality related to combat sports and martial arts in the contemporary
epoch of globalisation, science and technology [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.],
Martial Arts and Combat Sports – Humanistic Outlook, Rzeszów University Press, Rzeszów, pp. 62–68.
Tokarski S. (1976), The second Renaissance. Eliade’s theory of cross-cultural
dialogues, “Kultura i Społeczeństwo”, no. 1, pp. 149–163 [in Polish].
Tokarski S. (1989), Martial arts. Active forms of expression in the philosophy
of the East, Glob, Szczecin [in Polish].
35
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Wojtyła K. (1994), Osoba i czyn oraz inne studia antropologiczne [Person
and act, and other anthropological studies], TN KUL, Lublin [in Polish].
Zeng H.Z., Cynarski W.J., Xie L. (2013), Martial Arts Anthropology, Participants’ Motivation and Behaviours. Martial Arts in Chanshu: Participants’
Motivation, Practice Times and Health Behaviours, Lambert Academic
Publishing, Saarbrücken.
Zeng H.Z., Cynarski W.J. (2016), Participation of Taekwondo Athletes / Students, LAP/Lambert Academic Publishing, Saarbrücken.
CHAPTER 3
State of knowledge
on fighting arts3
KEY WORDS
martial arts, combat sports, fighting arts, theory, terminology, connections
INSTEAD OF ABSTRACT
3
What is a state of knowledge in martial arts and combat sports (MA
& CS) research or in the martial arts’ science? We will discuss about
theoretical conceptions, with (my) authors concept of the general theory (in part I), and about particular theories or philosophies. Next
problem will be a new issue, on stages of development of martial arts
(part II). We can discuss about – your critical remarks can be very
useful for me, to correct this conception.
Part III and next – will be about connections between martial arts
in one hand, and theatre, dance and film, in second hand. Later, I would
It was some lectures for the Faculty of Sport Science at Masaryk University in Brno,
on the Theory of Martial Arts and Combat Sports, in 2014 (by Wojciech J. Cynarski,
as Visiting Professor). The text was modernized.
37
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
like only to say something about: Martial arts and religions or ideologies (part IV) and Psychological, cultural-sociological, and educational
aspects of martial arts (part V). It will be only indication of certain
subjects, without their full discussion. I think that the lecturer/author
should sometimes stimulate the cognitive needs of students/readers
and leave unsatisfied. But I will give you the appropriate literature.
Part VI – about symbolic dimension in martial arts – explains
many problems, which were pointed before. I am going to help you
in better understanding of the symbolic dimension of Japanese budō
and other martial arts traditions.
The last part – VII – is a supplement, with a short information on
two specialist associations and one Journal.
Let us start.
Theories and proposals for terminology
The first researchers tried to describe and to set in order (e.g. to clas-
sify) Asian martial arts. American hoplologists were may be first. Later
it was a time for a settlement in terminology [cf. Brakel 1987; Lind
1999; Pérez-Gutiérrez, Gutiérrez-García, Escobar-Molina 2011], but,
without a well prepared, broad and coherent theory it was impossible.
1. Hoplology or weaponology is a specialized science used to study
of martial arts. It also has a meaningful record in this area [cf. Draeger 1973; Toichkin, Khorasani 2014]. It works, however, in the spirit
of reductionist approaches. It is more concerned with weapons and
their use, than the man himself. The reduction applies for example
to reducing the testing of the material and technical aspects of this
kind of human activity.
Roman M. Kalina started out of the praxeological theory of fight-
ing, creating at first a philosophy of defensive struggle and educational
38
State of knowledge on fighting arts
theory of the defence, and then ‘the theory of combat sports’ [Kalina
2000]. He focused on the problem of the combat, as a form of negative
cooperation. This author also raises issues connected with the ethical,
fair and noble conduct of combat. The language of praxeology is useful
to describe processes such as training or fighting in combat sports.
2. David E. Jones [2002] develops an anthropology of martial arts,
from the perspective of the American anthropology of culture. The
concept of martial art is understood in a very broad sense. It applies
to various forms of magical preparation for combat, stylized military
training and ritual forms of combat. It also encompasses primitive
forms of combat and military skills. Researchers use here ethnographic, anthropological and cultural methods related to hoplology [cf.
Jones 2002; Green, Svinth 2010]. Jones’s anthropology is linked to the
following concept: the theory of martial arts as performance art
[Klens-Bigman 2002]. It is probably the right one for ritualised forms,
such as iaidō. For the entire continuum of the variety of martial arts
it has a weak explanatory power. The inner pathway of martial arts,
as well as spiritual self-improvement, are not for show.
Another, overall (systemic) approach to the phenomenon of martial arts and combat sports is offered by Abel A. Figueiredo [2009].
He makes an attempt to deliberate over the subject of his research
and study in the most general holistic approach, accenting the human ‘motricity’. An interpretation of ‘human motricity’ in the scope
of martial arts and combat sports refers to a broad range of physical
education and multidisciplinary scientific perspective. According
to the spacious concept of ‘motricity’, we can analyse here, in varied ways, combat techniques, their teaching and educational influences.
39
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Keith R. Kernspecht [2011], on the contrary, explains the logic of fighting mainly on the basis of the rules of Wing Tsun kung-fu
(he is GM of 10th degree in this style, in GM Leung Ting’s school).
Moreover, he takes advantage of his knowledge and experience from
other fighting arts. The emphasis is put on the use of martial arts for
self-defence. Kernspecht [1988, 2011] focuses on the phenomenon
of combat, especially fighting in self-defence. He creates a multi-disciplinary, structured knowledge called ‘combatology’, as a theory of
self-defence and fighting.
There are also other proposals for theoretical approaches.
Towards a General Theory
Scientific analyses can be carried out at different levels of generality.
At the top levels we find general theoretical concepts, whether for
multi-disciplinary problems (as in the science of physical culture) or
within individual specialist sciences. Middle-range theories are scientific sub-disciplines. Even more specialized theories or specializations
arise, such as “martial arts science” for the problem area of martial
arts, combat sports, self-defence systems, etc. A paradigm of overall,
systemic approaches is gradually gaining scholarly recognition. At the
same time man is to be treated as a personal, physical and psychological being, with his/her own aspirations and choices.
Cynarski [2004a] developed the Humanistic Theory of Martial
Arts, based mainly on knowledge (and own experience) of Budo and
formulating his theses in accordance with the canon of the paradigm
of the systemic approach and humanities [e.g. Szyszko-Bohusz 1989].
The second step was a monograph (420 pages) with results of empirical verification of the theory [Cynarski 2006]. 3rd step was supplementation of the humanistic theory by methodology of training,
40
State of knowledge on fighting arts
aspects of health, technical issues (teaching of techniques), etc. [Cynarski 2009].
On the other hand in Cynarski’s [2012a, b] approach, ‘the anthropology of the martial arts’ is a general philosophy of the ‘Warrior of
the Way’, a man of Budō. He explains different, not just Asian, varieties
of martial arts, as systems for the mental and physical improvement
of a human being. Man, and the world of his values and aspirations,
is the centre of attention here. This anthropology is a development
of the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts. It takes into account the
dimensions of transgression and transcendence [Sieber, Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2007]. The holistic anthropology of martial arts, as a general
theory, gives us a special language – terminology for the martial arts’
science [Cynarski, Skowron 2014]. It contains the practical value, too:
possibilities for using it in pedagogy and coaching [cf. Cynarski 2011;
Cynarski, Obodyński, Zeng 2012; Zeng, Cynarski, Lisheng Xie 2013;
Cynarski, Lee-Barron 2014].
Both the humanistic and systemic approaches form a new para-
digm of science which meets the criteria of the 21st century but which
does not lose sight of the personal and psycho-physical man. In this
spirit, new theoretical concepts are being developed, such as the anthropology of martial arts, the humanistic theory of martial arts and
the general theory of fighting arts. The result of this perspective is that
the norm of a “humanistic coefficient” [Znaniecki 1934] is obeyed.
Holistic, multi-faceted approaches are recommended, while problems
should be studied in an interdisciplinary way.
A general theory of fighting arts would be a more general theory
for martial arts, combat sports, self-defence and combat systems. It
must be connected with art of war, too [Cynarski, Sieber 2012: 16–26;
cf. Clausewitz 1999; Brizin, Kernspecht 2014]. The assumption of one
41
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
general theory of martial arts and related systems demand establishing the scope of terminology and the choice of proper name. How
one name can cover various systems of art, ways, sports, methods,
self-defence options and different usage methods in military service
(police, combat etc.) together with aspects closer to ritual, meditation
and healing properties?
It seems to be the most suitable to differentiate systems of psycho-physical practice concentrated on spiritual development (some
forms of budō such as kyūdō or to some extent, aikidō) from the ones
focused on fighting, as named by Lee-Barron [2011] ”combative disciplines“ or by Reguli [2009] – “combatives“. Putting martial arts,
combat sports or e.g. Yoga and qigong to one section entitled “oriental
sports“ [Raimondo 2007] complicates rather than explains the issue.
Taking all psycho-physical systems into consideration, we shall
differentiate the martial arts that retain reality of training and fighting skills – martial arts and martial ways (ways of these martial arts
deriving from military code of knights and warriors). Upon adding
combat sports of various origin – we shall receive the collection of
various fighting kinds that can be called ”fighting arts“. We will concentrate on ”fighting arts“, not martial arts, which are, according to
the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts, a historic category of flawless
methods of unarmed combat fights and use of weapon combined
with spiritual element (personal development, also in transcendent
sphere) [cf. Cynarski 2004a, 2009].
The term “fighting arts” combines the skills, forms or fighting
behaviour, which are mistakenly called martial arts by anthropologists
and hoplologists. The term describes also self-defence and other com-
bat sports, training programmes within this scope etc. The broadest
term possible “fighting system” would better be reserved for specific
42
State of knowledge on fighting arts
systems of individual martial arts schools – their training curricula
with some logical consequence and general rules of martial arts of a
given type. For a system of “eclectic” sort, which combine several vari-
ous elements, it is difficult to indicate technical and tactical coherence
or cohesion of “physics of movement”.
Ways of martial arts are included in these two term ranges –
psychophysical training systems and fighting arts. The ways as educa-
tional systems, however, move beyond the field of sports and fighting
understood as a direct confrontation of spiritual power. Their numer-
ous properties that are not only technical or physical should also be
considered.
Martial arts investigators try to determine the specificity of var-
ious types and forms within this field of research. For that purpose,
anthropological and cultural instruments or historical description
[Green, Svinth 2010] have been used. Though, researchers of Rzeszów
School and IPA adopt a different approach – newparadigmatic. To be
more specific, it is a humanistic systematic anthropology of martial
arts which rejects reductive attitudes in favour of complex treatment
of a man and placing him in the centre of attention. The explanation
of fighting phenomenon has been enriched with social and cultural
aspect of functioning of the international environment of martial arts.
The complex analysis of martial arts which are popular nowadays
received a sociological and anthropological description in the Anthropology of Martial Arts [Cynarski 2012a].
Technically speaking, martial arts (or more generally, fighting arts)
extend from art of fortification, pyrotechnics and shooting, through
historical horse-riding skills and jousting, swimming art (sueijutsu),
archery and slingshot, throwing sharp objects (shurikenjutsu), large
distance fighting (ropes and chains with weights and blades such as
43
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
kusarkigama, spear or glaive, such as naginata), medium distance
(staffs, swords, sabres, knives and other weaponry) until hand-to-hand
fight. Ancient schools (koryū), as Takeda-ryū and Katorishintō-ryū,
used to teach or still teach those skills valuable for a warrior. Techniques of these schools were combined with strategy and tactics of
combat fighting. Unarmed fighting used to be solely complementary.
These days, the situation is inversed. Modern budō and the most
popular fighting arts of modern times concentrate on the usage of a
person’s body. However, both kung-fu and karate teach techniques of
using at least a couple of weapons, and it is similarly in case of jūjutsu
(especially in schools of ancient origin). Aikidō members practise with
bōken (artificial sword) and jō staff. Kendō teaches only techniques of
using sword. Fighting with sword is practiced in iaidō and taiji, and
schools of European historical fencing still focus on melee weapon. In
addition to that, weaponry is used in Philippine martial arts, Hindu
kalarippayattu, ninjutsu schools and in many types of kobudō. Similarly
to ancient times, a warrior should be broadly taught in using weapon and hand-to-hand combat. An ancient Korean treatise Muye Dobo
Tongji [Yi Duk-moo, Park Je-ga 2000] portrays techniques of wield (by
several training schools), jousting and vaulting as well as hand-to-hand
combat, 80% text of which focuses on fencing. Complete systems of
training teach most of the above mentioned skills.
A perception of martial arts is currently conditioned by mass culture (especially martial arts film) which presents old and new myths
and archetypes. Some differences in perceiving and understanding
fighting arts and martial arts in Europe and the USA are noticed. Gen-
erally, western comprehension of this psycho-physical phenomenon
is similar. Organisations that teach various martial arts and fighting
arts adapt to the demands of the market.
44
State of knowledge on fighting arts
What would be an area for the general theory of fighting arts?
Apart from anthropological aspects (humanistic and cultural) it undoubtedly should refer to fighting skills. We shall differentiate, as in
case of art of war, the grand theatre. It should embrace the strategy
of conducting war, tactics, the ability to win the battle and conquer
the fortifications. The middle range, on the contrary, embraces the
use of long range weapons – in the past, there used to be bows and
crossbows. And finally, a small theatre refers to the battle between
groups or a fight of one against a group (various self-defence situations) as well as one-to-one fights.
The warrior should be able to use all means of fighting avail-
able – either weapon of objects of everyday use. It could be: 1) cold
steel of different lengths and construction, including staff weapon as well as flail and clubs; 2) weapon of longer range (throwing,
hurling weapons, rope, chain weapon, etc.); 3) short-range weapon
(small weapons e.g. knuckle duster); 4) unarmed fighting – the use
of one’s own body. These particular means of fighting have been
used by infantrymen, cavalry, warriors on chariots, during sea bat-
tles and other fighting activities. The warrior should be able to use
all weapons both with his right and left hand, as well as have the
ability to use two kinds of weapon at the same time (i.e. swords),
with or without a shield. He should be skilful (technique and tactics)
at using some weapons against other. Similar abilities are taught by
complete systems.
With regards to hand-to-hand fighting, we differentiate a couple
of distances and positions. A structural model of fighting is designed,
which includes punches, kicks, grappling, blocking, choke-holding
and joint locks. Kalina [2000] differentiates mild means of fighting
(i.e. holds) and more dangerous ones (punches and kicks). Indeed,
45
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
the general knowledge about fighting should comprise of tactics,
perception and control of distance, rhythm and timing, as well as
the knowledge of techniques, mental training, etc. Creating abstract
models, however, contributes little to the knowledge of the subject.
Combat sports, such as competitive karate styles or judo, teach
distance or only grip fighting. Apart from the ability to use traditional
weapons a fully-fledged warrior should acquire practical skills of hand-
to-hand fighting in all kinds of distances (kicks, hand techniques), close
combat stand-up fighting (grappling, takedowns, clinch fighting) and
ground fighting (holds, chokeholds, joint locks). The warrior should
also learn the rules of self-defence in fights against an armed opponent
or in situations of one against many opponents.
The art of self-defence (Jap. goshinjutsu) is a derivative of fighting
arts. It has been changing throughout the years together with the modifications of threats in social life. In the past, it used to be an assault
with stabbing or melee weapon, therefore, fencing skills determined
survival. Nowadays, the term refers to hand-to-hand fighting, including
the staff and knife fighting, etc.
Self-defence is mentioned by many authors. They possess some-
times authentic, first-hand knowledge about the subject. Teaching
methods of self-defence often pertains to reaction to common threats
and types of assault. Course books and teach-yourself manuals based
on jūjutsu have been published for more than a hundred years. The
theory of self-defence ought to refer to selected psychological, tactical
and technical aspects of fighting. It can contain information about
prevention of threats, crime statistics (types of assaults), description
of legal aspects of self-defence. Humanitarian reasons bring about
the necessity of including first-aid pre-medical help in the course of
learning. How to define self-defence? It can be assumed that they are
46
State of knowledge on fighting arts
“technical and tactical skills to avoid or fend off an attack and neutralize the attacker/s” [Cynarski, Skowron 2014].
What conditions the success in self-defence? A success in fight
depends on preparation: technical and tactical, physical, mental, and
knowledge, and experience. Don’t physical condition and intellectual
potential play an important role? It similarly refers to various forms
of confrontation – whether in boxing or in street fight. Contrary to
boxing, street fighting contains important factors – surprise and lack
of limitation in terms of means and techniques of fighting. That is
why combat sports competitors generally do not perform well in real
self-defence, moreover, technique of sports judo or any other combat
sport is not suitable for a training oriented at real fight. The types
of martial arts limited by sports or idealistic code of convention (as
aikidō Aikikai) should not be therefore associated with self-defence.
This stance is expressed by distinguished experts in this field such as
GM Lothar Sieber (10 dan goshinjutsu).
Combat sports, on the contrary, are a simple derivative of fighting
skills of East and West and elements of sports competition. Kalina
[2000] limits this term to forms of direct confrontation between two
opponents. However, there are disciplines and technical competitions,
show forms, breaking tests etc. which are performed as sports rivalry.
Wrestling, boxing and fencing are typical European combat sports,
whereas such combat sports as kendō or karate maintain the features
of martial arts. All these combat sports are connected with attaining
fighting skills and remain within the frame of the term fighting arts
– not arts but their types.
Consequently, MMA (mixed martial arts) training programmes
and practicing these modern types of gladiatorship (MMA shows),
which do not fit martial arts category and describing them as sports
47
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
arouses serious doubts, also can be defined as a neutral “type of
combat”.
Genuine martial arts (Jap. bujutsu ryūha, koryū, kobudō, sōbudō)
teach more skills than fighting. These are schools of character, whole
educational systems. They involve teaching a particular knowledge,
including practical medicine.
In combat sports of Asian origin we also have a problem with
training. Johannes Renninghoff and Frank Witte, sport ju-jutsu specialists, denote that progress (better accomplishment, efficiency and
results) can be found on five subsequent stages of training, analysed
in long-term perspective [Renninghoff, Witte 1998: 31]:
1. General development and free time activity
2. Basic training (about 3 years)
3. Aufbau – (building special skills) – 3 years
4. Anschluss-Training (combining skills) – 3–4 years
5. Professional training – about 10 years
6. Period after training – the time of lowering fitness activity
General training is preferred in the stages 1 and 6. The biggest significance in stage 4 is given to building strength. Competitions and
various sports rivalry appear in stages from 3 to 5, whilst stages 4 and
5 demand psychological preparation [Renninghoff, Witte 1998: 34].
Other authors describe the training process in combat sports
taking also sports science into consideration. They refer to 1) rules of
sports training, 2) planning and periodisation, 3) physical preparation,
4) aid (dietary supplements), 5) injuries prevention, 6) technical and
tactical preparation, 7) psychological preparation for the competition,
8) cross-section training, 9) issues of reaction and speed, 10) building/
developing of motor coordination abilities, 11) creating automatic
48
State of knowledge on fighting arts
movement pattern behaviour, or also 12) pedagogical attitude (moral
raising etc.). The holistic concept of martial arts training is specially
interesting [Stanley 1999; Cynarski, Sieber 2006], and the holistic
understanding of the fight phenomenon [cf. Sieber, Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2007].
The general theory of fighting arts should also embrace the meth-
odology of movement activities, methods of training (traditional and
modern ones), forms of physical activities organisation etc. Teacher
training in Germany (DDBV) involves a subject called Stilkunde which
includes basic information about theory of training and methodology
of teaching.
Tactics in self-defence and in fighting differs from tactics in com-
bat sports, which is adapted to particular sports regulations. There
are, however, suggestions common for different fighting arts. These
include: 1) purposefulness and rationality of activities, economical and
planned way of conducting fights; 2) assessment of situation – who
is an opponent, his strong and weak sides and conditions of confron-
tation; 3) self-assessment of one’s own abilities (predispositions and
skills) and adapting them to the situation.
Sports tactics, on the contrary, requires taking a person’s and
opponent’s potential into consideration as well as the regulations of
a given sports discipline and competition. It depends on temper, technical abilities and mainly on experience and intellectual level of the
rivals. A player is trying to predict opponent’s actions so as to win the
fight – it demands fast decision making and anticipating opponent’s
movements. In the attack, combinations of techniques directed at different zones are used for the purpose of disorientating the opponent.
In defence, in comparison, a fighter should not reveal his assets so as
not to lose the opportunity to surprise the opponent. A competitor
49
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
should be able to mislead the alertness of the opponent or use simulation (feint) in conjunction with proper actions. Self-control is crucial
(especially emotional) and the ability to focus one’s attention during
the fight. The athlete who is in motion, in a dynamic equilibrium, is
more difficult to attack [cf. Błach W. 2005: 51].
Technical and tactical solutions are selected according to the
applicable rules of sport combat [Blach Ł. 2017] and accordingly to
the style of combat of the opponent [Kriventsova et al. 2017]. That
is why it is good to see them before and prepare appropriate tactics
(including tactical traps to mislead the rival). This is how professionals
prepare for fighting.
On real fighting
In real fight one should take into consideration the following factors: number of opponents, their weapons, terrain conditions (space,
ground, lighting), the ability to use some objects for protection or
calling help. There is a limited amount of time for reconnaissance
and planning. A competitor is often forced to confine himself to
trained automatic reactions – automatism of the fight techniques
chosen. It is important to position in such a way so as to prevent
the attack from the back. If long range weapons are used by the
rivals, barriers are used (walls, furniture). An attacker should be
neutralised as fast as possible. If there is more than one attacker, it
is crucial to avoid fighting from lying position and control an armed
hand or weapon of the assailant. We should remember that a thug
never plays fair.
A well-trained warrior should be able to fight with a simple stick,
an umbrella, a walking stick or any other object. For instance, an arm
wrapped in a jacket or a coat can be used for protection and blocking
50
State of knowledge on fighting arts
knife stabbing. We should realize though, that in case of the assault
of armed attackers, a successful defend is possible only in the movies,
in which heroes are bulletproof. Sometimes it is better to resign from
confrontation if the chances to win are non-existent. Provided it is not
a struggle for honour and higher values. The warrior should be able
to use a proper tactics against a puncher and a catcher who strives
for ground fighting, against an aggressive assailant and a one who
prefers to counterfight; against a short and tall one; against light and
fast or heavier and stronger. From time to time, it is more beneficial
to delay action; at other times an immediate reaction is needed [cf.
Cynarski, Sieber 2012].
If the opponent is unknown to us, we have to judge his skills and
preferred style of fighting. The boxer can be recognised by the guard
position. Thai boxer – by a broad guard and body balance on the back
leg. A wrestler – by a low position (bent legs). The wrestler and judoka will aim at the grapple and contraction. Observation of the opponent’s behaviour makes it possible to enforce one’s own style. The
rival should not be allowed to perform what he is very good at. That
is why a boxer should be attacked with low-kicks at his usually laden
front leg. One can use knees and high kicks always remembering about
a high guard. A dangerous puncher should be taken down to ground
fighting (joint locks and chokeholds), whereas a grappling attacker
should better be kept at distance (the use of counterattacks, escaping
from grappling).
A more versatile warrior obviously has a bigger chance to cope in
the fight as he possesses a larger spectrum of techniques and wider
range of possibilities to win the fight tactically. Nevertheless, it is often
a psychological resistance and self-confidence which decides upon
the winner. If the rival gets scared, he has a small chance to win; if he
51
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
belittles the opponent, he will most likely make a mistake and lose.
If his attempts are unsuccessful for some time, he will be helpless and
this is the best moment for overtaking the initiative. The experienced
warrior doesn’t get surprised or mistaken easily, he is constantly alert
and careful. He saves his powers and follows his tactics modifying it
when such demand arises [cf. Cynarski, Sieber 2012].
Rhythmic breath is crucial for maintaining inner balance – deep
diaphragm stomach is better. This also is connected with oxygenation
of the organism. Avoiding fast and shallow breathing prevents stress
from blocking our fighting skills. It is also important not to get hit
when inhaling. Thence, each techniques is practiced together with
the breath and muscle tension – kime.
In the fight distance, rhythm and timing are controlled. Attain-
ing these skills demand special training with a sensei or a trainer.
An appropriate distance means the distance in which we manage to
protect ourselves or attack and prevent from a physical assault of
the opponent. We are trying to impose our own rhythm in the fight.
Having met an asynchronic contestant, one needs to be prepared for
his changeable rhythm. On the contrary, the time of taking over the
initiative – so called timing – demands superb reflex. Blocking also
needs to be done on time, not too fast, not too late. Adapting the timing
and preceding the attack is surprising and often the most important,
allowing to win over a couple of assailants.
Apart from the abovementioned rules, there are also those deriving from general tactics and techniques of a particular method /
martial arts e.g. jūjutsu [cf. Cynarski 2009: 122–124] or taken from
consolidated movement habits and individual predispositions. Therefore, people training kick-boxing, kyokushin karate, teakwondo WTF
or a classical kung-fu style will fight differently.
52
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Definitions of other basic terms
Few students of the martial arts come to the black belts and master’s
degrees dan. The highest grades (9th and 10th dan) are awarded by
grand masters colleges for outstanding merit. In addition to stylish
degrees awarded by schools of martial arts, there are assigned degrees
of “organizational” or honour for those who do not always reach the
Highest Technical Degree (HTD) – the highest master degree, which
requires passing a practical exam. (Higher degrees are awarded as
honorable.)
There are also degrees of “over-stylish”, awarded several styles
experts and master titles (renshi, kyōshi, hanshi, meijin) under the
martial art. In most cases, for advanced degrees is longtime hard work,
high level of knowledge and skills.
“The specific ontogeny of a martial arts’ adept is more like a career
in science than sport. Masters are unquestioned authorities in the environment martial artists, as well as prominent scholars in the world
of science. Eminent scholar, academics, Nobel laureates can reply masters from the top of the hierarchy, the holders of 9–12th dan, the names
of dai-hanshi, meijin and sōke of reputable schools. Ordinary Professor correspond to hanshi title and license menkyō kaiden, extraordinary – shihan and grade 8 dan. Holders of degrees above-technical
(e.g. 6–7 dan, rot and white belt) can be compared with independent
research worker (assistant professor), doctorate level; the highest
level of technical (renshi, 4–5 dan), a master’s degree with the title
of sensei (teacher) and 3rd dan, than were students. After passing the
examination for the highest technical degree successive degrees are
obtained as the honour on the basis of assessment of achievements,
which resembles the process occurring between the doctorate and
53
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
the title of professor. Educational achievements can be compared with
the number of formed yūdansha (black belt holders) and instructors
(shidoin). Achievements in several methods and martial arts schools
meet additional education (faculties). Good mastery of several types
of conventional weapons would correspond for example knowledge
of several foreign languages. Evidence of recognition (e.g. in the form
of grant by the various schools of degrees and honorary titles) can be
compared with honorary doctorates (honoris causa)” [Cynarski 2002:
98–99]. Also, the concept of master and school-related research is the
meaning and function of the budō master school (dōjō) of martial arts.
Ontogenetic way of budō – it is the process of the psycho-physical
practice, which is practising budō. “’Ontogeny of budō’ is the specific
‘sports biography’ of a man of martial arts. It is more a way of growth
of skills and knowledge, moral progress and spiritual improvement
than physical, personal development throughout its life cycle, taking into account biological and environmental conditions” [Cynarski,
Skowron 2014]. Interesting is here the old method of practicing uchideshi (internal student) with the traditional teaching and knowledge
transfer ‘from heart to heart’ – ishin-den shin.
The curriculum of the school is divided into technical degrees
kyū-dan, student and master. Dan grades are the next steps on the
pathway. Instructor with a degree of 1–2 dan is still a student, who
does not know the entire program (a system of martial arts). In the
tradition of the Japanese just getting HTD authorizes the titles renshi
or tatsujin (expert) and a white and red belt. Also menkyō kaiden
license confirms that the student mastered the entire programme, and
knows everything. Grand Master is the only holder of the title hanshi
(e.g. in karate) or sōke (main master in a particular style or school).
For example, Mrs Yasuko Kimura is the 17th sōke of the naginatajutsu
54
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Tendō-ryū school, but she is not hanshi (but only kyōshi) in the organization of Japanese Academy of Budo, in Kendo (and Naginatado)
Division.
Particular theories or philosophies
The philosophy of martial arts can be understood in at least three
ways: 1) as the wisdom handed down to us by the masters and the
traditions of martial arts schools; 2) as contemporary philosophical
thinking about martial arts; 3) as a general theory of martial arts. In
this third approach, it is present in the aforementioned theoretical
concepts. In terms of the second approach one can find interesting
work on ontology, axiology, epistemology, philosophy of man, philosophy of struggle or oriental philosophy of sport. The most valuable
works seem to be written by people with rich practical experience
in martial arts, i.e. thus transferring in this way the wisdom of the
art of living to modern times [Kim, Back 2000; Cynarski 2012a:
120–222].
Matsunaga et al. [2009: 16] write on the philosophy of Budō in
this way: “Budō, the martial ways of Japan, have their origins in the
tradition of bushido – the way of the warrior. Budō is a time-honoured
form of physical culture comprising of jūdō, kendō, kyūdō, sumō, karatedō, aikidō, shōrinji kenpō, naginata and jūkendō. Practitioners study
the skills while striving to unify mind, technique and body, develop
his or her character; enhance their sense of morality; and to cultivate
a respectful and courteous demeanour. Practised steadfastly, these
admirable traits become intrinsic to the character of the practitioner.
The Budō arts serve as a path to self-perfection. This elevation of the
human spirit will contribute to social prosperity and harmony, and
ultimately, benefit the people of the world”.
55
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Prof. Jerzy Kosiewicz wrote among other things: “Cynarski goes
back to the philosophy of culture and humanism in versions of Cassir-
er, Fromm, Eliade, and also refers to the universality of J. Kuczyński,
a modern personalism and integral anthropology, and at the same
time to the religious and philosophical thoughts of the Far East. (…)
Formulated by Cynarski the Oriental philosophy of sport and the philosophy of the martial arts pathways (not just those from the Far
East) are essential components created by the same researcher as a
humanistic theory of martial arts. At the same time a consideration
from the epistemological and axiological, social and anthropological
perspective is interesting for modern human philosophy and the philosophy of physical culture in particular” [Kosiewicz 2007: 22–23; cf.
Jirásek, Hopsicker 2010].
As was written in other place, “I would generally describe the
epistemology of martial arts as a psycho-physical path of practice,
introversion and intuitive knowledge, and at the same time self-discovery by the individual in training. The proper explication of this
phenomenon with no experience at the appropriate level (the issue of a long-standing practice) is difficult or completely impossible.
Ontology explains some of the basic common entities and concepts that exist here. From an anthropological perspective the human
being, personal, physical and psychological is interesting. The body
here is not undervalued but bodily practice is related to the path of
spiritual development. The pursuit of perfection affects both the skills
of hand-to-hand fighting and of wielding weapons, as well as the morality and the pursuit of full humanity.
The axiology of other cases is sometimes different. For example
the Idōkan Yōshin-ryū system is similar (in terms of ethics) to radical
56
State of knowledge on fighting arts
humanism of Fromm and the Christian personalism. In other martial
arts schools, the focus is sometimes more on utilitarian, health or
environmental issues.
The convergence of the biographies and views of eminent people
in martial arts is also interesting. These people have devoted their
lives to their life-long passion, and have passed on their knowledge,
attained after years of confirmed mastery and with authority by
teaching and publishing. The philosophical anthropology of mar-
tial arts describes a man on his way to psychophysical progress.”
[Cynarski 2013]
An American philosopher Allan Back, and the Korean martial
arts expert Daeshik Kim, interpret the philosophy of martial arts as
an understanding of the meaning of the way of meditation practice,
including mental and physical exercise. They write about the ethics
of martial arts, following the rules etc. A “Way to go” is the way
of practice that is combat training, daily training [see: Kim, Back
2000].
The philosophy of martial arts is variously defined. General reflec-
tions about this philosophy are realized from various points of view
[cf. Kauz 1977; Shishida, Flynn 2013]. Grand Masters of martial arts
schools introduce philosophical elements from various philosophical
and religious traditions. Aikido, for example, has his own, very specific
philosophy or theoretical / ideological grounds [see: Dykhuizen 2000;
cf. Levine 1991; Shishida, Flynn 2013].
There is also a philosophy of idō (‘perpetual movement’, ‘endless
road’, or ‘infinite way’), initiated by Dr Wally Strauss [Cynarski 2009]
and adopted by a group of today’s warriors of the pathway. This phi-
losophy unites new Budo with European chivalric ethos, ethics of
brotherhood and personal self-realization [more: Cynarski 2017].
57
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
***
We can also mention such scientific sub-disciplines, as: psychology
of martial arts, pedagogy of martial arts, sociology, ethnography and
history. They are parts of the martial arts’ science and can be understood as next particular theories.
Stages of development – last hundred years in the West
Stage 1. Establishment of martial arts schools. Primary or chaotic
forms of struggle underwent a gradual improvement in the direction
of a more rational use. Gradually fighting skills were developed and
passed from father to son, and knowledge of the techniques and tactics of fighting (individual and group) were accumulated. Still it was
only about efficiency in overcoming the enemy.
In cultures of warriors (cultura militum, cultura militaris), this
practical knowledge and skills gained special recognition [Cynarski
1999; Czopek 2013], because they determined the life and death of a
warrior. In the families of warriors followed the generational transmission. A few prominent experts gained the role of teachers fencing,
combat or other military skills. Also schools had begun to emerge.
Such schools were the ancient Greek gymnasium, Roman gladiator
school, and later – in Europe – the school of knights and school of
fencing. Among the various institutions, we can specify here ancient
Greek Olympics (agonistics), gladiatorial contests (gladiatorship),
tournaments, contests, shooting and equestrian, duels and codes of
honor [cf. Takagi 1984].
Some schools focused since its inception solely on teaching self-defense and combat, as it concerns arising in the seventeenth century
in Southern China Ving Tsun kung-fu or its various varieties today [cf.
58
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Kernspecht 2013]. Others, such as founded in the fifteenth century
Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu, teach both struggle with different
types of traditional weapons, combat, strategy and art of fortification,
and magical-medical knowledge [cf. Otake 1977]. Tenshinshoden katorishinto-ryu is the first school of classical bujutsu – Japanese martial
arts, which actually operates until today.
Stage 2. From the early martial arts into educational systems. Early martial arts schools taught skills of war for the strictly utilitarian
purposes [cf. McCarthy 1999; Sieber, Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2006]. From
fighting skills, along with the development of warriors’ culture, mar-
tial arts matured into an educational systems. Creators of Kodokan
judo and e.g. Nihon jujutsu [Sato 1998] intended to make the educational systems.
Martial arts, which remained at the stage of ‘jutsu’, teach techniques and tactics, and nothing else. Only some schools have joined
the teaching of certain skills with moral education. In schools teaching only self-defense or combat/fighting there is little attention to
appropriate education of students – forming their personalities. In
general, the effect on exerciser’s personality is determined mainly by
master-teacher. He is mainly responsible, what will be the impact of
practicing a martial art on a student [Słopecki 2012].
The great masters of the Japanese kendo, and the achievements
of the “Big Three of Budo” (J. Kano – judo, G. Funakoshi – karatedo,
M. Ueshiba – aikido) have contributed to the fact that in the martial
arts began to emphasize higher goals and values of the ‘Warrior’s
Pathway’. ‘Do’, the equivalent of the Chinese Dao (Tao), it was the
moral way, which is more important than perfection in combat skills
[cf. Funakoshi 1994; Draeger 1996; Wolters 2005].
59
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Was Jigoro Kano right that a combination of martial art and sport
will ensure its best execution, as the education system? Unfortunately,
in the case of many martial arts is a reduction of purposes to the sports
result, reducing of training/teaching for content useful in combat
sports, in general – a regression to the stage of ‘jutsu’ (with a loss of
real efficiency in free-fighting), and sometimes dehumanization and
other pathologies. This applies to changes in fencing [cf. Czajkowski
2006], changes in judo (in the direction of strength, wrestling sport)
[Villamón et al. 2004], changes in sport karate and taekwondo [Rżany
2001; Cynarski 2014a].
Stage 3A. Imported message – incomplete knowledge – filling in
missing parts. Untrained students, becoming the masters (self-proclaimed), became versus the necessity of adding the missing elements. In this way numerous new schools, styles and systems, usually
of eclectic character were created. This applies to various forms of
self-defense, ‘combat’ (type) systems, the new ‘most effective’ schools
and styles.
Not always, these new creations are worthless. Usually, however, a
main reason for the creation are the ambitions of creators, ambitions
of individual countries (the creation of new sports referring to local
tradition) and commercial considerations.
Although Japanese jujutsu instructors appeared in the West at
the turn of the 19th and 20th century, but the knowledge of the martial arts has long been limited to the defensive holds, that is, to some
self-defense techniques. In this way the jujutsu self-defense was presented in numerous tutorials – books by H.I. Hancock, Z. Kłośnik,
F. van Haesendonck, A. Glucker and others. Meanwhile, self-defense
(Jap. goshinjutsu) is – in this form – only a subsystem of jujutsu.
60
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Stage 3B. Other changes and their causes. Aware of the limitations
of a program or an educational system provokes the need for modifications, for example, updates as to adaptation to new situations.
Modernization is made (in terms of program content or teaching
methods), or borrowings from other systems. Bruce Lee was one of
the pioneers of the modernization of the classic martial arts, especially Chinese kung-fu [Lee 1975; Kernspecht 2013]. The Bruce Lee’s
revolution was to reject the primary for centuries method of transfering knowledge in the form of technical formal systems. Lee was also
a pioneer in the use of different pads and trainers. He experimented
with combining different methods of fighting and picking techniques
useful in a real fight [cf. Lee 1975; Lee, Uehara 1977; Inosanto 1987;
Green, Svinth 2010].
Combat systems had an eclectic form from the beginning, in which
it was most important to training a soldier or a policeman in a short
time – to teach him a set of relatively simple techniques [Fairbairn
1931; Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2003]. In the uniformed services the emphasis is on utilitarian skills – Jap. ‘jutsu’.
Thus, the modification is not always extorted incomplete knowledge or limited access to full competence and the opportunity to
confirm that skills. Sometimes it was a genuine need to adapt rigid
systems to new conditions and needs. It required only the behavior
of some guiding principles to the resulting new quality will internally
consistent.
Martial arts and theatre, dance, and film
Pauka [1998] wrote on connections between theater and martial arts
in West Sumatra (in the Minangkabau). Anderson [2001] – on general
connections of martial arts with cinema and dance. Harasymowicz
61
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
[2011] – about martial arts in education of actors. For this area the
Klens-Bigman’s [2002] theoretical perspective could be useful.
Tokarski wrote about the myth of Bruce Lee – “a kung fu poet”
who underwent a metamorphosis from a punk to a monk; from a
strong fist lover to a seeker after the eastern way of ascetism [Tokarski
1989]. Lee caught the imagination and started wide popularity of martial arts films. According to Sławomir Zygmunt, it was not until B. Lee’s
death and the premiere of the film Enter the Dragon that the martial
arts film became a separate film genre [Zygmunt 1998]. Earlier, the
‘kung-fu films’ were dominated by brutality and the motif of revenge.
A breakthrough took place in the seventies thanks to the personalities
of such actors as B. Lee and J. Chan. Since the appearance of the first
big American-Chinese co-production (Enter the Dragon, 1973) we
have been able to talk about the existence of the contemporary genre
(or a genre variation of action cinema) of the martial arts film, which
won the audience of the Occident. Apart from scenes of fights, there
appear philosophical elements, a wider cultural context as well as a
more efficiently organized plot.
The spectacular value causes that martial arts are an object of
interest in the mass media. Not only aesthetical dimension is important here. Spiritually young people need heroes of moral right [Mintz
[1978: 206].
For example, the movie “The Last Samurai” shows not only the
way of practicing martial arts for improvement of personality, character or morality, but rather the useful martial art of the Japanese
bushi – bujutsu improved for hundreds of years. We admire training
and fighting with the use of sword, spear, bow, throwing the knife
tantō, hand-to-hand fighting (jūjutsu), we watch the tactics of conduct-
ing the battle in the situation of quadruple quantitative advantage of
62
State of knowledge on fighting arts
the opponent and their great advantage in armaments. However, the
spiritual development of “the white barbarian” Algren occurs spontaneously, as if it was the natural consequence of his self-reflection,
dialogues (mondō) with Mr. Katsumoto and training of martial arts.
The choice of Algren is free, motivated by the will to rehabilitate morally. “The Last Samurai” and some other show the historical time, but
the battle struggles and duels of heroes are to make it more attractive
and illustrate another kind of problem which is here especially the
conflict of cultural (and ethos) traditions.
The new age of movie is co-created by various factors, from among
which there may be mentioned technological progress in the field of
special effects, reaching to cultural roots, social fascination with the
ethos and the need for the culture of honor. Martial arts may be and
become helpful in creating the new or restoring the old myths. The
more so, because they preserve one sense and ethos of the moral way
of old masters (archetypical sages). Wuxia (archetypical heroes)
and Bruce Lee, the masters of martial arts and cinema, Kurosawa
and the epos of Tolkien become inspiration for such contemporary
directors as Jackson, Lucas, Zwick, Ang Lee, Tarantino and Wachowski
brothers [cf. Cynarski, Obodyński 2004].
Martial arts and religions or ideologies
It is a mistake to combine Budo and various martial arts with Buddhism. The relationships between Asian martial arts and religion are
more complicated [see: Brown, Jennings, Molle 2009]. The origins
are sometimes in shamanism or Shinto religion, in Taoism or Islam
(there are kung-fu schools in Islamic part of China). Buddhism has a
few kinds: Hinayana in Thailand (Muai Thai), Mahayana in China (Shaolin kung-fu), Lamaism in Tibet, combat Zen in Japanese Bushido, etc.
63
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Sometimes it is only a social ethics according teaching of Confucius.
Confucianism is very impactful particularly in Chinese and Okinawan
martial traditions [cf. Simpkins C., Simpkins A. 2007; Sun 2013].
For people practicing martial arts in shrines, e.g. in Shaolin temple
or in a Taoist one, it can be a part of their religion. For confessors of
Buddha, it can be related with their confession. However, for other
people, Christian and others, it has no religious meaning. The ethics
taught in schools of martial arts are often very general, and accent
universal values.
Because of dominant chauvinistic ideology in Japan before II
world war, some Japanese martial arts (like kendō) were used for it
in social institutions (e.g. sport clubs) of this country. Some authors
wrote about this problem [Abe, Kiyohara, Nakajima 1992].
Today we can speak about ideologisation to: ekologism [Brown,
Jennings, Sparkes 2014], amorphous, eclectic New Age movement
[Dole, Langone, Eichel 1990; Hanegraaf 1996; Heelas 1996; Jennings,
Brown, Sparkes 2010], and gender. For Westerners seeking the lost
spirituality and core values, New Age offers easy and pleasant spirituality. It connects to environmentalism, the cult of corporeality and
nature. Eulogists New Age mix these cults with martial arts, giving
them a secondary meaning of spiritual practice. Also other leftist-progressive ideologies date back to the martial arts. E.g. from lesbian-feminist perspective someone can see a feminist way of kung-fu, feminist
self-defence [Ohms 1997], and language of gender in martial arts [Anderson 2001].
Sometimes we find opinions on the easternization process of the
West [cf. Campbell 2007], but, it is not sufficiently warranted. The
introduction of valuable cultural heritage countries of the East to the
world heritage is not the easternization.
64
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Psychological, cultural-sociological, and educational aspects
The pedagogy of martial arts is an application of their philosophy or
theory. We can find at least a few concepts of Budō / martial arts pedagogy, for example the canon of holistic pedagogy used in education
through martial arts. The questions of spirituality and consciousness
are perceived differently by the Polish pedagogue, many-sided humanist and mystic, practitioner of yoga and karate, Andrzej Szysz-
ko-Bohusz. He connected the ethos of Far-Eastern martial arts with
holistic pedagogy which he created. The holistic didactic-educational
process aims at many-sided development and spiritual renewal of
man. “The teacher should be the carrier of symbols and values, which
he propagates, through his personal example” [Szyszko-Bohusz 2003,
1989].
Sometimes normative ethics and the discipline of martial arts are
used for the education or rehabilitation of young people in Europe [e.g.
Wolters, Fuβmann 2008; Cynarski, Obodyński, Zeng 2012; Cynarski,
Lee-Barron 2014]. For example, some German researchers from the
“group of Matthias von Saldern”, practicing karate and judo; They
create the ideal (pedagogical model) of the warrior of peaceful mind,
calm, agreeable and peaceful, as the term – „der friedliche Krieger” may
be translated [Neumann et al. 2004]. Perhaps it is partly idealization of
Far-Eastern myths and legends, maybe an attempt to contemporarily
apply the old ethos in the pure, model form, but a successful attempt,
positively verified in the pedagogical experience.
Dr Jigorō Kanō was one of the first, who wrote about contribution
of judo to education [Kano 1932]. Many other educators try to emulate
Kano in the application of judo and other martial arts / martial ways.
Sometimes martial arts are seen as a resource for liberal education,
65
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
as aikidō – by Levine [1991]. Budō and mushin, terms from samurai
Bushidō code and combat Zen, are used in educational conceptions
[McFarlane 1990; Light 2014]. However, the system of Budō values
is much more universal. The values can be adopted in every system
of normative ethics.
Area of martial arts is of interest to sociologists. Goodger B.C. and
Goodger J.M. [1977] wrote on judo in the light of theory and sociological research. Other scholars analyze habitus and ethnographies
of martial arts and combat sports [Sanchez-Garcia, Spencer 2013].
There is forming a separate sociological subdiscipline, which is the
sociology of martial arts [Cynarski 2012a].
Results of numerous psychological studies indicate that training
of many varieties of martial arts reduces aggressiveness in athletes.
There are, however, some controversy in this area [cf. Mercer 2011;
Strayhorn J.M., Strayhorn J.C. 2011]. On the other hand, psychological
and sociological findings of motivation people practicing martial arts
are undoubted, like in Vit and Reguli [2011] research.
Symbolic dimension of Japanese budō
and similar martial cultures
Budō (ways of martial arts, ways of non-aggression) is a set of different varieties of ways, martial arts and combat sports of Samurai
origin (sensu stricto understanding) or any known today varieties
of this kind (sensu largo). Experts in martial arts draw attention
to specificity of this field of psychophysical culture. For instance,
Roland J. Maroteaux indicates significant difference between mar-
tial arts and combat sports, which differ especially in the aim of
exercise but also in their deeper sense [Maroteaux, Cynarski 2002–
–2003].
66
State of knowledge on fighting arts
In the perspective of humanist theory of martial arts and axiological reflection on far eastern martial arts practiced today we can
analyze the symbolic dimension of budō. In the theoretical reflection
we reach for selected concepts of symbolic culture and art, theory of archetypes and symbols, symbolism of Chinese and Japanese
cultures.
In order to show and interpret the understanding of the symbolic
dimension of Japanese budō in European environment of Asian martial
arts, which is the main aim of scientific exploration undertaken here,
was made an attempt to describe specificity of the way of martial arts
in the context of related forms – feast, ritual or sport. We also present
here examples of symbolism of classical schools of martial arts as well
as of modern organizations of martial arts and combat sports as it
appears in the world movement of martial arts.
Explanations concerning the symbolic dimension of far eastern
martial arts do not have very rich literature. The symbolic contents
of martial arts practiced today was analyzed on the example of aikidō
[Grossman 1998]. Various interpretations of the colours of belts indicating firstly the level of technical advancement are also known,
as Christofer Caile [2006] or Roland Habersetzer [2005] do that in
their works. In certain research symbolic meanings of expressing
forms imitating fight as well as the connections between martial arts
and the cinema or theatre are taken into consideration [Mintz 1978;
Cynarski 2004a, b].
Symbolic culture and art; archetypes and symbols
As the creator of the philosophy of symbolic forms states “a man
cannot do more in the sphere of language, religion, art, science than
create his own symbolic world which allows him to understand and
67
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
interpret, formulate and organize, synthesize his human experience
and make it universal” [Cassirer 1977: 400]. A special place in ‘symbolic culture’ by Cassirer is occupied by art which “may be defined
as a symbolic language” [Cassirer 1977: 315]. Thus, any artistic state-
ment would be the same as ‘symbolic language’ which should also
apply to various forms of psychophysical expression in martial arts.
The very ‘esthetic experience’ refers – according to P. Guiroud
– not only to beauty but also to this what is real, sensual and may
be perceived in the impressionable shape [Guiroud 1974: 79]. Art is
recalling beauty, creating a vision, reflection of conditions of life, it
is an expression of form and matter, is a state of mind, expression of
faith, transmission of knowledge. It is an expression of man’s feelings,
his love, ambition and needs, just like language, gesture and movement. We refer the notion of art to conscious human activity aiming
at transmitting feelings to those who experience those feelings in the
same way. Thus, an artist is the one who evokes and preserves (in
movement, mime, words, sounds, visual forms) his visions, knowledge, experiences and faith. Martial arts are close to the concepts
of understanding art of this kind. A martial art is creative activity
directed towards the subject, autocreation connected with overcoming
the weakness of the body, with self-perfection of character through
discipline of obeying ethical principles etc.
Erich Fromm drew attention to the fact that the meaning of symbols is changeable and culture-conditioned [Fromm 1977: 39]. This
thesis is confirmed by a comparative analysis of meaning of particular
symbols in different cultural circles. Let us take Long (Chin. dragon)
as an example. Chinese mythology and cosmology distinguishes var-
ious categories of dragons. However, generally speaking the dragon
is a good-natured creature, a symbol of masculine power, wisdom,
68
State of knowledge on fighting arts
emperor’s power, rain etc. [cf: Eberhard 2001: 234–237]. On the other
hand in the culture of Judeo-Christian roots dragon is associated with
the biblical image of Satan and in legends about European knights it
is associated with a physical manifestation of evil. But the heroes of
Chinese mythology also fought with evil like one of “the eight immortal
ones”, called Lü Dongbin who had “a sword killing demons” [Eberhard
2001: 141–142]. Dragons used to be helpful in this fight.
According to E. Fromm all myths were written with the use of a
‘symbolic language’ and a symbol remains in a crucial relation to inner
experience [Fromm 1977: 28, 43]. This thesis is confirmed by intro-
spective research and cultural analyses of people penetrating mystical
traditions of meditation systems of the East [Maliszewski 1996], but
– in opposition to Fromm’s opinion – Carl G. Jung interpreted certain
symbols as ‘archetypes’ correctly. A universal archetype of this kind
is ‘warrior’ or ‘hero’.
Introvert (in Jung’s terminology) spiritual culture of the East and
far eastern martial arts – in their symbolic aspect – differ from western sport in the problem of ‘placement’: external observation and
evaluation is not as important here as direct and ‘internal’ practice
and spiritual dimension of the experience.
Symbolic language of Fromm and Jung describes not only the
images from dreams, explains the content of a myth or a fairy tale.
Similarly to Mircea Eliade the neo-psychoanalysts mentioned above
also referred their observations to cultural situations occurring on the
‘borderline’ or ‘within’ the sphere of sacrum. Fromm wrote about the
individual experience where in our consciousness we find out about
unconscious things in the following way, “I bear in mind a symbolic
ritual where a certain act, not a word or an image, represents inner
experience” [Fromm 1977: 227]. It is not important here that this
69
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
quotation concerns the Jewish Sabat. Sport games or other ‘rituals’
from the field of physical culture may be interpreted similarly. In particular Asian martial arts are rich in symbolic contents.
Symbolic culture in budō
The fight itself has a crucial symbolic and archetypical sense accompanying both the oldest myths and their contemporary cinematic
shape [cf. Mintz 1978]. In case of certain signs of physical culture it
is sometimes difficult to decide whether it is more about a feast, ritual or sport. It applies to e.g. Mongol wrestling, middle-Asian horse
wrestling, Japanese sumō or kyūdō archery. Both Mongol wrestling
combined with archery and horse races at the Naadam festival and
Shintoist sumō wrestling originate undoubtedly from ancient ritual fights. In turn kyūdō – Zen archery – is, similarly to kata forms
taught in classical schools of martial arts, a form genetically related
to ritual dance or theatrical performance. We find here symbolically
meaningful gestures which understanding (interpretation) depends
on the line of transmission and, thus, on the tradition of the school.
Chinese taiji or old-Japanese sumō contain religious-philosophical
symbolism where almost every movement or gesture is meaningful.
It also applies to many forms of preserved to this day varieties of
budō.
It is necessary to distinguish original symbols coming from images of reality characteristic for those times and the ones developed in
bushi culture in the period of the prime of martial arts. The first group
contains semi-symbols: shouts, colour, ancient elements and refers
to unconscious archetypical sphere. The second one has a richer set
of words, gestures and body movements as well as symbols of sometimes multi-layer structure of meanings. A technical scheme (‘kata’,
70
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Japanese form) is an encoded set of situational solutions, usages of
techniques and tactics in fight which is passed from the master to
the pupil. However, interpretation of particular movements is usually
taught at more advanced level. Sometimes symbolism is created for
the needs of a new school or style of fight through reaching in emblems, names and ideas to cultural tradition of the East.
Semi-symbols, e.g. ancient elements (earth, wood, metal, fire,
water) appear in Taoism and hale their expression in strategies and
techniques of fight. For instance, it applies to 15th century tenshin-
shōden katorishintō-ryū fencing school in which certain problems
of fight tactics are explained according to Taoist theories of In – Yō
(Chinese Yin – Yang) and the concept of Five Elements. It is also in
case of medieval Japanese takeda-ryū school which in its emblem
presents the Sun and the moon – the image of In – Yō powers – on the
background of a chrysanthemum.
The magical ‘mandala’ circle analyzed by Jung [1976] as a primeval symbol of unity and a scheme of self-integration of ego appears
both on the planes of temples and training rooms as well as in psychical training of warriors. The mystical image of the world in the
system of tantra Buddhism is also – in the scheme of a mandala – an
image of a personal microcosms. We may distinguish institutions with
symbolic influence (warrior’s rite of passage, knighting, schools of
knightly ethos and education), a person–symbol (‘saint’ Bodhidharma
for kung-fu or Morihei Ueshiba for aikidō), material expression of an
idea (e.g. “dōjō” – ‘the place of the way’ for the budō adepts). Dōjō is a
special place; a place of ascetic effort for transgression and perception
– under the guidance of a teacher – of the way of non-aggression and
the way of life. It is a material place – symbol of training and esoteric
or, in other words, inner development.
71
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Symbolism of classical schools of martial arts
As Eliade stated “A man always remains a prisoner of his own intuition
of archetype” [Eliade 1993: 416]. The myth of reintegration for the sake
of reaching the state of balance of oppositions in the nature of the di-
vine (Chinese elements yin-yang) seems to be very significant. Certain
myths hidden in symbols have been preserved since prehistoric times
and appear in martial arts – e.g., 1) the symbol of absolute reality, inde-
structability and power – vajra or diamond and thunder, also ‘hardness’
and folded fist (e.g. in Tibetan Buddhism vajrayana Chinese-Japanese
ideology ”kongō zen” of the shōrinji kenpō school, old-Hindi fight vajra-
mushti); 2) yin-yang (female and male elements, negative and positive
ones, darkness and light being in dialectic dynamic balance); 3) laby-
rinth and purification (e.g. the legendary final exam in Chinese Shaolin
monastery); 4) bonds and tying up as well as following as presented
in the spiritual interpretation of the way of martial arts – the yoga of
bravery and honour; 5) symbolism of the centre and cosmos which is
strongly emphasized in aikidō; 6) iconographic symbols and myths of
sacrifice and regeneration which appear both in martial arts and many
contemporary sports. In budō myth is the basis for the sacred order of
things in which people repeat the actions of gods and heroes.
Classical schools of martial arts, as the two mentioned above, are
very little known in Europe. In the martial arts environment aikidō is
identified with classical martial arts, which is not correct. On the other
hand, contemporary aikidō preserves certain rules and symbolism
from the times of bushi culture or from even older Chinese traditions.
It concerns the notions of ki – inner energy, the centre, macro- and
microcosm, harmonizing energies of contradictory powers (in–yō),
spherical movements [Westbrook, Ratti 1970].
72
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Similarly it applies to the present-day karatedō. There are levels
of tatsushi and kyōshi with the features of a tiger (toranomaki) and
dragon (ryunomaki) respectively. Over-technical kyōshi level is often
connected with – in many schools of Japanese tradition – white and
red belt. Master’s degrees from 7 to 10 dan describe the level of maturity (iro kokoro) and the stage of spiritual mastery “ri”. Phoenix is
an indestructible bird of the hanshi level or of the master-professor. It
is a symbol of Japanese emperors, power or even immortality. NB the
shihan title means the function of a teacher of a higher rank. ‘Master’
– hanshi on the 9 dan or 10 dan level – is often distinguished with a
red belt. Sometimes the highest titles of meijin (Japanese master) or
sōke (heir and a guardian of tradition) are given. Exceeding the scale
honorary degrees of 11 and 12 dan are conferred more often post
mortem and only to exquisite masters.
Here are some examples of symbols appearing on the emblems
of schools and organizations of classical Japanese martial arts;
1) the emblem of the Takeda family accepted by Sōkaku Takeda for
the daitō-ryū school – four rhombuses or diamond (hardness) in an
oval (softness, harmony); 2) takeda-ryū Sobudō of Hisashi Nakamura
– Japanese national emblem “kiku” or chrysanthemum with images
of the sun and the moon (yin-yang elements); 3) katori shintō-ryū
kobudō Yoshio Sugino – a bush and leaves of bamboo – in reference
to the legend of the invincible creator of the school.
Symbols of archetypical origin include typical for an art forms of
expression, references to old cultures and mythologies (archetypical
semantic code), religious elements and mystical-magical semiotics
appearing in martial arts. Yin-yang symbolism is present not only in
Taoist so-called internal kung-fu styles (neijia) but also in aikijutsu,
aikidō techniques, Korean hapkido and certain karate styles.
73
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Symbolism of modern organizations of martial arts
and combat sports
The way of martial arts has a deeper symbolic meaning being a way of
transgression and transcendence. It is achieving subsequent master’s
degrees and continuous aiming at widely understood mastery. It may
also have a ‘geographical’ or tourist dimension when is becomes the
route of a journey undertaken for the sake of studies and research on
martial arts as it is in case of many contemporary experts.
Participation in significant shows, in competitions, teaching license, being ‘an internal pupil’ (uchi-deshi) are mile stones of this
way, often repeated in biographies of real experts, on which sensei
(Japanese teacher) is the guide. Without a teacher one cannot become
a master on his own. Although it happens that in Europe many instructors (Japanese shidoin) and holders of low master’s degrees (Japanese
yūdansha) – require to be titled ‘sensei’ or they call themselves “masters” but this is a sign of deviation resulting from commercialization
of this sphere of human activity.
Colours of belts are differently explained by different authors
– martial arts specialists. Their symbolism may refer to the level of
moral and spiritual development on the way of martial arts. As R.
Habersetzer explains, it may mean getting ready for life and death
fight. It is about developing vigilance (Japanese zanshin). White colour
may be associated here with the state of relaxation. Yellow – with the
state of mind without tension and anger. Orange describes achieving
the state of pure intuition. Red – full concentration and being ready
for defensive reaction. Black colour indicates the stage of acceptance
of possible death. As the French karate expert writes, „The code of the
colours outlines how the physical and mental engagement progresses
74
State of knowledge on fighting arts
at the time of a real confrontation (on the level of survival) […] We can
see that in fact, in the Martial Arts, it is more about mental conditioning
then specific techniques. The ultimate weapon is the spirit…” [Habersetzer 2005: 4]. Of course in combat sports practiced today where
guarded by regulations fight convention is current the practitioner
does not experience the stress of life threat.
Functioning on the martial arts market schools and organizations refer to far eastern symbolism. The symbol of shōtōkan karate
style is ‘tora’ – tiger. Today divided kyokushin karate organization
preserves the Okinawa ‘kanku’ symbol of ‘glance at Heaven’. The emblem of aikibudō organization of Alain Floquet is tsuba (hilt-guard
of a Samurai sword) with the image of a crane. German DDBV4 association combines a Japanese sword (‘katana’, a symbol of justice, nobility and honor) with the Asclepiads snake (medicine). In the logo
of ‘Idōkan Poland’ Association we find a ‘embusen’ ring (eternity,
infinity), shintoist ‘torii’ gate (the entrance to the way of martial arts,
a symbol of classical tradition), ‘kiku’ and a sword (Japanese knightly
traditions). Kōdōkan jūdō is at present more an organization of the
Olympic sport than a school of martial arts. Its emblem – sakura, the
cherry blossom – is a symbol of a short but magnificent life of a Samurai. However, in Japan cherry (sakura) and chrysanthemum (kiku)
have codes of many meanings, they have numerous historical, political
and religious relations.
Symbols of countries and cultures of Far East create a mixture of
contents of emblem of practiced contemporarily styles, schools, varieties and organizations of martial arts. The cherry blossom and the
sword, dragon and tiger, phoenix or crane, an emblem of an ancient
4
Deutscher Dan-Träger und Budo-Lehrer Verband e. V. – German Association of Holders
of Dan Degrees and Budō Teachers in Munich
75
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
noble family or folded fist have become icons thanks to which practitioners of numerous varieties of martial arts may identify with a
given school or master as well as associate their studies ‘on the way
of a warrior’ with Asian cultural roots.
Specificity of the way of martial arts is significantly different from
genetically related forms – feast, ritual or sport. This difference consists in the esoteric dimension, spiritual sense of self-perfection on
the way of martial arts and inner experience inscribed into the way of
achieving mastery in budō. However, understanding of the symbolic
dimension of Japanese budō in European environment of Asian martial
arts may be different (more or less adequate) and also it may depend
on the channel of transmission. This common perception often results
from typical for global mass culture confusion in slogans and icons.
Old symbols of elitist knightly schools turn into labels of companies
on the commercial market of service [Cynarski, Obodyński 2009].
Three special institutions
The ‘Idōkan Poland’ Association (IPA) has been active, mainly in
the area of physical culture since March 1993. Under the auspices
of GM (meijin) Lothar Sieber 10 dan, the honorary president of the
IPA, IPA mambers practise Japanese martial arts and combat sports
within the system of “idōkan yōshin-ryū budō”. As we can read in
the website:
“We conduct training for regular groups, summer sports camps,
national and international seminars, examinations for degrees and
licenses. We organize demonstrations and martial arts tournaments (for
example the Subcarpathian region championships, the Idokan Poland
Cup). We carry out scientific research and publishing activity. Since
2000, we have been publishing a humanistic and interdisciplinary
76
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Scientific Year’s Issue “Ido – Movement for Culture / Ido – Ruch
dla Kultury” (from 2011 as a quarterly “Ido Movement for Culture.
Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”), dedicated to the research
areas of martial arts and combat sports. […] The IPA promotes sound
knowledge and fosters values (including: truth, wisdom, courage,
constant self-improvement, patriotism) through systematic scientific,
educational and sports activity. We are the only Association of its kind
which is concerned with both the practice of martial arts and combat
sports, and with research, as a scientific society. We provide authentic
studies of martial arts. In particular we deal with an interdisciplinary
field called ‘the science of martial arts’. [www.idokan.pl]
Saint Michael, the Archangel, the leader of the Army of God and
the leader of heaven’s forces in their triumph over the powers of hell, is
the patron of the IPA. This is the archetype of the warrior, the strongest
possible, in dimension of transgression and transcendence.
In the year 2010 was founded IMACSSS – the International Martial Arts and Combat Sports Scientific Society. It is “an exceptional
scientific society established in order to study and conduct research
on martial arts, combat sports and related systems. It brings together
practitioners, experts and academics from around the world. Our goal
is to develop knowledge and integrate the research community of the
martial arts.” [www.imacsss.com]
IMACSSS organises international scientific conferences. The for-
mally first was in Genoa (Italy), 2nd – in Tsukuba (Japan), 3rd – this year
in Rzeszow (Poland), 4th should be in Aydin (Turkey) and was in Brno
(Czech Rep.), 5th – in Rio Maior (Portugal), 6th – in Osaka (Japan), etc.
Among others, Prof. Abel Figueiredo, Chuchchai Gomaratut, Fuminori
Nakiri, Jong-Hoon Yu and Zdenko Reguli are Vice-Presidents of this
Society, now.
77
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
IMACSSS continues the 25-years tradition of the Idokan Poland
Asssociation (IPA) in worldwide dimension. All people, who are interested in martial arts science, should cooperate with IMACSSS.
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology” is e-Journal, quarterly, published by IPA, in IPA style, under
auspices of IMACSSS, IASK – the International Association of Sport
Kinetics, and with support of the University of Rzeszow. It is one of
most important journals in area of combat sports and martial arts,
indexed e.g. in Elsevier Scopus and Web of Science. It has a global
range [more: Cynarski, Reguli 2014].
In addition to the humanists, with our Journal cooperate very
known empiric researchers from the area of sport science, as Emerson Franchini (Brazil), Stanisław Sterkowicz (Poland), Hrvoje Sertić
(Croatia), Willy Pieter and Zdenko Reguli (Czech Republic).
References
Abe I., Kiyohara K., Nakajima K. (1992), Fascism, sport and society in Japan,
”The International Journal of the History of Sport”, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–28.
Acevedo W., Gutiérrez C, Mei Cheung (2010), Breve Historia del Kung-Fu,
Nowtilus, Madrid [in Spanish].
Anderson A.D. (2001), Asian martial arts cinema, dance, and the cultural
languages of gender, “Asian Journal of Communication”, vol. 11, no. 2,
pp. 58–78.
Błach Ł. (2017), Zmiany wartości wskaźników przygotowania techniczno-taktycznego najwyższej klasy judoków w aspekcie modyfikacji przepisów sportowych, PhD thesis under supervision of J. Migasiewicz, AWF,
Wroclaw [in Polish].
Błach W. (2005), Judo. Selected issues of training and sports fight, COS, Warsaw [in Polish].
Brakel J.J. (1987), Thesaurus of Martial Arts, “International Bulletin of Sports
Information”, vol. 8, no. 3–4, pp. 2–27.
78
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Brizin D., Kernspecht K.R. (2014), Introduction to Combat Logic – A General
Theory, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 24–30; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.4.3.
Brown D.H.K., Jennings G., Molle A. (2009), Exploring Relationships between
Asian Martial Arts and Religion, “Stadion”, no. 35, pp. 47–66.
Brown D.H.K., Jennings G., Sparkes A.C. (2014), Taijiquan the “Taiji World”
Way: Towards a Cosmopolitan Vision of Ecology, “Societies”, vol. 4, no.
3, 380–398; doi: 10.3390/soc4030380
Caile Ch. (2006), Budo Belts and Ranks: The Forgotten Symbolism, ”Fighting
Arts”, http://www.fightingarts.com/reading/article.php?id=89.
Campbell C. (2007), The Easternization of the West: A Thematic Account of
Cultural Change in the Modern Era, Paradigm, Boulder, CO.
Cassirer E. (1977), Essay on Man, Czytelnik, Warsaw [in Polish].
Clausewitz C. v. (1999) [1832], W. von Seidlitz [ed.], Vom Kriege [On war. In
German], Mundus, Essen.
Cynarski W.J. (2002), Mastery in Far-Eastern martial arts, ”Sport Wyczynowy”, no. 1–2, pp. 96–106.
Cynarski W.J. (2004a), Theory and practice of Far-Eastern martial arts
in European perspective [in Polish], Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów.
Cynarski W.J. (2004b), Relationships of Far-Eastern martial arts with theatre,
”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 4, pp. 256–261.
Cynarski W.J. (2006), Reception and internalization the ethos of martial arts
by practicing persons, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2009), Martial Arts – Idō & Idōkan, IPA, Rzeszów.
Cynarski W.J. (2011), Teaching of fighting arts in pedagogical and sociological perspective, “Studia Sportiva”, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 275–284.
Cynarski W.J. (2012a), Anthropology of Martial Arts. Studies and Essays of
the Sociology and Philosophy of Martial Arts, Rzeszow University Press,
Rzeszów. The Lykeion Library edition, vol. 16 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2012b), Martial Arts Phenomenon – Research and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów.
79
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J. (2013), General reflections about the philosophy of martial arts,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
13, no. 3, pp. 1–6.
Cynarski W.J. (2017), The philosophy of martial arts – the example of the
concept of Ido, “AUC Kinanthropologica”, vol. 53, no. 2, pp. 95–106.
Cynarski W.J., Lee-Barron J. (2014), Philosophies of martial arts and their
pedagogical consequences, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 11–19; doi: 10.14589/ido.
14.1.2
Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2004), A way of an actor vs. a way of a warrior,
”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 4, pp. 436–439.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2004), Ethos of martial arts in the movie at
the beginning of the 21st century [in:] J. Kosiewicz, K. Obodyński [eds.],
Sports involvement in changing Europe, PTNKF, Rzeszów, pp. 136–152.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2009), The symbolic dimension of Japanese budō
[in:] D.H. Jütting, B. Schulze, U. Müller [eds.], Local Sport in Europe,
Waxmann, Münster-New York-München-Berlin, pp. 67–75.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K., Zeng H. (2012), Martial arts anthropology for
sport pedagogy and physical education, “Romanian Journal for Multidimensional Education Lumen”, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 133–156.
Cynarski W.J., Reguli Z. (2014), Martial arts science institutionalisation: specialized scientific periodicals, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of
Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 54–62; doi: 10.14589/
ido.14.1.5.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2006), Training of martial arts – holistic concept,
“Sport Wyczynowy”, no. 11–12, pp. 4–14.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2012), Report of the International Idokan Poland
Association’s research / Towards a General Theory of Fighting Arts [in:]
W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Martial Arts Phenomenon and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów, pp. 16–26.
Cynarski W.J., Skowron J. (2014), An analysis of the conceptual language
used for the general theory of martial arts – Japanese, Polish and English
80
State of knowledge on fighting arts
terminology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 49–66; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.7.
Dole A.A., Langone M.D., Eichel S.K.D. (1990), New Age Movement: Fad or
Menace?, “Cultic Studies Journal”, vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 69–91.
Draeger D.F. (1973), The Martial Arts and Ways of Japan, vol. II: Classical
Budo, Weatherhill, New York.
Dykhuizen J.C. (2000), Culture, training, and perception of the martial arts:
Aikido example, “Journal of Asian Martial Arts”, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 9–31.
Eberhard W. (2001), Chinese symbols. Dictionary, Universitas, Kraków.
Eliade M. (1993), Treaty on History of Religion, Opus, Łódź [in Polish].
Figueiredo A.A. (2009), The object of study in martial arts and combat sports
research – contributions to a complex whole [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.],
Martial Arts and Combat Sports – Humanistic Outlook, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów, pp. 20–34.
Fromm E. (1977), Forgotten language, PIW, Warsaw [in Polish].
Goodger B.C., Goodger J.M. (1977), Judo in the light of theory and sociological
research, “International Review of Sport Sociology”, vol. 12, pp. 5–34.
Green T.A., Svinth J.R. [eds.] (2010), Martial Arts in the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation, ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara (CA).
Grossman E. (1998), Towards a semiosis of the martial arts: Aikido as a
symbolic form of communication, “Journal of Asian Martial Arts”, vol. 7,
no. 2.
Grzegorz R., Walendowicz M. (2008), The History of Ju-Jitsu in Poland 1904–
–1939, International Modern Ju-Jitsu Federtion, Głogów.
Guiroud P. (1974), Semiology, Warsaw [in Polish].
Habersetzer R. (2005), ”Code of the colors” and Mental Blockings, Communication no. 3 of the Tengu Institute, http://perso.orange.fr/karate-crb/
couleurs, pp. 1–4.
Hanegraaf W.J. (1996), New Age Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism
in the Mirror of Secular Thought, Brill, Leiden.
Harasymowicz J. (2011), Tradition of physical exercises and martial arts in
actors’ education, “Arch Budo”, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 65–71.
81
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Heelas P. (1996), The New Age Movement: The Celebration of the Self and the
Sacralization of Modernity, Blackwell, Oxford.
Jennings G., Brown D.H.K., Sparkes A.C. (2010), It Can Be a Religion If You
Want: Wing Chun Kung Fu as a Secular Religion, “Ethnography”, vol. 11,
no. 4, pp. 533–557.
Jirásek I., Hopsicker M. (2010), Philosophical kinanthropology (philosophy of
physical culture, philosophy of sport) in Slavonic countries: the culture,
the writers, and the current directions, “Journal of the Philosophy of
Sport”, no. 37, pp. 253–270.
Jones D.E. [ed.] (2002), Combat, Ritual, and Performance. Anthropology of
the Martial Arts, Praeger, Westport, CT.
Jung C.G. (1976), Archetypes and symbols. Selected writings, Czytelnik, Warsaw [in Polish].
Kalina R.M. (2000), Theory of Combat Sports, COS, Warsaw [in Polish].
Kano J. (1932), The contribution of Jiudo to education, “Journal of Health and
Physical Education”, no. 3, pp. 37–40, 58.
Kauz H. (1977), The Martial Spirit: An Introduction to the Origin, Philosophy
and Psychology of the Martial Arts, The Overlool Press, New York.
Kernspecht K.R. (1988), Vom Zweikampf. Strategie, Taktik, Physiologie, Psychologie und Geschichte der waffenlosen Selbstverteidigung, Burg-Fehmarn [in German].
Kernspecht K.R. (2011), Kampflogik, Vol. 3: Die Praxis des Treffens & Nicht-getroffen-Werdens, EWTO-Verlag [in German].
Kim D., Back A. (2000), The Way do Go: Philosophy in Martial Arts Practice,
Nanam, Seoul.
Klens-Bigman D. (2002), Toward a theory of martial arts as performance art
[in:] D.E. Jones [ed.], Combat, Ritual, and Performance. Anthropology of
the Martial Arts, Praeger, Wesport, Connecticut – London, Westport,
Connecticut – London, pp. 1–10.
Kosiewicz J. (2007), Philosophy of physical culture in Poland, “Ido – Ruch dla
Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 7, pp. 11–37.
Kriventsova I., Iermakov S., Bartik P., Nosko M., Cynarski W.J. (2017), Optimization of student fencers’ tactical training, “Ido Movement for Culture.
82
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 21–30; doi:
10.14589/ido.17.3.3.
Lee-Barron J.R. (2011), The Complete Martial Arts Instructor. A Manual of
Teaching Martial Arts Effectively and Safety, Lulu Publishing, Morrisvile, NC.
Levine D.E. (1991), Martial arts as a resource for liberal education: The case
of Aikido [in:] M. Featherstone [ed.], The Body: Social Process and Cultural Theory, Sage, London, pp. 209–224.
Light R.L. (2014), Mushin and learning in and beyond budo, “Ido Movement
for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp.
42–48; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.6.
Lind W. (1999), Lexikon der Kampfkünste, Sportverlag Berlin [in German].
Maliszewski M. (1996), Spiritual Dimensions of the Martial Arts, C.E. Tuttle
Company, Rutland-Tokyo.
Maroteaux R.J., Cynarski W.J. (2002–2003), On philosophy of Japanese martial
arts – questions and answers, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for
Culture”, vol. 3, pp. 48–55.
Matsunaga H. et al. (2009), Budo: The Martial Way of Japan, Nippon Budokan, Tokyo.
McFarlane S. (1990), Mushin, morals, and martial arts – a discussion of
Keenan’s Yogacara critique, “Japanese Journal of Religious Studies”,
vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 397–420.
Mercer J. (2011), Martial arts research: weak evidence, “Science”, no. 334
(6054), pp. 310–311.
Mintz M.D. (1978), The Martial Arts Film, A.S. Barnes and Company, South
Brunswick and New York, Thomas Yoseloff Ltd., London.
Mol S. (2001), Classical Fighting Arts of Japan; A Complete Guide to Koryū
Jūjutsu, Kodansha International.
Molle A. (2010), Towards a Sociology of Budo: Studying the Implicit, ”Implicit
Religion”, vol. 13, no. 1.
Neumann U., Saldern M. von, Pöhler R., Wendt P.-U. (eds.) (2004), Der friedliche Krieger. Budo als Methode der Gewaltprävention, Schüren, Verlag
Marburg [in German].
83
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Newman W. (2005), Escrima, WuShu-Verlag Kernspecht, Burg/Fehmarn
[in German].
Ohms C. [ed.] (1997), Frauen Kampfkunst, Orlanda Fraeunverlag, Berlin
[in German].
Pauka K. (1998), Theater & Martial Arts in West Sumatra: Randai & Silek of
the Minangkabau, Ohio University Press, USA.
Pérez-Gutiérrez M., Gutiérrez-García C., Escobar-Molina R. (2011), Terminological Recommendations for Improving the Visibility of Scientific
Literature on Martial Arts and Combat Sports, “Archives of Budo”, vol.
7, no. 3, pp. 159–166.
Raimondo S. [ed.] (2007), Vibrazioni nella Forza. Storia critica delle discipline
orientali, Persport, Edizioni la Meridiana, Molfetta [in Italian].
Reguli Z. (2009), Taxonomy of combatives as it is seen from Tyrš tradition in
the Czech Republic, „Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”,
vol. 9, pp. 38–43.
Renninghoff J., Witte F. (1998), Jujutsu – Training. Das Modell des Budosport-Trainings, Sport Verlag, Berlin [in German].
Sanchez-Garcia R., Spencer D.C. [eds.] (2013), Fighting Scholars: Habitus and Ethnographies of Martial Arts and Combat Sports, Anthem
Press.
Shishida F., Flynn S.M. (2013), How does the philosophy of martial arts
manifest itself? Insights from Japanese martial arts, “Ido Movement
for Culture. Journal of martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 3, pp.
29–36.
Sieber L., Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2007), Spheres of fight in martial arts,
”Archives of Budo”, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 42–48.
Simpkins C., Simpkins A. (2007), Confucianism and the Asian Martial Traditions, “Revista de Artes Marciales Asiáticas”, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 46–53.
Stanley C.I. (1999), The Science of Martial Arts Training, Multi-Media Books,
Orange, CA.
Strayhorn J.M., Strayhorn J.C. (2011), Martial arts research: prudent skepticism, “Science”, no. 334 (6054), pp. 310–311.
84
State of knowledge on fighting arts
Sun A. (2013), Confucianism as a World Religion: Contested Histories and
Contemporary Realities, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
Szyszko-Bohusz A. (1989), The Holistic Pedagogy, Ossolineum, Wrocław
[in Polish].
Szyszko-Bohusz A. (2003), Theory of Genetic Immortality in Relation
to Holistic Pedagogy and Far-Eastern Martial Arts [in:] W.J. Cynarski,
K. Obodyński [eds.], Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts and Combat
Sports – Conceptions and Problems, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów,
pp. 17–23.
Toichkin D., Khorasani M. (2014), First International Research Conference
on Weaponology in Kyiv, Ukraine: A ground-breaking start, “Revista de
Artes Marciales Asiáticas”, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 54–60.
Tokarski S. (1989), Martial arts. Movement forms of expression of the Eastern
philosophy, Glob, Szczecin [in Polish].
Vit M., Reguli Z. (2011), Motivation and value orientation of combative systems trainers, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 52–59.
Westbrook A., Ratti O. (1970), Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere: An Illustrated
Introduction, C.E. Tuttle, Vermont.
Wolters J.M., Fuβmann A. [eds.] (2008), Budo – Pädagogik. Kampf-Kunst in
Erziehung, Therapie und Coaching, Ziel – Praktische Erlebnispädagogik,
Augsburg [in German].
Yi Duk-moo, Park Je-ga (2000), Muye Dobo Tongji. Comprehensive Illustrated
Manual of Martial Arts. By order of King Jungjo, transl. by Sang H. Kim,
Turtle Press, Hartford.
Zeng H.Z., Cynarski W.J., Xie L. (2013), Martial Arts Anthropology, Participants’ Motivation and Behaviours. Martial Arts in Chanshu: Participants’
Motivation, Practice Times and Health Behaviours, Lambert Academic
Publishing, Saarbrücken.
Znaniecki F. (1934), The Method of Sociology, New York.
Zygmunt S. (1998), From Bruce Lee to van Damme. Lexicon of films (CD-ROM,
Ed. Wiedza i Życie), no. 1.
85
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Internet sources
www.idokan.pl
www.imacsss.com
CHAPTER 4
Individual self-defence
in the perspective of general theory
of martial arts
KEY WORDS
fighting skills, self-defence, real fight, effectiveness
ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND AND AIM. The theoretical perspective is taken here
from the General Theory of Fighting Arts and a conception of the
culture of security culture. The aim of this study is to describe and
attempt to explain the substance and the manifestations of the self-defence phenomenon today in Western countries.
MATERIAL AND METHODS. Three complementary qualitative research
methods were used: a long-term participant observation, content literature analysis, and the method of competent judges / expert courts.
It was considered together broad thematic discourse of sources and
studies. There was only one question to the experts of self-defence:
What is a meaning of self-defence, its substance and manifestations
in Western countries today? There were answers from 7 experts from
87
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Europe, holders of rank 8–10 dan in goshinjutsu (art of self-defence),
and other martial arts. Direct speeches were included, as well as analysis of sources (books, videos, organizational documents), and scientific
studies were used.
RESULTS. The results are presented in four parts, corresponding to
the areas of occurrence of experts’ general opinions, group fights, role
of fencing, and discussion. It was shown the basic canon, concerning
real combat and self-defence techniques and tactics used. Experts
point to the need for specialist training. The effectiveness of self-defence requires: a fairly high versatility in the training of, selection of
techniques really effective, appropriate teaching methods, and psychological knowledge. Only the ability to fight in various distances and
positions, and selection of appropriate techniques can ensure victory
in actual combat (real fight).
CONCLUSIONS. Variously recognized is the meaning of self-defence
and it manifests itself differently. The extreme commercialized version of this is only the product for sale. Sometimes it is also the main
meaning of martial arts training. Abilities in fencing are useful, too.
Introduction
As Juliusz Piwowarski indicates, culture of security is – as a fragment
of general culture – a set of values [Piwowarski 2015]. In this area of
issues is the problem of the value in culture of warriors, for example,
the Japanese Budo [Cynarski, Piwowarski 2016]. Individual self-defence skills are part of a broader cultural system in the area. Referring
to the science of security, it is worth looking at the issue of self-defence
from the perspective of the General Theory of Fighting Arts [Cynarski
2017a]. This is a continuation of the issues presented earlier in the
passages, in a paper presented at the IMACSSS Conference in Brno
(2015) and in three articles [Cynarski 2016a, b, 2017b].
88
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
The Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts (element of the General
Theory of Fighting Arts) takes into account the cultural context, as
it relates to the art of self-defence. Security culture is a fundamental
concept of the science of safety. In military cultures, like those of
medieval Japan, this was relatively highly developed. There are current and ongoing attempts to determine and describe these models
[cf. Cooper, 2000]. There seems to be most interest in the particular
heritage of the countries and cultures of eastern and south-eastern
Asia, and the studies also include the utilitarian value of the martial
arts created there.
Juliusz Piwowarski and Vasyl Zaplatynskyi have formulated a
definition of the culture of security/defence under discussion as
follows: Security culture is the sum of the fixed, material and non-material achievements of mankind that serve their defence as understood
both militarily and non-militarily. It is a trichotomy that consists of
three streams: the mental and spiritual; the organizational and legal,
and the material. A security culture allows mankind to achieve the
following objectives:
D. Maintaining and cultivating the state without danger, in relation to a certain individual and collective entity, or having
efficient control over arising threats;
E. Restoring security in situations where it is lost increase in
particular threats towards the entity;
F. Optimizing levels of multi-aspectual security of a particular
entity (comprehensive security);
G. Stimulating social and personal awareness of and belief in
the need for self-improvement and three-part development
on the personal and social scale, the creation of motivation
and attitudes that result in individual and collective actions
89
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
consistent with these beliefs, and an increase in the potential of
autonomous defence of individual and the collective subjects
of security [Piwowarski 2014: 449].
The art of self-defence (Jap. goshinjutsu) is a derivative of the fight-
ing arts. It has changed over the years as threats in social life have
modified. In the past, it would be an assault by stabbing or cold steel
hence fencing skills determined survival. Nowadays, the term refers
to hand-to-hand fighting, including using a staff and knife fighting, etc.
However, the art of self-defence has its own characteristics; it is not
merely the sum of the skills borrowed from jujutsu5 or other martial
arts/combat sports [Cynarski 2016].
Self-defence is mentioned by many authors. They sometimes possess authentic, first-hand knowledge about the subject. Methods of
teaching self-defence often pertain to reactions to common threats and
types of assault. Course books and “teach-yourself” manuals based
on jūjutsu have been published for more than a hundred years [André
1905; Cynarski 2008].
The theory of self-defence [Raczkowski 2008; Cynarski 2009b]
should refer to a selection of psychological, tactical and technical aspects of fighting. It may also contain information about the prevention
of threats, crime statistics (types of assaults) and descriptions of legal
aspects of self-defence. There is, for humanitarian reasons, the need
to include first-aid pre-medical help in the course of learning.
How therefore, to define self-defence? It can be assumed that it
is “technical and tactical skills to avoid or fend off an attack and neutralize the attacker/s” [Cynarski, Skowron 2014].
5
Self-defence (goshinjutsu) is a subsystem within the martial art of jujutsu. Some
experts however identify jujutsu with self-defence.
90
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
These are the findings of the basic proposals. Self-defence and
fighting tactics differ from combat sport tactics, which are adapted
to particular sports regulations. There are, however, suggestions com-
mon to the different fighting arts. These include:
1) purposefulness and rationality of activities, an economical and
planned way of conducting fights;
2) assessment of the situation – who the opponent is, his strong
and weak sides and the conditions of the confrontation;
3) self-assessment of one’s own abilities (predispositions and
skills) and adapting them to the situation.
In a real fight one should take into consideration the following factors:
the number of opponents, their weapons, terrain conditions (space,
ground, lighting), the ability to use some objects for protection or for
calling for help. There is a limited amount of time for reconnaissance
and planning. A competitor is often forced to confine himself to his
trained automatic reactions – the automatism of the chosen fight tech-
niques. It is important for the fighter to position himself in such a way
as to prevent an attack from the rear. If long range weapons are used
by the rivals, barriers are used (walls, furniture). An attacker should
be neutralised as fast as possible. If there is more than one attacker,
it is crucial to avoid fighting from a prone position and to control the
armed hand or weapon of the assailant. We should remember that a
thug plays unfair.
A well-trained warrior should be able to fight with a simple stick,
an umbrella, a walking stick or any other object [cf. Floquet 1984]. For
instance, an arm wrapped in a jacket or a coat can be used for protec-
tion and to block knife stabbings. We should realise though, that in case
of an assault by armed attackers, a successful defence is only possible
91
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
in the movies in which heroes are bulletproof. It is sometimes better
to retire from a confrontation if the odds of winning are non-existent,
provided that it is not a struggle for honour and higher values. The
warrior should be able to use proper tactics against a puncher and a
catcher who tries to establish ground fighting; against an aggressive
assailant and one who prefers to counter-fight; against a short or a
tall one; against light and fast or heavier and stronger. It is sometimes
more beneficial to delay action; at other times an immediate reaction
is needed.
If the opponent is unknown to us, we have to establish his skills
and preferred style of fighting. The boxer can be recognised by the
guard position: the Thai boxer by a broad guard and the body balanced
on the front leg: a wrestler by a low position (bent legs). The wrestler
and judoka will aim for a grapple and contraction. Observation of the
opponent’s behaviour makes it possible to enforce one’s own style.
The rival should not be allowed to perform what he is very good at.
That is why a boxer should be attacked with low-kicks at his normally-weighted front leg. One can use knees and high kicks always bearing in mind the high guard. A dangerous puncher (boxer, kickboxer)
should be taken down to ground fighting (joint locks and chokeholds),
whereas a grappling attacker would be better kept at a distance: the
use of counterattacks, escaping from grappling.
A more versatile warrior obviously has a bigger chance of coping
in the fight as he possesses a wider spectrum of techniques and large
range of possibilities with which to win the fight tactically. Nevertheless, it is often psychological resistance and self-confidence which
decides the winner. If the rival gets scared, he has a less chance of
winning; if he belittles the opponent, he will most likely make a mistake and lose. If his attempts are unsuccessful for some time, he will
92
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
be helpless and this is the best moment to take the initiative. The
experienced warrior does not get surprised or mistaken easily, he is
constantly alert and careful. He saves his powers (seryoku zen’yo) and
follows his tactics, modifying them whenever the need arises (ju-no
ri – elasticity).
Rhythmic breath is crucial for maintaining inner balance – deep
diaphragm stomach breathing is better. This also is connected with
the oxygenation of the organism. Avoiding fast and shallow breathing
prevents stress from blocking our fighting skills. It is also important
not to get hit when inhaling. Thus every technique is practised together with breath and muscle tension – kime.
Rhythm [Hooge 2004] and timing are controlled over the length
of the fight. Attaining these skills demands special training with a sensei or a trainer. An appropriate length of time means the time during
which we manage to protect ourselves or attack and prevent a physical
assault by the opponent. We are trying to impose our own rhythm on
the fight. Having met an asynchronic contestant, one needs to be prepared for his changeable rhythm. At the same time, the right time to
take the initiative (“timing”) demands superb reflexes. Blocking also
needs to be done on time, not too fast, not too late. Adapting timing
and predicting the attack is surprising and often the most important
element, allowing a fighter to win even over a couple of assailants
[Sieber, Cynarski 2012].
Apart from the abovementioned rules, there are also those deriv-
ing from the general tactics and techniques of a particular method/
martial art e.g. jūjutsu [cf. Cynarski 2009a: 122–124] or derived from
an individual’s predisposition, habits and consolidated movements.
Therefore, people trained in kick-boxing, kyokushin karate, teakwondo
WTF or a classical kung-fu style will fight differently.
93
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Methodology
The chapter was prepared in framework of the General Theory of
Fighting Arts and theoretical conception of “self-defence” [Cynarski
2013a, 2016]. The problem and aim is: 1) the meaning of self-defence,
its essence and manifestations in Western countries; 2) description
and rating of historical fencing (European, Japanese, and other) – how
it is useful for self-defence today? The questions were addressed to
experts of melee and self-defence.
The main method is long-term/longitudinal participant observation of the author (40 years). Additionally a content literature analysis. These were considered along with a broad thematic discourse
of sources and studies [Krippendorf 2004]. And that of competent
judges/expert courts – direct interviews with 7 Grand Masters (experts on level 8–10 dan / master degrees). Responses came from i.a.
three European experts (from Germany, Poland, and the UK), two
are the holders of 10th dan the highest rank in goshinjutsu (the art of
self-defence), and the third has wide experience as a bodyguard. All
of them have over 40 years’ experience in many martial arts, combat
sports and self-defence systems.
Three complementary qualitative research methods were used:
long-term participant observation, subject literature analysis and
expert judges. A broad thematic discourse, both sources and studies,
is included. Direct relations were used, as well as analysis of sources
(books, videos, organizational documents) and research.
General knowledge on individual self-defence
Geoff Thompson (8 dan karate, 1 dan aikido, 1 dan judo) regards judo
and wrestling to be effective only in combat/self-defence situations
94
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
in close-range or tackles. In his view aikido also has very limited applicability in a real combat situation. Only masters of the martial art
can cope in a real situation [Thompson 1999: 109]. It is about conventionality, “the conventions of attack and defence” in aikido.
Boxing is effective only at a distance determined by the range
of arms and fists. But street fights frequently take place within fist
distance rather than that of kicks, so boxing skills tend to be useful
[Thompson 1999: 110–111]. It is not worth boxing with a boxer since
that would be like kicking with a horse. The logic of a fight against a
boxer is good tactical play during the confrontation. So we impose our
own style to make use of the opponent’s strengths and weaknesses.
Similarly, we can fight against an assailant with a clear physical ad-
vantage (in this case not allowing ourselves to be caught).
Of course, you first need to have certain advantages. A person
trained in martial arts should: be able to control the distance, timing
and rhythm of combat; develop the ability to concentrate and function
in difficult situations (psychological resistance); know the rules of
self-defence (e.g. the struggle of several to one); use weapons (long
and short weapons); hit or kick accurately, roll and use grips (leverage,
strangling) and to perform ne-waza. The more versatile the fighter the
more advantage he has.
What conditions determine successful self-defence? A successful
fight depends on preparation: technical and tactical, physical and
mental, knowledge and experience. Surely physical condition and
intellectual potential play an important role? These conditions refer
equally to various forms of confrontation – whether boxing or in a
street fight. As opposed to boxing, street fighting contains a number
of important factors – surprise and the lack of limitations in terms of
means and fighting techniques. That is why combat sports competitors
95
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
do not generally perform well in real self-defence. Moreover the techniques of sports judo or any other combat sport are not suitable for
training oriented to real fighting. The types of martial arts limited
by sports or an idealistic code of convention (such as aikidō aikikai)
should not therefore be associated with self-defence. This stance is
expressed by distinguished experts in this field such as GM Lothar
Sieber. He believes that aikido is not suitable for real combat, and
that the people who practise this beautiful art of harmony in motion
should practise running at the same time. He also identifies jujutsu
as a hard, realistic self-defence system (”the safest self-defence” [Sieber L., Sieber H. 1986]). A Master’s degree in this martial art is like a
swimming certificate – it confirms that the holder is able to survive
an attack on the street.
According to Sieber, karate and taekwondo were originally mostly
martial arts (arts of self-defence) and real fighting. Matson [1963] uses
the term karate-jutsu. Only regular exercising in self-defence, as in the
style Zendo karate Tai-te-tao, provides real skills for this style there is
a separate group of self-defence techniques on the curriculum [Sieber
2011]). In addition, one should practise responses to real attacks,
rather than to classical or conventional ones. In meijin Sieber’s school
competitive sport is discarded and the training programme is aimed
at fighting in a real situation [cf. Sieber L., Sieber H. 1986].
GM Jan Słopecki points to the fact that most common attacks
are several-to-one. Thus there is no situation similar to a sports bout,
but one where the attackers have a clear advantage. In addition the
attacker might be bigger and stronger and often armed. Therefore,
gakari-dori randori – coping with a fight against a group of attackers
– should be practised [Słopecki 2008]. In self-defence the use of the
multiple techniques from judo (a combat sport), which require grip
96
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
is not feasible and this is particularly the case of some throws, which
are dangerous both for the person thrown and the thrower [Słopecki
et al. 2015].
Someone who does not know how to fight, has no “feeling of the
enemy” nor of force or balance. In fighting at a distance there are
also other elements such as: a sense of distance and rhythm; timing;
anticipation of the opponent’s actions and numerous tactical issues.
You cannot learn these from books, or on short courses that are often
a complete fraud. Słopecki, like Sieber, teaches modernized jujutsu,
because the classic styles may not function quite so well in today’s
reality, and the effectiveness of self-defence is what is important here.
Jujutsu, by teaching fighting at different distances and positions, pro-
vides a relatively wide repertoire of measures / fighting skills. The
holder of a master degree in goshinjutsu must be even more able to
defend himself [IPA 2012; Cynarski, Słopecki 2015].
Reference was made to statements by authorities recognized by
several respected organizations (see Top Ten).
Top Ten self-defence experts in Central Europe
1. Lothar Sieber; 10 dan goshinjutsu, 10 dan jūjutsu/karate, meijin (D)
2. Jan Słopecki; 10 dan goshinjutsu, 10 dan jūjutsu, hanshi (PL)
3. Keith Kernspecht; 10 toan WingTsun kung-fu, Grand Master
EWTO, 8 dan karate (D)
4. Hannelore Sieber; 9 dan jujutsu, 8 dan karate, female self-defence expert (D)
5. Stanisław Cynarski; 8 dan goshinjutsu, 9 dan aiki-jūjutsu, hanshi (PL)
6. Tadeusz Ambroży; 8 dan goshinjutsu, 10 dan jūjutsu PZJJ (PL)
97
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
7. Wojciech J. Cynarski; 8 dan goshinjutsu, 9 dan jūjutsu, 8 dan
karate, hanshi (PL)
8. Andrzej Trepte; 5 dan goshinjutsu/jūjutsu, pioneer in Poland
(PL)
9. Zdenko Reguli; 4 dan goshinjutsu, 5 dan aikido, 2 dan iaido
(CZ)
10. Michal Vit; 3 dan goshinjutsu, 3 dan aikibudo, 2 dan kobudo/
kenjutsu (CZ)
[according to the Idokan Poland Association, 2017, own elaboration]
Group fighting
By agreeing with Słopecki that the most common threat in a robbery
situation would be several to one, or the fight against the numerical
advantage of the attackers, it is useful to analyse the usefulness of various sports. The 1x1 sports duel, fortified with a convention of rules,
is far from a real combat situation. Much better orientation teaches
e.g. playing rugby, also requires teamwork. More and more popular
are also team sports of fighting (team combat sports).
Team fighting (as a sports discipline – indoor shots, gloves 6x6)
has already become an institutionalized form. Team Fighting Championships [Sahaj 2016] are being played. The teams of football fans
are now fighting according to certain rules and without the use of
dangerous tools.
Even more interesting discipline is the so-called knights’ battles
– in different conventions. In the year 2013 was registered IMCF (International Medieval Combat Federation). The following year was the
first World Championship of the IMCF: 1st World Championship, 1–4
May 2014, next to Castillo de Belmonte in Spain. Interestingly, in the
overall classification won the US knight team, but the second place
98
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
was the Polish team. At the same time active is the AHRMA federation
– Association of Historical Reenactors of the Middle Ages.
This is N.B. a new sport, but refers to the medieval European
tradition of knightly tournaments. The fight is played, among others,
in the “one on one” competition, “5 vs. 5”, “10 vs. 10”, “16 vs. 16” and
“21 vs. 21”. In the case of group battles it is somehow a team fighting
sport [Cynarski, Chała 2015; Dąbrowska 2017].
Fencing in self-defence
Self-defence is associated primarily on melee combat, that is, without
the use of weapons [André 1905; Ambrozy 2002–2003]. And so it is
understood from about a hundred years. Meanwhile, in the course of
history the primary means of repelling any attack it was fencing and
skills of wielding diverse, traditional weapons.
Originally a sword or sabre were weapons usable knight or nobleman, or the Japanese bushi called samurai. The same Japanese
nobleman used tachi sword or sabre uchigatana, commonly called a
katana, and a shorter blade – wakizashi. Possession of a white weapon – kenjutsu – was the basis for training fighter until the nineteenth
century [Cynarski 2013b].
Only when the warrior (European knight or bushi) did not want
to kill the attacker, he used to repel the attack stick or just bare
hands. Or when he was forced to do by an exceptional situation.
However, having at the side of the weapon meant that in self-defence
(in case of attack the bandits) defended a sword or other weapon
as well.
Historically speaking, the basic tool, used as a dummy weapon
acute in learning fencing or as a readily available folk weapon, was
a stick. Extremely celebrity was fencing on sticks (six feet in length)
99
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
developed by Buddhist monks from the Shaolin Temple. To this day
about the resort Shaolin are practiced forms of 18 traditional weapons
[Shahar 2008].
Fighting of knights and European historical fencing
Today it is cultivated German school of sword fencing [Schroeber
1938; Schmidt 2007; Walczak 2011]. They practice in this way: the
brotherhood of knights, a group of reconstructive and players/athletes recently developed sport under the name of “fighting knights”
[Cynarski, Chala 2015]. In parallel train enthusiasts of historical Polish
sabre [Zablocki 2011; Sawicki 2011, 2012].
Although this historical fencing contained, as a martial art, additional technical tricks and kicks, but for nearly a century has lost its usefulness in self-defence. When previously it was used to defend the country,
family and individual self-defence, in the years 1920–1939 it was only
used in duels. The choice was a sword or rapier [Boziewicz 1919/2012].
Sabre was still an attribute of an officer, but rather for decoration.
Perhaps the players of ‘medieval fighting’ / ‘medieval combat’
and specialists of hussar sabre are so fit that in most situations of
self-defence they could cope by using a substitute e.g. stick, umbrella
or walking stick, but in the present circumstances the defence required
to cope in different positions and distances, and in unusual situations
(e.g. a narrow space, like in an elevator).
Historical fencing was an elite martial art reserved for knights and
nobles. Today it is cultivated by enthusiasts, regardless of social origin, but most often by descendants of noble families. While the sport
fencing is practiced primarily for the sport, according to research the
motivation of young people in this discipline [Szajna, Cynarski 2015],
not for self-defence.
100
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
Significantly, three representatives of the schools of historical fencing started adventure with combat sports and martial arts from their
various forms: Wojciech Zablocki – from sport fencing, Bill Newman – of
Wing Chun kung-fu, and Zbigniew Sawicki – from Kyokushin karate. Maybe this is a kind of complement education model of ancient warriors (?).
Asian classical fencing
Similarly to the European historical fencing is presented situation
in old Japanese kenjutsu. For example, in the school Tenshinshoden
Katorishinto-ryu is practiced (from the fifteenth century to the present) possession of sabres (uchigatana and kodachi), glaive naginata
and long stick, and the technique of “manual” jujutsu practiced only
as a supplement [cf. Sugino, Ito 2010]. One form of iaido this school
illustrates a situation when someone wants to pull out of the sheath
our sword, and then how to react. Forms weapon against weapons are
practiced pairs the same as in the fifteenth century. This is the kind
of fossils from the Japanese Middle Ages.
In today’s sports kendo only 5 attack techniques are improved,
but trained for years a sense of distance and timing can be useful in
various situations of self-defence. In addition, fencing, also the Western sports fencing, teach to anticipate the opponent’s attack.
Iaijutsu and iaido forms teach a defence in case of attack one or
several attackers. We defend then with kenjutsu techniques. In turn,
in the teaching by GM Lothar Sieber kenjutsu includes, among others,
kicking techniques, or self-defence without drawing the weapon [Sieber, Grzywacz 2015]. From the perspective of long-term observation
the author argues that the only weapons training exercise does not
give full, real skills in self-defence and “street” fight in the realities of
the twenty-first century.
101
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Escrima is a Spanish term for fencing, but was adopted as the name
of the Philippine martial arts. There are also other names for Philippine
schools and fighting styles (arnis, doce pares, kali). Escrima actually refers to the techniques of Spanish fencing [Cynarski 2004], but contains
its own weapons (knives, machetes, sticks and batons) and teaches
fighting with hands and feet (interception, levers, hitting, kicking).
As a hundred years ago, so today escrima focuses on the real situation, when we were attacked with a knife or stick, and we have to
fight for our life. Knowledge of Philippine teachers creatively develop
their students. Exemplification of this phenomenon is the school of
GM Bill Newman, who based on the techniques of GM René Latosa,
and has developed his educational system, enriching escrima of historical weapons from the European tradition of chivalry [Newman
2005]. He shows his school as a school of real self-defence [Newman
2005: 233–256].
Here we can formulate the next, following thesis: in the range of
realistic self-defence skills the best preparing give so-called comprehensive / complete systems, i.e. teaching martial in different distances
and positions, with traditional weapons, against weapons and close
combat.
Discussion
In a more general sense, self-defence is understood as “all activities aimed at defending oneself from physical attack by an aggressor”
[Wikipedia, 2015]. This can be achieved by many very different means.
For example, Albrecht and Rudolph [2014] teach self-defence using
classical wushu. The content of the various textbooks and guides to
self-defence is varied. It is sometimes mainly first-hand knowledge
(written by an MMA fighter or a policeman for example), but when it
102
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
comes to self-defence, there are big doubts, for example when those
authors suggest grabbing the attacker’s sword with the hands [Forrest, Krauss 2012: 213]. Yet another author calls his programme a
system of short jujutsu techniques for street fighting. But his pro-
gramme also includes sports judo throws [Raffel 2012: 115, 133].
These throws are only acceptable as school-basic versions, useful at
the stage of learning techniques.
In close combat a valuable discovery by the ancient masters and
doctors were the vital points on the human body (Jap. jintai kyusho).
The application of this knowledge (of precise strikes and pressures)
for the purpose of self-defence [Kogel 2006, 2008; Reinisch, Holler, Maluschka 2009] could allow the fighter to defeat a stronger opponent.
There are different combat systems with ‘self-defence’ in the name,
such as sambo [Błach W., Cynarski, Błach L. 2006], which has both
sport and combat versions. The combat version is a typical type of
combat system to be used on the battlefield (the elimination of the
opponent’s manpower). Self-defence in war conditions is specifically
just a struggle for survival or of the killing arts [cf. Fairbairn 1931;
Echanis 1977].
Generally, every martial arts instructor should be able to defend himself and be able to teach real self-defence skills [Lee-Barron
2011]. In reality it can work out very differently. In reality even a specialized course for physical recreation instructors with a specialization in self-defence [Ambroży 2001, 2002-2003] does not guarantee
high skills. It may however complement understanding, systematise
knowledge, and check the basic skills acquired by the instructor.
When similar courses are taken by people with many years’ expertise
in martial arts or combat sports, the effect is (in most cases) probably
satisfactory.
103
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
The observations and advice from Alain Floquet, a master of
martial arts and a retired police officer are interesting. He teaches
self-defence and the defence of other people. Significantly, in his book
on self-defence [Floquet 1984], while having 9 dan in aikibudo, he
pictures his jujutsu 7th dan certificate in and a photo of meijin Minoru
Mochizuki, who is very highly regarded in the international jujutsu
environment. In his second book Floquet added probably some new
content covering emergency situations and the application of techniques, illustrated with photos [Floquet 2002: 241–313].
Roland J. Habersetzer [2007, 2008] an outstanding martial arts
expert, recommends and teaches karate, kobudo (wielding weapons,
such as sticks, tonfa, nunchaku) and hojutsu (shooting with firearms).
Indeed it is possible that in the C21st these are the sum total of all the
skills necessary for self-defence. Habersetzer generally recommends
a return to what was indigenous in martial arts, namely teaching and
learning real combat skills.
WingTsun kung-fu taught by GM Kernspecht [1988, 2014] also
rejects sports competitions. It is strictly practised for self-defence.
Teachers of this martial art focus attention on optimizing the activities
related to taking the initiative in a struggle anticipating and overtaking. According to legend, the WingTsun style aimed to ensure that a
petite woman could defend herself against a stronger attacker. Since
traditional WingTsun imposes “system” limits, Kernspecht (10th toan)
introduces some innovations in his school. He does so on the basis of
many years experience of practising various martial arts.
Blind or partially sighted people are offered such as activities
as WingTsun / Wing Chun kung-fu [cf. Szuszkiewicz, Maleta 2007;
Kohoutkova et al. 2015], where, by using the forearm contact techniques of the chi-sao exercises a practitioner can sense the direction
104
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
of motion of their co-practitioner, who in a real combat situation
would be the attacker. By controlling the arms (or legs) of the enemy, they are able to defend themselves whether in a dark room or
because they cannot see.
On the basis of the rationale of humanity, GM Krzysztof (Christopher) Kondratowicz 12 dan described jujutsu as a noble art of
self-defence, etc. [Kondratowicz 1991]. This trend fits the idea of “fair
self-defence”. However, there is a dilemma – whether self-defence
against an aggressor should be effective or restrained. Should our
primary stance be to defend ourselves while trying not to hurt the
attacker? According to the author of this study anyone teaching the
techniques of suicide bears more responsibility than someone who
teaches people how to defend themselves effectively by neutralising
the attacker/attackers. This does not however mean the acceptance
of unnecessary brutality.
In 2003, during a scientific conference held at the Faculty of
Physical Education at the University of Rzeszow in Rzeszow, Prof.
Andrzej Szyszko-Bohusz expressed his criticism of the widely-used
concept of “self-defence”. He noted that the emphasis here is on one’s
own defence, which is somewhat selfish. Sometimes however it is
someone else needs to be defended. But this type of self-defence
can be understood differently thus: that you have to defend yourself
without the help of state institutions (e.g. the police), or completely
by yourself.
Can a practitioner’s self-defence or previously-acquired skills be
tested? There is currently ongoing research in this field [cf. Bugala et
al. 2016]. This allows a practitioner’s level of mastery of the course
programme to be assessed. However, it seems that nothing can replace
the expert judgment of a highly-experienced master.
105
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Conclusions. General observations
In many martial arts combat weapon was historically taught, and today
is increasingly emphasized the close combat – just for self-defence [cf.
Tokarski 1989; Tanaka 2003; Cynarski 2013b]. Still, they are taught
here technical forms of weapons. Muai Thai combines tradition Krabi-krabong, WingTsun kung-fu teaches techniques with long pole and
butterfly swords, in wushu is used department is mohai techniques –
white weapons, Okinawan kobudo is practiced, as “armed” part of karate, etc. The complete fighter should be able to wield a weapon, whether
it is long or short. Also today, fencing skills give man a greater repertoire
of techniques, which can respond to the attack of attacker or attackers.
The basic canon for real combat and self-defence, its techniques
and the tactics to be used has been described. The author relied primarily on the teaching of meijin Sieber. However, all three of the experts quoted, as well as some of the experts cited in the discussion
(Habersetzer, Kernspecht), point to the need for specialist training.
Effectiveness in self-defence situations requires on the one hand quite
high versatility in training and on the other, a selection of really effective techniques, as well as the use of relevant teaching methods.
Furthermore, the knowledge must go beyond physical and technical
training, as psychology plays an important role.
Słopecki draws attention to some fabrications in some works,
including scientific ones. What is lacking is any literature describing
self-defence in situations of several-to-one which is very frequently
the case in assaults. Only the ability to fight at various distances and
positions, and using a selection of appropriate techniques may ensure
victory in an actual combat. Modern jujutsu contains a relatively rich
repertoire of techniques, from mild to violent.
106
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
The meaning of self-defence is presented and manifests itself in
a variety of ways. The extremely commercialized version is the only
product on sale. However, for the experts mentioned above, self-defence is at the heart of martial arts training.
Sources
IPA (2012), Terms for Master’s Degree of jūjutsu and goshinjutsu at Collegium
Dan, http://www.idokan.pl/index.php (access: April 2017).
Sieber Lothar 10 dan goshinjutsu; 10 dan jujutsu and karate, meijin; multiple
direct discussions and correspondence, 1992–2017.
Sieber L., Sieber H. (1986), Jiu-Jitsu, the safest self-defence, lecture on video
cassette VHS, Münchner Video Plate, Munich [in German].
Słopecki Jan 10 dan goshinjutsu; 10 dan jujutsu, hanshi; multiple direct discussions and correspondence, 2004–2017.
Thompson Geoff 8 dan karate, bodyguard and security specialist; According
to his statements, which have been traced in literature.
And direct interviews with Grand Masters:
Bill Newman (10 master degree, escrima),
Wojciech Zabłocki (10 master degree, Polish sabre fencing),
Zbigniew Sawicki (9 master degree, Polish sabre fencing).
References
Albrecht M., Rudolph F. (2014), Violence. Self-protection against hits. With
an essay by Norman ‘Siddartha’ Gerhardt, Palisander, Chemnitz [in German].
Ambroży T. (2001), Self-Defence. Methodological manual for trainers of recreation, ZG TKKF, Warsaw [in Polish].
Ambroży T. (2002–2003), Self-defence and recreation, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 3, pp. 61–64.
107
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
André E. (1905), A hundred ways to repel the assault street without weapons,
“Przeglad Powszechny”, Warsaw [in Polish].
Błach W., Cynarski W.J., Błach Ł. (2006), Sambo – the system of self-defence
and sport, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 6, pp.
100–103.
Boziewicz W. (1919/2012), Kodeks honorowy. Ogólne zasady postępowania
honorowego, Bona, Krakow [in Polish].
Bugala M., Reguli Z., Vit M., Čihounková J. (2016), Evaluation of self-defence
training in the Czech Emergency Medical Service, “Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 49–54;
doi: 10.14589/ido.16.1.6.
Cooper M.D. (2000), Towards a model of safety culture, ”Safety Science”, 36,
pp. 111–136.
Cynarski W.J. (2004), On art of fencing. Remarks on classical fencing, “Ido
– Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 4, pp. 29–42.
Cynarski W.J. (2008), The literature on jujutsu and self-defence in the Polish People’s Republic [in:] S. Zaborniak, M. Obodyński [eds.], From the
tradition of physical culture in Poland after World War II, University of
Rzeszow, Rzeszow, pp. 82–92 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2009a), Martial Arts – Ido & Idokan, IPA, Rzeszow.
Cynarski W.J. (2009b), Towards a general theory of self-defence, ”Ido – Ruch
dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 9, pp. 240–245.
Cynarski W.J. (2013a), The traditional art of swordmanship and its application today. A case study of one of the Japanese schools [in:] M. Zvonar,
Z. Sajdlova [eds.], Conference: 9th International Conference on Sport and
Quality of Life, Masaryk Univ, Fac Sports Studies, Brno, Nov. 07–08, 2013,
pp. 209–216.
Cynarski W.J. (2013b), The training of a warrior following the teaching of
the classical Japanese and Korean schools of martial arts (C14 – C19th),
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
13, no. 2, pp. 1–10.
Cynarski W.J. (2016a), The meaning of self-defence: an expert definition.
A contribution to the theory of self-defence and combat [in:] M. Zvonař,
108
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
Z. Sajdlová [eds.], Proceedings of 10th International Conference on Kinanthropology “Sport and Quality of Life”, MU, Brno, Nov. 18–20, 2015, pp.
463–474.
Cynarski W.J. (2016b), Fencing in self-defence, ”Scientific Review of Physical
Culture”, vol. 6, no. 4, pp. 62–65.
Cynarski W.J. (2017a), Towards a General Theory of Fighting Arts, ”Phys
Activ Rev”, no. 5, pp. 83–90.
Cynarski W.J. (2017b), Individual self-defence in perspective of the general
theory of fighting arts, ”Kultura Bezpieczeństwa. Nauka-Praktyka-Refleksje”, no. 27, pp. 46–69; doi: 10.24356/KB/27/1 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Chała J. (2015), Castles and tournaments: Tourism of military
culture enthusiasts in Europe, “Turystyka Kulturowa”, vol. 6, no. 6, pp.
21–35.
Cynarski W.J., Piwowarski J. (2016), Japanese Security Culture in the Global
Village. The Budo Charter as a Modernized Element of Ancient Military
Tradition, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”,
no. 20, pp. 30–50; doi: 10.24356/SD/20/1.
Cynarski W.J., Skowron J. (2014), An analysis of the conceptual language
used for the general theory of martial arts – Japanese, Polish and English
terminology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 49–66. doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.7.
Cynarski W.J., Słopecki J. (2015), Way of the warrior jujutsu. Interview with
Dr Jan Słopecki hanshi, ”Scientific Review of Physical Culture”, vol. 5,
no. 2, pp. 47–53.
Dąbrowska A. (2017), Knight’s staff, “Polska Zbrojna”, no. 9, pp. 144–147
[in Polish].
Echanis M.D. (1977), Special Forces/Ranger-UDT/SEAL Hand-to-Hand Combat/Special Weapons/Special Tactics Series. Knife Self-Defense for Combat, Ohara, Santa Clarita
Fairbairn W.E. (1931), Scientific Self-Defence, Appleton-Century Company,
London – New York.
Floquet A. (1984), Individual defence self-same and of others, Sedirep, Bulogne [in French].
109
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Floquet A. (2002), Self-defence. Theory and Practice of Action an Extreme
Situation, FAIR-PRESS, Moskow [in Russian].
Forrest G., Krauss E. (2012), Full to the Twelve. The Ultimate Fighter explains
how you win each fight, Riva, Munich [in German].
Habersetzer R.J. (2007), Tengu – my martial way, Amphora, Paris [in French].
Habersetzer R.J. (2008), Tengu-no michi, pioneer idea for true return to
sources..., ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 8, pp.
240–247.
Hooge S.R. (2004), Theorie des Rhytmus im Kampfsport, „Ido – Ruch dla
Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 4, pp. 286–292 [in German].
Kernspecht K.R. (1988), On duel. Strategy, tactics, physiology, psychology and
history of unarmed self-defence, Burg-Fehmarn [in German].
Kernspecht K.R. (2014), Inner WingTsun!, 2nd edn., EWTO-Verlag [in German].
Kogel H. (2006), The Secret of Kyusho Jutsu – Neuroanatomical Basis, “Ido
– Ruch dla Kultury/Movement for Culture”, vol. 6, pp. 283–298.
Kogel H. (2008), “Bubishi” – the Secret Records of Okinawa, “Ido – Ruch dla
Kultury/ Movement for Culture”, vol. 8, pp. 104–113.
Kohoutkova J., Cihounkova J., Skotakova A., Reguli Z. (2015), Self-defence for
people with visual impairments, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of
Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 33–36; doi: 10.14589/
ido.15.2.5.
Kondratowicz K. (1991), Jiu-jitsu. Defensive martial art, ”Czasopisma Wojskowe”, Warsaw [in Polish].
Krippendorf K. (2004), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology,
Sage, Thosend Oaks, CA.
Lee-Barron J.R. (2011), The Complete Martial Arts Instructor. A Manual of
Teaching Martial Arts Effectively and Safety, Lulu Publishing, Morrisvile, NC.
Mattson G.E. (1963), The Way of Karate, Tokyo.
Newman W. (2005), Escrima, Wushu-Verlag Kernspecht, Burg/Fehmarn
[in German].
110
Individual self-defence in the perspective of general theory of martial arts
Piwowarski J. (2014), VIP Protection versus bushido quadrangle. Study on
Japanese Security Culture [in:] P. Bogdalski, J. Cymerski, K. Jałoszyński
[red.], Security of persons subject to statutory protection versus threats
in 21st Century, Szczytno [in Polish].
Piwowarski J. (2015), Three Pillars of Security Culture, “Security Dimensions.
International and National Studies”, no. 14, pp. 10–16; doi: 10.24356/
SD/14/1.
Raczkowski K. (2008), Martial art and self-defence in terms of historical,
legal, psychological, Difin, Warsaw [in Polish].
Raffel J. (2012), Unarmed self-defence. KTR techniques and KTR testing program, self-edn. [in German].
Reinisch S., Holler J., Maluschka A. (2009), Kyusho. Points of attack in self-defence and martial arts, Meyer & Meyer Verlag, Aachen [in German].
Sahaj T. (2016), Supporters’ martial arts tournaments [in:] M. Kazimierczak
[ed.], Sport Inspiration in Cultural Tourism, AWF, Poznań, pp. 104–117
[in Polish].
Sawicki Z. (2011), Polish Martial Art – Signum Polonicum, ”Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 38–46.
Sawicki Z. (2012), Fencing Treat of Polish Art with the Husar Sabre. Part
2, In Defence of the Gospel, Signum Polonicum, Zawiercie [in Polish].
Schmidt H. (2007), Schwertkampf. Der Kampf mit dem langen Schwert nach
der Deutschen Schule, Wieland Verlag, Bad Aibling [in German].
Schroeber M. (1938), Deutsche Fechtkunst, Georg Roenig Buchdruckerei
u. Verlag, Berlin [in German].
Shahar M. (2008), The Shaolin Monastery. History, Religion, and the Chinese
Martial Arts, University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu.
Sieber L., Grzywacz R. (2015), Jubilee of Shibu Kobudo in Poland 1995–2015,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
15, no. 4, pp. 13–25; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.4.2.
Sieber L. (2011), Zen-do karate Tai-te-tao [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Selected Areas of Intercultural Dialogue in Martial Arts, Rzeszow University
Press, Rzeszow, pp. 145–154.
111
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Sieber L., Cynarski W.J. (2012), Chapter 1.1. Towards a general theory of
fighting arts [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Martial Arts Phenomenon – Research and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press,
Rzeszow, pp. 16–26.
Słopecki J. (2008), The teaching. The rules and a martial arts master’s practical knowledge of combat, “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury/ Movement for Culture”, vol. 8, pp. 66–71.
Słopecki J., Böschen P., Macas H., Litwiniuk A. (2015), The reality of teaching self-defence as a desired model of education, “Scientific Review of
Physical Culture”, no. 3, pp. 119–130.
Sugino Y., Ito K. (2010), Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto Ryu Budo Kyohan,
(trans. Ulf Rott) Demond GmbH Norderstedt [in German].
Szajna G., Cynarski W.J. (2015), Motifs and conditions of selection of fencing
by Polish fighters [in:] M. Zowislo, J. Kosiewicz [eds.], Sport i turystyka
w zwierciadle wartości społecznych, AWF, Krakow, pp. 533–544 [in
Polish].
Szuszkiewicz A., Maleta B. (2007), Martial arts for the blind and visually
impaired, Fundacja Instytut Rozwoju Regionalnego, Kraków [in Polish].
Tanaka F. (2003), Samurai fighting arts: the spirit and the practice, Kodansha
International.
Thompson G. (1999), The door. Experiences of a bouncer, Wu-Shu-Verlag
Kernspecht, Burg/Fehmarn [in German].
Tokarski S. (1989), Martial arts. The dynamic forms of expression of the philosophy of the East, Glob, Szczecin [in Polish].
Walczak B. (2011), Bringing lost teachings back to life – a proposed method
for interpretation of Medieval and Renaissance fencing manuals, “Ido
Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11,
no. 2, pp. 47–54.
Zabłocki W. (2011), Sabres of the World, Bosz Bellona, Warsaw [in Polish].
CHAPTER 5
Expressive dimension
of martial arts
KEY WORDS
martial arts, theatre, chain of connections, record of the movement,
archetype, ritual of movement, self-expression, performative phenomenon
ABSTRACT
The author presents the mythical and archetypical roots common for
martial arts and theatre. He also describes Far-Eastern rituals and theatre, the film of martial arts, the relations of martial arts with dance,
as well as aesthetical and meta-aesthetical relations. He writes about
knowledge encoded in movement, in the forms of martial arts. These
forms are close to theatrical performance. The record of the technical
fighting movement (Jap. kata), passed on in unchanged form through
centuries, makes the one who exercises the martial arts almost an
actor. It is known otherwise, that everyone executes a given form differently adding elements of his own personality to it.
113
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
The article contains the reflection based on the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts and many years author’s experience in training
practice.
The Chinese, Japanese or Korean martial arts transfer in form
of the “kata” the technical and tactical knowledge of the former
masters, experience from performed fights, but also a large load of
cultural and symbolic knowledge which hides in names the gestures
and spiritual dimension of this practice. Similarly to the theatre,
Far-Eastern martial arts originate from (or they reflect strong connection with) magic and religious rituals, what can be observed on
the example of sumo wrestling. It is possible to formulate here the
chain of connections: magic – ritual – dance – theatre, and, further
– the cinema and film.
Introduction
This text is a development of the study under the same title [Cynarski
2015], and is a result of continuing research in the field of martial arts
theory. This is an essay in which the author deals with the problem of
martial arts associations with theatre and film [cf. Cynarski 2004b;
Cynarski, Litviniuk 2004, based mainly on the theory of martial arts
and martial arts anthropology. It is also a continuation of this direction
of research, comparison and interpretation of martial arts, realized
on the borderline of the sciences of man and culture.
Outstanding martial artists, like Bruce Lee and Chuck Norris, have
already spoken about acting. Also the cover of the Journal “Ido Move-
ment for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology” (published
under patronage of IMACSSS – the International Martial Arts and Combat Sports Scientific Society) [Cynarski, Reguli 2014] is not accidental;
adorns the actor from the classic Japanese “no” theatre.
114
Expressive dimension of martial arts
Classic forms (kata) in iaido and kobudo (as in schools Takeda-ryu,
Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu and others) are close to theatrical
spectacle. Movement record of the fighting technique, imparted in
unchanged form for centuries, makes martial arts student an actor, in
a certain sense. This is the same thing in kata in karate and taekwondo
[Cynarski, Yu, Borysiuk 2017]. It is known that each form performs
slightly differently, impressing on it the stamp of his personality.
Theoretical perspectives for these studies are based on the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts, martial arts anthropology, the theory
of spectacle and related areas [cf. Kauz 1977; Tokarski 1989; Tharnbury 1995; Kosiewicz 2000; Jones 2002; Cynarski 2004a, 2012a, b].
David E. Jones [2002] develops the anthropology of martial arts
from the perspective of American cultural anthropology. Martial arts
concept is understood here in a very broad sense. This involves different forms of preparation for combat – magical, military training and
ritual fighting. It also includes primitive forms of combat and military
skills. Researchers use ethnographic and anthropological-cultural
methods related to hoplology [cf. Jones 2002; Green, Svinth 2010].
Jones’ anthropology is related to the concept of “martial arts the-
ory as performance art” [Klens-Bigman 1999, 2002]. Such approach
is suitable for ritual forms, such as iaido. For the whole continuum
of various martial arts there is a weak power of explanation. Inner
martial arts, as well as spiritual self-improvement, are not for show.
The perception of martial arts is now dependent on mass culture
(especially film, the film art), which depicts old and new myths and
archetypes. Pauka [1998] wrote about connections and relationships
between theatre and martial arts in West Sumatra (Minangkabau).
Anderson [2001] – about general connections between martial arts
and dance. Harasymowicz [2011] – about martial arts in the education
115
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
of actors. In this area the theoretical perspective according to the
concept of Klens-Bigman [2002] could be useful.
In the typology of martial arts suggested by Bolelli [2008: 115–140],
performance arts are one of five groups honoured, alongside internal
arts, martial arts with traditional weapons, self-defence and com-
bat sports (captured, hit and mixed). This applies, for example, to
demonstrations performed in the context of appropriate sports competitions (wushu, karate, ITF taekwondo, judo or kickboxing). The
evaluation of the performance of these forms determines the victory
in the sport competition, which resembles artistic gymnastics or figure
riding on the ice.
Performing technical forms is the oldest way of teaching techni-
cal skills and form of exercise in martial arts practice, which can be
applied in recreation as a variation of “life-long sport” [Yi, Park 2000;
Pańczyk, Cynarski 2006]. It can also be a form of self-realization by
studying the aesthetics of movement – the grace of the female body
in performing martial arts techniques. This is shown by the authors
of the album, with an emphasis on expression and beauty; These
are: kung-fu wushu – Zhang Xiao Yen female snake [Willemin, Mairet,
Nisse 1996: 278–291] and “allegorical” taiji and pagua zhang expert
– Isabelle Croset [Willemin, Mairet, Nisse 1996: 68–81] . Thus, internal style training is not excluded from the expressive dimension. Of
course, the aesthetics of martial arts techniques are not just about
women.
The meaning of martial arts practice (training), the path of warrior and mastery, as well as the definitions of basic concepts are ac-
cepted here in accordance with the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts
[Cynarski, Sieber 2006; Zeng, Cynarski, Xie 2013; Cynarski, Lee-Barron
2014; Cynarski, Skowron 2014].
116
Expressive dimension of martial arts
Mythical and archetypal roots
Like the theatre, Far Eastern martial arts derive (or largely relate) to
magic and religious rituals, as exemplified by sumo. Here you can list
the links: magic – ritual – dance – theatre [Cynarski 1999; Steiner
2002], and in consequence – the cinema. Magical and dance rituals are
described in Kojiki and in Chinese mythology [Künstler 1985]. Taoist
magic implements qigong exercise systems and visually similar to the
dance “inner styles” of taiji quan.
Archetype preserved in the unconscious, a symbolic record of
human experience from ancestors. According to Carl G. Jung’s theory
of archetypes [Jung 1976; cf. Fromm 1977], the male hero is usually
either a warrior or a sage. Mastery in martial arts combine both archetypal needs, which do not affect only men [Cynarski 2001b]. The
mythical roots of magical rituals, from which dance was developed,
and ancient wrestling, theatrical forms or warrior exercises, are similar. Angry gods of ancient cultures, like the rulers of the time, enjoyed
the spectacle and the struggle. Many variations of theatre and contemporary sports are derived from various pagan rituals or games.
According to Erich Fromm, all myths have been written in ‘symbolic language’, and the symbol remains inextricably linked to inner
experience. This thesis examines the introspective and cultural studies
of people who penetrate the mystical traditions or meditation systems
of the East. Attention should be drawn to the sometimes conflicting
interpretations of the same symbols in different cultures [Grossman
1998; Eberhard 2001; Cynarski, Duriček 2001; Cynarski, Obodyński
2009], which obviously concerns all forms of motor expression. Asian
martial arts have here a wealth of symbolic content, expressing, in-
ter alia, inner convictions, or attributed to magical significance. The
117
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
psycho-social fact: “The archetypal hero defeats the dragon or the
demon” can be transmitted in oral tradition (song, poetry), ritual and
dance, musical theatre or “encrypt” in movement forms of fighting.
In East Asian martial arts, a symbolic gesture [Guiroud 1974] of
moves on the border of life and death (dramatic dimension), power,
courage and defeat of the opponent are a ‘blow to the knee’ in sports
karate, throw judged on the ippon in judo, the last cut in the form of
iaido, etc. Forms (Japanese kata) of sword-winning art – iaido – constitute a movement record of the myth, a reminder of the achievements
of the master-hero or creator of the school, or the mystery of combat
experiences of several generations of masters. It is a record of bloody
and deadly decisions when martial arts were about life and death.
From this military practice, today’s martial arts have grown, in which
not only traditional dress, gestures, terminology, facial expressions,
historical items or idealized warriors. The iaido teacher assumes the
role of a samurai, and the dojo (the place of getting to know the way,
the martial art practice room) can be associated with the theatre of
old war arts or even the magical drama of archetypal heroes fight-
ing with evil. The same applies to the forms of various martial arts,
whose symbolic and poetic names, as well as the names of particular
techniques and the meaning of gestures (‘gazing on Heaven’, ‘peace’,
‘infinity’) relate to the cultural traditions of particular nations and
ethnic groups.
‘Dan’ degrees are a testimony of bravery, power and spiritual
maturity, etiquette is a manifestation of respect and honour, and the
colours of belts and other attributes symbolize the path of progress.
Pathways of martial arts, like the original theatre or ritual of movement (showing the struggle with demons), are essentially the paths
to holiness (liberation, salvation) [cf. Simpkins C., Simpkins A. 2007;
118
Expressive dimension of martial arts
Brown, Jennings, Molle 2009; Molle 2010; Jennings, Brown, Sparkes
2010]. However, the spiritual dimension of martial arts should not be
equated with religion [cf. McFarlane 1990; Maliszewski 1996; Sieber,
Cynarski, Litviniuk 2007]. Stanislaw Tokarski [1989: 10] distinguishes
three basic functions of martial arts: self-realization, self-defence and
self-expression.
Chinese taiji or Old Japanese sumo contain religious-philosophical
symbolism, where almost every movement and gesture are important.
This also applies to many forms still preserved in various budo, kungfu schools, etc. The martial art itself is a key symbolic and archetypal
significance, accompanying the oldest myths and the present form of
cinema [cf. Mintz 1978].
Far Eastern rituals and theatre
Derived from the magical and religious rituals of Chinese or Japanese
ritual theatre, it is referred to as the “performative phenomenon,” as
the Hong Kong researcher M. Steiner [2002] calls it. Another time
martial arts are referred to as the type of play [Klens-Bigman 1999].
Forms of ritual and theatrical links with far-eastern martial arts are
related to the aspect of motor expression [cf. Tokarski 1989]. Notable is the presence of combat exercises, performances of fitness and
acrobatics in the Chinese opera, which Łabędzka called the musical
theatre [Łabędzka 1999]. Jackie Chan, a popular martial arts filmmaker, derives from this form of art.
Relationships with dance perform in both Japanese folk and
no theater productions [Tharnbury 1995], in the Chinese rituals of
swordsmanship and in ancient Indian martial arts (vajramushti) [Cynarski 2004a]. A specific ritual dance is performed before the fight of
Muai-Thai or thai-boxing warrior. Dances, such as Okinawan or Korean
119
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
[Ogarek-Czoj 1981], include a clear reference to martial arts. Incidentally, the Cossack dance is the basic training method in the modern
Ukrainian melee system called the sobor or hopak [Pilat 2010] as well
as the more famous Brazilian “dance-fight” – capoeira. In martial arts
variations, especially those that have grown out of dance, the expres-
sive dimension is unique, as is the case with Brazilian capoeira dance
or Ukrainian hopak. Quasi-dance movements also contain forms of
Malaysian silat [cf. Rut 2014]. Both cultural forms can be described
by the theory of rhythm of Sven R. Hooge [2003, 2004] or in the field
of martial arts anthropology.
There are fundamental interpretations of the essence of what
capoeira is or is not. Is it just an art of dance [Almeida 2006] or a
special martial art [Assuncao 2005; Reis 2005; Sonoda-Nunes, De
Oliveira, Wanderley 2009], or fighting art / combat sport [Arauho,
Jaqueira 2011]? Is the Afro-Brazilian tradition [Green 2003; Assuncao
2005; Ślęzak 2007] or the Brazilian original [Almeida 2006; Arauho,
Jaqueira 2011]? Socio-cultural reality is usually more complicated
than bipartite ones. Hence there are result of simplification, errors
in unambiguous interpretations.
Classic Chinese theatre often depicts martial arts scenes, illus-
trating the novel “Journey to the West”, “Fighting in the Dark” and
other pearls of the Chinese “literary-theatrical” tradition. Similarly is
in the samurai culture of Japanese theatre, and in the Hindu tradition
of presenting Ramayana and Mahabharata [Cynarski 2000a; Pauka
1997; 1998; Kusio 2002]. In addition to the “external”, acrobatic and
spectacular kung-fu styles, the form of prayer, meditation, magic dance
and Taoist ritual are “internal” styles. Qigung are sets of exercises
that are for the Taoist alchemists the secret of the elixir of vitality
and immortality. Taiji quan deals with the movements and gestures
120
Expressive dimension of martial arts
of the struggle with symbolic names and meaning. For the Taoists,
they are the creed of their faith, for the people of the West – especially
health gymnastics. As in aikido, it is more about harmony than fighting
[Westbrook, Ratti 1970; Grossman 1998; Dykhuizen 2000].
At present there is a secondary ritualization of some martial
arts, e.g. aikido [Cynarski 1997] and kyudo. In addition, sport (e.g.
judo) is also a ritual in which spectacle is present the aleatory factor
[Kosiewicz 2000], akin to artistic improvisation. Of course, the sport
spectacle is a specific form of spectacle [cf. Kosiewicz 1997].
The theme of the scientific session organized in Lodz (Łódź, Poland) on 4–5 April 2003 was “The Way of The Actor and The Way of
The Warrior”. The two speakers were specialists: Stanisław Tokarski and Wojciech J. Cynarski [Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2004]. Tokarski
narrated his own experiences as a champion of judo, a stuntman in
action films and an investigator. Cynarski pointed out that the Chinese, Japanese and Korean technical and tactical transfer of former
martial arts masters in the form of “kata”, especially the experience of
fighting. But forms are also a record of cultural and symbolic knowledge that hides in the names, gestures, and spiritual dimensions of
practice. Similarly to the theatre, Far Eastern martial arts come from
(or reflect a strong connection to ritual or magic) of a given religious
tradition, as can be seen in the sumo example. These forms are similar to theatrical spectacle. There are aesthetic and meta-aesthetic
relationships and similarities.
Film of martial arts
Martial arts are essentially a component of physical culture [Cynarski,
Sieber, Szajna 2014], but they are also part of other cultural areas. In
the mass culture, there are because of innumerable myths and the
121
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
media today, with their cult of corporeality and violence [cf. Skidmore 1991; Bolelli 2008: 75–86; Cynarski, Obodyński 2011]. They
also participate in cultural dialogues and exchanges on a global scale
[Cynarski, Ebishima, Litwiniuk 2010].
A martial arts film was made in the early 1970’s [cf. Mintz 1978;
Skidmore 1991; Zygmunt 1998; Cynarski 2001c, d], but there are nu-
merous controversies over the definition of this as a film genre. For
example, John Kreng [2008: 23] has mistaken the martial arts film
with a sports film (such as “Rocky”, 1976), and Marilyn Mintz [1978]
mixes martial arts films with mantle and sword (“Zorro”) and various
other films.
Film of martial arts, as a separate film genre, shows in various
conventions – action films, adventures and sensations, historical or
drawings – techniques and spirituality, training and fighting, violence
and the beauty of martial arts [Mintz 1978; Cynarski 2000a, c]. This
genre has evolved from samurai drama, kung-fu cinema (made in Hong
Kong), etc. In popular culture there are popular Japanese “cartoons”
– manga and anime – and computer games on martial arts [Cynarski
2000a]. In addition, the television shows coverage of Martial Arts
world events such as: martial arts festivals and galas, championships,
tournaments and demonstrations of masters.
Theatrical dimension of martial arts causes that the outstanding
performance of the experts makes an object of interest for the mass
media. The media show masters who, without special preparation,
are able to demonstrate their art – practiced daily for many years.
So many martial arts specialists from far-eastern martial arts and
sports such as Bruce Lee, Carlos (Chuck) Norris, Billy Blanks, Dolph
Lundgren and Jeff Spaekmann have been involved in films despite
lack of acting education.
122
Expressive dimension of martial arts
Because of the fashion of martial arts, the action scenes in the new
action films contain the elements of these martial arts for Eastern prov-
idence, which has become somewhat of a standard. In the case of actors
who are not specialists in this field, it is necessary, firstly, to supervise
an expert in the choreography of combat scenes, and secondly to train
an actor to be able to perform all described in the scenario.
Therefore, preparing an actor for a role in a martial arts movie,
even if he knows karate or other martial arts, requires solid training and repeated shooting of scenes. Bruce Lee and Jean-Claude van
Damme’s films are well-known from their well done choreographies.
Martial arts master is more likely to be a good actor than an actor – a
martial arts master.
Tokarski also wrote about Bruce Lee’s myth – about his “kung-fu
poetry.” Lee had metamorphosis from punk to monk; from a strong
fist fan to a person progressing on the path of eastern asceticism
[Tokarski 1989]. Lee stirred up the imagination and launched the
popular martial arts film.
According to Slawomir Zygmunt, it was not until the death of B.
Lee and the premiere of the film “Enter the Dragon” that the mar-
tial arts film was treated as a separate film genre [Zygmunt 1998].
Previously, “kung fu movies” were dominated by brutality with a re-
curring motive for revenge. The breakthrough came in the 1970s
through the personalities of such artists as B. Lee and J. Chan. From
the moment of the first major American-Chinese co-production (Enter
the Dragon, 1973), we can talk about the emergence of a contemporary genre (or genre of action movie) that won the audience of the
West. Beyond the scenes of fighting, there are philosophical elements,
a broader cultural context, as well as a more streamlined script and
a more sensible storyline.
123
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
The spectacular dimension of martial arts is the subject of media
interest, and martial arts experts – martial artists – have become the
stars of the martial arts film. But, not only the aesthetic dimension is
important here. Spiritually young people need the heroes of moral law.
“The Code of Samurai, the student and the master code is used
as the reference standard for expected moral behaviour. The Bushido
Code, the karate and kung-fu codes, the martial arts of the East and
West, are based on the historical necessity of providing a protection
system for survival; They were created for the understanding of the
diverse groups of their communities of interests. This makes most
people adopt specific rules because of cultural needs and social order.
There are recognized universal types of treatment that occur in similar
situations. Audiences are shaky because they are conditioned by their
own beliefs” – stressed Mintz [1978: 206].
For example, the movie “The Last Samurai” shows not only mar-
tial arts for improving personality, character and morals, but rather
a useful martial art of the Japanese bushi – bujutsu, perfected over
hundreds of years. We admire training and combat with the use of
sword, spear, arch, tanto knife, melee (jujutsu); We watch the tactics
of fighting in the situation of quantum advantage of a quadruple
opponent. The spiritual development of the “white barbarians” cap-
tain Algren is spontaneous as if it were a natural consequence of his
self-reflection, the dialogues of Zen (mondo) with Mr. Katsumoto,
and martial arts training.
The protagonist of “The Last Samurai” undergoes the charm of the
Country of the Rising Sun, as well as the protagonist of the “Shogun”
Series. However, the choice of Algren is voluntary, motivated by the
desire for moral rehabilitation. “The Last Samurai” and several other
paintings show historical time, but battles and duels of heroes are
124
Expressive dimension of martial arts
more attractive and portray another type of problem that is particularly a conflict of cultural traditions (and ethical conflict).
Praise the filmmakers not only for the successful battle scenes,
but also and above all for the level of fencing skills presented by the
American actor who wields katana sword very well. Much better than
Scot Glenn (like American boxer Rick) in “The Challenge” or Christopher Lambert (American businessman, of course) in similar roles
(“Highlander III. Mag”, “Hunted”).
The new era of film is co-produced by a number of factors, including technological advances in the field of special effects, access to
cultural roots, social fascination with ethos and the need to revive the
culture of honour. Martial arts can help to create new or restore old
ethos. All the more so because they retain their sense and moral ethos
in the transmission of the former masters (archetypal sages). Wuxia
(archetypes of Chinese heroes) and Bruce Lee, masters of martial arts
and cinema of these martial arts, Kurosawa and Tolkien’s epic become
an inspiration for such contemporary directors as Jackson, Lucas,
Zwick, Ang Lee, Tarantino, Wachowski brothers (now Wachowski
sisters) [cf. Cynarski, Obodyński 2004].
Aesthetic and non-aesthetic compounds
Far Eastern martial arts are essentially movement forms of expression
of Eastern philosophy. However, it is wrong to understand these arts
in terms of their aesthetic sense only. A mistaken, reductiveistic approach to martial arts is their estheticalization and exposition of the
spectacular character. Among the researchers representing this orientation are also Polish social anthropologists, such as Agata Chałupnik
[2005]. Similarly, it is wrong to perceive the art in the mere technical
excellence or efficiency in the fight [Tokarski 1989; Cynarski 2000b].
125
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Martial arts philosophy refers to the old treatises, but is generally formulated today (cf. Cynarski 1997, 2012a; Kim, Back 2000;
Maroteaux, Cynarski 2002–2003; Matsunaga et al. 2009; Piwowarski 2011]. The contemporary philosophy of the modern warrior, the
martial artist, who follows this noble path, the creative homo creator
nobilis, who seeks spiritual spirituality. was shown in several articles,
published in the “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”
and in the quarterly ”Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology” [Cynarski 2000d, 2001a, 2011, 2013; Piwowarski
2013; Shishida, Flynn 2013; Cynarski, Szajna 2017].
Alleged or true associations of martial arts with Zen Buddhism
promote especially the followers of this religious-philosophical doctrine. They have done so for several centuries the teachers and propagators of this school of Buddhism (S. Takuan, D.T. Suzuki, D. Taisen
et al.). On the other hand, martial arts researchers pay attention to
the facts, indicating that even in Japan itself, Zen was one of many
religions or philosophies linked in many ways with martial arts. The
karate of Okinawa referred only to Confucianism. It is only nowadays
(since the 20th century) that the ideology of Bushido and Zen is added
to karate [Egami 1986; Goldner 1992; Cynarski 2004a]. Old classical
martial arts schools, like the 15th century Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu, refer mainly to Taoist magic and Shintoism. Aikido has its own
religious foundation, given to him by Morihei Ueshiba. Only contemporary kendo and kyudo cultivators in Japan are authentically referring
to Bushido and Zen, which is due in particular to the religious beliefs
of the cultivators.
The most important distinguishing features of martial arts among
other manifestations of physical culture appear to be: the pursuit of
the harmony of the body, spirit and mind (for what the psychophysical
126
Expressive dimension of martial arts
training is a tool), the linking of knowledge and philosophy with daily
practice and the presence of knightly ethos [Kim, Back 2000; Cynarski
2002; Cynarski, Sieber, Szajna 2014].
Coded knowledge in motion
Czajkowski [2002] writes about the benefits of shadow training in
relation to boxing and fencing. He draws attention to the psychomotor
preparation and automation of some responses, using combat techniques, which contributes to increased effectiveness in real combat
situations. The same applies, however, to even more technical forms,
called Japanese kata, and present in the teaching system of most Far
East martial arts.
Chinese, Japanese or Korean martial arts transfer the technical
and tactical knowledge of former masters, the experience of fighting,
but also the large amount of cultural and symbolic knowledge that
lies within the names, gestures, and spiritual dimensions of practice
[Cynarski, Duriček 2001].
It can be said that kata training is a task comparable to the Buddhist koan, requiring the development of intuition and concentration
skills, and is to some extent a condition for self-knowledge of the
person exercising. The practice of free fighting can be compared to
mondo – gaining knowledge through dialogue with the teacher. The
partner is a teacher, and the fighters are not limited by the pattern
of the form. This expression of free invention and the ability to react
quickly to changing situations is evidence of the technical maturity
of the student. Often, in order to improve attack and defence skills, to
control distance, timing and rhythm, they are included in the pairing
training program. This is the basic training method in classic kung fu,
karate, jujutsu and kenjutsu schools.
127
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Conclusions
Students perform a certain predetermined role, just like actors. Their
freedom of play allows for different, depending on the convention, the
scope of improvisation. The teacher is similar to the director, practicing
each exercise a little differently, adjusting the exercise program to dojo
students (more or less advanced) and goals. The teacher (sensei) passes
the art to the students, whose work is the master himself. Teaches a
movement that encapsulates the cultural heritage of ancient warriors.
Incorrectly, the reductionist view of martial arts is their esthetization and exposition of only spectacular character. Technical forms
are a movement record of combat techniques. These forms and
particular techniques have in their outer form a significant visual
component, and contain a specific symbolic expression. There are
thus similarities to other arts of expression. There is a chain of connections: magic – ritual – dance – theatre, and consequently – cinema
and film, or also computer games.
References
Almeida Bira (2006), Capoeira – brazylijska forma sztuki. Historia, filozofia,
praktyka, Purana, Wrocław [in Polish].
Anderson A.D. (2001), Asian martial arts cinema, dance, and the cultural
languages of gender, “Asian Journal of Communication, vol. 11, no. 2,
pp. 58–78.
Arauho P.C. de, Jaqueira A.R.F. (2011), Capoeira – fighting sport: its applications to educational environments [in:] A.A. Figueiredo, C. Gutierrez-Garcia [eds.], 2011 Scientific Congress on Martial Arts and Combat
Sports, Viseu-Portugal. Proceedings, Viseu (Portugal), pp. 17–18.
Assuncao M.R. (2005), Capoeira. The History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial
Art, Routledge, London-NY.
128
Expressive dimension of martial arts
Bolelli D. (2008), On the warrior’s path. Philosophy, fighting, and martial arts
mythology, Blue Snake Books, Berkeley, Calif.
Brown D.H.K., Jennings G., Molle A. (2009), Exploring Relationships between
Asian Martial Arts and Religion, “Stadion”, no. 35, pp. 47–66.
Chałupnik A. (2005), Antropologia widowisk. Zagadnienia i wybór tekstów,
UW, Warszawa [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (1997), Tradycja starego japońskiego aiki-jutsu i jego ewolucja do form współcześnie praktykowanych, ”Roczniki Naukowe AWF
w Warszawie”, vol. 36, pp. 109–132 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (1999), Dziedzictwo kultury wojowników. Założenia filozoficzne i funkcje pedagogiczne dalekowschodnich sztuk walki, ”Roczniki
Naukowe AWF w Warszawie”, vol. 38, pp. 55–76.
Cynarski W.J. (2000a), Martial arts budō in culture of the West, WSP, Rzeszów
[in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2000b), Struktura i funkcje dalekowschodnich sztuk walki,
”Roczniki Naukowe AWF w Warszawie”, vol. 39, pp. 71–90.
Cynarski W.J. (2000c), Film gatunku sztuk walki 1969–1999, Scientific Year’s
Issue ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 1, pp. 240–248
[in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2000d), W kierunku nowej, humanistycznej nauki o człowieku. Antropologia psychofizycznego postępu, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury /
Movement for Culture”, vol. 1, pp. 99–103.
Cynarski W.J. (2001a), Od zenu walki do humanizmu – od pierwotnych kultur
wojowników do homo creator nobilis przyszłości, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury
/ Movement for Culture”, vol. 2, pp. 215–233.
Cynarski W.J. (2001b), Dynamiczna kobieta ponowoczesna, ”Ido – Ruch dla
Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 2, pp. 180–192 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2001c), Martial arts phenomenon in mass culture, ”Physical
Education and Sport”, no. 2, pp. 261–270.
Cynarski W.J. (2001d), Commercialization Process of the Far East Martial
Arts, ”Studies in Physical Culture and Tourism”, vol. 8, p. 191–201.
129
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W. J. (2002), Proces globalizacji. Dialog kultur czy konflikt wartości?,
Instytut Europejskich Studiów Społecznych w Rzeszowie, Rzeszów
[in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2004a), Teoria i praktyka dalekowschodnich sztuk walki w perspektywie europejskiej, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów.
Cynarski W.J. (2004b), Związki dalekowschodnich sztuk walki z teatrem,
”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 4, pp. 256–261.
Cynarski W.J. (2011), Homo Creator Nobilis – the chivalrous idea, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 1,
pp. 27–32.
Cynarski W.J. (2012a), Anthropology of Martial Arts. Studies and Essays of
the Sociology and Philosophy of Martial Arts, Rzeszow University Press,
Rzeszów. The Lykeion Library edition, vol. 16 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2012b), Martial Arts Phenomenon – Research and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów.
Cynarski W.J. (2013), General reflections about the philosophy of martial arts,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
13, no. 3, pp. 1–6.
Cynarski W.J. (2015), Ekspresyjny wymiar sztuk walki, ”Kultura Bezpieczeństwa. Nauka – Praktyka – Refleksje”, no. 17, pp. 21–39 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Duriček M. (2001), Symbolika wschodnioazjatyckich sztuk
walki, „Przegląd Naukowy Instytutu Wychowani Fizycznego i Zdrowotnego UR”, no. 2, pp. 167–175.
Cynarski W.J., Ebishima H., Litwiniuk A. (2010), Globalizacja na obszarze
kultury sportowej – przykłady systemów pochodzenia pozaeuropejskiego
[in:] Z. Dziubiński, P. Rymarczyk [eds.], Kultura fizyczna a globalizacja,
SALOS RP / AWF, Warsaw, pp. 139–150 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Lee-Barron J. (2014), Philosophies of martial arts and their
pedagogical consequences, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 11–19; doi: 10.14589/ido.
14.1.2.
130
Expressive dimension of martial arts
Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2004), Droga aktora a droga wojownika, sesja
naukowa, „Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 4, pp.
436–439 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2004), Ethos of martial arts in the movie
at the beginning of the 21st century [in:] J. Kosiewicz, K. Obodyński
[eds.], Sports involvement in changing Europe, PTNKF, Rzeszów, pp.
136–152.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2009), The symbolic dimension of Japanese budō
[in:] D.H. Jütting, B. Schulze, U. Müller [eds.], Local Sport in Europe,
Waxmann, Münster-New York-München-Berlin, pp. 67–75.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2011), Self-identification through bodily awareness in the contemporary mass culture [in:] W.J. Cynarski, K. Obodyński,
N. Porro [eds.], Sport, Bodies, Identities and Organizations: Conceptions
and Problems, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów, pp. 27–39.
Cynarski W.J., Reguli Z. (2014), Martial arts science institutionalisation: specialized scientific periodicals, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of
Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 54–62; doi: 10.14589/
ido.14.1.5.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2006), Training of martial arts – holistic concept,
“Sport Wyczynowy”, no. 11–12, pp. 4–14.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Szajna G. (2014), Martial arts in physical culture,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
14, no. 4, pp. 31–38; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.4.4.
Cynarski W.J., Skowron J. (2014), An analysis of the conceptual language
used for the general theory of martial arts – Japanese, Polish and English
terminology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 49–66; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.7.
Cynarski W.J., Szajna G. (2017), The nobility of spirit – Homo Creator Nobilis. Towards the anthropology of the knightly way, “Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 1–8;
doi: 10.14589/ido.17.1.1.
131
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J., Yu J.H., Borysiuk Z. (2017), Technical forms in teaching karate
and taekwondo, “Journal of Combat Sports and Martial Art”, vol. 8, no.
1, pp. 31–36; doi: 10.5604/01.3001.0010.4619.
Czajkowski Z. (2002), Tajemnice walki z cieniem, ”Sport Wyczynowy”, no.
11–12, pp. 119–123 [in Polish].
Dykhuizen J.C. (2000), Culture, training, and perception of the martial arts:
Aikido example, “Journal of Asian Martial Arts”, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 9–31.
Eberhard W. (2001), Chinese symbols. Dictionary, Universitas, Kraków [in
Polish].
Egami S. (1986), The Heart of Karate-Do, Kodansha, Tokyo.
Fromm E. (1977), Zapomniany język, PIW, Warszawa [in Polish].
Goldner C.G. (1992), Fernöstliche Kampfkunst. Zur Psychologie der Gewalt im
Sport, AHP Verlag, München [in German].
Green T.A. (2003), Surving the Middle passage: traditional African martial
arts in the Americas [in:] T.A. Green, J.R. Svinth [eds.] (2010), Martial
Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation, ABC-Clio,
Santa Barbara (CA), pp. 129–148.
Green T.A., Svinth J.R. [eds.] (2010), Martial Arts in the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation, ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara (CA).
Grossman E. (1998), Towards a semiosis of the martial arts: Aikido as a symbolic form of communication, “Journal of Asian Martial Arts”, vol. 7, no. 2.
Guiroud P. (1974), Semiologia, Warsaw [in Polish]
Harasymowicz J. (2011), Tradition of physical exercises and martial arts in
actors’ education, “Arch Budo”, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 65–71.
Hooge S.R. (2003), Pakiet rytmu [in:] W.J. Cynarski, K. Obodyński [eds.],
Humanistyczna teoria sztuk i sportów walki – koncepcje i problemy, Rzeszów, pp. 143–149 [in Polish].
Hooge S.R. (2004), Theorie des Rhytmus im Kampfsport, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 4, pp. 286–292 [in German].
Jennings G., Brown D.H.K., Sparkes A.C. (2010), It Can Be a Religion If You
Want: Wing Chun Kung Fu as a Secular Religion, “Ethnography”, vol. XI,
no. 4, pp. 533–557.
132
Expressive dimension of martial arts
Jones D.E. [ed.] (2002), Combat, Ritual, and Performance. Anthropology of
the Martial Arts, Praeger, Westport, CT.
Jung C.G. (1976), Archetypes and Symbols, Czytelnik, Warsaw [in Polish].
Kauz H. (1977), The Martial Spirit: An Introduction to the Origin, Philosophy
and Psychology of the Martial Arts, The Overlool Press, New York.
Kim D., Back A. (2000), The Way do Go: Philosophy in Martial Arts Practice,
Nanam, Seoul.
Klens-Bigman D. (1999), Toward a theory of martial arts as performance
art, ”Journal of Asian Martial Arts”, vol. 8, no. 2.
Klens-Bigman D. (2002), Toward a theory of martial arts as performance art
[in:] D.E. Jones [ed.], Combat, Ritual, and Performance. Antropology of
the Martial Arts, Praeger, Wesport, Connecticut – London, Westport,
Connecticut – London, pp. 1–10.
Kosiewicz J. (1997), The structure of a sports spectacle [in:] Philosophy of
physical culture, Palacky University, Olomouc.
Kosiewicz J. (2000), Widowisko sportowe w świetle założeń aleatoryzmu
– stałe i przypadkowe elementy struktury spektaklu [in:] J. Kosiewicz,
Kultura fizyczna i sport w perspektywie filozofii, AWF, Warszawa (Studia
i Monografie no. 83), pp. 191–198 [in Polish].
Kreng J. (2008), Fight choreography. The art of non-verbal dialogue, Thomson Cours Technology PTR, Boston (USA).
Kusio J. (2002), Terukkuttu – tamilski teatr ludowy, ”Przegląd Orientalistyczny”, PTO Warszawa, no. 1–2, pp. 59–67 [in Polish].
Künstler M. J. (1985), Mitologia chińska, Wydawnictwa Artystyczne i Filmowe, Warszawa [in Polish].
Łabędzka I. (1999), Obrzędowy teatr Dalekiego Wschodu, UAM, Poznań [in
Polish].
Maliszewski M. (1996), Spiritual Dimensions of the Martial Arts, C.E. Tuttle
Company, Rutland-Tokyo.
Maroteaux R.J., Cynarski W.J. (2002–2003), On philosophy of Japanese martial arts – questions and answers, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement
for Culture”, vol. 3, pp. 48–55.
133
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Matsunaga H. et al. (2009), Budo: The Martial Way of Japan, Nippon Budokan, Tokyo.
McFarlane S. (1990), Mushin, morals, and martial arts – a discussion of
Keenan’s Yogacara critique, “Japanese Journal of Religious Studies”,
vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 397–420.
Mintz M.D. (1978), The Martial Arts Film, A.S. Barnes and Company, South
Brunswick and New York, Thomas Yoseloff Ltd., London.
Molle A. (2010), Towards a Sociology of Budo: Studying the Implicit, ”Implicit
Religion”, vol. XIII, no. 1.
Ogarek-Czoj H. (1981), Pradzieje i legendy Korei, Iskry, Warsaw [in Polish].
Pańczyk W., Cynarski W.J. (2006), Imitative forms of movement as a way of
counteracting physical passivity of a contemporary man, “Archives of
Budo”, vol. 2, pp. 45–52.
Pauka K. (1997), A flower of martial arts: The randai folk theatre of the
Minangkabau in West Sumatra, ”Journal of Asian Martial Arts”, vol. VI,
no. 4.
Pauka K. (1998), Theater & Martial Arts in West Sumatra: Randai & Silek of
the Minangkabau, Ohio University Press, USA.
Pilat W. (2010), Żowtiak: Bojowyj Hopak. Kozackie licarskie mistectwo,
ukraińskie bojowe mistectwo; bazowa technika Bojowoho Hopaka,
Społom, Lviv [in Ukrainian].
Piwowarski J. (2011), Bezpieczeństwo i samodoskonalenie jako elementy
świętej Drogi Wojownika, Zeszyt Naukowy ”Apeiron”, Wyższa Szkoła
Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego i Indywidualnego w Krakowie, no. 6, pp.
231–245 [in Polish].
Piwowarski J. (2013), Moral strength and safety culture. Revitalizing the West
in view of Japanese conceptions, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of
Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 7–15; doi: 10.14589/
ido.13.4.2.
Reis A. (2005), Capoeira: Health & Social Well-Being, Thesaurus, Brasilia.
Rut P. (2014), Gala & Congress: IMACSSS 2014, documentary (a film).
134
Expressive dimension of martial arts
Shishida F., Flynn S.M. (2013), How does the philosophy of martial arts
manifest itself? Insights from Japanese martial arts, “Ido Movement
for Culture. Journal of martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 3, pp.
29–36.
Sieber L., Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2007), Spheres of fight in martial arts,
”Archives of Budo”, vol. 3, pp. 42–48.
Simpkins C., Simpkins A. (2007), Confucianism and the Asian Martial Traditions, “Revista de Artes Marciales Asiáticas”, vol. II, no. 2, pp. 46–53.
Skidmore M.J. (1991), Popular culture – the martial arts, “Journal of Popular
Culture”, vol. 25, no. 1, p. 129.
Sonoda-Nunes R.J., De Oliveira S.R., Wanderley M. Jr. (2009), Capoeira: The
Brazilian martial art and infantil school education, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 9, pp. 130–138.
Steiner M. (2002), Uwagi na marginesie książki Izabelli Łabędzkiej „Obrzędowy teatr Dalekiego Wschodu”, ”Kultura i Społeczeństwo”, ISP PAN,
vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 157–179 [in Polish].
Ślęzak M. (2007), Capoeira według M.R. Assuncao, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury
/ Movement for Culture”, vol. 7, pp. 228–229.
Tharnbury B.E. (1995), Behind the mask: community and performance in
Japan’s folk performing arts, “Asian Theatre Journal”, vol. XII, no. 1.
Tokarski S. (1989), Sztuki walki. Ruchowe formy ekspresji filozofii Wschodu,
Glob, Szczecin [in Polish].
Westbrook A., Ratti O. (1970), Aikido and the Dynamic Sphere: An Illustrated
Introduction, C.E. Tuttle, Vermont.
Willemin V., Mairet S., Nisse B. (1996), Mystere des Arts Martiaux, Guy Tredaniel Ed., Paris [in French].
Yi Duk-moo, Park Je-ga (2000), Muye Dobo Tongji. Comprehensive Illustrated
Manual of Martial Arts. By order of King Jungjo, trans. by Sang H. Kim,
Turtle Press, Hartford.
Zeng H.Z., Cynarski W.J., Lisheng Xie (2013), Martial Arts Anthropology, Participants’ Motivation and Behaviours. Martial Arts in Chanshu:
135
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Participants’ Motivation, Practice Times and Health Behaviours, Lambert Academic Publishing, Saarbrücken.
Zygmunt S. (1998), From Bruce Lee to van Damme. Lexicon of films (CD-ROM,
edn. Wiedza i Życie), no. 1 [in Polish].
CHAPTER 6
About evolution of martial arts
KEY WORDS
martial arts, combat sports, modification, technical programme, changes, reasons
ABSTRACT
PROBLEM AND AIM. It is a contribution for scientific discours on the
institutionalization of martial arts, in socio-cultural and historical perspective. The theoretical perspective is created by two complementary
approaches – the humanistic theory of martial arts and a complex
holistic approach based on the systemic motricity in sport.
METHOD. The author hypothesized that an incomplete knowledge of
the martial arts’ instructors changes them by introducing new technical program elements, in place of the missing. The main method is
over 40 year participant observation in the martial arts environment.
The second one is the analysis of the subject literature.
RESULTS. We can be stated that practical knowledge on jujutsu and
karate, transmitted to Europe and Western countries, was generally
probably incomplete. It followed filling in missing parts of knowledge
137
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
transfer. Currently, development, changes and institutionalization of
martial arts run in different directions. New combat sports and eclectic martial arts, usually advertised as the most effective, are created.
New eclectic styles in many cases mixed up karate with boxing and
with other combat sports / martial arts. There are taught martial arts
differ sometimes quite far from the Asian pattern. We find new names
of modern styles and schools. But, for connoisseurs the most valuable
are classical, original martial arts.
CONCLUSIONS. Programmes of teaching and rules are modified. Sometimes, there are created new, more easy forms of institutionalization
of the pathway to the mastery. It is a kind of pathology. This is due to
the progressive commercialization of the combat sports and martial
arts market. Progress is not always for something better.
Introduction
It is a contribution6 to a theoretical perspective are two complementary approaches – the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts, anthropology
of martial arts [Jones 2002; Cynarski 2004, 2012a, b] and a complex
holistic approach based on the systemic motricity in sport [Figueiredo
2009]. It is a contribution for scientific discours on the institution-
alization of martial arts, in socio-cultural and historical perspective.
The key words are understood according to the Humanistic Theory of
Martial Arts [Cynarski, Skowron 2014].
Hypothesis: An incomplete knowledge of the martial arts’ instructors changed the martial arts by introducing new technical program
elements, in place of the missing. That changes occur as a result of having to adapt to new times, is pretty obvious. When the melee weapons
6
It is a work follow-on article about the changes and stages of development of martial
arts [Cynarski, Mytskan 2014].
138
About evolution of martial arts
ceased to be universal, fencing lost its importance in self-defence. This
happened because of several social factors, such as democratization,
equalization of living, urbanization, universal education and universal
military training. New martial arts, developing combat techniques
have become useful for the uniformed services and civilian citizens
(self-defence). In contrast, untrained instructors often try to supplement the deficiencies of education through the compilation of familiar
elements, borrowings and similar treatments.
The main method is over 40 year participant observation of the
author in the martial arts environment. The second one is the analysis
of the subject literature [Znaniecki 1934; Krippendorf 2004; Mayring
2004].
Martial arts in the process of institutional and ideological change
are an interesting subject, especially from the perspective of sociology
of sport, sociology of leisure, and sociology of martial arts [cf. Goodger
B.C., Goodger J.M. 1977; Cynarski, Obodyński 2005; Cynarski 2006,
2011, 2012a; Molle 2010; Sanchez-Garcia, Spencer 2013; Cynarski
2017]. The institutionalization of martial arts refers to a number of
issues [Cynarski et al. 2009]. Here we will focus on the changes taking place. Reflection will focus on karate as one of the most popular
martial arts.
From chaos to creation of martial arts schools
Early man was of necessity a man struggling Homo pugnans [Cynarski 2000]. These were at first a spontaneous form of aggression and
violence. Gradually fighting skills were developed and passed on from
father to son, that in cultures of warriors (cultura militum, cultura
militaris) gain special recognition [Cynarski 1999, 2000; Jones 2002;
Brown, Jennings, Molle 2009; Czopek 2013]. Because they constituted
139
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
the life and death of a warrior. Sometimes it was transformed into
ritual, like sumo wrestling [cf. Kojiki; Kotański 1986].
The use in the fighting his own body and arms, from the stone
and stick beginning, was for centuries improved. Human passed on
the knowledge of the best technology and battle tactics, individual and
group. It was taught to control emotions and prepare to fight to the
death. Then also – to fight a limited rules, where it was not already on
the physical annihilation of the enemy. It was such Greek agonistics.
Gymnasium was a kind of school of military skills. Spartan upbringing
or Vikings education was primarily a warrior education.
Gladiatorship [cf. Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2006] was a step back, undo
the warriors culture to earlier, barbarous form. However, the gladiator
school were, we might say, schools of martial arts. They focused solely
on efficiency in battle or fight. Early schools of martial arts taught
martial skills for strictly utilitarian aims [cf. McCarthy 1999; Sieber,
Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2006].
Schools of knights and fencing schools, or institution of fencing
teacher to the court (whether in medieval Europe, and Japan, China or
Korea [Yi, Park 2000]), were an important step towards the development of martial arts. Gradually they evolved from knight craft and art
of killing, to today form, when many of them have a form of education
system [Vit, Reguli 2015].
An important innovation in the history of martial arts was a combination of practicing them with religious practice. In Europe, it was
limited in scope to the ethos of the Christian knights and military
orders. However, in East Asia it has been developed by monks and
priests: Buddhist [Shahar 2008], Shinto and Taoist [Brown, Jennings,
Molle 2009]. Linking the martial arts training of religious practice
has enriched the warriors pathway dimensions of transgression and
140
About evolution of martial arts
transcendence. Confucianism is the social ethics, which was very important for creation wushu culture, bushi culture and Okinawan karate
[Simpkins C., Simpkins A. 2007].
Imported transmission – incomplete knowledge
– filling in missing parts
Changes of martial arts refer to modifications of teaching programmes,
also trainings and teachings methods, techniques and forms, preferences in tactics, etc. The changes in the functioning of the institutional
arrangements of martial arts are following [Draeger 1996; Cynarski
et al. 2009; Słopecki 2012]. New organizations are established, adopted new criteria for evaluation of the master, and sport competition
rules. An eclectic creations, usually advertised as the most effective,
are created [Cynarski, Sieber, Litwiniuk 2006].
Imported contents were generally not the transfer of complete
knowledge. Thus, successive teachers of martial arts make up the missing part of the system of knowledge from their own experience or their
new ideas. Although martial arts then losing a bit of its originality, but
followed its further development [cf. Grzegorz, Walendowicz 2008].
In this way from a combination of Japanese judo and Caucasian
wrestling was created sambo and Russian school of judo; a combination of elements of jujutsu and judo with American wrestling – Brazilian jiu-jitsu (Bjj) [Green, Svinth 2003]. In Germany were created
eclectic styles and organisations of self-defence jujutsu and sport jujutsu [Renninghoff, Witte 1998], etc.
Martial arts are looking for their new form. There are e.g. various forms of today budo – from aikido to karate, different attitude to
competitive sports, different emphases regarding the purpose and
most important principles. Other are “philosophical” explanations for
141
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
full-contact styles, and for the systems in which a universal warriors
ethos is kept (Idokan) [Sieber, Cynarski 2013], or where references
to Zen Buddhism are declared [Rżany 2001].
Karate example
In a large abbreviate we can assume that the development of karate
followed on the road: China – Okinawa – Japan – Europe and Western
countries. Imported from China to Okinawa knowledge on Hsing-I 7,
south style of the White Crane (baihequan) and the South Shaolin (study of Chojun Miyagi) was probably incomplete. Masters from
Okinawa made also an adaptation of the “Chinese Hand”, enriching it
for use in the fighting specially hardened fists (seiken).
Former karate, related to Chinese tradition, was a fairly com-
plete system. Book Bubishi [McCarthy 2008] contains instructions to
fight, “the grip” (as in jujutsu) and such specific medical knowledge.
Okinawan schools still teach parallel techniques without the use of
conventional weapons and weapons of Ryukyu kobudo [Alexander
1991]. According to Alexander Staniszew (8 dan Shorin-ryu karate),
Japanese styles are only “an incomplete copy” [Cynarski 2014]. On the
other hand, Japanese karate gained Samurai Bushido spirit.
In Japan, except the four main styles Shotokan, Goju-ryu, Shito-ryu,
Wado-ryu), was come into being the Kyokushin karate, known also
as Kyokushinkai (from the name of organization). Against Gichin Funakoshi’s karatedo principles, it refers to the samurai tradition of
struggle and puts on a hard, contact fight [Oyama 1979]. Generally, the
Japanese karate accepts a sports rivalry, though in different formulas.
7
Chatan Yara (1668–1756), after 20 years of study in the Middle Kingdom, was later
a teacher of Takahara Peichin. He probably taught a simplified version of learned in
China martial arts.
142
About evolution of martial arts
This causes further changes expressed in teaching, technical preferences, and moving away from the Okinawan original.
Between Okinawa and Western countries has been further modified of the content, transferred to America and Europe. New styles
and schools were founded. Some of them, as Zendo karate Tai-te-tao
(Idokan karate) [Sieber, Cynarski 2002–2003; Sieber 2011], are an
expression of opposition to the sportification of karate and taekwon-
do [cf. Miłkowski 1984–85; Hartl, Faber, Bögle 1989]. They develop a
deeper, humanistic sense of karate (as by Funakoshi [1994]), or opt
for the real fighting skills – in self-defence [Habersetzer 1994, 2007;
Sieber 2011].
In karate is perceived a unique educational potential [Oyama
1979; Liebrecht 1993; Wolters 2005; Zeng et al. 2013]. The cult of
force and violence (present form of worship of the god of war) leads
to destruction. In contrast, humanized approach, pioneered by G. Funakoshi, giving karate as a creative activity – for self-creation and the
formation of character of students.
In some schools maintained the cult of strength and hardness
associated with Bushido code. Vide – school and organisation of Masutatsu Oyama. Elsewhere, as in the Zendo karate Tai-te-tao, the
fight is not about to demonstrate superiority over the opponent. We
only shared learning martial arts, error correction and improvement
of skills. When the fight is non-contact, but more conventional, more
important role plays emotional self-control of practitioners.
New eclectic styles in many cases mixed up karate with boxing
(different varieties of all-style karate, free-style karate). This has only
little in common with the original, but is close to kickboxing. Modernized versions of Okinawan karate and kobudo are created [cf. Sieber,
Cynarski 2013].
143
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Other examples
In Europe various schools and organizations are active, in which they
are taught martial arts differ sometimes quite far from the Japanese
pattern (if applicable include jujutsu) [cf. Shortt, Hashimoto 1979;
Maroteaux 1995; Murlowski 2001; Mol 2003; Borbely 2005; Szabo,
Sakai 2013]. Jujutsu has been reduced to self-defense (goshinjutsu), as
amended in the sport discipline, preserved in the traditional form, to
be replaced by judo, or achieved a sublime form judo-do / ido [Klinger
von Klingerstorff 1951; Cynarski 2012c; Sieber, Cynarski 2013]. Along
with the fashion for MMA (mixed martial arts) Brazilian jiu-jitsu has
gained popularity.
Place of numerous fallen jujutsu schools took judo sport that has
become a model for future martial arts falling onto the road of sport.
Judo was supposed to be the educational system – both a martial art,
a moral way and sport. This particular sport has become in time a
wrestling in keikogi, a sport where the main goal is to win. But is it
not a regress to jutsu form [cf. Kano 1932a, b, 1936; Draeger 1973;
1996; Villamón et al. 2004; Tokarski 2006]?
Here are practiced various forms of evolutionary aikijutsu – from
the classic, to the M. Ueshiba’s aikido. French instructors of higher
rank Alain Floquet and Roland Maroteaux proved that it is possible to
withdraw from aikido, which is the art of harmony motion, to aikibudo,
aikigoshindo and aikijutsu. Recovered for contemporary classical martial arts, grown in the classical schools of Daito-ryu and Takeda-ryu.
The very title of Floquet’s [1989] book indicates the direction of the
modern form to the historical older one. This same student and athlete
of sports kendo drew the classical kenjutsu (Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu) for Europe. Classic original is an extremely valuable for
144
About evolution of martial arts
connoisseurs [Cynarski, Obodyński 2005]. However, there are a variety
of strange forms called aikijutsu, but taught by incompetent teachers.
Wushu / kung-fu – is currently heading towards sportsmanship,
but not limited to [Lu 2008; Shahar 2008; Acevedo Gutiérrez, Mei
2010; Kernspecht 2013]. Sometimes it is, for example, the evolution
in the direction to the real efficiency in the self-defence and the logic
of combat [Kernspecht 2011; Brizin, Kernspecht 2014].
In addition to naming of modern style the traditional or use for
marketing purposes historical names, there are many new martial arts
with different names, such as the name of the founder of the school.
This is especially fashionable in USA, but not only.
Other changes and their causes
Some new styles are created with strange names, e.g. karate-do Tsunami – the expression of revolution against traditional karate. Its
creator Ryszard Murat enforces his own rules, and practices karate combined with Zen Buddhism [Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2005; Murat
2006]. The original organisation of this style explicitly rejected any
sporting competition, explaining that sport karate is a negation of
the idea of karatedo [Cynarski 2014]. The creator of this style created in Poland has, of course, 10th dan. This degree is awarded by
the Polish Martial Arts Federation, in which federation R. Murat is
the president.
Aware of the limitations of the program / system implies the need
to modify, update. Modernization is implemented, often by borrowing
[Lee 1975; Kernspecht 2013]. The philosophy of the martial arts [Kim,
Back 2000; Maroteaux, Cynarski 2002–2003; Cynarski 2013b; Shishida, Flynn 2013; Cynarski, Lee-Barron 2014] is modified in parallel
with changes in the curriculum, by adapting to the changing situation.
145
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Complement or improve curricula relates in particular to new
varieties of martial arts that originated in Europe, America or Australia. This style can often be “the most effective”. Chief Master adds
something (which in his view was missing) or reject (as redundant).
For example, in many schools of Japanese karate abandoned weap-
ons training. Sometimes set of kata – technical forms – is changed.
For example, Detmar Schmidt, a student of Lothar Sieber, added in
his school sixth form to five inherited from the founder of style. In
contrast, L. Sieber, as a legal successor of the Zendo karate Tai-tetao style, reduced the amount of the kata to four [cf. Schmidt 2002,
2004; Sieber 2011].
The curriculum can be simplified, reduced, or enriched, expanded. In
the first case, in terms of effectiveness of teaching fighting techniques
in a shorter time, in the second – for educational reasons (education
requires a longer exposure time).
It is difficult to overestimate the social context of changes. Social
contexts of feudalism in Japan and Europe, and today’s social relationships create different groups of conditions. Feudalism blocked
access to certain goods to people outside of the class or status. Today,
these barriers have disappeared almost completely. Today martial
arts subject democratization and dissemination. Of course it is different specificities, martial arts, preferred by various social layers and
groups. Martial arts, where the fight is a convention (aikido, iaido,
capoeira), require a different motivation than the particular contact
combat sports. Some varieties combine the arts and sports, and their
social participation is the most diverse. In studies of the stratification
system of society the following are generally distinguished: 1) positions resulting from social background; 2) positions developed independently; 3) inherited positions [Cynarski 2013].
146
About evolution of martial arts
There are created new forms of institutionalization of the pathway
to the mastery. Difficult principles and requirements result in frustration from the inability to cope with them. A common strategy of
self-proclaimed masters is therefore breaking or bypassing the rules
and change existing requirements. In many organizations, colleges of
these organizations grant their members the highest master’s degrees.
Even worse, when someone proclaims himself to be a master of the
highest rank [Słopecki 2013]. This is due to the progressive commercialization of the martial arts market.
Stages of development (or regression)
Stage 1. Establishment of martial arts schools. Primary or chaotic
forms of struggle underwent a gradual improvement in the direction
of a more rational use. Gradually fighting skills were developed and
passed from father to son, and knowledge of the techniques and tactics of fighting (individual and group) were accumulated. Still it was
only about efficiency in overcoming the enemy.
In cultures of warriors (cultura militum, cultura militaris), this
practical knowledge and skills gained special recognition [Cynarski
1999; Czopek 2013], because they determined the life and death of a
warrior. In the families of warriors followed the generational transmission. A few prominent experts gained the role of teachers fencing,
combat or other military skills. Also schools had begun to emerge.
Such schools were the ancient Greek gymnasium, Roman gladiator
school, and later – in Europe – the school of knights and school of
fencing. Among the various institutions, we can specify here ancient
Greek Olympics (agonistics), gladiatorial contests (gladiatorship),
tournaments, contests, shooting and equestrian, duels and codes of
honor [cf. Takagi 1984].
147
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Some schools focused since its inception solely on teaching self-defense and combat, as it concerns arising in the seventeenth century
in Southern China Ving Tsun kung-fu or its various varieties today [cf.
Kernspecht 2013]. Others, such as founded in the fifteenth century
Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu, teach both struggle with different
types of traditional weapons, combat, strategy and art of fortification,
and magical-medical knowledge [cf. Otake 1977 a, b]. Tenshinshoden
Katorishinto-ryu is the first school of classical bujutsu – Japanese martial arts, which actually operates until today.
Stage 2. From the early martial arts into educational systems.
Early martial arts schools learned skills of war for the strictly utilitarian purposes [cf. McCarthy 1999; Sieber, Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2007].
From fighting skills, along with the development of warriors’ culture,
martial arts matured into an educational systems. Creators of Kodokan
judo and e.g. Nihon jujutsu [Sato 1998] intended to make the educa-
tional systems.
Martial arts, which remained at the stage of ‘jutsu’, teach techniques and tactics, and nothing else. Only some schools have joined
the teaching of certain skills with moral education. In schools teaching only self-defence or combat/fighting there is little attention to
appropriate education of students – forming their personalities. In
general, the effect on exerciser’s personality is determined mainly by
master-teacher. He is mainly responsible, what will be the impact of
practicing a martial art on a student.
The great masters of the Japanese kendo, and the achievements
of the “Big Three of Budo” (J. Kano – judo, G. Funakoshi – karatedo,
M. Ueshiba – aikido) have contributed to the fact that in the martial
arts began to emphasize higher goals and values of the ‘Warrior’s
148
About evolution of martial arts
Pathway’. ‘Do’, the equivalent of the Chinese Dao (Tao), it was the
moral way, which is more important than perfection in combat skills
[cf. Funakoshi 1994; Draeger 1996; Wolters 2005].
Was Jigoro Kano right that a combination of martial art and sport
will ensure judo its best execution, as the education system? Unfortunately, in the case of many martial arts is a reduction of purposes
to the sports result, reducing of training for content useful in combat
sports, in general – a regression to the stage of ‘jutsu’ (with a loss of
real efficiency in free-fighting), and sometimes dehumanization and
other pathologies. This applies to changes in fencing [cf. Newman
2005; Czajkowski 2006], changes in judo (in the direction of strength,
wrestling sport) [Villamón et al. 2004], changes in sport karate and
taekwondo [Rżany 2001; Cynarski 2014; Moenig 2017].
The most important modern synthesies include the introduction
of rules and some jujutsu techniques to karate by H. Otsuka 10 dan
(Wado-ryu school, 1934–35), and then some Korean techniques (high
back and rotational kicks), Chinese (circular blocks and intercepts)
and the Thai (low kicks, knee attacks) by M. Oyama to the Kyokushin
style (1951–57). The “anty-stylet” of sport karate was created in
1975 Zendo karate Tai-te-tao. Its creator Peter Jahnke borrowed
some technical and tactical solutions from Otsuka, while others from
Chinese kenpo (serial techniques, block traps) and taekwondo. This
style has evolved and improved in the technical field of L. Sieber
10 dan.
Stage 3A. Imported message – incomplete knowledge – filling in
missing parts. Untrained students, becoming the masters (self-proclaimed), became the necessity of adding the missing elements. In this
way numerous new schools, styles and systems, usually of eclectic
149
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
character were created. This applies to various forms of self-defense,
‘combat’ (type) systems, the new ‘most effective’ schools and styles.
Not always, these new creations are worthless. Usually, however, a
main reason for the creation are the ambitions of creators, ambitions
of individual countries (the creation of new sports referring to local
tradition) and commercial considerations.
Although Japanese jujutsu instructors appeared in the West at
the turn of the 19th and 20th century, but the knowledge of the martial arts has long been limited to the defensive holds, that is, to some
self-defence techniques. In this way the jujutsu self-defence was presented in numerous tutorials – books by H.I. Hancock, Z. Kłośnik,
F. van Haesendonck, A. Glucker and others. Meanwhile, this self-defence (Jap. goshinjutsu) is only a subsystem of jujutsu.
Stage 3B. Other changes and their causes. Aware of the limitations
of a program or an educational system provokes the need for modifications, for example, updates as to adaptation to new situations.
Modernization is made (in terms of program content or teaching
methods), or borrowings from other systems. Bruce Lee was one
of the pioneers of the modernization of the classic martial arts, especially Chinese kung-fu [Lee 1975; Kernspecht 2013]. The Bruce
Lee’s revolution was to reject the primary for centuries method of
transfering knowledge in the form of technical formal systems. Lee
was also a pioneer in the use of different pads and trainers. He experimented with combining different methods of fighting and picking
techniques useful in a real fight [cf. Lee 1975; Inosanto 1976; Green,
Svinth 2010].
Combat systems had an eclectic form from the beginning, in which
it was most important to training a soldier or a policeman in a short
150
About evolution of martial arts
time – to teach him a set of relatively simple techniques [cf. Fairbairn
1931]. In the uniformed services the emphasis is on utilitarian skills
– Jap. ‘jutsu’.
Thus, the modification is not always extorted incomplete knowl-
edge or limited access to full competence and the opportunity to
confirm that power. Sometimes it was a genuine need to adapt rigid
systems to new conditions and needs. It required only the behavior
of some guiding principles to the resulting new quality will internally
consistent.
The reason for the changes in some of martial arts is a change
of the fashion and motivation exercisers. In general, the interest in
traditional martial arts has decreased in recent years for sport rivalry [cf. Furrier 2011; Vit, Reguli 2011; Jakhel, Pieter 2013]. However,
the elitist areas of martial arts are still practiced in traditional way,
like in ancient times [cf. Otake 1977; Maroteaux 1995; Mol 2001;
Mor-Stabilini 2013].
Many martial arts become combat sports; there is a feat based
on the theory of sport. Technical level increases, but at the expense
of poorer repertoire of trained technicians. In general, the level of
self-defence and free fighting education is increasing. The exchange
of experience of representatives of various martial arts and combat
sports makes a clear progress in this area, so some classic martial arts
techniques are anachronistic, maintaining museum value, or serve
more and more recreation, aesthetics of movement, and health.
On the other extreme the poles appear and intensify the humanization of martial arts – styles that are more schools of self-improvement, of life and of humanity than of fighting and violence. It’s
not about defeating an opponent. The opponent becomes more of a
partner and the technique has to be 100% controlled (dynamic but
151
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
retained), which is conducive to self-control and responsibility. Moving
away from contact fighting makes it possible to practice such martial arts throughout life. Moving away from the sport and changing
the meaning of the fight and the purpose of the exercises, of course,
changes the method of training. In place of fear, enmity and aggression, a friendly atmosphere can be found, but this should not lead to
a reduction in discipline and workload. First of all, these schools are
intellectually superior to contact varieties and seem to be the future
of non-formal martial arts cultivated for self-realization.
Conclusions
In a large abbreviate we can assume that the development of karate
followed on the road: China – Okinawa – Japan – Europe and Western
countries. Imported knowledge was generally probably incomplete. It
followed filling in missing parts of knowledge transfer. In some other
martial arts (like jujutsu) it was similarly.
Currently, development, changes and institutionalization of martial arts run in different directions. New combat sports and eclectic
martial arts, usually advertised as the most effective, are created. New
eclectic styles in many cases mixed up karate with boxing and with
other combat sports / martial arts. There are taught martial arts differ
sometimes quite far from the Asian pattern. We find new names of
modern styles and schools. But, for connoisseurs the most valuable
are classic, original martial arts.
Programmes of teaching and rules are modified. Sometimes, there
are created new easy forms of institutionalization of the pathway to
the mastery. It is a kind of pathology. This is due to the progressive
commercialization of the combat sports and martial arts market. Progress is not always for something better.
152
About evolution of martial arts
References
Acevedo W., Gutiérrez C., Mei Cheung (2010), Breve Historia del Kung-Fu,
Nowtilus, Madrid [in Spanish].
Alexander G.W. (1991), Okinawa – Island of Karate, West Palm Beach.
Borbely A. (2005), Eastern martial arts in Hungary, “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury
/ Movement for Culture”, vol. 5, pp. 96–106.
Brizin D., Kernspecht K.R. (2014), Introduction to Combat Logic – A General
Theory, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 24–30; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.4.3
Brown D.H.K., Jennings G., Molle A. (2009), Exploring Relationships between
Asian Martial Arts and Religion, “Stadion”, no. 35, pp. 47–66.
Cynarski W.J. (1999), Cultural heritage of warriors. Philosophical and pedagogical features of martial arts, ”Roczniki Naukowe AWF w Warszawie”,
vol. 38, pp. 55–76.
Cynarski W.J. (2000), Anthropology of fighting man. Introductory remarks,
”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 1, pp. 104–109.
Cynarski W.J. (2004), Theory and practice of Far Eastern martial arts in European perspective, University of Rzeszow, Rzeszow [in Polish, with English abstract].
Cynarski W.J. (2006), The institutionalization of martial arts, “European Journal for Sport and Society”, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 55–61.
Cynarski W.J. (2011), Teaching of fighting arts in pedagogical and sociological perspective, “Studia Sportiva”, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 275–284.
Cynarski W.J. (2012a), Anthropology of Martial Arts. Studies and Essays of
the Sociology and Philosophy of Martial Arts, Rzeszow University Press,
Rzeszow. The Lykeion Library edition, vol. 16 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2012b), Martial Arts Phenomenon – Research and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow.
Cynarski W.J. (2012c), Jujutsu yesterday and today. From research on the
institutionalization of martial arts, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal
of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 10–18.
153
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J. (2013a), Social stratification in Japanese and some other martial arts: A comparison and discussion of changes, “Physical Culture
and Sport. Studies and Research”, Oct, vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 49–59; doi:
10.2478/pcss-2013-0024.
Cynarski W.J. (2013b), General reflections about the philosophy of martial
arts, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”,
vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 1–6.
Cynarski W.J. (2014), Karate in Europe – Institutional development and changes: “karatedo wa rei ni hajimari, rei ni owaru koto wo wasuruna”, “Research Journal of Budo”, vol. 46, no. 3, pp. 168–183.
Cynarski W.J. (2017), Czas wolny, turystyka i rekreacja w perspektywie socjologicznej, Universitas, Kraków [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Lee-Barron J. (2014), Philosophies of martial arts and their
pedagogical consequences, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 11–19; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.1.2.
Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2005), Karatedō and karate Tsunami, “Ido – Ruch
dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 5, pp. 238–241.
Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2006), The violence in boxing, ”Archives of Budo”,
vol. 2, pp. 1–10.
Cynarski W.J., Mytskan B. (2014), Evolution of martial arts: changes and
stages of development, “Visnik Prokarpatskogo Universitetu. Fizichna
Kultura”, no. 20, pp. 171–180.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2005), Martial Arts in the process of institutional
and ideological change on the example of Aikijutsu, “International Journal of Eastern Sports & Physical Education”, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 118–129.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K., Litwiniuk A., Sieber L. (2009), Exemplification
of the process of institutionalization of far eastern martial arts [in:] W.J.
Cynarski [ed.], Martial Arts and Combat Sports – Humanistic Outlook,
Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp. 83–89.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Litwiniuk A. (2006), Asian Martial Arts in the European and American Reception, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for
Culture”, vol. 6, pp. 252–260.
154
About evolution of martial arts
Cynarski W.J., Skowron J. (2014), An analysis of the conceptual language
used for the general theory of martial arts – Japanese, Polish and English
terminology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 49–66; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.7.
Czajkowski Z. (2006), Concise history of fencing in Europe from the Middle
Ages to the turn of 19th and 20th century, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury /
Movement for Culture”, vol. 6, pp. 42–51.
Czopek S. (2013), Prehistoric cultures of warriors or warriors of prehistoric
cultures?, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 37–47.
Draeger D.F. (1973), The Martial Arts and Ways of Japan (vol. 2). Classical
Budo, Weatherhill, New York.
Draeger D.F. (1996). The Martial Arts and Ways of Japan (vol. 3). Modern
Bujutsu & Budo (2nd edn.), Weatherhill, New York – Tokyo.
Fairbairn W.E. (1931), Scientific Self-Defence, Appleton-Century Company,
London – New York.
Figueiredo A.A. (2009), The object of study in martial arts and combat sports
research – contributions to a complex whole [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.],
Martial Arts and Combat Sports – Humanistic Outlook, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp. 20–34.
Floquet A. (1989), From Aikido Modern to the Aikibudo, Judogi, Paris [in
French].
Funakoshi G. (1994), Karate-do – My Way of Life, AWHA, Philadelphia.
Goodger B.C., Goodger J.M. (1977), Judo in the light of theory and sociological
research, “International Review of Sport Sociology”, vol. 12, pp. 5–34.
Green T.A., Svinth J.R. (2003), The circle and the octagon: Maeda’s Judo
and Gracie’s Jiu-Jitsu [in:] T.A. Green, J.R. Svinth [eds.], Martial Arts
in the Modern World, Praeger, Westport, CT.
Green T.A., Svinth J.R. [eds.] (2010), Martial Arts in the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation, ABC-Clio, Santa Barbara (CA).
Grzegorz R., Walendowicz M. (2008), The History of Ju-Jitsu in Poland
1904–1939, International Modern Ju-Jitsu Federation, Głogów.
155
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Habersetzer R. (1994), Karate for Masters. With Body and Spirit, Sportverlag,
Berlin [in German].
Habersetzer R. (2007), Tengu: Ma voie martiale, Amphora, Paris [in French]
Hartl J., Faber U., Bögle R. (1989), Taekwon-Do im Westen. Interviews und
Beiträge zum kulturellen Schlagabtausch, Mönchseulen-Verlag, Munich
[in German].
Inosanto D. (1976), Jeet Kune Do: The Art and Philosophy of Bruce Lee, KNPC,
Los Angeles.
Jakhel R., Pieter W. (2013), Changes in primary motives of karate beginners
between 1970–1999, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts
Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 48–57; doi 10.14589/ido.13.1.7.
Jones D.E. [ed.] (2002), Combat, Ritual, and Performance. Anthropology of
the Martial Arts, Praeger, Westport, CT.
Kano J. (1932a), The contribution of Jiudo to education, “Journal of Health
and Physical Education”, no. 3, pp. 37–40, 58.
Kano J. (1932b), Seiryoku zenyo kokumin taiku, Tokyo [in Japanese].
Kano J. (1936), Judo, Tokyo.
Kernspecht K.R. (2011), Kampflogik, Vol. 3: Die Praxis des Treffens & Nicht-getroffen-Werdens, EWTO-Verlag [in German].
Kernspecht K. (2013), The Essence of WingTsun, EWTO-Verlag [in German].
Kim D., Back A. (2000), The Way to Go: Philosophy in Martial Arts Practice,
Nanam, Seoul.
Klinger von Klingerstorff H. (1951), Judo und judo-Do. Die Hohe Schule des
Kampfes, Verlag Dr. G. Borotha-Schoeler, Wien [in German].
Kotański W. [ed.] (1986), Kojiki, czyli Księga Dawnych Wydarzeń (vol. 1–2),
PIW, Warsaw [in Polish].
Krippendorf K. (2004), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology,
Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Kuśnierz C. (2011), Values associated with practicing modern karate as a
form of cultivating old Japanese Bushido patterns, “Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 1–5.
Lee B. (1975), Tao of Jeet Kune Do, Ohara Publications, Santa Clarita, CA.
156
About evolution of martial arts
Liebrecht E.E. [ed.] (1993), Karate-do and violent behaviour, Landau University Press, Landau [in German].
Lu Chunlei (2008), Modern wushu: When Chinese martial arts meet Western
sports, ”Archives of Budo”, vol. 4, pp. 37–39.
Maroteaux R.J. (1995), L’esprit du ju-jitsu traditionnel. Historique, esotérique,
technique. 2nd edn., Avignon [in French].
Maroteaux R.J., Cynarski W.J. (2002–2003), On philosophy of Japanese martial arts – questions and answers, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement
for Culture”, vol. 3, pp. 48–55.
Mayring P. (2004), Qualitative content analysis [in:] U. Flick, E. von Kardoff,
I. Steinke [eds.], A Companion to Qualitative Research, Sage, London,
pp. 266–269.
McCarthy P. (1999), Comprehensive styles, sport and old systems, ”Karate
KungFu”, no. 4, pp. 12–13 [in Polish].
McCarthy P. [ed.] (2008), Bubishi, Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo.
Miłkowski J. (1984–85), Karate sportowe (vol. 1–7), ”Czasopisma Wojskowe”,
Warsaw [in Polish].
Moenig U. (2017), Dominant features and negative trends in the current
World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) competition system, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 17, no. 3,
pp. 56–67; doi: 10.14589/ido.17.3.7.
Mol S. (2001), Classical fighting arts of Japan. A complete guide to koryū
jūjutsu, Tuttle Publishing, Tokyo.
Molle A. (2010), Towards a Sociology of Budo: Studying the Implicit, ”Implicit
Religion”, vol. 13, no. 1.
Mor-Stabilini S. (2013), The Essence of Karate-do: Sankido Example, “Ido
Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13,
no. 4, pp. 45–48.
Murat R. (2006), Karate for Beginners and Advanced, Atlantic® Publishers
& Distributors, New Delhi.
Murlowski E. (2001), Jujutsu vs. judo, part 1, ”Budokan”, no. 2, pp. 38–39
[in Polish].
157
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Newman W. (2005), Escrima, WuShu-Verlag Kernspecht, Burg/Fehmarn
[in German].
Otake R. (1977a), The Deity and the Sword. Katori Shintō Ryū (vol. 1), Minato
Research & Publishing Company, Tokyo.
Otake R. (1977b), The Deity and the Sword. Katori Shintō Ryū (vol. 2), Minato
Research & Publishing Company, Tokyo.
Oyama M. (1979), The Kyokushin Way. Mas. Oyama’s Karate Philosophy, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo.
Renninghoff J., Witte F. (1998), Jujutsu – Training. Das Modell des Budosport-Trainings, Sport Verlag, Berlin [in German].
Rżany R. (2001), Between combat’s artificiality and realism of life. Traditional martial arts on the cross-roads, “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement
for Culture”, vol. 2, pp. 234–241.
Sanchez-Garcia R., Spencer D.C. [eds.] (2013), Fighting Scholars : Habitus
and Ethnographies of Martial Arts and Combat Sports, Anthem Press.
Sato S. (1998), Nihon jujutsu, IMAF, Tokyo.
Schmidt D. (2002), Zendō-ryū karate-dō: die Schule der Studien der praktischen Karatephilosophie als Lebensweg, “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 3, pp. 65–68 [in German].
Schmidt D. (2004), Zendo Ryu Karate Do. Harmonie von Körper und Geist,
Layout & Design: SunJa Schwarz, Athens [in German].
Shahar M. (2008), The Shaolin Monastery: History, Religion, and The Chinese
Martial Arts, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Shishida F., Flynn S.M. (2013), How does the philosophy of martial arts
manifest itself? Insights from Japanese martial arts, “Ido Movement
for Culture. Journal of martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 3, pp.
29–36.
Shortt J.G., Hashimoto K. (1979), Beginning Jiu-Jitsu Ryoi-Shinto Style, P.H.
Crompton Ltd., London.
Sieber L. (2011), Zen-do-karate Tai-te-tao [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Selected Areas of Intercultural Dialogue in Martial Arts, Rzeszow University
Press, Rzeszow, pp. 145–154 (series: Lykeion Library, vol. 14).
158
About evolution of martial arts
Sieber L., Cynarski W.J. (2002–2003), Peter K. Jahnke and Zendo karate Taite-tao, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 3, pp.
257–264.
Sieber L., Cynarski W.J. (2013), A new stage in the history of the Idokan organization, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 59–71.
Sieber L., Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2007), Spheres of fight in martial arts,
“Archives of Budo”, vol. 3, pp. 42–48.
Simpkins C., Simpkins A. (2007), Confucianism and the Asian Martial Traditions, “Revista de Artes Marciales Asiáticas”, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 46–53.
Słopecki J. (2012), Wprowadzenie do teorii i metodyki nauczania sztuk walki
(na podstawie systemów jūjutsu), International Modern Ju-Jitsu Federation, Głogów [in Polish].
Słopecki J. (2013), Race for the highest martial arts grades, its glamour and
shadows, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 35–44.
Szabo B., Sakai T. (2013), Some thoughts on the transmission and development of jujutsu and aikido in Hungary [in:] 2013 International Budo
Conference by the Japanese Academy of Budo. Abstracts, University of
Tsukuba, Sept. 10–12 2013, p. 132.
Takagi T. (1984), A Comparaison of Bushido and Chivalry, T. Matsuno, Osaka.
Tokarski S. (2006), Budo in transition – the challenge of combat sports in the
third millennium, ”Archives of Budo”, vol. 2, pp. 35–39.
Villamón M., Brown D., Espartero J., Gutiérrez C. (2004), Reflexive Modernization and the Disembedding of Jūdō from 1946 to the 2000 Sydney
Olympics, “International Review for the Sociology of Sport”, no. 2, pp.
139–156.
Vit M., Reguli Z. (2011), Motivation and value orientation of combative systems trainers, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 52–59.
Vit M., Reguli Z. (2015), The Role of Combatives Teaching in Physical Education, Masaryk University, Faculty of Sport Studies, Brno.
159
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Wolters J.M. (2005), Budo-Pedagogy, “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement
for Culture”, vol. 5, pp. 193–205.
Yi Duk-moo, Park Je-ga (2000), Muye Dobo Tongji. Comprehensive Illustrated
Manual of Martial Arts. By order of King Jungjo, transl. by Sang H. Kim,
Turtle Press, Hartford.
Zeng H.Z., Cynarski W.J., Lisheng Xie (2013), Martial arts students’ motivation and health related behaviours in Changshu, “Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 72–84.
Znaniecki F. (1934), The Method of Sociology, New York.
CHAPTER 7
Way of martial arts and politics,
and politicization
KEY WORDS
martial arts, organizations, politicization, strategy, glocalization
ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND AND PROBLEM. As a theoretical perspective were adopted indications of the anthropolitics and “humanistic theory of martial arts”, while reference to the achievements of the social sciences of
sport. This is a preliminary description of the issue, stating the field
further, detailed explication.
METHOD. Developed data were collected with methods of participant
observation, content analysis of the literature, analysis of documents,
and interview. It was conversations with fife experts.
RESULTS. Compounds of martial arts with politics are both locally, as
well as nationally or internationally. In the second and third case, it
results from policies of individual countries. Countries of martial arts
emergence are usually trying to promote their national traditions.
161
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
But also in the activities of many martial arts organizations, we can
distinguish two-sided impact – policy organization in the outer region
and the external forces on the activities of the organization.
Conclusions. Martial arts include strategic thinking. This knowledge
was for centuries an impact on policy. The impact of public policies
on the arts manifested itself especially in totalitarian systems, where
martial arts became the centre of strength demonstration of a country
and the system. Today, martial arts involvement in politics is not so
clearly visible.
Introduction
The interrelationships of sport (broader – in the area of physical
culture) and politics have been of interest among sociologists and
political scientists for long time [Brohm 1976; Młodzikowski 1979;
Whitson 1984; Elias, Dunning 1986; Cynarski 2006c; Gąsowski 2009].
And how does it look in the case of martial arts relationships with the
world of politics? 8
If the concept of sport is understood broadly, as defined in the
European Sport Charter (1992/2001), it also includes martial arts.
Indeed, martial arts are not particularly distinguished in other areas
of widely understood sport or physical culture, although it has its
own particularity. Probably this specificity makes it an extremely rare
field undertaken by political scientists. On the other hand, the global
popularity of martial arts and their participation in East-West cultural dialogue [Wertz 1991; Wilber 1979; Cynarski 2000; Raimondo
2008; Tokarski 2011] make it an area that deserves multidisciplinary
scientific penetration.
8
This chapter is an extension of two articles dealing with similar issues [Cynarski
2015a, b].
162
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
The need to comprehensively comprehend the human problem
requires the emergence of postulate of ‘comprehensive anthropology’
[Morin 1998], which also concerns politics (anthropolitics). Martial
arts require such a holistic approach. Therefore, the main research
perspective is the “Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts”. In turn, the
following definitions apply. Namely: “cultures of warriors (cultura
militum) – are military cultures (cultura militaris) with developed
codes of honour and ethics, with a high social class or caste of warriors; martial arts – this is the historical category of perfect melee and
weaponry systems, related to the elements of metaphysics; martial
ways – these are some forms of physical culture, which, based on the
traditions of warrior cultures, lead through the training of combat
techniques, to psychophysical improvement and self-realisation” [Cynarski 2004: 20]. In other words: “The way of martial arts (Japanese
budō) is a process of psychophysical improvement and learning of the
whole complex (system) of values, knowledge and skills” [Cynarski
2004: 80–81].
The very concept of politics will be used here in its meaning as
an action for the common good, not in the Marxist-Leninist view, as a
struggle for power. Well: “Politics, like all spheres of life, is subject to
moral norms; You can and should demand that the law, the economy,
the whole social system conform to the principles of justice. It is not
just an external limitation of the autonomous domain: the whole policy is designed to serve the common good of human societies and the
good of every human being” [Wojciechowski 2001: 284].
The problem area is broadly defined here. It includes reflections
on the influence of the war strategy on politics, the analysis of the
influence of state policy on martial arts (including the problem of
politicization as a manifestation of pathology in the field of physical
163
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
culture) and an attempt to explain the functioning of martial arts organizations in a socio-political context. It is interesting not only the
problem of a cross-cultural collision East-West (East and Southeast
Asia – Europe), but also tension on the line: traditionalism versus
progressivism. Martial arts, like sport, are an important export commodity – especially for some countries. They participate in the policy
of promotion and image (political image, international branding and
brand) [Białkowska 2013].
Because it is an elaboration which is an introduction to, let’s call it
“political science of martial arts” or a contribution to the “politology of
sport”, the issues are rather signaled than discussed in detail. This is a
preliminary description of the problem, with an indication of the field
further, detailed explication. The selection of aspects illustrating the
relationship between the world of martial arts and politics is certainly
not exhaustive, but – according to the author – sufficient.
The applied qualitative methodology of studies includes the anal-
ysis of the content of literature, analysis of documents and notes from
their own long-standing participating observation in the national and
international martial arts milieu. In addition, direct interviews were
conducted with leaders from five martial arts organizations – four experts from Europe (Germany, Poland and Italy) and one from Australia.
The influence of politics and fashionable ideologies affects many
or perhaps all social sciences; also martial arts research, which hardly
abstracts from the principles of political correctness, the idea of multiculturalism, the concept and language of postmodernism, feminism
and “gender” [cf. Cynarski, K. Obodyński 2005; Cynarski 2009].
In general, we can analyze the above problem area in two scales
and three views. Let us distinguish here 1) the international scale,
according to the place in the policy of the authorities of the countries
164
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
concerned; 2) smaller scope, that is in the activities of martial arts
organizations. Of course, for large organizations, the scope of their
impact will also be international, and the operation of the two systems is interdependent. The first will deal with the impact of widely
understood martial arts – as a carrier of certain ideas – on politics.
The second one will be influenced by state policy on martial arts.
Third – the impact of this policy on the functioning of the organization
on a smaller scale.
The influence of fighting arts and martial arts on politics
War strategy, as an important component of martial art (understand
as art of war), is an important factor of political or business functioning,
known from antiquity. Let’s call here Chinese strategist Sun Tzu and
his art of war. This was especially true of the efficiency of exercised
power during bloody wars [Sun Tzu 2003; Stiller 2003].
Similar pragmatic approaches were presented by Machiavelli
and von Clausewitz in Europe, or Musashi Miyamoto and Shirobei
Yoshitoki Akiyama in Japan. The knight Machiavelli of the noble family
told his ruler how he should rule. The author of Il Principe allowed
lies and deception, although this was unambiguously contrary to the
ethos of chivalry and Christian axiology. He wrote about it in chapter
XVIII of the Prince [Machiavelli 1969: 75–78]. On the other hand, he
praised bravery and considered cowardice cowardly (chapter XXV)
[Machiavelli 1969: 107]. The political ruler had to be brave, brave
enough to deserve respect. Not to be compared to the old strategist
Sun Tzu, Machiavelle’s advice is knightly. They are like a compromise
of a desire for political efficiency with a minimum of decency. In turn,
the German aristocrat and general Carl von Clausewitz in his work On
war (Vom Kriege) took into account both the strategic thought of the
165
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
action and the spiritual, and moral factors. Politics should not reject
nobility, and effectiveness (victory) is not the only goal [Clausewitz
1995; Żuk 1996].
The connotation of the philosophy of conflict can be recognized
a concept of competition and confrontation of whole cultures and
civilizations of F. Koneczny and S. P. Huntington’s. Civilizations, which
lose their vitality, succumb to this stronger, more expansive. The moral
crisis can be – as many times in history – the herald of the fall of all
civilization. The recommendation of correcting the belt under the
helmet after the battle is attributed to both the Roman legion and the
samurai. Stay alert. This order seems to be still the most current [cf.
Huntington 1996; Żuk 1996; Cynarski 2002, 2003; Szmyd 2004, 2013].
As Musashi, the Japanese “holy of sword”, focused his attention
on combat tactics, mental preparation for combat, and the essence
of “sword path” [Musashi Miyamoto 1983], another master-teacher
combined the theory and practice of fighting the Taoist concept of
softness and flexibility. Akiyama based on Taoist philosophy created
jujutsu – the art of elasticity (Yoshin-ryu school – “soul of willow”)
[Velte, Matschke 2007: 126]. “Get down, bend over to win” became not
only a canon of contemporary war strategy and tactics popularized
in the history of warfare by Mongolian peoples. Today is also a canon
in politics, diplomacy and business. Fisher, Ury and Patton [1999,
154–160; Ury 1998: 70] write about “negotiation jujutsu”, and e.g.
Sennett [2000] – about the elastic man of new capitalism. Flexibility,
also known as “water principle” (adaptation) and avoidance of direct
confrontation of forces, is present in the various styles influenced by
tactical jujutsu concepts: in judo, Wado-ryu karate and in Zendo karate
Tai-te-tao [Sieber 2011]. It is about using the force of the attacker
against him, the soft reception of aggression, trapping. According to
166
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
the recommendation of ”kureba mukae sareba okuru” (if he comes, we
accept him, if he leaves, we accompany him on his way), the energy of
the aggression strike in the vacuum. In implementing of this difficult to
practical application idea, the principle of “body and mind interaction”,
optimum concentration and psycho-physical coordination are helped.
The Taoist principle of the dual nature yin-yang functions in the
technical sphere of martial arts. Examples include: “aiki in-yo ho” (yinyang coordination) in aikijutsu or aikido in “omote” and “ura” (outer
and inner) techniques, “soft” and “hard” in jujutsu or in Goju-ryu karate, or the interpretation of elastic techniques Zendo karate Tai-te-tao,
also known as Idokan karate. The harmony “aiki” and the consensus
“wa” include the relative dimensions: social and ecological. Master
Jigoro Kano’s motto – “By doing good to one’s good” – jita kyoei – is
an unambiguous pro-social point.
In principle, the “maximum effect at minimum effort” – seryoku
zen’yo – we find praxeological aspirations for the efficiency and effectiveness of activities (training, combat) and the economy of effort
(optimization of energy expenditure). Optimization also applies to
tactics. Thus, economists and businessmen are eagerly referred to
the book of Musashi [Harris 1983: 43].
Martial arts and the policy of the country
Historically, the art of war has been a condition of survival for centuries. In the nineteenth century, when simultaneously introduced
in many countries universal military service and universal education, including physical education, old martial arts have gained new
applications. They became the factor of national identity (patriotic
education), a way to strengthen the physical strength of entire nations and improve the combat effectiveness of soldiers. In the western
167
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
countries, gymnastics, athletics and sports games were developed. In
China, Japan and Okinawa, attempts were made to popularize the domestic martial arts. They were also introduced to physical education
programs [Draeger 1996].
Both ancient and modern generals know that martial arts and
combat sports are best to prepare a soldier or uniformed worker. In
the case of combat sports, however, there are some doubts about their
impact on the psyche and the health of the child, from a pedagogical
perspective. Nevertheless, many martial arts are recognized by professionals as the best physical education, sports for all and physical
recreation, even without distinction for contact and non-contact types,
also in Poland [Hancock 1906; Jaskolski 2000]. Nevertheless, the tension between the dimensions of universal ethics and pragmatism
remains, which is reflected in the goals of martial arts – educational or strictly utilitarian [Imamura, Nakazawa 1992; Smoleń 2004;
Obodyński, Cynarski 2006].
The situation of combat sports in the former USSR and in the
countries of “people’s democracy” was specific. For a comparison
in the spatial layout (geographically, for example, in the countries of
Central and Eastern Europe), we now briefly present the situation of
combat sports in the former “Eastern Bloc” states from the time when
the functioning of sport was determined mainly by political factors.
In the introduction “From the Publisher” of a collective work enti-
tled Sport in the USSR. Organization – development – achievements we
read: “In no country in the world sport is so massively cultivated and
so easy for everyone – as in the USSR. Therefore, for the Polish sports
movement a historic resolution of the Politburo of the PZPR Central
Committee recommends using the rich treasure of the experience of
the theory and practice of Soviet sport. Therefore every sports activist,
168
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
every active athlete and anyone who is interested in sport, should become acquainted with Soviet sport. (...) The Communist Party and the
Soviet government have for the first time considered physical culture to
be an extremely important state matter, and to surround it with caring
care” [Military Press 1950: 5–7]. This is how the “goals and tasks of
Soviet sport” were described half a century ago. It was “ready to work
and defend the socialist homeland, participate in the construction of
communist society – this is the duty of the Soviet athlete” [Military
Press 1950: 9]. This utilitarian and functional model (as a model of
somatic culture) has influenced important preferences for combat
sports, especially developed in the military and guards. In the cited
book, there are information about wrestling, including “regional” (Uzbek kurasz – pp. 241, 247–248; Georgian kartuli-czidaoba – p. 246), and
Russian sambo (unarmed self-defence)9. There is nothing about judo.
The practice of karate and other Far Eastern martial arts was forbidden
for a long time in the USSR (and also in the GDR, beyond judo).
Political entanglement, i.e. politicization, is distinguished in the
sociology of sport as a manifestation of pathology, which generally
affects all sport [Cynarski 2002, 2003, 2017]. A significant example is
the politicization of Polish sport, which was manifested by prevent-
ing the participation of Polish athletes in the Los Angeles Olympics
(1984). The author then monitored the achievements of the Polish
judokas. Competitors such as Janusz Pawłowski had a great chance
for Olympic gold, for which they practiced hard for four years. However, due to the rematch for the boycott of the Games in Moscow
(1980), the Polish sports authorities announced the withdrawal of
9
Sambo was created from a combination of judo techniques and selected techniques
from the fighting styles of the USSR nations. It is present in the sport and combat
versions (in the program of training of Russian special units).
169
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
the Polish representation from participation in the American Olympic Games.
At present, especially Belarus, but also Kazakhstan, they are powerhouses in some variants of combat sports (kickboksing, Thai boxing,
boxing). Clubs and organizations, and in particular the financing of
these, remain in the power of the power ministries.
It can be also indicated the following correctness. In societies until
recently “closed” (in the terminology of K. Popper) followed a specific rationalization, which facilitated the path of martial arts career.
Because the Iron Curtain made it difficult or impossible to travel and
study at the source, they were dealt with on a “do it yourself” prin-
ciple. Numerous martial arts schools and styles were create, such as
the Hungarian jujutsu, which is unlike the original Japanese [Borbely
2005; Szabo, Sakai 2013].
Currently, martial arts are in particular an ingredient in the export,
image and education policies of several Asian countries [Cynarski 2004:
17]. Some organizations, such as the Japanese International Martial Arts
Federation (IMAF), set themselves the overriding goal of promoting
their country’s culture, and for example taekwondo, especially in the
WTF version, is linked to South Korea’s export policy. The Korean taekwondo is divided into more original ITF (the creator was Choi Hong Hi)
and the Olympic WTF, and the cause of the division is mainly politics,
power and interests. The different rules and regulations of the sport
of combat imply different ways of training, which is more and more
different from both forms of taekwondo. There are also less significant
federations like the Global Taekwondo Federation, Taekwondo International and others. But what caused the division? Well, especially the
views of the leaders. General Choi Hong Hi presented the views of the
left, so ITF’s headquarters were not in South Korea, but first in Canada
170
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
and then in Austria. ITF is also very popular (supported by the authorities) in the DPRK. WTF is based in South Korea. Thanks to the efforts of
Dr Un Yong Kim, IOC activist, it has been among the Olympic discipline.
Political and commercial reasons make the line up for the Olympic
nomination: Chinese wushu, karate (what the Okinawa Prefecture
authorities, the WKF federation and other organizations are seeking),
jujutsu (IJJF, and Brazilian – “Bjj”), sambo, and other sports, whose
leaders dream to join judo and taekwondo. It is about the spread of
martial arts, becoming combat sports, the whole world, the media
interest, the money of sponsors and patrons of the state. It is also
about the power of certain federations in the world movement and
the selfish interests of mercantilic people (in terms of Erich Fromm).
Marriage with Olympism can be a chance of survival, or rather a threat
of losing the proper sense of martial arts as a form of alternative sport.
Despite the resistance of some traditionalists, sports rivalry breaks
the last bastions of martial arts: tournaments are held in the original
Okinawan karate and in iaido, kyudo and aikido.
Martial arts, as export goods, contribute to promoting the country
of its origin. This important image is nurtured by the governments of
China, both Koreas, Japan, Thailand, increasingly in the Philippines,
Malaysia and other countries. Political entanglement (politicization)
of national martial arts caused additional antagonisms and organizational fragmentation of karate, taekwondo, wushu (PRC) and kuoshu
(Taiwan), etc. The ritual of Shinto religion has recently been exported
to the West – the sumo wrestling. But martial arts are not just an export
commodity promoting the culture of a country, but also a fragment
of its cultural heritage.
In the age of globalization Japan has undergone a great deal of
Americanization. Meanwhile, martial arts and national combat sports
171
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
of this country are part of a certain cultural and economic expansion
of this country (let’s call it “Japanization”), even in East Asia [Chiba,
Ebihara, Morino 2001; Cynarski 2002]. They also come through the
media to global mass culture.
The Japanese are patrons of martial arts, which are officially listed
as treasures of the national heritage. Such support and protection by
the state is, for example, the 15th century Tenshinshoden Katorishin-
to-ryu fencing school [Finn 1982; Otake 2007; Cynarski 2013]. So the
Shinto temples (Katori, Kashima) and the kenjutsu schools established
there (Japanese sword art) find ministerial care and protection against
commercialization.
The promotion of martial arts / combat sports itself also serves
the aforementioned introduction to the Olympic discipline (casus:
Dr Un Young Kim and WTF taekwondo). Much earlier Prof. Dr Jigoro
Kano, also an IOC activist, has “settled” this case for judo. Without
political lobbying and government support would it be possible? The
other thing is that merited for the development of Japanese sport and
modern education was Kano’s development and the global reach of
judo at the expense of the fall of many schools of classical jujutsu [cf.
Shortt, Hashimoto 1979; Shimizu 2008]. Judo is promoted as a modern
sport and educational system, bringing the unique values of the old
tradition [see: Mrówka 2008; Shimizu 2008].
And what is the participation of the state in the promotion of the
national martial arts tradition in Poland? We have many centuries-old
traditions restored in the schools of masters Zbigniew Sawicki (Signum Polonicum) and Wojciech Zabłocki (Zablocki’s School), historical
research of the Committee of Fencing at Idokan Poland Association and
the publication results of these studies [Zabłocki 2000a, b; Czajkowski
2007; Cynarski 2008a,b; Sawicki 2011; Borysiuk et al. 2013]. The lack
172
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
of support from the authorities (the Ministry of Culture and National
Heritage, the Ministry of Sport and Tourism of the Republic of Poland)
has not been a favourable situation when the Old Polish martial arts
compete on the martial arts’ market (national and international) and
with popular mass culture of Asian varieties. Currently the Ministry
of Culture and National Heritage is considering a IPA application to
protect “Old Polish Sabre Fencing”.
So far, the support from the state funds goes here only indirectly
– through the reconstruction or renovation of castles, as historic art of
the fortification (a part of the tradition of martial arts). Polish castles
are, however, to a lesser extent, serving the promotion of national
culture – by using tourism [Ziejka 2005; Maciuk 2008; Mikos von
Rohrscheidt 2010; Cynarski 2010b, 2012a, 2012b]. But perhaps more
strictly for economic reasons. Perhaps it would be worth combining
the historical policy of the state with the support of both the material
monuments of the glory days of Polish arms and martial arts, as well
as the cultivation of knightly skills (martial arts).
In general, according to the EU recommendation and the new
Sport Law, the Polish authorities should support the development of
mass sport, recreational activity [Słopecki 2012, 2013]10. One of the
best forms of this kind of activity is practicing martial arts. Therefore,
state authorities should actively and financially help martial arts or-
ganizations in their activities.
Martial arts organization policy
Through the policies of individual martial arts organizations, we will
understand the adopted strategies of operation and activities related
10
See also: Sports Act of 25 June 2010 (Journal of Laws No. 127, item 857, as amended).
173
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
to our own development and place on the local, national and global
market. There are very different types of strategies, especially since
the martial arts world is multiform.
One of the basic decisions that is decided in the boards of individual organizations is the question of the relation to sport competition.
The sportisation of martial arts refers to the great number of their
variants. However, the resistance of a large group of masters-traditionalists makes it not a common process.
Fredersdorf pointed out the contradiction of the mentality of
“rational western society of the result (Leistungsgesellschaft)” with the
philosophy of Japanese budo. In his opinion, among the central values
of martial arts are: the pursuit of self-fulfillment and enlightenment,
the practice of art, the way of continuous practice for achieving bodily
and spiritual unity. The goals of sport, according to Fredersdorf, are to:
maintain health, raise bodily possibilities, reduce mental stress, spend
leisure time, aesthetics of the body, relate to nature, entertainment and
recreation – motivation, etc. In Japan, unlike western sport, physical
outcome is not a central value. It is similar to the importance of sports
competition – in the West the professions are proof of effectiveness
and often form the motif of exercises, while in budo they are rejected
or transcendent; They become a medium of spiritual-bodily learning
(development) and do not constitute an autotelic value [Fredersdorf
1986].
The role of the teacher is also different. The coach feels responsible for the physical education of the pupils, training for success
in the competition, is involved in group dynamics between athletes,
especially the “masters of sport”. The master of martial arts, on the
other hand, feels physically and morally responsible for every single
student – he presents the goals of the “pathway” and the possibility of
174
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
full self-integration. Sensei (teacher) builds stable human relationships
with his disciples, teaches and educates, plays a paternal role – with
the inherent authority of professionalism and spiritual power, but
necessarily with the ambivalent attitude of the leader. According to
Fredersdorf, thanks jujutsu we gain openness in people-to-people contact and tolerance toward alien patterns, the willpower and courage,
the attitude of responsibility and honour. However, he drew attention
to the deformities of martial arts, which include: 1) the use for fascism
of Japanese soldiers during the Second World War and 2) the practice
of budo as a competitive sport [Fredersdorf 1986].
The indictment of martial arts (especially kendo) in Japan after
the Second World War (the period of American occupation) caused
the prohibition of traditional Japanese martial arts by the occupying
authorities. This has benefited the karate organizations – martial arts
of Okinawan origin. To a large extent thanks to this karate (in various
styles) and then its Korean form – taekwondo, have been popularized
on a global scale. Instead of the name “martial arts” (bujutsu), the
concept of kakugi – fighting sport was adopted. Japan was to become
a peace-loving country, to which military traditions did not fit.
For the generation of rebellious hippie martial arts was a part
of their escape from the unacceptable bourgeois-capitalist culture.
Tokarski [1984] saw the influences of the Orient, which survived into
the later movement of the New Age. They used the pioneers of various
martial arts and the organizations that formed them. In turn, judo for
the youth of the Eastern Bloc, and later Karate, were the expression of
rebellion against the contested communist reality. They were a manifestation of the quest for freedom. On the wave of fashion, reinforced
with “kung fu” films, numerous organizations and private companies,
called schools of lunatics, were used.
175
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
For the hippie generation of rebellious martial arts was a part
of their escape from the unacceptable bourgeois-capitalist culture.
Tokarski [1984] saw the influences of the Orient, which survived into
the later movement of the New Age. They used the pioneers of various
martial arts and the organizations that formed them. In turn, for the
youth of the Eastern Bloc, judo and later karate were the expression of
rebellion against the contested communist reality. They were a manifestation of the quest for freedom. On the wave of fashion, reinforced
with “kung-fu” films, numerous organizations and private companies,
called schools or academies, were used.
Although fashion and the wave of interest has fallen dramati-
cally11, many organizations are still competing in the martial arts
market. The opening of borders has resulted in many new varieties.
In Poland there are branches of all major international organizations
and representatives of schools of famous masters. The great offer is
that martial arts can be combined with very different orientations.
From Taoism comes the so-called “kung-fu” interior styles, such
as taiji quan, but also today’s fashionable concepts of energy harmonization (sustainability, ecology), flexibility, etc. Some sources even
refer to the feminism ideology [cf. Huang 2000/1973; Capra 1987],
but it is actually a kind of philosophy of nature. Yes, martial arts are
conducive to the emancipation of women, or rather are the subject of
growing interest among women in this form of exercise (for health,
beauty and safety) [Cynarski 2004: 289–307].
In many cases, martial arts schools are traditionally oriented,
respecting the hierarchy, traditions, and authorities, in line with the
11
The number of participants decreased by 50% – shihan Sergio Mor-Stabilini (9 dan
karate, 7 dan kenjutsu), leader of one of the Italian organizations of Japanese and
Chinese martial arts; Interviews and correspondence, January–February 2013.
176
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
conservative views of those who practice it. Historically it is worth
stressing the influence of Confucianism as a social ethics that has for
centuries been shaping relations in Chinese martial arts schools. This
is not the rule, however. Modernist approach is as commonplace as
Bruce Lee’s particular revolution, in questioning the meaning of traditional training methods and taught techniques12. This does not mean
that the proponents of modern martial arts are also progressive in the
sense of having left political views. The study of the internalisation
of the principles of martial arts indicates their connection with the
prevailing views (values) [Cynarski 2006a].
A very interesting figure and leader of one of the oldest martial
arts organizations was Dr Wally Strauss (1908–1987). Let’s draw his
profile and views. He was a political scientist, Oxford graduate, and at
the same time a master of martial arts, of Austrian origin. Because his
wife was Jewish, he had to leave Austria13 in 1930s. He went to Australia
and stayed there. He is the creator of the ido concept and the Idokan
concept (organization name). He pointed to the closeness of the rules,
a similar flow of ki (qi) energy, and the fluidity of movement, which
are exercised in “soft”, “internal” martial arts like aikido, ido and taiji
quan. He encouraged the teaching of effective self-defence and randori
training, but was absolutely against the sport (competition). He was
especially against the cult of force and violence.
As a diplomat, intelligence officer and martial arts master, Strauss
was particularly critical of various myths. He believed that values
such as honour, wisdom and respect for life should be sought in the
12
By: Dr habil. Keith Kernspecht (GM, 10th master degree WingTsun kung-fu), President
of the European WingTsun Organization; interview – Hockenheim, May 2013.
13
By: Prof. EJKC Lothar Sieber (meijin, 10 dan judo-do/ido), longtime leader of DDBV
e.V.; interviews and correspondence; Munich, Feb. 2013, Rzeszow, March 2013.
177
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
heritage of Europe rather than in Asia. He was also critical of the
Bushido canon (warrior’s path), which in Japan was linked to chauvinism14 in 1940s. Indeed, the effect of aggression in the Second World
War is a clear-cut Chinese-Japanese antagonism, a frequent motif in
Chinese martial arts films. Idea ido and Idokan budo system eliminate
this antagonism – here refers mainly to universal values of warrior
culture and European knights.
What are the current preferences of martial arts leaders? Is the
main goal to be a business or a mission? Traditionalism, trying to preserve timeless values [John Paul II, 2005; Cynarski 2006b] or rather
some progress and modernity? Also the attitude to the teaching of
outstanding masters, fathers of the given variety of styles is different.
Gichin Funakoshi, while he was alive, did not allow karate sports.
Meanwhile, most of the Shotokan karate organizations participate
in sports rivalry. Martial arts are undergoing a progressive commercialization.
An important element of the organization’s functioning and development is the policy of awarding degrees, national or regional
representations, etc. Karate leaders like Masutatsu Oyama and Hidetaka Nishiyama gave honourable degrees to politicians, probably to
gain their favour. Among the well known politicians General Pinochet
received an honorary degree of 9 dan in kenpo-karate [Cynarski 2000:
69]. This rank was given to him by the Japanese multimillionaire Ryuichi Sasagawa, the leader of one of the most important Japanese karate
organizations. Here they probably decided not so much merits for
karate as the political views only.
14
By: C. McGrath: Australian GoshinJutsu-Ido Society, http://www.australiangoshinjutsu.
com/ (December 2013), and: shihan Colin McGrath (8 dan), leader of the Australian
GoshinJutsu-Ido Society; interviews and correspondence; Dec. 2013 – Jan. 2014.
178
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
An example of the politicization of martial arts, understood as
pathology, is granted the highest masters degrees for W. Putin and B.
Komorowski. Now Bronislaw Komorowski (then President of Poland)
received 10 dan in the karate and his diploma was signed by President WTFSKF (?) Ionel Bara 8 dan, which took place on 14. XII 2013.
Perhaps that non-practicing martial arts B. Komorowski accepted
this degree like the Russian President Vladimir Putin. The latter has
already: 9 dan in WTF taekwondo (since 2013), 8 dan judo and 8 dan
karate Kyokushin (2014), practically practicing only judo and sambo
[cf. Cynarski 2015a, b]. The president of the Russian Federation is
really interested in martial arts and combat sports. He is attending the
judo championship, visiting the Shaolin Monastery (2003, 2006). But
granting the highest degree of mastery to politicians is an expression
of the extreme opportunism and commercialization of the institutions
that do so.
Interestingly, Wally Strauss (Idokan, Australia) introduced the
principle of awarding master classes in the ido, where the main requirement is to have previous technical master degrees (acquired in
skills) in at least two martial arts variants, such as jujutsu and karate.
These degrees were not granted to politicians.
Organization policy is also the direction of cooperation. Often it is
international cooperation. Trips for study or martial arts education are
referred to as martial arts tourism – a special cultural tourism variety.
Practicing martial arts combined with foreign travel foster openness
and dialogue – building bridges. As a result, the local cultural heritage
is respected and protected, some foreign designs are accepted, and
some of them are internationally popular. This desired state of equilibrium can be termed glocalization [Cynarski 2007a, 2007b, 2010a].
In this way, small martial arts organizations enrich the participants
179
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
in cultural exchanges between East and West. The attitude of the encounter and the dialogue resulting from this cooperation is opposed
to the attitude of hostility and distrust, collision and confrontation.
Conclusions
Martial arts systems have not only survived the political changes
(social, economic, political) in Japan, but one can speak of their contemporary expansion throughout the world. They owe their rich
axiology.
Connections of martial arts with politics are present both internationally and nationally or locally. In the first and second cases, they are
the result of national policies. The martial arts struggled to promote
their national traditions. But also in the activities of many martial arts
organizations we can distinguish bilateral impacts – the organization’s
policies on the external and external forces on the organization.
In the broad sense of martial arts (war arts), they include strategic thinking (planning, intelligence, war canons), knowledge of the
art of fortification. This knowledge has influenced politics for many
centuries, including diplomacy.
The impact of state policy on martial arts has become apparent
in the countries of totalitarian systems, where martial arts became
a means of manifesting the power of a given country and system. At
present, the inclusion of martial arts in politics is no longer clearly
visible.
Martial arts organizations enrich the participants in these specific cultural exchanges between East and West. The attitude of the
encounter and the dialogue resulting from this cooperation is opposed to the attitude of hostility and distrust, collision and confrontation.
180
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
Sources
Dr hab. Keith Kernspecht (GM, 10th master degree in WingTsun kung-fu,
8 dan karate, 6th master degree in escrima), president European WingTsun Organisation; interview – Hockenheim, May 2013.
Dr Jan Słopecki (10 dan jujutsu), leader European Jujutsu and Kobudo Committee; interview – Warsaw, July 2013.
European Sport Charter, 1992/2001.
Military Press [collective work], Sport in the USSR. Organization – development – achievements, ed. Military Press, Warsaw 1950 [in Polish].
Prof. EJKC Lothar Sieber (meijin, 10 dan jujutsu, karate, judo-do/ido), longtime leader DDBV e.V.; interview and correspondence – Munich, Feb.
2013, Rzeszow, March 2013.
Shihan Colin McGrath (8 dan), leader Australian GoshinJutsu-Ido Society;
interview and correspondence, Dec. 2013 – Jan. 2014; and: McGrath
C.: Australian GoshinJutsu-Ido Society, http://www.australiangoshinjutsu.com/ (Dec. 2013).
Shihan Sergio Mor-Stabilini (9 dan karate, 7 dan kenjutsu), leader European
University of Martial Arts and Oriental Culture; interview and correspondence, Jan.–Feb. 2013.
Ustawa o sporcie z 25 czerwca 2010 (Dz. U. no. 127, poz. 857, z późn. zm.,
in Polish) [Sports Act of 25 June 2010 (Journal of Laws No. 127, item
857, as amended)].
References
Białkowska E. (2013), Sport – instrument polityczny służący kreacji wizerunku państwa na arenie międzynarodowej, Kwartalnik Naukowy Ośrodka Analiz Politycznych UW ”e-Politikon”, no. 8, pp. 109–137 [in Polish].
Borbely A. (2005), Eastern martial arts in Hungary, “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury
/ Movement for Culture”, vol. 5, pp. 96–106.
Borysiuk Z., Cynarski W.J., Szajna G., Skirecki T. (2013), The sabre school
of Count Michał Starzewski as a reflection of Polish fencing traditions,
“Journal of Combat Sports and Martial Arts”, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 87–93.
181
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Brohm J.M. (1979), Sociologie politique du sport, Paris [in French].
Capra F. (1987), Punkt zwrotny. Nauka, społeczeństwo, nowa kultura, PIW,
Warsaw [in Polish].
Chiba N., Ebihara O., Morino S. (2001), Globalization, naturalization and
identity. The Case of Borderless Elite Athletes in Japan, ”International
Review for the Sociology of Sport”, vol. 36, no. 2, pp. 203–221.
Clausewitz C. von (1995), O wojnie [Vom Kriege], Test, Lublin [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2000), Sztuki walki budō w kulturze Zachodu, Wyd. WSP, Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2002), Proces globalizacji. Dialog kultur czy konflikt wartości?,
Instytut Europejskich Studiów Społecznych w Rzeszowie, Rzeszow [in
Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2003), Globalizacja a spotkanie kultur, 2nd edn., Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2004), Teoria i praktyka dalekowschodnich sztuk walki w perspektywie europejskiej, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2006a), Recepcja i internalizacja etosu dalekowschodnich sztuk
walki przez osoby ćwiczące, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2006b), Cywilizacja życia. Rozważania moralne Jana Pawła
II, „Idō – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 6, pp. 321–323
[in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2006c), Narodowe tradycje sportowe a glokalizacja. Interpretacja socjologiczna, ”Polska i jej wschodni sąsiedzi. Studia Wschodnioznawcze”, vol. 7, pp. 114–122 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2007a), Współczesne budowanie mostów politycznych [in:]
A. Andrusiewicz [ed.], Polska i jej wschodni sąsiedzi. Studia Wschodnioznawcze, vol. 8, pp. 286–287.
Cynarski W.J. (2007b), Drogi i mosty porozumienia i zbliżenia w mniejszej
skali [in:] A. Andrusiewicz [ed.], Polska i jej wschodni sąsiedzi. Studia
Wschodnioznawcze, vol. 8, pp. 287–288.
Cynarski W.J. (2008a), An overview of Polish Martial Arts, ”Journal of Asian
Martial Arts”, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 8–25.
182
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
Cynarski W.J. (2008b), Una vision generale de las Artes Marciales Polacas,
“Revista de Artes Marciales Asiaticas”, Univesidad de León, vol. 3, no. 3,
pp. 8–25 [in Spanish].
Cynarski W.J. (2009), Wpływ popularnych ideologii na teorie aktualnie
dominujące w socjologii kultury. Zarys problematyki, ”Studia Społeczno-Polityczne”, vol. 3, pp. 116–121 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2010a), Spotkania, konflikty, dialogi. Analiza wybranych obszarów kultury fizycznej i turystyki kulturowej, 2nd edn., Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2010b), Orest Maciuk, Zamki i twierdze Ukrainy Zachodniej. Wędrówki historyczne, Centrum Europy, Lwów 2008 [w:] A. Andrusiewicz [red.], Polska – Ukraina. Teraźniejszość i przyszłość. Studia
społeczno-polityczne, Rzeszów–Sanok, pp. 450–452 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2012a), Castles as the heritage of Polish fortification art and
as a tourist attraction, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 12, no. 4, pp. 44–55.
Cynarski W.J. (2012b), Zamki obronne na ziemiach polskich. Wykorzystanie
dziedzictwa sztuki fortyfikacji w turystyce kulturowej, “Folia Turistica”,
no. 26, pp. 195–212.
Cynarski W.J. (2013), Współczesna popularyzacja historycznej szermierki
polskiej i japońskiej – analiza porównawcza [in:] M. Kazimierczak,
J. Kosiewicz [eds.], Sport i turystyka. Uwarunkowania historyczne i wyzwania współczesności, AWF, Poznań, pp. 479–487 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2015a), Way of martial arts and politics, “e-Politikon. Kwartalnik Naukowy Ośrodka Analiz Politologicznych Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego”, no. 13, pp. 195–220 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2015b), O politycznych uwikłaniach sztuk walki [in:] Z. Dziubiński, K.W. Jankowski [eds.], Kultura fizyczna a polityka, AWF & SALOS
RP, Warsaw, pp. 149–162 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2017), Sports pathologies in the 21st century: attempt at categorization [in:] Taymazov V.A., Ashkinazi S.M., Bakulev S.E., Buchel M.,
Bulatova M.M., Cynarski W.J., Dmitriev G.G., Evseev S.P., Konstantinos
183
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
G., Iancheva T., Kryuchek S.S., Kulnazarov A.K., Manolachi V.G., Marishchuk L.V., Obvintsev A.A., Platonov V.N., Ponomaryov G.N., Salov V.Yu.,
Schaefer U., Shcherbak S.G., Unstahl L.E., Vorobyov S.A., Wynne-Parker
M., Zakrevskaya N.G. [eds.], VIII International Congress ”Sport, People
and Health” 12–14 October 2017, Saint Petersburg, Russia, pp. 3–7
[in English].
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2005), Europejski sport i turystyka wobec wyzwań wielokulturowości [in:] Z. Dziubiński [ed.], Sport jako kulturowa
rzeczywistość, SALOS RP, Warszawa, pp. 456–466 [in Polish].
Czajkowski Z. (2007), Szermierka w dawnej Polsce, “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury
/ Movement for Culture”, vol. 7, pp. 55–64.
Draeger D.F. (1996), The Martial Arts and Ways of Japan (vol. 3). Modern
Bujutsu & Budo (wyd. II), Weatherhill, New York – Tokyo.
Elias N., Dunning E. (1986), Quest for Excitement. Sport and Leisure in the
Civilizing Process, Blackwell, Oxford.
Finn M. (1982), Iaido. The way of the sword, P.H. Crompton Ltd., London.
Fisher R., Ury W., Patton B. (1999), Dochodząc do ‘tak’. Negocjowanie bez
poddawania się, PWE, Warsaw [in Polish].
Fredersdorf F. (1986), Japanische Budo-Disziplinen and Abendländische
Bewegungskultur. Entstehung, Verbreitung und Aneignung kulturfremder Sportarten am Beispiel japanischer Kampfkünste, TU, Berlin, pp.
123–239 [in German].
Gąsowski T. (2009), Sport i polityka – wzajemne relacje. Wprowadzenie do
problematyki badawczej [in:] T. Gąsowski, S. Bielański [eds.], Sport i polityka w dwudziestowiecznych państwach totalitarnych i autorytarnych,
Kraków [in Polish].
Hancock H.I. (1906), Fizyczne wychowanie w Japonii „Dżiu-itsu”, Warsaw
[in Polish].
Harris V. (1983) [in:] M. Miyamoto, Das Buch der fünf Ringe, ECON, Düsseldorf – Wien, p. 43 [in German].
Huang C.A. (2000), W uścisku z tygrysem. Powrót na górę. Istota taiji, Rebis,
Poznań [Embrace Tiger, Return to Mountain, 1973].
184
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
Huntington S.P. (1996), The Clash of Civilization and the Remaking of World
Order, Simon & Schuster, New York.
Imamura H., Nakazawa A. (1992), Philosophy and history of Japanese martial
arts: idealism or pragmatism, “Journal of Asian Martial Arts”, vol. 1.
Jan Paweł II (2005), Pamięć i tożsamość. Rozmowy na przełomie tysiącleci,
Znak, Kraków [in Polish].
Jaskólski E. (2000), Rozwój osobowości i dyspozycyjności ciała w procesie
pedagogicznego wykorzystania zasad budo [in:] R.M. Kalina, W. Jagiełło
[eds.], Wychowawcze i utylitarne aspekty sportów walki, AWF, Warsaw,
pp. 9–13 [in Polish].
Machiavelli N. (1969), Książę, trans. W. Rzymowski, edn. K. Grzybowski,
Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, Wrocław [in Polish].
Maciuk O. (2008), Zamki i twierdze Ukrainy Zachodniej. Wędrówki historyczne, Centrum Europy, Lwów [in Polish].
Mikos von Rohrscheidt A. (2010), Obiekty obronne okresu Średniowiecza
w Polsce jako destynacje i atrakcje turystyki kulturowej, ”Ido – Ruch dla
Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 10, pp. 102–117.
Młodzikowski G. (1979), Polityka i sport, Warsaw [in Polish].
Morin E. (1998), Antropolityka, ”Społeczeństwo Otwarte”, no 2, p. V [in Polish].
Mrówka M. (2008), Historyczne uwarunkowania kulturowe dalekowschodnich sztuk walki w kontekście metod zarządzania strategicznego w nowoczesnym przemyśle Japonii i Korei, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 8, pp. 45–55.
Musashi Miyamoto (1983), Das Buch der fünf Ringe [Gōrin-no shō], ACON,
Düsseldorf-Wien [in German].
Obodyński K., Cynarski W.J. (2006), Between praxeology and ethics of martial
arts [in:] J. Kosiewicz [ed.], Sport and Values. Theoretical Foundations,
AWF, Warsaw, pp. 147–156.
Otake R. (2007), Katori Shinto-ryu: Warrior Tradition, Koryu Books.
Piwowarski J. (2011), Samodoskonalenie i bezpieczeństwo w samurajskim
kodeksie Bushidō. Filozofia Budō: Jūdō, Jūjutsu, Karate-dō, Kendō, Kenjutsu, Aikidō, Collegium Columbinum, Kraków.
185
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Raimondo S. (2008), Martial arts and civil society in Italy during Sixties and
Seventies / Sztuki walki a społeczeństwo obywatelskie we Włoszech lat
1960 i 70, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 8, pp.
38–44.
Saldern M. von (1993), Bushido – Ethik des japanischen Ritters, Verlag der
Universität Landau, Landau [in German].
Sawicki Z. (2011), Polish Martial Art – Signum Polonicum: Historical background, profile and the main plots of the system, “Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 2, pp.
38–46.
Sennet R. (2000), Der flexible Mensch. Die Kultur des neuen Kapitalismus,
Verlag Berlin, Berlin [in German].
Shimizu S. (2008), The Body Envisioned by Jigorō Kanō: Based on his career as
a jūdō master, IOC member and principal of Tokyo Higher Normal School,
”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 8, pp. 29–37.
Shortt J.G., Hashimoto K. (1979), Beginning Jiu-Jitsu Ryoi-Shinto Style, P.H.
Crompton Ltd., London.
Sieber L. (2011), Zen-do karate Tai-te-tao [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Selected Areas of Intercultural Dialogue in Martial Arts, Rzeszow University
Press, Rzeszów, pp. 145–154.
Słopecki J. (2012), Modern pro-European view on matters concerning martial arts teaching qualifications with considerations to European Union
recommendations and legal solutions provided by the sports act [in:] W.J.
Cynarski, Martial Arts Phenomenon – Research and Multidisciplinary
Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów, pp. 201–211.
Smoleń A. (2004), Prakseologia a etyka walki sportowej – dychotomia czy
harmonia?, „Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 4,
pp. 303–308.
Stępnik A. (2009), Dark side of Bushido. Bushido as an ethical standard, “Ido
– Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 9, pp. 86–93.
Stiller R. (2003), Chińska wojna zza tysiącleci [in:] Sun Tzu, Sztuka wojenna,
Kraków 2003, pp. 177–208 [in Polish].
186
Way of martial arts and politics, and politicization
Sun Tzu (2003), Sztuka wojenna [Bing fa] (red. R. Stiller), Etiuda, Kraków.
Szabo B., Sakai T. (2013), Some thoughts on the transmission and development of jujutsu and aikido in Hungary [in:] 2013 International Budo
Conference by the Japanese Academy of Budo. Abstracts, University of
Tsukuba, Sep. 10–12, 2013, p. 132.
Szmyd J. (2004), Główne strategie walki z zagrożeniami cywilizacji współczesnej, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, t. 4, s. 340–
–351.
Szmyd J. (2013), The flow of higher values in a globalised world. Notes based
on the example of the homocreative art, “Ido Movement for Culture.
Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 7–14.
Tokarski S. (1984), Orient i kontrkultury, Wiedza Powszechna, Warsaw [in
Polish].
Tokarski S. (2011), Where West meets East in martial arts [in:] W.J. Cynarski
[ed.], Selected Areas of Intercultural Dialogue in Martial Arts, Lykeion
Library series, vol. 14, UR, Rzeszów, pp. 46–55.
Ury W. (1998), Odchodząc od ‘nie’. Negocjowanie od konfrontacji do kooperacji, PWE, Warszawa [in Polish].
Velte H., Matschke K.D. (2007), Lexikon der asiatischen Budo-Kampfsport
Philosophie, Schramm Sport GmbH, Vierkirchen [in German].
Wertz S.K. (1991), Talking a Good Game. Inquires into the Principles of Sport,
Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.
Wilber K. (1979), No Boundary. Eastern and Western Approaches to Personal
Growth, Shambhala, USA.
Whitson D. (1984), Sport and Hegemony: On the Construction of the Dominant Culture, “Dialectics and Humanism”, no. 1, pp. 5–19.
Wojciechowski M. (2001), Wiara – cywilizacja – polityka, Rzeszów – Rybnik
[in Polish].
Zabłocki W. (2000a), Polskie sztuki walki. Miecz oburęczny i szabla husarska,
Aula, Podkowa Leśna [in Polish].
Zabłocki W. (2000b), Polskie sztuki walki. Miecz oburęczny i szabla husarska,
”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 1, pp. 114–115.
187
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Ziejka F. (2005), Wawel – symbol polskiej tożsamości narodowej, ”Studia
Humanistyczne”, no. 5, pp. 5–15.
Żuk A. (1996), Filozofia walki, Wyd. UMCS, Lublin [in Polish].
CHAPTER 8
Training
8.1. Ideological conditioning of martial arts training15
KEY WORDS
martial arts, axiology, training, Taoist principles
ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND. The impact of ideas on teaching and training in martial
arts has not been widely studied yet. Novum here is especially used
methodology – expert judgments not directly. Also the results and
conclusions are interesting.
PROBLEM. On the ground of General Theory of Fighting Arts, the
question is: How do ideological (philosophical, religious) conditioning
affect the process of training in different martial arts? The scope of
research was limited to contemporary Europe and selected martial
arts organizations (1980–2015).
METHOD. The first method used here is to analyze the content of the
literature of the subject, or rather qualitative analysis of the discourse.
Then the opinions and teaching of 5 highest rank masters of martial
15
Fragments of the article Cynarski W.J. (2018). Ideological conditioning of martial arts
training, ”Physical Activity Review”, vol. 6, pp. 14–21; doi: 10.16926/par.2018.06.03
were used.
189
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
arts from France, Germany and Poland were taken into account (expert court method). It comes to this own, long-standing participant
observation of the author.
RESULTS. There are 5 issues taken from the literature of the subject
and 5 of their western applications, according to master-teachers’
teaching. They represent the classic canon of martial arts. The attitude to martial arts traditions varies from preference to faithfulness
to innovation. Disciples of Asian masters are more often in favour of
the original version of the curriculum.
CONCLUSIONS. Most of the ideological content of today’s Asian martial arts comes from the philosophy of Taoism. In many cases the
symbols and rules derive rather from the cultural traditions of the
country of origin of the martial arts, rather than directly from certain
religious or philosophical systems. The attitude of widely perceived
perfectionism is one of these universal values of martial arts, which
is worth promoting regardless of worldview.
Introduction
Emergent East Asian martial arts have existed in the Western world
and on a global scale. This fact raises questions about their philosophy, which directly or indirectly influences the way practice in the
training room. The answers are different, but some scholars are trying
to point out the principles that are universal in most martial arts [cf.
Kim, Back 2000; Cynarski 2013b; Martínková, Parry 2016]. It is quite
difficult when in karate we find different ideological underpinnings,
often mutually contradictory.
There are martial arts created in Buddhist temples, such as “Long
Fist” Shaolin kung-fu [Shahar 2008], Taoist (like battle “inner” styles
– neijia), or Shintoistic (like Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu sword
school). Polish Signum Polonicum school is culturally associated with
190
Training
Christianity [Sawicki 2011, 2012]. Elsewhere, these are still other
ideological references, most often resulting from the preferences of
the school’s creator or principal leader.
If Buddhist monk Takuan Soho was pondering the fate of the fight-
er or his state of mind during the fight, it had to do with the ideological
content of Buddhism [Wilson 2014: 43–68]. Today’s identification of
martial arts with a given religion can only occur with the purpose of
promoting religion with the help of this martial art. Martial arts are
not essentially associated with any religious belief. At the very least,
some ritual gestures that point to the time and place of the historical
origin of the martial arts are preserved.
The ancient Chinese strategy indicated the correctness that the
storm broke the oaks and the reed only rocked. Hence the principle of
softness, elasticity and decay, adopted in hand-to-hand combat, and
the name of jujutsu art – soft technique. Symbols of many martial arts
schools refer to legends and imagine the spiritual path to the mastery.
We find here a crane and a tiger, a dragon and a phoenix. These may
be ancient ideas that have existed in the culture of warriors for several
thousand years. In turn “The circle of Tao / taijitu symbolizes China,
South Korea, but also Jeet Kune Do and Idokan karate (there are no
white and black fields, but vectors are shown, symbolizing successive
changes); This is in particular the harmonization and balancing of
opposing energies, and the elements of masculine and feminine.” [cf.
Cynarski 2016b]
In order to adapt jujutsu to the ideas of physical education, sport
and Olympics, Jigoro Kano created judo – an educational system in
which he rejected techniques dangerous for co-workers. Thus a modern martial arts was created, preserving the pedagogical and prosocial
principle of jita kyoei. In turn sports wushu became a demonstration
191
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
discipline, a collection of aesthetic forms. However, entering the way of
sporting competition is not the only tendency or the engine of change.
Morihei Ueshiba changed martial arts into the art of harmony of movement, finding in aikido religious purpose. However, not all today’s
aikido is cultivating Ueshiba’s doctrine, and not every judo or jujutsu
is a fighting sport / combat sport.
In the perspective of General Theory of Fighting Arts [Cynarski
2017], the question is: How do ideological (philosophical, religious)
conditioning affect the process of training in different martial arts? The
scope of research was limited to contemporary Europe and selected
martial arts organizations (years 1980–2015).
Methodology
The first method used here is to analyze the content of the literature of
the subject or rather qualitative analysis of the discourse [Krippendorf
2004]. The second is the method of expert courts (competent judges).
The opinions of top martial artists (9–10 dan) from Europe – France,
Germany and Poland – were taken into account. Practical (in teaching
and coaching) the five Grand Masters:
GM Lothar Sieber 10 dan meijin jujutsu & karate & ido
GM Roland J. Maroteaux 9 dan hanshi aiki-jujutsu
GM Alain Floquet 9 dan hanshi aiki-jujutsu
GM Stanisław Cynarski 9 dan hanshi aiki-jujutsu
GM Keith Kernspecht 10 toan WingTsun kung-fu, 8 dan karate.
This is a methodological novum – the method implemented not directly. Although the author is familiar with the opinions of the masters
expressed directly, their publications and teaching, i.e. the opinions
supported by the work, are analyzed. The author was or is in four
192
Training
cases their uchi-deshi (so called “inner student”), in the fifth – direct
student. So there is a long-standing participant observation of the
author – since 1980.
Results
General Arrangements
Taoistic principles
Some Taoist principles, that is, from philosophical Taoism, and beyond axiology, appear to be universal and fairly common in martial
arts. This is e.g. regularity, moderation, low intensity of effort, behavior in accordance with the nature of the Universe (natural laws),
and softness and elasticity – like the ju-no ri principle in jujutsu. This
is consistent with the wisdom of Tao Te Ching book. The principles
of water, harmony, yin-yang, and aiki also result, in their ideological
justifications, of Taoism [cf. Lao Tzu 2001; Cynarski 2016b].
Understanding the philosophy of Taoism helps in a conscious
study of taiji quan or qigong [cf. Feng Youlan 2001], in particular in
relation to health. But it may also be helpful in other forms of physical
exercise, e.g. jogging. Taoism teaches the avoidance of the effort and
all excesses. Thus, for example, one should run at a steady pace and
not for long distances. It is better to exercise regularly for a long time,
using loads which are not too strenuous for the body. This translates
into Tao of training – do not force [Cynarski, Szajna 2017] and the rule
of moderation e.g. in the version of Shorinji kenpo by master Doshin
So (1911–1980) [Grądek 2014].
Indeed, the best for health, because the most natural form of
movement is a walk or possibly light trunk. So the racing, especially the marathons, etc., are rather bad for health. Their justification
is rather ideological and is due to the fashion style of sport, youth
193
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
and vitality. Is it a form of pagan belief in the ability to prolong life?
[Nalaskowski 2016].
The search for Taoist monks on the elixir of immortality was much
more rational. This elixir turned out to be a set of qigong exercises,
actually affecting health [cf. Cynarski, Sieber 2015]. The qigong (chi
kung) breathing and energizing exercises utilize gymnastic and martial
movements; They are a component of some melee systems, i.e., styles,
schools and organizations.
Internal styles (aikido, taiji quan) imitate the Taoist principles;
They seek balance and harmony. Their specificity is to use the language
of energy to describe the spiritual sphere. Hence the development or
expansion of qi / chi or ki, etc. Similar exercises can be used to fight
or heal. Taoist medicine mainly involves regulating energy flow, for
example with needles (energy channel theory) [Garnuszewski 1988;
Cynarski, Sieber 2015].
Extreme of Truth – Kyokushin
Oyama recommended sports competition in the formula he proposed,
organized the competition. In his view, the “Karate Way” was both
Budo and the Zen practice. This was an expression of opposition to
sporting non-contact karate, which is similar to sports fencing. Oyama’s idea was to show the truth about training and fighting.
Kyokushin karate is the opposite of philosophical Taoism. This is a
feat to the limit; Hard, fighting contacts and breaking tests [cf. Oyama
1979]. This counts the real power and ability to defeat the opponent, but
also overcome their own weakness – pain, fear, etc. Masutatsu Oyama,
the creator of this school and style, cited the social ethics of Confucius,
some Taoist thinkers, and Zen Buddhism. But, is it the path of struggle,
the pain of someone and myself, the proper Way of the Heavens?
194
Training
There is another possible understanding of this pursuit of extreme. It is not the absurdity of the extreme, like the extreme sports,
but the pursuit of Truth [Cynarski 2016c]. Then the paths of many
sages and philosophers, as well as the clergy and the people of science,
are met with martial arts masters.
No Way – Jeet Kune Do by Bruce Lee
It is a kind of revolution against ancient martial arts systems and traditional teaching methods [Lee 1975; Bolelli 2008]. Classic systems
were based on the teaching of numerous technical forms. Bruce Lee
rejected this, and also modified the repertoire of techniques. He de-
nied techniques not useful in real combat, and borrowed numerous
others – including western boxing and fencing. He put on ingenuity,
innovation, claiming that there are no limits – you can and should
be experimenting. He experimented with exercise equipment, safety
equipment (protective pads), training methods. He opened the way
for new combat sports and eclectic systems.
In the ideological sphere, Lee, in particular, was based on Taoism
and Zen Buddhism. He believed that life is a struggle, and the pursuit
of freedom also applies to the struggle. He wrote about the way to
Truth [Lee 1975: 6–9] and sought the truth about the fight. He thought
that we should reject the limiting forms and that it was necessary to
simplify what was too complicated. The principle of water, that is
adaptation to the situation (as to the shape of the vessel) results from
the philosophy of Taoism.
The way to improve character (Budo, Karate-do, etc.)
Sensei Gichin Funakoshi and other masters have emphasized ascetics for the exercise of character / personality. Improving character is
195
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
one of the main Budo goals [Cynarski 2013a; Nakiri 2015; Cynarski,
Piwowarski 2016]. Funakoshi was a Confucianist. For the rest of his
life he opposed the karate sport competition.
The humanistic pathway under the name Zendo karate Tai-tetao by Peter Jahnke and the philosophy of Ido develop this precisely
axiological and pedagogical ideological trend [Cynarski, Sieber 2016;
Cynarski 2016a]. This is a fairly universal idea that draws on the
knowledge and wisdom of both the East and the West.
Peter Jahnke [1992], in his religious explorations and as a teacher of karate school, appealed to Tao and Zen, also in school names
and in technical designations [Cynarski, Sieber 2016]. Among the
universal principles he pointed out the “Law of Great Love,” be-
cause God is love. In a sense, he identified Tao with God [cf. Cynarski
2016a].
Performance formula/ pattern
It’s always been the effectiveness of a warrior or soldier in combat, in
war. Art of war is especially the art of effective killing. Magic or religion
was supposed to help the soldier in accepting death – someone’s or his
own. Achieving an inner state of emptiness was useful for emotional
calming and undisturbed emotion.
Utility for military and uniformed services requires a pragmatic
approach rather than a normative ethics. Similarly, it looks in martial arts organizations that wish to be effective in self-defence and
real combat. Defeating attacker requires a high-performance and
technical and tactical skills. The idea of long-term self improvement
and broadly perceptive perfectionism is helpful. But in the training
of the army and uniformed services, the time for this process is very
limited.
196
Training
You can in a few years or even months teach a man to fight us-
ing dangerous techniques. However, the process of upbringing takes
longer. Therefore, in the martial arts, which are educational systems,
the pursuit of the mastery has been extended for at least 10 years
[Cynarski et al. 2015].
II. Applications
Stanisław Cynarski and his teaching
Sensei S. Cynarski has been practicing judo, dealing with various martial arts, and finally the high master degree of aiki-jujutsu. He teach-
es his soto-deshi (“outside pupils”) regularly at the dojo in regular
practice groups. On the other hand, uchi-deshi (“inner student”) used
non-standard, special training.
For example, the monkey training. It is climbing the branches of
trees. It strengthens the grip (strengthens the hand), develops spatial
orientation, sense of balance, and courage. This is a useful exercise
for judo and jujutsu, where many techniques are performed from the
handle.
The martial arts tradition is highly respected by the sensei, as
evidenced by his praise and attentiveness of master Yoshio Sugino (10
dan kobudo, hanshi) [cf. Cynarski S. 1991]. In addition, he uses physical
exercise and bio-energy massage aiki-taiso derived from aikijutsu,
which is close to medical knowledge and Taoist philosophy.
But, as a former judoka, Pole and European, he is open to sporting
competition (not opposed to student participation), modern strength
and conditioning training. S. Cynarski applied running training at the
top of St. Martin for many years. In addition, his disciples competed in
sports jujutsu. This approach is quite flexible. But this flexibility can
also be explained by the Taoist principles.
197
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Alain Floquet
The principle of transferring knowledge ‘from the heart to the heart”
(Jap. ishin-den shin) is in the advanced instruction of aikibudo at the
school of sensei Floquet. This is perhaps the echo of Buddhist tradition, cultivated in the schools of classical martial arts.
Floquet started with the new budo – judo, karate and kendo to
reach kobudo. He brought to Europe teaching the classical schools of
Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu, and Daito-ryu, but his system was
based mainly on the modified aiki-jujutsu technique Yoseikan. As in
any aikido there are concepts of centre, spherical movement, ki and
aiki; Distance, body rotation and energy balls, which is somewhat
similar to the neijia kung-fu (taiji quan, and bagua zhang). With the
ideology of the late Morihei Ueshiba (Shinto sect of Omoto Kyo) it has
little in common except for a common source – aikijutsu16. However,
similarly as by Ueshiba, budo is – for Floquet [2006: 75] – ”the pathway
of harmony and peace”.
Exercises with traditional weapons are a complement to manual
techniques, or vice versa. In melee combat, the method of sparring
– randori (also in the form of a few to one), not just the form (kata).
There are also practical exercises for self-defence in manual and tonfa techniques, as a device commonly used by the police. In contrast,
sports competition is not recognized here.
Keith Kernspecht
He is a man fascinated in youth by Bruce Lee and inspired by his revolutionary martial arts idea, and has come to know various styles of
16
This is also true for the remaining aiki-jujutsu masters. Late Ueshiba’s aikido adapted
the technical-tactical sphere to Omoto Kyo pacifism, eliminating attack techniques.
However, Cynarski, Floquet and Maroteaux teach older combat techniques.
198
Training
Japanese, Filipino and Chinese styles. He became famous especially
as a WingTsun kung-fu teacher (from that style B. Lee started, and this
style was his basis for conceptualizing Tao of Jeet Kune Do).
Kernspecht completed over time the primordial tendency to be
effective in the self-defence of the Taoist ideological underpinnings.
This is traditional knowledge and “spirituality” in the language of
energy (qi / chi), health and energy (chi-kung / qigong) exercises. In
this way, he created the “inner” WingTsun kung-fu. He completed in
his school the standard imposed by the old system, with a set of new
techniques – responses to any attack.
His organization teaches parallel fencing (escrima) and grappling.
It is therefore an innovation of inherited tradition to adapt to the
training / teaching of real combat to current needs. Wooden dummies
are used here, but the preferred form of exercise is to practice with
a partner.
Sifu Kernspecht does not express explicit praise for any religious
or philosophical system. It also does not impose any ethical principles
[cf. Kernspecht 2014]. But in his school there are Confucian principles
of family relations, commonly adopted in kung-fu schools.
Roland J. Maroteaux
This French sensei also practiced several martial arts – aikido, judo,
karate. He brought to teach the schools of Hakko-ryu and Takeda-ryu
Nakamura-ha to Europe. It always emphasizes the efficiency of technique, the aesthetics of movement and the butoku ethical principles
[Maroteaux 2007]. In his view, the spirit of old jujutsu and Japanese
bushi is akin to the knight ethos.
He teaches in his small private dojo and at numerous training seminars in many countries around the world. He combines melee combat
199
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
with classic weapon techniques and martial arts with cultural studies.
Sensei Maroteaux respects and promotes the Japanese tradition in a
clear message, and rejects all sports competition.
Here too, randori is used on yudansha (black belts) level. So we
need to react accordingly to the changing situation. And in teaching
the Takeda-ryu Maroto-ha school, there are several complementary
disciplines: aiki-jujutsu and ju-kenpo (manual techniques), shugijutsu
(short stick), jodo (medium stick), iaido and battojutsu (Japanese sabre). They are complementary and complement the complementary
sports recommended in the theory of training.
Lothar Sieber
By GM Sieber, the Taoist language and Zen occur in kata and in the
name of karate style – Zendo karate Tai-te-tao. Sieber is the legal successor of Peter Jahnke’s school. However, meijin recognizes the Decalogue
as the main ethical signpost. At the same time he respects Buddhism
and Taoism.
Especially interesting is the teaching principle of ido – continuous,
fluid movement, akin to aiki. This applies to the techniques of jujutsu,
karate and iaido. We have here some visible influences of Taoism [Cy-
narski 2016b]. If the ido is a development of Jigoro Kano’s “judo” idea,
the Zendo karate Tai-te-tao was developed as a protest against “karate
sport”. The Taoist concept of yin-yang (Japanese in-yo), the theory of
five elements, and the principle of flexibility / adaptation / water are
present in the tactical and technical field of this school.
In Sieber’s teachings jujutsu and karate serve essentially for real
self-defence and combat, not a duel within a sports convention. Special techniques have been taken mainly from kenpo. In addition, it is
practiced on mannequins, small makiwaras, heavy bags, etc. Impact
200
Training
strength, flexibility, and “cat’s movements” are emphasized [Sieber
2011].
Because every jujutsuka must be able to fight in the distance, and
every karateka can effectively use jujutsu self-defence, the students
of this school can achieve real combat skills in various positions and
distances. It is a very innovative school whose techniques are still
being mastered by the Grand Master.
Discussion
Krzysztof Kondratowicz (12 dan) created an ethical code of jujutsu,
which refers to the ideal idea of the Samurai tradition and the humanistic idea of humanity [Kondratowicz 1991: 72–73]. It was a rather designed/projected ethical canon, developed for pedagogical purposes.
From the wisdom of East Asia, there are basically symbols, gestures,
and rituals that determine behaviour at the place of exercise.
In more modernized schools are also moving away from Chinese
or Japanese terminology. Roland Habersetzer (9 dan) emphasizes
mainly the utilitarian value of karate. So the technique is a self-defence
tool. This does not exclude his attitude towards budo as a way of life,
especially of personal self-improvement [Habersetzer 1994, 2007].
This is an approach similar to that preferred by L. Sieber.
Jan Slopecki (10 dan) is not ashamed and afraid to admit to the
Christian religion and the Decalogue. He is a traditionalist in ethical
terms, and a modernist in terms of techniques and teaching methods
[cf. Cynarski, Slopecki 2015]. He is similar in this to L. Sieber.
Undoubtedly, the main change has occurred in terms of changes
in the ideological assumptions and goals of training in the transition
of numerous organizations from martial arts as a pathway, to combat
sports and sports competition. As a result, the change of curricula and
201
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
the reduction of educational systems come [Slopecki 2012: 87–89].
In the case of extreme commercialization, both the myth of effective
technique, secret knowledge or magical power, or philosophical reasons are forms of decorative packaging for the products sold.
Just as it is in the world of martial arts, some martial arts leaders
focus more on tradition (like R. Maroteaux), while others are innovative, although to a varying degree. Much depends on what teachers
have mastered, especially Asian or European. Another determinant
may be the fact of being attached to the cultural tradition of one’s
own country and the degree of internalisation of content provided
by martial arts educational systems.
For a Japanese, the sense of budo can be religious and identity
(a fragment of national heritage) [cf. Oyama 1979; Kim, Back 2000;
Nakiri 2015]. For a Pole or a German, the same martial arts can be
instrumental in serving different needs.
Summary and Conclusions
There are 5 views taken from the literature of the subject and 5 of
their Western applications, as indicated by masters of the highest
rank from Europe. They either reject sport or tolerate it, what attests
to the representation of the classical canon – teaching combat skills.
The attitude to martial arts tradition is also different here – from the
faithful to the far-reaching innovations. Asian masters students (like
Floquet, Maroteaux) are more often in favour of the original / source
version of the curriculum.
The relationship to values and ethics is diverse. Most of the ideological content of today’s Asian martial arts comes from the philosophy
of Taoism. The very idea of the way (dao / tao) comes from here, and
the principles of flexibility and energy balancing, too. In many cases
202
Training
the symbols and rules derive rather from the cultural traditions of the
country of origin of the martial art, rather than directly from certain
religious or philosophical systems. The attitude of widely perceived
perfectionism is one of these universal values of martial arts, which
is worth promoting regardless of worldview.
Sources
Cynarski S. (1991), Master kobudō of the Katori Temple – Yoshio Sugino, ”Czarny
Pas”, Warsaw, no. 1, pp. 17–19 [in Polish].
Jahnke P.K. (1992), Zen-Do Karate ”Tai-Te-Tao”, Library of Munich [in German].
Nalaskowski A. (2016), Bieg do wieczności, “w Sieci”, Aug. 1–7, no. 31, p.
93 [in Polish].
Sieber Lothar meijin, 10 dan, Honour President of IPA; consultations 1992–
–2017.
References
Bolelli D. (2008), Chapter 11. Epistemological Anarchism. The Philosophy of
Jeet Kune Do [in:] D. Bolelli, On the Warrior’s Path. Philosophy, Fighting,
and Martial Arts Mythology, 2nd edn., Blue Snake Books, Berkeley, CA,
pp. 153–184.
Cynarski W.J. (2013a), Karta Budo. Analiza treści z perspektywy humanistycznej teorii sztuk walki, ”Polish Journal of the Arts and Culture”, no.
7(4), pp. 31–53.
Cynarski W.J. (2013b), General reflections about the philosophy of martial
arts, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”,
vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 1–6.
Cynarski W.J. (2016a), A Christian and the martial arts path, “Ido Movement
for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 16, no. 2, pp.
1–7; doi: 10.14589/ido.16.2.1.
Cynarski W.J. (2016b), Wpływ chińskich sztuk walki na technikę szkoły
Idokan Yoshin-ryu, ”Rozprawy Naukowe AWF we Wrocławiu”, vol. 52,
pp. 42–49.
203
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J. (2016c), Droga do ostatecznej prawdy. Nowe rozumienie filozofii Kyokushin, ”Rozprawy Naukowe Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego we Wrocławiu”, vol. 54, pp. 3–13.
Cynarski W.J. (2017), Towards a General Theory of Fighting Arts, ”Phys Activ
Rev”, no. 5, pp. 83–90.
Cynarski W.J., Piwowarski J. (2016), Japanese Security Culture in the Global
Village. The Budo Charter as a Modernized Element of Ancient Military
Tradition, “Security Dimensions. International and National Studies”,
no. 20, p. 30–50; doi: 10.24356/SD/20/1.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2015), Martial arts (alternative) medicine – channel of transmission to Europe, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of
Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 8–21; doi: 10.14589/
ido.15.3.2.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2016), 40 Years of Zendo Karate Tao-Te-Tao and
Idokan Karate (1975–2015), “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of
Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 11–17; doi: 10.14589/
ido.16.1.2.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Kudłacz M., Telesz P. (2015), A way to mastery. Mastery in martial arts, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts
Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 16–22; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.1.3.
Cynarski W.J., Slopecki J. (2015), Way of the warrior jujutsu. Interview with
Dr Jan Slopecki hanshi, ”Scientific Review of Physical Culture”, vol. 5,
no. 2, pp. 47–53.
Cynarski W.J., Szajna G. (2017), The nobility of spirit – Homo Creator Nobilis. Towards the anthropology of the knightly way, “Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 1–8;
doi: 10.14589/ido.17.1.1.
Feng Youlan (2001), A brief history of Chinese philosophy, PWN, Cracow.
Floquet A. (2006), Pensees en Mouvement. Aikibudo & Budo, Budo Editions,
Noisy-sur-Ecole [in French].
Garnuszewski Z. (1988), Renaissance of Acupuncture, ”Sport i Turystyka”,
Warsaw [in Polish].
204
Training
Grądek F. (2014), Zen a shorinji kenpo, “sztuka walki na pięści klasztoru
Shaolin” [in:] A. Kozyra [ed.], Zen a sztuki walki, Japonica, Warsaw, pp.
172–239 [in Polish].
Habersetzer R. (1994), Karate for masters. With body and mind, Sportverlag
Berlin, Berlin [in German].
Habersetzer R. (2007), Tengu – my martial way, Amphora, Paris [in French].
Kernspecht K.R. (2014), Inneres WingTsun! Kurs-Buch, 2nd edn., EWTO-Verlag [in German].
Kim D., Back A. (2000), The way to go: Philosophy in martial arts practice,
Nanam, Seoul.
Kondratowicz K. (1991), Jiu-Jitsu. Sztuka walki obronnej, Warsaw [in Polish].
Krippendorf K. (2004), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology,
Sage, Thousend Oaks, CA.
Lao Tzu (2001), The Way /Tao te king/, (trans. M. Fostowicz-Zahorski), “Arhat”, Wroclaw [in Polish].
Lee B. (1975), Tao of Jeet Kune Do, Ohara Publications, Santa Clarita, CA.
Maroteaux R.J. (2007), Les vertus martiales – butoku, autoedition, Barcelona
[in French/English].
Martínková I., Parry J. (2016), The paradox of martial arts – safe combat,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
16, no. 4, pp. 4–10; doi: 10.14589/ido.16.4.2.
Nakiri F. (2015), Concept of budo and the history and activities of the Japanese Academy of Budo, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 11–25; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.1.2.
Oyama M. (1979), Mas. Oyama’s Karate Philosophy. The Kyokushin Way, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo.
Sawicki Z. (2011), Polish Martial Art – Signum Polonicum: Historical background, profile and the main plots of the system, ”Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 38–46.
Sawicki Z. (2012), Fencing treatise on the art of sabre fighting of Polish hussars. Part 2, In Defence of the Gospel, Signum Polonicum, Zawiercie [in
Polish].
205
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Shahar M. (2008), The Shaolin Monastery. History, Religion, and the Chinese
Martial Arts, University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu.
Sieber L. (2011), Chapter 12. Zendo Karate Tai-Te-Tao [in:] W.J. Cynarski
[ed.], Selected Areas of Intercultural Dialogue in Martial Arts, Rzeszow
University Press, Rzeszów, pp. 145–154.
Slopecki J. (2012), Wprowadzenie do teorii i metodyki nauczania sztuk walki,
na podstawie systemów jūjutsu, International Modern Ju-Jitsu Federation, Glogow [in Polish].
Wilson W.S. [ed.] (2014), The Swordman’s Handbook. Samurai teaching on
path of the sword, Shambhala, Boston – London.
8.2. Training in chosen traditional martial arts
KEY WORDS
traditional martial arts, training, teaching, mastery
ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND. Martial arts and combat sports are often mistaken.
Meanwhile, the goal difference implies differences in training methods. For the clarity of the argument, the theoretical perspective was
unequivocally pointing to “first-hand” knowledge – genuine experts.
PROBLEM. On the ground of the General Theory of Fighting Arts, the
question is: What is the training in traditional martial arts?
METHOD. The first method used here is to analyze the content of the
literature of the subject, and the qualitative analysis of the discourse. It
comes to this own, long-standing participant observation of the author.
RESULTS. “Internal” styles and school were distinguished, Chinese
style “external” wushu kung-fu, classical schools of fencing and aiki-jujutsu, modernized systems, synthetic or eclectic, and also a variety of Thai, Philippine and others martial arts. Their specificities are
discussed and the general rules of training in martial arts indicated.
206
Training
CONCLUSIONS. Traditional training usually involves the study of technical forms, instrumental exercises (mannequins, makiwaras) and
some ritual activities. Sometimes new methods of exercise are added,
recommended by sports science.
Introduction
In order to become a martial arts master, you first need to master your
own body and mind. It is first of all improving general fitness, then –
focused skills [Wallace 1981] and teaching / learning movement – the
special efficiency [Kuśnierz 2012; Cynarski 2015]. Even if we agree
that a minimum of talent is necessary, regular, long-term training decides about success [Cynarski, Sieber, Kudłacz, Telesz 2015].
Training is understood here as a process of psycho-physical
preparation and the educational process (teaching / learning). It is
– in the case of martial arts – “a conscious, long-term, multi-stage
development process of the practitioner’s dispositions and abilities
that meet the requirements and standards of the mastery of given
arts” [Cynarski 2009: 90]. Training in martial arts differs from training in combat sports, especially in the following three aspects and
components:
1) measures and scope of teaching, conditioned by goals;
2) methodology of teaching techniques and fighting tactics;
3) a long time to come to the mastery, in contrast to sports competition.
The main goal is to achieve broadly understood perfection. Therefore,
the optimization of the training process “concerns not only faster mas-
tering of relevant skills, but also personal development” [Cynarski
2009: 90].
207
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
In addition to differences, convergence with current knowledge
on training / coaching can be indicated. This applies, for example,
to the need for a holistic, multi-dimensional approach to issues and
multidisciplinary research [cf. Ambroży 2005; Jones, Kingston 2013],
and taking into account the humanistic coefficient and pedagogical
knowledge [Light, Evans, Harvey, Hassanin 2015; Cynarski, Błażejewski, Pasterniak 2016: 123–162]. As a result of the dissemination of
knowledge about the theory of sports training, training methods are
quite common in the martial arts environment modified [Cynarski,
Momola 2005; Cynarski, Obodyński 2005].
The old traditional schools, styles and systems of martial arts,
in which the teaching process has changed little over the centuries,
have a special peculiarity. It is also a technical training of a warrior,
upbringing according to specific rules, physical and psychological
preparation for the fight, transfer of knowledge and practice for individual experience.
From the perspective of the General Theory of Fighting Arts
[Cynarski 2017] the question was asked: “What is characterized by
training in traditional martial arts?”, Also “what is its specification?”.
The first method is the analysis of the discourse [Krippendorf
2004]. It comes to this own, long-standing participant observation of
the author. Based on the 40-year participant observation of the author
– the practice and study of various varieties of Japanese and Chinese
martial arts and combat sports – the following facts were established.
They have been shown on selected examples.
Internal and external schools
Lind [1996: 625] lists 8 internal schools in the Chinese tradition of
nei-jia: Tai-ji-quan (T’ai-chi-ch’uan), Ba-gua-quan (Pa-kua-ch’uan),
208
Training
Xsing-yi-quan (Hsin-i-ch’uan), Liang-yi-quan (Liang-i-ch’uan), Szu-hsiang-ch’uan, Tai-yi-quan (T’ai-i-ch ‘uan), Zi-yan-men (Tzu-yan-men), Liu-heba-fa (Liu-ho-pa-fa). In addition to internal martial arts schools, we can
include Japanese aikido, Korean hapkido and, for example, modified Wing-
Tsun – kung-fu school of GM Keith Kernspecht [Kernspecht 2014].
A common feature of schools / internal styles is the occurrence of
the concepts qi / ki (internal energy) and poetic language, the presence
of health goals or related to victory in combat, simultaneous exercise of
the body and mind (concentration, the game of the imagination). The
basic exercise is to improve the physical balance, which helps in achieving the “inner” balance. Breath is exercised as a “breath of life”. Next, the
perfect coordination of the body movement with the breath is sought.
In a physical image, movements can be natural, slow or dynamic
(explosive). There are also separate sets of strictly health, breathing
and energizing exercises called qigong (chi-kung). They come from
the Taoist tradition, but have been adopted in many different kung-fu
schools.
For specific exercises, you can include exercises of “pushing
hands” in taiji quan. It’s about action / reaction and putting the opponent off balance. Similarly chi sao in Wing Chun / WingTsun kung-
fu. This is where the control over the opponent’s hands is exercised
(feeling of the opponent) when the forearms of the exercisers are in
contact. Blocks and block traps are possible, making it possible to
strike or hit a series of hits. Keeping your own balance and throwing
your opponent out of it is also very important.
In turn, schools or “external” (wai-jia) systems develop physical
strength, precision and dynamics of movement, courage and resistance
to pain. They are based on high overall physical fitness, as well as on
thought-out technique and combat tactics.
209
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Examples from Chinese tradition
Kennedy and Guo [2005] describe technical “manual” forms and
with traditional weapons, chi-kung (qigong) gymnastic and breath-
ing exercises, exercises improving the sense of balance (e.g. walking
along the rope), strength exercises (lifting the beam, dividing the
bamboo “wall”, “push-ups” on fingers), strength and endurance exercises (e.g. standing on posts in low position of a rider with a load
[Kennedy, Guo 2005: 242–245]), perfecting exercises or checking
movement dynamics (extinguishing a candle with a straight fist technique).
It is a picture like it was from centuries ago. In modern wushu
sports schools, players exercise similarly to other combat sports. Specifics are only technical forms [cf. Rosenbaum 2005; Cynarski 2015].
Although traditional training is still used in many Chinese martial
arts organizations, not only in the Shaolin tradition [Shahar 2008;
Cynarski, Swider 2017], where many styles originate.
A few years ago, two German wushu researchers had the opportunity to train in a traditional way, which they then described. In addition
to learning martial arts techniques, they used, among other things,
strength exercises used in the training process, but mainly with their
own body load [Albrecht, Rudolph 2011: 294–297, 284–285] and
flexibility exercises [Albrecht, Rudolph 2011: 293–294], which enable
making high kicks. Maik Albert trained in this way in Wuhan (People’s
Republic of China) in sifu Li Zhenghua’s school.
In the Chinese tradition of mo-hai (kung-fu traditional weapons)
18 types are used. There are heavy weapons in this number. To them
is at the same time an exercise in strength and endurance, without
disrupting coordination motor skills. Similar effects are provided by
210
Training
the exercise with heavy wooden bokuto swords (in kenjutsu) and maces in some Japanese martial arts schools (especially Goju-ryu karate).
Examples from Japanese tradition
Tradition of Japanese budo (group of methods of martial arts) is distinguished by separate concepts of geiko and renshu [Lind 1996: 250,
703]. Geiko – it concerns the exercises waza-ki-shin, or technique, energy and spirit. Thus, it has the dimension of ascetic practice oriented
towards internal improvement. Renshu, on the other hand, defines
training for teaching the movement of martial arts and forms. Training
in budo combines both these elements [Cynarski 2000].
Old, classic martial arts routes are called kobudō in Japan. These
are, in particular, technical forms (the so-called kata) and weapons
exercises, performed singly and in pairs, or sometimes in two or several systems per one. Practice skills of wielding various weapons at
different distances and positions, also against other weapons, and
according to the specifics of their use. Similarly, they were practiced in
ancient times and are practiced today in various martial arts schools
of several Asian countries [cf. Cox 1993; Sugino, Ito 2010].
Let us quote specific examples. Let’s start with the school Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu (tradition from the 15th century). Here,
teaching begins with basic attitudes (positions) with classic weapons (Japanese sabre uchigatana, long stick), and basic techniques of
wielding this sabre and stick. Then, technical forms in pairs and forms
with subsequent traditional weapons are practiced. The principle of
grading difficulties is applied here. It is also not possible to skip the
set stages of the program. For example, only mastering, for example,
the scope of skills required for 3 dan allows you to undertake studies
of techniques and forms in the field of 4 dan.
211
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Only the forms iaijutsu / iaido are practiced here individually
according to a technical model. Other methods of fighting with weap-
ons and hand-to-hand combat (yawara / jujutsu) require exercise in
pairs, where the student is checked by a more advanced person. At
the advanced stage, weapons of various sizes are trained – combat at
various distances (yari, naginata, kodachi), double weapons (ryoto –
simultaneous use of sabres daito and kodachi), and blade throwing
(shiriken-jutsu). The school tradition also teaches strategy and psychology of struggle, the art of fortifications and medical knowledge
[cf. Sieber, Grzywacz 2015; Mor-Stabilini 2016].
In this school the so-called hidden warm up. It consists in per-
forming in the initial part of the training multiple repetitions of the
basic maki-uchi cut. They can also be simple stick techniques bo or
naginata.
In the Takeda-ryu in the Nakamura-ha and Maroto-ha versions,
the basic disciplines are aikido / aikijujutsu (manual techniques,
unarmed combat) and iaido / battojutsu (the form of a sabre, also
known as the samurai sword). Here, after mastering the basic techniques, variant techniques (henka-waza) are practiced. Improvement
of skills is randori or shiai – a kind of duel according to a certain
sporting convention. In this way, in addition to strict technical forms,
the adept has the ability to automate responses (defence techniques)
to various types of attacks. At the advanced stage, the adept must
anticipate the attack and improvise, depending on the situation.
The holder of master degrees wields sticks – short and medium,
sabre uchigatana, and with his own body (aikido, jujutsu, kenpo).
Techniques are perfected and tested in tameshiwari (breaking) and
tameshigiri (cutting) tests. Traditional medicine of martial arts is
also taught – bujutsu ido.
212
Training
The Takeda clan was once famous for the best cavalry in the history of Japan. The Samurai of this clan were practicing horse fencing
(kenba-jutsu) and horse archery (kyuba-jutsu). This tradition has not
been preserved until today [cf. Maroteaux 1993; Cynarski 2013].
Yoseikan (Japanese “house of honour and justice”) is a school
in which meijin Minoru Mochizuki (1907–2003) included both the
techniques of the old iaijutsu and aiki-jujutsu, as well as developed appropriate “counter-techniques”. He complemented the kata forms with
their interpretation, and added various types of randori (sparring). In
this way, various budo disciplines are taught here – from combat knife
techniques to karate [Cynarski 2000]. An advanced person in Yoseikan
budo can fight in a situation of several on one, especially using specific
techniques of sutemi nage – throws of sacrifice.
The teaching methodology of classical schools is combined with
a student’s test of proficiency. If the student is not able to repeat the
complex motion of a given form or combination after it has been
demonstrated twice with full dynamics, it is thought that he did not
mature to control it. On the other hand, next to forms of traditional
karate and various kobudo weapons (traditions of Japan and Okinawa), Yoseikan is practiced today with technical solutions similar to
boxing and there are five competitive sports competition: hand molds,
free randori, two-handed sword fighting, one-handed sabre, defence
against the dummy knife [Cynarski 1997b].
Budo development – modernized teaching
The versatility of training an old warrior included various ways of
hand-to-hand combat and weapons, as well as horse riding, archery,
combat tactics, the art of fortification, etc. [Skoss 1997; Sugino, Ito
2010; Cynarski 2013]. The idea of versatility in physical fitness training
213
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
and melee skills is present today especially in popular MMA [Etll,
Treiber 2013; James, Kelly, Beckman 2013; Schwenk, Schmidt 2013].
But from the tradition of this heritage, there are enthusiasts of various
martial arts. They learn the rules of struggle, resistance to pain and
the development of strength of character [cf. Reinish, Marek 2013;
Herrera-Valenzuela et al. 2016]. Of course, modern sport draws from
the achievements of sport sciences and enables the acceleration of the
training process, avoiding certain risks [Arziutov et al. 2016 Herrera-Valenzuela et al. 2016 Zetoruk, Violán, Zurakowski, Micheli 2005].
Kyokushin karate is the school of master Masutatsu Oyama
(1923–1994), who is Kyokushinkai organization to strive on the path
of martial arts to wisdom and truth [Cynarski 2016b]. He combined
his experiences in karate practice (in schools / styles Shotokan and
Goju-ryu), kenpo, aikijutsu, judo, and Muai Thai. He kept forms from
Goju-ryu, and the free fight was similar to Thai boxing (so-called ‘low
kick’ and knee attacks are allowed). However, this style, today divided
into many schools and organizations, is now focused essentially on
sports fighting according to the ‘knock down’ formula. Some training
units are devoted to fighting training, others to improving the kata,
but most often they are subordinated to the cycles of preparation for
the competition.
In this school, fighting skills are built on the basis of outstand-
ing physical fitness. This requires the use of high training loads. In
addition, gymnastic elements are practiced. Karateka this style 70%
attacks with the use of legs, which reminds Korean schools. Therefore, a large accent falls on stretching exercises (achieving so-called
splits), speed and explosive power (jumps, kicks). The “hardness” of
the body and spirit is also exercised, that is, the acceptance of pain
and the ability to take strong hits on the muscles of the stomach or
214
Training
legs. The impact strength is proven in breaking hard objects. There are
also meditation exercises of zazen – sitting meditation and breathing
techniques (ibuki sankai, nogare).
Zendo karate Tai-te-tao was created as an “anti-style” for differ-
ent types of sports karate. The creator of the school – Peter K. Jahnke
(1936–1995) – emphasized a different sense of struggle than defeating
another human being. It is supposed to be a positive co-operation, i.e.
cooperation in learning this martial art and improvement in the art of
humanity. Here are practiced forms, basic and special techniques, real
self-defence (responding to the real attack) and exercises on instruments (mannequins, makiwaras, bags) are used. Special techniques include kenpo and jujutsu elements (block traps, grips and projections).
It is a style complementary to “modern jujutsu” and most often prac-
ticed in parallel with jujutsu [cf. Sieber 2011; Cynarski, Sieber 2016].
The most often practiced are the techniques of distance fighting as
well as self-defence during the same training units. Only four kata are
practiced [Cynarski 2015], but there are a large number of techniques,
technical combinations, ippon kumite systems, and self-defence – answers to various types of attack. Specialist strength exercises are also
used, such as using cast iron tetsugeta sandals. In combat, full control
of your own technique is required, and with full force you should hit
only in tameshiwari tests or in exercises on a heavy bag.
Yoshin-ryu Idokan budo is in turn a group of martial disciplines
of Japanese origin, containing the above-described style Zendo karate
Tai-te-tao / karate Idokan, modernized jujutsu (Yoshin-ryu Idokan),
kobudo, iaido, aikijutsu, ... This is a modified Japanese technique in
Europe with elements of Chinese and Korean origin [cf. Cynarski
1997a, 2016a]. Modern self-defence, jujutsu (traditional and sports
techniques) are taught, fighting according to various conventions, but
215
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
also martial arts medicine [Cynarski 2009; Cynarski, Sieber 2015].
However, before adepts reach for dangerous tools and learn about
dangerous techniques, they gradually mature emotionally and morally.
It is an educational system that focuses on multilateral development,
not art serving destruction. Examinations for individual grades consist
of technical part (testing skills) and theoretical part (checking the
state of knowledge).
Training is quite varied here; sometimes devoted to a greater
extent jujutsu, other times – karate, yet other times – kenjutsu / iaido
or kobudo techniques. Always the technical part is preceded by a solid
warm-up and general development, with a lot of flexibility exercises
[cf. Wallace 1981; Sölveborn 1989; Kondratowicz 2012]. Complementary training is used (complementary sports, nota bene this issue requires a separate study and description) and technical-tactical studies.
The indicated studies consist in the analysis of video recordings and
training videos, which is implemented from the level 1 dan.
The test of the maturity and character of a student of this style
are: 1) technical exams; 2) training camps; 3) participation in sports
competitions (optional). While in the tradition of martial arts kangeiko (winter training) was to serve the skills of overcoming cold,
and natsu-geiko (summer training) – summer heat, summer camps
for adepts and Idokan style staff combine both elements. The cool
Baltic Sea provides hardening as kan-geiko [Cynarski 2005; Cynarski,
Cynarska 2013].
Thai, Filipino and other varieties
Muai Thai (like the Khmer free boxing – prodal serei) is a tough fighting school in which pain acceptance is necessary. The fight is contact
with the use of knees and elbows. Shaving is immune to collisions
216
Training
with the opponent’s body as striking surfaces – just like fists in kara-
te. The adept learns the techniques, practices them on the sack and
checks them in battle. A big role here is played by the ability to fight in
a clinch, from which knee and elbow attacks are carried out, or carry
out overthrows. Similarly – the use of low kicks. The hard fighting of
children in the ring from around the age of 10 reminds us of the use
of the starting method. However, this is not just a combat sport. The
main goal is to raise a good person [Gomaratut 2011].
Before the fight in Thai boxing, the player’s prayer and his dancing
to the rhythm of the music takes place. Each school presents a different
kind of dance. This somewhat ritual dimension is present in many
varieties of traditional martial arts. Most often these are some bows
and other gestures at the entrance or exit from the place of exercise,
before and after the training classes, at the beginning and end of the
technical form.
Among the Filipino varieties, it is worth distinguishing the schools
arnis, escrima, kali, which, despite different names, are quite similar in
the technical sphere [Siebert 2006]. The basic tool is sinawali – a short
stick / stick, usually made of light rattan wood. Techniques with sharp
weapons are practiced only at the advanced stage. The adept exercises
first postures and basic movements with one stick – alone and in pairs.
Later, they come to the impact, take the stick to the opponent, use two
sticks simultaneously, wield a knife and machete, and other weapons.
These are Filipino variations of fencing, not just the fight for sticks.
Therefore, training requires proper control of the opponent’s armed
movement, distance, timing and precision.
An interesting form of combat is the Brazilian capoeira, where the
fight is combined with dancing. The adept exercises the free movement
first – a basic step with a sense of rhythm. Then, there are specific
217
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
dance figures – gymnastic elements and kicks. Only mastering the metastasis of the side and other reverse positions allows you to assimilate
the techniques of attack and defence. Nevertheless, it is important to
feel the time and distance [Capoeira 2005].
General observations
In martial arts rejecting sports competition, the periodisation of
training is not applied, because the warrior must always be ready
to fight for life and death. One can distinguish only the period of
training young adolescent, minor – at the student level; maturity
of yudansha (holder of a black belt); period of apprenticeship of an
advanced person. In addition, summer and winter training is traditionally used, mostly in the form of travel camps, with training in
natural terrain.
Periodization is used in martial arts styles that have taken up
sports competition, such as judo, sports jujutsu, various types of karate and taekwondo [Renninghoff, Witte 1998; Błach 2005]. In these
martial arts / combat sports, stress adaptation, optimization of workloads, management and control, and injury prophylaxis are more or
less taken into account [Platonov 1990; Sozański 1992; Ważny 1994;
Sterkowicz 1998; Trybulski, Zebrowska 2017].
A study by Zbigniew Bujak [2012: 6] shows that despite the
sporting stage, long-term goals of taekwon-do martial art (ITF – International Taekwon-Do Federation) are gaining consecutive championship degrees and entitlements, i.e. development on the way to
the championship in the sense of the road martial arts. There are
also issues of spiritual improvement (dimensions of transgression
and transcendence) and “psycho-training” [Cynarski, Sieber 2006;
Tiwald 2012].
218
Training
An important element is shaping open motor habits [Czajkowski
2005; Zabłocki 2005] related to technical-tactical skills. In contrast
to closed motor habits (such as a tennis service), the warrior must
change his plan in a fraction of a second and react flexibly. In order to
make a throw-out of the judo fight, judoka must perform his favourite
throw (some variant of him) in any favourable circumstances. This
circumstance he/she must develop itself.
The methodology of teaching movement in martial arts is related
to that used in the sciences of physical culture [cf. Cynarski 2009:
86–100; Słopecki 2012]. In particular, the principle of individualization manifests itself in the tradition of uchi-deshi – an “inner student”
who lives and trains with his master. In turn, the modern form of musha shugyo, wandering around various schools, is the downloading
of teachings in various styles and organizations, which, however, at
low level of advancement leads to an inconsistent mixture of individual techniques in the repertoire of the student. Mastering the entire
system at the highest technical level, entitles you to further individual
searches.
Testing technical skills is quite often (in karate, taekwon-do schools,
etc.) on breaking hard objects, cutting rolls of rice mat (or bamboo
shoots, etc.). It is also necessary to demonstrate knowledge of technical forms or effectiveness in self-defence, which is subject to expert
examiner assessment. Obtaining the right to teach, especially independent, is preceded by a series of subsequent tests.
The training stages in a long-term perspective are divided into
student, technical master degrees (for which you must pass the exam)
and honorary degrees. Obtaining subsequent degrees, titles and entitlements requires the demonstration of appropriate skills, knowledge
and merit.
219
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Summary and Conclusions
Increased knowledge about sports training [cf. Platonov 1990, 1997;
Sozański 1992; Important 1994; Sterkowicz 1998; Matveyev 1999;
Ambroży 2005] and its dissemination in the martial arts community,
as well as the experience of martial arts experts [cf. Słopecki 2008,
2012; Cynarski 2009; Sieber, Pawelec 2016] resulted in the modification of old methods of psychophysical preparation and teaching.
In general, ineffective and dangerous methods for the health of the
exercisers were rejected. Modern sport and physical culture draws
from the achievements of sport sciences and enables the acceleration of the training process, avoiding certain risks. For example,
rugby training includes athletic (running) and general fitness prepa-
ration [Light et al. 2015]; therefore, it seems somewhat exemplary
for the versatile preparation of a martial arts student.
What is characteristic of today’s training in traditional martial
arts? In various martial arts it has its own specificity – different in
“internal” styles and schools, different in Chinese styles of “external”
kung-fu wushu, in classical fencing and aiki-jujutsu schools, another in
modernized, synthetic or eclectic systems, yet another – in Thai, Filipino and other varieties. The main differences occur between martial
arts varieties with traditional weapons (various variations of fencing)
and melee combat. In particular, styles that prefer distance fighting
teach high kicks, which requires great flexibility [cf. Wallace 1981;
Kondratowicz 2012]. A specific feature of different martial arts is the
need to build techniques based on very good motor coordination skills
[Cynarski, Obodyński, Litwiniuk 2005], and spatial imagination and
movement memory.
220
Training
Traditional training usually involves the learning of technical
forms, exercises on instruments (mannequins, makiwaras, bags) and
certain ritual activities. Sometimes new methods of exercises are indicated, indicated by sports sciences.
References
Albrecht M., Rudolph F. (2011), Wu: A German with the masters in China,
Palisander, Chemnitz [in German].
Ambroży T. (2005), Trening holistyczny. Wpływ aktywności fizycznej na realizację potrzeby bezpieczeństwa osobistego i społecznego, EAS, Kraków
[in Polish].
Arziutov G., Iermakov S., Bartik P., Nosko M., Cynarski W.J. (2016), The use
of didactic laws in the teaching of the physical elements involved in judo
techniques, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 21–30; doi: 10.14589/ido.16.4.4.
Błach W. (2005), Judo. Wybrane zagadnienia treningu i walki sportowej, Biblioteka Trenera, Warsaw [in Polish].
Bujak Z. (2012), Czarny pas w taekwon-do: Teoria, rzeczywistość, praktyka,
MKS „Żak”, Biała Podlaska [in Polish].
Capoeira Nestor (2005), Capoeira. Sztuka walki, muzyka, taniec, życie, Purana, Wrocław [in Polish].
Cox J.C. (1993), Traditional Asian Martial Arts Training: A Review, ”Quest”,
vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 366–388.
Cynarski W.J. (1997a), Idōkan budō – Idōkan Polska, ”Karate – KungFu”, Kraków, no. 1, pp. 34–36.
Cynarski W.J. (1997b), Yoseikan budō or Yoseikan jūjutsu, ”Karate – KungFu”,
no. 3, p. 9.
Cynarski W.J. (2000), Proces treningowy w tradycyjnym budo [in:] S. Litwiniuk, Z. Bujak, A. Litwiniuk [eds.], Optymalizacja struktury treningu
i współzawodnictwa w sportach walki, IWFiS, Biała Podlaska, pp. 76–
–82 [in Polish].
221
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J. (2005), Letni trening sztuk walki. Obozy sportowe Stowarzyszenia Idokan Polska, ”Waga i Miecz”, no. 9, p. 29 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2009), Martial Arts – Idō & Idōkan, IPA, Rzeszów.
Cynarski W.J. (2013), The training of a warrior following the teaching of the
classical Japanese and Korean schools of martial arts (C14 – C19th), “Ido
Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13,
no. 2, pp. 1–10.
Cynarski W.J. (2015), Kata – formy techniczne w nauczaniu karate, “Prace
Naukowe Akademii im. Jana Długosza. Kultura Fizyczna”, vol. 14, no. 2,
pp. 171–182; doi: 10.16926/kf.2015.14.24 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2016a), Wpływ chińskich sztuk walki na technikę szkoły Idokan Yoshin-ryu, ”Rozprawy Naukowe AWF we Wrocławiu”, vol. 52, pp.
42–49 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2016b), Droga do ostatecznej prawdy. Nowe rozumienie filozofii Kyokushin, ”Rozprawy Naukowe Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego we Wrocławiu”, vol. 54, pp. 3–13 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2017), Towards a General Theory of Fighting Arts, ”Phys Activ
Rev”, no. 5, pp. 83–90.
Cynarski W.J., Błażejewski W., Pasterniak W. (2016), Pedagogika nowoparadygmatyczna. W poszukiwaniu nowych inspiracji i aplikacji pedagogicznych. Monografia tematyczna, Wydawnictwo UR, Rzeszów [in
Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Cynarska E. (2013), Travel to the Polish borderlands. Martial
arts training and meetings on the way, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 34–37.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K., Litwiniuk A. (2005), The technical advencement
and a level of chosen coordination motor abilities of people practising
karate [in:] J. Sadowski [ed.], Coordination motor abilities in scientific
research, Faculty of PE, Biała Podlaska, pp. 428–433.
Cynarski W.J., Momola I. (2005), Dalekowschodnie sztuki walki – ewolucja celów i metod treningu, ”Sport Wyczynowy”, no. 3–4, pp. 48–53 [in
Polish].
222
Training
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2005), Training methods in modern varieties
of martial arts (on the example of idōkan yōshin-ryū jūjutsu and zendō
karate tai-te-tao), “Nauka i Oswita ‘2005”, vol. 65, Fiziczna kultura
i sport: problemi, doslidżennia, propozycii, Dnipropetrovsk, pp. 3-8.
ISBN 966-7191-99-0.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2006), Trening wschodnich sztuk walki – koncepcja
holistyczna, ”Sport Wyczynowy”, vol. 44, no. 11–12, pp. 4–14, 126–127.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2015), Martial arts (alternative) medicine – channel
of transmission to Europe, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 8–21; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.3.2.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2016), 40 Years of Zendo Karate Tao-Te-Tao and
Idokan Karate (1975–2015), “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of
Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 11–17; doi: 10.14589/
ido.16.1.2.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Kudłacz M., Telesz P. (2015), A way to mastery. Mastery in martial arts, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts
Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 16–22; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.1.3.
Cynarski W.J., Swider P. (2017), The journey to the cradle of martial arts: a
case study of martial arts’ tourism, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal
of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 24–33; DOI: 10.14589/
ido.17.2.3.
Czajkowski Z. (2005), Unikajmy ślepego naśladownictwa, ale twórczo korzystajmy z dorobku wiedzy i doświadczenia innych, ”Ido – Ruch da Kutury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 5, pp. 58–69.
Etll G., Treiber F. (2013), Mixed Martial Arts; Die effectivster Techniken, Motorbuch, Stuttgart [in German].
Gomaratut C. (2011), Muai-Thai: The art and science of Thai traditional
self-defense [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Selected Areas of Intercultural Dialogue in Martial Arts, UR, Rzeszów, pp. 123–136.
Herrera-Valenzuela T., Valdes-Badilla P., Franchini E., Ferreira da Silva Santos J., Ramirez-Campillo R., Garcia-Hermoso A., Duran-Aguero S., Castaneda-Gomez J.P. (2016), Effects of multi-component training on the
223
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
physical fitness of young taekwondo athletes, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 31–37;
doi: 10.14589/ido.16.4.5.
James L.P., Kelly V.G., Beckman E.M. (2013), Periodization for Mixed Martial
Arts, “Strength and Conditioning Journal”, vol. 35, no. 6, pp. 34–45; doi:
10.1519/SSC.0000000000000017.
Jones R.L., Kingston K. [eds.] (2013), An Introduction to Sports Coaching.
Connecting Theory to Practice, Routledge, London – New York.
Kennedy B., Guo E. (2005), Chinese Martial Arts Training Manuals. A History
Survey, Blu Snake Books, Berkeley, California.
Kernspecht K.R. (2014), Inneres WingTsun! Kurs-Buch, 2nd edn., EWTO-Verlag [in German].
Kondratowicz K. (2012?), Ćwiczenia rozciągające w treningu sztuk walki,
Wydawnictwo Polskiego Centrum Jiu-Jitsu Goshin-Ryu (for internal
use, in Polish).
Krippendorf K. (2004), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology,
Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Kuśnierz C. (2012), Metodyka nauczania podstawowych technik samoobrony.
Podręcznik akademicki, PO, Opole [in Polish].
Light R., Evans J.R., Harvey S., Hassanin R. (2015), Advances in rugby coaching: an holistic approach, Routledge, London – New York.
Lind W. [red.] (1996), Ostasiatische Kampfkünste. Das Lexikon, Sportverlag,
Berlin [in German].
Maroteaux R.J. (1993), Takeda-ryu Jujitsu – Aikido, UNGDA, Avignon [in
French].
Matwiejew L.P. (1999), Fundamentals of the general theory of sports and
sportsmen preparation systems, Kiev, Olimpijskaja Litieratura [in Ukrainian].
Mor-Stabilini S. (2016), The Ancient Art of the Japanese Sword. The ancient
school of Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō Ryū along the historical, cultural
and spiritual path, Jitakyoei Budo, Bergamo.
Platonov V.N. (1990), Adaptacja w sporcie, RCMS KFiS, Warsaw [in Polish].
224
Training
Platonov V.N. (1997), General theory of preparing athletes in Olympic sports,
Kiev, Olimpijskaja Literatura [in Ukrainian].
Reinish S., Marek M. (2013), Budo-Prinzipien in Training und Kampf, Motorbuch, Stuttgart [in German].
Renninghoff J., Witte F. (1998), Ju-Jutsu – Training. Das Modell des Budosport-Trainings, Sportverlag, Berlin [in German].
Rosenbaum M. (2005), Kata and transmission of knowledge in traditional
martial arts, YMAA Publishing Center, Boston.
Schwenk J., Schmidt A. (2013), Ein starker Nacken: Mehr Erfolg im Kampfsport, Motorbuch, Stuttgart [in German].
Shahar M. (2008), The Shaolin Monastery. History, Religion, and the Chinese
Martial Arts, University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu.
Sieber L. (2011), Zen-do karate Tai-te-tao [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Selected Areas of Intercultural Dialogue in Martial Arts, Rzeszow University
Press, Rzeszow, pp. 145–154.
Sieber L., Grzywacz R. (2015), Jubilee of Shibu Kobudo in Poland 1995–2015,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
15, no. 4, pp. 13–25; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.4.2.
Sieber L., Pawelec P. (2016), Professors of martial arts. Holders of this
title in martial arts science, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of
Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 15–26; doi: 10.14589/
ido.16.3.2.
Siebert G. (2006), Arnis – Escrima – Kali, Weinmann, Berlin [in German].
Skoss M. (1997), The meaning of martial arts training: A conversation with
Sawada Hanae [in:] D. Skoss [ed.], Koryu Bujutsu: Classical Warriors
Tradition of Japan, Koryu Books, Berkeley Heights.
Słopecki J. (2008), Nauczanie. Zasady i praktyczna wiedza o walce mistrza
sztuk walki, “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 8,
pp. 66–71.
Słopecki J. (2012), Wprowadzenie do teorii i metodyki nauczania sztuk walki,
na podstawie systemów jūjutsu, International Modern Ju-Jitsu Federation, Głogów.
225
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Sozański H. [ed.] (1992), Kierunki optymalizacji obciążeń treningowych, AWF,
Warsaw [in Polish].
Sölveborn S.A. (1989), Stretching – ćwiczenia rozciągające, Sport i Turystyka, Warsaw [in Polish].
Sterkowicz S. (1998), Ju-jitsu. Wybrane aspekty sztuki walki obronnej, AWF,
Kraków [in Polish].
Sugino Y., Ito K. (2010), Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto Ryu Budo Kyohan,
(trans. Ulf Rott) Demond GmbH Norderstedt [in German].
Tiwald H. (2012), Psycho-training im WingTsun, Taiji und Budo-Sport, EWTO-Verlag, Ostheim [in German].
Trybulski R., Zebrowska A. (2017), Podstawowe zagadnienia urazowości i rehabilitacji w sportach walki [in:] M. Netczuk-Gwoździewicz, R. Netczuk
[eds.], Współczesne problemy uprawiania sportów, sztuk i systemów
walki, von Welke, Wrocław, pp. 241–266 [in Polish].
Wallace B. ”Superfoot” (1981), Dynamic Stretching & Kicking, Unique Publications, Hollywood, CA.
Ważny Z. (1994), Leksykon treningu sportowego, AWF, Warsaw [in Polish].
Zabłocki W. (2005), On theory of fencing by Z. Czajkowski, ”Ido – Ruch da
Kutury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 5, pp. 186–192.
Zetoruk M.N., Violán M.A., Zurakowski D., Micheli L.J. (2005), Injuries in martial arts: a comparison of five styles, “British Journal of Sports Medicine”,
vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 29–33; doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2003.010322.
8.3. Complementary training in combat sports and
in martial arts pathway
KEY WORDS
martial arts, combat sports, training, educational process
ABSTRACT
Using the expert knowledge and literature of the subject, the essence
and examples of the use of complementary training, especially recom226
Training
mended for martial arts or combat sports, are shown. Theoretical
justification and discussion were given – different opinions with the
narrator of the text. Swimming, stretching, interval shifts, or mental
training are included to the most recommended exercises and complementary sports
Introduction
A noble, righteous and brave man stands up to fight in the name of
truth. In times of peace – it works in the sport or satisfies its archetypal needs, for example by practicing martial arts. If he wants to do
it on a good level, he will train accordingly. But if he wants to do it
even better, he also uses so-called complementary training or supplementary sports.
In general, complementary sports are designed to help athletes
achieve the best results in their discipline. This is usually another type
of movement, activity, effort, which allows you to relax, regenerate or
increase your psychophysical potential to a higher level.
Historically, one of the first complementary sports for fencing
(then the most utilitarian martial arts skills) were tennis – in France
and ringo – in Poland [Starosta, Wangryn 2012]. The Japanese samurai
rested from fencing practicing in literature or in jujutsu, archery etc.
[Cynarski 2014].
To practice a combat sport, you must do it under the supervision
of a trainer. In general, it is recommended that you also use individual
training, e.g. cross-training, flexibility and strength training. For the
sake of martial arts and combat sports, swimming is the preferred
complementary sport. In addition, complementary training can be
used in a dojo (practice room), under the guidance of sensei (teacher),
or also individually.
227
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Swimming
Let’s introduce a method of a karate master (shihan, 8 dan) who wants
to remain anonymous. For years, he has been doing regular, one or
two times a week on a leisurely basis. Namely: 24 x 25 m alternating
style – alternating: crowl, butterfly, frog, ridge. This is not a heavy load,
although for a middle-aged person (50+), it can be fatigued.
They work in different groups of muscles, lungs and heart. The
spine rests in the aquatic environment and the whole body is massaged by the flow of water. Swimming improves body performance
and the motor coordination abilities. In addition, water treatments
accompanying swimming (showers, whirlpools) accelerate biological
renewal and improve the body’s hardening.
At a younger age, you can use quick swimming or longer distances as strength improvement. In old age, however, it is important to
maintain moderation, in accordance with the rules of the Tao, which
also applies to running and other forms of physical activity.
Gymnastics and cyclic exercises
Morning gymnastics should be an exercise that goes into everyday
stereotype to keep an educated man. It gives the body flexibility for
the whole day. This can be a series of exercises typical of Swedish
gymnastics, with the addition of stretching and other mobility exercises [Sölveborn 1989]. Especially before running, it is necessary to
slightly exercise and stretch to avoid injury.
Efficiency of the body, the main ingredient of positive health
potential, is built mainly by cyclic exercises, such as running, swimming, cycling, skipping etc. The athlete of combat sports should run
especially in the field, preferably by interval. Then the effort has a
228
Training
similar character (time structure) as in competitions [Ważny 1994:
197–198]. However, it is not recommended to run long distances at
a steady pace.
Judo, jujutsu or karate practitioners sometimes perform kyokugeiko gymnastics in the dojo. These are, for example, exercises in
reverse positions (upside down), jumps, metastases. They develop
spatial orientation.
Also many stretching exercises are performed on karate, taekwondo or kick-boxing exercises. However, limiting to stretching only in a
dojo during training sessions is often insufficient. You need to work
on it often individually, even daily and several times a day.
Mind training
This type of training, often successful, is realised in many ways. It
has long been known that mental preparation for combat requires
the use of special mental training – relaxation, visualization, meditation, positive autosuggestion [Ważny 1994: 18; Cynarski, Litwiniuk
2000a]. Mental strength provides prayer, but also knowledge. You
should know the technique and fight tactics of the opponent, and
know your own abilities well.
The phycho-physical martial arts practice, called shugyo, is also
a method of improving the intuition and self-knowledge of the practitioner. In addition to breathing exercises and concentrating qigong
or ki-keiko [Włodyka, Cynarski 2000; Cynarski, Sieber 2015], intellectual exercises such as strategic games, chess, or checkers can be used
[Wasik, Cynarski 2005]. In addition, at some stage in the development
of technical-tactical skills, it is worth analyzing the video training recordings, which is also a form of training, but with an effort to outdo
the intellectual component.
229
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Also didactic games can be treated as intellectual training, very
useful in the process of acquiring knowledge – whether it is about
martial arts or in another field [Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2000b].
Below you will find an overview of supplementary training rec-
ommendations by the Idokan Poland Association (SIP) program [by:
Cynarski 2009: 97–100].
Exercises and supplemental sports
in the Idokan Budo educational system
Because it is a progressive development program [cf. Jaskólski, Wołkow, Jagiełło 2005], for children up to the age of 14 are organized
motor games with elements of basic techniques (paddles, overtures,
elements of passive defence) [Litwiniuk, Cynarski 2001; Cynarski,
Obodyński 2007], general and development exercises (development of
coordination, balance, flexibility, corrective and light exercises, hardening), ceremonial and dojo discipline are taught, focusing exercises are
used. The training program envisages in this age group the technical
and theoretical requirements of the lower grades (10-6 kyu), and the
simplified sumo are the only form next to randori with simple groundbased (simplified judo) techniques of competition.
Up to 3 kyu degree does not allow you to exercise for strength training with higher load, training with makiwara and heavy bag. Youngsters
only use skippers, paws, shields, medical balls and expanders.
Recommended complementary individual training includes exercises that improve specific abilities and fitness.
1) Simple physical work such as cutting wood with a hand saw
(perfect some techniques in jujutsu and judo), chopping fire-
wood (excellent ken-otoshi cutting of kenjutsu), lifting bags,
buckets etc. (universal strength training).
230
Training
2) Running, jumping, throwing – universal endurance exercises,
speed, motion dynamics, whose military prowess has already
been noticed by the ancient Greeks. The best result is running
in the field with several acceleration on the sections about
50–60 meters (interval method) or up or up the stairs. Effort
during combat is interval. But throws and jumps develop the
explosive power necessary to perform many “dynamic” techniques.
3) Chess, checkers, go – as a tactical exercise and combat strategy.
4) Driving a car (especially in more difficult road conditions) –
reflexes and reaction speed, long-term concentration, ability
to work in difficult situations, and emotional self-control.
5) Complementary sports:
– swimming – coordination and fluidity of movement, endurance and fitness of the body; relief of spine and other
joints, relaxation;
– tennis (earthmoving) and badminton – improving the efficiency of kenjutsu and kobudo;
– table tennis – excellent complementary to martial arts and
combat sports, improving the speed of reaction, precision
and dynamics of movement (visual-motion coordination,
rapid response).
Treat as a form of martial arts training, you can do it more eagerly,
including homework. Of course, constantly, preferably every day, work
on flexibility, especially “stretch” makes possibility of high kick. It is
worthwhile to combine stretching, dynamic form, strength stretching,
and so cold “lazy”.
Also in Idokan Budo training methods include, in addition to sys-
tematic training in the dojo, winter training and summer training.
231
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
In particular, winter training (kanki-geiko or kan-geiko) includes
hardening treatments such as running barefoot in the snow. Do not
expose yourself to frostbite. After the run we return to the warm room
and perform further exercises, especially warming up. In summer
training (natsu-keiko) is realized during the Summer Camps of IPA
[Cynarski 2007]. Here, outdoor training is preferred, for example on
the beach.
Theoretical reflection
Basic knowledge gives us the sport sciences (sciences of physical culture), including, for example, the achievements of the Polish theory of
physical education and the “European” theory of sport [Dittrich 1988;
Platonov 1997; Renninghoff, Witte 1998; Jaskólski, Wołkow, Jagiełło
2005; Cynarski 2014b]. Theory of sport includes theories of training
and sports combat [Ważny 1994]. To this theoretical perspective refer
directly authors representative for combat sports par excellence like
kick-boxing [Lemmans 1994].
Martial arts scholars need to broadly grasp the issues studied,
referring to the humanities of the sciences of physical culture, such as
sociology of physical culture or cultural studies [cf. Hartl, Faber, Bögle
1989; Cynarski, Sieber 2015]. Both the phenomenon of martial arts
and the phenomenon of combat sports require taking into account the
psychological factor (sport psychology), sphere of humanistic values,
and finally multidisciplinary approaches.
For researcher the first theoretical framework was the theory of
sport [cf. Kondratowicz 1997; Renninghoff, Witte 1998; Sterkowicz
1998], hoplology [Draeger 1996] or the history of physical culture
[Sieber, Cynarski 2002]. Gradually, however, a wider, new-paradigm approach is adopted. The Humanist Theory of Martial Arts, and systemic
232
Training
anthropology of martial arts have been created around the year 2000,
and a periodical is published under the title “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury /
Movement for Culture” (now called “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal
of Martial Arts Anthropology”).
In this new scientific perspective, research on the training process
specific to traditional martial arts is conducted [Cynarski 2000, 2004;
Cynarski, Obodyński 2005]. Took to the knowledge of masters-teach-
ers of martial arts [cf. Sieber, Cynarski 2003; Słopecki 2008] and are
compared opinions derived from long-standing practical experience
concerning factors relevant to the training process [Cynarski, Bujak,
Rut 2001].
The knowledge gathered allows us to conclude that, unlike in
sport, martial arts goals are more about the character, personality
and multidirectional development of the adept / student. The practice
of martial techniques is also to improve him/her intellectually, emotionally, morally and spiritually [Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2001; Cynarski,
Obodyński 2003]. These goals go beyond areas of sport and physical
culture, concerning education and ethics, sometimes also transgression and transcendence.
Starting from this perspective, the following scheme can be proposed [Fig. 8.1]. An additional set of measures and factors (Area C)
helps achieve the intended goals. This simple algorithm is an attempt
to theoretically justify, or rather illustrate, the use of complementary
training or complementary sports.
The Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts introduced the concept of
“master ontogenesis” in martial arts. The thing concerns the adept’s
journey to the mastery, confirmed by the achievement of the highest
degrees and master titles [Cynarski 2001; Cynarski, Skowron 2014].
Figure 1 schematically describes this long-standing process.
233
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
FIGURE 8.1.
Algorithm of the training process from state A to D, where: B – proper
training; C – complementary training [source: author’s own elaboration].
The Idokan Budo program includes teaching the band of martial
arts, but also the acquisition of knowledge, which is monitored during
the examinations for the next degree. Theoretical knowledge required
includes not only knowledge of terminology and the technical sphere,
training methodology, principles of biological renewal, first aid, legal aspects, history of selected martial arts, ethics (which should be
internalized) but also psychological and medical issues. Martial arts
training can be applied in the correction of posture and rehabilitation
defects [Momola, Cynarski 2003].
Discussion
Imaginative or relaxing mental training with positive autosuggestions
does not exhaust the mental training forms. Interesting methods of
spiritual training, also called “effortless”, develops Wojciech Pasterniak [Pasterniak, Cynarski 2013; Cynarski, Błażejewski, Pasterniak
2016: 65–122]. These are complex methods, using familiar therapies
like music therapy, in the spiritual preparation of an athlete.
Self-warming with a general-development training, sometimes
overlooked in martial arts training, improves general efficiency.
234
Training
Gymnastics and athletics, already practiced independently, are already
a form of complementary training. A good supplement to technical
training may be aerobic or hatha yoga elements [Cynarski 2017]. In
addition, winter sports are recommended [Ambroży 2005], but it is
worth remembering their traumas.
Less useful for combat sports seem to be jogging or fashionable
today nordic walking [Biernacki, Niedziółka, Marshall 2005; Pramann,
Schäufle 2006], due to the different character of the effort. Unless the
goal is to recover, relax or lighten your leisure after a busy day.
The complete martial arts system is: “educational system within
a martial arts school or organization where students are taught various methods of dealing with weapons and hand-to-hand combat, but
also gain ethical, historical, medical and psychological knowledge.”
[Cynarski, Skowron 2014: 61]. Complete systems provide the possibility of complementary combat training with traditional weapons and
even what complementary training can do to the superfluous. Diverse
combat techniques on foot and on horseback provided enough traffic.
Their acquaintance was in necessity at the time, deciding on life and
death [Cynarski 2013].
In the 15th–16th century martial arts taught at Tenshinshoden
Katorishinto-ryu school were a complete system. The samurai rarely
fought without any weapon, so a poor set of 36 jujutsu techniques
was sufficient [cf. Sugino, Ito 2010; Mor-Stabilini 2016; Otake 2016].
Here the leading weapon is the Japanese sabre. Similarly, the school
of Takeda-ryu teaches both hand-held techniques, stick and classic
batto-jutsu today [Maroteaux 1992, 1993]. Although it almost skips
combat in the ground floor, it is a relatively complete system. Takeda
clan was once famous for horse riding and fencing, and horse archery.
But today’s form of aiki-jujutsu, supplemented with tameshigiri (mats
235
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
roll cutting) and shuriken-jutsu (sharp blade blast) exercises are a
varied set of physical exercises.
The current warrior practicing Idokan Budo gains parallel knowledge and skills in karate, jujutsu, kenjutsu and kobudo [Sieber 2001;
Sieber, Cynarski 2002; Cynarski 2009]. He or she is practicing in real
self-defence and can possibly check in sport; excellents combat skills
in a variety of positions and distances, with several traditional weapons, practices traditional forms and situational techniques. Individual
disciplines within the system are mutually compatible and complementary.
Other martial arts that teach one “discipline”, such as sports judo
or some modern karate style, do not provide this variety. A student
can then “optional” supplement his own repertoire of martial arts
techniques. In the case of karate he/she can also learn kata from other
styles [cf. Wites 2003].
Sometimes martial artists are experimenting with fashionable
systems of psycho-physical training, such as qigong, yoga, or meditation techniques [cf. Moegling 1984; Cynarski 2017]. However, practiced indecisively, they can be harmful.
Conclusions
Supplementary training is provided in the training room, under the
supervision of a trainer, or alone. While its use in complete systems is
not necessary, in single “disciplines” that prefer one form of combat
(e.g. only fencing or just “fighting from the grip”) is even necessary.
In each case, it helps to achieve the additional effect of the extended
training process.
The most recommended exercises and complementary sports
include swimming, stretching, interval shifts, or also mental training.
236
Training
References
Ambroży T. (2005), Trening holistyczny. Wpływ aktywności fizycznej na realizację potrzeby bezpieczeństwa osobistego i społecznego, EAS, Kraków
[in Polish]
Biernacki J., Niedziółka A., Marszałek S. (2005?), Fitness jogging, TKKF,
Warszawa.
Cynarski W.J. (2000), Proces treningowy w tradycyjnym budo [in:] S. Litwiniuk, Z. Bujak, A. Litwiniuk [eds.], Optymalizacja struktury treningu i współzawodnictwa w sportach walki, IWFiS, Biała Podlaska, pp.
76–82.
Cynarski W.J. (2001), Ontogeneza mistrza budō. Rozwój progresywny na
drodze sztuk walki [in:] S. Sterkowicz [ed.], Czynności zawodowe trenera
i problemy badawcze w sportach walki, Zeszyty Naukowe nr 83, AWF
Kraków, pp. 33–55.
Cynarski W.J. (2004), Teoria i praktyka dalekowschodnich sztuk walki w perspektywie europejskiej, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów.
Cynarski W.J. (2007), Karate, piasek i chłodna morska woda, „Waga i Miecz”,
no. 8, p. 21.
Cynarski W.J. (2009), Martial Arts – Idō & Idōkan, IPA, Rzeszow.
Cynarski W.J. (2013), The training of a warrior following the teaching of the
classical Japanese and Korean schools of martial arts (C14 – C19th), “Ido
Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13,
no. 2, pp. 1–10.
Cynarski W.J. (2014a), The way of the sword and literature. The ethos of
chivalry in patriotic education, “Dydaktyka Literatury i Konteksty”, vol.
XXXIII, pp. 134–141.
Cynarski W.J. (2014b), Polish achievements in the theory of physical education and new directions, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 2 pp. 1–14; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.2.1.
Cynarski W.J. (2017), Yoga and martial way: kinship and applications,
”Scientific Review of Physical Culture”, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 71–76.
237
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J., Błażejewski W., Pasterniak W. (2016), Pedagogika nowoparadygmatyczna. W poszukiwaniu nowych inspiracji i aplikacji pedagogicznych. Monografia tematyczna, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów
[in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Bujak Z., Rut J. (2001), Wpływ metod, warunków bazowych
i obciążeń treningowych na wyniki sportowe w jūjutsu i taekwon-do ITF,
”Przegląd Naukowy IWFiZ UR”, vol. V, no. 4, pp. 377–388.
Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2000a), Metody przygotowania psychicznego
w sztukach walki, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”,
vol. 1, pp. 211–215.
Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2000b), Gry dydaktyczne i ich zastosowanie
w nauczaniu teorii sztuk walki, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for
Culture”, vol. 1, pp. 121–124.
Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2001), Shūgyō jako forma poznania i studiów
z zakresu kultury fizycznej, ”Przegląd Naukowy IWFiZ UR”, vol. V, no. 4,
pp. 425–429.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2003), Humanistic theory of Far-Eastern martial arts training – introduction into the problem of moral and spiritual
dimension [in:] W. Starosta, W. Osiński [eds.], New ideas in sport sciences: current issues and perspectives, part 2, Warszawa – Poznań – Leszno,
pp. 85–88.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2005), Training methods in modern varieties
of martial arts (on the example of idōkan yōshin-ryū jūjutsu and zendō
karate tai-te-tao), “Nauka i Oswita ‘2005”, t. 65, Fiziczna kultura i sport:
problemi, doslidżennia, propozycii, Dnipropetrovsk, pp. 3–8.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2007), Gry i zabawy w treningu jednego z systemów sztuk walki [in:] Ul.P. Lukievic, A. Lapcionak, I. Losieva, M. Mażejka, K. Piech, T. Trafimowa, W.J. Cynarski [eds.], Zabavy i hulni u kultury praviadziennia volnaha casu dziaciej i padletkau: zb.navuk.prac,
Bresc.dziarz.un-t imia A.S. Puskina, Kaf. Kulturalogii, Bresc.harvykankam, Addziel pa fiz. kultury, sportu i turyzmie, Vyd-va BrDU, Brest, pp.
125–130. ISBN 978-985-473-271-8 [in Polish].
238
Training
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2015), Martial arts (alternative) medicine – channel
of transmission to Europe, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 8–21; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.3.2.
Cynarski W.J., Skowron J. (2014), An analysis of the conceptual language
used for the general theory of martial arts – Japanese, Polish and English
terminology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 49–66; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.7.
Dittrich W. [ed.] (1988), Aktuelle Tendenzen in der wissenschaftlichen Forschung der Trainingspraxis und der Entwicklung in der Zweikampfsportarten, Leipzig [in German].
Draeger D.F. (1996), The Martial Arts and Ways of Japan (vol. 2). Classical
Budo (3rd edn.), Weatherhill, New York – Tokyo.
Hartl J., Faber U., Bögle R. (1989), Taekwon-Do im Westen. Interviews und
Beiträge zum kulturellen Schlagabtausch, Mönchseulen-Verlag, Munich
[in German].
Jaskólski E., Wołkow L., Jagiełło W. (2005), Biologiczne i pedagogiczne podstawy systemu szkolenia sportowego, COS, Warsaw [in Polish].
Kondratowicz K. (1997), Metody treningowe w dalekowschodnich sztukach
walki, „Trening”, nr 4, s. 111–115.
Lemmans G. (1994), Kickboxen. Fitnestraining und Wettkampfsport, Munich
[in German].
Litwiniuk A., Cynarski W.J. (2001), Znaczenie zabawy w procesie treningu
wschodnich sportów i sztuk walki, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement
for Culture”, vol. 2, pp. 69–72.
Maroteaux R.J. (1992), Iai-do Takeda-ryu Nakamura-ha Kihon-waza, CAF,
Nimes [in French].
Maroteaux R.J. (1993), Takeda-ryu Jujitsu – Aikido, UNGDA, Avignon [in French].
Moegling K. (1984) [ed.], Sanfte Körpererfahrung: Autogenes Training, Stretching, Yoga, Tai Chi, Zen, Aikido, Kassel [in German].
Momola I., Cynarski W.J. (2003), Elementy jūjutsu i karate w usprawnieniu
ruchowym i korygowaniu wad postawy ciała, „Nowiny Lekarskie”, no. 2,
pp. 131–134 [in Polish].
239
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Mor-Stabilini S. (2016), The Ancient Art of the Japanese Sword. The ancient
school of Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō Ryū along the historical, cultural
and spiritual path, Jitakyoei Budo, Bergamo.
Otake R. (2016), Strategy and the Art of Peace. Tenshinshoden Katori Shinto-ryu, Nippon Budokan.
Pasterniak W., Cynarski W.J. (2013), The possibility of spirituals sports training, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”,
vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 49–51.
Platonov W.N. (1997), Obszczaja tieorija podgotowki sportsmienow w olimpijskom sportie, Olimpijskaja Literatura, Kijew [in Ukrainian].
Pramann U., Schäufle B. (2006), Nordic Walking, Random House, Munich
[in German].
Renninghoff J., Witte F. (1998), Ju-Jutsu – Training. Das Modell des Budosport-Trainings, Sportverlag, Berlin [in German].
Sieber L. (2001), Characteristics of Idōkan karate, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury /
Movement for Culture”, vol. 2, pp. 26–27.
Sieber L., Cynarski W.J. (2002), Peter K. Jahnke and Zendō karate Tai-te-tao,
”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 3, pp. 257–264.
Sieber L., Cynarski W.J. (2003), Mistrzowie mistrzów z federacji WJJC [in:]
W.J. Cynarski, K. Obodyński [eds.], Humanistyczna teoria sztuk i sportów walki – koncepcje i problemy, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów,
pp. 59–65 [in Polish].
Słopecki J. (2008), Nauczanie. Zasady i praktyczna wiedza o walce mistrza sztuk
walki, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 8, pp. 66–71.
Sölveborn S.A. (1989), Stretching – ćwiczenia rozciągające, SiT, Warsaw [in
Polish].
Starosta W., Wangryn M. (2012), ABC polskiej gry w ringo. Metodyka nauczania techniki i taktyki, Polskie Towarzystwo Ringo, Warsaw [in Polish].
Sterkowicz S. (1998), Ju-jitsu. Wybrane aspekty sztuki walki obronnej, AWF,
Kraków [in Polish].
Sugino Y., Ito K. (2010), Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto Ryu Budo Kyohan,
(trans. Ulf Rott) Demond GmbH Norderstedt [in German].
240
Training
Wasik W., Cynarski W.J. (2005), Związki go ze sztuką wojenną i dalekowschodnimi sztukami walki, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 5, pp. 118–126.
Ważny Z. (1994), Leksykon treningu sportowego, (Studia i Monografie) AWF,
Warsaw [in Polish].
Wites D. (2003), Nauczanie kata w Shorin-ryu, ”Samuraj”, no. 1, pp. 6–7 [in
Polish].
Włodyka R., Cynarski W.J. (2000) Chi kung – aspekty zdrowotne i zastosowanie wybranych ćwiczeń, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 1, pp. 146–186.
CHAPTER 9
Women in martial arts and combat
sports: archetypical patterns
KEY WORDS
cultural anthropology, martial arts, archetype, warrior
ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND. The scientific perspective gives us the sociology and
anthropology of martial arts, and the Humanistic Theory of Martial
ARTS. We should see women holistically, as psycho-physical persons
with their convictions, human needs and moral choices.
PROBLEM. The author describes and attempts to explain the presence
of women in the martial arts and in combat sports. What cultural archetypes (or patterns) are dominating in that area?
METHOD. The main methods are: environmental monitoring of martial arts and combat sports, and literature content analysis – a broad
discourse.
RESULTS. The four archetypes have been highlighted – 1) warrior, 2)
princess, 3) dancer, and 4) witch. The author gives some examples of
243
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
prominent figures. He founds the occurrence of the effect of emancipation the role of woman as the main reasons for changing her presence
in the martial arts and combat sports.
CONCLUSIONS. Women are now present both in the traditional women’s archetypes (princess, dancer) and traditionally male role (warrior). The types and roles are often mixed. The ideology of feminism
promotes the archetype of witch. Outside the lesbian and militant
feminist the archetype “witch” hardly occurs.
Introduction
The theoretical approach and the scientific framework for the issue
mentioned in the title co-create the sociology of martial arts and
anthropology of martial arts [Bolelli 2008; Cynarski 2012a, b]. From
the perspective of the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts, the presence of women in martial arts was analysed as a kind of phenomenon
[Cynarski 2004], or as a manifestation of a more general process of
emancipation of women [Cynarski 2001]. In relation to the Jungian and cultural theory of archetype, three archetypes of women
practicing fighting arts were basically distinguished. They are: “war-
rior”, “princess”, “dancer” [Cynarski, Sieber 2015; Cynarski, Szajna
2015].
Sieber and Cynarski have also written that: ”The fourth archetype
would be a ‘witch’, as the assassin, poisoner, hired killer or ninja.
However, the ninja lived on the margins of society, and this pattern is
not worthy of social memory”. [Cynarski, Sieber 2015]. In other paper we find a brightened approach where women of martial arts are
compared with women athletes in sport fencing. For instance, Sylwia
Gruchała – champion of fencing – can be shown as both warrior and
princess [Cynarski, Szajna 2015].
244
Women in martial arts and combat sports: archetypical patterns
In addition, there are other looks on the woman. In the philosophy
of Kyokushin Way – a woman, if she is a stranger (i.e, not a mother,
wife or daughter), should be treated as a “sister” [Oyama 1979]. But
this is especially true for women who appear alongside the “warrior’s
path”, which is the way he meets on his way of life, but not necessarily
practicing martial arts. This approach is close to Confucian ethics [Kim,
Back 2000; Li-Hsiang 2006].
And “witch”? This is a cultural archetype, to which the feminist
movement refers very eagerly, especially in its left-wing part. The
figure of the witch is a symbol of these feminists [Cynarski 2001].
“This is a very strong archetype,” says Jolanta Plakiewicz of the Wom-
en’s Centre. “The witch is a woman’s freedom, feminine knowledge,
feminine power and feminine sexuality burned at the stake by the
patriarchal world.” [Podgorska 2000]. Feminism has heroes and martyrs – e.g. the last German witch, who was burned in 1685 in Münster
(Nordrein – Westfallen) – Mrs G. Brünichmann. In Warsaw’s Centre
for Women’s Rights there is a stone from the place where the last
witch was burnt down in Poland in the 18th century. Feminists also
began to organize the “Night of Walpurgis” on April 30. As one of
the Polish feminists said: “We need what is exclusively feminine, our
own rituals (...) There are taboo behaviours, which a woman cannot
cross under the threat of losing femininity” [Podgorska 2000: 9; after:
Cynarski 2001].
The Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts refers primarily to the
archetype of a warrior [Cynarski 2004: 107–362]. A manic warrior is
“an archetype of a man endowed with the power of a man, appearing
in the form of a hero, head of a tribe, sorcerer, healer and saint, ruler of
men and spirits, a friend of God” [Jung 1976: 85]. So you can be both a
warrior and a sorcerer, or a warrior in his youth, and a sage in old age.
245
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
As a result of the process of emancipation of women this pattern
is no longer reserved for men. Feminists have given this expression
of rebellion against traditional, patriarchal culture. Especially a witch,
seen pejoratively in fairy tales and myths, and in the reception of today’s Christian culture (because of the use of black magic – the power
of evil) is an expression of opposition to even God.
The feminist paradigm is close to ecologism (not ecology but
ecologism), eclectism of New Age ideology, neo-pagan cults. The
matriarchy is idealized, as the supposedly existing social system.
The cult of the Earth, the Great Mother, has its historical manifestations (goddess Ishtar, Kali) and present (Gaya and hers cult).
Similarly, it involves attempts at rehabilitation of the “witch” by rep-
resentatives of revolutionary feminism. At one of the portals we find
a manifest:
“The witch is us – women need that when the receptive transfor-
mation of the witch concept is made, women will gain greater access to
the aspects of their personality that have been displaced by the ages,
which are their strength, personal freedom, and (without valuing) the
difference of the male.” [www.czarownice.com]
This is especially an anti-Christian symbol. Of course, feminists
are accentuated by his constructive side. Meanwhile, in Poland, in
the environment of martial arts and combat sports, the archetype of
a witch is almost absent.
The author describes and attempts to explain the presence of
women in the martial arts and in combat sports. What cultural archetypes (or patterns) are dominating in that area? The main methods
used here are: environmental monitoring of martial arts and combat
sports, and literature content analysis – a broad discourse [Krippendorf 2004].
246
Women in martial arts and combat sports: archetypical patterns
Results
„Warrior” – numerous examples
All six archetypes proposed by Bolelli (samurai, the ninja, the searchers, the hermit, the ronin, the tribal warrior) concern a warrior. Also,
a woman may be a samurai and a ronin, a warrior [Bolelli 2008: 88–98]
fighting for her nation or defending other overriding values. The warrior values traditional ethos [Cynarski 2014], but also shows a tendency to dominate.
Yasuko Kimura, one of the best women in classical Japanese
budo, is: Board Member of the International Naginata Federation,
Visiting Professor of the International Budo University, Instructor
at the University of the Sacred Heart. She is the 17th generation soke
(style head, grandmaster of a school) of naginata-jutsu Tendo-ryu. It
is a school of the Japanese glaive from the 15th century. Naginata is the
traditional weapon of Japanese woman – firstly from samurai family,
next regardless of the strata.
Mrs Kimura is shihan (master-teacher) in the old naginata-jutsu
and instructor of modern naginata-do, and also in kendo. She is a
representative person of the classical budo.
Hannelore Sieber is probably the best woman in European area
of Asian martial arts and self-defence practices [Cynarski 2009]. She is
German, wife of meijin Lothar Sieber 10 dan. She has been practicing
martial arts since 1968, and is a specialist in women’s self-defence.
“She is one of the few women in Europe and in the world that have
real melee skills, abilities comparable to the best men” [Cynarski,
Szajna 2015].
In addition, H. Sieber is still active on the mat, training in the hard
school of Yoshin-ryu jujutsu and Zendo karate Tai-te-tao. She is now
247
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
9th dan in jujutsu, and 8th dan in karate, hanshi, 7th dan in judo-do/
ido, and has been long time a president of the Deutscher Jiu-Jitsu Ring
‘Erich Rahn’ e.V. (DJJR).
Many players of judo, karate and other combat sports represent
this archetype [cf. Drid et al. 2011; Sertic, Segedi, Vidranski 2012;
Channon, Matthews 2015]. The phenomenon of women fighting in
hard, male martial arts (boxing, kick-boxing, MMA) inspires anthro-
pologists, psychologists and sport sociologists [Wiley 1992; Jones
2000; Follo 2012; Jennings 2015]. Other thing, can Mixed Martial
Arts be considered a sport discipline or is it rather a manifestation of
the new gladiatorship [Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2006]? Anyway, women
fight like men, risking their health. Let us omit here the aesthetic
dimension of this form of sports culture and the matter of the sense
of this type of female activity. Is there any hormonal conditioning
disorder?
On the other hand, many beautiful girls successfully grow both
aikido, judo, karate, kick-boxing, taekwondo etc.
“Dancer” – Cynthia Rothrock
The dancer, like a princess, likes to play. She wants to be admired and
is admired since prehistoric times. Dancing is perhaps the most feminine form of expression and is a great way to work out or maintain
a shapely body.
In the case of Cynthia Rothrock the aesthetic and expressive dimensions are here to be dominant [Cynarski 2015]. At the age of
13 she started training martial arts and showed great talent in this
[Braksal 1991]. In the years 1981–1985 she was an unbeatable world
champion in the competition of the show with arms and without. She
has black belts in: taekwondo, tangsoodo, wushu, Shaolin kung-fu and
248
Women in martial arts and combat sports: archetypical patterns
“Claws of the Eagle” kung-fu. Championship in technical forms opened
her way to martial arts film. She appeared in more than 40 films.
Can an actress and a champion in technical forms be referred to
as a dancer? In the meaning of technical perfection (sense of rhythm,
precision, fluidity, flexibility, dynamics and grace) probably so [cf.
Carter 2003; Pfister 2017]. This does not exclude her real fighting
skills and her preferred archetype of warrior (many years practicing
martial arts). Especially that she is still a professionally active martial
arts instructor.
“Princess” – Sylwia Gruchala
She is not like old princesses, wife of a brave leader. So there is no
standard relationship “the princess and the warrior” [Bolelli 2008:
47–57]. She represents the warrior type, as indicated by: 1) fighting
in fencing, 2) profession – a professional soldier. Are is she dancer,
too? In hers life was an episode of the dance – have been involved
in “the dance with the stars” (in Poland). And she may be princess,
too, because of hers non-profit activity – work in foundations for sick
children, and modern celebrity (special beauty and temperament).
After two times World Champion (2003 and 2007, Team Foil), fife
times Champion of Europe, etc., she is now a soldier in Polish army
[Kwiecien 2004; Borysiuk, Pakosz 2011; Cynarski, Szajna 2015].
In the tradition of the ancient Scythians and ancient Slavs, some
princesses were also warriors [Wincenty Kadlubek 1208/1612; Cynarski, Maciejewska 2016]. Significantly, Sylwia Gruchala practiced
fencing (foil), which was not contrary to the aesthetics and grace of the
female body movement [cf. Cynarski, Obodynski 2011; Cynarski 2015].
On the contrary, it fits in with the lifestyle of active and auto-creative,
dynamics and self-realization [Cynarski 2001].
249
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
The princesses, like the warriors, represent the knightly ethos
(traditional values). Like dancers, they like to be admired. These fairytales are beautiful, subtle, delicate. They should also avoid unworthy
conduct.
“Witch”
This is not about women accused of centuries wrongfully about witchcraft, as St. Joan of Arc. On the contrary, it concerns those women who
consider themselves witches or refer to it as an archetype. They try
to dominate, drawing strength from pagan traditions. In the history
and legends of martial arts, a woman ninja – warrior of night who
was a murderer (poisoner, assassin) and used magic, can be a model
or rather a personal anti-pattern.
Activists of lesbian and feminist organizations, like Wendi Dragonfire, Simone Koch and Constance Ohms, try to create “feminist martial arts” [Ohms 1997]. For example, feminist self-defence should be
founded on soft internal styles of kung-fu [cf. Koch 1997]. Women’s
power is sought for and something that distinguishes the reception
and description of the world of men and women. However, this power
does not stem from the feminine essence, that which complements
the manhood (the yin and yang) [cf. Wiley 1992; Nower 1993; Bolelli
2008: 47–57; Pfister 2017]? Generally, fighting women act against the
element yin (passivity, the female element) [Braksal 1991; Cynarski
2001].
Wendi Dragonfire is 4 dan karate, 2 dan in modern arnis, and was
a bodyguard of Jane Fonda. She is Board member of the International
Association of Lesbian and Gay Martial Artists in Amsterdam. C. Ohms
is 2 dan taekwondo. She is author of the book “Mehr als Herzgebrochen
– Gewalt in lesbischen beziehungen” (“More than heartbreak – violence
250
Women in martial arts and combat sports: archetypical patterns
in lesbian relationships”) [Ohms 1997]. In turn, S. Koch is looking for
feminist self-defence. Is indeed the archetype of a witch for them a
symbolic embodiment of female knowledge and power [cf. Podgorska
2000]? Probably they are looking for strength and means of struggle,
for self-defence or a sense of security. And they are not looking for
the source of this strength in the Christian tradition.
Summary
In addition to the lesbian and militant feminists, the archetype of the
“witch” almost does not occur. Also, the pure forms of the other archetypes are rare.
The witch is on the anti-Christian banners as an inspiration for
revolutionary-oriented feminists. Other archetypes, in the era of emancipation, concern many contemporary women on a global scale.
References
Bolelli D. (2008), On the Warrior’s Path. Philosophy, Fighting, and Martial
Arts Mythology, 2nd edn., Blue Snake Books, Berkeley, Calif.
Borysiuk Z., Pakosz P. (2011), Motor model of fencing lunge of Sylwia Gruchała – Olympic vice-champion in foil, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 12–15.
Braksal A. (1991), Damski boks, ”Sport dla Każdego”, no. 3–4, pp. 22–23
[in Polish].
Carter D. (2003), The best of both worlds [in:] J.M. Fraguas [ed.], Martial
Arts. Best of CFW 2002, Unique Publications, Burbank, Calif., pp. 94–99.
Channon A., Matthews C.R. [eds.] (2015), Global Perspectives on Women
in Combat Sports. Women Warriors around the World, Pelgrave Macmillan, UK.
Cynarski W.J. (2001), Dynamic postmodern woman, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury
/ Movement for Culture”, vol. 2, pp. 180–192.
251
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J. (2004), 3.2.2. Kobieta – wojownik [in:] W.J. Cynarski, Teoria
i praktyka dalekowschodnich sztuk walki w perspektywie europejskiej,
Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp. 289–307 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2009), Chapter 5.3.2. Hannelore Sieber [in:] W.J. Cynarski,
Martial Arts – Ido & Idokan, Idokan Poland Association, Rzeszow, pp.
202–205.
Cynarski W.J. (2012a), Martial Arts Phenomenon – Research and Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp. 242.
ISBN 978-83-7338-772-0
Cynarski W.J. (2012b), Antropologia sztuk walki. Studia i szkice z socjologii
i filozofii sztuk walki [in Polish], Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow,
pp. 284. ISBN 978-83-7338-777-5
Cynarski W.J. (2013), The historic conference of the JAB – Tokyo 2012. Opinion
about the scientific event and reflections on tourism of martial arts, “Ido
Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13,
no. 1, pp. 27–33.
Cynarski W.J. (2014), Moral values, people of noble way of martial arts, “Ido
Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14,
no. 1, pp. 1–10.
Cynarski W.J. (2015), Ekspresyjny wymiar sztuk walki, ”Kultura Bezpieczeństwa. Nauka – Praktyka – Refleksje”, no. 17, pp. 21–39 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2006), The violence in boxing, ”Archives of Budo”,
vol. 2, pp. 1–10.
Cynarski W.J., Maciejewska A. (2016), The proto-Slavic warrior in Europe:
The Scythians, Sarmatians and Lekhs, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 1–14; doi: 10.14
589/ido.16.3.1.
Cynarski W.J., Obodynski K. (2011), Self-identification through bodily
awareness in the contemporary mass culture [in:] W.J. Cynarski, K. Obodynski, N. Porro [eds.], Sport, Bodies, Identities and Organizations:
Conceptions and Problems, Rzeszow University Press & EASS, Rzeszow, pp. 27–39.
252
Women in martial arts and combat sports: archetypical patterns
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2015), Women in martial arts: three archetypes,
“IMAS Quarterly” / IQ Journal, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 42–55.
Cynarski W.J., Szajna G. (2015), Anthropology of martial arts: women warriors
[in:] J. Oborný, O. Štaud, B. Vrtiaková [eds.], Cultural anthropology and
sport. Collection of reviewed scientific papers, UK, Bratislava, pp. 8–20.
Drid P., Trivić T., Drapšin M., Barak O. (2011), Event related potentials after acute bouts of exercise in female judo players, “Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 1–5.
Follo G. (2012), A literature review of women and the martial arts: where are
we right now?, “Sociology Compass”, vol. 6, no. 9, pp. 707–717.
Jennings L.A. (2015), She’s a knockout!: A history of women in fighting sports,
Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham.
Jones D.E. (2000), Women Warriors: A History, The Warriors, Potomac Books,
NY.
Jung C.J. (1976), Archetypy i symbole. Pisma wybrane, Czytelnik, Warsaw
[in Polish].
Kim D., Back A. (2000). The way to go: philosophy in martial arts practice,
Nanam, Seoul.
Koch S. (1997), Kung Fu – Der feministische Weg [in:] C. Ohms [ed.], Frauen
Kampfkunst, Orlanda Frauenverlag, Berlin, pp. 181–199 [in German].
Krippendorf K. (2004), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology,
Thousand Oaks, CA.
Kwiecien M. (2004), Olympic medalist Sylwia Gruchała, Zysk i S-ka, Poznań
[in Polish].
Li-Hsiang L.R. (2006), Confucianism and Woman. A Philosophical Interpretation, State University of New York Press.
Nower J. (1993), Martial arts and feminist awareness, “Fighting Woman
News”, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 18–19, 22.
Ohms C. [ed.] (1997), Frauen Kampfkunst, Orlanda Frauenverlag, Berlin
[in German].
Oyama M. (1979), The Kyokushin Way. Mas. Oyama’s Karate Philosophy, Japan Publications Inc., Tokyo.
253
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Pfister L.F. (2017), Striking Beauty: A Philosophical Look at the Asian Martial Arts, “Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism”, vol. 75, no. 1, pp.
100–102.
Podgorska J. (2000), Samoobrona kobiet. Raport o polskich feministkach,
”Polityka”, no. 32, pp. 3–9 [in Polish].
Sertić H., Segedi I., Vidranski T. (2012), Situational efficiency of arm and leg
techniques in a karate fight of top-level female karate competitors, “Ido
Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 12,
no. 2, pp. 44–49.
Wiley C. [ed.] (1992), Women in the martial arts, North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, CA.
Wincenty Kadlubek (1208/1612), Historia Polonica [in Latin].
www.czarownice.com, Obudź w sobie czarownicę, http://www.kobietaxl.pl/
wokol-magii/n,21818,obudz-w-sobie-czarownice.html [Access: Aug.
20, 2017, in Polish].
www.nanarland.com [Access: Aug. 20, 2017].
CHAPTER 10
Structures and relations
KEY WORDS
martial arts, sociology of martial arts, organisation, patterns
ABSTRACT
PROBLEM AND AIM. An interesting manifestation of intercultural dialogue is the presence of Asian martial arts schools and clubs in cities
worldwide, and organisations of these martial arts. The aim of this
study is to describe the social structure and the characteristics of positions in this structure, in schools and martial arts organizations; how
this structure manifests itself and any trends that are happening. This
way of thinking is applied to a single dojo, to groups of practitioners,
and to positions in organizations active in the international forum.
METHODOLOGY. Analysis of a broad discourse was used, including
both literature and popularising texts, as well as a long-term participant observation method. The author has, for more than 30 years, been
working in national and international martial arts and combat sports
organizations. This study uses a theoretical perspective which the author co-created, based on the sociology and anthropology of martial
arts. The accepted terminology developed from this concept is used.
255
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
RESULTS. Three models of the structure and functioning of martial
arts group were detailed: a kung-fu family, a ryu-ha in Japan, and the
Japanese school. This applies correspondingly to: relationships at a
school in the Chinese tradition, the menkyo system of classic Japanese
schools and a new Budo using the kyu-dan system. Other martial arts
are following these particular models. Specifics of relationships in
martial arts circles on an international scale were also outlined.
CONCLUSIONS. Traditionally-oriented schools maintain relationships
similar to those described in the three models. In martial arts transforming into combat sports the position and role of the master turns
into that of a coach. The position of the master in the international
martial arts environment co-creates recognition for his outstanding
achievements and versatility, and the degrees and titles he holds.
Introduction
Sociology and anthropology of martial arts co-create a theoretical perspective for this study17. Therefore, the conceptual language is accepted [Jones 2002; Bolelli 2008; Cynarski 2012a, b; Cynarski, Skowron
2014] to describe the social structure and the characteristics of positions in this structure, in schools and martial arts organizations; how
this structure manifests itself and any trends that are happening. This
way of thinking is applied to a single dojo, to groups of practitioners,
and to positions in organizations active in the international forum.
This study uses methodology of the Humanistic Theory of Martial
Arts. This is, in particular the analysis of a wide discourse, including
literature and popularising texts [Krippendorf 2004]. The author has,
for more than 30 years, been working in national and international
17
It is a work follow-on authors articles about the structures and patterns of relations
in organisation of martial arts [cf. Cynarski 2016 a, b].
256
Structures and relations
martial arts and combat sports organizations (mostly but not only
of Japanese origin), so it can be considered a method of participant
observation [Spencer 2012]. This is mainly open observation of the
functioning of various schools, clubs, associations and federations.
The concept of neotribalism will be used for interpretation of the
described facts [Maffesoli 1996; cf. Golka 2008: 200; Cynarski 2013a].
These are communities of people whose sense of community and
identity emerges not as a result of a joint education or residence, but
by common interests, leisure activity, common ideas or ideals. Members of neotribals remain in contact with each other only occasionally
spatial. They have, however, a sense of community and some cultural
ties. They integrate regardless of nationality or race, age, sex, education and occupation, e.g. through the Internet and other new media.
Analysis of literature shows that the problems of participation and
social stratification in martial arts were already tackled, by only a few
authors [Cynarski 2013b; Llopis-Goig 2015; Ben Messaoud 2015]. It
is well-known that martial arts are practised by people from all social
strata, of a different status and professions. However, these studies
ignored important issues, specific for groups practising martial arts.
Let us explain first what is specific for the environment of martial arts
in contrast to any other forms of sports or physical education. What is
characteristic for aikido or hapkido group in contrast to sports teams?
General reflections
Members of the practising group are constantly on the road. This
is the way of martial arts called budo. In other words, it is moving
to the position of a master-teacher; constantly striving for mastery,
not purely technical. Black belt is a confirmation of master level in
many of martial arts. Mastery must be confirmed by the appropriate
257
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
certificate of maturity and skills. First dan (master degree) is not a
master, yet. The 8 or 9 dan holder and with hanshi title – he/she is
the master-professor. Certificates are signed by masters of high rank,
guaranteeing through their authority the level of mastery and human-
ity of the person promoted. In contrast to sport, mastery in martial
art is final [Maroteaux, Cynarski 2002–2003; Nakiri 2015].
Obviously, not everybody obtains master degrees and titles. Un-
less it concerns extremely commercialized schools, where the master’s
degree is obtained by the students after two years. In the traditionally-oriented schools the 10 year-long practice is an absolute minimum
[Cynarski et al. 2015].
Michel Rosenbaum [2002: 74–79], writes about the “rites of passage
and the modern ranking system”. On this pathway the master is also the
guide. Sensei (teacher) takes care of the personal development of the
student, in particular to make him/her a better person. It is a different
relationship than between coach and player in combat sports (wrestling,
boxing and kick-boxing) [Fredersdorf 1986; Harasymowicz 2000].
In non-competitive martial arts (aikido, hapkido, Wing Tsun [Lind
1996]) participants compete for degrees and position in the group
associated with it. The confirmation of their achievements are technical degrees obtained through examinations. Obviously, character
and personality determine preferences and dislikes. Advanced practitioners acquire degrees and instructor licences. First, they have to
master the curriculum of the given school.
The specificity of the way to mastery in a martial art is deter-
mined by the need to obtain subsequent degrees or licence. Only the
person who has won all technical degrees or learned everything, can
be considered a master [Cynarski 2002; Cynarski et al. 2015]. The
licence of menkyo kaiden confirms mastering everything that is taught
258
Structures and relations
by a given school. But only the title of hanshi in martial arts, with a
degree of 8–10 dan indicates a master-professor level e.g. in karate.
Even higher is the title of meijin, which is obtained by very few degree
holders of 10 dan. A small number of people reach that level. Most students achieve only student kyu grades or their equivalents. Different
levels of advancement have their attributes: clothes, colours of belts
etc. In some schools and organizations getting a green belt is already
a success, while elsewhere it is relatively easy to obtain a black belt,
even for underage students.
Individual ways to mastery are studied [Cynarski et al. 2015].
Consistency within groups, where strong ties among practitioners of
a particular martial art exist, causes long-term active participation
in the activities of the school. Especially when operating in a friendly,
almost family atmosphere. The main master is a patriarchal leader, the
leader of the school community (sometimes it can also be a woman).
Below in hierarchy are his assistants and instructors of different rank,
beginners and advanced students.
Three patterns, three examples
Confucian structure of Chinese schools – Kung-fu family
In wushu / kung-fu schools there are relationships resulting from the
Confucian ethics, based on the model of family. These are numerous
dependencies and obligations in relations between the younger son
and elder son, sister and brother, children and parents, etc. Grand Master is the head of the family, all the rest are students of different rank
(according to advancement). An advanced student can be an instructor.
Sifu – a teacher, is somewhat like a father. Sihing – a grandfather,
a teacher’s teacher. So, for example for the practitioner directly under the guidance of Grand Master Kernspecht [Lind 1996: 925], the
259
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
latter is sifu, whereas his master teacher, GM Leung Ting, is sihing. It
is determined on an individual basis of relationship between a pupil
/ student with the teacher.
Apart from this, there are 12 degrees awarded to students, instructors and masters. In addition to the title of GM (Grand Master),
the title of Great Grand Master is established, which could have been
given to master Yip Man from Hong Kong, the teacher of Leung Ting
and famous Bruce Lee (kung-fu filmstar). In this family tree (Fig. 10.1)
it is presented for sifu Kernspecht’s student (as author of this text e.g.),
GM Leung Ting is for him a grandfather, and the famous Yip Man – a
great grandfather.
FIGURE 10.1.
The family tree [own research]
The above description applies to the organization of Wing Tsun
kung-fu style, schools of Leung Ting and Keith Kernspecht [Kernspecht
2014]. GM Leung Ting runs his school in a more traditional version,
while GM Kernspecht made some modifications to the technical and
tactical sphere. As far as social relationships in groups of practitioners
are concerned, it is functioning on the same basis.
260
Structures and relations
Influence of Confucian ethics causes that teaching kung-fu be-
come – like in Japanese budo – an educational system with significant
educational values [Xinzhong Yao 2009; Theeboom, Vertonghen 2011;
De Souza da Silva et al. 2017].
With regard to the relations in small schools of ancient China it
can be stated that the community of a large organization of Wing Tsun
style (as EWTO – the European WingTsun Organisation) operates on
a much more commercial basis where the main master must also be
an efficient manager and businessman. Participants take information
on events through the Internet (from the website of EWTO) [cf. Lind
1996: 227–228; Cynarski 2011; Kernspecht 2013]. In other organisations communication goes in a similar way.
In simple words, Chinese model introduces positions of a disciple
and a master. The student becomes the master obtaining the right to
lead his/her own school. This also applies to Thai, Vietnamese,
Filipino and Malaysian martial arts schools. It is quite often accompanied by the use of gradation of degrees, modelled on the Japanese
system of kyu-dan.
Ryu-ha in Japan – Student and master
The menkyo licence system is typical for ancient Japanese schools
(ryu-ha) and functions in a direct relation between teacher and student. Sometimes it is so-called uchi-deshi – “internal” student who
lives, works and studies martial arts at his master’s home. But the
character of the educational system of menkyo is not always the same.
For example, the meaning of menkyo in Hakko-ryu and Okuyama-ryu
schools is explained as follows:
“Teaching in this system is done through sessions, including
parts of material, structured in such a way that it reveals to students
261
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
subsequent stages of the knowledge presented by the school. At the
end of this peculiar course students receive a degree or title (depending on the stage) and its confirmation, regardless of whether they
were the best or the worst in the group. Subsequent proceedings
are to determine the degree of understanding of this material by the
student. This gives students the opportunity to reflect, understand
better the knowledge that they were able to acquire. Whether they
will do it, depends only on them” [Liszkiewicz 2000].
It seems that here there is no threshold requirement or standard
master techniques, which have to be met. In ancient times, the skills
were tested on the battlefield, in sports there are competitions, in
many schools there are difficult examinations for each degree. Is it
possible to grant additional licences solely for participation in a training or training practice?
In Takeda-ryu Nakamura-ha, Takeda-ryu Maroto-ha and Idokan
Yoshin-ryu schools another element taken into account is a relative
progress of the student. But higher degrees and licences of menkyo
are obtained only by those who have reached a high enough level of
skill according to experts’ assessment. Obtaining a degree of a martial
arts master also involves evaluation of the candidate’s personality and
character, life conduct and contribution to the school.
Skills which are formally confirmed provide the opportunity
to work as an instructor. According to Meik Skoss, ”Iso Matoemon
Masayuki, the 5th generation headmaster, died without leaving any
successors” [Skoss 1997]. Now, some shihan who received menkyo
kaiden teach in several lines of Tenjin Shin’yo-ryu jujutsu. One has to
obtain a formal right to independent teaching.
Today, students practicing traditional martial arts in koryu schools
are also examples of neotribalism (as a socio-cultural phenomenon).
262
Structures and relations
They meet in seminars, “summer schools” and camps, and the only
one aim (or motive) is the same – to study martial arts [Maroteaux
1993; Cynarski 2009].
Organisation of the new Budo – Japanese school
This is a mental shortcut to describe hierarchical and educational
system. Its characteristic feature is the emphasis on the seniority system: senpai-kohai, degrees kyu-dan and master titles. These kinds of
hierarchical relationships exist in Korean and Japanese martial arts
schools (and entire societies).
Japanese organization of IMAF the (International Martial Arts
Federation) brings together enthusiasts of Japanese martial arts from
many countries of the world. Students and masters of different rank
practise here. These distinctions are awarded by the individual committees (judo, karate, kobudo, etc.) of IMAF. These are both: technical
and honorary degrees, as well as titles (renshi, kyoshi, hanshi, meijin)
and instructor licences. Exams and certificates of competence are quite
expensive, although IMAF is a non-profit organization. One’s position
is dependent on this eligibility. Few masters have the right to conduct
independent teaching and examinations.
Interpersonal relations (as it concerns official and unofficial sit-
uations, formal and informal groups), are conditioned by the stratifi-
cation system and the relationship between those holding individual
positions. In the practice hall (dojo), teams of people who practise are
subject to social interactions and they can be assigned to the category
of a small social group. Sociometric tests, as those carried out by Sterkowicz [2003] on a group of hapkido indicate a positive correlation of
indications with the level of special fitness. That means the persons
with the longest period of practice, the highest degree, and especially
263
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
the greatest skills also achieve in the informal sociometric relations
the highest position in the group.
One can distinguish more or less traditional schools, in the way
of attitude to tradition (faithful transfer of knowledge, upgrades/
modifications or a complete break with tradition). Schools teaching
in the traditional manner are within the area delineated between the
ideal types identified and model patterns (Fig. 10.2). Then teaching
martial arts is related to the implementation of the specific educa-
tional system. Wherever the traditions of martial arts are rejected
intentionally, as in kick-boxing, relations typical for the world of sport
appear. There is an interaction between a coach and an athlete. This
type of relationship already dominates e.g. in today’s wushu. But here
the position of the coach is still a bit stronger than in clubs and sports
schools in western countries.
FIGURE 10.2.
Area of traditional social relations in schools of martial arts [own research]
A significant difference occurs in the case of attitude to tradition,
which manifests itself in the form of ceremony in the practice room
and the relationship of students to the teacher. Schools which are
faithful to tradition keep the extended ritual (dojo etiquette – Jap. reigi
264
Structures and relations
saho), Japanese terminology, certain forms of movement in the dojo,
conduct, addressing other practitioners, the elderly and instructors
(always with a bow). Student with a low master’s degree does not
ask the hanshi the question directly, but e.g. through kyoshi (7–8 dan
holder). Position of a master with a high degree is comparable to the
position of bishop in the Catholic Church. Strong emphasis on hierarchy resembles feudal relations.
While modernised schools prefer more democratized relationships, positions in the group (school) are largely egalitarian. Americans in particular prefer to be on a first-name basis, without using
hierarchical titles. Sensei remains the leader of the school, but the
relationship between him and students is usually friendly, especially
if there is a small age difference.
In the Japanese tradition between the two athletes there is always one senpai (senior) and the second kohai (younger). Seniority
is counted according to a degree, secondly, the length of practice and
degree, thirdly according to age. Schools of the “Japanese spirit” (also
the Korean ones) follow that rules more closely, those that follow
the western spirit pay less or no attention to such rules. Seniority stems indirectly from the relationship of the Confucian ‘kung-fu
family’.
Structure of modern Budo is heterogenic. Sometimes Budo disciplines are very similar to sport, and sometimes not. And the new
Budo in Japan is not the same, as in Western countries [Fredersdorf
1986; Uozumi, Bennett 2010; Nakiri 2015].
Relations in the international structures
Apart from small schools with one dojo and small, local organizations, there are large organizations, bringing together a number of
265
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
individuals or associations from many countries. In the community of
martial arts, there are different organizations: promoting one or many
styles, national and international. Generally, the rank of the organization is due to its size and age (years of activity, level of advancement
in the process of institutionalization). While the individual position
is determined according to the prestige, knowledge and fame. The
name is a brand which a student, then a master is working for their
whole lives. Some reckless behaviour and dishonesty can completely
discredit and ruin the authority developed over the years. People who
are respected greatly should be fully competent, present a high level
of culture and “spiritual mastery” on the moral way of martial arts.
In Europe and around the world, respected are only the holders of
the highest degrees (7–10 dan), so the instructors of different rank are
trying to earn these degrees which are awarded as honorary degrees
for service to schools and organizations. Those who have obtained
them, care about the legitimacy of their mastery. For this reason information about awarding the highest degrees and titles appears both
on the internet and in the press or specialist popularising journals,
[Echo 2013; Ettlin 2013; Aiki... 2015: 18–19]. Books about martial arts
also contain certificates, confirming master’s degrees gained by sen-
sei Maroteaux, Floquet, Sieber and others [Floquet 1984; Maroteaux
1993; Cynarski 2009].
An old Japanese term soke describes the leader of the community
(school, family, and the community) [Bodiford 2002]. In martial arts it
refers to the creator/founder or successor – heir, guardian of tradition,
the main master of the school. If the school is famous, as Tenshinshoden
Katorishinto-ryu operating since the fifteenth century, its soke is even
more respected. In case of this particular school soke is not a main
master, but a senior of the next generation of the family. Appointed
266
Structures and relations
by soke masters (shihan), e.g. Ritsuke Otake, or earlier Yoshio Sugino
(10 dan kobudo, meijin) are responsible for teaching.
The position of the master in the international martial arts environment co-creates recognition for his outstanding achievements,
e.g. sport results. American karateka Chuck Norris was able to win
a number of tournaments before he became a star in martial arts
films. He is still active as a teacher of martial arts, and respected in
the specialist community.
Recognition for outstanding representatives of the world’s com-
munity of martial arts goes far beyond the style and martial art, it
goes beyond the country of origin and a cultural circle. Those masters
often know each other, act in the same or cooperating organizations.
Sometimes they perform important functions in these organizations.
They are often the authorities of knowledge and morality, art of fighting and the art of life [Habersetzer 1999].
The phenomenal examples of versatility are two traditionalists:
meijin Minoru Mochizuki 10 dan (high degrees in e.g. aikido, iaido,
jujutsu, judo, kobudo) and Patrick McCarthy 9 dan hanshi, holder of
master’s degrees in karate and several other martial arts. Such people can speak authoritatively about different martial arts, having this
practical knowledge. On the other hand, a supporter of an innovative
approach to martial arts meijin Lothar Sieber (10 dan) is an expert
in karate and jujutsu, real self-defence and kick-boxing, as well as the
art of yielding the sword iaido and natural medicine associated with
the practice of martial arts.
Mass culture of contemporary cultural globalisation favours especially those who heavily promote themselves in the media. But the
world of martial arts knows the true masters and experts, people with
the highest skills and knowledge, and it respects them very much.
267
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Discussion
It can be argued that the proposed above three models of the structure
and functioning of the martial arts group help explain the principles
of martial arts organization not only in Chinese or Japanese, but in
Korean, Vietnamese, Filipino, Malaysian, Indonesian, too. Some other
specifics of martial arts show Thailand, Burma, Laos and Cambodia
[Gomaratut 2011]. But it is a close model – usually the best student
becomes another master-teacher.
In addition to the social structure created within martial arts
organizations, we can analyse the social structure of martial artists
according to their social background, profession or education.
Judo, karate and other martial arts, as well as fencing (both historical and sports) developed in Poland and in the world mainly in
academics, mainly by students and people with higher education [Cynarski 2000]. While martial arts, boxing, and martial arts were generally preferred by the lower classes, martial arts (aikido, kendo) were
most often enjoyed by upper class representatives [Kunicki 1995], as
evidenced by the cultural capital (hierarchy of values) passed down
in families.
Similarly, in their historical development, martial arts were cultivated by the knightly state (Europe) and the culture of warriors, such
as bushi in Japan [Mauer 1981; Ratti, Westbrook 1997; Mol 2001], the
kshatriya caste in India, and the like. For centuries, and sometimes
also now, so called here. generation passage – from father to son.
Some martial arts were practiced only within individual families or
in exclusive elite circles.
At the moment, “in the age of global popularity of Asian as well
as Western (European) martial arts, the position in martial arts is
268
Structures and relations
not dependent on social origin. Although the origin of the samurai or
noble family may in some way facilitate the success of martial arts.
But more by inherited ethos than the easier access to elite martial
arts once.” [Cynarski 2013].
Recent research indicates that Asian martial arts are being cultivated today in different cultural circles by representatives of different social strata and professions, regardless of race, religion, sex,
background and education [Llopis-Goig 2015; Ben Messaoud 2015].
Conclusions
Three models of the structure and functioning of martial arts groups
were detailed: a kung-fu family, a ryu-ha in Japan, and the Japanese
school. This applies correspondingly to: relationships at a school in
the Chinese tradition, the menkyo system of classic Japanese schools
and a new Budo using the kyu-dan system. Other martial arts, e.g.
those deriving from south-east Asia, are following these particular
models.
Traditionally-oriented schools maintain relationships similar to
those described in the three models. In martial arts which are transforming into combat sports the position and role of the master turns
into that of a coach. In many cases a practicing group can be explained
as example of neotribalism. Martial arts unite various people interested in this special, practical study.
The position of the master in the international martial arts environment co-creates recognition for his outstanding achievements
and versatility, and the degrees and titles he holds. This recognition
goes well beyond a given style and martial arts, beyond the country
and the cultural circle of origin. This is facilitated by mass culture of
the contemporary cultural globalisation.
269
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
References
”Aiki Goshindo Kaishi. Revue Culturelle Franco-Japonaise D’Arts Martiaux
Takeda-Ryu“, 2015, no. 68 [in French].
Ben Messaoud W. (2015), Social representations of karate among young people, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”,
vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 39–48; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.4.6.
Bodiford W.M. (2002), Soke: Historical Incarnations of a Title and its Entitlements, http://www.koryu.com/library/wbodiford1.html, after: ”Keiko
Shokon” (accessed: 11.08.2015).
Bolelli D. (2008), On the Warrior’s Path. Philosophy, Fighting, and Martial
Arts Mythology, 2nd edn., Blue Snake Books, Berkeley, CA.
Cynarski W.J. (2000), Budō as academic sport [in:] Z. Dziubiński, B. Gorski
[eds.], Kultura fizyczna studentów w okresie transformacji szkolnictwa
wyższego w Polsce, Politechnika Warszawska, Warsaw, pp. 212–220
[in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2002), Mastery in far eastern martial arts, ”Sport Wyczynowy”, no. 1–2, pp. 96–106. ISSN 0239-4405 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2013), Social stratification in martial arts [in:] Z. Dziubiński,
M. Lenartowicz [eds.], Kultura fizyczna a różnice i nierówności społeczne, AWF, SALOS RP, Warsaw, pp. 123–132 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2009), Martial Arts – Idō & Idōkan, IPA, Rzeszow.
Cynarski W.J. (2011), Hockenheim 2010. Contribution to the martial arts
tourism, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 60–64.
Cynarski W.J. (2012a), Anthropology of Martial Arts. Studies and Essays from
Sociology and Philosophy of Martial Arts, Rzeszow University Press,
Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2012b), Socjologia sztuk walki. Przyczynek do ujęcia semiotycznego, ”Rzeszowskie Studia Socjologiczne”, no. 1, pp. 236–260. ISSN
2299-6044 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2013a), The traditional art of swordmanship and its application today. A case study of one of the Japanese schools [in:] M. Zvonar,
270
Structures and relations
Z. Sajdlova [eds.], Conference: 9th International Conference on Sport and
Quality of Life, Masaryk Univ, Fac Sports Studies, Brno, Nov. 07–08, pp.
209–216.
Cynarski W.J. (2013b), Social stratification in Japanese and some other martial arts: A comparison and discussion of changes, “Physical Culture
and Sport. Studies and Research”, Oct., vol. 59, no. 1, pp. 49–59; doi:
10.2478/pcss-2013-0024.
Cynarski W.J. (2016a), Three patterns of group relations in martial arts
schools, “Studies in Sport Humanities”, vol. 19, pp. 54–59.
Cynarski W.J. (2016b), Struktura społeczna w organizacjach sztuk walki
[w:] Z. Dziubiński, M. Lenartowicz [red.], Kultura fizyczna a struktura
społeczna, SALOS RP, AWF, Warszawa, s. 61–70 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Kudłacz M., Telesz P. (2015), A way to mastery. Mastery in martial arts, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts
Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 16–22; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.1.3.
Cynarski W.J., Skowron J. (2014), An analysis of the conceptual language
used for the general theory of martial arts – Japanese, Polish and English
terminology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 49–66; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.7.
De Souza da Silva E., Pereira Alves D., Augusto P. dos Santos M., Ribeiro Dos
Santos L., Brito Soares S., Miarka B. (2017), Wushu as a tool for motor,
cognitive and socioaffective development at school: an exploratory study,
“Revista de Artes Marciales Asiáticas”, vol. 12, no. 1; doi: 10.18002/
rama.v12i1.4776.
Echo (2013), Groβmeister höchsten Grades. Auszeichnungen in der Karateschule Weitmann in Neuffen, “Echo”, Feb. 28, p. 4 [in German].
Ettlin N. (2013), Lothar Sieber (Meijin, 10. Dan) und Professor Dr. Wojciech
Cynarski vom Idokan Polen verleihen den achten Dan und höchsten
Lehrergrad Hanshi an Harald Weitmann sowie den ersten Groβmeistergrad an Heiko Hofmann, “Neuffener Anzeiger”, no. 8 (Feb. 22) [in
German].
Floquet A. (1984), Individual defence self-same and of others, Sedirep, Bulogne [in French].
271
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Fredersdorf F. (1986), Japanische Budo-Disziplinen und Abendsländische Bewegungskultur. Entstehung, Verbreitung und Aneignung kulturfremder
Sportarten am Beispiel japanischer Kampfkünste, TU Berlin [in German].
Golka M. (2008), Sociology of Culture, Scholar, Warsaw [in Polish].
Gomaratut Ch. (2011), Muai-Thai: The art and science of Thai traditional
self-defence [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Selected Areas of Intercultural
Dialogue in Martial Arts, UR, Rzeszow, pp. 123–136.
Habersetzer R. (1999), Bu-Do: Schule des Lebens!? Do als Weg des Krieges
oder Weg des Friedens?, “Budo Karate”, no. 9, pp. 6–8 [in German].
Harasymowicz J.K. (2000), Od sportów walki do sztuki życia [in:] R.M. Kalina, W. Jagiello [eds.], Wychowawcze i utylitarne aspekty sportów walki,
AWF, Warsaw, pp. 33–36 [in Polish].
Jones D.E. [eds.] (2002), Combat, Ritual and Performance. Anthropology of
the Martial Arts, Praeger, Westport, Connecticut – London.
Kernspecht K.R. (2013), Die Essenz des WingTsun, EWTO-Verlag [in German].
Kernspecht K.R. (2014), Inner WingTsun, EWTO-Verlag [in German].
Krippendorf K. (2004), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology,
Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Kunicki B. (1995), Struktura klasowa a kultura fizyczna [in:] Z. Krawczyk
[ed.], Socjologia kultury fizycznej, AWF, Warsaw, pp. 166–177 [in Polish].
Lind W. (1996), Das Lexikon der Kampfkünste, Sportverlag Berlin [in German].
Liszkiewicz Z. (2000), Wychowawczy aspekt tradycyjnej, japońskiej formy
przekazu i oceny w sztukach walki – menkyo [in:] R.M. Kalina, W. Jagiello
[eds.], Wychowawcze i utylitarne aspekty sportów walki, AWF, Warsaw,
pp. 37–39 [in Polish].
Llopis-Goig R. (2015), A sociological analysis of martial arts in Spain. A focus
on the recent evolution, characteristics and social profile of judo, karate
and taekwondo practitioners, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of
Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 23–30; doi: 10.14589/
ido.15.1.4.
Maffesoli M. (1996), Times of the tribes. The decline of individualism in mass
society, Sage, London.
272
Structures and relations
Mol S. (2001), Classical Fighting Arts of Japan, Kodansha International.
Maroteaux R.J. (1993), Takeda-ryu Jujitsu – Aikido, UNGDA [in French].
Maroteaux R.J., Cynarski W.J. (2002–2003), On philosophy of Japanese martial arts – questions and answers, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement
for Culture”, vol. 3, pp. 48–55.
Mauer K. (1981), Die Samurai. Ihre Geschichte und ihr Einfluß auf das moderne Japan, Knaur, Düsseldorf – Wien [in German].
Nakiri F. (2015), Concept of budo and the history and activities of the Japanese Academy of Budo, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 11–25; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.1.2.
Ratti O., Westbrook A. (1997), Sekrety Samurajów. Studium o japońskich
sztukach walki [Secrets of the Samurai], Diamond Books, Bydgoszcz
[in Polish].
Rosenbaum M. (2002), Fighting Arts. Their Evolution from Secret Societies
to Modern Times, YMAA Publ. Center, Boston, Mass. USA.
Skoss M. (1997), Tenjin Shin’yo-ryu Jujutsu [in:] D. Skoss [ed.], Classical Warrior Traditions of Japan, Koryu Books, Berkeley Heights, New Jersey,
pp. 121–141.
Spencer D.C. (2012), Ultimate fighting and embodiment. Violence, gender,
and Mixed Martial Arts, Routledge, New York.
Sterkowicz S. (2003), Special physical fitness in the light of social status in
a group hapkido students [in:] W.J. Cynarski, K. Obodynski [eds.], Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts and Combat Sports: Conceptions and
Problems, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp. 79–83 [in Polish].
Theeboom M., Vertonghen J. (2011), ‘It is like a finger pointing away to the
moon’. Teaching martial arts to children [in:] W.J. Cynarski, K. Obodyński, N. Porro [eds.], Sport, Bodies, Identities and Organizations: Conceptions and Problems, Wydawnictwo UR, Rzeszow, s. 68–79.
Uozumi T., Bennett A. [eds.] (2010), The History and Spirit of Budō. IBU Budō
Series vol. 1, IBU, Katsuura.
Xinzhong Yao (2009), Confucianism, Jagiellonian University, Kraków [in
Polish].
CHAPTER 11
A Christian and the martial arts path18
“The Lord is with you brave warrior” [Judges 6,12]
KEY WORDS
martial arts, ethics, ethos, religion, Christianity
ABSTRACT
BACKGROUND. The and cultural anthropology of martial arts, and
the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts constitute the framework for
this study.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. A series of research questions was posed: Can
one talk about universal principles and values in respect of the Way of
the Warrior? What does it mean to be a noble man especially today?
How does this issue relate to Christianity? What is the point of fighting,
of developing a sense of self-improvement and of attaining mastery?
MATERIAL AND METHODS. The answers to these questions are sought
through an analysis of a number of sources and studies, a broad discourse involving literature and long-term observations in the international martial arts environment.
18
This is a development of an article with a similar title [cf. Cynarski 2016].
275
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
RESULTS. One can talk about universal principles and values in respect of the Way of the Warrior. They are generally universal, as long
as it is in a moral way and the main objective is seen as the improvement of character and the pursuit of mastery in the art of humanity.
A deeper meaning of Taoism in the sphere of ethics, is related to the
truth revealed in the Gospel. Conversely the “Anti-Way” is the cult of
power and violence, or of turning to magic and sorcery or an attempt
to return to pre-Christian cults. And what does it mean to be a noble
man, especially today? A noble man has to follow the moral path of
truth and other positive universal values which do not contradict the
Ten Commandments and the Gospel.
CONCLUSIONS. What is the point of fighting, of developing a sense of
self-improvement and of attaining mastery? It is an ascetic practice
to achieve multidirectional development and a striving for mastery in
the art of living to become a better person. However, for supporters of
the Anti-Way it means only learning or teaching specific fighting skills,
or the fight itself and of demonstrating one’s superiority. The right
“Way of the Warrior” is consistent with the teachings of the Catholic
Church and other Christian denominations (except in a few cases of
the “Anti-Way”).
Introduction
‘Martial arts’ is a concept that arose within European culture; they are
defined differently in different theoretical perspectives. Other terms
are used such as: combat sports, fighting arts, combatives, oriental
sports, etc. [Cynarski, Skowron 2014; cf. Martínková, Parry 2015; Nakiri 2015]. From the perspective of the Humanistic Theory of Martial
Arts and the holistic anthropology of martial arts [Cynarski 2004,
2014] the following definition is used here: martial arts are a historic
category of flawless methods of unarmed combat fighting and the use
276
A Christian and the martial arts path
of weapons, combined with spiritual elements (both personal development and in the transcendental sphere) [Cynarski, Skowron 2014].
What are the ideological foundations of the martial arts, known today
in Japan as Budo (military ways)? Is it the “Way”, which is an echo of
the “philosophy of the way” by Lao Tzu or completely different martial
paths [cf. Lao Tzu 2001; Martínková, Parry 2015; Nakiri 2015]?
As in the case of the roots of European sport, the origins of Asian
martial arts were similarly linked with their local religions as the cultural cores of their place of birth. The Games of the ancient Egyptians
or Greeks were held within the framework of local cults. Similarly,
sumo wrestling was held to honour the deities of the Shinto religion
(the way of the gods). Buddhist and Taoist monks were the teachers
of Chinese warriors. In turn European knighthood was strongly associated with Christianity [cf. Cynarski 2004; Piwowarczyk 2007]. In
the case of knighthood it was a stronger relationship than that of the
samurai with Buddhism or Shintoism [Takagi 1984].
Can one talk about the universal principles and values of the
Warrior’s Way? What does it mean to be a noble man, especially today?
How does this issue relate to Christianity? What is the point of fighting,
of developing a sense of self-improvement and of attaining mastery?
The answers to these questions are sought through analyzing a num-
ber of sources and studies, a broad discourse [Krippendorf 2004] and
long-term observations in the international martial arts environment.
Richard King [1999] critically assesses the myth of objectivity in
Gadamer’s hermeneutics and ‘cultural studies’. He indicates errors and
inaccuracies in the descriptions and explanations of cultural issues in
relations between the West and the Far East. So what are the chances
of getting closer to the truth in the description of the social and cultural facts? In the author’s opinion, this should be rather like putting
277
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
together a jigsaw puzzle of knowledge via a broad, multidisciplinary
approach [cf. Hetherington 1996; Cynarski 2004].
An ontological understanding of human existence is relatively
important and sometimes crucial for these kinds of searches. That is
how we understand mankind – the human being. A holistic approach
was adopted which treats a human being as a psychophysical, personal being, endowed with free will, making conscious decisions,
but acting through his body. This is the understanding of man in the
anthropology of martial arts [Kowalczyk 2002, 2009]. “The human
body is an ideal meeting place for theology and science because it
displays the fullest spectrum of the manifold wisdom of God” [Van
der Meer 2001: 39]. The human body is to be respected. But it would
be wrong to reduce man only to his/her body. The sense of physical
exercise in this perspective, also gains a psycho-physical dimension.
In particular, when the asceticism of exercise for personal improvement is a consciously made decision, then a spiritual sense becomes
dominant.
The anthropology and ontology (both philosophical and religious),
of Taoism is consciously omitted and it is just the philosophy of the
human Way which is of interest here. Incidentally, Confucius also advocated the procedure in accordance with the Way of Heaven.
Results I.
New interpretation of the Taoistic philosophy of the Way
1a. What is the deeper meaning of Taoism, or the science
of the Way (and virtue)?
The basis for some of the martial arts practised today, is philosophical
Taoism, initiated by Lao Tzu. The Ancient Master (Lao Tsy, 6 CBC)
is the author of Tao Te Ching (Daodejing) [Lao Tzu 2001]. The key
278
A Christian and the martial arts path
concepts here are Tao and Te, or the “Way and Virtue”, just as they
were for the Stoics [Cynarski 2012].
Virtue means obedience to God – working only in harmony with
Tao, known as the attitude of “wuwei”. “In the beginning was the Word”,
the Gospel of John (1) – Vox Domini, in translation, e.g. in the Japanese
version it is translated into: “In the beginning was the Tao”.
Virtue (Te) is the manifestation of divine energy, divine spirit
(Holy Spirit?). Lao Tzu was similar to St. Francis of Assisi in the way
of being “organic”, i.e. close to nature, understanding nature and especially the meaning of the human way of life. However the notion of
a personal God cannot be found in Lao Tzu’s philosophy.
On the other hand, the Way is a method, practice, experience.
The Way (Tao) is a striving for harmony with God, rather than the
mixing of good and evil, as Taoism is alleged to do, according to some
people. The yin-yang sign refers to proto-elements: plus and minus,
rising and falling, masculine and feminine elements in nature, rather
than right and wrong.
Chi (Chinese qi, Jap. and Kor. ki) – is simply a breath and the resulting energy. It is not some magical or esoteric power. Harmony
of movement and breath (good coordination) has a beneficial effect
on the circulation of energy in the body. When an appropriate level
of concentration on the work being done is added, the movement
is achieved with the use of this chi, as it is poetically known by the
people of East Asia. The language of energy is used to describe mental
states, but everything can be explained in a rational manner, without
recourse to supernatural powers.
Moral goodness in life requires a realization of universal values [Szoltysek 2015: 207], which are consistent with the laws of
nature. Selfish actions that are contrary to the moral order or the
279
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
broadly-understood ecology (social and natural) are an anti-way. This
can manifest itself on a micro scale, in direct relationships, or on the
scale of international and political relations (political violence against
neighbouring countries).
Understanding the philosophy of Taoism helps in a conscious
study of taiji quan or qigong [cf. Feng Youlan 2001; Kozminski 2006],
in particular in relation to health. But it may also be helpful in other
forms of physical exercise, e.g. jogging. Taoism teaches the avoidance
of the effort and all excesses. Thus, for example, one should run at a
steady pace and not for long distances. It is better to exercise regularly
for a long time, using loads which are not too strenuous for the body.
1b. Completion of Peter Jahnke’s research programme
Mahatma Gandhi was not the only one who accepted the non-violence
of the Gospel of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount. A similar philosophical
and religious search was made Peter K. Jahnke (1936–13.08.1995),
the reformer of karate. The continuation of the research programme
(in the understanding of Imre Lakatos [1995]) is based here on an
attempt at a new reading of the meaning of Jahnke’s. Perhaps this
activity involves going one step further than this German thinker.
Zendo karate tai-te-tao [Jahnke 1992], in translation is: “The way
of meditation – the way of the hand of peace”, in other words the Virtue
of the “Great Way” is a universal (universalist), idea of self-improvement through physical, moral and spiritual asceticism and meditation.
The second form of this masterly direction of karate is called the
Tao-Te, or the Way and Virtue, as in the Tao Te Ching (Daodejing) [Yu
et al. 2015]. It is clearly a moral way, without the need for domination
(the rejection of rivalry), imposing however a duty of service and
support for others, especially the weaker and needy.
280
A Christian and the martial arts path
Jahnke referred to the Gospel’s “sword of justice” in conjunction
with the “Law of Great Love”. The name of God in the Old Testament,
Jehovah, is translated as Love. Incidentally love is the bedrock of many
positive values [Szoltysek 2015: 199–200]. Here, in Jahnke’s terms,
even ninjutsu, the art of being invisible, is in service to goodness to
protect the most vulnerable and in need. The sword symbolizes law
and justice, the power to defend the weak and self-defence.
Overall, among the universal values, we can distinguish between
the positive and negative ones:
1. Sincerity, “the way of truth”, as a rejection of lies and deceit –
acceptance of lies;
2. Sincere admiration and envy;
3. Honesty and dishonesty;
4. Nobleness and meanness;
5. Kindness and malevolence;
6. Justice and injustice;
7. Courage and cowardice;
8. Fidelity and infidelity (betrayal);
9. Humility and pride;
10. Selflessness and selfishness [cf. Szoltysek 2015: 200–201].
They are either qualities or attitudes manifested in activities.
The formation of character begins with fidelity to the truth, which is
consistent with the Gospel. The warrior’s way should be simple, such
as sword fighting and as such should be a way of learning, where the
primary meaning is to discover the truth.
The names of the five technical forms of Zendo karate tai-te-tao
also emphasize, in their name, the universal and humanistic values
281
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
of this way of meditation/contemplation – Tao (the Way of Heaven),
God, and transcendence:
1. ikkyu kata jindo-te (Jap. ik – first; kyu – student, level student;
jindo – humanism, literally “the way of man”; te – hand, hands,
or “virtue”),
2. nikyu kata jin-te (ni – second; jin – man, in Confucianism the
principle of “Zen” also applies to humanity, kindness to another
human being; “man’s virtue”?),
3. shodan kata tai-te-tao (the first form of mastery “the way of
the hand of peace”; or “peace on the road of virtue”),
4. nidan kata tao-te (the second form; “the power of Tao” or “the
way and virtue”),
5. sandan kata tai-te-jutsu (third dan form, ”the technique of the
way of the hand of peace”, or ”the method of the way of ascetism”).
It is worth mentioning that the principles of softness, harmony
and water operating in ju jitsu, (adaptation) come from Taoism, but
they apply only to battle tactics In contrast, Lothar Sieber’s idea of
tai-te-jutsu, the “art of the hand of peace”, refers to Peter Jahnke’s idea
[cf. Sieber 2013; Slopecki 2015]. The art of taiji quan is also an art of
peace [Raimondo 2012].
Results II.
The way which is not in conflict with the teachings
of the Catholic Church
What kind of “way” is meant? Tao (in Chinese “The Road/the Way”) in
Chinese or Japanese translations of the Gospel means “the word” – “In
the beginning was the Tao” (Prologue of the Word in the Gospel of St.
282
A Christian and the martial arts path
John, 1). Perhaps the Way (Tao Dao; Kor. ‘do’ Jap. ‘dō’) of the ancient
Chinese sages and Japanese masters of Budo is not too far from the
Gospel’s Way of Truth? Shouldn’t we look for grains of Truth in the
spiritual heritage of different cultures (Vaticanum II)? There is the
Way of Virtue in Taoism (“The Book of the Way and Virtue” – Tao Te
Jing by master Lao Tzu); the Way of Heaven in Confucian social ethics (Confucian instructions to behave in accordance with the Way of
Heaven); there is also the Way of the Gods, or the Way of the Soul – in
the tradition of Shinto. In every case, this is a reference to Heaven/the
Heavens and divine power, but understood differently [cf. Olszewski
1995].
Inazo Nitobe encouraged the connection of Bushido (the way of
the noble warrior) with Christianity, because, in his opinion, there is
no contradiction between knightly virtue (butoku) and the duties that
arise from the Christian religion [Nitobe 1904, 1993; Cynarski 2001].
The ancient historic codes of honour of warriors already included
rules of conduct. In particular the ethos which rejected the principle
of revenge and suicide, in its humanised version, was a set of ethical
norms and universal values [cf. Nitobe 1993; Cynarski 2015].
Similarly (although much earlier), the understanding of struggle
in the Old Testament has changed into the Christian knightly custom
[Galkowski 2013]. The ethos-related and Christian foundations of
sport create its educational value [Dziubinski 2014: 41–49]. Martial
arts can be considered within the term of a widely-understood sports
and humanistic culture.
What is the meaning of fighting? This is above all a test of skills
and emotional self-control. In addition to a physical fight, there are
other areas of fighting, for example the spiritual fight [Sieber, Cynarski,
Litwiniuk 2007]. Overcoming one’s own weakness is the main point
283
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
of self-improvement on the set Pathway. And what is the point of mastery? Mastery is also understood as a whole. One needs to be a master
in the ways of humanity, which simply means being a good man, as
well as an expert (in knowledge and skills), teacher and educator.
In addition to these general principles derived from the knightly
traditions, the ideal of a valiant and noble man remain. A cowardly
person cannot be noble, because he/she is not capable of taking risks
on important issues. Risk, for the sake of novelty-seeking is stupidity
coming from selfishness. However, in special circumstances, a noble
man fights (a fair fight, in defence), whereas a coward runs away or
starts to cooperate with the enemy (betrayal and shame).
The European knightly tradition, and in particular the Polish her-
itage of martial arts [Zablocki 2000; Sawicki 2011, 2012; Cynarski
2014, 2015], is closely linked with the Christian, Roman Catholic religion. It is cultivated in historical fencing. Generally, sport is sometimes
used in youth organizations (Vide Salesian sport [Dziubinski 1998,
2014]). Some schools and martial arts organizations refer directly to
Christian principles, as does Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (School of the Gracie
Family), Pszczyńska School of Martial Arts, “Signum Polonicum”and
some American schools [cf. Williamson 2002; Kisiel 2005; Sawicki
2011, 2012].
Champions of boxing and kick-boxing, such as George Foreman,
Marek Piotrowski, Andrzej Golota and Tomasz Adamek, are zealously-Christian men [God’s cheering 2000: 67–70; Foreman, Abraham
2008]. This also applies to judo champions such as Beata Maksymow
(4 dan) [God’s cheering 2000: 146–147]. Also, a number of top-ranking
karate and jujutsu masters (10 dan and Hanshi title holders) consider
the Ten Commandments as a major moral signpost [Sieber 2013; Slopecki 2015]. In individual cases the situation certainly differs.
284
A Christian and the martial arts path
It is obvious that the master teachers of martial arts can be of different religions, for example Buddhist [cf. Nakiri 2014], which is quite
common in Japan, though they are a minority among the European
instructors and leaders of martial arts. However, among martial arts
and combat sports practitioners of Asian origin from south-eastern
Poland (Podkarpacie province) the Catholic faith is more prevalent
than in a control group. That is to say that this kind of religion is
indicated higher in the hierarchy of values, according to Rocheach’s
scale. It seems that practising martial arts (karate, taekwondo) does
not take young people away from the Christian faith, but it might be
said, quite the contrary [cf. Cynarski 2006; Bylina 2010].
At its core “the Way if the Warrior“ is not associated with any par-
ticular denomination, so it can be adopted by the followers of different
religions. Intrinsically, however, it contains significant potential resulting from the ethical codes of the honourable warriors of ancient cultures
[Kowalczyk 2010: 21–22, 94, 97; Kosiewicz 2010: 232–235]. Because
of the wealth of ethical, educational and utilitarian values contributed
by them, martial arts are now being practised all over the world by
people of different cultures and religions. Among others martial arts are
practised by the Swiss Guard who protects the Pope [Ponczek 2007].
An American priest, Dr Christian Harfouche, who holds 10 dan in
TAI karate, is also a 5 dan in taekwondo, 4 dan kenpo, 2 dan Kyokushin
karate and 1 dan jujutsu. He is known as a specialist in the technique
of strangulation (self-defence). His Polish counterpart may be also
priest, Dr Kacper Radzki, 8 dan in jujutsu. Clerics give an example that
the chivalrous way does not conflict with the Gospel.
Idokan Poland Association, the IPA (including the European No-
bility Club), established the idea of the Homo Creator Nobilis and
developed the philosophy of Ido. The “Noble and Creative Man” is to
285
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
be a warrior of the Truth, a knight for modern times and the person
who complies with the ethos of nobility in today’s commercialized
world [Cynarski, Litwiniuk, 2005; Cynarski 2013]. The IPA’s patron
saint is St. Michael the Archangel. On the other hand, the humanistic
theory of martial arts indicates the existence of an “Anti-Way”, which
is the opposite of the ideal Way.
Results III.
The anti-way
An anti-way is the cult of power and violence [Cynarski 2004, 2006].
Militarism, imperialism and totalitarianism are manifestations of the
anti-way. The cheating and fraudulent behaviour used in politics and
military strategy was never considered a sign of the noble way. The
tradition of spies and assassins (e.g. shinobi, ninja) is only seen in a
positive light in mass and popular culture. In social reality the ninja
clans have always lived on the margins of society. Terrorism and all
kinds of terror are examples of the anti-way.
Another example of the way violating natural laws is by turning
to magic and sorcery and attempts to return to pre-Christian cults:
the so-called neo-pagan movements [York 1995]. Occasionally it is
combined with the practice of martial arts. Ninjutsu (martial art of
ninja) from its beginnings was particularly linked with esotericism
[Morris 1998; Lung, Prowant 2001].
Magic is popular in post-modern society and is the most common, regardless of martial arts. Textbooks on white and black magic
[Niessen 2009: 122–123] are published; they do not however contain
references to the pathways of martial arts.
Taoist, Hindu or Buddhist meditation is a method of psychological
preparation for the warrior in some martial arts [Maliszewski 1992].
286
A Christian and the martial arts path
For the followers of these religions it is a form of prayer, whereas for
people of other denominations, e.g. for Christians meditation exercises
are a moment of silence during training, a variant of relaxing exercises
or for improving the ability to concentrate. No one is required to pray
to any specific deities, and bows at the ceremonial beginning or end
of a training session are an expression of respect for the school and
for generations of former teachers.
Discussion
Kendo and kyudo in particular are combined with the practice of Zen
[Jordan 1997: 219]. However, Japanese religions constitute a multiform
conglomerate of sects including Shinto, Buddhism and others [Jordan
1997: 186–205, 210–219]. These various religions provided the basis for
the creation of certain forms of martial arts in their original versions.
Taoism, Buddhism or Confucianism provided the warriors of eastern
Asia with a set of principles of normative ethics [Simpkins C., Simpkins A. 2007; Baka 2008; Bolelli 2008; Shahar 2008]. Today, however,
martial arts are taught on a global scale without any religious ties [cf.
Cynarski 2006].
The idea of looking for threats to Christian spirituality in martial
arts [cf. Zwolinski 1995] was dismissed quite a long time ago [Cynarski
1998a, b, 1999; Cynarski, Litwiniuk 2005]. Untrue opinions which
were damaging to the environment of martial arts probably resulted
from a lack of full understanding of them.
On the other hand, the possibility of combining martial arts philosophy with Christian theology is still being sought [cf. Nitobe 1993;
Castro de, Oropeza, Rhodes 1994; Olszewski 1995; Cynarski 2001;
Williamson 2002]. It is sometimes sufficient to adapt to the local
(e.g. Japanese) conceptual language and symbolism [Sobon 1995].
287
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Generally, however, similarities are limited to normative ethics and
anthropology.
Perfection in the control of the body and the richness of movement in fighting techniques translate into a specific axiology of martial arts [Szymanska, Trzcinski 1994]. General ethical and utilitarian
values are here complemented by a deeper sense of long-term training. This can be explained by the concepts of humanistic psychology
(self-creation, self-realization) or as a contemporary manifestation
of an ascetic pattern of physical culture [Obodynski, Cynarski 2003]
which means that practising martial arts is the Way to moral and
spiritual improvement.
Conclusions
Can one talk about the universal principles and values of the Warrior’s
Way? Yes, they are generally universal, as long as it is a moral way
and the main objective is seen in the improvement of character and
the pursuit of mastery in the art of humanity. The deeper meaning
of Taoism, or the science of the Way (and virtue) is akin to the Truth
revealed in the Gospel, especially in the field of ethics. What of the
relationship between “the Way of the Warrior” and Christianity? This
way is not in conflict with the teachings of the Catholic Church and
related churches, except for a few cases of the “anti-way”.
What is the point of fighting, of developing a sense of self-im-
provement and of attaining mastery? It is an ascetic practice to achieve
multidirectional development and a striving for mastery in the art
of living to become a better person. However, for supporters of the
Anti-Way it means only learning or teaching specific fighting skills, or
the fight itself and of demonstrating one’s superiority.
288
A Christian and the martial arts path
And what does it mean to be a noble man, especially today? A
noble man should follow the moral path of truth and other positive
universal values, which do not contradict the Ten Commandments and
the Gospel (the ethos of chivalry and Christian values).
Sources
Kisiel Wieslaw (2005), instructor of Pszczynska Szkola Kung-fu, discussion,
Strzyzow, July 2005.
Nakiri Fuminori (2014), 7 dan kendo, direct interviews and discussion,
2014–2017.
Raimondo Sergio (2012), 5 toan wushu kung-fu, instructor of taiji quan,
discussion, Rome, June 2012.
Sieber Lothar (2013), 10 dan jujutsu and karate, meijin, direct interview
and discussion, Neuffen, Feb. 2013.
Slopecki Jan (2015), 10 dan jujutsu, hanshi, direct interview and discussion,
Warsaw, May 2015.
References
Baka E. (2008), Dao of Hero. The idea of self-realization in internal Chinese
martial arts, Nomos, Cracow [in Polish].
Bolelli D. (2008), On the Warrior’s Path. Philosophy, Fighting, and Martial
Arts Mythology, 2nd edn., Blue Snake Books, Berkeley, CA.
God’s cheering. Sports stars speak, Rafael, Cracow 2000 [in Polish].
Bylina S. (2010), Attitudes of religious young people practising taekwon-do
ITF in the light of the social doctrine of the Catholic Church [in:] Z. Dziubinski [ed.], Sport and globalization, SALOS RP, Warsaw [in Polish].
Castro E. de, Oropeza B.J., Rhodes R. (1994), Enter the Dragon? Wrestling
with the Martial Arts Phenomenon: Part Two: A Christian Assessment,
“Christian Research Journal”, Winter, p. 24.
Cynarski W.J. (1998a), In the direction of the budo philosophy, “Przeglad Naukowy Instytutu Wychowania Fizycznego i Zdrowotnego WSP w Rzeszowie”, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 43–47. ISSN 1427-7328
289
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J. (1998b), Budo in the dialectical and evolutionary process,
“Przeglad Naukowy Instytutu Wychowania Fizycznego i Zdrowotnego
WSP w Rzeszowie”, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 27–30.
Cynarski W.J. (1999), Faith, Ethics and the martial arts of the Far East in (the)
contemporary relations [in:] Z. Dziubinski [ed.], Faith and sport, SALOS
RP, Warsaw, pp. 207–226.
Cynarski W.J. (2001), Problems of the theology of martial arts, ”Ido – Ruch
dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 2, pp. 105–120.
Cynarski W.J. (2004), The theory and practice of martial arts from a European
perspective, Rzeszów University Press, Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2006), Reception and internalization of the ethos of martial
arts by sports practitioners, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow [in
Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2013), General reflections about the philosophy of martial arts,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
13, no. 3, pp. 1–6; doi: 10.14589/ido.13.3.1.
Cynarski W.J. (2012), The Stoic philosophy of ancient Greece and Asian martial arts [in:] W.J. Cynarski, Martial Arts Phenomenon – Research and
Multidisciplinary Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow,
pp. 76–94.
Cynarski W.J. (2014), Moral values, people of the noble way of martial arts,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
14, no. 1, pp. 1–10; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.1.1.
Cynarski W.J. (2015), Anthropology according to Tolkien’s mythology, “Ido
Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15,
no. 2, pp. 17–26; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.2.3.
Cynarski W.J. (2016), A Christian and the martial arts path, “Ido Movement
for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 16, no. 2, pp.
1–7; doi: 10.14589/ido.16.2.1.
Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2005), The Way of the “Warrior of Truth” and
personalism, “Studia Humanistyczne”, vol. 5, pp. 87–98 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Skowron J. (2014), An analysis of the conceptual language
used for the general theory of martial arts – Japanese, Polish and English
290
A Christian and the martial arts path
terminology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 49–66; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.7.
Dziubinski Z. (1998) [ed.], Salesians and sport, SALOS RP, Warsaw [in
Polish].
Dziubinski Z. (2014), Sport from a Salesian perspective, AWF & SALOS RP,
Warsaw [in Polish].
Feng Youlan (2001), A brief history of Chinese philosophy, PWN, Cracow.
Foreman G., Abraham K. (2008), With God in the ring. Looking back lines of
the boxing world champion, Gertl Medien, Munich [in German].
Galkowski J. (2013), A brave warrior ploughed out from a field, “Egzorcysta”,
no. 8, pp. 56–58 [in Polish].
Hetherington S.C. (1996), Knowledge Puzzles. An introduction to epistemology, Westiew Press, Boulder (Co) – Oxford.
Jahnke P.K. (1992), Zen-Do-Karate “Tai-Te-Tao”, Nationale Stadtsbibliothek,
Munich [in German].
Jordan M. (1997), Eastern Wisdom, Carlton Books Ltd.
King Richard (1999), Orientalism and Religion. Postcolonial Theory, India
and ‘The Mystic East’, Routledge, London.
Kosiewicz J. (2010), Sport and Philosophy: from Methodology to Ethics, BK,
Warsaw.
Kowalczyk S. (2002), Outline of the philosophy of man, Wydawnictwo Diecezjalne, Sandomierz [in Polish].
Kowalczyk S. (2009), The human body in philosophical reflection, KUL, Lublin [in Polish].
Kowalczyk S. (2010), Elements of the philosophy and theology of sport, KUL,
Lublin [in Polish].
Kozminski W.A. (2006), Tai Chi, religion and Christianity, [in Polish]; http://
www.dao.pl/publikacje/inne-artykuly/tai-chi-a-religia-i-chrzescijanstwo/ [access: Sep. 6, 2015].
Krippendorf K. (2004), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology,
Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Lakatos I. (1995), Writings from the philosophy of empirical sciences, PWN,
Warsaw [in Polish].
291
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Lao Tzu (2001), The Way /Tao te king/, (trans. M. Fostowicz-Zahorski), “Arhat”, Wroclaw [in Polish].
Lung H., Prowant C.B. (2001), Black Science: Ancient and Modern Techniques
of Ninja Mind Manipulation, Paladin Press, Boulder, Co.
Maliszewski M. (1992), Meditative-religious traditions of fighting art & martial ways, ”Journal of Asian Martial Arts”, vol. 1, no. 3, pp. 1–104.
Martínková I., Parry J. (2015), Martial Categories: Clarification and Classification, ”Journal of the Philosophy of Sport”; doi: 10.1080/00948705.
2015.1038829
Morris G. (1998), Martial arts madness: light and dark in the esoteric martial
arts, Frog, Ltd., North Atlantic Books, Berkeley, CA.
Nakiri F. (2015), The Concept of budo and the history and activities of the
Japanese Academy of Budo, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 11–25; doi: 10.14589/ido.
15.1.2
Niessen R. (2009), Bios Logos. Teaching of life. Cultbook of parapsychology,
Novum Pro, Leipzig [in German].
Nitobe I. (1993), Bushido: The Soul of Japan, Keiko Publishers, Warsaw
[1st Polish edn. – Lwów 1904].
Obodynski K., Cynarski W.J. (2003), The ascetic pattern of (the) body culture
in the Japanese ways of non-aggression [in:] J. Kosiewicz, K. Obodynski
[eds.], Sport in the Mirror of the Values, PTNKF, Rzeszow, pp. 131–141.
Olszewski D. (1995), The philosophy of karate in a meeting with Christianity
(vol. I–II), autoedition, Lublin.
Ponczek M. (2007), Sports and Martial Arts and the Roman – Catholic Church:
A historical perspective, ”International Journal of Eastern Sports and
Physical Education”, vol. V, pp. 76–85.
Piwowarczyk D. (2007), Famous knights of Europe. Knights of Christ, Iskry,
Warsaw [in Polish].
Sawicki Z. (2011), Polish Martial Art – Signum Polonicum: Historical background, profile and the main plots of the system, ”Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 38–46.
292
A Christian and the martial arts path
Sawicki Z. (2012), Fencing treatise on the art of sabre fighting of Polish hussars. Part 2, In Defence of the Gospel, Signum Polonicum, Zawiercie [in
Polish].
Shahar M. (2008), The Shaolin Monastery. History, Religion, and the Chinese
Martial Arts, University of Hawai’i Press, Honolulu.
Sieber L., Cynarski W.J., Litwiniuk A. (2007), Spheres of fight in martial arts,
”Archives of Budo”, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 42–48.
Simpkins C., Simpkins A. (2007), Confucianism and the Asian Martial Traditions, “Revista de Artes Marciales Asiaticas”, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 46–53.
Sobon T. (1995), Roadside stone. Robō-no Ishi, Wyd. Salezjanskie, Warsaw
[in Polish].
Szoltysek A.E. (2015), The philosophy of man. Biological and cultural development, Impuls, Cracow [in Polish].
Szmyd J. (2013), The flow of higher values in a globalised world. Notes based
on the example of the homocreative art, “Ido Movement for Culture.
Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 7–14; doi: 10.
14589/ido.13.3.2
Szymanska B., Trzcinski L. (1994), Movement and rest. The efficiency of the
body as the ethical problem of Eastern philosophy [in:] J. Lipiec [ed.], Logos and ethos of Polish Olympism, WN, Cracow, pp. 119–128 [in Polish].
Takagi T. (1984), A Comparaison of Bushido and Chivalry, T. Matsuno, Osaka.
Williamson W. (2002), Martial arts: the Christian way, Agapy Pub., Kalamazoo, MI.
Van der Meer J.M. (2001), Interpreting nature and scripture: a new proposal
for their interaction [in:] R. Brungs, SJ [ed.], Christianity and the Human
Body. A Theology of the Human Body, ITEST, St. Louis, Missouri, pp.
38–72.
York M. (1995), The emerging network: a sociology of the New Age and neo-pagan movements, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Inc., Lancham/
Maryland-London.
Yu J.H., Cynarski W.J., Konukman F., Hazar F. (2015), Taegeuk Series Poomsae [in:] W.J. Cynarski, A. Niziol [eds.], Proceedings of the 3rd IMACSSS
293
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
International Conference, and 3rd World Scientific Congress of Combat
Sports and Martial Arts, Rzeszów, Poland, Oct. 15–17 2014, The Lykeion
Library, vol. 20, IMACSSS and Rzeszow University, Rzeszow, pp. 33–44.
http://wf.ur.edu.pl/Dzialalnosc-naukowa/Konferencje-cykliczne/Combat-Sports/2014csma/Proceedings-IMACSSS-2014.aspx
Zablocki W. (2000), Polish martial arts. Two handed sword and sabre hussars,
”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 1, pp. 114–115
[in Polish].
Zwolinski A. (1995), Martial arts – the way of warriors’ meditation, Gotow,
Cracow (series: Pytania nieobojętne 10) [in Polish].
CHAPTER 12
Rugby – a team sport
with elements of close combat
KEY WORDS
team sport, sport culture, rugby, combat, play
ABSTRACT
PROBLEM AND AIM. The problem is indicated by the title. The aim
is to obtain knowledge useful both for the theory of team games, as
well as for the theory and practice of combat sports, with reference
particularly to humanistic theory of martial arts and theory of sport.
METHOD. Not only the classic analytical method was used, source material and literature were taken into consideration, however also the
knowledge from direct experience and participant observation of the
double national champion in rugby, as well as on the knowledge of the
author about combat sports (a longitudinal participant observation),
and from interviews.
RESULTS. The author claims that rugby is a team sport with elements
of close combat. It is also a sport very useful in the process of training
for martial arts and combat sports. The consecutive stages of this sport
295
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
development have been briefly presented in the historical perspective
with special attention paid to Poland.
CONCLUSIONS. The analysis indicates rugby cultural specificity and
usefulness of the sport in holistic education of contemporary warriors
(athletes and martial artists).
Introduction
Rugby is classified as ‘military sport’ next target shooting, biathlon, modern pentathlon and combat sports (boxing, fencing, judo,
kick-boxing, karate, wrestling etc.). The idea, that rugby can be considered as “team combat sport”, appeared 12 years ago [Obodyński,
Cynarski 2006]19. May be it is rather a “team sport with elements of
combat”. In any case, surely it is worth analyzing the similarities and
differences that exist between rugby and typical combat sports, especially those of Asian provenance (jujutsu, judo). Incidentally, apart
from military sports, also known as defensive and combat sports it is
worth mentioning yet complementary to those sports. For example,
ringo is a skill game especially useful in fencing [Cynarski 2002–2003],
and simplified sumo, and streamlined rugby have long been quite
widely used in many sections of jujutsu and judo.
The chapter takes as defined in title of the study an issue interesting to both the theory of team games, as well as for the theory and
practice of combat sports, with reference particularly to the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts and sports theory and the theory of combat
sports. For this purpose, not only the classical method of analysis
taking into account the source materials and development, but also
based on knowledge derived from direct experience and participant
19
The author would like to thank the late lamented Professor Obodyński for information
and photos. This work is the work of the follow article published before 12 years.
296
Rugby – a team sport with elements of close combat
observation of K. Obodyński (according to the interview and discus-
sions with him). The same biographical factor (playing in the team of
the Polish champion, job coaching) helps replenish literature on the
subject of significant facts and affects more knowledgeable judgment.
This also applies to more “typical” Japanese combat sports (jujutsu,
karate, judo), being the domain of the author.
The findings of conceptual definition
and the ”team combat sport” category
In the light of the Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts, ‘martial art’ is the
form of practice whose meaning is especially moral and spiritual improvement of exercisers. Undoubtedly, rugby is not a form of asceticism
focused on the needs of higher education. But is it a ‘sport of struggle’?
Because it contains in itself a convention of fight (multi-stakeholder)
and is a rivalry with specific sports rules and also includes techniques
and methods of teaching and leading this fight, so (although not derived
from martial arts) to deserve this classification [cf. Cynarski 2004].
However, in the perspective of the theory of combat sports, where
rule on the question “what is a combat sport?” is explained as a duel
and the “essence of competition is to directly challenge the two com-
peting athletes” [Kalina 2000: 18], rugby does not fit in the collection
designates the concept ‘combat sport’. Alternatively, the sport would
struggle if we abstract isolated the individual clashes players sharing
a “battleground” for a series of two-symptoms clashes [Obodyński,
Cynarski 2006].
From the perspective of ‘the theory of sport fight’, combat sport also
occurs among team sports players, teams, as is the case in team games.
The rugby players cooperate negatively, making it difficult for opponents
task through direct, active fight [Obodyński, Cynarski 2006].
297
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Clearly the category of “team combat sport” can be assigned to
groups the students to medieval combat – medieval knights tournaments [Mynarski, Krolikowska, Graczkowska 2010; Cynarski, Chała
2015]. In this new sports discipline are, among others, battle group: “5
vs. 5”,”16 vs. 16”, “21 vs. 21” [Cynarski, Chała 2015]. The whole point
of contention here is the direct fight.
However, in rugby game is about victory, achieved by earning points
with the ball. Elements of fighting are a secondary element here. We
must therefore also well run, throw a ball, kick the ball. From the above
discussion that for rugby the term ‘team sport with elements of combat’, particularly “close combat”, is the most appropriate.
Briefly about history
Primitive rugby was probably an ancient Celtic ritual. Likely, ritual
is the origin of boxing, wrestling and pankration (components of the
ancient Olympic devoted to the Greek gods) and such. Japanese sumo
(ritual combat resulting from traditional Shinto religion). In turn, direct the military is the origin of fencing, javelin, archery and Asian
martial arts.
Rugby, actually rugby-football is, of course, a team game. Is the
heir of historical games harpastum, soule, etc. The name comes from
Rugby, provincial, a small working-class town near Birmingham in
England. There just at the primary school of the seventeenth century
cultivated ball games. In 1828 this school was the director of physical
education reformer Thomas Arnold. Rules of the game have changed.
By today’s rules of rugby are played from 1841 [Obodyński, Cynarski
2006; rugby.info.pl].
26 January 1871 was appointed the Football-Rugby Union that
had to guard the rules of the game. In the same year, it took the match
298
Rugby – a team sport with elements of close combat
between England and Scotland in Edinburgh. In 1875, the university teams reduced the number of contestants to 15, and the name of
Association was changed into the Rugby Union [Radzikowski 2005].
The first rugby club outside the UK was created in France in 1881.
In years 1886–1890 the International Rugby Football Board (IRFB)
were founded. Since 1987, the World Cup is played. 1992 in Bristol
held the 1st World Congress IRFB. In 1995, this organization has comprised 67 members. Rugby existed as an Olympic discipline at the
second Olympic Games in Paris (1900), was in programme of fourth
(London 1908), seventh (Antwerp 1920) and eighth (Paris 1924)
Olympic Games. March 24, 1934 in Hannover set up the Federation
Internationale de Rugby Amateur (FIRA), based in Paris. FIRA brings
together 54 member states. Since 1971 has been played the Nations
Cup FIRA. November 5, 1994 FIRA joined the IRFB [cf. Woodward
2004; Collins 2015].
Rugby people were sometimes people (athletes, instructors) of
martial arts and combat sports (MA&CS), as Kazimierz Laskowski
(1899–1961, Polish fencer, boxer and jujutsuka), Kazimierz Obodyński
(judoka, jujutsuka), Hitoshi Ebishima (Japanese judoka) and some
others. These individual biographies suggest indirectly that people
keen rivalry in direct contact could be interested in this respect related
varieties of sports.
Rugby in Poland
Dieter Kuhn and Marcus Rosenstein [1995] do not take into account
Poland in their descriptions of the history of European rugby. Meanwhile, the discipline has grown in Poland since 1921, when Louis
Amblard founded in Warsaw sports club “White Eagle” sections of
299
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
boxing, athletics and rugby. Since 1929 there has been a regression
of rugby in Poland. This discipline has returned to the field in the
Polish People’s Republic by the chairperson of Włodzimierz Reczek
and the Central Committee of Physical Culture in December 14, 1955.
Already in 1955 was made famous for its success in rugby, the club
AZS AWF20 in Warsaw. One year later held a national gathering of
Rugby Supporters [Bondarowicz, Grochowski 1976]. Since 1960.
the Polish national team competes against teams of eastern countries and internationally (Nations Cup FIRA). Since 1971 players
receive sports classes (I and II) and six coaches have the first class of
coaching. Teams compete in I and II league. In May 1973 years – to
celebrate the 50th anniversary of rugby in our country – Poland was
the organiser of the FIRA Congress [Radzikowski 1973; Obodyński,
Cynarski 2006].
In 1958 was published the first book on rugby technique and
tactics in Polish [Zeda 1958]. 22 theses on rugby were defended at
the University of Physical Education in Warsaw only in the years
1958–1974 [Bondarowicz, Grochowski 1976: 32–33; cf. Obodyński
1964]. More books about rugby in Poland, however, it was not much.
Financial expenditure and support the party authorities (the ruling
United Workers’ Party) were small. The policy to promote Olympic
sports, aimed at competing with the countries of the Western bloc,
and ideological considerations led to abandonment of development
in Poland (in a bygone era), rugby – sports associated with hostile
capitalist system.
Poland is since 1957 member of FIRA, and since 1991 – member
of the IRFB. However, this is a discipline not too popular in Poland.
20
AZS AWF – Academic Sports Union of the University of Physical Education.
300
Rugby – a team sport with elements of close combat
Compared with 10,660 practicing karate and 8,892 judo athletes the
rugby train a small number of athletes – only about a thousand players21 [cf. Obodyński, Cynarski 2006].
Preparation for sportsmanship
Just as in combat sports, rugby looks in the preparation of strength,
endurance, speed, stretching; testing and monitoring [Pook 2012]. But
of course martial arts and combat sports (MA&CS) have yet its specificity [Cynarski, Obodyński 2005]. More similarities found in terms
of training and games between rugby and American football [Adler
2003]. Some components of the training will be common to a vari-
ety of team sports [Naglak 2001; Adler 2003; Panfil 2004; Sozański
2004]. But in rugby (and in American football) are used technical and
tactical grips and fighting in close combat, typical for combat sports
(jujutsu, wrestling).
The necessity of multilateral prepare your fitness and likeness
occurring injuries cause the rugby environment and MA&CS tend to
be examined combined [cf. Cynarski et al. 2009; Pook 2012; Cynarski
et al. 2013; Ebishima 2015; Light et al. 2015].
The dimensions of the cultural, archetypal and symbolic
History of rugby has in every country its specifics. It developed dif-
ferently in free countries [cf. Kuhn, Rosenstein 1995; Collins 2015],
otherwise in the communist block [Obodyński, Cynarski 2006; Ku-
nysz-Rozborska, Piech, Godek 2015]; yet another was its specificity
in colonial and postcolonial countries. Then the cultural dimensions
21
1021 – according the Rocznik Statystyczny GUS, 1999. More on rugby in Poland: [Kunysz-Rozborska, Piech, Godek 2015].
301
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
(physical culture and sports, culture, combat sports) came with dimension of emancipation by practicing rugby [Combeau-Mari 2011;
cf. Cynarski, Sieber, Szajna 2014].
A rugby game (or American football) is like the archetypal struggle tribes. This symbolic dimension is reinforced by real direct confrontation players fighting for the ball [Cynarski 2009]. In addition,
certain gestures serve the extracted directly from the cultural traditions of ancient warriors. Here are dancing in front of the New
Zealand team matches Maori war dance. “Maori rugby is a form of expression of their traditional ‘philosophy’ and the factor of self-identification, a sense of cultural and national identity.” [Cynarski, Rut
2014; cf. Pawlik 2009].
We can talk about the specific culture of the sport in the area of
sports culture. This thesis would confirm that the operation of the
‘rugby tourism’. This applies to countries such as notably the United
Kingdom and New Zealand. Similarly, as in the “cult” of football (soccer) in the Netherlands or Portugal, this tourism has their “sacred
spaces” [cf. Cynarski 2013; Cynarski, Ďuriček 2014]. There are also
organized trips for important matches.
Rules of the game and fight
Under the provisions of sportsmanship (Polish Rugby Union, 1970)
that the game comes into direct clashes two- or multi-stakeholder.
The battle for the ball in rugby has characteristics melee – there are
similar techniques (tricks, evasions). Keeping the ball, dribbling –
match evasion (kawashi-waza) and techniques undercuts (kari-waza)
from jujutsu. So called raid correspond to the projection technique
morote-gari, mills and ‘mauls’ resemble elements of wrestling. “The
game of rugby, cultivated by Europeans, conceals a certain danger
302
Rugby – a team sport with elements of close combat
(like many other sports) that may occur due to direct short of players
during the game (charge, mills, mauls, etc.) carried out at a very fast
pace. Rugby is characterized by high dynamics and elements of direct
fighting sports, unprecedented in the other team” [Bondarowicz, Gro-
chowski 1976: 4; cf. Wheeler, Sayers 2009]. Of course, the question
remains do not cross the border of fair or foul gaming.
English Rugby Union leaders have long guarded their discipline
before commercialization and professionalization believing that this
can cause a dangerous distortion of the face of the contact sports,
for example brutalization caused by the profit motive (see hockey in
the NHL). In 1893 there was a schism and established professional
Rugby League, which introduced the game by 13 players in the team.
Meanwhile, remaining at the university tradition to some extent elite
amateur sport Rugby Union says that “football is a game of gentlemen grown by hooligans, while rugby is a hooligans’ game grown
by gentlemen”, which confirms the PZ Rugby (Polish Rugby Union)
chairman of long standing Leon Radzikowski [2005]. It was believed
that only educated people with a higher level of personal culture
can understand the meaning of this game [Obodyński, Cynarski
2006].
A related discipline in the technical sense is the American football
(the players are pretty much protected by helmets and other protectors that does not exist in rugby). In another sense – considering the
“physical contact” team fight – even ice hockey and soccer [Reguli,
Havlik, Vit 2011]. In these disciplines judges should know at least the
basics of karate (kicking by foot, knee, elbow strike), jujutsu (hooking,
undercuts, holds the shirt) and the like martial arts, to make it easier
to capture visually and recognize a variety of fouls [cf. Cerasaro 2007;
Reguli, Havlik, Vit 2011].
303
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Discussion
Kuhn and Rosenstein [1995] write on rugby, as the fight on the street
and in an embrace. Undoubtedly emphasis on the aspect of the fight
and the utilitarian dimension of this sport is associated here with the
publishing house of Dr Weinmann, judoka from Berlin and publisher
of books about martial arts and combat sports. However, observations
by the German authors confirm personal observation.
Rugby proves to be very effective, full-contact, “team” sport of
fighting. The ball is there a prop. According to Majcher, rugby players
(observation concerned the Polish players) were best in comparison
with other athletes. They “checking out” in bars fights, street, etc.,
where with judokas they were addressing each other with respect.
Rugby players did not restrict a code of honour. The only valid prin-
ciple in the fight was the solidarity group [Majcher 2002; Obodyński,
Cynarski 2006].
Żukowska [2004: 31] distinguished the following psychological
factors effectiveness of sportsmanship in team games:
– “powers of observation and ability to analyze, compare, selection, classification, synthesis and inference,
– own attitude towards the enemy – a sense of confidence,
– resistance to stress and coping with it,
– ability to make quick decisions and find themselves in a situation,
– liberation stress the positive – ‘anger’ of athletes, self-denial,
aggression runway,
– sense of responsibility for the result – activating and inhibitory
(it cannot paralyze)”.
304
Rugby – a team sport with elements of close combat
Of course, this also applies to combat sports, where players duel is
played between two fighting. Here, however, the fight is a multi-stake-
holder and more like a battle than move. In traditional martial arts are
practiced technical forms (Jap. kata), in which, however, in interpreting warrior gets himself against one or more attackers [Obodyński,
Cynarski 2006].
Practicing of combat in rugby more resembles a form of free spar-
ring than kata. Fighting team can both count on help from a colleague,
as it requires the responsibility for each member of the team and
giving in need of assistance. There is no chivalrous principle of “one
on one”. Approaching this rugby to the convention the real situation of
self-defence, while far different from the sports convention two-stakeholder martial arts duel. Noteworthy present here the military lan-
guage of combat. This language is already present in many areas of
sport, especially team games. The strategy, attack, offensive, striker,
joints, back, push against, aggressive defence, fight and strike the word
disseminated in the media culture of sports. In rugby, however, take
the proper expression of a virtue, it is a contact sport where the oppo-
nent’s body is not inviolable. You can push, roll over the running and
use some tricks wrestling [Cerasaro 2007]. The so-called mill requires
considerable fortitude of body and spirit. So this is a typical male sport.
The effectiveness of the game is conditioned by having some kind of
melee skills [Wheeler, Sayers 2009; Hendricks et al. 2014].
Cited earlier opinions Bondarowicz and Grochowski [1976], Kuhn
and Rosenstein [1995] confirms Frederick Claro [2005], who defines:
“Rugby is a contact, combat, collective game”. Just what fundamen-
tally distinguishes the rugby on individual combat sports, it is tactics
of team play [cf. Greenwood 2004; Guthrie, Growolen, Brown 2004].
Jim Greenwood [2004] indicates especially on the necessity to think
305
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
tactically and purposefulness of actions which brings to the game of
rugby on the battlefield (strategy games, board games, compounds
with the art of war) [cf. Wasik, Cynarski 2005]. At the same time are
practiced tactical and technical skills; individual and team [Zeda 1958;
Kuhn, Rosenstein 1995; Powala-Niedzwiecki, Wiejski, Żórawski 1996;
Obodyński, Cynarski 2006].
Levent Cavas from the University of Dokuz Eylül (Turkey) indicates
that a particularly interesting sport is “underwater rugby”. In this lit-
tle-known “three-dimensional” discipline results confirm a significant
impact on the practice of the body such cardiovascular parameters
[Cavas 2005]. And, of course, rugby played on the pitch are a great
way to develop the ability of coordination, agility, fast decisions and
reactions, speed, stamina, courage and team tactical skills. So rugby
is often used as complementary sports training process, e.g. in judo
and sport jujutsu.
Separate issues are issues of competitive training (load, physical
fitness, regeneration capacity [Powała-Niedźwiecki, Kuszewski 1996;
Light et al. 2015], supplementation [Coyle et al. 2005]); the risk of
injury, traumatism in rugby, including psychological trauma and the
threat of growing aggressiveness of the players in the “out of bounds”
[Block 1999; Cynarski 2002; Cynarski, Obodyński 2004a, b; Morgulec,
Otrębski, Kosmol 2004; Obodyński, Cynarski 2006].
This game kneading develops the character traits or abilities use-
ful for combat sport athlete, soldier or any man who wants to operate
smoothly in difficult situations at the same time demanding a quick decision and action. So it might be worth more to spread, training instructors and assuming new sections. The more that – as suspected Jerzy
Tkaczyk [2004] – rugby have a chance to get back among the Olympic
disciplines. Probably, especially as national sport of the New Zealand.
306
Rugby – a team sport with elements of close combat
Conclusions
The analysis of rules of sporting competition as well as the statements made by specialists leads to interesting conclusions. It can be
stated that rugby is a team, contact sport with elements of close
combat. It is also a defensive sport and at the same time a great complementary (useful in the process of training) sport for martial arts
and combat sports.
The analysis indicates cultural specificity of rugby. It develops
motor abilities, forms the qualities of the character indispensable in
case of a man who operates in difficult situations – especially in those
of direct confrontation – individually or as part of a team. It teaches
courage, team solidarity, quick response and decisive actions. Thus it
is worth using rugby in holistic education of contemporary warriors
(athletes and martial artists).
Sources
Claro F. (2005), Rugby Union Coach Frederick Claro Comments on the Game,
History, Development, ... www.frederickclaro.com/rugbycomments.htm
Cynarski W.J. (2013), Piąta konferencja ISSSS w Porto, ”Gazeta Uniwersytecka UR”, Sep.–Oct., p. 61 [in Polish].
Ebishima Hitoshi (2015), rugby player and judoka – direct interview, Dublin.
Majcher Piotr (2002), 4 dan judo coach – direct interview, Rzeszów and
Płock.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, www.mfat.govt.nz (accessed: May
2014).
Obodyński K. (1964), Zasady gry i podstawy techniki i taktyki rugby dla młodzieży do lat 16, master thesis, Library of AWF, Warszawa [in Polish].
Obodyński Kazimierz (2014), rugby champion and coach – direct interview,
Rzeszów.
307
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Polski Związek Rugby (1970), Przepisy gry w rugby, Polski Związek Rugby,
Warszawa.
Powała-Niedźwiecki M., Kuszewski J. (1996), Analiza wyników badań wydolnościowych przeprowadzonych na kadrze juniorów w rugby w lutym
1996, (results of PZR research, manuscript) Warszawa.
Radzikowski L. (2005), Amatorzy i zawodowcy, www.rugby.info.pl/history.
php?page = 6.
www.rugby.info.pl/history.php?page = 1–6. (accessed: May 2014).
References
Adler B. (2003), Coaching matters, Brassey’s, Washington.
Block B.L. (1999), Osobowościowe uwarunkowania nasilenia problemów psychospołecznych u osób z uszkodzeniem rdzenia kręgowego, Towarzystwo Naukowe KUL, Lublin [in Polish].
Bondarowicz M., Grochowski J. (1976), Rugby. Rys historyczny, podstawy
techniki i taktyki oraz przepisy gry, AWF, Warszawa [in Polish].
Cavas L. (2005), Underwater Rugby: An Interesting 3-Dimensional Sport, Conference CISM, Istambul, November 24–29.
Combeau-Mari E. (2011), Rugby on the High Plateaus: A Physical Culture of
Combat and Emancipation, ”The International Journal of the History
of Sport”, vol. 28, no. 12 (Special Issue: Colonial Sport in Madagaskar,
1896–1960), pp. 1703–1715; doi: 10.1080/09523367.2011.592765.
Cerasaro R. (2007), Wrestling for rugby, “CONI Scula dello sport. Revista
di cultura sportive. Publizione trimestale tecnico scientific”, vol. 26,
no. 7, p. 65.
Collins T. (2015), The Oval World. A Global History of Rugby, Bloomsbury
Sport.
Coyle C., Donne B., Hennessy L., Mahony N. (2005), Short-term effects of
carbohydrate versus carbohydrate protein ingestion on subsequent resistance training performance in male rugby players [in:] N. Dikic et al.
[eds.], Book of Abstacts. European College of Sport Science 10th Annual
Congress, July 13–16, 2005, Belgrade, Serbia, p. 220.
308
Rugby – a team sport with elements of close combat
Cynarski W.J. (2002), Problem agresji w sporcie na przykładzie wybranych
gier zespołowych i sportów walki, ”Studia Humanistyczne”, AWF Kraków, no. 2, pp. 99–114.
Cynarski W.J. (2002–2003), Mistrz ringo i sportów obronnych, ”Ido – Ruch
dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 3, pp. 265–268 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2004), Theory and Practice of Far-Eastern Martial Arts in
European Perspective, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2009), Zespołowe gry sportowe jako widowisko i rytuał: baseball, football i basketball w USA [in:] W.J. Cynarski, S. Cieszkowski [eds.],
Raporty i szkice o kulturze fizycznej i zdrowotnej w perspektywie humanistycznej, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów, pp. 57–64 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Chała J. (2015), Castles and tournaments: Tourism of military
culture enthusiasts in Europe, “Turystyka Kulturowa”, vol. 6, no. 6, pp.
21–35 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Ďuriček M. (2014), Scientific tourism. Self-realisation, dialogue-cultural and sacral dimensions, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 39–45; doi: 10.14
589/ido.14.4.5.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2004a), The Influence of Practicing Various
Combat Sports on Incriease of Aggression or Self-Control [in:] W.J. Cynarski, J. Kosiewicz, Obodyński K. [eds.], Sport Involvement in a Changing
Europe. Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of the EASS, Rzeszów, pp.
22–24.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2004b), The influence of practicing various
combat sports on increase of aggression or self-control [in:] J. Kosiewicz,
K. Obodyński [eds.], Sports involvement in changing Europe, PTNKF,
Rzeszów, pp. 171–181.
Cynarski W.J., Obodyński K. (2005), Training methods in modern varieties
of martial arts (on the example of idōkan yōshin-ryū jūjutsu and zendō
karate tai-te-tao), “Nauka i Oswita ‘2005”, vol. 65, Fiziczna kultura
i sport: problemi, doslidżennia, propozycii, Dnipropetrovsk, pp. 3–8.
ISBN 966-7191-99-0
309
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J., Rut P. (2014), The symbolic dimensions of a scientific journey:
The road to the Antipodes, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 2 pp. 52–58; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.2.8.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Obodyński K., Ďuriček M., Król P., Rzepko M. (2009),
Factors of Development of Far Eastern Martial Arts in Central Europe,
“Journal of Human Kinetics”, vol. 22, pp. 69–76
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Ďuriček M., Rzepko M., Król P. (2013), Barriers to
the development of Far Eastern martial arts in selected areas of Central
Europe, ”Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 10–16.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Szajna G. (2014), Martial arts in physical culture,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
14, no. 4, pp. 39–45; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.4.5.
Greenwood J. (2004), Think Rugby: A Guide to Purposeful team Play, Midpoint Trade Books Inc.
Guthrie P., Growolen G., Brown M.T. (2004), Rugby for Dummies, John Wiley
& Sons Inc.
Hendricks S., Matthews B., Roode B., Lambert M. (2014), Tackler characteristics associated with tackle performance in rugby union, “European
Journal of Sport Science”, vol. 14, no. 8, pp. 753–762; doi: 10.1080/17
461391.2014.905982.
Kalina R.M. (2000), Theory of Combat Sports, COS, Warsaw [in Polish].
Kuhn D., Rosenstein M. (1995), Rugby: Kampf in Gasse und Gedrange, Weinmann, Berlin [in German].
Kunysz-Rozborska M., Piech J., Godek Ł. (2015), Rugby as a sport discipline in Poland, ”Scientific Review of Physical Culture”, vol. 5, no. 4, pp.
210–216.
Light R., Evans J.R., Harvey S., Hassanin R. (2015), Advances in rugby coaching: an holistic approach, Routledge, London – New York.
Morgulec N., Otrębski W., Kosmol A. (2004), The effect of sports participation
on the intensity of psychosocial problems of individuals with quadriplegia
[in:] W.J. Cynarski, J. Kosiewicz, K. Obodyński [eds.], Sport Involvement
310
Rugby – a team sport with elements of close combat
in a Changing Europe. Proceedings of the 2nd Conference of the EASS, UR,
Rzeszow, May 27–30, 2004, pp. 18–19.
Mynarski W., Krolikowska B., Graczkowska B. (2010), Medieval re-enactment
groups as a new form of recreation, “Human Movement”, vol. 11, no. 1,
pp. 89–94.
Naglak Z. (2001), Teoria zespołowej gry sportowej. Kształcenie gracza, AWF,
Wroclaw [in Polish].
Obodyński K., Cynarski W.J. (2006), Rugby as a combat sport, “Ido – Ruch dla
Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 6, pp. 92–99 [in Polish].
Panfil R. (2004), Effective coaching in sport games [in:] J. Czerwiński, H. Sozański [eds.], Współczesne koncepcje szkolenia w zespołowych grach
sportowych, AWFiS, Gdańsk, pp. 85–100 [in Polish].
Pawlik D. (2009), Maori Haka – Icon of the New Zealand’s Culture [in:] W.J.
Cynarski [ed.], Martial Arts and Combat Sports – Humanistic Outlook,
the Lykeion Library vol. 9, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp.
150–155.
Pook P. (2012), Complete conditioning for rugby, Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.
Powała-Niedźwiecki M., Wiejski R., Żórawski M. (1996), Zestaw ćwiczeń
techniki indywidualnej i zespołowej w rugby, PZR, COS, Warszawa.
Radzikowski L. (1973), 50 lat rugby w Polsce, Polski Związek Rugby, Warszawa.
Reguli Z., Havlik F., Vit M. (2011), Frequency of Combative Activities in the
1st League Men’s Football Match, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal
of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 31–36.
Sozański H. (2004), Kierunki doskonalenia przygotowań olimpijskich [in:]
J. Czerwiński, H. Sozański [eds.], Współczesne koncepcje szkolenia w zespołowych grach sportowych, AWFiS, Gdansk, pp. 11–27 [in Polish].
Tkaczyk J. (2004), Rugby, ”Sport Wyczynowy“, no 3–4, pp. 60–61 [in Polish].
Wasik W., Cynarski W.J. (2005), Związki go ze sztuką wojenną i dalekowschodnimi sztukami walki, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 5, pp. 118–126.
311
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Wheeler K., Sayers M. (2009), Contact skills predicting tackle breaks in rugby
union, “International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching”, no. 4, pp.
535–544; doi: 10.1260/174795409790291420.
Woodward C. (2004), Winning: The story of England’s rise to rugby World
Cup Glory, Hodder and Stoughton, London.
Zeda A. (1958), Podstawowe elementy szkolenia techniki i taktyki w grze
w rugby, SiT, Warszawa [in Polish].
Żukowska Z. (2004), Psycho-socjo-pedagogiczne aspekty treningu wyczynowego w sporcie [in:] J. Czerwiński, H. Sozański [eds.], Współczesne koncepcje szkolenia w zespołowych grach sportowych, AWFiS, Gdańsk, pp.
29–38 [in Polish].
CHAPTER 13
Kenjutsu – the art of traditional fencing
KEY WORDS
historical fencing, school, Japanese sabre
ABSTRACT
This chapter is only an attempt to show the specifics of martial arts
kenjutsu (description and explanation). In the photographic material,
the reader will find an illustration of the technical sphere at the basic
level. Literature gives you the opportunity to supplement knowledge
about particular aspects or issues.
Understanding the concepts of the most important concepts
Fighting with weapons began in various cultures from the late Stone
Age (the flint spear) and the Bronze Age. In general, however, the use
of white weapons involves iron / steel blades of all types, shapes and
sizes. This is what we translate the Japanese term kenjutsu – ‘ken’ is a
steel blade, ‘jutsu’ – art, technique, method. Most commonly, the term
refers to the Japanese sword (uchigatana, katana), commonly known
as the samurai sword. But here we treat it more broadly, in the sense
of old Japanese fencing – the possession of such weapons as katana,
kodachi or wakizashi (shorter of a pair of “samurai swords”), tanto
(warrior knife), naginata (a kind of gleive – a blade with a curved
313
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
blade on the top), yari (long spear), and also bo (9 feet Japanese) or
jo (stick – about 6 feet) and blades – shiriken, shaken.
FIGURE 13.1.
Kenjutsu – conceptual scope
Battojutsu is a method of fighting a striped samurai sword, so when
the opponent is waiting in a certain position with the right throat. Iaijutsu or iaido is the “art of swordsmanship”, meaning at the moment of
assault we have weapons in the vise saya. Defence begins with skillful
weapons. Kodachi is shorter with swords (Japanese sabres) and with
this weapon. Ryoto is an art / ability to use both sword / sabre at the
same time. Bojutsu is the technique of holding sticks of various length,
but especially with a long stick – kyushaku(bo), that is 9 feet long. Tantojutsu is a combat use of a knife or a dagger. Sojutsu to the technique
and form of lord yari. We are talking about kenjutsu [Fig. 13.1].
Examples of schools and methods
In such a broad sense of kenjutsu is taught in the school Tenshinshoden
Katorishinto-ryu – from the fifteenth century to today. This teaching
is considered in the program of the Idokan Poland Association (IPA)
and is categorized by the Dan Committee IPA and Shibu Kobudo in
Poland [cf. Sieber, Grzywacz 2015].
On the other hand, the teaching of the martial art school (bujutsu)
of medieval Japan is often categorized as kobudo – literally “old budo”,
314
Kenjutsu – the art of traditional fencing
“old war ways”. The Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu school taught, in
addition to the indicated kenjutsu, also the original jujutsu, the magical
and healing methods, the rules of fortification, spying and war strategy. Today it is no longer cultivated, except for 36 jujutsu techniques
and herbal healing [cf. Otake 2007; Sugino, Ito 2010; Cynarski, Szajna
2012; Mor-Stabilini 2016; Cynarski 2017].
Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu was one of the first martial arts
schools teaching a complete warrior system [Cynarski, Buchhold 2006;
Cynarski 2012a: 41–44]. Many successive schools were created as a
branch of this. Therefore it is protected in Japan – treated as a treasure
of cultural heritage.
Other famous schools and styles of kenjutsu include: Kashima
Shinto-ryu kenjutsu [Friday, Fumitake 1997] and Yoseikan Shinto-ryu
iaido – both are Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu derivatives; Takeda-ryu battojutsu & iaido (Nakamura-ha, Maroto-ha, and Kobilza-ha
methods) [cf. Minamoto-no-Maroto 1992]; Ono-ha Itto-ryu – taught
under Daito-ryu aikibudo; Honmon Enshin-ryu [Tanaka 2003].
Nippon Kobudō Kyōkai Association (Japanese Classical Budō
Association), was founded in 1979 to promote classical martial arts,
brings together the kenjutsu schools: Bokuden-ryū (Aomori), Hokush-
in Ittō-ryū (Ibaragi), Hyōhō Niten Ichi-ryū (Fukuoka), Jigen Kashima
Shintō-ryū (Ibaragi), Kōgen Ittō-ryū (Saitama), Kurama-ryū (Tokyo),
Mizoguchi-Ittō-ryū (Fukushima), Nada Ono-ha Ittō-ryū (Tokyo), Shintō
Munen-ryū (Tokyo), Shingyōtō-ryū (Mie), Shojitsu Kenri-hō Ichi-ryū
(Okayama), Taisha-ryū (Kumamoto) Tatsumi-ryū heihō (Chiba), Tennen
Rishin-ryū (Tokyo), Tenshinshōden Katorishintō-ryū (Chiba), Unkō-ryū (Kumamoto), Yagyu Shinkage-ryū heihō (Aichi). The schools of
iaijutsu and battōjutsu are listed separately: Enshin-ryū iai sukmano
(Osaka), Hayashizaki Musō-ryū iaijutsu (Yamagata), Hōki-ryū iaijutsu
315
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
(Hyōgo), Kanemaki-ryū battō-jutsu (Okayama), Kanshin-ryū iaijutsu,
the Musōjikiden Eishin-ryū iaijutsu (Tokyo), the Sekiguchi-ryū battōjutsu (Kumamoto), the Suiō-ryū iai kempō (Shizuoka), the Tamiya-ryū
iaijutsu (Kanagawa)22 [Uozumi, Bennett 2010: 127].
The question of the state of skill, knowledge and merits for, for
example, kobudo causes you to have a different degree and title in the
general Japanese kobudo (not to be confused with the Okinawan), and
another in a particular school. You can be soke – Grand Master and
successor of a school, and only 7 dan and kyoshi23 in (general) kobudo.
Sometimes it is the opposite. Someone knows only the forms of Seitei
iai (or only from Musojikiden Eishin-ryu) and has a fairly high grade in
iaido, but his position in a ryu-ha (classical school) is not high.
Iaido is only a small piece of kenjutsu art. It was only in 1932
that the name iaido was introduced. Kendo, in turn, is a separate
sport and a separate type of budo [cf. Warner, Draeger 1982; Hooge
2004; Bennett 2015]. From the perspective of kenjutsu, kendo exercises can be considered as a form of sparring exercise. On the other
hand, the kendo forms (kata) with the real katana are part of the
tradition of the classical kenjutsu – mainly based on Itto-ryu, school
of the one “sword”.
An interesting counterpart of the Japanese kenjutsu are, for example, the Thai krabi krabong, the Filipino escrima, and the Old Polish
fencing Signum Polonicum. These are the national traditions of historical
combat fencing [cf. Sawicki 2011; Cynarski 2012b; Cynarski 2013a].
Escrima in W. Newman’s school combines Filipino and European-medieval elements. It is commanded here by the possession of
weapons from the Philippines (like machete) and weapons of the Euro22
In this paragraph for unambiguous account includes the long phonemes – diacritic marks.
23
There is a hierarchy of titles: renshi, kyoshi, hanshi, meijin.
316
Kenjutsu – the art of traditional fencing
pean knight. To learn position, distance and basic techniques, use
sticks [Newman 2005; Cynarski 2004, 2011].
Similarly, in Japanese kenjutsu, wooden beams of acute weapons
are used, providing relatively safe learning and skill development.
On the other hand, sharp weapons are needed in tameshigiri tests.
They are used at Takeda-ryu (Nakamura-ha, Kobilza-ha) school. Onelegged cuts and bundles of bamboo, cane or rolls of rice mat are cut
in different planes in different planes.
The various schools of kenjutsu differ in their preferred positions
and techniques, the terminology, the chiburi way (flushing blood from
the blade), the way to go and return the sword (note), the colour of the
sweatshirt and the hakama (samurai skirt trousers), and other details. For
example, in Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu the teacher is distinguished
by a dark blue sweater while the rest exercises white, while everyone is
practicing in dark blue hakama. On the other hand, Takeda-ryu iaido is
practiced exclusively in white hakama and keikogi blouse.
Interesting techniques of using daito and kodachi, i.e. the longer
and shorter pair of samurai swords – contains Onoha Itto-ryu (e.g.
kodachi against daito [Cynarski 2004: 35].) Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu teaches the use of katana sabres against various weapons of
the past. At the same time Takeda-ryu soke Hisashi Nakamura introduced kumi batto shiai and sports competition in these duels, a kind
of struggle limited by the convention of security regulations.
Each school has its own strengths and limitations. It is difficult to say
with certainty whether an expert of one school at the highest technical
level (renshi instructor level) or a person who has mastered the technical
level of several technical schools will be a better swordsman.
The old warrior had to master the weapons of various types of
horse and foot [Cynarski 2013b]. Also in the self-defence he used mainly
317
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
a sharp weapon or a stick, and bare hands only exceptionally. Today
kenjutsu, in various forms, is most often a form of physical recreation,
psychophysical, and self-realization in the path of humanity. In this
sense, kenjutsu, which is no longer strictly art of killing, can be called
kendo – the way of the sword. So it is a fencer’s path not only for sport
and sport success, but as a pursuit of broadly understood mastery.
Photo illustration
A series of photos (1–7) illustrates several moments of the form Itsutsu-no tachi (Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu school, Yoshio Sugino
dojo, 1990s, demonstrates – W. J. Cynarski sensei; during seminars and
demonstrations in Krakow, Rzeszow and Warsaw). In the next photos
we see people important to teaching Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu
kobudo and kenjutsu in Poland and beyond (photos 8–9).
Photo 1. Attack: ken-otoshi, defence: ko-gasumi.
318
Kenjutsu – the art of traditional fencing
Photo 2. Descent from the attack line.
Photo 3. Kiri-komi (student) will defend his head with a block of torii.
319
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Photo 4. Uke-dachi (teacher) in position in-no kamae.
Photo 5. Kote-age – cut on the wrist.
320
Kenjutsu – the art of traditional fencing
Photo 6. Kesa-giri, as ending cut.
Photo 7. Finishing of the form Itsutsu-no tachi. Warsaw, 1992.
321
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Photo 8. Sensei Goro Hatakeyama hanshi (in white keikogi), as uke-dachi
with sensei Erik Leuw (as kiri-komi, with naginata) – Lagord, France 1993.
Photo 9. Shibu Kobudo in Poland – the first from the left Alain Kai, third
– sensei W.J. Cynarski, fifth – Robert Wyskiel. Rzeszow 1993.
322
Kenjutsu – the art of traditional fencing
Acknowledgements
Thank you to my teacher masters who have taught me kenjutsu, especially Yoshio Sugino 10 dan meijin, Goro Hatakeyama 9 dan hanshi
and Alain Floquet 8 dan (Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu), Hisashi
Nakamura 10 dan soke and Roland Maroteaux 9 dan (Takeda-ryu),
Kenji Tose 10 dan meijin (Musojikiden Eishin-ryu), and Lothar Sieber
10 dan soke (Idokan).
References
Bennett A. (2015), Kendo. Culture of the Sword, University California Press.
Cynarski W.J. (2004), On art of fencing. Remarks on classical fencing, “Ido
– Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 4, pp. 29–42 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2011), Hockenheim 2010. Contribution to the martial arts
tourism, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 60–64.
Cynarski W.J. (2012a), Anthropology of martial arts. Studies and Essays from
sociology and philosophy of martial arts, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2012b), Bangkok and Muay Thai. The next episode of the martial arts tourism, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts
Anthropology”, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 28–32.
Cynarski W.J. (2013a), Japanese and Polish sabre – 20-years after historical
confrontation, “Physical Activity Review”, vol. 1, pp. 10–21.
Cynarski W.J. (2013b), The training of a warrior following the teaching of
the classical Japanese and Korean schools of martial arts (C14 – C19th),
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
13, no. 2, pp. 1–10.
Cynarski W.J. (2017), The culture of Japanese kenjutsu as presented in the book
by Sergio Mor-Stabilini, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 44–48; doi: 10.14589/ido.17.4.8.
323
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J., Buchhold M. (2006), Complete budō systems, ”Ido – Ruch dla
Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 6, pp. 83–91.
Cynarski W.J., Szajna G. (2012), Japanese fencing art kenjutsu in Poland
(1987–2012) with particular emphasis on Podkarpacie [in:] W.J. Cynarski [ed.], Martial Arts Phenomenon – Research and Multidisciplinary
Interpretation, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp. 161–193.
Friday K.F., Fumitake S. (1997), Legacies of the Sword: The Kashima-Shinryu
and Samurai Martial Culture, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
Hooge S.R. (2004), Der Weg des Schwertes, “Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 4, pp. 78–87 [in German].
Minamoto-no-Maroto (1992), Iai-do takeda-ryu nakamura-ha kihon-waza,
CAF, Nimes [in French].
Tanaka F. (2003), Samurai fighting arts: the spirit and the practice, Kodansha
International.
Mor-Stabilini S. (2016), The Ancient Art of the Japanese Sword. The ancient
school of Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto Ryu along historical, cultural and
spiritual path, Jitakyoei Budo, Bergamo.
Newman W. (2005), Escrima, WuShu-Verlag Kernspecht, Burg/Fehmarn
[in German].
Otake R. (2007), Katori Shinto-ryu: Warrior Tradition, Koryu Books. (A total
revamp of the earlier The Deity and the Sword book).
Sawicki Z. (2011), Polish Martial Art – Signum Polonicum: Historical background, profile and the main plots of the system, ”Ido Movement for
Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 38–46.
Sieber L., Grzywacz R. (2015), Jubilee of Shibu Kobudo in Poland 1995–2015,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
15, no. 4, pp. 13–25; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.4.2.
Sugino Y., Ito K. (2010), Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto Ryu Budo Kyohan,
(trans. Ulf Rott) Demond GmbH Norderstedt [in German].
Uozumi T., Bennett A. [eds.] (2010), The History and Spirit of Budō. IBU Budō
Series Vol. 1, IBU, Katsuura.
Warner G., Draeger D.F. (1982), Japanese Swordmanship: Technique and
Practice, Random House, USA.
324
CHAPTER 14
Ido as a healing or self-healing
KEY WORDS
natural medicine, social reception, bujutsu ido, Aiki-Jindo
ABSTRACT
PROBLEM. Ido, in the sense “medicine of martial arts” (bujutsu ido),
is analyzed in the perspective of the General Theory of Fighting Arts
multi-faceted. Particularly interesting is the social reception of this
and related forms of natural medicine, which is the main theme of
reflection. The terms “health” and “man” are understood holistically.
METHOD. Social reception is analyzed indirectly through the presence
in opinion-forming magazines and other periodicals. The sources are
selected periodicals from 1982 to 2014, as well as two direct interviews
with experts. There are also used two qualitative methods – long-term
participant observation and analysis of the content of the literature.
RESULTS. A set of healing or self-healing methods has been depicted and a general picture of alternative medicine in mass culture is
presented, based on content published in various journals. Critical
criticism is mixed here with interest – the search for non-pharmacological therapies.
325
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
CONCLUSIONS. Differentiated images of alternative medicine (natural, holistic) in mass culture shape the media. It is rare to associate
traditional martial arts with natural medicine.
Introduction
Martial arts are associated with many areas of life (physical culture,
safety, upbringing), as instructors of different varieties indicate [Redzisz 2004], but very rarely associated with medicine. Meanwhile, in
the educational systems of some schools and organizations there is
“martial arts medicine” (ido or bujutsu ido).
This issue is analyzed in the perspective of the General Theory
of Fighting Arts multi-faceted. Particularly interesting is the social
reception of this and related forms of natural medicine (mainly of
Chinese origin), which is the main topic of reflection.
The terms “health” and “man” are understood holistically. Systemic theory of health according to F. Capra [Cynic 2000b] and the concept
of self-healing by Weil [1997] are the inspiration here. On the other
hand, man is treated personally as a psycho-physical being, with the
needs of a higher order including spiritual ones.
The description concerns the following issues:
1. Traditions, diagnosis and forms of therapy;
2. Medical and paramedical methods;
3. An image of alternative medicine in mass culture.
For this study a set of four complementary qualitative methods
was used. Social reception is analyzed here indirectly by presence in
opinion-forming weekly and other periodicals (analysis of contents of
mass media). Selected are magazines from the years 1982–2014. Other
326
Ido as a healing or self-healing
source are two direct interviews (interview method) with experts
of bujutsu-ido. There are two more methods – long-term participant
observation (40 years in martial arts) and analysis of the content of
literature (analytical method).
Traditions
Perhaps the cradle of medical knowledge combined with the practice
of martial arts is India. There are still studied there vital places and
vital points, to this day. They are used in healing massage and are
the target of attack in combat. They are about life and death [cf. Kogel 2006, 2008; Sieler 2015: 95–177]. Probably this knowledge came
from India to neighboring countries, carried by Buddhist missionaries,
merchants and warriors.
In Chinese tradition medicine is mixed with martial arts in the
theory of vital points and energy circuits (acupuncture, acupressure,
moxa), energy exercises (qigong) and the pursuit to the balance. This
is accompanied by the herbal medicine and other forms of natural
medicine, which was famous among others the Shaolin monastery
[Cynarski, Swider 2017].
Similarly, in Korean traditions – such as in-sul in hwarangdo –
medical issues are part of the teaching system [Lind 1996: 324, 697;
cf. Wasik, Wojcik 2017]. This ancient medical knowledge came from
China to Japan, where it is often taught in parallel with the methods
and techniques of martial arts.
Traditional medicine exists in many schools of old Japanese martial
arts – bujutsu / kobudo. In the Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu (continuity of tradition from the 15th century) is called te-ate, at Hakko-ryu
school – koho shiatsu, by Takeda-ryu – bujutsu ido. E.g. the famous
martial arts actor Steven Seagal practiced it, but he is mudansha (has
327
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
no master degrees) in this regard. Moreover, in the jujutsu schools,
kappo / kuatsu resuscitation methods were taught, which in the reduced
form exists in judo [cf. Craig 1995: 74–76; Punzet 2001; Kuboyama 2015].
Bujutsu ido Takeda-ryu is cultivated by Bernard A. Lalandre (FR)
– 9 dan, hanshi. Dr Roland J. Maroteaux (FR) has 1 dan h.c. granted
by the IPA, but the bujutsu ido is not currently taught in Takeda-ryu
Maroto-ha – school and organization of shihan Maroteaux.
Koho shiatsu Hakko-ryu, Okuyama-ryu version, created by Terry
Rissier (S. Okuyama, FR), is cultivated and propagated today i.a. by
Zenon Liszkiewicz and Piotr Jaskólski (PL). This is essentially a kind of
gymnastics and massage, which is supposed to improve the circulation
of energy in the body [Cynarski 2010].
Te-ate in Tenshinshoden Katorishinto-ryu included psychological-magical healing methods, and herbal medicine. Shihan Yoshio
Sugino (1904–1998) was leading the counseling and herbal pharmacy
until the end of his activity.
Bujutsu ido in the Idokan system (Idokan Poland Association, IPA)
practice, as a form of natural medicine, among others Lothar Sieber
(10 dan, D) and Romuald Włodyka (7 dan, PL). L. Sieber focuses on
developing the power to self-healing of the patient. He also teaches
sports medicine within the DDBV (up to and including 2017). R. Wło-
dyka is a specialist in Chinese medicine. Both specialists are trying
to treat the sick.
And in turn Wojciech J. Cynarski (10 dan ido) promotes the method
of developing positive health potential, as is the case for healthy people
practicing martial arts [Cynarski, Sieber 2015]. This positive potential
describes: the level of body function, physical fitness, tempering state
(changes in temperature, pressure, humidity, etc.) and mental immunity
(emotional self-control and effectiveness in difficult situations).
328
Ido as a healing or self-healing
Just like Japanese schools, so Chinese tradition cultivates health
care. Dr Chen Yong Fa, Principal of Choy Lee Fut style, conducts lectures
on Chinese medicine and exercises “Luchan qigong” [Kieta 1999]. In
turn, one of the leaders of the kung-fu organizations in Poland mentions: “When I was a student, I first learned anatomy, studied acupuncture and qi circulation in a human body. The first lesson I learned
was that medicine and good health are the real basis of all kung-fu.”
[Szymankiewicz 1998: 12].
In further analyzes we will focus on the IPA system.
Diagnosis and forms of therapy
Iridology, as a method of diagnosis from the retina of the eye, it is
used by both L. Sieber and R. Wlodyka. This is a non-invasive form,
preferred in alternative medicine. Disorders of symmetry in the retina
are interpreted as indications of disease changes in the body that have
already occurred or will appear soon.
Both specialists use diagnostic assessment of symptoms for homeopathic therapy, mainly on the basis of patient interviews.
An electric acupuncture diagnostic on the earlobe map is an interesting way. Electrical interaction on receptor points is intended
to help to determine whether or not the “energy flow” is abnormal.
Bio-energetic therapy
There were at least two healers whose accomplishments (effective
therapeutic help) the author could confirm. Namely Prof. Dr hab. Wojciech Pasterniak and no longer living Mieczyslaw Kwolek (and, to a
lesser extent, his brother – Tadeusz Kwolek). They both took power
from God, praying to Jesus Christ or the Mother of God. In their view,
this was not a transfer of magical, cosmic energy. In addition, spiritual
329
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
help can only be obtained from a man who is in a state of purity of heart.
M. Kwolek, a student of T. Chaczaturian, claimed that “moral purity is a
condition of healing power of bioenergy” [Kwolek 2001–2002]. Similarly, American Christian researchers and therapists, Loyd and Johnson
[2012], note.
W. Pasterniak cultivates the healing and therapeutic “quantum
training” method, similar to the bio-energetic therapy, but uses the
influence of images and music. It is like the frontiers of sports medicine, psychology, pedagogy and the theory of training, where spiritual
training is a form of therapy [Pasterniak, Cynarski 2014; Cynarski,
Błażejewski, Pasterniak 2016].
Homeopathy
It is a field of medicine that functions alongside its mainstream. It is preferred by supporters of natural medicine and antagonists of pharmacological treatment. This is more to be based on the immanent ability of
the organism to self-organize, i.e. self-treatment, than to interact with
appropriate doses of bioactive substances.
On the other hand, L. Sieber’s method takes into account the use
of vitamin supplements, such as larger portions of vitamin C (1000
mg per day) or apricot kernel seeds (vit. B17). Suitable herbal teas are
recommended and special diet. GM Sieber draws on both the knowhow of the Far East and the knowledge of the European representatives of natural medicine.
Chi kung (qigong) / ki-keiko and tai chi (taiji)
Chi kung – these are sets of exercises that are applied to improve or
maintain good health. They promote proper functions of the digestive
system, the nervous system, the improvement of motor coordination
ability, etc. [Kalisz 1995; Włodyka, Cynarski 2000].
330
Ido as a healing or self-healing
Tai chi, especially the Yang style, practiced for health purposes
gives similar results. Forms of the battle style of Chen tai chi chuan
(taiji quan) are not recommended here. Only soft, smooth movements
produce a health effect similar to chi kung. There is even the name
tai chi kung (taiji qong) used for the distinction of therapeutic tai chi.
Training for health
W.J. Cynarski’s Method under the name Aiki-Jindo was established in
1993–1997. In 1997 soke Hans Schöllauf (10th dan), president of Idokan
Europe International, awarded Cynarski 5 dan in ido and named profes-
sor. Aiki-Jindo can be translated: “harmonization of energy in the way
of humanity”. It is a method of total self-regulation and harmonization
of widely understood health in connection with the practice of martial
arts. Includes ki-keiko energy exercises (modeled on qigong), shiatsu and
aikitaiso massage and gymnastics, relaxation and meditation exercises,
dietary, hygienic and ethical-ascetic recommendations. This is a form
of bujutsu ido and a component of the Idokan Yoshin-ryu budo system.
The theory is based on the concept of systemic theory of health,
the mechanism of psychoneuroimmunology and the self-healing hypothesis [Weil 1997; Cynarski 2000b]. Its review was conducted in a
confrontation with the knowledge and experience of sports doctors
such as Dr Marvin Solit, Didier Rausseau (6 dan judo), Lothar Sieber
(10 dan jujutsu, karate and ido), Wong Kiew Kit [2001], and own experience over 40 years.
There are four stages: 1) Introduction (learning relaxation, concentration, ki-keiko); 2) self-regulation I (receptor interaction, toning
of the nervous system); 3) self-regulation II (balancing of the energy
system); 4) striving for a state of harmony (pursuit of inner peace and
in various relations with the outside world).
331
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
The diet should be varied, providing all ingredients. Natural stimulants such as honey, garlic and horseradish are recommended. Among
the stimulants – only cocoa, green tea, possibly small amounts of coffee and beer or wine. Both in diet and exercise should be the rule of
moderation, that is, should not overdo it.
Moped training on the mat is automatic foot massage, and many
exercises on the back – back massage. In addition practicing are, shiatsu, aikitaiso, kiatsu (according to K. Tohei), sporty auto-massage
and others (e.g. yumeiho, do-in) are practiced [Mucha 1997; Kasperczyk, Kmak 1998]. Most of all, you should practice regularly and do
everything in both directions – symmetrically. Ki-keiko are breathing
exercises that improve lung capacity, strengthen the diaphragm and
tone the emotional states [cf. Kondratowicz 1996; Swami Rama, Ballentine, Hynes 2000]. Like mental training, it is a form of complementary exercise. This includes running, swimming, stretching, wellness
and hardening.
The Aiki-Jindo method has been described in detail as “Bujutsu
Ido – Method IPA 2009” and published in “Ido Movement for Culture.
Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology “[Cynarski, Sieber 2015: 18–21].
Medical and paramedical methods
Many methods of natural medicine are based on the ability of a living
organism to self-heal itself, as described by Dr Andrew Weil [1997].
Sometimes it is enough to not interfere in this process. Sometimes,
however, it is worthwhile to help, using relaxation exercises with positive autosuggestion [cf. Kondratowicz 1982].
Science has not explained how acupuncture, acupressure and
related methods work. The theory of energy meridians and energy
circuits is more poetic than rational. That does not mean it does not
332
Ido as a healing or self-healing
work. In China it has been used for two or four thousand years, and in
Europe this is supported by medical authorities [Garnuszewski 1988].
There are disputes over the effectiveness of homeopathic remedies. Their actions have not been adequately explained, yet. Similarly,
there is no scientific explanation for the bioenergetic implications.
Actions against the healers are being carried out, but there are also
voices in their defence: “A new media strike has begun for alternative
medicine and healers. Nothing new, similar ‘actions’ have already
been observed. This is a one-sided operation, because the advocates
of the other side have no place to defend themselves.” “[Kuncewicz
2002].
Some paramedical methods are strongly opposed by the representation of academic medicine, which is probably correct. Especially in case of necessary surgery, natural or alternative medicine will
probably not work.
Proponents of the electrodynamic theory of life point to its discovery in the mid-twentieth century by Harold Saxton Burr and F.S.C.
Northrop from the University of Yale [Bodnar 2001: 50]. This method
also applies to self-regulation of the body, but is said to be a bioenergetic field.
Are not the main sources of conflict the interests of the pharmacy
industry, as proponents of natural / alternative medicine say? Doctors
themselves, often drug abusers (faith in pills), do not know and do
not understand alternative methods.
Alternative medicine in mass culture
Fashion for the East and its religions have influenced the emergence of
new, fashionable ideas that contribute to the eclectic New Age. There
is, among other things, “vegetarian utopia”. This is to be “tolerant of all,
333
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
regardless of race, religion, intelligence or number of paws” [Appleton
2007: 36]. So we do not eat animals or products from them, we do not
wear fur, leather belts or shoes.
The author knows several martial arts practitioners who have
consistently used the vegetarian diet for a long time. However, more
people use a variety of balanced diet. Dietary views on whether to
be low fat or other is changeable [cf. Kossobudzka 2006]. In general,
East Asian martial arts lovers prefer kitchens of that part of the world
[Cynarski 2000a].
Dietary supplements – vitamins, protein, isotonic (electrolytes),
advertised intensively in the media, a popular. But you can also read
about the harmfulness of excess use of minerals and vitamins [cf. Ambroziak 2001; Pinkosz 2014]. At times, the producers intentionally
refer to the traditions of East Asia. On the bottle “Kombacha” (a drink
from fermented tea according to the ancient Chinese procedure) there
is an image of a Chinese archer or kyudo.
Yoga-based relaxation and Schultz’s autogenic training are generally accepted, and yoga is being especially fashionable as an alternative
sport. Academic medicine also accepts acupuncture [cf. Garnuszewski 1988; Sapiński, Sapińska 1990]. Scientists regret that 88% of
American adults accept alternative medicine [Shermer 2002]. In turn
enthusiasts pay attention to the excellent effects of acupuncture and
homeopathy, balneotherapy and hippotherapy, phototherapy and reflexotherapy, bubbling and use of leeches [Załoga 2003].
The same chi (qi, ki) energy can be used for treatment (bioen-
ergetotherapy) and to fight (the legendary “blow of a vibrating hand”)
[Maziarczyk 2003]. It hits not so much with “energy” (Vis Vitalis). It
blocks a flow of the energy in a given organ. In turn, massage, such
as shiatsu, helps regulate this flow [Mucha 1997; Kasperczyk, Kmak
334
Ido as a healing or self-healing
1998]. The term “vital energy” includes the circulation of blood, lymph,
hormones and nerve impulses.
Systemic health theory and holistic medicine gain supporters in
the Western world and global scale. It is associated with martial arts
in the form of Feldenkreis’ method, taiji, qigong, acupuncture etc.
(nota bene psychophysical martial arts systems have always treated
humans holistically). But it lives with its own life.
As “clinical” medicine examines and heals the human body, holistic medicine seeks to go deeper. “Holistic” doctors work with spiritual leaders (psychological health) and psychologists (mental health)
[Szczeklik 2003]. Probably a condition for good health is a fair life, in
accordance with normative ethics and the principles of faith. L. Sieber
points to the Decalogue [cf. Feynman 1999; Grayling 1999; Szmyd
2013; Sieber 2017].
The problem is the scammers, without the proper education and
knowledge, who offer their services in return. Among bioenergy therapists it is quite difficult for their ability and competence to verify [cf.
Konarska 2002].
Discussion and summary
The beneficial effects on health (both physical and mental) of martial arts
are quite unmistakable [Cynarski, Sieber 2015; Smoleń, Bernat 2017].
Regular training creates a strong and active personality, lowers the level
of aggression, leads to increased health and better self-control.
On the other hand, contact sports of fighting (combat sports), especially those that are professionally trained, can lead to loss of health.
The distinction here is very important. Martial arts and combat sports
are completely different in fighting arts theory; Other are their goals
and training methods. Martial arts and East Asian healing methods
335
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
are the subject of adaptation in the process of cultural dialogue. As
such, they go parallel to the areas of mass culture, physical, and health
culture [Cynarski 2000a].
The methods of treatment or self-treatment in martial arts are,
however, a separate issue. They are present in the history of martial
arts for centuries. It is an area of interest in the theory of training and
sports medicine, but ontologically co-founded by various traditions of
natural medicine – massage, herbalism and psychotherapy. In some
schools martial arts medicine is still alive today – under the Japanese
name bujutsu ido or under other names [Cynarski 2010, 2017; Sieler
2015; Cynarski, Sieber 2015].
Various forms of exercise (practiced for health) are known [cf.
Puza 2007; Ubbes 2008]. Generally, systematic effort is more important than the type of diet. But it is important to take care of – generally
– hygienic lifestyle. And always be modest.
The image of alternative medicine (natural, holistic) in the mass
culture shapes the media. This is not a homogeneous image. The reception is also multiform here. It is rare to associate traditional martial
arts with natural medicine.
Sources (all in Polish)
Ambroziak S. (2001), Medycyna. Kto o tym pamięta…, ”Magazyn Sportowy”,
April 27, p. 24.
Appleton J. (2007), Utopie XXI wieku, ”Forum”, no. 17–18, pp. 32–38.
Bodnar I. (2001), BSM i pola życia, ”Nieznany Świat”, no. 12, pp. 49–50.
Kalisz A. (1995), Medycyna wschodnia, Qigong, part 1, ”Samurai”, no. 3,
p. 34.
Kieta K. (1999), Sprawność ciała, siła ducha, part 3, ”Karate KungFu”, no. 3,
pp. 30–31.
Konarska I. (2002), Złote czasy uzdrowicieli, ”Przegląd”, no. 18, pp. 14–18.
336
Ido as a healing or self-healing
Kondratowicz K. (1982), Ćwiczenia relaksujące z autosugestią jiko-anji.
Section 67, ”Żołnierz Polski” [Polish Soldier], August 15.
Kondratowicz K. (1996), Sztuka oddychania w walkach Wschodu, part 3,
”Samurai”, no. 4, pp. 10.
Kossobudzka M. (2006), Niewinny tłuszcz, ”Gazeta Wyborcza”, Feb. 11–12,
no. 36, p. 9.
Kuncewicz P. (2002), Leczyć czy uzdrawiać, ”Przegląd”, no. 32, p. 43.
Kwolek M. (2001–2002), – interviews, conversations, Rzeszów and Strzyżów, Poland.
Maziarczyk Z. (2003), Cios wibrującej ręki, ”Nieznany Świat”, no. 1, p. 57.
Pinkosz K. (2014), Nabici w suplementy, ”Do Rzeczy”, no. 17, p. 46–47.
Redzisz M. (2004), Duch Bruce’a Lee, ”Wysokie Obcasy”, no. 11, pp. 14–16.
Shermer M. (2002), Łatwowierny inteligent, ”Świat Nauki”, no. 11, p. 18.
Sieber L. (2017) – lectures, interviews, conversations, Munich and Weichs,
Germany.
Swami Rama, Ballentine R., Hynes A. (2000), Sztuka oddychania – praktyczny przewodnik, Dom Wydawniczy LIMBUS, Bydgoszcz.
Szczeklik A. (2003), Medycyna w poszukiwaniu duszy, ”Newsweek Polska”,
no. 49, p. 84.
Szymankiewicz J. (1998), Co to jest Kung Fu?, ”Karate KungFu”, no. 2, pp.
12–13.
Załoga M.T. (2003), Między magią a medycyną, ”Wiedza i Życie”, no. 3, pp.
30–37.
References
Craig D.M. (1995), Japan’s Ultimate Martial Art. Jujitsu before 1882. The Classical Japanese Art. of Self-Defence, Ch.E. Tuttle Co., Inc., Boston – Rutland, Vermont – Tokyo.
Cynarski W.J. (2000a), Sztuki walki budo w kulturze Zachodu, WSP, Rzeszów
[in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2000b), Fritjof Capra’s Systemic Theory of Health, ”Ido – Ruch
dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 1, pp. 132–137 [in Polish].
337
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Cynarski W.J. (2010), Medycyna w tradycji sztuk walki, ”Przegląd Medyczny
Uniwersytetu Rzeszowskiego”, no. 1, pp. 77–86 [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2017), A cyclical meeting of experts as a special case of martial
arts tourism, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 31–37; doi: 10.14589/ido.17.3.4.
Cynarski W.J., Błażejewski W., Pasterniak W. (2016), Pedagogika nowoparadygmatyczna. W poszukiwaniu nowych inspiracji i aplikacji pedagogicznych. Monografia tematyczna, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszów [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2015), Martial arts (alternative) medicine – channel
of transmission to Europe, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 8–21; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.3.2.
Cynarski W.J., Swider P. (2017), Scientific tourism: two cases of conference
trips in relation to the pattern, ”Scientific Review of Physical Culture”,
vol. 7, no. 1, pp. 16–20.
Feynman R.P. (1999), Sens tego wszystkiego. Rozważania i życiu, religii, polityce i nauce, Prószyński i S-ka, Warszawa [in Polish].
Freeman L. (2006), Christian Meditation: Your Daily Practice – Medytacja
chrześcijańska. Twoja codzienna praktyka, Homini, Kraków.
Garnuszewski Z. (1988), Renesans Akupunktury, ”Sport i Turystyka”, Warsaw [in Polish].
Grayling A.C. (1999), Wartości moralne, Prószyński i S-ka, Warsaw [in Polish].
Kasperczyk T., Kmak S. (1998), Masaż punktowy i inne metody refleksoterapii, Kasper, Kraków [in Polish].
Kogel H. (2006), The secret of kyusho jutsu – neuroanatomical basis, ”Ido – Ruch
dla Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 6, pp. 283–298.
Kogel H. (2008), “Bubushi“ – the secret records of Okinawa, ”Ido – Ruch dla
Kultury / Movement for Culture”, vol. 8, pp. 104–113.
Kuboyama K. (2015), The “Mind-Set” of jujutsuka in the Edo period in Japan
as described in five historical documents (scrolls) from the Yoshin-ryu
jujutsu school, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 4, pp. 26–32; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.4.4.
338
Ido as a healing or self-healing
Loyd A., Johnson B. (2012), Kod uzdrawiania, Warsaw [in Polish].
Mucha D. (1997), Terapeutyczne mikrosystemy ludzkiego ciała, stopa – teoria
i praktyka refleksoterapii, Terenia, Kraków [in Polish].
Pasterniak W., Cynarski W.J. (2014), Quantum physics and sports training.
The possibility of using the achievements of quantum physics in football,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
14, no. 4, pp. 54–61; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.4.7.
Punzet N.W. (2001), Das Kuatsu Buch, Kuatsu-Akademie, Braunenburg [in
German].
Puza R. (2007), Health Education: Ideas and Activities, Human Kinetics.
Sapiński W., Sapińska I. (1990), O leczeniu akupunkturą, PZWL, Warsaw
[in Polish].
Sieler R. (2015), Lethal spots, vital secrets: medicine and martial arts in South
India, Oxford University Press, Oxford – New York.
Smoleń K., Bernat K. (2017), Wpływ sztuk walki na zdrowie, ”Med Og Nauk
Zdr.”, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 13–15; doi: 10.5604/20834543.1235620 [in
Polish].
Szmyd J. (2013), The flow of higher values in a globalised world. Notes based
on the example of the homocreative arts, “Ido Movement for Culture.
Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 7–14; doi: 10.
14589/ido.13.3.2.
Ubbes V. (2008), Educating for Health, Human Kinetics.
Wąsik J.,Wójcick A. (2017), Health in the context of martial arts practice,
“Physical Activity Review”, vol. 5, pp. 91–94.
Weil A. (1997), Samoleczenie, KiW, Warsaw [in Polish].
Włodyka R., Cynarski W.J. (2000), Chi kung – aspekty zdrowotne i zastosowanie wybranych ćwiczeń, „Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for
Culture”, vol. 1, pp. 146–186 [in Polish].
Wong Kiew Kit (2001), Praktyczny poradnik samo uzdrawiania Chi kung.
Twoje zdrowie, Amber, Warsaw [in Polish].
CHAPTER 15
Yoga and martial way:
kinship and applications
“Le Yoga est plus célebre, que conne.” (Prof. Jean Pilozat)
– Yoga is more famous than known.
KEY WORDS
martial arts, Budo, Yoga, Hathayoga, education
ABSTRACT
PROBLEM AND AIM. To what extent are akin to the way of martial
arts and Yoga? Attempt to explain was taken in view of anthropology
martial arts (pathway of warrior), quoting special applications.
METHOD. Used the Content Analysis and Analysis of Discourse. Sources are thematic publications – literature. In particular, these are statements of experts – practitioners (the great masters and gurus).
RESULTS. Pointed out affinities and differences. These are two different ways of psycho-improvement and self-realization of an ascetic. Some yogic exercises are incorporated into the training process
341
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
martial arts. With Budo ways and related road warriors combines
Yoga exercises ascetic sense. However, a yogi and a warrior different
exercise goals.
CONCLUSIONS. Yoga, though linked to origin and terminology of Hinduism, contains useful exercise in physical education, sports, martial
arts and health therapy. This is also the most successfully used (physical exercises, breathing, relaxation).
Introduction
Mircea Eliade [1948] proposed that Yoga is an “ascetic technique”. It
has the advantage of not excluding any school even if it is not neces-
sary to distinguish yoga from other methods. In second hand Arthur
Avalon [1913] defined Yoga as the “return to the source”, that is, a
way back to the place we started from, where everything proceeds.
Yoga is a system of ascetic for the spiritual growth of man, and at
the same time grew out of the Hindu philosophical system, therapeutic
and educational [cf. Szyszko-Bohusz 1978, 2005; Iyengar 1988; Bar,
Gaertner, Flyley 2004]. It comes in different varieties.
In turn, the way of martial arts bears the Japanese name: the Budo.
‘Budo’ by Nakiri [2015] are martial arts, especially of Japanese origin.
It is a part of Japanese cultural heritage. The Budo, as a team of local
cultural warriors’ traditions (the Bushi culture) includes a variety of
disciplines, such as Kendo, Judo, Karatedo, Aikido, Kobudo, Iaido, Kyudo.
Separate traditions of martial arts are cultivated in China, Korea, Thailand and other Asian countries of eastern and south-eastern Europe.
“Budō is a fundamental concept in the anthropology of martial
arts. ‘Do’ signifiers the way / path, the Way of Heaven (Chinese tao,
dao, a Korean). ‘Bu’ Means martial or military, etymologically from
“stop the spear” i.e. to stop aggression, to resolve conflict. 1) Originally
342
Yoga and martial way: kinship and applications
in Japan, Budo was understood as a synonym of Bushido – the pathway
of a warrior. In a narrower sense, it refers to the Japanese tradition of
chivalry (i.e, the Bushi culture); hand-to-hand combat, and wielding
weapons. 2) The concept Refers, in a broader sense, it is the “way of
the warrior” or “a spiritual path of martial arts,” and as a group of
These cultural traditions throughout the Far East Asia, I.E, martial
arts in general. 3) Budo is understood in a narrower sense it Refer to
a group of Japanese martial arts. 4) Budo is further understood as a
way to “stop violence”, promote moral development, as an educational
system, and a path toward improvement and striving for perfection
widely understood.” [Cynarski, Skowron 2014: 60–61].
In both cases (Yoga and martial ways) operate various schools
and organizations in which different “ideologies” operate – usually in
line with the preferences of the main master-teacher. In exceptional
cases where the master himself practiced Yoga (as Gogen “Cat” Yama-
guchi, Grand Master of karate Gojukai), a school could borrow from
Yoga both methods, exercises and ideas.
Elements of Hathayoga (the Yoga bodily exercises) are grown
in the school at least 11 countries [Gharote 1990; Augenstein 2003:
44–45]. Yoga practiced systematically favours the development of
concentration [Augenstein 2003: 242–244]. Yoga is also used in sport,
recreational activity and psychological therapy [Moegling 1986, 2006;
Wertz 1991; Duricekova 2007]. As far as Yoga and martial arts of the
Far East they are similar?
These are two different ways of psycho-improvement, self-fulfill-
ment and asceticism. As far as they are related or different? Attempt
to explain was taken in view of humanistic theory of martial arts
and anthropology martial arts (pathway of warrior) [Bolelli 2008;
Cynarski 2012].
343
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Methodology
The Content Analysis and Analysis of Discourse were used [Krippendorf 2004]. Sources are thematic publications – literature. In particular, these are statements of experts –practitioners (the great masters
of martial arts and Yoga gurus).
Anthropology of psychophysical development, akin Holistic Pedagogy, also serves as a basis for anthropology ways of martial arts
[Szyszko-Bohusz 1989, 2003]. They included a scientific framework
of sociology psychophysical system of self-realization [Cynarski 2011].
How adopted here ontology translates into conceptual language?
‹Holism› can be understand here as “Body united with Persons”
[Kretchmar 1994: 67–88] and as ontological understanding human
as “mind, soul and body” [Lee 2009]. We reject the reductionist ap-
proach, on the man. In addition, philosophical reflections of Spencer
Wertz remain still topical. He has demonstrated the inadequacy of
the concept of ‘physical culture’, pointing to the examples of physical
culture, or rather psychophysical East, like Yoga or Zen, dominated
by the stillness and inner concentration. In his reflections on the new
paradigm of the theory and philosophy of physical culture upheld
on axiology system of self-realization, meditation and the pursuit of
harmony, which also applies to martial arts [Wertz 1991].
The “martial arts” we mean: a historic category of flawless meth-
ods of unarmed combat fights and the use of weapon combined with
spiritual element (personal development, also in its transcendent
sphere) [Cynarski, Skowron 2014]. “Ways of martial” arts include
certain forms of physical (psychophysical) culture, Which, based on
tradition of warrior cultures lead, through training of fighting techniques, the psychophysical improvement and self-realization. At the
344
Yoga and martial way: kinship and applications
same time, they are the processes of education and positive ascetics.
The positive asceticism corporal combines exercise with conscious
self-discipline and is oriented towards moral and spiritual progress
[Cynarski 2013b].
Results
Kinship
In the colloquial meaning of Yoga it is similar to taiji quan and qigong
[Mantak Chia, Li 1997]. Both are referred to as a soft form of bodily
experience [Moegling 1984, 1986, 2006], elements of a set of internal
exercise, psycho-physical self, or – more generally – ‘Oriental disciplines’ [Raimondo 2007]. Elsewhere these disciplines: Eastern dance,
Yoga, meditation, qigong, taiji quan, and martial arts – are called ‘Eastern movement forms’ [Brown, Leledaki 2010]. But, do disciplines of
internal exercises, not based on movement and practiced often in static positions and concentrating on your breathing, should be called
‘movement forms’? Probably it is more appropriate to define them as
‘psycho-physical systems of self-realization’. Especially since the martial arts oriented to personal self-improvement (as Budo disciplines)
are included in the set designates this concept.
According to the deeper meaning of karate and other martial arts
they are called Yoga of courage [Tokarski 2011]. In particular, Indian
martial arts like Kalaripayattu, are close Hathayoga system, as growing
out of the same culture (Hindu) trunk.
As the psychophysical system of self-realization of an ascetic,
Yoga and ways of martial arts (Budo school educational systems and
related) [Cynarski 2011] are related. Similar, they are relatively universal ethical standards, although much different. For example, there
are different varieties of Yoga and different philosophies of martial
345
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
arts [Zwoliński 1995; Bolelli 2008; Cynarski 2013]. Also, similarity of
martial arts medicine and Ayurveda medicine is only a partial [Gharote
1990; Cynarski, Sieber 2015].
However, some exercise, for example, relaxation techniques [Szyszko-Bohusz 1978: 12–16] are deliberately included in the process of
training of martial arts. Similarly – many stretching exercises used
in Hathayoga [Michalska 1978; Iyengar 1988] are often used in karate and related martial arts, too. It is possible, however, that these
are not borrowing, but intrinsic tradition of countries of eastern and
south-eastern Asia.
Differences
Yoga and martial arts are different goals, axiology, understanding the
human and spiritual spheres. It is inferred from other religious traditions and philosophical, and directly – another language of description. The purpose of Yoga is to unite with the Absolute and to achieve
holiness, or even divinity. In contrast, the way of martial arts shows,
as the main objective, the formation of a good man [cf. Sedlak 1972
Szyszko-Bohusz 1978; Iyengar 1988; McFarlane 1990; Maroteaux,
Cynarski 2002–2003; Cynarski 2012; Shishida, Flynn 2013].
The ratio of the corporeality is different in the traditional meaning
of Yoga, while another in its contemporary applications [cf. Swierzowska 2015]. Today Yoga exercises (in the West, the popular perception) are mainly health and relaxation. Also in the case of a traditional
ascetic orientation, exercise the body is there a different purpose
than for the ‘path of warrior’ [cf. Cynarski, Obodyński 2011; Cynarski,
Sieber, Szajna 2014].
We can agree that both Yoga and a large part of the martial arts can
be described as systems of meditation [Zwoliński 1995; Maliszewski
346
Yoga and martial way: kinship and applications
1996]. However Rajayoga (Royal Yoga) is part of the religious practice
of Hinduism, while Budo stems from the tradition of Shinto and Buddhist, but there is not a fragment of a religious practice of any religion.
Other martial arts – similar – arise from the tradition of Taoist or
Confucian, but operate autonomously in relation to religion exercisers.
Also similarity Budo exercises to Hathayoga does not mean that
they are identical. For the yogi’s goal of Yoga is to achieve full control
over the body, and also over their own spiritual sphere. But for the
purpose of exercise for a warrior is – in the first place – better mastery
of fighting skills (climbing frames pattern of somatic culture and dominant overall merit of utilitarian). This does not preclude the exercise
for the sake of self-improvement, health or other purposes.
Discussion
The impact of Yoga on human practitioner is multidirectional, affecting the efficiency of physical and psychological [Ozdzinski 1995;
Tomoczky, Rozsa, Nagy 2015]. Similarly, in a comprehensive way,
affects the practice of martial arts [Cynarski, Sieber, Szajna 2014].
Physical and mental health components condition in the life quality
of students who regularly practice kickboxing and Yoga, are better
developed by kickboxers in physical aspects, and to Yoga students in
mental health aspect [Tsos et al. 2017; cf. Ozdzinski 1995].
On the other hand, we find criticism of Yoga, the ascetic and the
educational system. Andrzej Pawłucki writes about the “absurdity of
Hathayoga” [Pawłucki 2015: 19–23; cf. Pawłucki 2016]. This is due
to the adoption of humanistic and personalistic premises anthropological, ontological and axiological. So not every educational concept
recommends the application of Yoga. Ways of martial arts, though
wrongly accused of causing aggressiveness (not to be confused martial
347
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
arts with combat sports), but are often accepted regardless of the
professed belief. Perhaps this is due to a desire to defend cultural
identity versus multiculturalism and acculturation imposed on foreign
elements, in the context of the crisis of Western identity [cf. Szabo,
Ward, Fletcher 2016]?
Some authors emphasize the more kinship of Yoga and martial
arts [cf. Zwoliński 1995; Maliszewski 1996; Moegling 2006; Raimondo,
2007], some other – differences [cf. Shishida, Flynn 2013; Cynarski,
Sieber, Szajna 2014; Nakiri 2015]. Of course, these are undoubtedly
separate cultural phenomena.
Conclusions
Yoga, though linked to origin and terminology of Hinduism, contains
exercises useful in physical education, sports, martial arts and health
therapy. This is also the most successfully used (physical exercises,
breathing, relaxation). With Budo pathways and related warriors pathways combines Yoga exercises the ascetic sense.
References
Avalon A. (1913), Tantra of the Great Liberation Translated by Arthur Avalon (Sir John Woodroffe).
Augenstein S. (2003), Yoga und Konzentration. Theoretische Uebungen und
empirische Untersuchungsergebnisse, Prolog Verlag, Immenhausen bei
Kassel [in German].
Bolelli D. (2008), On the Warrior’s Path. Philosophy, Fighting, and Martial
Arts Mythology, Blue Snake Books, Berkeley, CA.
Brown D., Leledaki A. (2010), Eastern movement forms as body-self transforming cultural practices in the West: towards a sociological perspective, “Cultural Sociology”, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 123–154.
348
Yoga and martial way: kinship and applications
Cynarski W.J. (2011), Towards the sociology of psychophysical systems of
self-realization, “Journal of Health Promotion and Recreation”, vol. 1,
no. 1, pp. 21–28.
Cynarski W.J. (2012), Anthropology of Martial Arts. Studies and Essays of the
Sociology and Philosophy of Martial Arts, Rzeszow University Press,
Rzeszow [in Polish].
Cynarski W.J. (2013a), General reflections about the philosophy of martial
arts, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”,
vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 1–6.
Cynarski W.J. (2013b), Budo, Martial Arts and Combat Sports – Definitions,
Ideas, Theories, “Research Journal of Budo”, 45 (3): 222–241.
Cynarski W.J., Obodynski K. (2011), Corporeality in martial arts anthropology, ”Human Movement”, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 291–297.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L. (2015), Martial arts (alternative) medicine – channel
of transmission to Europe, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 8–21; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.3.2.
Cynarski W.J., Sieber L., Szajna G. (2014), Martial arts in physical culture,
“Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol.
14, no. 4, pp. 39–45; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.4.5.
Cynarski W.J., Skowron J. (2014), An analysis of the conceptual language
used for the general theory of martial arts – Japanese, Polish and English
terminology, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 14, no. 3, pp. 49–66; doi: 10.14589/ido.14.3.7.
Duricekova M. (2007), Psychology of Yoga and its impact on personality [in:]
M. Duricek, P. Gallo [eds.], Trends in physical recreation and current
style of life, Kosice University Press, Roznava, pp. 177–183 [in Slovak].
Eliade M. (1948), Techniques du Yoga, Gallimard, Paris [in French].
Gharote M.L. (1990), Approach to teaching Yoga in Physical Education, ”Yoga
Mimamsa”, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 40–47.
Iyengar B.K.S. (1988), Light of Yoga. Yoga Dipika, Unwin Hyman, London.
Kretchmar S.R. (1994), Practical Philosophy of Sport, Human Kinetics,
Champaign, IL.
349
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Krippendorf K. (2004), Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology,
Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Lee Ki-Cheon (2009), The development of holistic wellness model in physical
education curriculum: from invalid to sage level [in:] TPEC, The 20th
Pan-Asian Congress of Sports and Physical Education, Oct 15–16, 2009,
Taipei Physical Education College, Taipei, pp. 34–35.
Maliszewski M. (1996), Spiritual Dimensions of the Martial Arts, C.E. Tuttle
Company, Rutland-Tokyo.
Mantak Chia, Juan Li (1997), Tao, Yoga, Inneres Tai-Chi. Tai-Chi Chi-Kung:
Der Weg zum spirituellen Kern des Tai-Chi, Ansata-Verlag, Bern-Munich-Vienna [in German].
Maroteaux R.J., Cynarski W.J. (2002–2003), On philosophy of Japanese martial
arts – questions and answers, ”Ido – Ruch dla Kultury / Movement for
Culture”, vol. 3, pp. 48–55.
McFarlane S. (1990), Mushin, morals, and martial arts – a discussion of
Keenan’s Yogacara critique, “Japanese Journal of Religious Studies”,
vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 397–420.
Michalska M. (1978), Hatha-Yoga for all, PZWL, Warsaw [in Polish].
Moegling K. (1984) [ed.], Sanfte Körpererfahrung: Autogenes Training,
Stretching, Yoga, Tai Chi, Zen, Aikido, Kassel [in German].
Moegling K. (1986), Yoga im Sportfoerderunterricht, “Motorik“, vol. 9, no. 3,
pp. 102–109 [in German].
Moegling K. (2006), Bildung als Ausweg ‘des Menschen aus seiner Selbstverschuldeten Unmündigkeit’ – Zum Bildungsverständnis und zur Konzeption einer zeitgemäβen Sport- und Bewegungspädagogik, “Ido – Ruch
dla Kultury / Movement for Culture“, vol. 6, pp. 268–275 [in German].
Nakiri F. (2015), Concept of budo and the history and activities of the Japanese Academy of Budo, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial
Arts Anthropology”, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 11–25; doi: 10.14589/ido.15.1.2
Ozdzinski J. (1995), Aktywność ruchowa jako element samorealizacji w cywilizacjach antycznych i orientalnych oraz w transmisji współczesnej,
AWF, Poznan [in Polish].
350
Yoga and martial way: kinship and applications
Pasek T., Gaertner H., Flyley M.J. (2004), Świadome sterowanie oddechem
w ćwiczeniach Jogi, ”Wychowanie Fizyczne i Zdrowotne”, no. 4, pp.
7–10 [in Polish].
Pawlucki Andrzej (2015), Nauki o kulturze fizycznej, Impuls, Krakow [in
Polish].
Pawlucki A. (2016), Ascetyzm cielesności w strukturze społeczeństwa narodowego [in:] Z. Dziubinski, M. Lenartowicz [eds.], Kultura fizyczna a struktura społeczna, AWF – SALOS RP, Warsaw, pp. 197–220 [in Polish].
Raimondo S. [ed.] (2007), Vibrazioni nella Forza. Storia critica delle discipline
orientali, Persport, Edizioni la Meridiana, Molfetta [in Italian].
Sedlak W. (1972), Joga w świetle współczesnej biofizyki, ”Zesz. Nauk. KUL”,
vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 43–52 [in Polish].
Shishida F., Flynn S.M. (2013), How does the philosophy of martial arts manifest itself? Insights from Japanese martial arts, “Ido Movement for Culture. Journal of Martial Arts Anthropology”, vol. 13, no. 3, pp. 29–36.
Swierzowska A. (2015), The body in Yoga. Tradition and modernity, “Rozprawy Naukowe AWF we Wroclawiu”, vol. 48, pp. 63–75.
Szabo A., Ward C., Fletcher G.J.O. (2016), Identity Processing Styles During
Cultural Transition: Construct and Measurement, ”Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology”, vol. 47, no. 4, pp. 483–507; doi: 10.1177/002202
2116631825.
Szyszko-Bohusz A. (1978), Yoga: Indian philosophical, medical and pedagogical system, Ossolineum, PAN, Wroclaw [in Polish].
Szyszko-Bohusz A. (1989), The Holistic Pedagogy, Ossolineum, PAN, Wroclaw [in Polish].
Szyszko-Bohusz A. (2003), Theory of Genetic Immortality in Relation to Holistic Pedagogy and Far-Eastern Martial Arts [in:] W.J. Cynarski, K. Obodyński [eds.], Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts and Combat Sports
– Conceptions and Problems, Rzeszow University Press, Rzeszow, pp.
17–23.
Szyszko-Bohusz A. (2005), Filozoficzne, lecznicze i pedagogiczne aspekty
jogi, Polskie Stowarzyszenie Medycyny Komplementarnej, Cracow [in
Polish].
351
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
Tokarski S. (2011), Kalaripayatt, kushti and the Indian warfare, ”Journal of
Combat Sports and Martial Arts”, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 53–56.
Tomoczky G., Rozsa S., Nagy H. (2015), Effects of yoga and various sports on
well-being among university students [in:] 7th Conference ISSSS. Book of
Abstracts, Budapest, p. 47.
Tsos A., Hylchuk Y., Andreichuk O., Pantik V., Tsymbaliuk S. (2017), Physical
and mental health components condition in the life quality of students
who regularly practice kickboxing and Yoga, “Phys Activ Rev”, vol. 5,
pp. 37–43.
Wertz S.K. (1991), Talking a Good Game. Inquires into the Principles of Sport,
Southern Methodist University Press, Dallas.
Zwoliński A. (1995), Sztuki walki: droga wojowników medytacji, Gotów,
Kraków (serie: Pytania nieobojętne 10) [in Polish].
APPENDIX
List of abbreviations and acronyms
AMA – anthropology of martial arts
AWF – Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego (Academy of Physical Education)
AZS – Akademicki Związek Sportowy (Academic Sports Association)
DDBV – Deutscher Dan-Traeger und Budo-Lehrer Verband e.V. (German
Association of Dan Holders and Budo Teachers)
DJJR – Deutscher Jiu-Jitsu Ring “Erich Rahn” e.V. (German Jujutsu Association “Erich Rahn”)
DFKB – Dan-Federation of Zendo Karate Tai-Te-Tao and Budo
DKF – Deutsche Kampfkunst Foederation e.V. (German Federation of
Martial Arts)
EJKC à EMAC
EMAC – European Martial Arts Committee, formerly: European Jujutsu
& Kobudo Committee (EJKC)
EWTO – European WingTsun Organisation
FIRA – Federation Internationale de Rugby Amateur
GM – Grand Master
353
Martial Arts & Combat Sports: Towards the General Theory of Fighting Arts
GTFA – General Theory of Fighting Arts
HTD – Highest Technical Degree
HTMA – Humanistic Theory of Martial Arts
IMACSSS – International Martial Arts and Combat Sports Scientific
Society
IMAF – International Martial Arts Federation
IPA – Idokan Poland Association (Pol. Stowarzyszenie Idokan Polska,
SIP)
IASK – International Association of Sport Kinetics
IJJF – International Ju-Jitsu Federation
IRFB – International Rugby Football Board
ITF – International Taekwon-do Federation
JAB – Japanese Academy of Budo
MA & CS – martial arts and combat sports
PZJJ – Polski Związek Ju-Jitsu (Polish Ju-Jitsu Association)
RCDB – Rzeszow Centre Aikibudo, Kobudo and Jujutsu ”Dojo Budokan”
(Pol. Rzeszowski Ośrodek Aikibudo, Kobudo i Jujutsu „Dojo Budokan”, RODB)
SIP – Stowarzyszenie Idokan Polska (à IPA)
WKF – World Karate Federation
WTF – World Taekwondo Federation
Keep reading this paper — and 50 million others — with a free Academia account
Used by leading Academics
Thomas Pettigrew
University of California, Santa Cruz
Abdullah Dagci
Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University
Thomas L Webb
The University of Sheffield
Mehdi Riazi
Hamad Bin Khalifa University
