2009
n° 33
AUTHENTICATION AND ANALYSIS OF GOLDWORK
Guest Editors
Maria Filomena Guerra and Thilo Rehren
P re s s e s U n i ve r s i ta i re s d e R e n n e s
ArcheoSciences, éditée annuellement par le Groupe des Méthodes Pluridisciplinaires Contribuant à l’Archéologie (GMPCA), est ouverte à toute
communication, en français ou en anglais, sur toute recherche originale et inédite traitant de l’application de diverses techniques scientifiques (sciences
physiques, chimiques, mathématiques et sciences de la terre et de la vie) à la résolution de problématiques archéologiques ou de la mise au point de
nouvelles méthodes. Les articles peuvent porter sur les méthodologies et leurs limites, sur des recherches scientifiques fondamentales ou des techniques
spécialisées, sous réserve que leur justification archéologique soit clairement explicitée.
ARCHEOSCIENCES, a scientific journal published by the “Groupe des Méthodes Pluridisciplinaires Contribuant à l’Archéologie” (GMPCA), covers the entire
spectrum of disciplines in archeometry. Specifically, ARCHEOSCIENCES publishes, in English or in French, original work in physics, chemistry, mathematics, geology,
biology, paleoecology applied to archaeological research.
ArcheoSciences est publiée avec le concours du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et du ministère de la Culture et de la Communication. Elle
est indexée dans FRANCIS (Vandœuvre-les-Nancy, France), BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY (Londres, GB), ANTHROPOLOGICAL
LITTERATURE (Cambridge, États-Unis), ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY TECHNICAL ABSTRACTS (États-Unis), GETTY CONSERVATION
INSTITUTE PROJECT BIBLIOGRAPHIES (États-Unis).
ARCHEOSCIENCES is published with the financial support of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and the french Ministère de la Culture et de la
Communication. This journal is indexed in FRANCIS (Vandœuvre-les-Nancy, France), BRITISH ARCHAEOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY (London, GrandeBretagne), ANTHROPOLOGICAL LITTERATURE (Cambridge, USA), ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY TECHNICAL ABSTRACTS (USA), GETTY
CONSERVATION INSTITUTE PROJECT BIBLIOGRAPHIES (USA).
Rédacteurs/Editors
Philippe Lanos (CNRS, Rennes/Bordeaux), Benoît Devillers (université de Montpellier)
Rédacteurs adjoints/Associate Editors
Claire Delhon (CNRS, Valbonne), Stéphan Dubernet (Université de Bordeaux), Matthieu Le Bailly (Université de Reims), Joséphine LesurGebremariam (MNHN, Paris), Ina Reiche (CNRS, Paris), Vincent Serneels (Université de Fribourg), Jacques Thiriot (CNRS, Aix-en-Provence),
Yona Waksman (CNRS, Lyon)
Le Comité de Rédaction, qui se réunit en moyenne tous les trimestres, est constitué par le Conseil élu du GMPCA (Cf. ci-dessus, rédacteurs et rédacteurs
adjoints). Chaque proposition d’article est soumise à deux rapporteurs choisis au sein d’un Comité de lecture constitué du Comité de Rédaction et d’un
Comité Scientifique comprenant notamment les personnalités suivantes :
The Editor committee, which brings together every quarter, is made up of the board of directors of the GMPCA (editors and associate editors above). Each manuscript
is under the responsibility of an editor and is evaluated by two scientists of known competence in the relevant field, notably members of the Scientific committee:
A. Bouquillon (Paris), J.-P. Bravard (Lyon), O. Buchsenschutz (Paris), N. Cantin (Bordeaux), L. Chaix (Genève), Ph. Colomban (Paris),
B. Cunliffe (Oxford, GB), M. Dabas (Paris), F. Delamare (Valbonne), Ph. Dillmann (Paris), C. Domergue (Toulouse), P. Fluzin (Belfort), P.
Gassmann (Neuchâtel, CH), B. Gratuze (Orléans), M.-F. Guerra (Paris), P. Guibert (Bordeaux), N. Huet (Nantes), C. Leroyer (Rennes), I.
Liritzis (Rhodes, GR), M. Magetti (Fribourg, CH), Ph. Marinval (Toulouse), M. Martinon-Torres (Londres, GB), P. Meyers (Los Angeles,
USA), C. Oberlin (Lyon), M. Pernot (Bordeaux), M. Picon (Lyon), G. Querre (Rennes), T. Rehren (Londres, GB), I. Reiche (Paris), H. Richard
(Besançon), L. Robiola (Paris), A. Schmitt (Lyon), A. Tabbagh (Paris), M. Vendrell-Saz (Barcelone, ES), J.-D. Vigne (Paris), Ph. Walter (Paris).
Cover / Couverture
Top left / Haut à gauche : The inverted bow-shaped gold fibula from the Phoenician tomb of Kition, Cyprus. Reference MLA1742/20, National Museum of
Archaeology of Nicosia / La fibule en or à l’arc inverse de la tombe phénicienne de Kition, Chypre. Référence MLA1742/20, Musée national d’Archéologie de Nicosie.
Top right / Haut à droite : X-radiography of a 19th century fibula with a lion produced in the Etruscan style. Reference 85037, National Museum of Archaeology
of Florence / Radiographie X de la fibule au lion produite au XIXe siècle dans le style étrusque. Référence 85037, Musée national d’Archéologie de Florence.
Bottom left / Bas à gauche : Myanmar jeweller producing gold beads, which stylistically replicate the ancient Asiatic beads / Orfèvre à Myanmar fabricant des perles
en or stylistiquement identiques aux anciennes perles asiatiques.
Bottom right / Bas à droite : PIXE analysis at the AGLAE accelerator of the C2RMF of a Kushan gold pendant. Reference 274, National Museum of Antiquities
of Tajikistan / Analyse PIXE à l’accélérateur AGLAE du C2RMF d’un pendentif Kushan en or. Référence 274, Musée national des Antiquités du Tadjikistan.
Sauf opposition formelle des auteurs ou de leurs ayant-droit, les articles parus dans ArcheoSciences pourront être mis en ligne par
l’éditeur pour être consultés et imprimés, à titre gratuit ou onéreux.
www.pur-editions.fr
© Presses Universitaires de Rennes et ArcheoSciences
Campus La Harpe
2, rue du Doyen-Denis-Leroy
35044 RENNES cedex
Dépôt légal : mars 2009
ISSN 1960-1360
ISBN 978-2-7535-1181-1
This volume is dedicated to the memory of our dear colleague and friend Maurizio Donati, who
attended the Workshop and unexpectedly passed away on the 20th of May 2010 when he was
working on his contribution to these Proceedings. He was a respected Master goldsmith and a dedicated Emeritus Professor at the Istituto Statale d’Arte in Rome. Besides the quality of his work,
we were all in many ways touched by the quality of the Man. He will be missed.
Ce volume est dédié à la mémoire de Maurizio Donati, notre cher collègue et ami qui a participé au
Workshop et qui est subitement décédé le 20 mai 2010 pendant la rédaction de sa contribution à ces
actes. Il était un Maître orfèvre respecté et un Professeur Émérite dévoué de l’Istituto Statale d’Arte de
Rome. Au-delà de la qualité de son travail, nous avons toujours pu apprécier ses qualités humaines.
Nous le regretterons beaucoup.
Publié avec le soutien de
AS, 33, 2009
Sommaire / Contents
GUERRA M. F., REHREN Th., AURUM: Archaeometry and authenticity of gold
AURUM : Archéométrie et authenticité de l’or
13
MATERIALS AND METHODS: THE FOUNDATIONS
MATÉRIAUX ET MÉTHODES : LES BASES
PEREA A., Wands in the hand! Or Potter’s powers
Une baguette magique dans la main! Ou les pouvoirs de Potter
21
DEMORTIER G., Targeting Ion Beam Analysis techniques for gold artefacts
Techniques de faisceaux d’ions ciblés pour l’analyse d’objets en or
29
RADTKE M., REINHOLZ U., RIESEMEIER H., Synchrotron Radiation Induced X-Ray Fluorescence
for the characterization of ancient Gold objects
Fluorescence de rayons X induite par radiation de synchrotron pour la caractérisation d’objets anciens en or
YANAKIEVA D., TONKOVA M., SPIRIDONOV E., VERGILOV Z., PENKOVA P., X-ray Diffraction method for determination
of crystallite sizes of gold and silver items – New opportunities for archaeology and for protection against forgery
Méthode de diffraction de rayons X pour la détermination des tailles de cristallites des objets d’or et d’argent –
Nouvelles opportunités pour l’archéologie et pour la protection contre la production de faux
FERRO D., VIRGILI V., CARRARO A., FORMIGLI E., COSTANTINI L., A multi-analytical approach
for the identification of technological processes in ancient jewellery
Approche multi-analytique pour l’identification des procédés technologiques de fabrication de bijoux anciens
EUGSTER O., PERNICKA E., BRAUNS M., SHUKOLYUKOV A., OLIVE V., ROELLIN S., Helium, uranium and thorium
analyses of ancient and modern gold objects: estimates of their time of manufacturing
Analyse de l’hélium, de l’uranium et du thorium dans des objets anciens et modernes en or :
estimation de leur date de fabrication
39
45
51
59
SPIRIDONOV E., YANAKIEVA D., Modern mineralogy of gold: overview and new data
Minéralogie moderne de l’or : bilan et nouvelles données
67
HAUPTMANN A., KLEIN S., Bronze Age gold in southern Georgia
L’or en Géorgie du sud à l’Âge du Bronze
75
TĂMAŞ C. G., BARON S., CAUUET B., Minéralogie et signature isotopique du plomb des minerais auro-argentifères exploités
durant l’époque romaine à Alburnus Maior (Roşia Montană, Roumanie)
Mineralogy and lead isotope signature of the gold-silver ores exploited during the Roman period at Alburnus Maior
(Roşia Montană, Romania)
83
BERGONZI G., The earliest gold objects in Italy: a review of the archaeological evidence
Les plus anciens objets d’or découverts en Italie : bilan des donnés archéologiques
91
BENNETT A. T. N., Gold in early Southeast Asia
L’or dans le Sud-Est asiatique ancien
99
STUDIES OF OBJECTS: MANUFACTURING SKILLS AND ALLOY SELECTION
ÉTUDES D’OBJETS : COMPÉTENCES TECHNIQUES ET CHOIX DES ALLIAGES
TROALEN L. G., GUERRA M. F., TATE J., MANLEY B., Technological study of gold jewellery pieces dating
from the Middle Kingdom to the New Kingdom in Egypt
Étude technologique de pièces d’orfèvrerie datées du Moyen Empire au Nouvel Empire en Égypte
111
TATE J, EREMIN K., TROALEN L. G., GUERRA M. F., GORING E., MANLEY B.,
The 17th Dynasty gold necklace from Qurneh, Egypt
Le collier en or de Qurneh daté de la XVIIe Dynastie, Égypte
121
PRÉVALET R., Preliminary observation on three Late Bronze Age gold items from Ras Shamra-Ugarit (Syria)
Observations préliminaires de trois objets en or de l’Âge du Bronze récent de Ras Shamra-Ougarit (Syrie)
129
ADRIMI-SISMANI V., GUERRA M. F., WALTER P., La tombe mycénienne de Kazanaki (Volos) et le mythe de la Toison d’or
The Mycenaean tomb of Kazanaki (Volos) and the myth of the Golden Fleece
135
FLOURENTZOS P., VITOBELLO M. L., The Phoenician gold jewellery from Kition, Cyprus
L’orfèvrerie phénicienne en or de Kition, Chypre
143
GUERRA M. F., REHREN Th., In-situ examination and analysis of the gold jewellery
from the Phoenician tomb of Kition (Cyprus)
Examen et analyse in situ d’orfèvrerie en or de la tombe phénicienne de Kition (Chypre)
PEREA A., HUNT-ORTIZ M. A., New finds from an old treasure: the archaeometric study of new gold objects
from the Phoenician sanctuary of El Carambolo (Camas, Seville, Spain)
Nouvelles trouvailles pour un ancien trésor : l’étude archéométrique de nouveaux objets en or du sanctuaire phénicien
de El Carambolo (Camas, Séville, Espagne)
151
159
FERRO D., BEDINI A., RAPINESI I. A., Two small orientalising spirals (Rome, 10th-9th century BC): common objects –
precious jewels
Deux petites nattes en spirale orientalisantes (Rome, Xe-IXe siècle avant J.-C.) : objects du quotidien – bijoux précieux
165
MELCHER M., SCHREINER M., BÜHLER B., PÜLZ A. M., MUSS U., Investigation of ancient gold objects
from Artemision at Ephesus using portable μ-XRF
Enquête sur les objets anciens en or de l’Artemision à Ephèse au moyen d’un équipement de μFX portable
169
GUERRA M. F., DEMORTIER G., VITOBELLO M. L., BOBOMULLOEV S., BAGAULT D., BOREL T., MIRSAIDOV I., Analytical study
of the manufacturing techniques of Kushan gold jewellery (National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan)
Étude analytique des techniques d’orfèvrerie Kouchane (musée national des Antiquités du Tadjikistan)
177
ARMBRUSTER B., Gold technology of the ancient Scythians – gold from the kurgan Arzhan 2, Tuva
La technologie de l’or chez les Scythes anciens – l’or du kurgan Arzhan 2, Touva
187
ILIEVA P., PENKOVA P., Funeral golden mask and hand with a ring. The necropolis of Trebeniste
Le masque funéraire en or et la main baguée – la nécropole de Trebeniste
195
TONKOVA M., PENKOVA P., Les parures en or de la nécropole thrace de Duvanli du ve siècle av. J.-C. :
le cas du tumulus de Kukova
The gold jewellery from the Thracian necropolis of Duvanli (5th century BC): the case of the Kukova mound
SHEMAKHANSKAYA M., TREISTER M., YABLONSKY L., The technique of gold inlaid decoration on the 5th-4th centuries BC:
silver and iron finds from the early Sarmatian barrows of Filippovka, Southern Urals
La technique de décoration par inclusion d’or aux Ve-IVe siècles av. J-C :
les trouvailles en argent et fer des tumulus de la période Sarmate ancienne de Filippovka au sud de l’Oural
201
211
CONSTANTINESCU B., BUGOI R., COJOCARU V., RADTKE M., CALLIGARO T., SALOMON J., PICHON L., RÖHRS S., CECCATO
D., OBERLÄNDER-TÂRNOVEANU E., IONESCU C., POP D., Dacian bracelets and Transylvanian gold: ancient history and
modern analyses
Bracelets de Dacie et or de Transylvanie : histoire ancienne et analyses modernes
OANŢĂ-MARGHITU R., NICULESCU G., ŞECLĂMAN D., BUGOI R., GEORGESCU M., The gold belt buckle
from Apahida III (Romania), 5th century AD
La boucle de ceinturon en or d’Apahida III (Roumanie), Ve siècle apr. J.-C.
WHITFIELD N., ‘More like the work of fairies than of human beings’: the filigree on the ‘Tara’ brooch,
a masterpiece of late Celtic metalwork
« Œuvre des fées plus qu’œuvre des hommes » : le filigrane de la fibule de « Tara »,
un chef d’œuvre de l’orfèvrerie celtique tardive
AUFDERHAAR I., From the goldsmith’s point of view: gilding on metals during the first millennium AD –
techniques and their development in the Germanic area
Du point de vue de l’orfèvre : dorure sur métal au premier millénaire apr. J.-C. – les techniques et leur évolution
dans l’aire germanique
SAPRYKINA I., TETERIN A., MITOYAN R., Gold foil covering of the handle of an iron knife from burial 2
of the Hunnic Period cemetery at Mukhino, in the Upper Don area
L’ornement en or du manche d’un poignard en fer de la tombe 2 de la période des Huns de la nécropole de Moukhino,
dans le Haut Don
DONATI M., The wire ‘at astragals’, or beaded wire, from medieval tradition to the technique
and tools used by the Roman goldsmiths Castellani in the 19th century
Le fil « à astragales », ou fil perlé, de la tradition médiévale à la technique
et aux outils utilisés par les orfèvres romains Castellani au XIXe siècle
OLIVEIRA M. J., MARANHAS T., SERUYA A. I., MAGRO F. A., BOREL T., GUERRA M. F., The jewellery from the casket
of Maria Pia of Savoy, Queen of Portugal, produced at Castellani’s workshop
Les bijoux du coffret de Maria Pia de Savoie, Reine du Portugal, fabriqués à l’atelier Castellani
221
227
235
243
255
259
265
SOUTH AMERICA: GOLD STUDIES IN THE NEW WORLD
AMÉRIQUE DU SUD : ÉTUDE DES ORS DU NOUVEAU MONDE
BOUCHARD J.-F., GUERRA M. F., Archéologie précolombienne et analyses scientifiques : la figurine d’El Angel,
une œuvre composite d’orfèvrerie de la culture La Tolita Tumaco (Équateur-Colombie)
Pre-Columbian archaeology and science-based analysis: the figurine of El Angel, a composite goldwork
from La Tolita Tumaco culture (Ecuador – Colombia)
CESAREO R., BUSTAMANTE D. A., FABIAN S. J., CALZA C., DOS ANJOS M., LOPES R. T., ALVA W., CHERO Z. L., GUTIERREZ V. F.,
ESPINOZA C. M., RODRIGUEZ R. R., SECLEN F. M., CURAY V., ELERA C., SHIMADA I., Pre-Colombian alloys
from the royal tombs of Sipán and from the Museum of Sicán: non-destructive XRF analysis with a portable equipment
Alliages précolombiens des tombes royales de Sipán et du musée de Sicán : analyse non-destructive avec un système FX portable
273
281
RUVALCABA SIL J. L., PEÑUELAS GUERRERO G., CONTRERAS VARGAS J., ORTÍZ DÍAZ E., HERNÁNDEZ VÁZQUEZ E.,
Technological and material features of the gold work of Mesoamerica
Caractéristiques technologiques et matérielles du travail de l’or en Mésoamérique
289
PEÑUELAS-GUERRERO G., CONTRERAS-VARGAS J., RUVALCABA-SIL J. L. GARCÍA-ABAJO A., Technological study
of pre-Columbian bimetallic discs from Monte Alban, Oaxaca, Mexico
Étude technologique des disques bimétalliques précolombiens de Monte Alban, Oaxaca, Mexique
299
ORTIZ DÍAZ E., Location of gold placers in Oaxaca during the late pre-Hispanic period and early Colonial times:
1250 to 1550 AD
Localisation de placers aurifères à Oaxaca pendant la période préhispanique tardive et la période coloniale récente :
1250 à 1550 apr. J.-C.
303
DUTTINE M., GUERRA M. F., LOBO VIEIRA R. M., SCORZELLI R. B., PEREIRA C. E. B., PEREZ C. A.,
The first gold coins struck in Brazil: myth or reality?
Les premières monnaies en or frappées au Brésil : mythe ou réalité ?
309
PARREIRA P. S., APPOLONI C. R., LOBO VIEIRA R. M., SCORZELLI R. B., LE CORRE L., GUERRA M. F.,
Precious metals determination in ancient coins by portable ED-XRF Spectroscopy with a 238Pu source
Détermination des métaux précieux dans les monnaies anciennes par spectroscopie ED-FX portable avec une source de 238Pu
313
Eva BRITO E., CHAIRE F., Gold jewellery of devotional images in Campeche State, Mexico
Bijoux en or des images de dévotion dans l’état de Campeche, Mexique
319
AUTHENTICATION: APPLYING EXPERT KNOWLEDGE
AUTHENTIFICATION : APPLICATION DES CONNAISSANCES DU SPÉCIALISTE
LA NIECE S., Forgeries and public collections
Les contrefaçons et les collections publiques
329
FORMIGLI E., Micro rayures et signes d’usure : authentification d’orfèvrerie archéologique
The analysis of micro-scratches and trace-wear in the authentication of archaeological gold
335
BOBIN O., GUEGAN H., A new approach to the authentication of goldwork using
combined Scanning Electron Microscopy and External-beam PIXE
Une nouvelle approche pour l’authentification des objets en or
en couplant la microscopie électronique à balayage et le PIXE en faisceau extrait
341
VELLA D., LICARI J., VELLA N., SULTANA S., CIANTAR V., Copy or authentic? Analysis
of a Phoenician gold ring from the National Museum of Archaeology, Valletta, Malta
Copie ou authentique ? Analyse d’une bague phénicienne en or du Musée national d’archéologie, La Vallette, Malte
349
RASTRELLI A., MICCIO M., TROALEN L., MARTINÓN-TORRES M., GUERRA M. F., SIANO S., SUMBERA A., VITOBELLO M. L.,
Modern and ancient gold jewellery attributed to the Etruscans: a science-based study
Orfèvrerie moderne et ancienne attribuée aux Étrusques: une étude scientifique
357
KULEFF I., STOYANOV T., TONKOVA M., Gold Thracian appliqués: authentic or fake?
Appliqués thraces en or: authentiques ou faux?
ENIOSOVA N., A unique 10th century AD gold-plated brooch from south-east Russia :
technical and stylistic authentication
Une broche unique plaquée or du Xe siècle apr. J.-C. provenant du Sud-Est de la Russie : authentification technique et stylistique
365
375
RESTORATION AND CONSERVATION
RESTAURATION ET CONSERVATION
BERGER O., Observations and questions on gold artefacts from underwater excavations
The view of an archaeologist-restorer working in situ
Observations et interrogations sur des objets en or provenant de fouilles archéologiques sous-marines
Le point de vue d’un archéologue-restaurateur travaillant in situ
TISSOT I., TISSOT M., PEDROSO P., RAPOSO L., Treasures of Portuguese archaeology.
Notes towards a preventive conservation project
Trésors de l’archéologie portugaise – notes pour un projet de conservation préventive
383
389
PACINI A., Ancient gold patinas: experimental reconstruction
Les patines anciennes de l’or : recréation expérimentale
393
MOUNIER A., DANIEL F., BECHTEL F., L’illusion de l’or. Imitation de dorures dans les peintures murales médiévales
The illusion of gold. Imitation of gilding in mediaeval mural paintings
397
BUCCOLIERI G., BUCCOLIERI A., BRACCI S., CARNEVALE F., FALLETTI F., PALAMÀ G., CESAREO R., CASTELLANO A.,
Gold leafs in 14th century Florentine painting
Feuilles d’or dans la peinture florentine du XIVe siècle
405
CAVALLO G., VERDA M., Gilding on wall paintings from a period between the 14th-16th centuries AD in the Lombard lake region
La dorure sur peintures murales entre le XIVe et le XVIe siècles dans la région des lacs lombards
409
BIDARRA A., COROADO J., ROCHA F., Gold leaf analysis of three baroque altarpieces from Porto
Analyse de feuilles d’or de trois retables baroques de la ville de Porto
417
LE GAC A., SERUYA A. I., LEFFTZ M., ALARCÃO A., The main altarpiece of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra (Portugal):
characterization of gold alloys used for gilding from 1500 to 1900
Le retable majeur de l’ancienne cathédrale de Coimbra (Portugal) : caractérisation des alliages d’or employés
dans la dorure de 1500 à 1900
423
AURUM: Archaeometry and authenticity of gold
AURUM : Archéométrie et Authenticité de l’or
Maria Filomena Guerra* and Thilo Rehren**
Abstract: In this introduction to volume 33 of ArcheoSciences, we provide a brief overview of the use and abuse of gold over time, and its different
aspects, from the mine to the objects, their use, analysis, and restoration. For this purpose, we focus on the papers presented in this volume,
which originate from the Workshop AURUM: authentication and analysis of goldwork, organised under the auspices of the EU-DG Research
funded project AUTHENTICO. The main aim of this project was to develop tools and expertise for law enforcement agencies to combat illicit
trade in antiquities and to fight fraud and forgeries; to do so requires an understanding of the diversity of the cultural, technical and material
manifestations of gold artefacts, and their very specific combinations and expressions. Some of the scholarly foundations of this endeavour are
illustrated by the selection of the 55 papers, arranged in five topical sections, which are introduced in this text.
Résumé : Dans cette introduction au volume 33 d’ArcheoSciences, nous faisons un bref bilan du us et abus de l’or au long du temps, des divers aspects
qu’il peut prendre de la mine à l’objet, et de l’utilisation des objets d’or, de leur analyse et de leur restauration. Ce bilan repose sur les articles présentés
dans ce volume, qui émanent du Workshop AURUM : authentification et analyse d’objets en or, organisé sous les auspices du projet AUTHENTICO,
financé par le DG-Recherche de la Commission Européenne. Le but principal de ce projet a été le développement d’outils et de compétences pour combattre
le trafic illicite d’antiquités et pour lutter contre la fraude et le commerce de faux. Pour atteindre cette fin, il est nécessaire de comprendre la diversité des
manifestations culturelles, techniques et matérielles des objets en or et leurs combinaisons et expressions très spécifiques. Quelques uns de ces fondements
sont illustrés par les 55 articles, organisés en cinq sections thématiques, qui sont introduits par ce texte.
Keywords: AURUM, introduction, gold, analysis, forgeries.
Mots-clés : AURUM, introduction, or, analyse, faux.
The appeal of gold is near-universal, and throughout history almost all metal-using cultures have put gold at the
top of their list of desirables. Even today, with other metals
being more expensive and more versatile to use, gold holds
a particular fascination for most of us. The unique aesthetic
qualities of gold and its alloys – their subtle range of colours
– and its smooth untarnished surface quality even after years
and, as we see with the many objects studied in this volume
of ArcheoSciences, millennia of use – like a representation of
eternal youth – are certainly the reasons of that attraction.
The workshop from which the papers presented in this
volume of ArcheoSciences originate was entitled AURUM:
authentication and analysis of goldwork. It was organised
under the auspices of the EU-DG Research funded project AUTHENTICO (Authentication methodologies for
metal artefacts based on material composition and manufacturing techniques) n. 044480 under the 6th Framework
Programme. The main aim of this project, including ten
partners from eight different countries and co-ordinated by
Maria Luisa Vitobello, director of the European Jewellery
* Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR171 CNRS, 14, quai François-Mitterrand, 75001 Paris, France.
(maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr)
** UCL Institute of Archaeology, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, United Kingdom. (th.rehren@ucl.ac.uk)
rec. Oct. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 13-18
14
Technology Network, was to develop tools and expertise
for law enforcement agencies to combat illicit trade in antiquities and to fight fraud and forgeries. Access to the results
of AUTHENTICO is necessarily restricted; AURUM acts
as the public face of AUTHENTICO, within the academic ethos of open discussion, free flow of information and
sharing knowledge. During the three days of the workshop in May 2009, more than 115 participants from over
28 countries (Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada,
Colombia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Egypt, France, Greece,
Germany, Hungary, Iran, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Mexico, The
Nedherlands, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Spain, Switzerland,
Tajikistan, Tunisia, United Kingdom, and the United States
of America) participated in wide-ranging discussions, spanning the entire spectrum of aspects indicated above (Fig. 1).
Many more wanted to come; but the room available simply did not allow more people to attend. This overwhelming interest, not only from scholars but also the wider
public, represented by government officials, a member of the
European Parliament, representatives of two European Law
Enforcement Agencies – the Command Office Carabinieri,
Department for the Protection of Cultural Heritage in
Rome, and the Central Office for the Fight against Traffic
in Cultural Goods of the French Criminal Investigation
Department – and the press, encouraged us to prepare the
presentations for swift publication.
This collection of papers offers but a glimpse of some of
the main themes played out by gold, both in the past, but
also in today’s world. Even though wonderful gold objects
can be easily produced by simple casting and hammering,
such as the Scythian ornaments studied by Armbruster and
the finds from the royal tombs of Sipán analysed by Cesareo
et al., the most delicate objects have been made from gold,
by the most skilful artisans of their times, multiplying the
worth of the metal with the value of their craft. The elbow
fibula from the Phoenician tomb of Kition in Cyprus, studied by Vitobello and Flourentzos and Guerra and Rehren,
the Celtic ‘Tara’ brooch described by Whitfield, the belt
buckle found in a princely grave from Apahida in Romania
dissected by Oanta-Marghitu, the adult’s necklace of the
Qurneh burial near Luxor studied by Tate et al., and the
bimetallic discs from Monte Alban, Oaxaca presented by
Peñuelas-Guerrero et al. are just a few examples of the artisans’ skills at different periods treated in this volume.
The functions of the objects fabricated with gold were
manifold: they include everyday jewellery from antiquity
(such as in Ras Shamra, as reported by Prévalet, and from
the Phoenicians, see Ferro et al.) to modern times (as in the
19th century, described by Donati), funerary objects (studied
by Ilieva and Penkova and Tonkova and Penkova), offerings
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
Maria Filomena GUERRA, Thilo REHREN
and worship items (illustrated in the paper by Brito and
Chaire), coins (analysed by Duttine et al. and Parreira et
al.), insignia of power, and even intermediate shapes such
as ingots for transporting the precious metal and for use in
trade. By using different gold alloys or/and by adding gems,
glass, enamel, and other more or less precious materials to
gold objects, polychromy was achieved by the artisans. The
Egyptians (as shown by Troalen et al.), the Minoans and the
Mycenaeans (as illustrated in the paper by Adrimi et al.) used
that technique already in the Bronze Age. Other techniques,
such as gold inlay (described by Shemakhanskaya et al.),
gilding (an overview of this technique in Germany is given
by Aufderhaar), plating (examples are given by Saprykina
et al. and by Eniosova), and patination (Pacini shows how
to produce ancient patinas) can be used to make entirely or
partially golden objects. The production of those objects can
change over time, responding to religious, political, or other
needs, or yet to the taste and style of each period, as exemplified in the ‘archaeological style’ of objects produced in
the 19th century by renowned goldsmiths such as Castellani;
the study of the jewellery from a royal casket produced in
Castellani’s workshop is presented by Oliveira et al.
But gold has other resonances, too. Gold is power.
Whoever controls the gold sources controls the economy.
Many myths, like those of Jason and the Golden Fleece, of
the El Dorado, and of King Midas, are linked to the quest
for gold and its recovery from alluvial deposits, the first to
be exploited. However, such mythic sources of gold are as
difficult to locate in the present as they were in the past (see
Hauptmann et al. and Adrimi et al. for the myth of Jason and
the Golden Fleece), which is true also for other sources used
more recently (as exposed by Ortiz Díaz for Mesoamerica,
by Duttine et al. for South America and by Constantinescu
et al. for Eastern Europe). Throughout history, battles and
wars, migrations and shifts in population were triggered by
the search for gold sources or the desire to control them. The
gold rushes in, for example, Alaska, Klondike, California,
Witwatersrand, and Serra Pelada are recent examples of this.
In their time, the Romans knew it when they went to Spain;
the Arab rulers applied it in their quest for North Africa in
the early Islamic period, the Spanish and the Portuguese
when they went to South America, and the British Empire
in its more recent occupation of South Africa. Gold has
been at the heart of money for millennia. Even after putting
an end to the traditional gold standard in their meeting in
Bretton Woods in 1944 and the subsequent unilateral decision by the US Government to break the fixed link between
the dollar and gold metal in 1971, governments around the
world still stockpile vast quantities of the metal and exert
political and economic pressure with their tons of gold.
Archaeometry and authenticity of gold
Of course, in cultural heritage contexts the material
value of gold is further exacerbated by the exclusive appeal
of pieces of art and the very limited and non-renewable
nature of the resource. This rarity in itself drives desire.
Archaeological gold objects combine in them all these multiple connotations, further enhancing each other in complex ways. As a result, archaeological gold objects attract
particular attention; some of it good, some less so. As early
as 1237, King Henry III of England issued a Royal Charter
which required Bronze Age tumuli to be dug up for treasure,
not for their cultural value but to boost the royal coffers.
Similarly, the European desire for untold riches represented
the driving force behind much of the American conquest,
with devastating consequences for the gold objects produced
by several cultures, such as the Incas and the La TolitaTumaco (Bouchard and Guerra present the analytical study
of a gold figure from the latter civilisation).
If hoarding is the starting point of collecting, more enlightened approaches to antiquities in the Renaissance and in
the age of Enlightenment led to the formation of important
collections, many of which are now in public ownership
and freely accessible for all to enjoy (some including some
non-genuine objects, as illustrated by La Niece for The
British Museum collections). However, the urge to own
gold, archaeological gold in particular, is undiminished, and
many private collectors compete for a very limited pool of
genuine and legitimately available objects. There are many
reasons for this: ranging from the psychological, almost primordial desire for gold; to the rise of an affluent middle class
and nouveaux riches in many countries with their need to
showcase their wealth and ‘cultured’ manners; and genuine
interest in aesthetic beauty, art history and cultural heritage.
Taken together, they result in a market demand that by far
outstrips supply. The consequences are many: prices rise,
even in times of global economic crisis; tomb robbery, illicit
excavation and museum theft feed the market at the cost of
wholesale destruction of our common cultural heritage; and
forgers produce tirelessly new objects to satisfy the ballooning demand with copies, reproductions, imitations, and
heavy restorations re-interpreting an object, by producing
pastiches and more or less fantastic fraudulent inventions
(Rastrelli et al.). One might argue that forging archaeological objects is a lesser evil, as compared to the looting of
entire sites. However, the unchecked demand leads to an
entire industry producing forgeries, thus causing cultural
damage, by diluting, debasing and distorting the genuine
archaeological record, the artistic and technological achievements, the aesthetic, religious and personal expressions of
countless past people.
15
The absence of discussions on illicit traffic and trade in
forgeries from most conferences in the field of archaeological
sciences led us to dedicate an entire day of AURUM to a
special session entitled Forgeries, Trade and Authentication.
After three invited talks by Pieter Meyers (Los Angeles
County Museum of Art Conservation Center), Susan La
Niece (Department of Conservation and Scientific Research,
The British Museum) and Colonel Alberto Deregibus
(Head of Command Office Carabinieri, Department for
the Protection of Cultural Heritage, Rome), a roundtable
discussion was dedicated to these questions (see Fig. 2). We
won’t be able to stop these illegal activities from happening;
but it is important to highlight their corrosive effect on so
many different aspects of society. We mentioned the destruction and debasement of our common cultural heritage
already, but there are also other major issues for current
societies; from loss of tax receipts for governments to the
countless individual acts of fraud committed in the process,
to the damage done to the potential for the development of
an archaeological site for sustainable tourism and education,
robbing the local population of their long-term livelihood.
This volume of ArcheoSciences is devoted to the scholarly study of archaeological gold objects, not from the art
historical or aesthetic point of view typical of traditional
collections and catalogues, but with the aim of unravelling the technical skills of the craftspeople who made these
objects. Characterising their tools and materials as a way
to understand their actions, their gestures allow us to place
them within their unique geological, economic and cultural
contexts and traditions (Perea illustrates in her paper the big
advances reached by coupling different fields of research in
the study of gold work, and gives an example in the paper by
Perea and Hunt). Studying the tangible finds thus reveals the
intangible wealth of the cultural heritage of craftspeople and
artisans. This, in turn, will inform the study of those objects
which have no proven pedigree, no documented historical
or archaeological origin and whose authenticity is therefore
in many cases open to dispute. Exploring authenticity combines art history and connoisseurship, an array of methods
of scientific examination under many lights and radiations.
It involves scientific analysis with portable instruments,
as for example in the study of the Artemision objects by
Melcher et al., and fixed equipment based on X-rays, mass
spectrometry, synchrotrons (as developed by Radtke et al.),
particle accelerators (as illustrated by Bobin and Guégan
and by Demortier), and so on, and can be combined with
detailed visual and microscopic examination techniques
(examples of studies combining techniques are provided by
Ferro et al. and Guerra et al.). In all cases, the skill of the
detective is needed in the search for the wrong aesthetic,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
16
technical and material elements, which should not be there:
it is never routine.
Following a rigorous selection and peer review process,
we have arranged the accepted contributions in five overarching sections. The first, containing eleven papers, serves
as an introduction and offers examples of the material
and methodological foundations relevant for the study of
archaeological gold. This covers the archaeological record
of early gold objects as much as the geology of gold, and
ancient gold mining. Examples here include the papers by
Bergonzi and by Bennett on the occurrence of gold artefacts
in Italian and South-East Asian archaeology; by Spiridonov
& Yanakieva on the mineralogy of gold, by Hauptmann et
al. on early gold mining in Georgia, and by Tamas et al. on
the geology of the gold exploited in Romania under Roman
control. Other fundamental papers concern modern analytical approaches to characterise, provenance, and even date
gold; papers by Eugster et al., Radtke et al. and Demortier
are amongst those addressing these issues.
The second section contains the main ‘meat’ of the conference; twenty-one papers present individual case studies
concerning the material characterisation and manufacturing skills of the ancient artisans, from Late Bronze Age
Egypt right through to the 19th century AD. The flow of
these papers follows broadly chronological and cultural
trends, from the origins in the Near East to the classical
Mediterranean cultures and on to the early medieval and
later European centres of developments in metal crafts. An
important and impressive observation that emerges from
reading these papers is the continuing manifestation of
manufacturing skills at the highest levels, seemingly uninterrupted by the broad political and economic convulsions
that tormented the Old World during those four thousand
years. Individual cultures ebbed and flowed, flourished and
perished; but overall humankind persevered, developing and
refining its technical achievements in one way or another.
Remarkable also within this broad advance is the exceptional, and often unique and unsurpassed, achievement of individual artists, stimulated by their own imagination, driven
by their devotion, and maintained by their communities,
religious orders, or wealthy patrons.
The previous section has shown how coherent and at the
same time divers cultural and technological developments
were across time and space in the Old World. The New
World, in contrast, approached gold in its own and independent manner; the paper by Ruvalcaba Sil et al. illustrates this by providing an overview of the artisans’ gold
work of Mesoamerica. This third section combines eight
papers on gold work from this micro-cosmos of its own,
with its unique gold deposits which are often geochemiArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
Maria Filomena GUERRA, Thilo REHREN
cally quite distinct from gold sources in the Old World,
but also blessed with a plethora of unique archaeological
styles, and burdened by unique archaeological problems
of looting, forging and wholesale plunder, intricately linked to the political and economic realities of the last five
hundred years. This section thus covers the entire sequence
of gold work and its investigation, from studies of gold
deposits to analytical methods and the investigation of
iconic objects, and finally to the origin and use of gold for
coinage and Christian decorations following the European
dominance.
To some extent, all papers up to this point can be seen as
a prelude to the fourth section, on authentication. Here, the
accumulated expert knowledge is applied to address specific
case studies, giving examples of the more fundamental concerns
and showcasing the results of established and new methods. Of
course, these papers only represent the tip of an iceberg, and
here is not the place to repeat the discussion from the round
table, and the many reasons why this is the case. Suffice it to say
that if anything emerges from these papers, it is the recognition
that there is no ‘golden bullet’ that delivers the final answer to
all our problems; in some cases it is a specific chemical tracer
(Bobin & Guégan), in others a particular tool mark or wear
mark (Formigli and Vella et al.), and in any case the scientific
and technological investigation (Kuleff et al.) has to be fully
integrated into an art historical and cultural study.
The fifth section finally combines papers on the restoration and conservation of gold artefacts, sometimes in known
public collections (such as in the Portuguese National
Archaeological Museum, Tissot et al.), sometimes discovered
in particular environments, such as underwater excavations
(in this volume, Berger describes those held in Alexandria
and Aboukir Bay, Egypt). Given the inherent durability of
gold itself, it is not surprising that the majority of these
papers concern gold in its most delicate state: as leaf and foil
covering other materials, such as wood, paint or gesso (see
Mounier et al., Buccolieri et al. and Cavallo & Verda). Some
of these papers raise further interesting questions about the
concept of authenticity and conservation of ‘living objects’.
It may be easy to decide how to best preserve a museum
piece, kept under controlled conditions and frozen in time
in the condition in which it was last found. But what about
churches and their centrepieces, the altars (discussed by Le
Gac et al. and Bidarra et al.)? These have important functions to fulfil for their current communities and need to
be fit for purpose, but they are also pieces of art and part
of our heritage and need to be preserved in the way they
were first made to look like. Which authenticity does one
preserve here: the authenticity of the original maker of the
altar, or the authenticity of the current congregation using
Archaeometry and authenticity of gold
it, adapting it to their needs and changing artistic tastes and
preferences?
There are important and divers questions to be asked in the
study of archaeological gold objects. Should we simply adore
and cherish their absolute beauty removed from any distraction,
or should we see them embedded in a past culture, as expressions of beliefs and priorities? Should we see primarily their
social significance, read their materiality as mere projections of
something bigger, intangible, or should we deconstruct them,
if not literally then metaphorically, to understand them as products of mundane acts of crafts and industry? Whose authenticity do we prioritise? The artist’s, who made the object? The
patron’s, who facilitated its production? The current owner’s,
who holds it dear? What does the present state of the object tell
us about its live history as an artefact, not just its creation but
its use and repair, its adaptation and modification over time,
and what does its present condition and whereabouts tell us
about the changing fortunes and functions of the object? This
collection of papers can not give answers, but it can still tell us a
lot. Factual information, of course. Case studies inspiring one’s
own work, enabling comparisons to be drawn. The sheer range
and diversity of approaches, the depth of individual scholarly
knowledge that underpins these papers is impressive and heartening to see. On the other hand, it tells us also where the gaps
are, where we still know far too little, and where we may have
lost our heritage already. It is the nature of Archaeology that
only a minute amount of material survives the ravages of time,
even in the best of circumstances. Gold is no exception, and we
may ever only see a tiny fraction of the true wealth and richness
of our cultural heritage. What gold benefits from its durability once buried in the ground it suffers from its propensity
for recycling before it gets there. Thus, it is our responsibility
towards the peoples who made these objects, as well as towards
our children and grand children, to preserve what we have,
to enhance our understanding of what there is, to safeguard
it against the greed of the individual and the ignorance of the
uninformed. Analysing these objects scientifically and technologically reveals entirely new dimensions of knowledge about
the artefacts themselves, their creators and the cultures from
which they emanate; it is a profoundly constructive analysis,
even if minute changes are made to the objects in the process.
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful for the many participants of the workshop AURUM who have together made it such a success, and
who have submitted their manuscripts in time to be included in
this volume. The support of many colleagues who acted as peer
reviewers is much appreciated, as is the cooperation of the editors of ArcheoSciences in facilitating this volume. We are most
17
Figure 1: (See colour plate) The participants of Workshop
AURUM: authentication and analysis of goldwork at the C2RMF
laboratories (photograph by Elsa Lambert, C2RMF).
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Les participants du Workshop
AURUM : authentification et analyse d’objets en or dans les laboratoires du C2RMF (photographie par Elsa Lambert, C2RMF).
grateful to Raul Carstocea for his excellent work in editing all
the final manuscripts, ensuring where necessary the proper use
of English, and who checked many references, and to Antoine
Mattei who provided all the website development and support
for the Workshop and the peer review process of this volume.
The European Commission, DG Research under FP6
contract 044480 (AUTHENTICO), the Research and
Restoration Centre of the French Museums (C2RMF), the
Direction of the French Museums of the Ministry of Culture
and Communication (DMF-MCC), the French National
Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS) – Institute of Chemistry,
GdR3174-ChimArc, UMR171-LC2RMF, UMR6115LPC2E and Paris A Delegation –, the Institute for ArchaeoMetallurgical Studies of the University College London, and
Bruker AXS Microanalysis GmbH, are gratefully acknowledged
for funding and website hosting.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
18
Figure 2: Workshop AURUM roundtable on Forgeries, Trade
and Authentication. From left to right: Thilo Rehren (UCL –
Institute of Archaeology), Maria Alicia Uribe (Gold Museum
of the Banco de la República in Bogotá), Captain Dominique
Lambert (Central Office for the Fight against Traffic in Cultural
Goods of the French Criminal Investigation Department), Colonel
Alberto Deregibus (Command Office Carabinieri, Department
for the Protection of Cultural Heritage, Rome), Astrid BrandtGrau (EU-DG Research-I3, Environmental Technologies and
Pollution Prevention, Protection, Conservation and Enhancement
of Cultural Heritage), Barbara Armbruster (CNRS, Université de
Toulouse – Le Mirail), Peter Northover (Department of Materials,
Oxford University), Maria Luisa Vitobello (Coordinator of
AUTHENTICO).
Figure 2 : Table ronde du Workshop AURUM intitulé Faux,
Commerce et Authentification. De gauche à droite : Thilo Rehren
(UCL-Institut d’Archéologie), Maria Alicia Uribe (muse de l’Or du
Banco de la República à Bogotá), Capitaine Dominique Lambert
(Office Central de lutte contre le trafic des Biens Culturels, France),
Colonel Alberto Deregibus (Office Carabinieri, Département de
Protection du Patrimoine Culturel, Rome), Astrid Brandt-Grau
(EU-DG Recherche-I3, Environnement Technologies et Prévention de
Pollution, Protection, Conservation et Amélioration du Patrimoine
Culturel), Barbara Armbruster (CNRS, Université de Toulouse- Le
Mirail), Peter Northover (Département de Matériaux, Université
d’Oxford), Maria Luisa Vitobello (Coordinateur d’AUTHENTICO).
Maria Filomena GUERRA, Thilo REHREN
Figure 3b: The workshop reception at C2RMF.
Figure 3b : La réception du workshop au C2RMF
Figure 3c and d: A lunch break at C2RMF.
Figure 3c et d : Une pause déjeuner au C2RMF.
Figure 3a: The workshop dinner at a French bistro.
Figure 3a : Le diner du workshop dans un bistrot.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
M M:
Wands in the hand! Or Potter’s powers
Une baguette magique dans la main ! Ou les pouvoirs de Potter
Alicia Perea*
Abstract: Some relections on the history of archaeometry addressing more speciically gold metallurgy will help us understand recent trends and
achievements in this broad ield of research. Interdisciplinarity as a peer dialogue between scientists and historians has encountered some serious
diiculties, which, however, are almost completely overcome today. he wide choice of non-destructive analytical techniques available is perhaps
the main feature of actual research, and this also means that a great variety of problems can be dealt with and solved. Finally, in the present paper
I propose some case studies selected from Project Au, the research programme I have been coordinating for more than ten years, and from other
researchers and teams with whom I collaborate, in order to illustrate how we can conduct goldwork research. hese include the two principal, and
unique, Visigothic treasures, from Guarrazar and Torredonjimeno (Spain), and the Braganza brooch, a controversial Iberian ibula, masterpiece
of ancient jewellery now on display at the British Museum and presented in Madrid during an exhibition in 2007.
Résumé : En ce qui concerne la métallurgie de l’or, quelques rélexions sur l’histoire de l’Archéométrie aideront à comprendre les orientations et les succès
de ce large domaine de recherche. L’interdisciplinarité, en tant que dialogue scruté entre scientiiques et historiens, a enduré de sérieuses diicultés qui sont
actuellement quasiment surmontées. Le vaste choix de techniques non-destructives d’analyse est peut-être la dominante principale de la recherche, ce qui
signiie ainsi qu’une large variété de problèmes peut être traitée et résolue. Enin, de façon à illustrer comment les recherches sur l’or sont menées, j’exposerai
quelques études soit prises dans le cadre du Project Au, programme de recherche que je coordonne depuis plus de dix ans, soit réalisées en collaboration
avec d’autres chercheurs et groupes de recherche. J’invoquerai les deux principaux et uniques trésors Visigoths, Guarrazar et Torredonjimeno (Espagne),
et la broche de Braganza, une ibule ibérique controversée, chef-d’œuvre de l’orfèvrerie antique, conservée actuellement au British Museum et présentée
à Madrid lors de l’exposition de 2007.
Keywords: Archaeometry, archaeometallurgy, goldwork, analytical techniques, Europe.
Mots-clés : Archéométrie, archéométallurgie, orfèvrerie, techniques d’analyse, Europe.
1. INTRODUCTION
A memorable exhibition directed by Mark Jones (1990)
at the British Museum in 1990, entitled Fake? he Art of
Deception, brought together the worst or best errors made
in over two centuries of collecting precious art and archaeological objects, not only by the museum’s curators, but by
other museums all over the world and private collectors as
well. In the catalogue, Jones stated that experts saw what
they wanted to see. his does not mean we should get rid of
all experts, but of arrogance and most of all… of emotions.
Expertise and validation were traditionally based on three
aspects: perception-observation, knowledge-experience,
and expectations-emotions. he connoisseur’s irst contact
with the object involved an emotional response, positive
or negative, based on his knowledge and experience, but
conditioned by his or others’ expectations.
* Arqueometal Research Group. Centro de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales. CSIC – Albasanz 26-28, 28037 Madrid – Spain. (alicia.perea@cchs.csic.es)
rec. Aug 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 21-28
22
Since the advent of instrumental methods for quantitative
elemental analysis and powerful observation devices in art
and archaeology, the work of experts has relied much more
on physical sciences and less on emotions and experience.
Moreover, and more importantly, these are diicult times
for forgers, or at least for non-expert.
Concerning ancient gold, I have always thought that
knowledge, not expectations, and the use of binoculars are
suicient to reach a sensible opinion on most of the issues
an object presents regarding its authenticity. If we want to
proceed further and are interested in the skills of ancient
craftsmen, in how they dealt with temperature, tools and
workshops; in how they managed know-how, transmission
and innovation; if we want to know where they obtained
their raw materials, who paid for them and who paid for
their work; to sum up, if we are interested in the society
behind the object, rather than the object itself, then we must
rely on scientiic methods of analysis.
Today, the scientist is presented with a wide choice of
non-destructive analytical techniques, depending on the
questions he/she wants to answer. Two of them are powerful
wands in our hands for gold technology research: electron
beam microscope/microprobe (SEM), and ion beam analysis (IBA), which includes PIXE, PIGE and RBS methods
(Ferro et al., 2003; 2008; Adriaens et al., 2005; Demortier
and Adriaens, 2000). heir power consists of, in the irst
case, the SEM capability for providing high resolution,
high magniication images with spot elemental microanalysis; and, in the second, the IBA’s ability to detect light
and heavy elements, even in large objects, at atmospheric
pressure during irradiation.
Reaching this point has not been an easy task. It represents
the result of much efort from many people who sometimes
failed, but never gave up. Let us have a look back at this
story and throw a quick glance at the future as well.
2. IN THE BEGINNING … THERE IS FAILING
Actual research into ancient goldwork is one of the
specialisations within the ield of archaeometallurgy and
its orientation is primarily archaeometric (Rehren and
Pernicka, 2008), that is, based on scientiic methods of
observation and analysis. his has not been achieved in
a straightforward way, or without problems and tensions (Pollard and Bray, 2007). he irst major project
aimed at the analytical and systematic study of gold production during European Prehistory was initiated more
than half a century ago in the context of the programme
Studien zu den Anfängen der Metallurgie undertaken by the
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 21-28
Alicia PEREA
Württembergisches Landesmuseum Laboratories, Stuttgart.
he results of sampling almost 5,000 gold artefacts from
museums all over Europe were published by Hartmann in
1970 and 1982. However, the results did not live up to
the expectations generated by the project, either in terms of
technology or from the social and economic point of view.
he disappointment was followed by a period in which the
elemental chemical composition did not form part of the
central approach adopted for research into gold (Perea and
Armbruster, 2008).
Much has been said about the reasons why this European
and international project failed, but they boil down to two
major ones: a) a statistical approach unsuitable for analytical data, and b) the absence of an archaeological theoretical
basis that would provide a historical frame of reference for
the vast quantity of numeric results thrown into disarray
by the interpretive statistics themselves (Waterbolk and
Butler, 1965; Taylor, 1980). In brief, the selected methodology could not answer the questions raised about the origin
of metallurgy and metal exchange in Prehistoric Europe.
However, the resulting data are still there, available to any
researcher who may be interested and able to interpret them
more skilfully (Warner, 2004).
At the same time, as the analytic-scientiic approach was
running out of steam, the traditional methodology based on
typology or style was being lost in treatises on form, aesthetic valuations, and other subjective approaches that betrayed
the intellectual legacy of Worsae and Montelius as much as
that of Winckelmann. Unrelated with this situation, in a
diferent context, somewhere between archaeology and art,
midway between the academic world and that of museums,
in restoration laboratories and gold workshops, archaeologists and historians were building up a corpus of knowledge
on traditional gold working processes based on the observation of artefacts, craftsmen’s practices, and knowledge
regarding the technical conditions of the historical period
under consideration.
One of the pioneers of this line of research was Herbert
Maryon, who published his book Metalwork and Enamelling
in 1912, an enormous work which remained in print until
1971. his line of work requires experimentation as a
method of research into ancient technology. One great such
experimenter was Fortunato Pio Castellani (1794-1865),
founder of the Archaeological School of Jewellery in the mid19th century, followed by his sons Augusto and Alessandro
(Castellani, 1861), who were astonished by the skill and dificulty of ancient gold working techniques, although some
would prefer to describe them as great tricksters. However,
that is another story (Bury, 1975; Munn, 1981; 1983).
23
Wands in the hand! Or Potter’s powers
3. THE PRODIGIOUS DECADE
Between 1980 and 1990, the panorama changed radically
in almost all European countries, where research on metalwork incorporated archaeometry, that is the application
of scientiic methods of identiication, measurement and
quantiication of the archaeological and historical heritage,
with the aim of interpreting, dating, observing, restoring
and displaying that heritage to a public that was becoming
increasingly interested in its past. In my opinion, two fundamental causes were responsible for the new situation. Firstly,
it was the empiricist, or, better said, objectualist trend that
favoured archaeological practices whose paradigm was to
achieve objectivity: archaeometric data would thus be the
only unquestionable data as far as postmodern research
is concerned. Secondly, new, non-destructive analytical
methods were reined and became increasingly powerful,
precise, inexpensive and accessible, and others were adapted
to the needs of a material with a high intrinsic and museum
value. For example, the development of portable X-ray luorescence (XRF) equipment led to an exponential growth of
the number of metal objects analysed before and after 1980.
During this same stage, lead isotope ratio analysis began to
be ofered for copper-based alloys, which, together with the
analysis of trace element patterns, made it possible to begin
investigating the mineral’s provenance (Gale and Stos-Gale,
1982), opening up the possibility of proposing interpretive
models for the circulation and exchange of raw materials. It
has been a long and strange trip indeed… (Pollard, 2009).
As with all aspects of research, funding is the determining factor for ensuring the health and future of a line of
research. Along these lines, the policy adopted by the United
Kingdom since the 1990s in endowing archaeometry with
special funding is signiicant, and explains its current world
leadership in this ield (Killick, 2008).
Recent bibliometric studies (López-Romero and MonteroRuíz, 2006; Costa Caramé, 2008) have shown that the elemental analysis technique most used in archaeometallurgical
research since the mid-1980s has been electron microscopy (SEM), accounting for 25.9% of the ten techniques
considered (Fig. 1). Occupying the second place is X-ray
luorescence (XRF) with 20.0%. Another technique that
particularly interests us is particle induced X-ray emission
(PIXE): the percentage of its use among the techniques
considered is only 5.5% over the same period, but, considering its high cost and the complex infrastructure required,
this is not an unimpressive igure.
In the case of gold, the current trend has led, as in other
areas of archaeometallurgy, to the combination of various
analytical techniques and modes of observation not only
Figure 1: he most frequently used elemental analysis techniques
(based on López-Romero and Montero-Ruíz, 2006).
Figure 1 : Les techniques d’analyse les plus rependues (d’après LópezRomero et Montero-Ruíz, 2006).
as methods of control and evaluation, but as ways of responding to the many questions raised by an ancient artefact: when it was made, how, why, by whom and for whom:
in short, its life history and present destiny (Gosden and
Marshall, 1999). It thus appears necessary to go back to
the artefact, because it contains all the technological information, and, in its context, all the symbolic and ideological information pertaining to it. However, this process is
not without problems. he greatest diiculty that has been
detected in the course of these years is the dialogue between
the archaeological scientist, on one hand, and the archaeological historian or anthropologist, on the other (Jones, 2004).
However, this is, in my opinion, a question of perspective
rather than a real problem, which is expressed by resorting to
the old duality of materiality versus meaning, object versus
subject.
4. TODAY
he study of a gold artefact should not be an isolated
and anecdotal event. here is no point in using the most
powerful and sophisticated analytical technique available if
we are unable to set the artefact in its socio-technological
context – society explains technology as much as the technology explains society. In order to achieve this, planning
and method are important, because materiality cannot be
investigated stripped of its meaning, at least not in historical
terms.
At present, we can no longer conceive of research without
a prior methodological approach that does not fulil one
of the following conditions: systematic / interdisciplinary /
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 21-28
24
Alicia PEREA
experimental. hese tools ensure a greater prospect of success when confronting the problems presented by gold, even
with its exceptional character, because in our ield of study
the exceptional is usually the norm.
I should like to present two cases that have posed very different problems for research. In both these cases, inding the
solution has involved turning to the knowledge and experience of other researchers and experts, and to instrumental
techniques of observation and analysis. he human factor
can never be replaced by technology.
5. THE CASE OF VISIGOTH GOLDWORK:
GUARRAZAR AND TORREDONJIMENO
he Visigoths reached the Iberian Peninsula in 418 and
founded a Hispanic Kingdom that lasted until 711. At
that time, within a year, the devastating Islamic invasion
launched from Jebel al-Tarik (Gibraltar) and took over the
major cities, including Toledo, the capital of the Visigoth
Kingdom. his led to destruction and plunder. Only two
treasures, hidden before the imminent Arab invasion, remain
of the ancient splendour of the Visigoth court and church,
which had adopted the Byzantine rite. One was found in
Guarrazar, near Toledo, and the other in Torredonjimeno,
near Jaén. Both consisted of crowns and crosses that kings,
courtiers and eminent dignitaries ofered to certain churches
in order to obtain divine favour and demonstrate their temporal power to human subjects – among them, the famous
crown of King Reccesuinth (653-672).
he Guarrazar treasure has been divided and is currently
on display in various museums in Madrid and Paris, which
adds to the diiculty of examining a valuable and unique
material. Nevertheless, the assemblage has been studied in a
systematic and interdisciplinary way. he entire collection,
consisting of ten crowns and eight crosses (Fig. 2), was analysed using PIXE, since we thought this efort was justiied
in view of our lack of knowledge of the processes of Visigoth
manufacture and raw materials. At that time, there was no
particle accelerator with an external beam in Spain, so we had
to obtain European funding for this project. With the help of
two COST Actions, in 1997 and 1999, we gained access irst
to the LARN (Laboratoire d’Analyses par Réactions Nucleaires)
in Namur (Belgium), to analyse a series of samples that had
been taken from the part of the treasure kept in the Museo
Arqueológico Nacional, Madrid, and second, to the AGLAE
accelerator of the Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des
Musées de France, in the Louvre complex, where all the pieces
kept in the Musée Nationale du Moyen Âge de Cluny (Paris)
were analysed using PIXE and PIGE techniques. An interArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 21-28
Figure 2: (See colour plate) 19th century illustration of the
Guarrazar Treasure (de Lasteyrie du Saillant, 1860).
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Illustration du XIXe siècle du trésor
de Guarrazar (de Lasteyrie du Saillant, 1860).
disciplinary team subsequently studied the metals, gems and
glass, and also the various technical, social, economic and
historical aspects pertaining to these objects. he results were
published in a monograph (Perea, 2001).
he Guarrazar project was a successful experience of international and interdisciplinary collaboration. It is still opening
up new avenues of research: for example, the micro-samples
that were extracted from the pieces in the Museo Arqueológico
Nacional de Madrid to be analysed in Namur were subsequently
re-analysed in Paris, modifying the previous conditions. he
aim was to detect the trace elements in order to determine the
provenance of the gold (Guerra et al., 2004; 2007).
he second phase of this research project, in 2004, consisted of analysing the Torredonjimeno treasure, which is also
distributed among three museums in diferent Spanish cities:
25
Wands in the hand! Or Potter’s powers
Barcelona, Cordoba and Madrid. his treasure contained
royal crowns and votive crosses, like the previous one, but it
was in very poor condition. Most of the pieces had been broken up, the royal crowns had disappeared, and we only knew
they had existed from the letters that had hung from the diadem, as in the case of the Reccesuinth crown. At irst glance,
the gold appeared to consist of alloys with very low purity, and
containing pieces made directly from silver. In addition to the
terrible fragmentation of the crosses, some restoration work
had damaged the pieces even more (Fig. 3a, b).
In view of the impossibility of analysing almost two hundred pieces or fragments, a sampling of 29 objects was carried out, and these were analysed by PIXE and PIGE in
the Tandetron accelerator of the Centro de Microanálisis de
Materiales of the Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, which
by this time had an external beam. On this occasion, we
found to our surprise that most of the pieces were not made
of gold, but of silver gilded with a mercury amalgam, an
aspect that had not been detected in the entire history of
research on this collection since it was discovered in 1926.
Once again, an interdisciplinary team studied the various
archaeometric and historical aspects pertaining to the artefacts. he result was a second monographic volume, recently
published (Perea, 2009), which completes the series on
Visigoth goldwork in Spain.
6. THE CASE OF THE BRAGANZA BROOCH,
OR AN EXCEPTIONAL PIECE
Let us leave aside the great treasures in order to discuss
the small, exceptional and unique. he case of the Braganza
Brooch is one of them (Fig. 4).
his ibula, 14 cm long, made in gold and enamel, has a
long history behind it, not just because it dates to a period
around the 4th-3rd century BC, but also because of its bizarre
contemporary history, once being in the possession of the
Portuguese Royal House of Braganza at some point in the
19th century. But that is another story, for which there is
no space in the present paper. he period that concerns us
begins in 2001, when the British Museum purchased this
jewel in the Christie auction of 25 April. Although perhaps it
is better to begin the story around 1956, when one of its for-
Figure 3a, b: (See colour plate) he cross MAC 25093 from the
Torredonjimeno Treasure, made up of at least two diferent fragmented objects (a), and the arrangement as seen from the back (b)
(Photograph by Archivo Au, O. García-Vuelta).
Figure 3a, b : (Voir planche couleur) La croix MAC 25093 du trésor
de Torredonjimeno, constituée de fragments d’au moins deux objets
diférents (a), et leur disposition à l’arrière (b). (Photographie par
l’Archivo Au, O. García-Vuelta).
Figure 4: (See colour plate) he Braganza Brooch (he British
Museum. Photograph by Archivo Au, A. Perea).
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) La broche de Braganza (he British
Museum. Photographie par l’Archivo Au, A. Perea).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 21-28
26
mer owners sent some photographs to the British Museum
in order for them to get an idea of what he actually had in
his collection… and it is at this point that a controversy,
which for some people has still not been resolved, ensued.
At that time, Bernard Ashmole did not consider it to
be an original ancient work. For his part, Paul Jacobsthal
completely disagreed and thought it was “easily one of the
most exciting antiques I have come across”. From that time
onward, the most varied opinions concerning this piece succeeded each other, limited however to the academic world.
In spite of this, in the Iberian Peninsula, its place of origin,
these debates passed completely unnoticed.
We then had to wait until 1993, when the Braganza
Brooch was deposited in the British Museum on loan and
was submitted to an exhaustive study that conirmed, irstly,
its age, and secondly, that nothing, ancient or modern, had
been added to it. his model study, carried out by Ian Stead
and Nigel Meeks (1996), is based on the observation of work
traces using an optical microscope and a scanning electron
microscope (SEM). In order to characterise the material,
an elemental analysis was undertaken using a combination
of X-ray luorescence and EDX analysis in the SEM. he
enamel was analysed by X-ray difraction in order to identify
the opaciier and by SEM/EDX for composition and colorants. he results brought to an end an absurd controversy
based solely on ignorance and prejudice in response to an
exceptional object.
In 2007, with the help of a collaboration with the British
Museum in the person of Dyfri Williams, the Braganza
Brooch came to Spain – most probably its place of origin –
to be presented to the Spanish public, who never before had
the opportunity to admire it (Perea et al., 2007). his seemed
to me a unique opportunity to organise a small symposium
for scientiic discussion among specialists (Perea, in press). We
can now state with certainty that the brooch belongs to a very
special type of Iberian ‘bent-back foot’ ibulae made in gilded
silver, which usually depict hunting scenes. It was probably
ofered to an Iberian sanctuary by the prince who ordered it
for a special occasion. It also became clear that the goldsmith
who made it was an exceptional artist, whose eye was familiar
with the Hellenistic aesthetics of the time, and was very probably of Greek origin. However, uncertainties and disagreements regarding this object still remain, mainly related to the
iconographic interpretation of the scene depicted on it.
7. AND THE FUTURE?…
I do not think the immediate future holds major surprises,
although new avenues of research are still being inaugurated,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 21-28
Alicia PEREA
mainly in two ields: studies looking at the provenance of
the gold, and methods of dating.
Concerning the provenance of gold, much work has been
carried out in this direction and good results produced by
characterising trace element patterns (Guerra et al., 1999).
he most frequently used techniques are inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and proton activation analysis. However, there is still a need to characterise
natural gold, despite the work that has been undertaken,
particularly in Ireland, where the study of gold has traditionally been a topic of ‘national interest’ (Chapman et al.,
2006). Other recent research has centred on the analysis of
osmium isotope ratios for those samples of gold that display
metal inclusions belonging to the platinum group (Junk and
Pernicka, 2003); lead isotope signatures have been used for
Au-Ag-Cu alloys with a gold content of more than 70%
(Bendall et al., 2009). Both systems have been used to study
coins. his approach sufers from the same aforementioned
problem of a lack of natural gold references.
With regard to the methods of dating, experiments are
currently being undertaken with the Uranium/horiumHelium content of gold in order to detect fakes, although
the technique is still in the experimental stage (Eugster et
al., 2008; 2009).
Scientiic methods for investigating gold, like any other
metal, are now essential for a serious examination of its history and meaning. However, we cannot solve all the problems or answer all the questions with analytical techniques
alone. As in the story of Harry Potter, the magic wand never
works if it is not in the hands of the right person. he one
Potter chose measured eleven inches and was made of holly
and phoenix feather (Rowling, 1998: 65).
Note
his work is part of a research project entitled “Grounds for
an Archaeometric and Technomic Research on Metallurgy
during Prehistory and Antiquity. he Iberian Peninsula”
(Ref.: HUM2006—06250/HIST) within the Programme
CONSOLIDER INGENIO 2010 (CSD-TCP), funded by
the Ministry of Science and Innovation, Spain.
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Targeting Ion Beam Analysis techniques
for gold artefacts
Techniques de faisceaux d’ions ciblés pour l’analyse d’objets en or
Guy Demortier*
Abstract: he present study discusses the best experimental conditions for the quantitative analysis of gold jewellery artefacts by ion beam
techniques (PIXE, RBS, PIGE and NRA). Special attention is given to the detection of enhancement or depletion below the surface, down to
10 microns, without any sampling or destruction. PIXE is certainly the most interesting technique for this purpose and the optimal geometrical
arrangement of the experiment is described: orientation of the incident beam relative to sample surface, selection of the characteristic signals, use
of reference material, choice of the detector and incident particle energy and type, computation of absorption and secondary luorescence efects.
Résumé : Nous discutons des conditions idéales d’utilisation des faisceaux de particules pour l’étude d’objets en or (PIXE, RBS, PIGE, et NRA). On
attache une attention particulière au choix des paramètres expérimentaux pour détecter la présence éventuelle d’efets de surface sur une profondeur de
l’ordre de 10 microns, sans prélèvement ni destruction. Le PIXE s’avère la technique idéale pour autant qu’on prenne en compte une série de paramètres
comme l’orientation du faisceau incident relativement à la surface, choix des signaux pour la caratérisation, choix des échantillons de référence, choix du
détecteur, choix de l’énergie et du type des particules incidentes, calcul des efets d’absorption et de luorescence secondaire.
Keywords: PIXE, PIGE, RBS, NRA, surface enrichment, luorescence efects, solders
Mots-clés : PIXE, PIGE, RBS, NRA, enrichissement supericiel, efets de luorescence, soudures.
1. INTRODUCTION
Gold artefacts are often considered as un-corroded items
which can be analysed for their bulk composition by surface techniques probing thicknesses of one micron or more.
All of these methods involve ion beam techniques using
accelerators delivering particles in the MeV range. We have
demonstrated that this statement is not absolute (Ruvalcaba
and Demortier, 1996; Demortier and Ruvalcaba, 2005),
and that surface enhancement of gold (and consequently
copper depletion) is often veriied in pre-Columbian jewellery items. he presence of this enhancement can be rapidly
identiied by PIXE with incident protons of at least two
diferent energies.
In the present study, we discuss the best experimental
conditions required to quantitatively proile the elemental
depth distribution of Au vs. Cu and Ag by PIXE and RBS,
but also to analyse low concentrations of elements like Fe,
Zn, Cd by PIXE, and low Z elements like Al, Si and S,
which are often present as dust or remains of the alloying
procedure, but at low concentration, in the surface grain
boundary of the basic Au-Ag-Cu alloy.
* LARN (University of Namur – Belgium) and CEDAD (University of Salento – Italy), 24, rue Sergent Delisse B-5004 Bouge. (guy.demortier@
tvcablenet.be)
rec. Aug. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 29-38
30
Guy DEMORTIER
2. AVAILABLE ION BEAM TECHNIQUES WITH LOW
ENERGY ACCELERATORS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF
GOLD JEWELLERY ARTEFACTS
When a material is irradiated with charged particles like
protons, deuterons, α-particles or other heavier ions, with
energy ranging from a few hundred keV to a few MeV, the
emission of photons, charged particles and neutrons makes
available various spectroscopic methods of elemental analysis. he great majority of the interactions of the incident
charged particles with the atoms of the irradiated material
take place with atomic electrons: the incident particle progressively loses its energy and stops after crossing a distance
R, known as the range. By interacting mainly with atomic
electrons and since interaction with an atomic nucleus
occurs only rarely, this incident particle does not experience
an appreciable deviation. he range R is then nearly the
total distance that the particle travels following a straight
line in the material. R increases with the incident projectile
energy (R ∼ E1.8), and decreases with the atomic number Z
and its mass M.
his property of a linear trajectory of protons in the materials allows us to use them to irradiate the material under
analysis outside the vacuum of the accelerator. he incident
beam crosses a thin foil of material (mostly aluminium,
kapton or silicon nitride), as shown in Figure 1, where we
have compared the trajectories of incident protons and electrons on a metallic target. he simple linear trajectory of
the incident protons contrasts with the complicated one of
electrons. One immediately sees the advantage of using an
external proton beam for the easy positioning of the artefact
outside the vacuum chamber of the accelerator. Since the
pioneering work of the LARN team in 1972 (Deconninck,
1972), constant improvements of the external beam technology have been made in many laboratories involved in
archaeometry. he interaction of the incident protons with
the atomic electrons of the target (i.e., the sample under
investigation) induces ionisation. When ionisation takes
place in an inner electronic shell, a subsequent electronic
rearrangement to return to an atomic equilibrium leads to
the emission of characteristic X-rays: the analytical technique based on this atomic process is called PIXE (Particle
Induced X-ray Emission). PIXE is a very sensitive method
for the bulk and trace analysis of elements with an atomic
number Z greater than 20. PIXE may also be used for the
study of elements from Na to K, but the absorption of the
low energy characteristic X-rays (1-3 keV) of these light elements into thick samples generally restricts the potentiality
of the method for quantitative determination.
When an incident particle passes very close to the atomic
nucleus, it may be elastically scattered. At very low impact
parameters, an incident particle of mass m, lower than the
mass M of the collided nucleus, can be scattered at an angle
close to 180°. he spectroscopy of these backscattered particles (RBS) is often recommended for depth proiling of
elements with thicknesses up to 30% of their own range.
he energy of the backscattered particle is related to the
mass of the collided nucleus
Figure 1: (a-b) Comparison of the interaction of electrons and protons with copper in vacuum. (c-d) Use of the trajectory of protons for
non-vacuum analysis.
Figure 1 : (a-b) Comparaison de l’interaction des électrons et des protons avec le cuivre dans le vide. (c-d) Utilisation des trajectoires des protons
pour l’analyse en dehors de l’enceinte de l’accélérateur.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 29-38
Targeting Ion Beam Analysis techniques for gold artefacts
and to the depth in the material at which the scattering
took place. When protons are used as incident particles,
K (called the kinematic factor) is very close to 1 for all the
components of Au-Ag-Cu alloys (K = 0.94 for Cu, 0.96
for Ag and 0.98 for Au), and the depth proile is very limited. he use of heavier projectiles like α−particles (with K
= 0.78, 0.86, 0.92 for Cu, Ag and Au, respectively) is not
recommended, due to their low range in materials (about 12
times less than for protons), and consequently their important energy loss in the exit foil of the accelerator, which
prevents the use of an external beam, apart from using a very
narrow beam crossing a thin Si3N4 membrane of 0.1 µm or
so. Furthermore, the linear energy transfer of heavy incident ions in the irradiated sample would produce an undesired heating of the precious samples when the jewellery
item is bombarded in the vacuum. As the cross-section for
such elastic scattering is proportional to the Z2 of the target
atoms, RBS is better suited for the study of low concentrations of high Z elements in light matrices, and is then
mostly incompatible with the study of low concentrations
of copper and silver in gold-rich jewellery items.
he probability for a Coulomb excitation of a target
nucleus leading to the emission of a characteristic γ-ray is
much lower than both the probability of backscattering leading to RBS and the probability of inner shell ionisation
phenomena leading to PIXE. Consequently, PIGE (Particle
Induced γ-ray Emission) is of particular interest for the
study of light elements, where PIXE and RBS sufer from
a lack of sensitivity and accuracy. For these light target elements, the energy of the characteristic X-rays is so low that
they are absorbed into the material itself and RBS ofers a
lower cross section.
If the energy of the incident particle is maintained below
3 MeV, no delayed radioactivity may be induced as in CPAA
(Charged Particle Activation Analysis), typically performed
at incident energies greater than 10 MeV.
he interaction of a loosely bound compound projectile
(like a deuteron) gives rise to the emission of energetic protons after the stripping of the incident ion. his is known
as NRA. For instance, the breakdown of the incident deuteron may be written as: 32S (d, p0)33S. he stripping of the
incident deuteron by a 32S nucleus leads to the capture of a
neutron in 32S and leaves the 33S nucleus in its fundamental state, with an emitted proton with a maximum energy.
Various other procedures could be employed to leave the
residual nucleus of 33S in one of its (i = 1, 2, 3) excited states. he corresponding energies of the pi protons are then
31
lower than those for p0. he stored energy in the excited 33S*
nucleus will shortly give rise to a cascade of characteristic
γ-rays. Several groups of protons of diferent energies, as well
as γ-rays, may be used for analytical purposes.
As deuterons of energies in the MeV range cannot
approach heavy nuclei like Cu, Ag and Au due to the
Coulomb barrier, this type of (d, p) reaction is particularly
useful to complement PIXE and RBS. Sulphides are indeed
expected to be sometimes present in solders of gold artefacts
if ores were directly alloyed with a basic Au-Ag-Cu to obtain
a low melting point alloy suitable for soldering. By using
simultaneously (or sequentially) all these analytical techniques, one may achieve a very powerful characterisation of
gold jewellery items.
We can then summarise our argument by this inal recommendation regarding ion beam techniques: PIXE is the most
appropriate method for the elemental analysis of the gold
items, achieving the necessary accuracy for a complete quantitative determination of medium and heavy elements; PIGE
would be used only if it is compulsory to analyse light elements. RBS, usually recommended to provide depth information on medium and heavy elements, is generally not
suiciently eicient for quantitatively separating information on Cu, Ag and Au components, due to the high content
of Au, but would be interesting to use as a complement to
the PIXE results on items which are non-homogeneous in
their depth. NRA, inducing the transmutation of light elements, would complement PIGE in determining their depth
proile. Below 3 MeV, no delayed radioactivity is induced.
Another popular, quantitative and non-destructive analytical technique whose performances are similar to PIXE
is XRF. he methodology used to detect elements is exactly
the same for PIXE and XRF. he main diference between
the two lies in the ionisation process of the inner shells of
atoms.
In XRF, the incident radiation is a photon whose energy
is meant to be higher than the ionisation energy of the atom
to be analysed, and also higher than the energy of the characteristic X-ray line to be detected. he depth from which
the characteristic L lines of Au, and K lines of Ag and Cu are
emitted is then deeper than for PIXE, due to the high energy
of the Ag lines. Incident X-rays of about 35 keV are then
necessary, which would involve an important absorption of
emitted signals from Cu and Au. Working with lower incident photon energy would require to analyse Ag with their
characteristic L lines which would concern a too low bulk
information. Nevertheless, XRF is a powerful technique,
much cheaper than PIXE, and is likely to be more extensively used than PIXE due to its easiness of transportation to
museums and excavation sites.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 29-38
32
Guy DEMORTIER
3. TARGETING PIXE FOR GOLD JEWELLERY ITEMS
With the exception of trace elements, PIXE is a very
appropriate technique for the quantitative analysis of major
and minor elements in gold jewellery artefacts. To increase
the sensitivity for the study of objects with low concentrations of Cu and Ag, it is often compulsory to selectively
decrease the intensity of the AuL X-ray lines by inserting
a thin foil (20 to 30 microns) of Zn (or Cu) between the
target and the detector. he huge increase of the absorption
at 9.66 keV for Zn and at 8.98 keV for Cu justiies their
use in the iltering of gold L lines. A 20 microns-thick foil
of Zn reduces the intensity of the Lα line by a factor of 45
and that of the Lβ line of Au by a factor of 11.5, but only
by factors of 2.4 and 1.5 the Kα lines of Cu and Ag, respectively. One can see (Table 1) that, for an interference-free
detection, the Kα lines of Cu and Ag, and the Lβ line of
Au are the most appropriate. he calculation of the concentration of Cu would nevertheless include the computation
of the escape peak of the Lα line of Au in the region of the
Kα line of Cu. he Zn concentration would be impossible
due to the complete interference of both Zn K-lines with
the Ll and Lα lines of Au. he concentration of Cd (often
useful for the detection of fakes or modern repairs) is not
easy, due to the interference with the sum peak (twice 11.5
keV) of the very intense Lβ line of Au. he complete computation of the elemental concentrations is carried out using
a home-made programme taking into account all the necessary physical processes, including the secondary luorescence
induced mainly by the Au L lines in Cu (Van Oystaeyen and
Demortier, 1983; Demortier and Morciaux, 1994), or by
using other commercial computer programmes.
Element
Fe
Cu
Zn
Ag
Cd
Au
X-ray Energy (keV)
Kα
6.4
Κβ
7.06
Kα
8.04
Κβ
8.9
Kα
8.64
Κβ
9.6
Kα
22,1
Κβ
24.9
Kα
23.1
Κβ
26.1
Lα
9.6
Lβ
11.5
Ll
8.4
Most of the PIXE users working in the ield of archaeometry select protons as incident particles in a non-vacuum
geometry and tune their accelerator above 3 MeV (Calvo
del Castillo et al., 2008; Bugoi et al., 2008; Migliori et al.,
2008; Quarta et al., 2008; Mathis et al., 2008). heir main
arguments for this are:
– the higher the incident energy, the lower is the energy
deposited in the exit foil;
– the higher the incident energy, the higher is the crosssection for X-ray emission for all the elements of the target
(see Fig. 2).
Let us comment on this general attitude. In order to probe
the maximum distance in the irradiated material, the maximum incident energy seems to be the most appropriate, and
the sample is to be irradiated with its surface normal to the
beam direction, as illustrated in Figure 1d. In this geometry,
the X-ray detector (made with a silicon wafer) is situated at
an angle of about 135° relative to the incident beam and the
outgoing X-rays path is longer by a factor of 1.42 relative to
the incident particle path.
In Table 2 we provide the proportion of outgoing characteristic X-rays of Cu, Ag and Au for a series of typical gold
alloys. One can observe (irst line in the table) that only
22.5% of the entire intensity of the Au Lα produced by 3
MeV protons may escape from a homogeneous alloy (50%
Au, 25% Ag and 25% Cu sample), but this proportion
increases up to 67.8% when the incident energy is lowered
down to 1 MeV. he detected Kα line of Cu follows the
same trend, but the Ag Kα is much less afected by this
absorption efect. At proton incident energies above 2 MeV,
most of the emitted X-rays of Cu and Au are absorbed in the
target itself. For low concentrations of copper in gold rich
Selection
yes
Remarks
traces of ores
Interference
escape of CuKα
yes
main or minor
escape of AuLα
traces ?
with AuLl
with AuLα
yes
yes
large absorption in ilter
sum twice AuLβ
low intensity
with ZnKβ
yes
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 29-38
with ZnKα
Table 1: Characteristic
X-ray lines used for the
analysis of gold jewellery
items.
Tableau 1 : Raies X caractéristiques utilisées pour l’analyse des objets d’orfèvrerie.
33
Targeting Ion Beam Analysis techniques for gold artefacts
parison with a homogeneous reference material containing
all the elements of interest. Incident beam intensity, detector eiciency, detector solid angle, duration of the irradiation, computation of absorption of X-rays in the material
between the sample and the detector would not be measured
(Demortier et al., 1990).
4. DIFFERENTIAL PIXE
FOR DEPTH PROFILING OF GILDED ARTEFACTS
Figure 2: Variation of the ionization cross-section for K and L
shells with protons.
Figure 2 : Variation de la section eicace d’ionisation des couches K
et L avec des protons.
artefacts, this absorption efect reaches 85% at 3 MeV (last
line in Table 2). he quantitative determination is then very
highly afected by irregularities in the artefact’s surface or by
the incorrect reproducibility of the sample surface orientation relative to the direction of the incident beam. We also
observe that the absorption of the Lα line of gold is much
higher than the absorption of the Lβ line, justifying the
reason for selecting this Lβ line for the calculation of gold
concentration. Due to its high energy, the Kα line of silver
is less sensitive to any absorption efect. A careful choice of
the position and of the size of the zinc ilter is compulsory
in order to avoid additional detection of zinc K X-ray lines
in the detector. his luorescence efect has been extensively discussed in previous works [Demortier et al., 1993;
Demortier and Morciaux, 1994). When all the parameters
of the geometry of detection are known, PIXE is an absolute method of analysis, but the technology is even more
straightforward when the measurement is made by com-
A layered structure cannot be detected by PIXE using incident protons at a single energy. As explained above, RBS is
not able to easily separate scattered particles on Cu, Ag and
Au. Diferential PIXE is able to achieve this goal even for
thicknesses up to 10 µm (Demortier and Ruvalcaba, 2005).
he CuKα/AuLβ intensity ratio is very diferent for a homogeneous material or a layered structure, and this ratio varies
in opposite ways if the material is irradiated at various incident proton energies. he explanation is given in Figure 4.
In full lines we give the variation of the CuKα/AuLβ ratio
for a layered structure and in doted lines the behaviour for
homogeneous alloys. hus, if a sample made of pure Cu
covered with a 4 µm thick layer of gold is irradiated with 1.8
MeV protons, the ratio is 0.86 (point A), but increases up
to 2.05 if the incident proton energy is 2.6 MeV (point B),
and decreases down to 0.17 (point D) if the proton energy
is 1.2 MeV. At 1.8 MeV, this ratio of 0.86 would correspond
to a homogeneous alloy containing 92% Au and 8% Cu,
but this ratio would decrease down to 0.71 at 2.6 MeV and
increase up to 0.96 at 1.2 ΜeV. he variations are then in
the opposite directions. Furthermore, the variation is very
sharp for a layered structure, and smooth for a homogeneous
alloy. he slope of the variation of the CuKα/AuLβ ratio is
increasing when the incident proton energy is decreased.
he choice of an incident energy in the region of 2 MeV is
then optimal. In addition to a lower absorption of the X-ray
lines at lower proton energy, we add now a better capability
to detect surface enhancement or depletion.
In order to apply this diferential PIXE technique to materials with a depth proile down to several microns, measurements of the CuKα/AuLβ ratio are to be made at n diferent
proton energies to obtain the Cu/Au intensity ratio in n-1
layers and in the bulk. For instance, if we assume that the
anthropo-zoomorphic pendant (Quimbaya Peru – 1000 to
1600 AD) shown in Figure 5 is homogeneous, conventional
PIXE data obtained with protons of energies ranging from
0.6 to 2.6 MeV would give contradictory results (Table 3)
for the analysis at the same impact on the sample but at
diferent incident beam energies. hus, the Cu content
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 29-38
34
Guy DEMORTIER
Au
%
50
Ag
Cu
Au
25
25
50
Ag
Cu
Au
5
45
75
Ag
Cu
Au
15
10
80
Ag
Cu
Au
15
5
96
Ag
Cu
3.5
1.5
X-ray
Lα
Lβ
Kα
Kα
Lα
Lβ
Kα
Kα
Lα
Lβ
Kα
Kα
Lα
Lβ
Kα
Kα
Lα
Lβ
Kα
Kα
3.0 MeV
22.5
26.3
60.8
21.3
21.2
30.0
60.7
26.7
22.2
31.1
51.5
17.5
22.3
31.2
49.7
16.5
21.6
30.2
44.2
15.1
2.5 MeV
28.9
39.4
68.2
27.7
27.4
37.6
68.5
34.2
28.4
38.6
59.5
23.0
28.4
38.6
57.7
21.8
27.6
37.5
52.3
19.8
2.0 MeV
39.9
49.3
75.8
36.9
36.3
47.6
76.8
44.4
37.1
48.1
68.5
31.1
37.2
48.4
66.5
29.4
35.5
46.5
62.0
26.9
1.5 MeV
50.6
61.9
83.9
49.4
49.1
60.5
82.0
56.8
41.8
60.9
77.9
42.8
49.6
60.8
76.4
40.8
47.4
58.7
69.6
27.9
1.0 MeV
67.8
76.6
93.0
65.2
66.7
75.8
95.0
71.8
68.8
75.9
90.0
58.3
66.7
75.7
90.0
56.2
63.9
73.4
100.0
53.8
Table 2: Percentage of outgoing X-rays of Cu, Au and Ag used in the PIXE analysis of jewellery items with protons of various energies.
Tableau 2 : Pourcentage des rayons X émergeant du Cu, de l’Au et de l’Ag utilisés pour l’analyse des objets d’orfèvrerie par PIXE avec des protons
d’énergies variées.
Depth below
surface (µm)
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.28
bulk
Cu
%
0
4
8
12
16
24
28
Au
%
94
90
86
82
74
70
68
Ag
%
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
Table 3: Depth proile of elements in the Quimbaya pendant
obtained by diferential PIXE.
Tableau 3 : Proils en profondeur dans le pendentif Quimbaya par
PIXE diférentiel.
appears to be 8.6% at 0.6 MeV incident proton energy (in
that case, most of the signal comes from the irst 2 microns
below the surface), but increases up to 18.7% at 2.6 MeV
proton energy (most of the X-rays are coming in this case
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 29-38
from a thicker layer, of about ten microns). he sample is
then certainly not homogeneous in depth, but is highly enriched in gold on the surface. Repeating the measurement at
7 diferent proton energies, we have computed by an iteration method (similar to the one used for RBS spectra)
that the depth distribution of Cu varied from 0 to 28%
from the surface to a depth of 1.7 micron below the surface.
he identiication of nearly no copper on the surface was
veriied using PIXE with incident low energy α particles.
Diferential PIXE has also been applied to other materials
(Smit et al., 2008).
5. DETERMINATION OF TRACES OF SULPHUR
AND ZINC IN ANCIENT GOLD ARTEFACTS
PIXE has been successfully applied for the purposes of
topographical elemental analysis of Cu, Ag, and Au in
jewellery items. he composition of the material in narrow
regions of minute solders on antique gold artefacts may
provide valuable information regarding the workmanship
Targeting Ion Beam Analysis techniques for gold artefacts
35
Figure 3: Mass absorption coeficient of X-rays in Cu, Zn, Ag
and Au, to be used in selective
ilters and for XRF induced by
PIXE.
Figure 3 : Coeicient d’absorption
massique des rayons X dans le Cu,
le Zn, l’Ag et l’Au à utiliser pour
les iltres sélectifs et pour la FX
induite par PIXE.
of goldsmiths from the Ancient World. We have shown
above that Zn is diicult to analyse by PIXE due to the high
interference of its K-lines with the L-lines of gold, and that
signals of Cd are very often neglected due to the high probability of interference with pile-up signals: the Kα energy
of Cd is exactly at the position of twice the Lβ line of gold.
In several previous papers, we have discussed the hypothesis
that, in ancient times, cadmium sulphide (a yellow mineral
with a colour close to that of gold) may have been ‘alloyed’
with gold to obtain a material suitable for brazing. To test
this hypothesis, an experimental procedure for the analysis
of traces of sulphur in gold artefacts was developed. It is
indeed expected that during the ancient alloying procedure,
traces of sulphur from the cadmium sulphide were introduced in the brazing alloy.
he detection of energetic protons induced by a deuteron bombardment of the specimen under investigation
was achieved. he best experimental conditions for sulphur determination are obtained by (d,p) reactions at Ed
= 1.9 MeV and a detection angle of protons around 165°
(Demortier and Gilson, 1987). S signals are well separated
Figure 4: Variation of the CuKα/AuLβ intensity ratio for layered
and homogeneous Cu-Au alloys under proton bombardment.
Figure 4 : Variation du rapport d’intensités CuKα/AuLβ pour des
alliages Cu-Au stratiiés et homogènes sous bombardement de protons.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 29-38
36
Figure 5: (See colour plate) he Quimbaya pendant (Colombia,
1000-1600 AD).
Figure 5 : (Voir planche couleur) Le pendentif Quimbaya (Colombie
1000-1600 A.D.)
Guy DEMORTIER
from those of Si, Mg, Cl, Ca (for p0) and Al, P, Cl, K, Mg
(for p1). he complete discussion is provided elsewhere.
Sulphur and silicon (always introduced in metals when
heating ores in ancient metallurgy) are of crucial importance for the understanding of ancient technologies. Sulphur
(in blende and greenockite) and silicon (in a number of
minerals) may be expected to be present in narrow parts of
solders made during the brazing of ancient gold artefacts.
he detected concentrations of S and Si were in the range
of 50 to 120 ppm. he concentration of Cd was simultaneously determined by the detection of characteristic X-rays
induced by the deuteron beam. his presence of residual
sulphur (only at trace level) indicates that at least 95% of
S was lost during the alloying procedure. he presence of
traces of Si and often also traces of Al can be also attributed
to dust inclusions in narrow regions of solders (Demortier
and Gilson, 1987).
Cadmium ores (and mainly CdS) always contain zinc as
impurities. Modern brazing alloys containing Cd are Zn
free or have a Zn concentration of about 20% of the Cd
concentration. he measurement of the Zn/Cd ratio would
therefore be of great interest for diferentiating brazing alloys
containing Cd of ancient or modern origin. As the measurement of Zn in gold rich alloys is impossible by PIXE due to
Figure 6: he experimental setup for the measurement of Zn in gold-rich samples using XRF induced by PIXE (Ge primary target).
Figure 6 : Le montage expérimental pour la mesure du Zn dans les alliages riches en or par FX induite par PIXE (cible primaire en Ge).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 29-38
Targeting Ion Beam Analysis techniques for gold artefacts
the superposition of the K lines of Zn with the L lines of Au,
we have developed a technique involving XRF induced by
PIXE in order to selectively excite the K lines of Zn without
exciting the L lines of Au (Demortier, 1987). he irradiation
of a pure Ge target with protons (and not with electrons, in
order to avoid any contribution of Bremtrahlung) produces
X-rays of 9.89 and 10.98 keV, which are suicient to extract
K-shell electrons from Zn but not the L-shell of gold (see
Figure 3). he same arrangement, using As as primary target, has been used by the team of M. Guerra to detect traces
of Pt in gold (Guerra and Calligaro, 2003; 2004). he experimental assembly is shown in Figure 6. Our personal view
on the possible use of Cd-Cu-Ag-Au alloys in antiquity has
been extensively discussed, but our conclusions are far from
being generally accepted (Demortier, 1987; 1989; 1992;
Meeks and Craddock, 1991).
6. CONCLUSIONS
Of the diferent ion beam analysis techniques (PIXE, RBS,
PIGE and NRA), PIXE is the most appropriate technique
using low energy accelerators for the analysis of gold jewellery artefacts. A careful choice of the characteristic X-ray
lines may help one avoid interferences in the identiication
of signals of selected elements, such as Zn or Pt. XRF induced by PIXE ofers additional possibilities of interferencefree analyses. Irradiation at various incident proton energies
ofers the possibility to detect and to quantitatively and nondestructively proile major elements up to 10 microns below
the surface. he choice of an incident proton energy around
2 MeV ofers the advantage of a sharp variation of the X-ray
emission cross, useful in order to easily distinguish a layered
structure from one with a homogeneous distribution of the
elements.
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and Methods B 266: 2328-2333.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 29-38
Guy DEMORTIER
VAN OYSTAEYEN, B. and DEMORTIER, G., 1983. Matrix efects in
PIXE evaluation of the major components in thick homogeneous samples. Nuclear Instruments and Methods 215: 299-313.
Synchrotron Radiation Induced X-Ray Fluorescence
for the characterization of ancient gold objects
Fluorescence de rayons X induite par radiation de synchrotron
pour la caractérisation d’objets anciens en or
Martin Radtke*, Uwe Reinholz* and Heinrich Riesemeier*
Abstract: Due to their non-destructive character, X-ray analytical methods are widespread in the ield of archaeometry. In the present study, the
use of synchrotron radiation induced X-ray luorescence analysis (SR-XRF) is illustrated on three examples: a silver point drawing of Jan van Eyck,
the Hiddensee Gold Treasure, and the Sky Disc of Nebra. he possibility to analyse large objects in normal atmosphere results in information
regarding their origin, uniformity, and the manufacturing process.
Résumé : Grâce à leur non-destructivité, les techniques analytiques qui utilisent les rayons X sont très répandues dans le domaine de l’archéométrie.
L’utilisation de la luorescence de rayons X induite par radiation de synchrotron (SR-XRF) est illustrée à partir de trois exemples : les dessins à pointe
d’argent de Jan van Eyck, le trésor de Hiddensee et le disque céleste de Nebra. L’analyse d’objets, même de grandes tailles, à l’air permet d’obtenir des
informations sur leur origine, leur homogénéité et leurs techniques de fabrication.
Keywords: Gold, Hiddensee Treasure, Nebra Sky Disc, non-destructive testing, silver point drawings, synchrotron, X-ray luorescence.
Mots-clés : Or, trésor d’Hiddensee, disque céleste de Nebra, analyse non-destructive, dessins à pointe d’argent, synchrotron, luorescence à rayons X.
1. INTRODUCTION
Synchrotron radiation (SR) is one of the most versatile
tools for the characterization of materials. It combines high
spatial resolution with good detection limits, the possibility
to work in normal atmosphere with the capacity to examine
large objects, which do not it into sample chambers. SR
measurements on metals are non-destructive.
Technically, a synchrotron is a machine which generates
brilliant beams of light by moving electrons through a
strong magnetic ield. his light, called synchrotron radiation, ranges from the infrared to hard X-rays, with some
extremely useful properties. Additionally, a synchrotron
provides the infrastructure for a number of diferent measuring techniques, and the facilities for sample treatment
and preparation. Last but not least, synchrotrons are located
in government funded science centre, where measurements
can be carried out for free, provided that a beam time proposal was evaluated successful by an independent beam time
committee. One of the disadvantages is that, even if there
are now around 40 synchrotron light sources worldwide and
the number is still increasing signiicantly, not every country
has a synchrotron. Due to limitations related to moving precious objects and their crossing national boundaries, access
* BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing – Richard-Willstätter-Straße 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany. (martin.radtke@bam.de), (uwe.
reinholz@bam.de), (heinrich.riesemeier@bam.de)
rec. Oct. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 39-44
40
to this methodology is limited. In any case, because of its
high lux, SR-based techniques can usually be performed
on minute samples.
2. METHODS
SR is useful for all X-ray techniques; however, for the
analysis of ancient metal objects, X-ray luorescence is the
predominant method. For XRF, the use of SR presents especially the following advantages:
he radiation is linearly polarized, and therefore the scattering in the plane of polarization is minimized and detection limits are improved.
he excitation energy can be selected and adapted to the
problem. It is possible to excite an element of interest just
above the absorption edge in order to optimize excitation, or
to go under an absorption edge to avoid excitation.
SR has high brilliance. his means that the photons are
emitted in a small solid angle, and this allows focusing the
radiation efectively in a small excitation spot.
All examples referred to in this publication have been
selected from measurements carried out with the SR-XRF
setup at the BAMline at BESSY II, Berlin. At this beam line,
a super conducting wavelength shifter with a maximum ield
of 7 Tesla is the X-ray source, with a useable energy range
from 5 keV up to 80 keV. herefore, nearly all elements can
be detected by measurement of their K-shell luorescence.
A W/Si double-multilayer-monochromator (DMM) and/or
a Si [111] double-crystal-monochromator (DCM) are used
to select the desired excitation energy. In order to achieve
higher luxes, it is possible to focus the beam to a size of
approximately (300x300) μm² by bending one multilayer
and/or one crystal (Görner et al., 2006). If smaller beam
sizes are necessary, compound refractive lenses (CRL) can
be used to achieve spot sizes of less than (2x2) μm² (Strub et
al., 2008). For the detection of the luorescence signal, different types of solid state detectors (Si(Li) HPGe and SDD)
are available. For data evaluation, various program packages
are freely available. At the BAMline, QXAS from the IAEA,
a Monte Carlo code, capable of simulating photon-matter
interaction (Vincze et al., 1995) and pyMCA (Sole et al.,
2007) are implemented. Details about the SR-XRF technique can be found elsewhere (Adams et al., 1998).
SR-XRF is a non-destructive multi-element method.
However, not all elements can be analyzed with the same
sensibility. For gold, an excitation energy of around
33-38 keV, depending on the expected trace elements, has
been found to be most useful. In this case, the minimum
detection limits (MDL) of trace elements in gold are in the
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 39-44
Martin RADTKE, Uwe REINHOLZ, Heinrich RIESEMEIER
order of 1 ppm. he detection of platinum requires special
procedures because of the closeness of these two elements in
the periodic table. By a very sophisticated approach (Guerra
et al., 2005; 2008), the MDL of Pt can be decreased as low
as 10-20 ppm.
3. EXAMPLES
If an archaeologist or art historian comes to use a synchrotron, typically one of these questions is asked:
– What material was used to manufacture this object?
– How was it made?
– Is it possible to discriminate diferent compositions
within one object or between diferent members of a group
of objects?
Examples of questions that are more diicult to answer
are the following:
– Where does it come from?
– When was it made?
– Is the object authentic or a forgery?
Unfortunately, there is no possibility to measure the age
of a gold object with SR. herefore, the last two questions
cannot be answered with our methods in a straightforward
manner. In the following, examples of answers to the other
categories of questions are presented. At irst, the apparently
trivial task of the identiication of the material is illustrated
by the non-destructive analysis of silver point drawings
of Renaissance artists. For this purpose, extremely sensitive synchrotron – or accelerator-based techniques (PIXE
– Particle Induced X-Ray Analysis) are necessary, because
only small quantities of metal were deposited on the paper
(Reiche et al., 2004a). On Van Eyck’s drawing, the ‘Portrait
of Cardinal Albergati’, at least three diferent metal points
have been identiied (Fig. 1). Two diferent types of silver
marks have been found in the examined portrait. Silver containing gold marks has been detected in the inscriptions and
over-subscriptions. his discovery has represented the irst
evidence of the use of gold points in metal point drawings
from the Middle Ages. he fact that a gold stylus diferent
from the other silver points was used represents therefore an
important result. An explanation of the exceptional use of a
gold stylus could be the diference in mechanical properties
of a gold point, which is much smoother than pure or especially Cu-containing silverpoints. hus, it seems easier to
write with a gold point than with a silver one. Furthermore,
it is possible to obtain diferent colour aspects of the marks
when using another metal than silver. A gold stylus leaves
a dark grey mark, whereas a silver mark becomes brownish
quite rapidly. hus, it can be postulated that Van Eyck con-
Synchrotron Radiation Induced X-Ray Fluorescence for the characterization of ancient gold objects
41
Figure 1: he drawing “Portrait of Cardinal Albergati” by Jan van
Eyck (Kupferstichkabinett, Dresden, Germany, inv. no. C775).
he plot shows a comparison of synchrotron-induced X-ray luorescence spectra of a silver mark (stylus 1), a gold mark (stylus 2),
and the paper with preparation backing measured with an excitation energy of 30 keV.
Figure 1 : Le dessin Portrait du Cardinal Albergati par Jan van
Eyck (Kupferstichkabinett, Dresde, Allemagne, inv. no. C775). Le
graphique montre la comparaison des spectres obtenus par luorescence
de rayons X induite par radiation de synchrotron de marques en argent
(stylus 1) et en or (stylus 2) et du papier avec la préparation d’entoilage
mesurés avec une énergie d’excitation de 30 keV.
sciously used diverse metal points in order to make the most
of the changing properties of diferent metal styli, and to
achieve special graphic efects, such as the particular threedimensionality or profundity of this portrait.
It is thus possible to draw a conclusion regarding the genesis of the drawing. Van Eyck probably used irst the pure
silver stylus for drawing the face, the robe, and the hair of
the igure. he cross line was also made with this stylus. he
hatchings on the left and on the right of the head were made
with another copper-containing silver point, which emphasizes the plasticity of the portrait. hen, the eyes and other
parts of the portrait were intensiied using the gold stylus.
With the same stylus, the letters on the face were inscribed
(Reiche et al., 2004b).
he next example provides an insight into the fabrication
techniques of Viking gold objects. he so-called ‘Hiddensee
Gold’ objects (Fig. 2) are said to have been washed ashore
after two great storm tides in 1872 and 1874, and saved
by ishermen from Neuendorf, Germany. From there,
they came to their present whereabouts, the Cultural and
Historical Museum of Stralsund, under somewhat adventurous circumstances. he 16 objects, with a total weight
of 600 g, have been manufactured around 1000 AD in a
Viking workshop. he irst results showed a great homogeneity of the diferent gold alloy of all sixteen objects, except
for the brooch, the neck ring, and one of the cross-shaped
pendants (no. 12). his inding was not surprising for the
neck ring, which was processed with the help of a diferent technique (twisted wire instead of soldered sheet metal,
wire, and granules), and not even for the brooch, which is a
unique piece among the iligree decorated objects. However,
there is no answer yet to the question of why the crossshaped pendant no. 12 has a signiicantly lower gold content than the other nine cross-shaped pendants. Perhaps it
was produced separately and later added to the set? Another
important result concerns the composition of the solder.
Remnants of metallic solder distributed on the sheets could
clearly be seen under the microscope. For the solder, gold
had been alloyed with other types of metal so that the melting point was signiicantly lower than that of the gold alloy
of sheets and decorations. Upon heating, the sheets and
decorations were connected by the solder without melting themselves. Normally, the melting point of pure gold is
1084 °C. By adding silver or copper to the gold, the melting
point can be reduced to a temperature between 850 °C and
975 °C, depending on the exact proportions of the diferent
metals. Our investigations of pendant no. 13, for example,
conirm the presence of a high amount of copper in the
solder (Armbruster et al., 2004).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 39-44
42
Martin RADTKE, Uwe REINHOLZ, Heinrich RIESEMEIER
b
a
he provenance of gold objects based on elemental analysis
is problematic, due to the frequent recycling of this precious
material. However, for very old objects, it can be assumed
that no recycling took place, and that the ingerprint of trace
elements in the gold object is similar to that of the original
gold. he third example presented in this publication, the
‘Sky Disc of Nebra’ (Fig. 3), was manufactured around 2000
BC and is featuring the earliest record of Central European
astronomy known to date. he question that needed to be
answered with SR-XRF was whether the composition of the
diferent gold parts was the same, or if it had changed during
diferent periods of completion according to the purpose of
the disc. he analysis of minor components such as silver
and tin provided the basis for a cluster analysis resulting in
the separation of three distinctly diferent groups:
1. sun, moon and the majority of the stars;
2. horizon and one single-shifted star;
3. the so-called bark.
Using these results, we were able to support the assumption of the archaeologists, that the disc was manufactured
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 39-44
Figure 2: (See colour plate) The Hiddensee Gold treasure
(Kulturhistorisches Museum Stralsund, Germany, inv. no. 1873:
499a et cetera). he scatter plot (a) shows the diferent compositions of the brooch, the neck-ring, and pendant no. 12. In the
plot (b), the increased copper content of the solder can be seen.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Le trésor de Hiddensee
(Kulturhistorisches Museum Stralsund, Allemagne, inv n° 1873 :
499a). Le graphique ci-contre (a) montre les diférentes compositions
de la broche, du ras de cou et du pendentif n° 12. Le graphique
ci-dessus (b) met en évidence l’augmentation de la teneur en cuivre
pour la soudure.
in several phases, representing progress in knowledge and a
change of religion and purpose. Additionally, we were able
to identify the Carpathian basin as the most likely source
of the gold. Using copper from Austria, and a ‘technology
transfer’ from Mycenae (Greece), the manufacturing of the
Nebra Sky Disk can be considered as a very early endeavour
based on a joint European experience, possibly with contributions indebted to the symbolism of Egypt or the Levant
(Pernicka et al., 2003).
4. SUMMARY
he special requirements for the use of a synchrotron
and the advantages of synchrotron radiation have been discussed above. SR-XRF made it possible to characterize small
amounts of metal, as in the case of the silverpoint drawings,
analyse big objects such as the Sky Disc of Nebra, and to
measure the composition of objects on a small scale, as in
the case of the solder used for the Hiddensee gold.
It has been shown that knowledge about the composition of the material can provide signiicant information
about the origin and insights into the manufacturing process of an object. While the examples presented above are
covering the main topics related to the analysis of ancient
Synchrotron Radiation Induced X-Ray Fluorescence for the characterization of ancient gold objects
43
Figure 3: (See colour plate) he Sky Disk of Nebra (Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, Halle, Germany, inv.
no. HK2002:1649a). he measured silver and tin contents of the gold applications are shown in the scatter
plot. he three groups are clearly recognisable: (a) bark; (b) star no. 23 and horizon; (c) the remaining stars
with moon and sun.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Le disque céleste de Nebra (Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, Halle, Allemagne,
inv. no. HK2002 : 1649a). Les teneurs en argent et en étain mesurées pour les applications en or sont indiquées
sur le graphique. Les trois groupes sont clairement reconnaissables : (a) écorce ; (b) étoile n° 23 et horizon ; (c) les
autres étoiles avec la lune et le soleil.
gold with SR-XRF, it should be mentioned that there are
also other techniques able to ofer useful information. For
example, X-Ray Difraction (XRD) was used to investigate
the weathering of gilding decorations (Lluveras et al., 2008).
X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy (XANES and EXAFS) and
Small Angle X-ray Scattering (SAXS) are useful tools for
characterizing nano particles in gold ruby glass (Eichelbaum
et al., 2007).
In the future, the use of SR-XRF to characterize the Berlin
Gold Hat (Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte, Staatliche
Museen zu Berlin, Germany) and the Skythian Gold
Treasures from Vettersfelde and Maikop (Antikensammlung,
Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, Germany) will bring exciting
new insights into the past.
Acknowledgements
he authors would like to thank our colleagues I. Reiche,
M.F. Guerra, B. Armbruster, H. Eilbracht, A. Grüger, C.H.
Wunderlich and E. Pernicka for the good collaboration. A special compliment for all the art historians and archaeologists
involved, for the conidence to bring these unique objects to our
beam line. he BESSY team is acknowledged for their good
cooperation.
References
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GUERRA, M.F., RADTKE, M., REICHE, I., RIESEMEIER, H. and
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LLUVERAS, A., BOULARAND, S., ROQUE, J., COTTE, M., GIRALDEZ, P.
and VENDRELL-SAZ, M., 2008. Weathering of gilding decorations
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oxalates in the case of Sant Benet de Bages (Barcelona, Spain).
Applied Physics A: Materials Science and Processing 90(1): 23-33.
PERNICKA, E., RADTKE, M., RIESEMEIER, H. and WUNDERLICH,
C-H., 2003. European Network of Competence at 1600 BC.
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RIEDERER, J., RIESEMEIER, H. and ROTH, M., 2004a. Following
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by spatially resolved synchrotron-induced X-ray luorescence
analysis. Nuclear Instruments and Methods B 226(1-2): 83-91.
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MERCHEL, S., RIEDERER, J., RIESEMEIER, H. and ROTH, M.,
2004B. Spatially resolved synchrotron-induced X-ray luorescence analyses of metal point drawings and their mysterious
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inscriptions. Spectrochimica Acta B: Atomic Spectroscopy 59(1011): 1657-1662.
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REMIKOVA, E., 2008. Measurements with compound refractive
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X-ray Diffraction method for determination
of crystallite sizes of gold and silver items –
New opportunities for archaeology
and for protection against forgery
Méthode de diffraction de rayons X pour la détermination des tailles de cristallites
des objets d’or et d’argent – Nouvelles opportunités pour l’archéologie
et pour la protection contre la production de faux
Denka Yanakieva*, Milena Tonkova**, Ernst Spiridonov***,
Zlatil Vergilov**** and Petia Penkova**
Abstract: This work presents the results of X-ray studies of the nanostructure of gold and silver items, using the obtained data for purposes of
identification and comparison. The study covers gold and silver archaeological items, as well as gold and silver nuggets (both exposed and not
to thermal and mechanical actions). The items were studied by means of XRD analysis and emphasis was placed on line-profile analysis, aimed
at obtaining information about the microstructural properties of materials: size of coherently diffracting domains in crystals (crystallite size).
Crystallite sizes, as a constant numerical feature of an item, can be used successfully for: ascertaining an item’s authenticity and thus providing
protection against forging; studying issues relevant to the treatment of forgeable metals in the ancient ages, when man started using them; providing exact time and place correlations (included in complex researches of archaeological items and combined with other methods), etc.
The present work is part of a detailed X-ray study of gold and silver, aimed at specifying the nanostructure characteristics of items: crystallite sizes,
micro-strains at unit cell level, unit cell parameters. This work is based on crystallite size characteristics and offers the first examples demonstrating
the potential of the method, while also suggesting possible future actions that would further evaluate this potential.
Résumé : Ce travail présente les résultats d’une étude des rayons-X de la nanostructure d’objets en or et en argent ; les données obtenues sont utilisées
pour l’identification et la comparaison. Cette étude concerne des objets archéologiques en or et en argent ainsi que des pépites d’or et argent (n’ayant subi
aucune action thermique ou mécanique). Les objets ont été étudiés au moyen de l’analyse DRX, l’accent ayant été mis sur l’analyse des profils de lignes, de
façon à obtenir des informations sur les propriétés microstructurales : taille des domaines diffractant de façon cohérente (taille des cristaux). La taille des
cristallites, caractéristique numérique constante d’un objet, peut être utilisée avec succès pour : vérifier l’authenticité d’un objet et ainsi fournir protection
contre la contrefaçon ; étudier des questions pertinentes liées au traitement de métaux utilisés par les faussaires dans le passé, aux débuts de leur utilisation
par l’homme ; fournir des corrélations exactes de temps et localisation (inclues dans des recherches complexes sur les objets archéologiques et combinés à
d’autres méthodes), etc.
* Earth and Man National Museum – 4 Cherni Vrach Blvd., Sofia 1421, Bulgaria. (denkay@abv.bg)
** Institute of Archaeology with Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences – 2 Saborna Street, Sofia 1000, (Bulgaria. milenatonkova@hotmail.com)
(petiapenkova@yahoo.com)
*** Department of Mineralogy, Lomonosov State University of Moscow – Vorobiovy Gory, 1192334, Russia. (mineral@geol.msu.ru)
**** St. Kliment Ohridski Sofia University, Department of Archaeology, Petrology and Mineral Resources – 15 Tsar Osvoboditel Blvd., Sofia 1504.
(zver@gea.uni-sofia.bg)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 45-50
46
Denka YANAKIEVA et al.
Ce travail fait partie d’une étude détaillée des rayons X de l’or et de l’argent, ayant pour but de spécifier les caractéristiques nano-structurelles des objets :
tailles de cristallites, micro-tensions au niveau de cellules d’unité, paramètres de la cellule d’unité. Ce travail se base sur les caractéristiques cristallites
et offre les premiers exemples démontrant le potentiel de la méthode ainsi que suggérant des actions futures possibles permettant d’évaluer ce potentiel.
Keywords: crystallite sizes, gold, line profile analysis, peak broadening, silver, X-ray diffraction.
Mots-clés : tailles des cristallites, or, analyse de lignes de profil, élargissement de pic, argent, diffraction de rayons X.
1. INTRODUCTION
X-ray diffraction is the first exact method for the study
of the structure of matter. In archaeology, this analysis is
used successfully to study stone constructions, ceramics,
pigments, etc.
The present study of gold and silver items outlines the first
steps in a new field – analyzing the line profile of objects in
order to obtain information about the microstructural properties of materials: sizes of coherently diffracting domains
in crystals (crystallite sizes) and micro-strains in the lattice.
These parameters depend on the forming conditions of the
material and on various influences (mechanical and thermal)
the material was exposed to.
The present work is aimed at determining:
the sizes of crystallites making up gold and silver objects
of natural and artificial origin;
the variability of crystallite sizes (D) due to the origin of
the material and technological processing of the object;
the applicability of such an approach to the characterization and study of archaeological artefacts.
The main objects of the study are Thracian gold and silver jewellery items, dated to the first millennium BC, and
belonging to the collection of the National Institute of
Archaeology with Museum of the Bulgarian Academy of
Sciences. Gold and silver objects belonging to different ages
and regions were also studied for purposes of comparison.
Natural gold and silver samples, both exposed and not to
thermal and mechanic influences, were studied as well.
The studied alloys belong to the systems Au-Ag (Ag-Au)
and Ag-Au-Cu (Au-Ag-Cu). They represent cubic solid solutions with no decay and decomposition. Every item was
submitted to 2÷8 XRD analyses. A total of 49 items were
submitted to 136 XRD analyses.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
2. METHODOLOGY
Theoretical Basis – crystallite sizes and their
relation with profile line broadening
Every grain of the microstructure of a crystal in an object
is, in fact, a mosaic of small blocks showing angular discordance ranging from 20’ to 1-5°. The dimensions of these
blocks are comparable with those of the so-called Areas of
Coherent Scattering (ACS). That is why small angular discordances cause a widening of the diffraction angle (θ) with some
extra value (±Δα) (Howard and Preston, 1989). This effect is
observed as a broadening of the diffraction peak width.
Crystallite size determination entails a study of the nanostructure of the object. For comparison:
size of Au atom = 0.142 nm;
size of Ag atom = 0.143 nm;
Au unit cell parameter a = 0.4078 nm;
Ag unit cell parameter a = 0.4086 nm (Strunz 2001);
crystallites measured in the present work: D(Au) = 11.2 ÷
31.8 nm, D(Ag) = 8.7 ÷ 28.1 nm.
Apart from crystallite sizes, peak broadening is also
influenced by the instrumental broadening caused by the
equipment, and by micro-strains (Balzar, 1993). The instrumental broadening measured in this case was 0.05 (FMHM
~ 30° 2θ, CuKα), which is in line with the values quoted
in the literature for this type of equipment (Balzar 1992).
In the present research, the authors’ interest was focused
exclusively on studying crystallite sizes.
Measurements
X-ray diffraction data were collected by means of a TUR
M 62 diffractometer (Germany) with a standard two-circle
goniometer in Bragg-Brentano geometry with secondary
graphite monochromator. The surface of the studied object
was perpendicular to the goniometer plane. We used CuKα
radiation (λ = 0.15418 nm) under the following measu-
X-ray Diffraction method for determination of crystallite sizes of gold and silver items…
rement conditions: tube voltage = 32 kV; tube current =
15 mA; step-scan mode with step size = 0.02° 2θ; and counting time = 2 s per step for standard researches for phase
analysis, and 0.01°/15-30 s for researches in the interval
35-41° 2θ for experiments performed in order to study the
broadening. The gold items’ indexed diffractogram in this
mode is shown in Figure 1. The instrumental broadening
was determined through standard Si and La B6 powder.
47
Balzar and Popovic 1996; Balzar et al., 2004). The profile fitting of the 111 reflection of an Au item is shown in Figure 2
as an example.
3. RESULTS
BASE GROUP – Thracian jewellery from the Collection
of the National Institute of Archaeology with Museum.
Data Analysis
The diffractometer was controlled by a computer and
all measurements were stored on the hard disk. Data were
transferred to a personal computer for processing.
We used WinFit (version 1.2.1-1997) freeware (Krumm,
1994) to fit profiles and calculate crystallite sizes. WinFit calculated crystallite sizes according to the Warrren-Averbach
method. The Pearson VII function was used to fit profiles
(Mittemeijer and Scardi, 2004; Uvarov and Popov, 2007).
Profile Analysis
The diffraction peak width (DPW) is sensitive to the
mean value of crystallite thickness (size) in a direction normal to the diffracting crystal planes. DPW increases when
crystallites diminish and conversely becomes narrower when
the nanostructure is coarser. The crystallite sizes were determined by the one-order (single line) method.
The profile of the reflex with indexes 111 at Bragg angle
2θ ~ 38.3°, corrected for instrumental broadening, was used
for the determination of crystallite sizes (Scardi et al., 1994;
1st group of objects: 2nd century BC – 2nd century AD:
The four silver bracelets from Rouzhintsi (Belogradchik
region), Nos. 2858, 2859, 2860 and 2861, are decorated
with snakes’ heads. The rings of the bracelets are cast. Nos.
2858 and 2859 have almost identical D (16.4 nm; 16.7
nm), i.e., they can be considered as a pair. The other two
samples, Nos. 2860 and 2861, possess similar crystallite characteristics, with some insignificant diversion of D (D = 16.0
nm; 16.8 nm), which makes us accept them as products of
the same atelier. The D values measured in the areas of the
snakes’ heads diminish, an aspect which can be interpreted
as a result of forging (D = 15.4 nm). A different technology
was used for modelling the snakes’ heads.
The silver torque from Zelenigrad (No. 2996) is formed
in a similar manner as the four bracelets from Rouzhintsi
– each end is shaped as an onion with a small granule.
Archaeologists consider them as synchronous, dating to a
period between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century AD.
The D (10.54 nm) of the torque, if compared to those of the
four bracelets, appears to be quite different, which suggests
a different origin and/or technology.
Figure 1: Indexed diffractogram of gold items.
Figure 1 : Diffractogramme indexé des objects d’or.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
48
Denka YANAKIEVA et al.
Figure 2: Fitted diffraction line of
studied peak 111.
Figure 2 : Ligne de diffraction ajustée au pic 111.
2nd group of objects – 2nd half of the 4th century BC, items from
western Bulgaria:
The pair of fibulae from Penkovtsi (Tran region), Nos.
3015a and 3015b, have exactly identical D (15.9 nm) as a
result of one and the same technology being employed in
their production. One of the fibulae is restored, but this did
not influence its D.
Another pair of fibulae from Garbino (Kyustendil region),
Nos. 3008a and 3008b, is of a similar morphological type
as the above-mentioned ones. The fibulae of this pair are
characterized by equal D (17.5 nm), differing however from
the value of the Penkovtsi fibulae. These pairs are obviously
products of different technologies and presumably different
ateliers.
A single silver fibula (No. 630) of unknown origin was
analyzed in seven spots of the as-cast part and in one of the
forged zone. All seven spot analyses show an exactly equal
D (22.7 nm), while a single forged area shows some small
difference (D = 21.7 nm). The D value of this fibula differs
drastically from the above-mentioned two pairs, but it is
quite similar to the D of the following objects.
A pair of silver bracelets from Granitovo (Belogradchik
region), Nos. 4036a and 4036b, show absolutely equal D
(20.0 nm) (composition: Ag – 97.5%; Cu – 2.5% for No.
4036a, and Ag – 99%, Au – 1% for No. 4036b) to the abovementioned item, which may be a sign of a common origin.
The analyses of the cast part and forged tip of the fragmented silver torque from Stolat (Sevlievo region), No.
3013, show similar sizes of crystals (D = 19.1 nm; 18.5 nm).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
3rd group of objects – 5 fragments of gold earrings, Krun
(Bulgaria), No. 2682:
All measured D values are identical (D = 17.8 nm), which
confirms their common origin.
Objects for Comparison of Crystallite Sizes
First Group – Gold and Silver Nuggets:
1. Gold Nuggets
a) Nugget – Samples of vein gold from the following
regions were studied: Etropole, Bulgaria (D = 22.7 nm),
Central Rhodope Mountains, Bulgaria (D = 19.8 nm), as
well from the large deposits of Bestube (D = 20.0 nm),
Aksu (D = 26.0 nm), and Zhana-Tyube (D = 31.8 nm)
in Kazakhstan. Alluvial gold from the Rhodope Mountains
rivers (D = 23.6 nm) and the Iskar River (D = 28.8 nm)
was also studied.
b) Nugget, exposed to thermal and mechanical influences.
Samples from Bestube (northern Kazakhstan) were exposed
to heating under and over the melting point (D = 19.8 nm
and 16.2 nm, respectively), and to mechanical actions (forging) (D = 19.8 nm).
2. Silver Nuggets
a) Nugget – Samples of the following deposits were studied: Chiprovtsi, Bulgaria (D = 28.1 nm), Sassa, Macedonia
(D = 22.3 nm), Kongsberg, Norway (D = 22.4 nm), and
Dzhezkazgan, Kazakhstan (D =28.0 nm).
X-ray Diffraction method for determination of crystallite sizes of gold and silver items…
b) Nugget, exposed to thermal and mechanical influences.
Samples from Chiprovtsi and Dzhezkazgan were exposed to
heating under (D = 28.1nm; D = 28.0 nm), and over (D =
17.7 nm; D = 17.6 nm) the melting point, and to mechanical actions (forging) (D = 28.0 nm; D = 27.7 nm).
Second Group – Gold and Silver Artefacts, Differing Sharply
in Terms of Chronology and Regions:
1. Gold items – 13th century gold appliqués from Preslav (D
= 11.2 nm) and 18th century Turkish gold coins (D = 15.1 nm).
2. Silver items – The following objects were studied: 13th
century silver belt appliqués from the regions of Shumen
(D = 14.1 nm), Pliska (D = 15.4 nm) and Novi Pazar (D =
14.7 nm), Bulgaria; 18th century tobacco pipe cleaning set
(D = 8.7 nm), hair decoration (D = 11.1 nm) and massive
fork (D = 10.1 nm), Mongolia. The last item was also studied after a standard restoration process (D = 10.1 nm). Size
splitting in groups is shown in Figure 3.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Multiple measurements of crystallize sizes of a given item
(in one and the same point and in different points) always
show the same results.
Crystallite sizes of Au and Ag nuggets are larger than those
of artefacts (gold and silver nuggets are formed at temperatures varying between 160 and 200 °C) (Spiridonov and
Pletnev, 2002).
Thermal treatment of Au and Ag has the following
impacts: heating up to/over melting temperature – crystal-
49
lite sizes decrease sharply (30% D); heating under the melting point – no effect on crystallite sizes.
Mechanical treatment (forging) either does not show any
size decrease or shows a slight size decrease (0÷5% D).
Surface chemical treatment (restoration) has no impact
on crystallite sizes.
Items from different cultures (regions) differ noticeably in
terms of crystallite sizes.
The objects with different chronology show differences in
terms of crystallite sizes.
5. CONCLUSIONS AND GUIDELINES
FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
1. Crystallite sizes, as a constant numerical feature of an
item, can be used successfully as a ‘passport’ characteristic
of the object. This value can be used confidently to prove an
item’s authenticity, and it can also be used with certainty as
an absolute protection against forging. While characteristics
such as exterior features and chemical composition can be
reproduced, imitating the nanostructure of the material is
absolutely impossible, since it depends on the thermal history of the item.
2. Crystallite sizes can be used to study issues relevant to
the treatment of forgeable metals in the ancient ages when
man started using them (the processes of forging, heating
under the melting point and melting only).
3. Crystallite sizes can provide information useful for distinguishing the different ateliers (metal workshops), since
the thermal treatment of an item is a determinant feature
for crystallite sizes.
Figure 3 (See color
plate): Distribution of
crystallite sizes as per
groups of studied items.
Figure 3 (Voir planche
couleur) : Distribution
des tailles de crystallites
selon les groupes des objets
étudiés.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
50
4. Using XRD analysis in complex researches of a given
archaeological site and particularly in researches allowing
wider correlations, made according to data bases, creates
opportunities for a more accurate interpretation of the studied archaeological material.
5. We are confident that working together with archaeologists on genuine items and in the framework of specific
projects will contribute to both the clarification of issues
relevant to cultural heritage and to the development of the
method, rendering it more precise.
The present work represents only a first stage of the application of the method for studying gold and silver archaeological items and an illustration of its possibilities. Detailed
studies of the regularities that the objects in the specified
groups show are a subject of another work.
We believe that further precise researches of diffractogram
profiles, comparing crystallite sizes and measured microstrains, as well as the correlation of the results obtained
through different software, will provide new results, to be
used successfully within archaeological sciences.
Acknowledgments
We owe a special debt of gratitude to: Prof. Georgi Kirov
(St. Kliment Ohridski Sofia University) for participating in the discussions; Mr. Leonid Pautov (A. E. Fersman
Mineralogy Museum – Russian Academy of Science, Moscow),
Mr. Hristo Stanchev (Eurotest AD, Sofia) and Mr. Plamen
Bonev (National Institute of Archaeology with Museum,
Sofia) for precise analyses of the elemental composition of the
studied items; Mr. Petar Delchev (Earth and Man National
Museum, Sofia) for helping us with the computer processing
of the information.
The present work was carried out with the financial support
of a project (Contract No. D01-1167, dated December 15,
2007) of the National Science Research Fund of the Ministry
of Education and Sciences, and Yana & Joeri Buhrer Tavanier.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
Denka YANAKIEVA et al.
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Zolotaya Gora. Moscow, Scientific World (in Russian).
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9th edition. Stuttgart, Schweizerbart.
MITTEMEIJER, E.J. and SCARDI, P. , 2004. Applicabilities of the
Warren-Averbach analysis and an alternative analysis for separation of size and strain broadening. In Diffraction Analysis of
the Microstructure of Materials. Springer Series in Materials
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X-ray diffraction methods for determination of crystallite size
in nano-scale materials. Materials characterization 58: 883-891.
A multi-analytical approach for the identification
of technological processes in ancient jewellery
Approche multi-analytique pour l’identification des procédés technologiques
de fabrication de bijoux anciens
Daniela Ferro*, Vania Virgili**, Adelia Carraro***,
Edilberto Formigli**** and Lorenzo Costantini*****
Abstract: he compositional and structural characterization of the constituent alloys of precious metal artefacts is the basis for understanding the
technological processes used in the art of the ancient goldsmiths. his research presents a multi-analytical approach to the study of the technologies
of ancient jewellery manufacturing through the use of non-traditional methods. he development of original methods, such as the application
of hardware devices and software programs, allows us to overcome the application limits of traditional analysis, as in the study of Castellani’s
earrings, where statistical analyses were carried out using Pearson’s Coeicient Correlation and Cluster Analysis to identify the correlation of
elements in the soldering areas. For the Tarquinia ibula, a methodology based on Imaging Analysis has been used to measure the geometrical
parameters involved in the construction of the jewel. For another study, a new experimental apparatus was set up in order to identify markers
on the micro/nano scale. It consists of a scanning electron microscope (SEM-EDS) integrated with XRF, an equipment developed in order to
obtain a greater depth of analysis and a better integration of the compositional data. he aim of the work has been to integrate data from diferent
analytical methodologies in order to identify technology transfer and/or production features, as well as the circulation of the goldsmith’s artefacts.
Résumé : La caractérisation de la composition et de la structure des alliages en métal précieux est fondamentale pour la compréhension des procédés
technologiques liés à l’orfèvrerie antique. Ce travail décrit un nouveau protocole d’analyse dédié à l’étude des technologies de fabrication de bijoux anciens,
grâce à l’utilisation de méthodes non traditionnelles. Le développement de méthodes originales, utilisant entre autres des dispositifs expérimentaux et des
logiciels, permet de dépasser les limites d’application de l’analyse traditionnelle. Par exemple, dans l’étude de boucles d’oreilles de la collection Castellani,
l’analyse statistique réalisée au moyen du Coeicient de corrélation de Pearson et de l’analyse par nuage de points ont permis d’identiier la corrélation
entre les éléments entrant dans la composition de la soudure. Dans le cas de la ibule de Tarquinia, une méthodologie basée sur l’analyse d’images a été
utilisée pour mesurer les paramètres géométriques associés à la construction du bijou. Simultanément, un nouvel équipement a été créé pour individualiser
des marqueurs à l’échelle micro/nanométrique. Il s’agit du couplage d’un microscope électronique à balayage équipé d’un système de dispersion en énergie
X (MEB-EDS) avec la luorescence à rayons X (FX) pour obtenir une profondeur d’analyse plus grande et une meilleure intégration et reproductibilité
des données concernant la composition élémentaire. Le but de ce travail a été d’intégrer les données de diférentes méthodes d’analyse ain d’identiier le
transfert de technologie et/ou de travail lié à la production et circulation d’objets d’orfèvrerie.
Keywords: Ancient technology, Etruscan jewellery, Image analysis, SEM-EDS-XRF system, Micro/nano diagnostic, Statistical analysis
Mots-clés : Technologie antique, bijoux étrusques, analyse d’image, MEB-EDS-FX, Micro/nano diagnostique, analyse statistique.
* Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche – Institute for Nanostructured Materials (CNR-ISMN), c/o Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of
Rome – P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy. (daniela.ferro@cnr.it)
** Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome – P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome.
*** National Etruscan Museum of Villa Giulia, Piazzale di Villa Giulia 9, 00196 Rome, Italy.
**** AN.TE.A – Strada Comunale della Miniera 4, 53016 Murlo (SI), Italy.
***** Oriental Art National Museum – via Merulana 248, 00185 Rome, Italy.
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 51-57
52
Daniela FERRO et al.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. METHODS
A deeper understanding of our cultural heritage is made
possible through the contributions ofered by scientiic
research. It is important to promote new research strategies
capable of providing signiicant and potentially novel contributions towards the comprehension of the technologies used
in ancient times, as well as of their transfer and difusion in
time across geographical areas.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) can be considered one
of the most versatile instruments for analyses carried out in
the ield of cultural heritage, being able to provide data on
almost all materials. he continuous development of instruments and their combination is necessary in order to detect
data on the micro/nano scale, and for the interpretation of
minute details from speciic areas of an object. In the case of
a jewel, it is necessary to go beyond the traditional information derived from SEM-EDS investigations by elaborating
either the morphological information or the compositional
data with methods derived from other disciplines, such as
Image Analysis (IA) and statistical analysis (Cluster Analysis
and Pearson’s Correlation Coeicients). It is indispensable to
improve traditional devices in order to create an innovative
instrumentation able to acquire data generally inaccessible
to forgers. In the present work, the coupling of the method
of X-Ray luorescence (XRF) with SEM-EDS, recently developed (Bovani et al., 2007), is applied for the irst time to
the study of jewellery.
By focusing on the argument of falsiication, the aim of
the present work is to ofer contributions towards two main
directions:
– Innovation: improving traditional methodologies
through the integration of experimental apparatuses,
software and/or statistical methodologies for XRF-EDS
compositional data treatment;
– Knowledge: the deinition of diagnostic markers as
characteristics of composition and/or morphology, and of
chemical-physical processes allowing the identiication of
technologies of ancient jewellery manufacture.
he present work deals with the application of methodologies based on SEM-EDS through the study of some
important Etruscan jewels: the 8th century BC ibula from
Tarquinia (Fig. 1), a pair of bauletto earrings dating to the 6th
century BC from Castellani’s Collection, and a hoop earring
from Adria, dated to the 4th century BC (Fig. 2).
Investigation on the micro/nano scale is essential for the
identiication of diagnostic markers related to particular processes applied to materials, ranging from prehistoric lithic
tools to the trimmings of large bronze statuaries. In the case
of metals, this entails identifying the traces left during the
working process, regardless of the metal employed and its
speciic structural modiications, due to thermal processes
or mechanical stress and strain. Particular attention must be
dedicated to distinguishing degradation phenomena, such
as the formation of corrosion products or use traces, which
can be confused with those left by the craftsmen of the past.
A speciic diagnostic approach is necessary for each artefact.
3. RESULTS
Concerning the study of the ibula (Fig. 1) found in an
archaeological excavation in Tarquinia (Rome) and dated to
the 8th century BC (presenting some details not pertinent
to traditional Etruscan jewellery), the scope of the scientiic investigation was the characterization of decorative elements, granulation and iligree, through their geometrical
and compositional parameters and their comparison with
homologous decorations from the Mediterranean area. In a
previous work (Ferro et al., 2005), a comparison of objective
elements present among diferent technologies employed in
the creation of some jewels originating from diferent geographical areas (Iran, Cerveteri, Adria, Syria) in the temporal range 21st century BC-3rd century AD, was carried out.
Figure 1: Etruscan ibula, 8th century BC, Tarquinia (Viterbo,
Italy).
Figure 1 : Fibule étrusque, VIIIe siècle avant J.-C., Tarquinia (Viterbo,
Italie).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2008, p. 51-57
53
A multi-analytical approach for the identiication of technological processes in ancient jewellery
Figure 2: Attachment of the Etruscan hoop earring, 4th century
BC, Adria (Rovigo, Italy).
Figure 2 : Boucle d’oreille étrusque, IVe siècle avant J.-C., Adria
(Rovigo, Italie).
SEM-EDS analyses provided information on the morphology of the grains forming the granulation decoration and
on the elemental composition of the areas characterizing a
particular technology, such as mechanical joining, soldering
and sheet working. In addition, the geometrical characterization of the small and numerous grains was carried out
using Image Analysis (IA) of the SEM micro-photographs.
IA analysis is not so straightforward when applied to
SEM images. For processing the software elaboration (Leyca
QWin), it is necessary to establish an appropriate methodological approach that includes speciic steps (Fig. 3). he
acquisition of SEM images must be made with an adequate
mode of contrast and magniication. he necessary linear
measurement calibration data has to be determined on
images taken with stereo microscopy, optic microscopy and
SEM in order to evaluate the degree of error involved. In
order to optimize the results, the images were submitted to
a
b
an elaboration that comprises enhancement, threshold and
selection of grain proiles characteristics so as to allow diameter measurements with a minimum of uncertainty.
he characterization of the grains’ shape, roundness, or
rather the eccentricity in the bi-dimensional image, was
determined by introducing the values of two orthogonal
diameters in the ellipse equation. he second evaluation
regards grain packing in the granulation decoration. he
covering of a surface is of superior quality if most of the
grains are in touch, without noticeable gaps between them.
By considering grains as spherical geometrical elements, the
concept of sphere packing can be applied. It is obvious that
if the diameters of grains have diferent dimensions, the
decorative motif contains pattern displacements. he surface is not covered homogenously, but shows discontinuity,
thus diminishing the object’s overall aesthetic efect. For
the granulation of each jewel, the average diameter and its
standard deviation (σ) have been calculated by the approximation of measurement data to Gaussian distribution using
the “Origin” software. he standard deviation measures the
variation in terms of diameter size from its mean value, and
indirectly relects on the goldsmith’s ability to produce and
select grains of the same dimension and roundness.
Another evaluated granulation feature is its ‘tridimensional’ efect, related to the position of the gold grains in relief
with respect to the jewel’s surface. his efect is linked to
thermal processes of grain soldering. A previous study (Ferro
et al., 2003) demonstrated that, especially in autogenous soldering, the granules tend to collapse into the surface support
if the heating is prolonged and the surface of the grains and
gold substrate start to melt (excessive surface lowing). In
copper salt joining, the Cu that originates from the reduction of its salts difuses in gold, and little material is left on
the join, a ine meniscus formed between the base and the
grain (Ferro et al., 2008), creating the efect of spheres per-
c
d
Figure 3: Several steps of Image Analysis: a) SEM image acquisition, b) binarization, c) selection of features, d) statistical analysis.
Figure 3 : Diférentes étapes d’analyse d’images : a) acquisition d’une image MEB, b) binarisation, c) sélection des caractéristiques, d) analyse
statistique.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2008, p. 51-57
54
ched on a base. Conversely, brazing by adding an alloy with
a lower melting point partially loods the grains, with the
consequent loss of tridimensionality and design.
In this work, ive independent parameters have been
selected to distinguish diferent granulation scenarios: 1)
join typology (welding), 2) diameter average, 3) diameter
standard deviation (σ), 4) grain eccentricity (circumference
has eccentricity = 0), and 5) tridimensional efect. All these
parameters provide a collection of data that characterizes
the physical features of grains and their clustering, and can
thus be utilised as diagnostic markers for distinguishing
jewels from diferent geographical regions and historical
periods. he results of the investigation have shown that
in the Iranian and Syrian jewellery, the grain diameters are
of the order of 700 microns, with a standard deviation of
about 90 microns, an eccentricity of 0.04, and have identiied the use of brazing as a soldering methodology, with a
consequent loss of tridimensionality. In the Etruscan area,
the average diameter is reduced to about 200 microns, with
a standard deviation of 65 microns and eccentricity of 0.02.
Etruscan granulation is characterized by the use of copper
salts in most cases. After 300 BC, Etruscan jewellery shows a
general loss of precision in terms of roundness, even though
grain dimensions remain very small and the use of the copper salt soldering continues. he results obtained for jewels
in the previous study are reported in Table 1. Concerning
the Tarquinia ibula (Fig. 1), made in electrum, the same
procedure has been applied, with the resulting parameters
attributable to a working process of oriental derivation: the
average diameter of 650 microns, with a standard deviation
of 70 microns, the high incidence of non-spherical grains,
the lack of tridimensionality, and the use of brazing as a soldering method. his data, coupled with other stylistic observations, such as the shape of the Phoenician palmette, the use
of iligree wires cut at a right angle, and the imperfect form
of the pin clasp, supports the archaeologist’s hypothesis of
a possible oriental origin of the working process employed
for this object, found in an Etruscan context.
In other studies, supericial characterization is not suiciently exhaustive for the complexity of the investigation,
and it is necessary to resort to radiation analyses in order to
obtain information from the entire volume of the sample.
In this ield, an integrated instrumentation that integrates
electron microanalysis (EDS) and X-ray luorescence (XRF)
within the SEM environment has been developed (Bovani et
al., 2007). he SEM-EDS-XRF (Fig. 4) setup was created
by inserting in the SEM LEO450VP chamber a tungsten
anode X-ray tube with a geometry of 45° with respect to the
sample and 90° with respect to the solid state (SiLi) detector, the latter having an active surface suitable for detecting
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2008, p. 51-57
Daniela FERRO et al.
X-ray signals originating from both systems. he advantages
derived from the use of an integrated instrumentation are
notable, such as the increase of sensitivity in the detection of
trace elements. XRF reveals element quantities of the order
of ppm, and it is possible to detect signals both from the irst
supericial layers (EDS) and from the inner volume (XRF).
When used in an SEM environment, XRF warrants better
eiciency with respect to its separate use for several reasons,
from a suitable ixed geometry to the operability in high
vacuum by avoiding the absorption of low energy X-rays.
INCA300, the EDS signals processing software, supplies an
optimum support to XRF through an X-ray energy spectra
calibration obtained by standards.
he characteristics of both devices allowed discriminating
the presence of diferent phases in the precious hoop earring
from Adria, dated to the 4th century BC (Fig. 2), where several metal laminas overlap and diferent materials have been
employed for its construction. he earring, approximately
5 cm in diameter, is composed of a cylindrical tube formed
by the torsion of several wires, each of which is produced
with rolled lamina. he terminals of the ‘tube’ are decorated
by two small gold lamina cylinders with granulation and
are joined to two semi-spheres in gold lamina, found partially crushed. Stylistic and geometrical considerations on
the technique used to decorate the object with granulation
have been derived on the basis of the previously described
methodology, revealing its appurtenance to the period of
Etruscan decadence. he grains, ixed by autogenous welding, have small diameters, but their dispersion is very
bad, with the sole function of covering the soldering area,
without any pattern. he unusual dimensions of the earring
are in contrast with its light weight. he illing material in
the inner part of the cylinder was likely used to preserve
the form and avoid damage to the ine wire wrapping. he
traditional X-ray radiography with a radiation potential of
30 keV allows us only to individuate the presence or absence
of any illing materials, but not its chemical nature. he
presence of a continuous compact matrix in the cylinder and
inside the two semi-spheres appears evident in photographs,
despite the impossibility to penetrate through the wrapped
gold wires without compromising the artefact. he investigation with the integrated EDS-XRF system was tested in
order to verify the hypothesis of the presence of some illing
material. he EDS data revealed only the composition of the
gold metal surface constituting the object, while the XRF
spectra detected the presence of elements characteristic of
‘earth’. It is important to note that the XRF method operating in the SEM chamber kept under high vacuum can
also detect low energy X-ray emissions. On the basis of the
collected data, it is plausible that the goldsmith used a clay
55
A multi-analytical approach for the identiication of technological processes in ancient jewellery
Figure 4: Scheme of experimental instrument SEMEDS-XRF.
Figure 4: Schéma du dispositif expérimental MEBEDS-FX.
Dating
Origin
Welding
hree-dimensionality
Average of
diameter ±
σ(*) μm
σ of diameter μm
Eccentricity
Pendant PREIS. 9
ca. 2000 BC
West Iran
autogenous
moderate loss of
deinition
587 ± 14
65
00:04
Pendant PREIS. 36
2000-1000 BC
Iranian plateau
autogenous
moderate loss of
deinition
782 ± 18
97
00:03
Tarquinia’s Fibula
8th century BC
Tarquinia
brazing
moderate loss of
deinition
653 ± 15
70
—
Earring PREIS.47
3rd century AD
Iranian plateau
brazing
moderate loss of
deinition
519 ± 8
66
00:04
Fibula Inv. N. 5442
7th century BC
Narce
copper salt
good
242 ± 8
50
00:02
Object
rd
Pendent IGAD 9295
3 century BC
Adria
copper salt
good
160 ± 24
147
00:07
Bulla IGAD 9306
2nd century BC
Adria
autogenous
good
727 ± 37
149
00:03
(*)
he errors have been calculated as standard deviation and through statistic error propagation.
Table 1: Table of comparison parameters.
Tableau 1: Tableau de paramètres de comparaison.
rod on which he wrapped the series of gold wires. he clay
would have two functions: irst, to create a support enabling
the object to maintain its shape, and, second, to protect the
very thin gold lamina forming the wires from the heating
processes necessary to solder the terminal elements.
he study of the Etruscan bauletto earrings (6th century
BC) from Castellani’s Collection (Museo Nazionale Etrusco
di Villa Giulia, Rome) is more complicated. he earrings
under consideration are an example of pastiches: an original
Etruscan jewel with repairs carried out by the Castellani,
a Roman family of goldsmiths, merchants and collectors
operating during the 19th century. he respective century
was characterised by the proliferation of so called ‘integrative’ restorations, i.e. the restitution of the full shape of a
historical object so as to introduce complete archaeological artworks on the antiquarian market, because customers
valued the integrity of an object d’art over its authenticity.
he Castellani family studied, reproduced and restored
ancient jewels, and contributed to the spreading of the
Italian archaeological jewellery style (Moretti Sgubini,
2000). With the aim of individuating the restored elements
integrated into genuine Etruscan jewels, an initial study
was undertaken on a contemporary pair of earrings produced by Castellani in the 19th century, in order to identify
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2008, p. 51-57
56
the characteristics and the tool traces of their oicina, and
subsequently to recognize ‘their hand’ on restored objects.
A local heating process that partly homogenized the alloy
on a micrometric scale and caused a modest compositional variation renders a precise delimitation of the Castellani
interventions problematic.
With the purpose of interpreting, distinguishing and
identifying the correlation among the chemical elements composing the gold base, the decorative elements
and their soldering area, the statistical analysis has been
carried out using Pearson’s Correlation Coeicient and
Cluster Analysis (Virgili et al., 2008). his statistical tool
has been processed with SPSS 8.0 software on the data collected by several EDS acquisitions. Pearson’s Correlation
Coeicient is a measure of the linear dependence between
two elements of precious alloy identiied as variables, and
allows distinguishing whether an element belongs to a speciic procedure rather than another. he K-Means Cluster
Analysis (Romesburg, 2004) aims to classify groups of
homogeneous elemental composition in order to identify
the alloys composing ancient and modern soldering and
the diferent areas of ancient and modern brazing. For
the earrings created by Castellani in the 19th century, the
elaboration of the statistical data has been performed on
74 spectra acquired on diferent areas, previously selected
on the basis of their technical content. Pearson’s correlation matrix of elements of the precious alloy shows a
high negative value of linear dependence between Au and
Ag. his evidence suggests that the soldering alloy had a
higher silver content. Copper does not seem to participate
in the chemical-thermal reactions, while the presence of
cadmium points to its probable use in the form of cadmium mineral (CdS). he yellow colour of both the metal
and the mineral also suggests its use to camoulage the
gold soldering. he cluster analysis allowed evaluating the
elemental composition of the lamina and the soldering
area. Cadmium is present only in the soldering areas, with
a variable percentage of circa 1%.
Figure 5: (See colour plate) Bauletto
earrings, 6th century BC, Cerveteri
(Rome, Italy). he modern items are
highlighted in red, and the ancient
ones in green.
Figure 5 : (Voir planche couleur)
Boucles d’oreille “a bauletto”, VIe siècle
avant J.-C., Cerveteri (Rome, Italie).
Les éléments modernes sont mis en évidence en rouge et les anciens en vert.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2008, p. 51-57
Daniela FERRO et al.
In the analysis of the other pair of earrings from Castellani’s
collection “ori antichi”, each piece was studied individually,
so as to determine the composite nature of each artefact.
One of the two earrings (referred to as A) presents clear signs
of restoration. A diferent decorated lamina has been added
on the recto and ixed by illing it with organic materials,
such as binder and ibre. In this item, Cd is absent, and the
linear dependence Au-Cu demonstrates the use of copper
soldering, a technology typical of Etruscan manufacture,
while the one between Au-Ag emphasizes the presence of
silver joining, characteristic of the Castellani production.
his suggests that the Castellani soldering interventions were
superimposed on those of the Etruscan artisan, probably
because the joining parts are the most vulnerable in time. In
the other ancient earring (B), the most signiicant evidence
is Au decrement with respect to the Cu and Cd concentrations, as revealed by the variables correlation analysis. here
is no direct proportionality relation detected between Ag and
Cu. his implies that in the analyzed areas the two elements
are not correlated. he evaluation of the results suggests the
exclusion of the possibility of any Ag-Cu alloy utilization,
and the consequential presence of copper salt soldering areas
altered by 19th century interventions employing cadmium.
he study on the Castellani collection earrings has induced
us to hypothesize that not only had a novel procedure been
adopted in their oicina, but that experimentation had been
undertaken and applied to the production of modern jewels,
as well as to the restoration of ancient Etruscan artefacts.
he results obtained by the application of statistical analyses to the EDS compositional values are summarized by
visualizing (Fig. 5) the areas where the Castellani interventions (highlighted in red) were performed versus the original
Etruscan structure (highlighted in green).
A multi-analytical approach for the identiication of technological processes in ancient jewellery
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
he integration of scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
with other techniques, such as the simultaneous use of X-ray
luorescence operating in an SEM chamber, computer elaboration of image analysis, or statistical methods for the EDS
microanalysis data treatment, transforms the microscope
into a potent analytical tool capable of providing data not
detectable with traditional diagnostic methodologies, thus
promoting a new vision on the identiication of fakes.
In this work, some cases have been presented in which the
electronic spectroscopy data has been interpreted in a diferent way, with the support of speciic analytic approaches.
In the study of the composition of diferent granulation
decorations, the possibility to establish selection criteria for
the interpretation of the ancient techniques employed led
to the formulation of a methodology based on the deinition of ive characteristic elements: 1) grain diameter, 2)
grain roundness, 3) frequency of the average value of the
diameter, 4) soldering chemical composition, and 5) tridimensionality. his methodology, applied to the study of gold
items originating from diferent geographical areas, allowed
us to establish important considerations on the ibula from
Tarquinia. his information, integrated and completed by
philological and historical-artistic studies, contributes to the
discussion of technological transfers of craftsmen’s abilities
and manpower, the difusion of procedural recipes, and the
trade of jewellery in the Mediterranean Basin.
he use of an integrated instrument created by inserting
an X-ray tube in the SEM chamber ofered the possibility
to analyze both the surface and the inner part of the earring
from Adria, and furnished important data for the attribution
of the nature of the constituent materials, which in turn may
be considered a valid support for an eventual restoration.
A statistical approach has been employed for the elaboration of the numerous data related to the composition of
the restored areas in two Etruscan earrings from Castellani’s
Collection, resulting in a new diagnostic interpretation.
57
A concise, tailored description of a precious object, integrated with historical, iconographic and artistic evaluations,
is the most efective ‘weapon’ in the ‘war’ to identify counterfeits.
Acknowledgments
he authors are grateful to David Loepp for the editing.
References
BOVANI, S., FERRO, D., CAMPANELLA, L., KHISTAT, B. and
AKASHEH, T., 2007. Contributo chimico analitico nell’individuazione di oicine metallurgiche a Petra (III a.C.) attraverso
l’interpretazione di reperti ferrosi, in C. D’Amico (ed.), Atti del
congresso nazionale AIAR – Pisa, 1-3 febbraio 2006. Bologna,
Pàtron publisher, 575-587.
FERRO, D., FORMIGLI, E., PACINI, A. and TOSSINI, D., 2003.
Experimental archaeology approach to the study of “copper
salt” weldings, in Archaeometallurgy in Europe: international
conference, 24-25-26 September 2003, Milan, Italy: proceedings.
Milano, Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia, 24-26.
FERRO, D., FORMIGLI, E., PACINI, A. and TOSSINI, D., 2008. La
saldatura nell’oreiceria antica. Roma, Kappa publisher.
MORETTI SGUBINI, A.M. (ed.), 2000. La Collezione Augusto
Castellani. Roma, L’Erma di Bretschneider Press.
ROMESBURG, H.C., 2004. Cluster analysis for researchers. Belmont,
CA, Lifetime Learning Publications.
VIRGILI, V., CARRARO, A. and FERRO, D., 2008. Cluster Analysis:
a Precious Tool for Study Antique and Etruscan Jewellery
from Castellani Collection, in G. Visco (ed.), Proceedings
CMA4CH 2nd International Meeting on Multivariate Analysis
and Chemometry for Cultural Heritage and Enviroment. Torino,
Marco Valerio publisher, 69-70.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2008, p. 51-57
Helium, uranium and thorium analyses
of ancient and modern gold objects: estimates
of their time of manufacturing
Analyse de l’hélium, de l’uranium et du thorium dans des objets anciens
et modernes en or : estimation de leur date de fabrication
Otto Eugster*, Ernst Pernicka**, Michael Brauns**, Alex Shukolyukov***,
Valerie Olive**** and Stefan Roellin*****
Abstract: Authenticating archaeological gold objects is a major problem, as gold is probably the most diicult material in terms of detecting
modern forgeries. In 1996 we published the results of the study of faked and genuine gold crystals from the Santa Elena gold mine in Venezuela,
and demonstrated that the U/h – He dating method is a powerful tool for detecting forgeries among gold objects. U and h decay by emitting
He atoms that remain stored in gold. By measuring U, h, and He, the time when the He trapping process started can be determined. In the
1996 publication we also mentioned that the same method can be applied to ancient gold objects, in order to determine the time when they
experienced their last melting process and, thus, to verify their antiquity. In the present work we report on a systematic and quantitative study of
He, U, and h in a large number of ancient and modern gold objects.
Résumé : L’authentiication d’objets en or est un problème majeur, car l’or est probablement le matériau le plus diicile quand il s’agit de détecter des
contrefaçons modernes. En 1996 nous avons publié les résultats d’une étude de cristaux d’or faux et authentiques de la mine d’or de Santa Elena, au
Venezuela, et nous avons montré que la méthode de datation U/h – He est un outil puissant pour détecter les contrefaçons dans le cas des objets en or.
La décroissance de l’U et du h se fait par émission d’atomes d’He qui restent stockés dans l’or. La mesure de l’U, du h et de l’He permet de déterminer
le moment de départ du processus de piège de l’He. Dans notre publication de 1996, nous avons aussi mentionné que cette même technique peut être
appliquée aux objets d’or anciens, de façon à déterminer le moment correspondant à leur dernière fonte et ainsi de vériier leur ancienneté. Dans cet article
nous présentons une étude systématique et quantitative de l’He, de l’U et du h dans un large nombre d’objets d’or anciens et modernes.
Keywords: Antique gold, forgeries, helium, uranium, thorium, mass spectrometry.
Mots-clés : or ancien, contrefaçons, hélium, uranium, thorium, spectrométrie de masse.
* Physics Institute, University of Bern – Sidlerstrasse 5, 3012 Bern, Switzerland. (eugster@space.unibe.ch)
** Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie – C5, Zeughaus, 68159 Mannheim, Germany. (ernst.pernicka@cez-archaeometrie.de), (michael.brauns@
cez-archaeometrie.de)
*** Scripps Institution of Oceanography, UCSD – 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA. (ashukolyukov@ucsd.edu)
**** SUERC – Ranking Avenue, East Kilbride G75 0QF, Scotland. (v.olive@suerc.gla.ac.uk)
***** Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz – Labor Spiez, 3700 Spiez, Switzerland. (stefan.roellin@babs.admin.ch)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 59-65
60
1. INTRODUCTION
When gold crystals are formed in the Earth’s crust, other
elements, such as U, are incorporated into the crystal lattice.
hus, gold from mines and from river beds always contains
traces of U and h. he three long-lived isotopes 238U, 235U,
and 232h decay to Pb by emitting α-particles. An α-particle
is the nucleus of the 4He atom, so when two electrons combine with an α-particle, a 4He atom is formed. he 4He
atoms remain stored in the metal. A fourth long-lived radionuclide, 147Sm, also disintegrates by α-decay, but contributes
in antique gold objects only a few percent to the total radiogenic (produced by radioactive decay) 4He. Because gold
is highly retentive of this gas up to about 500 °C, the He
atoms remain trapped in the metal. Beginning with 1992,
we have studied these characteristics in numerous natural
gold samples from all over the world (for references, see
Eugster et al., 2009). In Table 1, the data on He, U, and h
obtained for placer gold samples are provided.
In a subsequent work (Eugster, 1996), we presented results
on the study of genuine and faked gold crystals (Fig. 1) from
the Santa Elena gold mine in Venezuela. he data for the
genuine samples provided in the aforementioned paper and
new data obtained for three samples of genuine crystals
analyzed recently (Table 1) yield an estimated age of 240
million years (Ma). his time may be consistent with the
Palaeozoic-Mesozoic (542 – 65.5 Ma) intrusive rocks of the
gold mineralisation (Beda Hofmann, private communication). In Eugster (1996), we also presented He, U, and h
data for faked gold crystals that appeared on the mineral
market. hese data, complemented with two new He analyses and h concentrations obtained recently, demonstrate
that the fake crystals are undatably young, the He concen-
Figure 1: Faked octahedral gold crystals of up to 30 grams, purported to originate from the Santa Elena gold mine (Venezuela).
Figure 1 : Faux cristaux en or octogonal de plus de 30 g, dont la provenance supposée est la mine d’or de Santa Elena (Venezuela).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009 p. 59-65
Otto EUGSTER et al.
trations being below the detection limit of the mass spectrometer.
he He quantities in samples of art objects are extremely
small for two reasons: (1) the time during which He has
accumulated is usually only a few thousand years, in contrast
to geological gold that formed millions of years ago; (2)
only very small samples of a valuable object are available
for the analyses. Inspired by our initial publications, specialists in the scientiic investigation of ancient metals saw the
potential for additional authenticity studies. Kossolapov et
al. (1999) and Kossolapov and Chugunova (2002), working
at the State Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg, Russia,
collaborated with the company SPECTRON ANALYT in
St. Petersburg to build a highly sensitive mass spectrometer and measured the He concentrations in a selection of
ancient gold objects.
he present work is a continuation of our earlier investigation of a number of antique gold objects (Eugster et al.,
2009). Some objects described in this earlier publication
are also included in the present work, because we obtained
additional He data for them, and, in particular, because U
and h analyses were performed for these objects, for which,
in our earlier investigation, we had to employ average U and
h values.
2. INVESTIGATED OBJECTS
Test objects of modern manufacture
In the course of our experimental work, we repeatedly
analyzed samples from gold objects of modern manufacture
to verify the absence or low abundance of radiogenic He
expected for the short time of U and h decay since their
manufacture. Table 2 lists the three objects used for this
purpose. Results for these objects have already been reported
in our earlier publication (Eugster et al., 2009). Because
in the meantime additional He results were obtained and
the U and h measurements had not been completed earlier, we will discuss the results for these objects. he He
concentrations in eight samples of typically 10 mg of a gold
coin Napoléon III, minted in 1857, were measured. New
results for a wedding ring of 1886 are presented, as U and
h concentrations are now known, allowing us to verify the
recent date of manufacture. Finally, we intended to conirm
the absence of He in 11 samples of a commercial gold wire,
and we also determined its U and h concentrations.
Helium, uranium and thorium analyses of ancient and modern gold objects…
61
Table 1: Noble gases, U
and h concentrations
and estimated ages of
geologic gold samples.
Tableau 1 : Gaz rares,
concentrations d’U et h,
et âges estimés d’échantillons géologiques en or.
Table 2: Test objects of
modern manufacture.
Tableau 2 : Objets de test
de fabrication moderne.
Gold objects to be tested for their antiquity
he objects to be tested in this study are listed in Tables 3
and 4. In most cases, the purported origin and age have
been indicated by the owners of the objects. here are three
objects that deserve to be described in more detail: (i) A gold
torc (Fig. 2), purported to originate from the Hallstatt/La
Tène transition period, about 5th century BC. Its diameter is 16.5 cm; X-ray luorescence analyses yielded 8% Ag
and 1% Cu; the object is said to originate from southern
Germany. he torc was obtained from Dr. Pieter Meyers,
Los Angeles County Museum of Art, on behalf of a client.
(ii) A igurine made by an extremely ine granulated golden
openwork technique. he surface is strengthened by golden wires, which form the basic structure of this igurine
(Fig. 3). It is damaged and repaired at various locations. he
present weight is 24 g at a height of 7.3 cm. Appearance and
manufacturing techniques were discussed by Shalem (2002).
According to this author, decorating jewellery pieces with
gold granules of various sizes was probably known in the
early mediaeval Islamic world. However, the earliest visual
material of Islamic gold jewellery with granulated openwork
presently known is usually datable to and associated with
the Fatimid period (Fatimid dynasty of Egypt, 969-1171
AD). An expertise based on technical (CT, SEM/EDX),
chemical (Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass
Spectrometry, LA-ICP-MS), and our He, U, and h analyses
has been compiled by Senn et al. (2009). (iii) A signet ring
with the picture of a male bust in side-view and an inscription in relected face ‘HILDEB ERTISREGIS’ (Fig. 4). In a
comprehensive study of this ring, Weber (2007) concluded
that it can be attributed to one of the two kings Childebert I
or II, of the sixth century Merovingian dynasty of Western
Europe. he weight of this gold ring (40.56 g) corresponds
almost exactly to the weight of nine Byzantine solidi (gold
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 59-65
62
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Gold torc purported to originate
from the Hallstatt/La Tène transition period (5th century BC).
Diameter: 16.5 cm.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Torque en or supposément attribué à la période
de transition Hallstatt/La Tène (Ve siècle av. J.-C.). Diamètre : 16,5 cm.
Otto EUGSTER et al.
Figure 4: (See colour plate) Signet ring attributed to kings
Childebert I or II, of the sixth century Merovingian dynasty of
Western Europe.
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Bague à sceau attribuée au roi Childéric
I ou II, de la dynastie Mérovingienne d’Europe Occidentale, VIe siècle.
obtained at the Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie
in Mannheim using LA-ICP-MS. In the present work, we
report additional data, in particular the U and h concentrations for the Childebert ring, which were not yet available
for our previous publication.
3. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Golden igurine decorated with granulation. Possible origin: Iran or central Asia (11th or 12th century
AD). For size, see text.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Figurine en or décorée de granulation. Origine possible : Iran ou Asie centrale (XIe ou XIIIe siècle). Pour
les dimensions voir texte.
coins), indicating that coins of this type were used by the
goldsmith to manufacture the royal ring. Regarding the chemical composition of the gold in the Childebert ring, we
refer to Weber (2007), who discussed the results that were
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009 p. 59-65
For the details of sample preparation and He analyses we
refer to our earlier publication (Eugster et al., 2009). he
U and h analyses used in this work were performed by
six diferent laboratories. In most cases, multiple analyses
for a particular gold object, and numerous tests and blank
measurements had to be carried out. herefore, the work
load would have been too large for a single laboratory, as the
U and h analyses of gold objects were not the main priority of the respective scientists’ activity. Furthermore, two
of the collaborators went into retirement in the course of
the present work. he following laboratories were involved
in this study: (i) Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie,
Mannheim (Ernst Pernicka, Michael Brauns, Boaz Paz),
using quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry after electrolytic separation of U and h from Au and
other metals on graphite electrodes; (ii) Scripps Institution
of Oceanography, UCSD, La Jolla, CA (Alex Shukolyukov,
Paterno Castillo), using an inductively coupled plasma mass
spectrometer (ICP-MS) after chemical separation of U and
h from Au and other metals; (iii) Labor Spiez (Stefan
Röllin), digestion of Au samples in aqua regia, direct analy-
Helium, uranium and thorium analyses of ancient and modern gold objects…
sis of U and h with an ICP-MS; (iv) Scottish Universities
Environmental Research Center (Valerie Olive), using an
ICP-MS after chemical separation of U and h; (v) Institute
of Geology, University of Bern (Jan Kramers), using a multicollector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer with
desolvating nebulizer, after chemical separation of U and h
and addition of a 236U and a 229h spike; (vi) Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern (Urs
Krähenbühl), using an ICP-MS after chemical separation
of U and h.
For an inter-laboratory comparison, a large number of different samples of object DL 807 (Table 3) were prepared. In
ive diferent laboratories, samples of this ancient gold object
were measured for their U concentration, the most important element for He production. he following results were
obtained (in case of multiple analyses, the average values are
given): 0.9 ppb (laboratory (i), as indicated above), 3.5 ppb
(ii), 1.9 ppb (iii), 5.5 ppb (v), 12.8 ppb (vi). he diferences
in the U concentration obtained by these laboratories are
63
presumably due to sample inhomogeneity. his shows that
it is important to analyze the He, U, and h concentrations
in the same section of the sample.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Objects of modern manufacture
he results are given in Table 2. he He concentrations
for the three objects are extremely low; for the wedding
ring of 1886 and the commercial gold wire, they are at or
below the detection limit of the mass spectrometer. For the
Napoléon coin, we used typically 10 mg of gold material
(after etching) to obtain a reliable signal. he age estimate is
consistent with the time when the coin was minted.
Table 3: Ancient gold
objects
Tableau 3 : Objets en or
anciens
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 59-65
64
Ancient gold objects
he gold objects that could be conirmed to be ancient are
compiled in Table 3. Based on the 4He, U, and h concentrations, their ages were calculated using the formula
T = [ 4He ] / (3.24 x 106 [ U ] + 7.70 x 105 [ h ] + 4.02 x 103 [ Sm ])
where 4He is expressed in atoms per g and U, h, and Sm
in ppm. he U, h – He age results are in years. For the
derivation of this formula and for the decay constants of the
radionuclides and their relative abundances we refer to our
previous publication (Eugster et al., 2009). Usually the main
contribution of 4He comes from U, whereas Sm contributes
only a few percent to the total He. he estimated U, h – He
ages are consistent with the presumed date of manufacture
of these gold objects. he experimental errors are up to 50%
because in most cases the He, U, and h concentrations are
very low. he counting statistics for the measurements for
each of these elements lead to an uncertainty of about 30%.
In the following, we discuss two objects in more detail: (i)
as mentioned in section 2, the result for the signet ring of
a Merovingian king was already presented in Eugster et al.
(2009). In the present work, we obtain a more reliable age
of 1460 ± 400 years, because U and h concentrations are
now available. his age is in good agreement with the time
when the kings Childebert I and II lived. (ii) Two diferent
samples of the Islamic igurine were analyzed for He and
chemical elements, and two diferent U, h – He ages were
obtained. As outlined by Senn et al. (2009), the igurine is
characteristic for the Islamic tradition and dated to the 11th
or 12th century AD. Based on the trace element pattern, it
can be inferred that the igurine derives from the area of Iraq
Otto EUGSTER et al.
and Syria. he igurine is manufactured from a native goldsilver alloy, using copper as soldering material. he measured
alloy compositions of the feet vary considerably. herefore,
it can be assumed that at least two diferent materials were
used to manufacture the igurine or to repair it. Our dating
of the igurine provides two dates, one to the period of 1800
± 800 years ago, and a second one 170 ± 100 years ago
(Table 3). he older material belongs to a sample taken from
an area between the legs of the trousers, a section of the igurine that is well preserved. he younger material was taken
from the spine, where the igurine is strongly damaged and
where the elemental composition difers from that of the
undamaged parts. It appears that repairs were carried out
on the damaged spine in more recent times. In general, the
natural scientiic study conirms the results of the stylistic
study (Senn et al., 2009).
Modern and undatable gold objects
In Table 4, gold objects are listed that turned out to be
modern or were undatable due to a He excess of unknown
origin. For three objects, the He concentration was below
the detection limit or extremely low, resulting in a modern
date. One of these three objects is not speciied in Table 4,
as the owner did not give the permission to mention the
details in this paper. Some objects yielded He concentrations, for which, together with the U and h concentrations, an unreasonably high U, h – He age was obtained.
hese objects must contain helium that was not completely
outgassed when the object was manufactured. Among these
objects are samples Java 1-4, for which, in an earlier report
to the owners, we estimated an ancient origin. A more critical interpretation, after having found more similar cases
Table 4: Modern and
undatable gold objects
Tableau 4 : Objets en or
modernes et non datables
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009 p. 59-65
Helium, uranium and thorium analyses of ancient and modern gold objects…
of He excesses, led us to the conclusion that the Java 1-4
samples are undatable. his leads us to acknowledge that
the U, h – He dating method presented in this work for
detecting forgeries in the market of antique gold objects is
still far from being a reliable dating method. he reason for
this are the extremely low He, U and h concentrations,
which are at the limit of being precisely determined by
the presently available techniques. We observed that some
antique gold objects contain inclusions, such as micron sized
quarz and feldspar grains that did not completely release
all He when the gold object was manufactured. herefore,
we plan to search for inclusions by electron microscopic
investigations. On the other hand, it appears that in cases
where the original material for the production of the gold
object was already processed before, the dating method
works ine. Examples are the Childebert signet ring, probably produced from Byzantine solidi, and the Napoléon
gold coin. Knowing that gold is very often recycled, the
determination of its chemical composition is not a inal test
for authenticating an ancient object, and dating, performed
using the method presented in this work, may be necessary.
Acknowledgements
he authors are greatly indebted to the institutions that
supplied the gold samples studied in this investigation: Alex
Kossolapov, State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg; Pieter
Meyers, Los Angeles County Museum of Art; Jack Ogden,
Gemmological Association and Gem Testing Laboratory,
London; Melanie Roy, TK Asian Antiquities Williamsburg, VA,
USA; Marianne Senn, Zentrum für Kulturanalytik, EMPA,
Dübendorf, Switzerland; Dietrich Willers, University of Bern.
We thank the collaborators, who provided U and h data in
addition to those provided by the co-authors of this paper: Boaz
Paz, Curt-Engelhorn-Zentrum Archäometrie, Mannheim,
Germany; Urs Krähenbühl, University of Bern; Jan Kramers,
University of Bern; Paterno Castillo, Scripps Institution of
Oceanography, UCSD, La Jolla, CA. We also thank Arthur
Ghielmetti, Armin Schaller and Markus Zuber for their technical assistance.
65
References
EUGSTER, O., 1996. Applications for noble gas analyses of gold.
Gold Bulletin 29(3): 101-104.
EUGSTER, O., KRAMERS, J. and KRÄHENBÜHL, U., 2009. Detecting
forgeries among ancient gold objects using the U,h – 4He
dating method. Archaeometry 51(4): 672-681.
KOSSOLAPOV, A.J. and CHUGUNOVA, X.S., 2002. Authenticating
ancient gold using the U-He radiogenic clock, in R. Van
Grieken, K. Janssens, L. Van’t Dack, G. Meersman (eds.),
Proceedings ART 2002, 7th International Conference on Nondestructive Testing and Microanalysis for the Diagnostics and
Conservation of the Cultural and Environmental Heritage,
2-6 June 2002, Congress Centre Elzenveld, Antwerp, Belgium.
Antwerp, University of Antwerp, CD-ROM.
KOSSOLAPOV, A.J., IVANOV, A.P. and KUZNETSOV, P.B., 1999.
Helium radiogenic clock for dating of archaeological gold, in
W. Mc Crone, D.R. Chartier, R.J. Weiss (eds.), Proceedings
SPIE, v. 3315, Scientiic Detection of Fakery in Art. San Jose,
CA, SPIE, 16-20.
SENN, M., FLISCH, A., EUGSTER, O., GÜNTHER, D. and VONMONT,
H., 2009. Test report No. 450’588, EMPA Ueberlandstrasse
129, Dübendorf, Switzerland.
SHALEM, A., 2002. A note on a unique Islamic golden igurine.
Iran 40: 173-180.
WEBER, A.G., (ed.), 2007. Der Childebertring und andere frühmittelalterliche Siegelringe. Köln, Weber.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 59-65
Modern mineralogy of gold: overview and new data
Minéralogie moderne de l’or : bilan et nouvelles données
Ernst Spiridonov* and Denka Yanakieva**
Abstract: We suppose that it should be useful for archaeologists to have an overview on gold mineralogy, because 1) in ancient times, part of the
golden objects were made directly from natural golden nuggets; 2) most of the Au in ores exists as its own minerals. he major part of the Au in
the planets and meteorites of our Solar system is found in high temperature solid solutions: metallic Fe-Ni and monosulides Fe-Ni and Fe-Cu.
Au leaves them under luid or some other reworking. As a result, Au minerals are formed. hey are mainly developed in hydrothermal deposits
of the upper part of Earth’s continental crust. Au is the noblest chemical element. hus, the most part of Au in deposits appears as native gold:
Au-Ag, Au-Ag-Hg, Au-Cu, Au-Pd, and Au-Pt system minerals. he most important feature of native gold is its ineness, i.e. the Au content in
the mineral species, expressed in ‰. Chalcogenides of Au – sulides and selenides, and, similar to them, tellurides, plumbotellurides, antimonides, bismuthides – are not so widespread. Data on the 44 Au mineral species known today are provided in this overview. he irst quantitative
estimations of natural native gold nano-dimensional crystallites of several mesothermal deposits are enclosed.
Résumé : Nous supposons qu’il est important pour les archéologues d’avoir une vue générale sur la minéralogie de l’or car : 1) dans le passé une partie
des objets en or ont été produits directement à partir de pépites d’or ; 2) la plus grande partie de l’or existe sous la forme de ses propres minerais. La
plus grande partie de l’or dans les planètes et les météorites de notre système solaire se trouve en solutions solides à haute température : Fe-Ni métallique
et Fe-Ni monosulites et Fe-Cu. L’or les laisse sous la forme de luides ou sous une forme équivalente. Le résultat est la formation de minerais d’or. Ces
minerais sont essentiellement développés dans des gisements hydrothermaux de la partie supérieure de la crôute terrestre. L’or est l’élément chimique le
plus noble. Pour cette raison, la majorité de l’or dans les gisements se présente sous forme native : systèmes minéraux Au-Ag, Au-Ag-Hg, Au-Cu, Au-Pd,
Au-Pt. La caractéristique la plus importante de l’or est son titre, c’est-à-dire la quantité d’or dans les espèces minérales en ‰. Chalcogenides d’or – sulites
et sélénites et similaires comme les tellurites, plumbotellurites, antimonides, bismuthides – sont moins répendus. Les données des espèces minérales 44Au
connues actuellement sont fournies dans cet article. Les premières estimations quantitatives de cristallites nano-dimensionnelles d’or natif naturel de divers
gisements mesothermiques ont aussi été inclues.
Keywords: mineralogy, gold, nanomineralogy.
Mots-clés : minéralogie, or, nano-minéralogie
1. IntroductIon
he major part of the Au in the planets and meteorites of
our Solar system is found in high temperature solid solutions –
metallic Fe-Ni and monosulides Fe-Ni (Mss) and Fe-Cu (Iss).
Au leaves them under luid reworking. As a result, Au minerals are formed. hey are mainly developed in hydrothermal
deposits of the upper part of Earth’s continental Earth. Au is the
noblest chemical element. hus, the most part of Au in deposits
appears as native gold – Au-Ag, Au-Ag-Hg, Au-Cu, Au-Pd, and
Au-Pt system minerals. he most important feature of native
gold feature is its ineness, i.e. the Au content in the mineral
specimen, expressed in ‰. Chalcogenides of Au – sulides and
selenides, and, similar to them, tellurides, plumbotellurides,
* Department of Mineralogy, Lomonosov State University of Moscow – Vorobiovy Gory, 1192334, Russia. (mineral@geol.msu.ru)
** Museum “Earth and Man” – Bulevard Cherny Vrch 4, Soia, 1421, Bulgaria. (denkay@abv.bg)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 67-73
68
Ernst SPIRIDONOV, Denka YANAKIEVA
antimonides, bismuthides – are not so widespread. Much Au
is found as the inest impurity in hydrothermal nonstoichiometric As-bearing pyrite Fe(S,As)2-x and arsenopyrite FeAs1-yS1+y
and bitumen-like Au-organic compounds.
2. Au – Ag system mInerAls
he main part of native gold appears as cubic solid solutions
– Au-Ag system minerals. According to the results of thousands of precision analyses (Brauns, 1906; Vernadsky, 1914;
Lindgreen, 1933; Smolin, 1970; Editorial Committee, 1970;
Petrovskaya, 1973; Berman et al., 1978; Nedra, 1984-1990;
Oberthür and Saager, 1986; Shikazono and Shimizu, 1987;
Amuzinsky et al., 1992; Nekrasov et al., 1994; Spiridonov,
1995; So et al., 1995; Frimmel and Gartz, 1997; Hytőnen,
1999; Knight and Leitch, 2001, etc.) it was established that
the series Au-Ag is uninterrupted in composition. hese
series are ixed in the limits of the series (Vernadsky, 1914;
Petrovskaya, 1973): gold (0-30 wt% Ag; ineness 1000-700);
electrum (30-70 wt% Ag; ineness 700-300); kuestelite (7090 wt% Ag; ineness 300-100); gold-containing silver (90100 wt% Ag; ineness 100-0). he conirmed mineral species
are noted in bold. On observations of the authors, the phenomena of disintegration of solid solution in Au-Ag minerals
are not shown. he size of gold crystals varies from colloidal
(< 0.1 microns) up to several cm, usually around a fraction of
mm. Colloidal gold colours a chalcedony-like quartz in green
colour (Baley, Transbaykalia). he size of the granulated intergrowths of gold (nuggets) is up to one metre. As Al-Biruni
(1963) noted, the largest nugget of gold discovered weighed
~ 2500 kg (Zaruban, Afganistan).
High-standard gold (Fig. 1) is typical for plutonogenic
hydrothermal gold-quartz deposits. hese formations are the
main source for placer Au deposits. Electrum, kuestelite and
Au-bearing silver, their dendrites, skeletal and wire-shaped
crystals (Fig. 2) are typical for volcanogenic hydrothermal
Au-Ag deposits (Goldschmidt, 1918; Lindgreen, 1933;
Petrovskaya, 1973). Widespread in these deposits, electrum
corresponds to the famous ‘electron’ of the ancient Greeks,
and the favourite ‘white gold’ of the Incas.
Gold crystals of primary endogenic deposits are zonal: later
zones are enriched by Ag and Hg (usually insigniicantly).
In metamorphosed deposits, grains of gold are azonal, and
intergrowths of diferent composition are observed (Frimmel
and Gartz, 1997). In placers, grains of gold are usually
enclosed by margins of porous high-standard gold; silver
from these margins is leached. In placers, native gold often
is found together with minerals of platinum group elements
(ferroplatinum Pt3Fe, alloys Os-Ir-Ru, etc.).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 67-73
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Gold (ineness 885) in quartz vein. 81
mm. Bestube, Northern Kazakhstan. Collection and photography
– E.S. Perhaps this deposit was one of the gold sources for the well
known ancient Scythian jewellery.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Or (titre 885) dans le ilon de
quartz. Bestube, nord du Kazakistan. Collection et photographie –
E.S. Peut-être ce gisement a été une source d’or, exploité pour la production d’orfèvrerie Scythe.
3. Au (Ag) – Hg system mInerAls
After Ag, Hg is the second most typical element impurity in native gold. In ores formed under low f S2 conditions, there are cubic α-amalgams: mercurian gold (Au,
Hg) (Nazmova and Spiridonov, 1979; Oberthür and
Saager, 1986; Shikazono and Shimizu, 1988; Amuzinsky et
al., 1992); mercurian electrum (Au, Ag, Hg), mercurian
kuestelite (Ag, Au, Hg), gold-containing mercurian silver
(Spiridonov and Pletnev, 2002). Mercurian gold contains
up to 18 wt% Hg, and mercurian silver up to 26% Hg.
Au amalgams enriched by Hg are much more rare. hey
usually associate with native Hg: hexagonal weishanite
(Au,Ag)3Hg2 (Li et al., 1984; Wu, 1993); cubic gold amalgama γ-Au2Hg3 (Berman and Harcourt, 1938). Almost all
Au amalgams found in placer deposits are technogenic formations (Wu, 1993).
4. Au – cu system mInerAls
Cu is the third most typical element impurity in native
gold, after Ag and Hg. Au-Cu phases poor in silver and
Au-Ag phases poor in copper are formed at temperatures
below 350 °C (Lyakischev, 1996). Au-Cu minerals (cuprian
69
Modern mineralogy of gold: overview and new data
of thin lattice solid solution disintegration structures: Au +
tetraauricupride and tetraauricupride + mineral Au3Cu. he
disintegration structures are known, where the matrix is Au
and lamellas are mineral Au3Cu; probably they are products
of the non-stoichiometric mineral Au3+xCu’s disintegration.
he standard roentgenometric data that are required for the
determination of Au-Cu system minerals are provided in
Chvileva et al. (1988).
5. Au – Fe system mInerAls
It was established by a combination of magnetometric and
mineralogical methods that the high-magnetic ferrous gold
with 4-5 wt% Fe described earlier shows ine crystal intergrowths of gold with 0-0.2 wt% Fe, and magnetite octahedrons 0.01-0.2 microns in size (Yacubovskaya et al., 1989).
6. Au – Pd, Pt, os, Ir system mInerAls
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Golden wire in calcite. 4 mm.
Tyrny-Auz, Northern Caucasus. Collection of V. Andreenko.
Photography – M. Bogomolov.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Fil d’or dans de la calcite. 4
mm. Tyrny-Auz, nord du Caucase. Collection de V. Andreenko.
Photographie M. Bogomolov.
gold) are found in hydrothermal Au deposits, among listvenitized peridotites, komatiites and rodingites (Lozechkin,
1939; Spiridonov and Pletnev, 2002). hese last minerals replace native copper. Cubic auricupride AuCu3 is
known (Ramdohr, 1967). Metastable cuproauride AuCu
corresponds to the low ordered α-(Au, Cu) solid solution
(Lozechkin, 1939; Chvileva et al., 1988). he mineral corresponding to the Au3Cu cubic modiication (Knipe and
Fleet, 1997; Spiridonov and Pletnev, 2002) does not have an
authorized name. Below, it is referred to as mineral Au3Cu.
he products of cuproauride solid phase transformation
are tetragonal tetraauricupride AuCu (Chen et al., 1982).
Tetraauricupride can contain up to 17 wt% Pd (Spiridonov
et al., 2003). Tetraauricupride – hongshiite CuPt solid
solutions are known (Kwitko et al., 2002). After annealing,
non-stoichiometric cuproauride Au1+xCu shows two types
Au-Pd and Au-Pt system minerals are typical rare minerals
of telethermal Au deposits formed at low f S2 and at heightened f O2. hey are cubic palladian gold (porpezite) (Au,
Pd). (Vernadsky 1914; Kwitko et al., 2002); platinian gold
(Au, Pt) (Levin et al., 1986); intermetallides with compositions similar to Pt3Au and Pt(Au,Pd). Even a low impurity
of Pd (of the order of a few percent) results in the steel-grey
colour of this type of native gold.
7. Au – BI, sB, PB, sn system mInerAls
Intermetallides of gold – maldonite Au2Bi (Hytőnen,
1999) and aurostibite AuSb2 (Graham and Caiman, 1952;
Spiridonov, 1995) are rather rare minerals of hydrothermal
ores. Maldonite contains ~ 65 wt% Au, and aurostibite ~
45 wt% Au. Aurostibite pseudomorphs after maldonite are
rarely encountered; such aurostibite contains up to 9 wt%
Bi. hese minerals are formed under low f S2. Maldonite
usually replaces native bismuth. Aurostibite usually replaces
native gold. he following three intermetallides: anyuiite
AuPb2 (Razin and Sidorenko, 1989), hunchunite Au2Pb
(Shangquan et al., 1992), yuanjiangite AuSn (Chen
Lichang, 1994) are found only in placers. Perhaps these
three intermetallides are technogenic products.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 67-73
70
Ernst SPIRIDONOV, Denka YANAKIEVA
8. Au – Ag (cu) – te system mInerAls
10. comPlex cHAlcogenIdes
Au and Ag tellurides are typical minerals of hydrothermal Au deposits. In a series of cases, they are the main Au
and Ag bearing minerals in ores. Hg and Cu are typical
elemental impurities in these tellurides. Triclinic montbrayite Au2(Te,Sb,Pb,Bi)3 (Peacock and hompson, 1946;
Chvileva et al., 1988) is a rare telluride, and it contains ~
50 wt% Au and up to 5 wt% Sb. Monoclinic calaverite
AuTe2 (Stillwell, 1931; Markham, 1960) contains ~ 45 wt%
Au, and usually < 0.5 wt% Ag. In some deposits (Kalgoorly,
Australia), there are calaverite aggregates reaching 1m3 in
size. Rhombic krennerite Au3(Au,Ag,Cu)Te8 (Markham,
1960; Editorial Committee, 1970; Chvileva et al., 1988)
contains ~ 40 wt% Au, and 0.5-6.5 wt% Ag; its composition varies from AuTe2 to Au3AgTe8. Monoclinic silvanite Au(Ag,Au,Cu)Te4 (Stillwell, 1931; Markham, 1960;
Editorial Committee 1970; Chvileva et al., 1988) contains
~ 25 wt% Au. Kostovite Au(Cu,Ag,Au)Te4 (Terziev, 1966),
similar to silvanite, is a typical reactionary mineral of volcanogenic Au ores. Mutmannite AuAgTe2 (Spiridonov
and Chvileva, 1985), developed in the cementation zone
of the gold-telluride deposits, is an example of mimicry in
the mineral kingdom, because it is indistinguishable from
petzite optically and on spectra of relection light, and from
calaverite according to the X-ray pattern. Cubic petzite
AuAg3Te2 (Markham, 1960; Chvileva et al., 1988) with
garnet-like structure is the most widespread Au-Ag telluride;
it contains ~ 25 wt% Au. Cubic solid solution (Ag,Au)2Te
is rarely encountered as homogeneous phase; usually it is
transformed into petzite and hessite intergrowths.
Rhombic nagyágite AuPb5Te4-x(Sb,As)xS6 (Spiridonov,
1991a; Simon et al., 1994) – AuPb5Te2(Sb,Bi)S6 (Johan et
al., 1994), monoclinic museumite AuPb5SbTe2S12 (Bindi
and Cipriani, 2004), rhombic buckhornite AuPb2BiTe2S3
(Francis et al., 1992; Johan et al., 1994), monoclinic criddleite Au3Ag2TlSb10S10 (Harris et al., 1988), monoclinic
jonassonite AuBi5S4 (Paar et al., 2006) are typical formations of Au and Au-Ag volcanogenic hydrothermal deposits.
Nagyágite – ‘grey foliated gold ore’ – is the most widespread
among them.
11. PlumBotellurIdes And stIBIo-PlumBotellurIdes oF tHe Au-cu-Fe system
hese hypergenic minerals are developed in the cementation zone of gold-telluride deposits. hey are monoclinic
(?) bilibinskite Au5Cu3(Te,Pb,)5 and bilibinskite-(Sb)
Au6Cu2(Te,Pb,Sb)5 (Spiridonov, 1991b), rhombic (?)
bogdanovite-(Cu) – Au5Cu3(Te,Pb)2 and bogdanovite(Fe) – Au5CuFe2(Te,Pb)2 (Spiridonov, 2008), monoclinic
(?) bezsmertnovite Au4Cu(Te,Pb) (Spiridonov, 1991b).
Bilibinskite, bogdanovite and bezsmertnovite contain ~
9. Au – Ag – se, s system mInerAls
Cubic fischesserite AuAg3Se2 (Johan et al., 1971), cubic
uytenbogaardtite AuAg3S2 (Barton et al., 1978), monoclinic petrovskaite AuAgS - AuAg(S,Se) (Nesterenko et
al., 1984; Nekrasov et al., 1988), hexagonal penzhinite
AuAg4(S,Se)4 (Bochek et al., 1984), cubic solid solution
(Ag,Au)2Se (Spiridonov et al., 2009), cubic solid solution
(Ag,Au)2S (Samusikov et al., 2002) are typical minerals of
Au volcanogenic hydrothermal deposits, from low sulide
to rich sulide ones. Petrovskaite is also developed in crusts
of weathering of sulide rich deposits, in association with
jarosite and native sulphur.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 67-73
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Bogdanovite (pseudomorph after
kostovite) in gold-quartz vein. 2 mm. Bogdanovite with strong
coloured birelection. Polished section in relected light. Aginskoe,
Kamchatka. Collection and photography – E.S.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Bogdanovite (pseudomorphe de
kostovite) dans le ilon de quartz aurifère. Bogdanovite avec birélectione fortement colorée. Section polie sous lumière réléchie. Aginskoe,
Kamchatka. Collection et photographie – E.S.
71
Modern mineralogy of gold: overview and new data
50, 65 and 75 wt% Au, respectively. Macroscopically, they
have the appearance of bornite. In relected light, they are
very speciic, being characterized by bright colour doublerelection (Fig. 3) and anisotropy. Bilibinskite, bogdanovite
and bezsmertnovite replace kostovite, krennerite, silvanite,
and nagyágite. In the oxidation zone, plumbotellurides of
gold are substituted by inely scalloped gold and tellurides
of Cu, Pb, and Fe.
12. conclusIon
Brief data on the 44 gold mineral species known today
are provided above. Each of them has an individual chemical composition, crystal structure, X-ray pattern, unit cell
parameters, physical properties (colour, hardness, spectra of
relection light, etc.). For many of these minerals, the most
important feature is their ineness, i.e. Au content expressed
in ‰.
A main new feature – new characteristic of gold minerals –
could probably be related to the area sizes of X-radiation
coherent dissipation, i.e. the crystallite size. For the majority
of crystal matters, the crystallites’ size is nano-dimensional,
ranging from a few nm up to several hundreds of nm. he
description of the crystallites size can be found in a paper by
D. Yanakieva and co-authors in this issue of ArcheoSciences.
he irst interesting data on the nano-dimensions of crystallites is obtained. High-standard gold from large mesothermal deposits in Northern Kazakhstan, with an age of
445 ± 4 Ma, is studied. hese deposits are of a diferent
depth facies – hypabyssal Au-Sb Bestube, mesoabyssal Au
Stepnyak, abyssal Au-telluride (Spiridonov, 1995). One of
the studied specimens from Bestube is shown in Figure 1.
he crystallite sizes of tens of studied Bestube gold specimens are 20.0 ± 0.2 nm; for Stepnyak gold, 21.6-21.8 nm;
for Aksu gold, 26.0 ± 0.3 nm (investigator D. Yanakieva).
hus, for this group of deposits, the direct correlation
between the size of crystallites and the depth of formed gold
ores is established. he size of the crystallites of hypergenic
gold from Zana-Tube is quite diferent: 31.3-31.8 nm.
Acknowledgements
his research was supported by grant no. 07-05-00057 of the
Russian Foundation for Basic Research.
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ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 67-73
Bronze Age gold in Southern Georgia
L’or en Géorgie du sud à l’Âge du Bronze
Andreas Hauptmann* and Sabine Klein**
Abstract: his study represents a joint pilot project between archaeological and natural sciences, aimed at exploring the technology and provenance of gold artefacts, exempliied for the case of Georgia. It is focussed on the prehistoric gold mine of Sakdrisi. he study included the
investigation of both Bronze Age gold artefacts and native gold by chemical and lead isotope analyses using ICP-mass spectrometry. he analyses
of the artefacts indicate that the gold which was used to manufacture the artefacts was alloyed with variable amounts of silver. Beside silver, the
concentrations of platinum, osmium, and other trace elements in the gold are low. In addition to the analysis of the chemical composition, lead
isotope analyses also provided insights into the provenance of the gold artefacts from the region Georgia-Anatolia-Armenia. No sophisticated
treatment of the gold could be detected.
Résumé : Ce travail est un projet pilote entre les sciences archéologiques et les sciences naturelles, dont le but est d’explorer les technologies et la provenance
d’objets en or, présentés ici dans le cas de la Géorgie et, plus particulièrement, de la mine d’or préhistorique de Sakdrisi. Cette étude comporte l’analyse
chimique et isotopique, au moyen de la technique ICP-MS, aussi bien d’objets en or datant de l’Âge du Bronze que d’or natif. L’analyse des objets a montré
que l’or utilisé dans leur fabrication était allié à des concentrations variées d’argent. À côté de l’argent, les concentrations de platine, d’osmium et d’autres
éléments trace de l’or sont faibles. En plus de l’analyse de la composition chimique, l’analyse des rapports isotopiques du plomb a fourni des indications
sur la provenance des objets en or de la région Géorgie-Anatolie-Arménie. Aucun traitement élaboré de l’or n’a pu être identiié.
Keywords: Gold, Prehistoric Mining, Silver, Copper, Mercury, Trace elements, Lead isotopy.
Mots-clés : or, exploitation minière préhistorique, argent, cuivre, mercure, éléments trace, isotopes du plomb.
1. IntroductIon
he region south of the Great Caucasus (present day
Georgia) is known from the Greek myth of the “Golden
Fleece”. Iason, a Mycenaean hero of royal origin, sailed with
the Argonauts from Greece to the Colchis to demand the
“Golden Fleece” from king Aietes. Iason successfully looted
the leece with the help of the king’s daughter, Medea. he
“Golden Fleece” stands as a symbol for the recovery of gold
from placers using the skin of an ox or a sheep. he myth of
the “Golden Fleece” is proof of the economic wealth of this
region and its sources of gold, silver, iron and copper. he
richness in gold is veriied extraordinarily by the excavations
of 5th to 3rd century BC royal graves of the acropolis at Vani,
the capital of the kingdom of Colchis. he graves, which are
contemporaneous with the Greek colonisation of the eastern
coast of the Black Sea, are under excavation by Kacharava
and Kvirkvelia (2008).
here is, however, also gold from earlier periods (KuraAraxes Culture) in Georgia. Since the Trialeti Culture (middle
of the 3rd millennium BC), gold was more frequently used for
jewellery and tomb oferings (Lordkipanidze, 1991). On the
occasion of the ongoing excavations by the National Museum
of Georgia and the Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum of
* Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum – D 44787 Bochum. andreas.hauptmann@bergbaumuseum.de
** Institut für Mineralogie – Altenhöferallee 1, Goethe-University Frankfurt/Main, D 60438 Frankfurt. sabine.klein@kristall.uni-frankfurt.de
rec. Oct. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 75-82
76
the prehistoric gold mine of Sakdrisi, ca. 50 km southwest of
Tbilisi, close to the centre of the Middle Bronze Age Trialeti
Culture, we analysed Bronze Age gold artefacts (beads and
sheet metal) and native gold from the Great Caucasus and
Transcaucasia. It is the aim of the present study to search
for the source(s) of the Bronze Age gold in Georgia: are the
artefacts made locally, or were they imported? In addition, we
studied the composition of the gold in order to gain an insight
into the metallurgical techniques possibly employed for producing the artefacts. he analytical data and the archaeological context will be published in greater detail in Hauptmann
et al. (in press) and Stöllner et al. (in press).
2. Gold deposIts In GeorGIa
he gold districts in Georgia are shown in Figure 1. hey
were partly exploited at the beginning of the 19th century
(Godabrelidze, 1933). Today, gold reserves in Georgia are
estimated to ca. 100 t (Twaltschrelidze, 2001).
(Sub-) recent placers occur in Swanetia and Racha in the
Great Caucasus. his gold originates from hydrothermal
veins in Cretaceous-Jurassic shales (Godabrelidze, 1933),
and is possibly re-mobilised primarily from Proterozoic to
Palaeozoic crystalline rocks with a geological age between
60 and > 570 Ma (Adamia, 2004). An estimated 8.000 kg
of gold were exploited in this region. From the area north
of Tbilisi, fossil placers are known in Pleistocene sediments.
hey probably originate from hydrothermal quartz veins in
Cretaceous shales, similar to Swanetia. Gold placers in the
lower course of the Tschorochi river near Batumi may have
their origin in the Artvin area, where copper-gold and silver
deposits are under exploitation at Gümüshan and Murgul
(Bayburtoğlu and Yildirim, 2008).
he gold district of Sakdrisi, west of Bolnisi, is the most
important one in Georgia (Fig. 1). Both gold placers and
primary deposits occur here. Dozens of ‘ancient’ mines were
surveyed. he gold deposits were formed mainly during the
Alpidic metallogenesis (Jurassic- Cretaceous) and are part of
the “Tethyan Eurasian Metallogenetic Belt” (TEMB) (Moon
et al., 2001). hey are embedded in volcanic rocks. In addition, Palaeozoic-Proterozoic granitic rocks occur. Gold also
occurs in volcanic rocks in the northern part of Armenia.
Important copper bearing volcanogenic massive sulide
deposits (VMS) with gold, namely those of David Garedschi
and of Madneuli, are genetically connected with Sakdrisi.
hey are also geologically comparable to ore deposits in the
Artvin (Moon et al., 2001). Madneuli is bound to a rhyolitic
dome located above an intrusive complex of granodioritic
rocks. he K-Ar dating of Madneuli points to 85-93 Ma,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 75-82
Andreas HAUPTMANN, Sabine KLEIN
and the one of Sakdrisi to 78-84 Ma (Gugushvili et al., 2002).
Due to its geochemical stability, gold is relatively enriched
close to the surface. We therefore suggest that prehistoric mining at the outcrop of Madneuli also involved gold.
3. the prehIstorIc Gold mIne of sakdrIsI
At Sakdrisi, a criss-crossing swarm of vertically dipping
hydrothermal gold-quartz veins with hematite and minor
amounts of copper minerals were exploited (Fig. 2). he
ancient mining reached a depth of ca. 25 m. he ample prehistoric mining is attested by the masses of hammer stones
collected from the waste dumps, and from the underground
mining as well. Backillings left in the ancient working
pockets contained Kura-Araxes pottery, and also charcoal
from ire setting and from lightening. A set of seven 14C
data carried out so far revealed mining activities spanning
the period from the second half of the 4th to the middle of
the 3rd millennium BC (Stöllner et al., 2008).
Gugushvili et al. (2002) estimated an average of 1.03 ppm
of gold in the Sakdrisi district. Local enrichments, however,
reach > 10 and up to 500 ppm of gold (Hauptmann et al.,
in press; pers. comm. M. Natsvishvili, M. Tschochonelidze).
Our own investigations proved that such enrichments occur
in vugs illed with loose material including clay, hematite,
and quartz. he gold that was washed from the backillings
of the prehistoric mine proved to be a very ine grained
material. he grains are hardly visible with the naked eye. It
is questionable whether this is the material that was exploited in ancient times. Metallurgical processes that would be
necessary to extract the gold from this type of material, such
as amalgamation or lead melting, were not known in the
Bronze Age. Perhaps local enrichments might have created
classical bonanzas (see Stöllner et al., in press). Presently, it is
too vague to come up with an estimation of the gold exploited at the ancient mine of Sakdrisi, even if survey work suggests a igure of 5000 m3 of worked rock at or in the mine.
4. analytIcal InvestIGatIon
20 alluvial gold specimens and samples of gold ore from
the Sakdrisi mine were washed from several tons of material collected using sluice boxes and pans. In addition, 70
Middle to Late Bronze Age gold artefacts, mainly from
Kurgans in Southern Georgia, were sampled.
In our study, we analysed artefacts and native gold in a
‘destructive’ manner. Mounted samples were prepared for
investigations by SEM for a irst overview. We applied elec-
Bronze Age gold in Southern Georgia
77
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Gold districts in Georgia (upper right) and a simpliied geological overview of the Sakdrisi-Bolnisi gold district.
A number of primary gold deposits are shown, combined with recent placer deposits. he prehistoric mine of Sakdrisi is closely connected with the volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits of Madneuli. Dozens of ‘ancient’ remains of mining activities were surveyed. he
entire region contains mainly Cretaceous to Tertiary volcanic rocks, and Palaeozoic-Proterozoic magmatic rocks (Dambludka, Mamulo).
Modiied after the geological map of the Sakdrisi-Bolnisi-Reviers (1:200.000), Georgia, unpublished version. With permission of M.
Tschochonelidze, Tbilisi. Abbrevations: A = Artvin; B = Batumi with Tschorochi; S = Swanetia, Racha; SB = Sakdrisi, Bolnisi; T = Tbilisi.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Districts de l’or de la Géorgie (en haut à droite) et vue géologique simpliiée d’ensemble du district de
Sakdrisi-Bolnisi. Certains gisements d’or sont localisés, combinés avec des placers récents. La mine préhistorique de Sakdrisi est très liée au
gisement volcanogénique à sulfures massifs de Madneuli. Des dizaines de vestiges anciens d’activités minières ont été récoltés. De plus la région
possède particulièrement des roches tertiaires et crétaciques volcaniques et des roches paléozoïque-protérozoïque magmatiques (Dambludka,
Mamulo). Modiications selon la carte géologique de Sakdrisi-Bolnisi-Reviers (1:200.000), Géorgie, version non publiée. Avec la permission de
M. Tschochonelidze, Tbilisi. Abréviations: A = Artvin; B = Batumi avec Tschorochi; S = Swanetia, Racha; SB = Sakdrisi, Bolnisi; T = Tbilisi.
tron microscopy with a wavelength system (JEOL 8900
Superprobe) for the quantiication of the main elements and
a selection of trace elements, in order to characterise the
bulk chemical composition of the material. his preliminary
step is necessary in order to identify the appropriate dissolution factor for solution based ICP-MS and also as a base for
the LA calculation of the trace elements. Trace element and
lead isotope analyses were carried out in Frankfurt using
a Multi-Collector ICP-Mass Spectrometer (Finnigan MAT
eNeptun). Generally, due to the high cultural value of the
gold objects, destructive sampling such as the one permitted
here is an exception. We therefore utilised, for comparison,
Laser Ablation ICP-Mass Spectrometry analysis in a nondestructive mode as well. his method is most suitable for
analysing objects from which only very little material or
even none is available for analysis. In Frankfurt, a UP-213
laser ablation system (New Wave) was used, coupled with
a Finnigan Element2 Mass Spectrometer. A measurement
method was developed to combine extern standard solutions. Its reproducibility was veriied by multiple measurements (Bendall, 2003). In order to verify the precision of
the method, the copper standard SRM C1252 was used.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 75-82
78
Andreas HAUPTMANN, Sabine KLEIN
Figure 2: Aerial photograph of the prehistoric
mine of Sakdrisi after the removal of the vegetation. Note the exploitation of criss-cross
and vertically dipping quartz-hematite-gold
veins.
Figure 2 : Photographie aérienne de la mine
préhistorique de Sakdrisi, après enlèvement de
la végétation. L’on note l’exploitation de ilons
de quartz-hématite-or en croisillons et descente
verticale.
With this procedure, a large number of elements can
be analysed with a high degree of precision. he typical
precision obtained for 207Pb/206Pb = +/- 0.00006 and for
208
Pb/206Pb = +/- 0.0002. he average extern precision is
+/- 0.00009 for 207Pb/206Pb and +/- 0.0003 for 208Pb/206Pb.
With these results, LA-ICP-MS represents the irst method
of choice for ‘non-destructive’ analysis of gold objects.
Problems occur if the overall low concentrations of lead in
gold are extreme, and also if contaminations of mercury have
taken place. his makes a precise analysis of 204Pb diicult,
and it prevents its use in some cases. However, important
archaeometric information is still available by the analysis of
the remaining lead isotopes: 206Pb, 207Pb and 208Pb. We will
present the speciicities of the diferent applications of this
method in our upcoming paper.
5. results and dIscussIon
By comparing the native gold collected from various localities in Georgia and the analysed gold artefacts, it becomes
clear that the latter are generally richer in trace elements
than the native gold. he native gold samples are, except
for their silver concentrations, remarkably pure. Neither
PGE inclusions, nor Ag-Au tellurides or Ag sulides were
detected.
We suggest that the higher trace element content of the
artefacts is due to an incomplete separation of the gold
from the associated heavy mineral fractions, as observed in
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 75-82
Mamulo (Fig. 3). Such impurities could be partly incorporated from the heavy minerals into the gold during the (s)
melting process.
Silver in gold
Both gold artefacts and native gold show a large range
of silver contents, from 1 to 38 wt% Ag. Silver is homogeneously distributed within the gold, and no enrichment of
gold was observed as it may occur in nature, or caused by
anthropogenic treatments. Ag concentrations of this range
are not anomalous for native gold, and the match with the
silver contents of the artefacts points out that silver was not
intentionally added to the gold. If intentionally added, the
alloy would be expected to be remarkably contaminated by
lead from the cupellation process of Ag-bearing lead ores.
Because the lead concentrations range within the lower ppm
level (Fig. 4), we strongly exclude the possibility of an intentional adding of silver to the gold. Obviously, no parting
was performed during the Middle and Late Bronze Age in
Georgia.
Mercury – a trappy element
Among the gold grains that were washed, e.g., in a small
river near Sakdrisi, gold-silver amalgams were identiied.
here are two possible explanations for this occurrence: 1.
the amalgams are native and occur in the ore deposits, and
2. the amalgams are anthropogenic products and represent
79
Bronze Age gold in Southern Georgia
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Alluvial gold, Mamulo, SakdrisiBolnisi-district. he concentrate is contaminated by copper minerals (blue), magnetite (black) and quartz (white). We cannot
exclude the possibility that comparable impurities would have
been incorporated (in parts) in gold in prehistory. Especially copper minerals could lead to ‘anomalous’ concentrations in the inal
object. Width of picture: ca. 2 mm.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Or alluvionnaire, Mamulo, district
de Sakdrisi-Bolnisi. Le concentré est contaminé par des minerais de
cuivre (bleu), magnétite (noire) et quartz (blanc). À ne pas exclure
la possibilité d’incorporation dans l’or (en partie) d’impuretés comparables pendant la préhistoire. Les minerais de cuivre en particulier
pourraient amener à des concentrations « anormales » dans l’objet ini.
debris from historical gold washers’ activities. Aspects in the
favour of the irst explanation: gold-mercury compounds
occur in the deposits of the Sakdrisi-Bolnisi district (Moon
et al., 2001). his is not uncommon, as natural gold may
contain up to 6% mercury, as shown by the paleo-placer
deposits of Witwatersrand (Oberthür and Saager, 1986).
Placer gold in Scotland contained up to 8% mercury (Leake
et al., 1998). An argument in favour of the second explanation is the fact that historical sources from Georgia report on
multiple gold extraction by amalgamation during the 19th
century. his seems to have been a widespread technique,
and Dilabio et al. (1988) reports on worldwide anthropogenic pollution by mercury in gold placer deposits. he
distinct porous texture, as shown in Figure 5, is typical for
amalgamated gold, its origin being from the evaporation of
mercury following the heating of the gold amalgam. As we
could not exclude the possibility of an anthropogenic input
of mercury rich mineral in the gold grains from Sakdrisi,
‘suspicious’ grains were sorted out prior to the lead isotope
analysis in order to avoid contaminations of the natural gold.
Hg-containing grains make the analysis of 204Pb impossible,
because the isotopes 204 Hg and 202Hg interfere with 204Pb.
Copper in gold
Alluvial gold from Georgia contains far below 1% copper,
while the gold artefacts contain between 1 and 7.7 wt%
Cu. he question is whether copper was incorporated in the
metal, due to the incomplete separation of the gold from the
placer material, or rather if it was incorporated by a re-melting of the gold objects originally decorated with e.g. granulation, i.e., granules soldered with copper. We exclude this
possibility, because granulation was not common in Georgia
during this period (Dschaparidze, 2001). We ourselves suggest that copper was enriched in the gold, because the gold
Figure 4: Pb/Ag diagram of gold artefacts
from Georgia. Very low Pb concentrations
and any missing correlation between Pb
and Ag indicate that the noble metal was
not intentionally added to the gold, but that
it originates in the ore deposits.
Figure 4 : Diagramme Pb/Ag des objets d’or
de Géorgie. Les concentrations très faibles de
Pb et l’absence de corrélation entre le Pb et
l’Ag indiquent que le métal noble n’a pas été
intentionnellement additionné à l’or, mais qu’il
appartient au gisement.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 75-82
80
Andreas HAUPTMANN, Sabine KLEIN
native gold from Georgia is almost devoid of tin. Based on
the available data, we cannot claim with certainty that tin is
a tracer for placer gold.
Results of lead isotope analysis
Figure 5: Gold-amalgam grain from a small river in the SakdrisiBolnisi-district. he Au-Ag-Hg alloy consists of 80-82% Au, 3.55.5% Ag and 14-15% Hg. he porous texture suggests a gold
extraction by amalgamation rather than a natural amalgam (which
is suggested to occur in this region as well). SEM image, secondary
electron mode. Source: Hauptmann and Gambaschidze (2006).
Figure 5 : Grain d’amalgame d’or provenant d’un ruisseau du district
de Sakdrisi-Bolnisi. L’alliage d’Au-Ag-Hg contient 80-82% Au, 3,55,5% Ag et 14-15% Hg. Sa texture poreuse suggère une extraction
d’or par amalgamation plutôt qu’un amalgame naturel (qui peut aussi
être présent dans cette région). Image MEB, en mode d’électrons secondaire. Source : Hauptmann and Gambaschidze (2006).
grains were irst insuiciently separated from copper mineral
grains in the placer material (see above and Fig. 3), and
subsequently introduced into the gold metal during the
smelting or melting process.
Results of trace element analysis
Concentrations of other trace elements are very low.
Platinum (up to 6 ppm) and osmium (up to 7 ppm) seem to
be correlated. Platinum group elements are suggested to be
typical for alluvial gold, especially in a luvial environment,
and might be incorporated in gold. Gold in hydrothermal
veins contain Pt only in the sub-ppb level. Tin reaches 3 –
50 ppm in the gold artefacts. his is in an order of magnitude lower by a factor of one to two than those analysed by
Hartmann (1982) in European gold objects. In contrast,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 75-82
Lead concentrations in native gold are in most cases close
to the detection limit for isotope analyses; in the artefacts,
lead is only up to 2 ppm. Hence, it was not possible to
analyse the lead isotope ratios for all samples. he results
obtained from gold artefacts, native gold and gold bearing
heavy mineral fractions are shown in Figure 6. For comparison, we also included lead isotopes of some copper ores,
because of their close paragenesis with gold.
Most of the artefacts plot around a mixing line which
crosses overlapping isotope ields of ore deposits in the
Aegean, Anatolia and Armenia. his means that they
are compatible with an origin of the ore deposits in the
Mesozoic folded mountain belt of the Pontides and the
Transcaucasus. More precisely, we found an accumulation
of isotope ratios of artefacts which matches the composition of the Sakdrisi gold itself, and that of the ores from
Madneuli. he results are also compatible with copper ores
from Murgul, where at least prehistoric copper mining is
attested (Lutz, 1990). High 208Pb/206Pb vs. 207Pb/206Pbratios, as represented by native gold samples from Mamulo,
Pinezauri and Dambludka in the Sakdrisi-Bolnisi district
(see upper right in Fig. 6), originate from geologically very
old deposits, as they occur in Proterozoic crystalline rocks
(see Fig. 1). Such isotope ratios were observed only in two
gold artefacts, originating from a locality situated at a considerable distance from Sakdrisi, in Eastern Georgia. One of
the two outliers in the lower left side of the diagram comes
close to the isotopic pattern of 4th millennium BC litharge
from Fatmali-Kalecik in the upper Euphrates area (unpublished data Bochum). here is evidence of prehistoric silver
extraction at Fatmali-Kalecik (Hess et al., 1999), but the ore
deposit is also gold bearing.
6. conclusIons
Excavations proved that the Sakdrisi gold mine is the
oldest in the world. his data shows that during the Early
Bronze Age, gold exploitation was by no means conined
to the exploitation of placers. Bronze Age gold artefacts in
Georgia were made of natural gold-silver alloys. We could
not detect exactly how gold was beneiciated, but we suggest
that copper concentrations in the artefacts are caused by
an insuicient separation of accessory minerals. As to the
81
Bronze Age gold in Southern Georgia
Figure 6: (See colour plate) 208Pb/206Pb vs. 207Pb/206Pb-ratios of gold artefacts and native gold from Georgia. For comparison: lead isotope
ratios of copper and lead ores and copper and lead-slags and artefacts from the Aegean, Anatolia and Armenia are shown (shaded area;
according to Seeliger et al., 1985; Hauptmann et al., 2002; Pernicka et al., 2003; Meliksetian et al., 2003). Data from the VMS coppergold deposits at Madneuli from Dschaparidze (in prep.), and at Murgul from Lutz (1990). Abbreviations: VMS = Volcanogenic Massive
Sulphide Deposit; MBA = Middle Bronze Age; LBA = Late Bronze Age.
Figure 6 : (Voir planche couleur) Rapports 208Pb/206Pb vs. 207Pb/206Pb pour les objets d’or et l’or natif de Géorgie. Pour comparaison : rapports
isotopiques de minerais de cuivre et de plomb, de scories de cuivre et de plomb et d’objets provenant de l’Egée, d’Anatolie et d’Arménie, comme
illustré (zone ombrée ; selon Seeliger et al., 1985 ; Hauptmann et al., 2002; Pernicka et al., 2003; Meliksetian et al., 2003). Données des
gisements VMS de cuivre-or de Madneuli selon Dschaparidze (en préparation) et de Murgul selon Lutz (1990). Abréviations: VMS = gisement
à sulfures massifs volcanogéniques ; MBA = Âge du Bronze moyen ; LBA = Âge du Bronze récent.
provenance of the gold artefacts analysed, we conclude that
lead isotope analysis is a useful tool for this purpose. he
genetic connection of the gold from Sakdrisi with volcanogenic ore deposits (VMS) suggests a comparison with copper
ores from such sources as well. However, mercury concentrations have to be carefully analysed in order to verify their
anthropogenic or natural origin. We were able to show that
many of the gold artefacts from Georgia were most probably
produced using gold from deposits located in the mountain range of the TEMB. he isotope data could support the
use of local gold ores from the Sakdrisi and the Madneuli
mines for the making of the artefacts, provided that mining
activities from the Middle and Late Bronze Age will hopefully be discovered in the future. In order to provide more
detailed answers to the questions posed by archaeology, we
are in need of a more extensive database pertaining to the
areas under consideration. Do gold artefacts found, e.g.,
in a single Kurgan, but with diferent isotopic signatures,
indicate the fact that they come from diferent geographic
sources? Or were they smelted using gold from one gold
district only, such as the one of Sakdrisi-Bolnisi? What is
the variety of isotopic compositions in a single district with
diferent primary mineralisations and placers? Sampling of
more gold artefacts and native gold appears necessary, and
additional tracers are needed.
Acknowledgements
he authors gratefully acknowledge all the persons and institutions involved for providing us with gold objects and for help
in extracting gold from the geological context. Our thanks go to
the VolkswagenStiftung, Hanover, for inancial support.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 75-82
82
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Minéralogie et signature isotopique du plomb
des minerais auro-argentifères exploités
durant l’époque romaine à Alburnus Maior
(Roşia Montană, Roumanie)
Mineralogy and lead isotope signature of the gold-silver ores exploited
during the Roman period at Alburnus Maior (Roşia Montană, Romania)
Călin Gabriel Tămaş*, **, ***, Sandrine Baron*** et Béatrice Cauuet***
Résumé : Alburnus Maior (Roşia Montană, Roumanie), est un site minier important à l’époque romaine pour ses métaux précieux. Des études
géologiques, gîtologiques et géochimiques ont été efectuées sur les corps de minerais exploités à l’époque romaine dans les chantiers miniers mis
en évidence par l’archéologie minière. La démarche principale réside dans l’étude de minerais géo- et chrono- référencés par l’archéologie et la
géologie pour identiier les sources des métaux précieux pendant l’antiquité romaine.
Les études géologiques menées dans le massif de Cârnic, ont permis d’identiier quatre phases de minéralisation. Trois d’entre elles ont été exploitées par
les Anciens. Chacune se traduit par un corpus d’associations minéralogiques en métaux précieux dont deux d’entre elles possèdent des minéraux rares à
tellures et à germanium. Par ailleurs, les teneurs élémentaires des autres éléments chimiques étant très hétérogènes, l’isotopie du plomb (Pb) est l’outil idéal
pour optimiser la caractérisation. Chaque phase de minéralisation possède sa propre signature en Pb. Malgré les diférences isotopiques de Pb observées
entre chacune d’elles, les signatures en Pb de Roşia Montană (RM) constituent un champ isotopique très restreint. En comparaison avec d’autres districts
miniers de Roumanie, le champ isotopique de RM est identiiable et ainera la iliation chimique à échelle régionale dans l’est de l’Europe.
Abstract : Alburnus Maior (Roşia Montană, Romania) was an important precious metals mining site during Roman times. Geological, ore deposit and
geochemical studies have been carried out on the ore bodies exploited during the Roman period that have been discovered during archaeological excavations. he primary purpose of the present paper is to demonstrate the importance of the study of geologically and chronologically referenced ores by means
of mining archaeology and geology for identifying the sources of precious metals from Roman Antiquity.
he geological studies carried out in the Cârnic Massif allowed the identiication of four mineralisation phases. hree of these four phases have been
exploited by the ancient miners. Each mineralised phase is characterised by a speciic precious metals mineral association, and two of them contain rare
Te and Ge bearing minerals. As their elemental composition is heterogeneous, the use of lead isotopes represents a good methodology for reining their
characterisation. Each mineralised phase has its own lead signature. In spite of some observed diferences in terms of lead isotopes for each phase, the overall
signature of Roşia Montană (RM) displays a well deined isotopic ield. When compared to other mining districts in Romania, the isotopic ield of RM is
distinguishable, and this allows a better discrimination that can contribute to the provenance study of minerals from Eastern Europe.
Mots-clés : Minerais Au-Ag, minéralogie, géochimie, isotopie, archéologie minière, mine romaine, Roşia Montană.
Keywords : Au-Ag ores, mineralogy, geochemistry, isotopes, mining archaeology, Roman mine, Roşia Montană.
* Université de Fribourg, Département de Géosciences, 6, Ch. du Musée, 1700 Fribourg, Suisse.
** Université Babeş-Bolyai – Faculté de Biologie et Géologie, 1, M. Kogălniceanu, 400084 Cluj-Napoca, Roumanie. (calin.tamas@ubbcluj.ro)
*** Laboratoire Travaux de Recherches Archéologiques sur les Cultures, les Espaces et les Sociétés, Université Toulouse 2 Le Mirail, CNRS UMR 5608 –
Maison de la Recherche, 5 allées Antonio-Machado, 31058 Toulouse cedex 09, France.
rec. Aug. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 83-89
84
Călin Gabriel Tămaş, Sandrine Baron, Béatrice Cauuet
1. IntroductIon
Roşia Montană (RM) est l’ancienne Alburnus Maior,
une agglomération minière romaine mentionnée (entre
autres) sur la plus ancienne des tablettes cirées (tabulae ceratae) retrouvées sur le site et datée du 6 février 131 (CIL
TC XVII, Sîntimbrean, 1989), un quart de siècle après la
conquête de la Dacie par les Romains. RM représente un
gisement auro-argentifère de très grande taille exploité à ciel
ouvert, mais également en souterrain dès l’époque romaine
(Cauuet et al., 2003). À l’heure actuelle, RM reste le plus
grand gisement de métaux précieux d’Europe (Manske et al.,
2006) avec environ 410 tonnes d’or et 1840 tonnes d’argent
pour des teneurs limites d’exploitation de 1,3 g/t Au et 6
g/t Ag (www.gabrielresources.com ; Jan 3, 2009). Un projet
minier s’intéresse à ces ressources, il s’agit de la compagnie
minière roumaine « Roşia Montana Gold Corporation », une
iliale de la compagnie canadienne « Gabriel Ressources ».
Dans le contexte d’une probable reprise minière du site de
RM, des fouilles d’archéologie préventive se sont déroulées
dans le cadre du Programme National de Recherche Alburnus
Maior, sous la direction du Musée National d’Histoire de
Roumanie. Jusqu’à ce jour, d’importantes fouilles archéologiques ont été achevées dans plusieurs secteurs miniers
du site de RM (secteurs de Cetate et Cârnic) et d’autres
fouilles sont actuellement en cours dans d’autres secteurs
miniers de RM (secteurs Ţarina, Orlea, Păru Carpeni, etc.)
(Cauuet, sous presse). L’étude présentée ici concerne le massif
de Cârnic.
Une approche interdisciplinaire a été efectuée dans le
cadre des fouilles archéologiques menées à RM. En efet, des
études géologiques très détaillées de travaux miniers datant
de l’époque romaine ont pu être efectuées grâce aux résultats fournis par l’archéologie minière. Nous avons donc eu
la possibilité d’examiner et d’étudier les parois et les fronts
de tailles creusés par les mineurs romains et ainsi les corps
de minerais exploités réellement par les anciens mineurs.
L’étude géologique de terrain a été poursuivie par des analyses minéralogiques et par un cortège d’analyses géochimiques. Le but a été d’établir une caractérisation minéralogique
et géochimique de minerais auro-argentifères archéologiques
– c’est-à-dire efectivement exploités par les Anciens.
2. LocaLIsatIon géographIque
et contexte géoLogIque
Le gisement de RM fait partie du « Quadrilatère de
l’or » (Ghiţulescu et Socolescu, 1941), une région d’environ 900 km2 située dans la partie sud des Monts Apuseni
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 83-89
(Roumanie). Dans cette région, de nombreux gisements de
porphyres cuprifères et des gisements épithermaux d’or et
d’argent, liés au volcanisme néogène sont répertoriés, RM
étant l’un des plus importants. Ce gisement (Fig. 1) est
encaissé dans un lysch Crétacé supérieur, pénétré par trois
épisodes volcaniques, dont le premier a été responsable de
la mise en place des corps de métaux précieux de RM. Plus
de détails sur la géologie de la région et sur les particularités
du gisement de RM sont reportés ailleurs (Tămaş, 2007).
De plus, divers types de corps de minerai sont connus à
l’échelle du gisement, il s’agit de ilons, brèches, stockwerks,
imprégnations, ainsi que placers et paléoplacers. Du point
de vue minéralogique, les métaux précieux se présentent
sous forme d’électrum, d’une grande variété de minéraux
d’argent, de tellurures et de sulfures communs (Petrulian,
1934 ; Tămaş et al., 2004; 2006 ; Ciobanu et al., 2004).
3. MatérIeLs et Méthodes
L’étude géologique a permis d’établir une cartographie géologique détaillée de tous les travaux miniers romains qui ont
été fouillés dans le massif de Cârnic. Cette étude a permis
d’efectuer la pétrographie des roches encaissantes, d’identiier
les corps de minerais exploités par les Romains, ainsi que les
altérations hydrothermales associées (notamment l’adularisation et la siliciication), mais également les relations mutuelles
entre divers corps de minerais. L’échantillonnage systématique
(roches et minerais) et l’analyse des teneurs élémentaires des
minerais efectuées au laboratoire Chemex (voir ci-dessous)
ont complété l’étude géologique de terrain.
L’étude minéralogique des minerais issus de l’exploitation
romaine a compris un examen microscopique (lames minces
et lames polies), nécessaire pour l’identiication des minéraux porteurs des métaux précieux et de minéraux associés.
Des observations et analyses au microscope électronique
à balayage (Jeol-JSM 6360 LV) ont permis de détailler la
minéralogie des minéraux métalliques. Des analyses quantitatives efectuées sur les associations de minéraux métalliques
ont été réalisées à l’aide d’une microsonde électronique de
type CAMECA SX50 en utilisant une tension d’accélération
de 25 kV, un courant d’analyse de 20 nA et le diamètre du
faisceau de 3 x 3 µm2. Des minéraux naturels et synthétiques, ainsi que des métaux purs et des alliages ont servi de
matériaux de références.
Les analyses chimiques élémentaires ont été efectuées par
Chemex, un laboratoire de service analytique de rang international, dont il n’est pas nécessaire de présenter ici toutes
les caractéristiques, pour plus d’informations, se reporter au
site web (www.alsglobal.com).
Minéralogie et signature isotopique du plomb des minerais auro-argentifères exploités durant l’époque romaine…
85
Figure 1 : Géologie simplifiée du gisement de Roşia
Montană. Dans l’encadré de
la Roumanie, RM correspond
au gisement de Roşia Montană
et MM correspond au district
de Maramureş, la partie ouest
représente la région de Baia
Mare et la partie est celle de
Baia Borşa.
Figure 1: Simpliied geology of
Roşia Montană (RM). Inside
the box representing Romania,
RM corresponds to the Roşia
Montană ore deposit and MM
corresponds to the Maramureş
metallogenetic district, which
consists of the Baia Mare area
in the west and the Baia Borşa
area in the east.
Les analyses isotopiques ont été conduites selon une
méthode de préparation dont tous les détails ont été exposés antérieurement (Baron et al., 2006). L’appareil utilisé
est un MC-ICP-MS (Multi-Collector inductively coupled
plasma-mass spectrometer, Neptune, hermo scientiic). La
méthode de mesure utilisée pour les rapports isotopiques
du plomb (Pb) est le dopage au thallium dont la présentation peut se retrouver dans la bibliographie (Baron et al.,
2006). Le spectromètre de masse, équipé de neuf cages de
Faraday, permet une mesure simultanée de tous les isotopes
du plomb, du thallium et du mercure (200Hg). Les mesures
répétées du matériau de référence NIST NBS 981 Pb ont
permis de calculer les valeurs de reproductibilité suivantes
(2* écart type de la moyenne des valeurs du standard NIST
NBS 981 Pb) : 93 ppm pour le rapport 208Pb/206Pb, 80
ppm pour le rapport 207Pb/206Pb, 60 ppm pour le rapport
208
Pb/204Pb, 50 ppm pour le rapport 207Pb/204Pb et 100 ppm
pour le rapport 206Pb/204Pb.
4. résuLtats
Les analyses géologiques et minéralogiques ont permis
l’identiication de diférents types de corps de minerais
exploités à l’époque romaine dans le massif de Cârnic (ilons
et corps de brèches). Ces corps de minerais correspondent à
trois grandes phases de déposition de métaux précieux, chacune avec une minéralogie qui lui est propre, par conséquent
des teneurs en métaux précieux spéciiques. Une quatrième
phase de déposition a également été identiiée ailleurs dans
les travaux miniers modernes du massif de Cârnic. Tandis
que les trois premières phases ont été exploitées par les
Romains, la quatrième phase métallogénique n’a pas été
exploitée par les Anciens.
Les phases de déposition de minerais se caractérisent pour
chacune par (Tableau 1) :
Phase #1 – Des structures de brèches phréatiques à ciment
hydrothermal riche en quartz. Ce sont des corps de minerais
très riches en or et argent (plus d’or que d’argent), avec une
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 83-89
86
Călin Gabriel Tămaş, Sandrine Baron, Béatrice Cauuet
Phase de
minéralisation
Composition minéralogique
Minéraux métalliques
Minéraux de gangue
Éléments traces
Observations
#1
électrum, polybasite, cuivre gris
quartz, adulaire et chinga (ciment
argentifère, galène argentifère, pyrite, riche en quartz et matière
chalcopyrite et sphalérite ;
organique) ;
-
phase exploitée par les
mineurs romains
#2
électrum, polybasite, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, sphalérite, cuivre gris,
marcasite et covellite ;
-
phase exploitée par les
mineurs romains
#3
achanthite, stéphanite, polybasitepéarcéite, argent natif, cuivre gris
argentifère, galène argentifère, pyrite,
quartz, adulaire, chinga ;
chalcopyrite, sphalérite, bornite,
électrum, argyrodite ; traces de Teargyrodite et altaïte ;
Ge, Te
phase exploitée par les
mineurs romains
#4
cuivre gris, galène, sphalérite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite, hessite (très
abondant), altaïte, sylvanite, Teargyrodite, électrum et marcasite.
Te, Ge
phase non exploitée par
les mineurs romains
quartz, adulaire ;
rhodonite, rhodochrosite, quartz,
adulaire.
Tableau 1 : Composition minéralogique des quatre phases de minéralisation mises en évidence dans le massif de Cârnic, Roşia Montana,
Roumanie.
Table 1: Mineralogical composition of the four ores deposition phases from the Cârnic Massif, Roşia Montană, Romania.
composition minéralogique dominée par l’électrum et divers
minéraux d’argent (sulfosels) avec des sulfures communs.
Phase #2 – Des ilons à gangue quartzeuse avec des teneurs
très élevées en or et argent, mais avec des valeurs relativement similaires entre ces deux métaux précieux. L’électrum
et les minéraux d’argent (sulfosels) sont majoritaires, tandis
que les sulfures communs sont très rares.
Phase #3 – Des structures de brèches phréatiques rebréchiiées avec l’association de ilons de quartz très riches en
argent et des teneurs beaucoup plus faibles en or. La minéralogie de cette troisième phase de déposition est complexe
avec une grande variété en sulfosels d’argent, argent natif,
sulfure d’argent accompagnés d’électrum et de minéraux en
base germanium, à savoir argyrodite (Ag8GeS6) et argyrodite
à tellure (Ag8GeTe2S4). Le tellure est systématiquement présent dans le sulfure d’argent (achantite) et la galène.
Phase #4 – Des ilons à gangue rhodochrosite-rhodonite,
avec plus de 1,15 kg d’argent et quelques grammes d’or à
la tonne. La minéralogie de la quatrième phase est complètement diférente des trois premières phases, avec des tellurures d’argent, d’or-argent et de plomb, de l’argyrodite à
tellure, des sulfures communs et de l’électrum.
Les analyses chimiques élémentaires efectuées sur les
minerais de chaque phase de minéralisation montrent des
teneurs très hétérogènes, ce qui ne permet pas d’utiliser ces
dernières en vue d’un éventuel traçage. Nous ne discuterons donc pas ces données. Néanmoins, les teneurs assez
élevées en Te (∼250 ppm) et Ag (10 à > 1 000 ppm) dans les
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 83-89
minerais d’or de la phase 2 et 3 seront de bons traceurs élémentaires. En efet, comme il a été démontré par les études
minéralogiques, les minéraux porteurs de ces éléments
chimiques seraient une particularité des minerais de RM.
Les compositions isotopiques du plomb des quatre phases
(ϕ) de minéralisations sont reportées dans les graphiques de
la Figure 2 (données en cours d’acquisition). Comme tous
les rapports isotopiques montrent les mêmes tendances, seul
le rapport isotopique 206Pb/204Pb sera pris en compte dans
les discussions ain ne pas alourdir le texte. Chaque phase
de minéralisation possède un champ de composition isotopique qui lui est propre (en dehors de l’incertitude totale
externe des échantillons) et dont les diférences sont signiicatives, à cette échelle (Fig. 2). Par contre, en moyenne, les
quatre phases présentent un champ de compositions isotopiques très homogène. Par exemple, les valeurs moyennes,
pour le rapport 206Pb/204Pb, et pour chaque phase, sont les
suivantes : 18.657 ± 0.007 (1σ : écart type par rapport à
la moyenne des valeurs isotopiques d’une phase donnée) ;
18.651 ± 0.003 (1σ) ; 18.657 ± 0.011 (1σ) et 18.635 ±
0.001 (1σ) pour les phases ϕ 1, ϕ 2, ϕ 3 et ϕ 4 respectivement. Les Anciens ayant exploité uniquement trois des
quatre phases, nous ne retiendrons que les compositions
isotopiques de Pb de RM des phases ϕ 1, ϕ 2 et ϕ 3. Ainsi,
la composition isotopique en Pb de Roşia Montană est une
moyenne des trois phases, pour chaque rapport isotopique.
La signature est, pour l’instant : 2.0778 ± 0.0015 (1σ) pour
le rapport 208Pb/206Pb, 0.8395 ± 0.0004 (1σ) pour le rapport
Minéralogie et signature isotopique du plomb des minerais auro-argentifères exploités durant l’époque romaine…
87
Pb/206Pb, 38.765 ± 0.023 (1σ) pour le rapport 208Pb/204Pb,
15.663 ± 0.004 (1σ) pour le rapport 207Pb/204Pb et 18.657 ±
0.008 (1σ) pour le rapport 206Pb/204Pb (acquisitions inales
des données en cours).
207
5. dIscussIons
Les analyses géologiques et minéralogiques de minerais
exploités à l’époque romaine indiquent le caractère auroargentifère des deux premières phases de déposition et le
caractère argentifère subordonné aurifère de la troisième
phase. Dans ces trois phases de déposition, l’or apparaît sous
forme d’électrum et il est encaissé dans le ciment hydrothermal des brèches phréatiques, dans le quartz de ilons et
de brèches, ainsi que dans la pyrite. Mais, il est rarement
inclus dans d’autres minéraux métalliques (sulfures et sulfosels). L’argent est concentré dans l’électrum et les sulfosels
d’argent. En ce qui concerne la minéralogie de la troisième
phase de déposition, nous devons souligner son caractère
particulier en raison de l’occurrence de minéraux de germanium (argyrodite et argyrodite à tellure) et de la grande
abondance de sulfosels d’argent avec une présence systématique du tellure. La quatrième phase de déposition, argentifère
par excellence, mais non exploitée par les Romains dans le
massif de Cârnic, s’individualise par la participation notable
des tellurures (Ag, Ag-Au, Pb) et de l’argyrodite à tellure.
Les éléments chimiques retenant notre attention sont Ag,
Te et Ge. De plus, une étude de fusion simple réalisée sur du
minerai de RM (condition oxydante et réductrice avec une
température > 1200 °C) a montré que les teneurs en Ag et
Te restent relativement identiques entre le minerai de départ
et le minerai fondu (Hauptmann et al., 1995). Ag et Te ne
semblent pas être afectés par le processus métallurgique. Par
conséquent, Ag et Te seraient des éléments « conservatifs »
dans ce cas précis, et ils seront de très bons indicateurs, en
complément de l’isotopie du plomb, pour les futures études
de traçabilité minerais – objets.
Figure 2 : Diagrammes Pb/Pb des quatre phases de minéralisations
des minerais en Au-Ag du gisement de Roşia Montană, massif de
Cârnic (Roumanie).
Figure 2: Pb/Pb diagrams of the four Au-Ag ore deposition phases from
the Roşia Montană ore deposit, Cârnic Massif (Romania).
Les compositions isotopiques du plomb des minerais
de RM. Sur ces diagrammes classiques Pb/Pb (Fig. 2), les
compositions isotopiques du plomb des minerais de Roşia
Montană sont identiiables pour chacune des quatre phases
déjà mises en évidence pas les études géologiques et minéralogiques. Chaque phase est l’illustration d’un évènement
minéralisateur (mise en place de minerais) dont la source
est un réservoir géologique plus ou moins profond et qui
possède une composition isotopique qui lui est propre. Les
compositions isotopiques sont assez homogènes et, outre
le temps de mise en place assez court du district de RM,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 83-89
88
Călin Gabriel Tămaş, Sandrine Baron, Béatrice Cauuet
ces signatures en Pb indiquent surtout une source primaire
commune (rapport U/h identique et homogène) des différents luides minéralisateurs, ce qui n’est pas forcément
le cas dans les gisements métallifères. En efet, un seul et
même gisement, ou une seule et même veine minéralisée,
peut présenter des hétérogénéités isotopiques, ce qui peut
perturber la iliation minerais-objets (Baron et al., 2006 ;
2009). Par conséquent, dans le cadre de problématiques
archéologiques et historiques, il est indispensable de devoir
caractériser un district minier d’un point de vue archéologique, géologique, mais aussi géochimique ain d’apporter
des données pertinentes et complémentaires aux problématiques archéologiques et historiques, notamment sur la
provenance des métaux.
Le district de RM en contexte régional (à échelle de la
Roumanie)
Sur le graphique 207Pb/204Pb vs 206Pb/204Pb (Fig. 3), sont
reportées les compositions isotopiques du plomb disponibles
dans la littérature pour la Roumanie (Bird et al., 2008 ;
Marcoux et al., 2002). Quatre groupes s’individualisent : le
groupe des Monts Apuseni, les deux groupes de Maramures
(celui de Baia Mare et de Baia Borşa) et Roşia Montană. Ce
dernier groupe se distingue très bien au milieu du champ de
compositions isotopiques de plomb des valeurs de minerais
des Monts Apuseni au sens large.
Sur le diagramme de la Figure 3, nous pouvons observer
que, globalement, les compositions isotopiques de Pb de la
région de Maramures, au nord du pays, sont plus radiogéniques, notamment pour le rapport 207Pb / 204Pb, que celles
des Monts Apuseni, au sud. La source minéralisatrice qui a
conduit à ces gisements de Maramures est donc diférente de
celle du secteur des Monts Apuseni. Baia Borşa est le district
minier qui possède la signature la moins radiogénique pour
le rapport 206Pb / 204Pb et de façon globale, c’est le secteur
qui se distingue le plus des autres.
Par conséquent, au vu du graphique, chaque secteur
minier est individualisable à échelle régionale. Par la suite,
la traçabilité sera considérablement ainée dans le Nord/
Nord-Ouest de la Roumanie. Cela est prometteur dans la
perspective des futures études de iliations des objets précieux antiques connus en Roumanie. En efet, nous pourrons mieux cerner géographiquement les aires d’extraction
des minerais ayant servi à élaborer les objets en or découverts
en Europe de l’Est au sens large.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 83-89
Figure 3 : Compositions isotopiques de plomb 207Pb / 204Pb versus
206
Pb / 204Pb des districts miniers de Roşia Montană (inclus dans les
Monts Apuseni), Baia Borşa et Baia Mare (région de Maramureş).
Figure 3: 207Pb/204Pb versus 206Pb/204Pb ratios of the ore deposits from
Roşia Montană (Apuseni Mountains), Baia Borşa and Baia Mare
(Maramureş district).
6. concLusIons
À Roşia Montană les études géologiques et minéralogiques
menées récemment sur les travaux miniers mis au jour par
l’archéologie minière ont permis de caractériser de façon
précise les corps de minerais exploités pendant l’époque
romaine. Sur les quatre phases de minéralisations mises en
évidence par la géologie, trois phases ont été exploitées par
les Romains. Elles se caractérisent par des teneurs élevées en
Ag et Te, dont il sera possible de retrouver les traces (pour
Ag et Te) dans les objets précieux prochainement étudiés,
étant donné que la réduction simple de minerai n’altère pas,
a priori, les teneurs. L’isotopie du plomb, de haute résolution, efectuée sur ces matériaux archéologiques permet
de proposer une signature de type « Roşia Montană ». La
traçabilité des métaux précieux va être ainée à échelle
régionale. La présente étude marque le point de départ de
l’établissement d’une banque de données sur des matériaux
archéologiques géo- et chrono- référencés. Cette étude est le
fruit d’une démarche interdisciplinaire que nous souhaitons
rendre systématique.
Minéralogie et signature isotopique du plomb des minerais auro-argentifères exploités durant l’époque romaine…
Remerciements
Nous tenons à remercier la compagnie minière Roşia Montana
Gold Corporation (RMGC) pour le soutien inancier apporté
non seulement aux études de terrain (exploration, fouilles
archéologiques et géologie des travaux romains), mais aussi
aux analyses minéralogiques et isotopiques. Le second auteur a
bénéicié d’une bourse postdoctorale pour l’étude géochimique
et isotopique. Les analyses MEB, microsondes électroniques et
isotopiques ont été efectuées au Laboratoire des Mécanismes
de Transferts en Géologie (LMTG-CNRS), Université Paul
Sabatier, Toulouse, France.
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he earliest gold objects in Italy:
a review of the archaeological evidence
Les plus anciens objets d’or découverts en Italie : bilan des données archéologiques
Giovanna Bergonzi*
Abstract: his paper aims to provide updated information on prehistoric gold from Italy, originating from pre-Iron Age contexts. he evidence
dating from the beginning of the Metal Age is scanty indeed: to date, only 4 objects appear to be from an earlier period than the Middle Bronze
Age. More gold inds were discovered from the MBA onwards, in part from funerary contexts, representing property or funerary gifts pertaining
to individuals of both sexes who attained a high status within the community.
Résumé : Le but de ce travail est de fournir des informations mises à jour sur les objets d’or préhistoriques découverts en Italie et datant des périodes
précédent l’Âge du Fer. Les objets datant du début de l’Âge des Métaux sont très peu nombreux : jusqu’à présent seulement quatre objets semblent dater
d’avant l’Âge du Bronze moyen. A partir de cette période, les objets d’or, parfois trouvés en contexte funéraire sous forme de parure ou d’ofrande, deviennent
plus nombreux. Ces parures ou ofrandes accompagnent seulement quelques individus, hommes ou femmes, dont le niveau social était élevé.
Keywords: Italy, prehistoric, gold.
Mots-clés : Italie, préhistorique, or.
1. INTRODUCTION
Gold is scarce in prehistoric contexts from Italy: objects
are very few, and the quantity of metal very small. hat is
very likely one of the reasons why Italy was not included in
the SAM gold project (Hartmann, 1970; 1982), while it
had been included in a previous project concerning copper
/ bronze inds (Junghans et al., 1960; 1968). A review of
the earliest gold inds from central Italy was published at
the time by an archaeologist (von Hase, 1975). Later on,
Bronze Age gold objects were neither included in projects on
Bronze Age metalwork (Artioli et al., 2005), nor in studies
concerning ancient gold from Italy, which were focused on
later and more attractive inds (e.g. Cristofani and Martelli,
1983).
In 1995, M. Primas put on a map of Europe the gold and
silver objects dated earlier than 2600 BC and observed that,
while in some areas silver was more ancient, in others it was
gold (Primas, 1995; 1996). In Italy, silver metallurgy is the
more ancient one: until today, several ancient small silver
inds were identiied on the coasts of the Tyrrhenian Sea and
in Sardinia (Bergonzi forthcoming), while early gold objects
are very limited in number and dating to a later period, very
likely not earlier than the second half of the third or the
beginning of the second millennium BC.
-
rec. Oct. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 91-97
Giovanna BERGONZI
92
his review article aims to provide a synthetic but comprehensive description of the prehistoric gold inds and of
the archaeological contexts they originate from, as well as to
investigate how they changed over time.
2. METHODS
In order to understand the role played by gold objects for
Bronze Age society, the various types of objects are briely
discussed and archaeological contexts are taken into consideration as well. hese data and the geographical provenance
are sketchily summarised in Figures 1-3.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
During the period between the Copper Age (hereafter CA)
and the Early Bronze Age (hereafter EBA), approximately
3500-1700 BC, gold inds are scanty indeed (List 1, Fig. 1).
In Sardinia, a small electrum torc with open ends was discovered in a CA/EBA megalithic grave at Bingia ‘e Monti,
Gonnostramatza, containing multiple burials and, among
other grave goods, also several bell beakers (List 1, n. 3). In
Northern Italy, two small gold wire spiral rings were found in
an EBA fossa grave cemetery near Verona, at Gazzo Veronese,
under the skulls of two skeletons; they were also part of a
headdress (List 1, n. 2). he fossa tombs appear to contain
either poor or no grave goods at all, but might have also been
looted, a frequent practice in contemporary Austrian cemeteries where similar gold inds were common (NeugebauerMaresch and Neugebauer, 1988/89). In the lake dwellings
at Lavagnone a curved gold wire, 3 cm long, with one end
found broken, was identiied in a late EBA stratigraphic unit;
it “might have been part of a double spiral pendant” (List 1,
n. 1). In the south of Italy, a tiny blue glass bead with gold
foil from a settlement at Mursia on Pantelleria Island probably belongs to the irst half of the second millennium BC
Figure 1: Gold inds before the Middle Bronze Age. Full symbols: objects from tombs.
Figure 1 : Trouvailles datant d’avant l’Âge du Bronze moyen. Symboles pleins : objets provenant de tombes.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 91-97
he earliest gold objects in Italy: a review of the archaeological evidence
(List 1, n. 4). hese small objects – a torc, two hair spirals,
a possible pendant, one bead – are adornments mostly worn
on the head or around the neck by high status individuals,
and might have been imports; they do not appear to be in
the vicinity of mineral deposits (e.g. Piana Agostinetti et al.,
1995; Lehrberger, 1995).
During the time span between the Middle Bronze Age
(hereafter MBA) and the early phase of the Late Bronze Age
(hereafter LBA), approximately 1700-1200 BC, the indings
of gold objects increase in number (List 2, Fig. 2). Such
objects are found mainly in two areas, northern Italy, in and
around the Po plain, where gold objects originate primarily
from settlements, and eastern Sicily, where gold inds came
to light in chamber tomb cemeteries and are in part regarded
as likely imports from the Aegean, while those in northern
Italy might come from the north, possibly from the Alps.
he most frequent gold objects are rings, and spiral rings are
especially common in the Italian peninsula; the largest spiral
93
rings (List 2, n. 4) are regarded as a pair of arm rings. Quite
a few of these artefacts are inger rings, like those from Sicily,
plain bands, or rings with a middle expansion imitating a
signet ring. In Sicily, gold foil pendants and beads, which
may have been imports, were discovered, as well as local
daggers with a small gold rivet in the hilt. All these objects
were very likely worn by individuals who belonged to the
dominating elite, not only on the head or around the neck,
but also on the hands (inger rings), or on symbols of power,
like the daggers (rivets).
Quite diferent was the function of the gold foil discs,
which were not pendants but had to be aixed on a support. hey very likely were solar symbols used in ceremonies,
possibly religious ones, and they were compared to the well
known Trundholm chariot (e.g. Bettelli, 1997).
During the late phase of the Late Bronze Age (the socalled ‘Bronzo inale’ or Final Bronze Age), approximately
1200-950 BC, while there were still several inds in north-
Figure 2: Gold inds from the Middle Bronze Age and early phase of Late Bronze Age. Full symbols: objects from tombs.
Figure 2 : Trouvailles datant de l’Âge du Bronze moyen et de la première phase de l’Age du Bronze inal. Symboles pleins : objets provenant de
tombes.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 91-97
Giovanna BERGONZI
94
ern Italy and in eastern Sicily, by this time gold objects had
become more widespread: such artefacts were also found in
central and southern Italy, and in Sardinia (List 3. Fig. 3).
Most of them were found in tombs rather than settlements.
To a great extent, they still represent the same typologies:
rings and spiral rings are the most frequent ones, followed
by gold rivets in the hilts of swords or daggers, and gold foil
objects, among which the repoussé decorated gold foil discs
are the most remarkable.
During this time span, the link with the dominating elite
appears to be especially evident. Tiny quantities of gold
could be worn both by males, such as the warrior from the
Frattesina Le Narde tomb 227 (List 3, n. 4A), who, alone
among over 500 burials, had a gold ring, gold rivets in the
sword hilt and buttons with gold inlays, and by females,
such as the lady from the Morano tomb 12 (List 3, n. 1),
who, among several other objects, had a tiny open ended
gold ring, which according to the excavators might have
been an earring.
Several gold objects were found in two extraordinary
settlements on the Adriatic coast, which were very likely
‘emporia’: Frattesina (List 3, n. 4) in the north and Roca
Vecchia (List 3, n. 8) in the south. In Frattesina, in addition
to the already mentioned objects from the Le Narde tomb
227, a gold foil disc and several gold foil fragments were
found in the settlement area. Yet more spectacular are the
inds from Roca Vecchia: at least four gold foil discs, forming at least two pairs, three spiral rings, and one gold foil
bead were found on the loor and in a small hole under the
loor of a large building (approximately 40 x 15 m), which
the excavators interpreted as a ‘hut- temple’.
In any case, when considered in its entirety, this most
spectacular of all Italian inds weighed little more than 46 g.
Metal quantities are also very small: the CA/EBA Sardinian
torc (List 1, n. 3) weights less than 12 g; an MBA spiral ring
from Fiavè (List 2, n. 3) only 1 g. Nevertheless, the symbolic
value of gold is evident: it is linked to high status individuals, but also, during the LBA, to ceremonies, possibly reli-
Figure 3: Gold inds from the late phase of Late Bronze Age. Full symbols: objects from tombs.
Figure 3 : Trouvailles datant de la in de l’Âge du Bronze inal. Symboles pleins : objets provenant de tombes.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 91-97
he earliest gold objects in Italy: a review of the archaeological evidence
95
gious ones, and to ‘emporia’ which had intensive exchanges
with the Aegean area, such as Frattesina and Roca Vecchia.
13B) Orsi, 1912: tab. VI, 23; Peroni, 1956: ig. 9, 142 S.O.
14) Orsi, 1912: col. 373, tab. XVII, 1.
4. REFERENCES FOR FIGURES 1-3
Acknowledgements
List 1, Figure 1: LCA – EBA: 1) de Marinis, 2000: 116,
tav. XIX, b. 2) Salzani, 1998/1999: igs. 3; 4; 7, 6; 8, 1.
3) Atzeni E. 1998: 258, igs. 8, 3; p. 314, n. 143, ig. 31;
Atzeni C. et al., 2003: 103-104. 4) Giardino and Merkouri,
2008: 118.
his contribution is part of a long standing project with several participants coordinated by P. Piana Agostinetti (Piana
Agostinetti et al., 1995); to her I owe many stimulating discussions and many thanks. We are grateful to R. Peroni, who
brought to our attention a still unpublished spiral (List 3, n. 6).
Many thanks to G. Montali for his unfailing friendly help with
the illustrations.
List 2, Figure 2: MBA to early LBA: 1) Bertone et al.
2004: 67, ig. 37. 2) Perini, 1987: 36, ig. 15b. 3) Perini,
1987: 36, ig. 15a. 4) Caldiero, Rocca di Caldiero (Verona):
Aspes and Salzani, 1997: 538, ig. 1; 540; 552, nr. 28-29.
5) Guerreschi et al., 1985: 87, tab. XXIII. 6) Peschiera: A
violin bow bronze ibula plated with gold foil: von Hase
1975: 101, n. 57, ig. 4. 7) Aspes, 1987. 8) Mutti et al.,
1988: 161. 9) Bermond Montanari, 1990: 72; Bettelli,
1997: 733, ig. 732a, b. 10) Peroni, 1963; Bietti Sestieri,
1973; Bettelli, 1997: 734-735. 11).Giardino, 1998: 160,
ig. 6; Marazzi, 1999, 420, ig. 7. 12) Voza, 1973; Voza,
1997: 174. 13A) Orsi, 1899: coll. 46-47, tab. VII, 17;
Peroni, 1956: ig. 3; Procelli et al., 2004: igs. 2, 7. 13B)
Orsi, 1899: coll. 55-56, tab. VIII, 9. 13. 16; Peroni, 1956:
ig. 6; Procelli et al., 2004: ig. 2, 2-6. 14) Orsi, 1904: 86,
ig. 42. Two more inger rings lack precise dating: Orsi,
1904: 73, ig. 9; 77, ig. 22. 15A) Panvini, 1997: 501,
ig. 20. 15B) Panvini and Pappalardo, 2005. Other rings
might go back to the early LBA: Ribera (Agrigento), contrada Anguilla, tholos tomb 6, two inger rings (Panvini
Di Stefano, 1986: 114); Milena (Caltanissetta), Monte
Campanella, a wire ring and a band ring (Militello,
1992: 17).
List 3, Figure 3: LBA, late phase. 1) Venturino Gambari
and Luzzi, 1999: 122, n. 28, igs. 103, 21. 2) Salzani, 1978:
119. 3) Bianchin Citton, 2003: 28, ig. 4. 4A) Salzani, 1990:
16, igs. 16, 3, 5; 4, 6, 7, 9. 4B) Salzani, 2003: 44, ig.
4, A and B. 5) Bettelli, 1997: 734, ig. 432, a and b. 6)
Allumiere (Roma). A spiral wire from a burial urn (excavations by R. Peroni). 7) Müller-Karpe 1959: 103, tab. 12, 7;
Gierow, 1966: 360-361. 8) Ugas, 1993: 30, ig. a, 25. 9) Lo
Schiavo and Usai, 1995: 174, ig. 19, 2-4; Lo Schiavo et al.,
2004. 10) Bozzini et al., 2003; Guglielmino, 2003; Pagliara,
2003; Butalag et al., 2004; Pagliara and Guglielmino, 2005).
11) Pacciarelli, 2001: 192 ss., igs. 111, B and 114, 1 12)
Bernabò Brea and Cavalier, 1960: 117-119, tav. XLI, 3).
13A) Orsi, 1899: tab. VIII, 15; Peroni, 1956: ig. 9, 62.
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ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 91-97
Gold in early Southeast Asia
L’or dans le Sud-Est asiatique ancien
Anna T. N. Bennett *
Abstract: Gold is fairly widely, though irregularly, distributed throughout Southeast Asia in igneous and metamorphic hard rock deposits and
in sedimentary placer deposits. he region was known to the Indian merchants of the 1st millennium BPE as Suvarnabhumi: ‘Land of Gold’,
which is thought to refer to the mainland, including lower Burma and the hai Malay Peninsula, and Suvarnadvipa: ‘Islands of Gold’, which
may correspond to the Indonesian Archipelago, including Sumatra. he historical sources inform us that the Chinese were clearly impressed by
the quantities of gold present, and there is evidence to suggest that the gold deposits were one of the stimulating factors in the development of
early contacts with India and China. Gold irst appears in the archaeological record in 400 BPE, at about the same time as iron, semiprecious
stone polishing and glass working, suggesting that the techniques of gold extraction and working were quite plausibly introduced to Southeast
Asia via Indian and/or Chinese merchants seeking gold ores.
Résumé : L’or est d’une façon irrégulière plutôt abondant dans le sud-est de l’Asie, grâce à la présence de gisements de roches métamorphiques et ignées et
à des placers de nature sédimentaire. La région était désignée par les marchants Indiens du Ier millénaire comme Suvarnabhumi : ‘Terre de l’Or’, ce qui
doit correspondre à la partie continentale, comprenant la Birmanie et la Péninsule de hai Malay, et comme Suvarnadvipa : ‘Îles de l’Or’, ce qui peut
correspondre à l’Archipel Indonésien, comprenant Sumatra. Les sources historiques nous renseignent que les Chinois ont été clairement impressionnés par
les quantités d’or de ces régions, et des évidences suggèrent que les gisements d’or étaient un des facteurs stimulant les premiers contacts entre l’Inde et la
Chine. L’or apparaît pour la première fois cité dans les sources archéologiques en 400 BPE, sensiblement en même temps que le fer, le polissage de pierres
semi-précieuses et le travail du verre, ce qui suggère que les techniques d’extraction et de travail de l’or ont été vraisemblablement introduites dans le sudest de l’Asie par des marchants Indiens et/ou Chinois à la recherche de minerais d’or.
Keywords: Gold, Southeast Asia, Historical sources, Archaeological evidence, Maritime trade, 1st millennium B.P.E.
Mots-clés : or, Asie du sud-est, sources historiques, évidence archéologique, commerce maritime, Ier millénaire BPE.
1. DISTRIBUTION OF GOLD ORES
IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
he words ‘gold’ and ‘golden’ are often associated with
place names throughout the Southeast Asian region –
Ptolemy’s Geography refers to the ‘Golden Khersonese’, and
an early name for hailand is Laem hong, which translates
as ‘golden peninsula’.
Gold is fairly widely, though irregularly, distributed
throughout Southeast Asia in igneous and metamorphic
hard rock deposits and in sedimentary placer deposits. Luzon
and Mindanao in the Philippines, the Barisan mountain
range in west Sumatra, western Borneo, Timor, parts of the
Malaysian and hai Peninsula, northern Burma, north and
central Vietnam, Laos, northwest Cambodia in the Oddar
Meanchey province, near Banteay Chhmar, its north-central
area, in the Preah Vihear province in Rovieng district, and
in the northeast in Rattanakiri province have all acquired
a reputation as gold producers at one time or another, and
the majority of these still produce small amounts of placer
* www.analyzeart.com – 36, rue Paul-Émile Janson, 1050 Brussels, Belgium. (atnbennett@analyzeart.com)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 99-107
100
gold (Bronson, 1992: 83; Miksic 1990: 12-13; 2003: 19;
Reinecke et al., 2002: 222; 2009a: 113-114; Workman,
1972) (Fig. 1).
here is some evidence of ancient gold mining in Southeast
Asia – ancient shafts have been reported in Central Vietnam
at Kham Duc (pers. comm. local villagers), an area which is
linked by the river to the protohistoric sites of Go Ma Voi,
and at Go Mun, 65 km southwest (Nguyen Kim Dung et
al., 1995; Nguyen Kim Dung, 2001). In addition, Classical
gold coins are reported to have been found near the mines of
the Rejang area, Bengkulu, in southwest Sumatra (Miksik,
1999: 17). Most recently, Iron Age bronzes were found in
a mine shaft in Laos, at the Sepon gold and copper mine,
known as the ‘Dragon Field’ (hong Na Nguak) on the 11th
of April 2009 (UCR, 2009). he mine shafts were reported
to be extremely well preserved, having been waterlogged and
unexposed since the time they were abandoned.
Most of the gold in the prehistoric and early historic
periods would, however, undoubtedly have been extracted
by panning alluvial sediments, a technique requiring little
capital investment in equipment and no specialist technology, but unfortunately leaving no discernable archaeological
signature. Many of the secondary deposits, which are today
regarded as containing too little gold to be worked commercially, would have been quite successfully panned in the
past. Today, the economic viability of gold panning will in
part be determined by the price of gold on the international
market 1. When gold prices are at their highest, it becomes
more economically viable to pan the streams – the villagers
sell their gold to middlemen who themselves sell on to merchants, and the number of transactions through which the
gold may pass before inding its way to a town jeweller may
be considerable (Fig. 2).
Anna T. N. BENNETT
Figure 1: Map showing the gold producing regions of Southeast
Asia.
Figure 1 : Carte avec localisation des régions productrices d’or du
Sud-est de l’Asie.
2. TEXTUAL EVIDENCE
Historical sources inform us that the Chinese were clearly
impressed by the quantities of gold available in Southeast
Asia, and one of the earliest recorded descriptions of the preAngkor Funan Kingdom is that of the Chinese emissaries
who visited it during the Jin Dynasty (265-419 PE). hey
referred to the Funan Kingdom as having already expanded
its sphere of inluence to encompass parts of the Malay
Peninsula, and as having a tax on gold, suggesting that the
metal was readily available, if not locally produced. “here
are many walled towns, palaces and houses… hey mostly
1. In 2008/2009 there has been some revival of gold mining in hailand,
and one or two old locations are being reinvestigated (Bangkok Post).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 99-107
Figure 2: Myanmar jeweller producing gold beads which stylistically replicate ancient ones.
Figure 2 : Orfèvre à Myanmar fabricant des perles en or stylistiquement identiques aux anciennes.
Gold in early Southeast Asia
take their food on silver utensils. he taxes are paid in gold,
silver, pearls and perfumes” (Dube, 2003: 17). Another early
Chinese text, known as “he History of Southern Ch’i”,
which was written in the ifth century, described the inhabitants of Funan as having gold, silver and silk: “he inhabitants of Funan make rings and bracelets of gold and plates
of silver” (Cœdès, 1968: 58).
It seems quite probable that the gold ores available in
Southeast Asia were not only partly responsible for the
early trade with China, but that they were one of the stimulating factors in developing early contacts with India.
he Ramayana mentions Sugriva sending his envoys to
Hiranyanabha Mountain to the east, i.e. in the direction
of Southeast Asia, which was known to be rich in gold,
in search of Rama’s wife Sita. Sanskrit synonyms for gold,
such as Hiranya, Kanaka, Hema and Suvarna, have been
used to name rivers and mountains containing either alluvial or vein deposits of gold, and the region was known
to the Indian merchants of the Mauryan Empire (321-185
BPE) as Suvarnabhumi: ‘Land of Gold’, which is thought
to refer to the mainland, including lower Burma and the
hai Malay Peninsula, and Suvarnadvipa: ‘Islands of Gold’,
which may correspond to the Indonesian Archipelago,
including Sumatra.
A ifth century Sanskrit text narrates the story of merchants who travelled to Suvarnabhumi by sea. Having
crossed the ‘unfathomable’ sea, they arrived at a coast,
and embarked on a long voyage on foot, past the forested foothills of high mountains, which they then crossed,
inally reaching a forest and a shallow river rich in gold sands
(Dube, 2003). An eighth century Indian text known as the
Samaraiccakaha describes a sea voyage to Suvarnadvipa and
the making of bricks from the gold rich sands which they
inscribed with the name dharana and then baked (Dube,
2003: 6). he sintering of such gold rich sands, by mixing
the sand with water, which were shaped into bricks and then
baked, would have ofered the early gold explorers a relatively easy method of transporting the raw material, which
could then be carefully separated from its sand matrix in the
more suitable environment back in their homeland, where
the workforce would be plentiful. he scale of the sea trade
in this early historic period is illustrated by the tenth century
text Kathakosa (932 PE), which mentions a voyage with ive
hundred ships (Dube, 2003, referring to Majumdar, 1936).
A further indication of the importance of this trade is related
to Indian coinage of this period, which is stamped with the
picture of ships (Ray, 1994: Pl 12).
he interpretation of early travel writings is not, however,
always easy. he Javanese embassies to China in 860 and 873
PE refer to Java as rich in gold, although it was in fact devoid
101
of any deposits, and would have had to import its gold
possibly from neighbouring Malaya, Sumatra or Borneo,
where gold was still being mined in the 19th century and
where ancient mining sites are reputed to have been located
(Colless, 1975; Miksic, 1999: 19; Manning et al., 1980).
In the 14th century, the Sumatran ruler Adityavarman, who
had an honoriic title of Kanakamedinindra, meaning ‘Gold
Land Lord’, is thought to have moved his capital to west
Sumatra, notwithstanding the inhospitable coast, because
of the rich gold deposits in the Minangkabau highlands
(Miksic, 2004).
Even though Java did not have its own gold deposits, the
texts make frequent references to the existence of goldsmiths,
and it is clear from the archaeological evidence that this
culture had developed a sophisticated gold working technology, which relied on the importing of substantial quantities
of metal (Wahyono Martowikrido, 1994; 1999). A gold and
silver currency had been in place since the tenth century, and
although copper coins imported from China during the Late
Classical Majapahit period in the early 14th century replaced
it, this replacement seems to have been more for the convenience of small denominations than because of a shortage
in the supply of gold. In 1225 PE, the Chinese writer Zhao
Rukuo referred to the Majapahit’s commander in chief and
his 30,000 soldiers being paid in gold (Miksic, 1999; 2004).
Elaborate descriptions of the complex jewellery representing
gods, goddesses, kings, queens, warriors and priests were
used in the Javanese literary texts and inscriptions to provide
to the reader precise information pertaining to the status of
the characters concerned (Hinzler, 1999).
3. GOLD COMPOSITION
here is some evidence that the early explorers were aware
of the diferences in compositions of gold. An 11th century
Indian text refers to the gold coming from Survarnadvipa as
being of diferent types: of yellow gold colour and white shell
colour, which is presumed to refer to the amounts of silver
or copper contained in the alloy. An 11th century Sanskrit
inscription of the Cham king Rudravarman III at Po-Nagar
temple mentions a donation by the king of seven panas of
red coloured gold (rakta kaladhautam) and twenty-three kattikas and two panas of gold of superior white gold (sitatara
kaladhautam). Majumdar (1986: 158-159) translated rakta
kaladhautam as gold and sitatara kaladhautam as silver, but
Dube (2003) has re-evaluated the texts and reached a more
convincing explanation, of rakta kaladhautam being used for
red gold and sitatara kaladhautam for white gold.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 99-107
Anna T. N. BENNETT
102
he goldsmith themselves would probably only rarely, if
ever, have been able to acquire suicient capital to control
their own stocks of metal and would generally have obtained their gold from the wealthy individual or institution
who was commissioning the desired article. heir sources
of raw material would have included recycled, damaged, or
no longer sought after goods, which may have contained
other baser metals, such as copper. It is unclear to what
extent the goldsmiths undertook the relatively straightforward process of cupellation, which involves the addition
of lead to a crucible of molten gold, which is then oxidised
using a blast of cold air. he base metal oxides are absorbed
into the lead oxide, leaving the gold with only silver remaining. Certainly touchstones, such as the ones found at Kota
Cina in northeast Sumatra (Swan and Scott, 1986), and
the one at Khuan Lukpat, Krabbi Province, in Peninsular
hailand, which is dated to the 3rd century AD and has a
Tamil inscription, Perumpadan Kal, identifying it as the property of Perumpadan (Srisuchat, 1996: 250), were part of
the goldsmiths’ tool set. An old Javanese text compares the
methods used to test the quality of human beings with those
employed to test the purity of gold (Hinzler, 1999: 27),
and an 11th century inscription provides details of the four
ways in which gold may be tested: by using a touchstone,
by hammering, cutting, and by melting.
he earliest reference to the use of cementation to remove
silver from the gold is contained in an Indian text known
as he Kautiliya Arthasastra, which is believed to have been
written by the chief minister of the Mauryean Emperor
Chandragupta, who ruled northern India in the fourth
century BC (Kangle, 1960). Gold dust or thin hammered
sheets were placed in baths of acidic salts, which attacked
the silver, forming a silver chloride vapour and leaving a
puriied gold metal.
Ornamental gold of the best kind, possessed of excellent
colour, passed through an equal amount of lead, turned into
leaves by heating made bright with Indus-earth, becomes the
base of blue, yellow, white, green and parrot-feather colours
(Kangle, 1960: 2.13.47).
he cupellation with lead would have removed any base
metal oxides, and the Indus earth, thought to be a saline soil
rich in salt, nitre and ammonium salts which is collected
from the Indian river valleys and used for the patination of
zinc rich Bidri ware, would have removed the silver.
For Southeast Asia, there is little analytical data concerning the chemical characterisation of the alloys used. he
largest group of analyses is that of the Hunter hompson
Collection of Javanese gold (Miksic, 1990), conducted by
Riederer (1994). Although the material in question did not
have a certain provenance, Riederer did detect a trend which
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 99-107
seemed to suggest that the earlier items in the collection
contained a higher ratio of silver to gold. Two scientiic
studies carried out on the gold inds from Kota Cina in
northeast Sumatra, looking at the composition of inished
gold sheet and attempting to locate the source of this gold,
supported the view that the gold had been retrieved locally
(Manning et al., 1980; Swan and Scott, 1986). Provenance
studies have suggested that in the 12th century Western
Borneo was producing gold which was being transported
to the Malay Peninsula (Treloar, 1977). Gold panned from
the Sarawak rivers in Borneo has been found to contain
traces of antimony with platinum and arsenic (Treloar and
Fabris, 1975), gold from Sulawesi may be characterised by
the presence of nickel as the only impurity, while gold from
Sumatra contains tin, lead and mercury (Stambolov, 1999).
However, the chances of successfully matching an object to
its source of raw material decreases with the degree of processing and recycling to which the object has been submitted
during its manufacture. Also, because gold is never thrown
away but has usually been recycled and traded, impurity
patterns will generally be far from clear.
4. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Given the amount of gold available in Southeast Asia,
remarkably little archaeological evidence has been found in
the late prehistoric sites, and presently none can be dated to
a period before 400 BPE.
Much of the gold retrieved from archaeological sites has
not been adequately recorded but, because of its metal value,
has been melted or in some cases sold into the art market. Gold beads from the Lopburi Artillery site in Central
hailand were reportedly found in a pre-Dvaravati context
(Bennett 1988a: 37; 1988b); hammered sheet gold inds
are said to originate from a site near Battambang, west of
Angkor. In 1999, Iron Age gold items, which are said to
have included a bronze helmet inlaid with gold and gold
jewellery, were plundered from the cemetery site of Phum
Snay, north of the Tonle Sap in Cambodia 2, where about
50 inhumations were discovered and dated from about 100
BPE to 500 PE (O’Reilly and Pheng Sytha, 2001: 265266; Higham, 2002: 214; Stark, 2004: 96). he analysis of
two gold earrings from Phum Snay showed that they had a
composition of 70% gold and 30% silver and were possibly
2. he site, which is in the Preah Net Preah district of Banteay Mean
Chey Province, Cambodia, was excavated in 2001 by O’Reilly and Pheng
Sytha (2001), and, although they found no gold, they conirmed it as a
rich Iron Age cemetery with military paraphernalia.
Gold in early Southeast Asia
manufactured from an alluvial electrum (Hieda et al., 2008:
141; Reinecke et al., 2009b).
Notwithstanding the objects that may have been lost to
looters, the gold inds, together with other highly prized
materials recovered from Iron Age sites, suggest that during
this period gold was being used as a mark of social rank.
At the large Iron Age cemetery site of Noen U-Loke in the
Mun Valley, Northeastern hailand, dated to the 3rd-4th centuries PE, a woman wore a necklace of agate and hollow
square-shaped gold beads, together with bronze bangles and
bronze and silver inger and toe rings; a man who wore silver
ear coils covered in gold leaf was buried with three bronze
belts, seventy ive bronze bangles on each arm, numerous
bronze inger and toe rings, and glass bead necklaces and
anklets (Chang, 2001; Higham and hosarat, 1998: 151158; Higham, 2004: 63).
Earlier protohistoric sites have produced very little gold
and, when found, it is usually in the form of a bead or two.
Some of the earliest gold was found at the coastal sites of
Giong Phet and Giong Ca Vo, in Southern Vietnam, which
are dated to the 3rd-2nd century BPE, and which are claimed
to be the earliest documented glass manufacturing sites in
Vietnam, if not in the whole of Southeast Asia (Nguyen
Kim Dung et al., 1995; Nguyen Kim Dung, 2001: 109).
At the only slightly later sites of Go Ma Voi and Go Mun 3,
on the banks of Ba Ren river, a branch of the hu Bon, near
Hoi An in Quang Nam province, central Vietnam, Reinecke
excavated two gold beads at Go Ma Voi, and recorded beads
from the burial ground of Go Mun which were located in
the local village collections, together with agate, nephrite
and quartz beads, lingling-o earrings, and a bimetallic axe
(Reinecke and Lê Duy Son, 2000; Reinecke et al., 2002:
23 and 176). he gold content of the looted bead from Go
Mun was 94%, with 5% silver, suggesting that it was made
of natural placer gold (Reinecke and Lê Duy Son, 2000).
Not until the recent excavations at the protohistoric cemetery of Prohear, about 65 km east of Phnom Penh and 40 km
west of the Vietnamese border, dated to a period between
the 2nd century BPE and the 1st century PE (Reinecke et al.,
2009b), did a signiicant corpus of early gold material which
could be analysed exist. In 2007, the site was extensively
looted by the villagers, who within a few months had dug
up almost the entire cemetery and sold the artefacts, which
included gold items and many Dongson bronze drums, on
the art market and for scrap metal 4 (Reinecke et al., 2009b).
3. hese are the sites which are linked by river to Kham Duc, 65 km
northeast, an area where gold mining is still undertaken today and where
evidence of ancient shafts have been reported (villagers, pers. comm.).
4. he villagers of Prohear sold the iron oferings they found in the burials
for 900 Riels (0.2 US $) per kilo to the scrap yard (Reinecke et al., 2009b).
103
Archaeologists were able to photographically document or
see photographs of more than ifteen gold or silver objects
originating from looted burials, and which had already been
or were yet to be sold.
In the last two years, a scientiic excavation along the
main village street at Prohear has produced seventy nine
gold or silver objects in 52 burials, and has revealed the full
extent of the richness of this protohistoric site (Reinecke
et al., 2009b). Out of the seventy nine gold and/or silver
objects that were excavated, thirty fragments, mostly of
small wire spiral rings, were analysed using LA-ICP-MS
(Laser Ablation – Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass
Spectrometry) (Schlosser, 2009). he resulting data has
indicated that slightly less than half of the objects analysed contained more silver than gold, and suggests that
the inhabitants of Prohear were using both a native panned
electrum and were also producing intentional alloys. he
natural electrum samples contained between 35-44% silver
and less than 0.2% copper, while the intentional alloys
showed a similar low copper content, but a higher silver
content, between 56 and 68%. Platinoid inclusions were
present in greater concentration in the intentional alloys
with a higher gold content and lower silver content, since
the concentration of the platinoids originally contained
within the alluvial gold is diluted by the intentional addition of silver.
he fact that the early inhabitants of the region were engaged in trade as well as manufacture is clearly demonstrated
by the inds from Oc Eo, in the Mekong Delta in Southern
Vietnam (Malleret, 1959-1963; Vo Si Khai, 2003). Oc Eo is
not only one of the earliest commercial centres in Southeast
Asia engaged in the trade of a wide range of specialised
goods, such as horses and elephants from India, but it is
also the earliest excavated site to produce evidence of a gold
workshop. Hammers, awls, bivalve casting moulds, droplets of gold, fragments of copper, gold sheet, and partially
inished repoussé gold plaques were recovered by Mallaret in
1944. his was accompanied by signiicant amounts of gold
jewellery, including rings, some surmounted by images of
Nandi, the sacred bull, linked chains, inscribed gold sheets,
gold plaques decorated with repoussé images of Hindu deities, and over nine hundred gold beads with various shapes
(Higham, 2002: 233; Le Xuan Diem et al., 1995: 338-365;
Malleret, 1962: 41; Manguin, 2004; Miksic, 2003: 18-19).
he analysis of a 7 gram gold ingot showed that it contained 19% silver and 5% copper, suggesting that intentional
alloying took place prior to the manufacture of the object,
and perhaps also suggesting that the gold was traded as an
intentional alloy (Malleret, 1962: 460). he only other analysis from Oc Eo was that of a fragment of gold wire, which
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 99-107
104
had a diferent composition, containing only 5% silver and
1% copper.
Another site located in the vicinity, the cemetery of Go
hap, excavated in 2001, produced some of the earliest
known Hindu iconographic images in Southeast Asia,
including three hundred and twenty two gold plaques with
simple incised decorations, depicting turtles representing
Vishnu and his mount, the eagle Garuda, water bufaloes,
elephants, snakes, conch shells, the sun, plants, and houses
on stilts (Fig. 5). Deposited as an ofering together with ive
gold discs, three gold rings, a gold lower, eight precious
stones and seven pieces of glass, the site has been dated to a
period as early as the 2nd century PE, although Higham dates
the site to 400-600 PE (Higham, 2001: 31).
he large coastal and riverine settlements around Oc
Eo in the Mekong Delta (Malleret, 1959-1963; Vo Si
Khai, 2003), Giong Ca Vo (Nguyen Kim Dung, 2001) in
Southern Vietnam, the early river port of Khao Sam Kaeo in
eastern peninsular hailand (Bellina and Silapanth, 2006),
together with the Tabon caves in the Palawan Islands of the
Philippines represent the earliest sites yielding gold inds
in maritime Southeast Asia. Although the gold inds from
these sites have not all been excavated and are often chance
inds, recorded in local villagers’ collections, they share
many highly characteristic features which provide suicient
evidence to indicate that a trade network linking the areas
of the Southeast Asian mainland, the outer islands, the
Philippines and India was already in place by the 2nd half
of the irst millennium BPE. Central knobbed gold beads
excavated at Giong Ca Vo (Dang and Vu, 1997: 41, Plate
17), and which have also been recorded at other Sa-Huynh
related sites, strongly resemble surface inds from the peninsular site of Khao Sam Kaeo (Pryce et al., 2008: Fig. 14). A
gold ive-lobed rosette plate, a surface ind from Khao Sam
Kaeo, is similar to artefacts recovered by Fox from the Guri
and Tadyaw Caves of the Tabon complex in the Palawan
Islands, which Fox dates to the Early Metal Age (between
500 and 300 BPE) and the Developed Metal Age (100 BPE
to 300 PE), respectively (Fox, 1970). Several of the gold
ornaments recorded in private collections around Khao Sam
Kaeo, including the characteristic polyhedral gold beads
(Fig. 3), have also been found in local private collections
and bear strong stylistic similarities to inds recorded from
Oc Eo (Malleret, 1962: Plate XII), to beads from numerous
Pyu sites in Myanmar (Richter, 2000), and to others observed in private collections (Fig. 4) (Pryce et al., 2008: 310).
he present archaeological evidence indicates an emergent, complex, hierarchical society that was to some degree
already in place by the beginning of the Christian era, preceding the development of the early Indic states of the midArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 99-107
Anna T. N. BENNETT
Figure 3: (See colour plate) he polyhedral gold bead from Khao
Sam Kaeo, in eastern peninsular hailand, is stylistically identical
to those from Oc Eo in the Mekong Delta, and to numerous similar beads from Pyu sites in Burma.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) La perle d’or en forme de polyèdre de
Khao Sam Kaeo, Est de la haïlande péninsulaire, est stylistiquement
identique à la perle d’Oc Eo, delta du Mékong, et à beaucoup d’autres
perles provenant des sites de Pyu, Burma.
irst millennium PE and later. While much archaeological
work is still necessary to clarify the socio-economic conditions in the period between 500 BPE and 500 PE, there is
ample evidence that mainland Southeast Asian societies were
engaged in extensive and sophisticated commercial trading,
either directly or indirectly, with India, Central and Western
Asia, Insular Southeast Asia and China throughout the last
two and a half thousand years. he fact that gold appears
in the archaeological record in the second half of the irst
millennium BPE, at about the same time as iron, semiprecious stone polishing and glass working, suggests that the
Gold in early Southeast Asia
105
techniques of gold extraction and working were quite plausibly introduced to Southeast Asia via Indian or Chinese
merchants seeking the gold ores available in Southeast Asia.
It also seems quite plausible that the conquest of the Upper
hai-Malay Peninsula by the Funan Kingdom, which is
clearly mentioned in Chinese texts, may have been stimulated by a desire to control this area’s mineral resources.
his elaborate international trade network was not a
homogenous system, but was rather based on diferential
economies, which may nonetheless have eventually stimulated local gold panners to retrieve excess metal to be sold
in the context of a wider distribution. he rulers of the
large coastal and riverine settlements around Oc Eo in the
early Funan Kingdom are reported to have sent more than
twenty-ive missions to China between 226 and 649 PE,
bearing gold and other precious gifts.
Acknowledgements
Figure 4: (See colour plate) Gold beads worn by a woman at the
large Iron Age cemetery site of Noen U-Loke in the Mun Valley,
Northeastern hailand, dated to the 3rd-4th century PE.
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Perles en or portées par une femme
enterrée dans le cimetière de l’Age du Fer du site de Noen U-Loke,
vallée de Mun, nord-est de la haïlande, datées des IIIe-IVe siècles PE.
I am very grateful to Dr Bérénice Bellina-Pryce and Praon
Silapanth, the directors of the archaeological mission of Khao
Sam Kaeo in Eastern Peninsular hailand for allowing me
access to the material from the site, to Kim Dung Nguyen
for information concerning Giong Phet and Giong Ca Vo, in
Southern Vietnam, to U Win Muang for allowing free access to
his collection, and to Charles Higham for allowing me to use
the photograph from Noen-U-Locke. I am, as always, deeply
indebted to Ian Glover for his help, support and encouragement. Grateful acknowledgements are made to the following
for useful discussions and communications: Oliver Pryce, John
Guy, John Miksic. Maria Korkel has taken enormous care and
trouble in the prooing of this paper and I am most grateful
to her.
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SRISUCHAT, A. (ed.), 1996. Ancient Trades and Cultural Contacts in
Southeast Asia. Bangkok, he Oice of the National Culture
Commission.
STAMBOLOV, T., 1999. Gold Mines, ancient Indonesian ornaments
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early South East Asia. Amsterdam, Royal Tropical Institute,
Tropenmuseum, 23-26.
STARK, M., 2004. Pre-Angkorian Cambodia, in I.C. Glover, P.
Bellwood, Southeast Asia. From Prehistory to History. New York,
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SWAN, R. and SCOTT, D., 1986. Gold Work from Kota Cina: a technical study. Southeast Asian Archaeology. B.A.R. International
Series. Oxford, Archaeopress, 275-286.
TRELOAR, F.E., 1977. he composition of gold artefacts from
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WAHYONO M., 1994. he gold of Wonoboyo, in W.H. Kal (ed.),
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ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 99-107
S O:
ÉTUDES D’OBJETS : COMPÉTENCES
TECHNIQUES ET CHOIX DES ALLIAGES
Technological study of gold jewellery pieces
dating from the Middle Kingdom
to the New Kingdom in Egypt
Étude technologique de pièces d’orfèvrerie datées du Moyen Empire
au Nouvel Empire en Égypte
Lore G. Troalen*, Maria Filomena Guerra**,
Jim Tate* and Bill Manley***
Abstract: his paper presents a technological study of items of Egyptian jewellery from the collections of the National Museums Scotland:
a pendant from the 19th century BC; objects from the 16th century BC royal burial unearthed at Qurneh; two gold inger-rings dated to the
14th century BC; and a group of pendants from the 13th century BC. he objects were examined using optical microscopy, X-radiography and
Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). In addition, the elementary compositions of alloys and solder joints were investigated using air-path X-ray
luorescence (XRF), proton-induced X-ray analysis (micro-PIXE), and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDS). his preliminary study
provides information about the evolution of alloy composition and the use of alluvial gold, and illustrates the Ancient Egyptian goldsmiths’ skills
in working with wires, granulation and joining techniques.
Résumé : Cet article présente l’étude technologique de pièces égyptiennes d’orfèvrerie faisant partie de la collection des musées nationaux d’Écosse : un
pendentif daté du XIXe siècle av. J.-C., des pièces d’orfèvrerie provenant de la tombe royale de Qurneh datées du XVIe siècle av. J.-C., deux bagues datées du
XIVe siècle av. J.-C. ainsi qu’un groupe de pendentifs datés du XIIIe siècle av J.-C. Les objets ont été observés sous microscopie optique, par radiographie de
rayons-X et par microscopie électronique à balayage en mode électron secondaire (MEB-SE). En parallèle, la composition des alliages et des soudures a été
déterminée par luorescence des rayons-X (FX), par analyse par faisceaux d’ions (micro-PIXE) et par énergie dispersive de rayons-X (MEB-EDS). Cette
étude préliminaire donne des informations sur l’évolution des alliages ainsi que sur l’utilisation d’or alluvionnaire, et illustre les techniques utilisées par
les orfèvres de l’Egypte Ancienne, en particulier l’utilisation du iligrane, de la granulation et des techniques de soudure.
Keywords: Goldwork, Egypt joining, base-alloys, NMS.
Mots-clés : Orfèvrerie, Egypte, soudures, alliages, NMS.
* National Museums Scotland, Department of Conservation & Analytical Research – 242 West Granton Road, Edinburgh EH5 1JA. (l.troalen@nms.
ac.uk and j.tate@nms.ac.uk)
** Laboratoires du Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR171 CNRS – 14, quai François Mitterrand, 75001 Paris, France.
(maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr)
*** National Museums Scotland, Department of World Cultures, – Chambers Street, Edinburgh EH1 1JF. (b.manley@nms.ac.uk)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 111-119
Lore G. TROALEN et al.
112
1. INTRODUCTION
Numerous works on jewellery originating from Ancient
Egypt are conveniently cited in studies by Lucas (1929, reedited 1962), Ogden (1982; 2000) and Andrews (1990).
However, relatively little work is available combining elemental analysis with technological study; the principal
exceptions are Lucas (1962) and Schorsch (1995) on jewellery from the burial of Wah, and Lilyquist (2003) on jewellery from the burial of the foreign wives of hutmose III,
while others are cited by Schorsch (2001). As a result, little
is known about the alloys used in Ancient Egypt, or about
manufacturing techniques such as iligree and granulation.
In order to shed more light on this technology, we applied
a multi-disciplinary approach to the analysis of several
artefacts in the collections of National Museums Scotland
(NMS).
NMS holds about 6,000 objects from Ancient Egypt
and Sudan, including gold and electrum jewellery that has
hitherto not been the subject of signiicant scientiic study.
he collections cover all periods from the Predynastic to
the Roman Empire, and a good proportion of the artefacts
derive from reputable archaeological excavations carried
out during the 19th and 20th centuries. An example of
this is the intact royal burial from Qurneh, near hebes,
acquired by the former Royal Scottish Museum (a precursor of NMS) in 1909, and dated to the 16th century
BC. he Qurneh burial included the ornately decorated
coin and mummy of a young adult woman and the simpler coin and mummy of a child (Petrie, 1909), both
of whom had been buried with a range of grave goods,
including jewellery of gold, electrum, ivory and faience
(Eremin et al., 2000; Manley et al., 2002). In addition
to the gold necklace described elsewhere in this volume
(Tate et al., 2010), the woman was provided with: four
gold bracelets made from a D-section bar bent into a ring
and soldered (A.1909.527.16 + A-C); an electrum girdle
consisting of twenty-six scaraboid beads and twelve barrel
beads threaded on a double string (A.1909.527.17); and
two gold earrings consisting of four penannular hoops soldered together (A.1909.527.18 + A). he child’s mummy
wore a simpler gold necklace (A.1909.527.11), and two
loops, each consisting of three-and-a-half gold rings, which
are usually described as earrings (A.1909.527.43 +A).
To the purpose of carrying out an initial investigation
into the varieties of alloys and production techniques used
in Ancient Egypt, we studied the Qurneh jewellery along
with a small collection of other gold items spanning the
period between the 19th and the 13th centuries BC, containing: a ish-shaped pendant (A.1914.1081) from a tomb at
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 111-119
el-Harāgeh from the mid-19th century BC 1; two gold ingerrings with decorated bezels (A.1883.49.2 + A.1883.49.8)
from the Amarna royal tomb of the late 18th Dynasty (14th
century BC); 2 and sixteen ly-shaped pendants (A.1977.140
A-P), assumed, on stylistic grounds, to date from the 19th
Dynasty (13th century BC) 3.
2. METHODS
he objects were examined at NMS using a stereomicroscope (Olympus SZX12 x 7-90) equipped with a
digital camera (Olympus DP70) and CamScan Scanning
Electron Microscopy in Secondary Electron mode (SEI),
and their construction investigated using a 300kV Pantak
X-radiography system.
he elemental composition of the alloys was determined
using an Oxford Instruments ED 2000 air-path X-ray luorescence (XRF), with a Rhodium target X-ray tube collimated to a point of about 2 x 1.5 mm, coupled to a Si(Li)
detector using the Oxford Xpert Ease software. In addition,
proton-induced 3MeV X-ray analysis (micro-PIXE) was
carried out at the external beamline of the AGLAE accelerator at the Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des
Musées de France (Guerra and Calligaro, 2003; Dran et
al., 2004; Guerra, 2008). Energy Dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDS), using the Noran Vantage system and Vista
software, was used to characterise inclusions of platinumgroup elements (PGE) and investigate other compositional
information. All SEM-EDS measurements were performed
at the analytical working distance of 35.0 mm at 300 s measurement with a voltage of 20 kV or 25 kV.
Table 1 presents the compositional analysis of ternary
alloys of gold-silver-copper standards, showing the interinstrument compatibility. he compositions of the objects
can be found in Table 2, and are summarised in the ternary
diagram in Fig. 3. For the Qurneh jewellery, all compositional results are from PIXE analysis, except for the girdle,
which, like most of the jewellery, was analysed with XRF.
1. he pendant is 41 mm long by 19 mm high. It was excavated in
the burial of a ten years old girl in Cemetery A/Tomb 72. Fish-shaped
pendants, known as ńkhā, were usually worn by children or young women.
2. See Martin (1974, nos. 275 and 280). Dimensions: A.1883.49.2,
diameter of hoop 28 mm (internal 16 mm), bezel 12 mm by 13 mm.
A.1883.49.8, diameter of hoop 22 mm, bezel 13 mm by 9 mm.
3. he ly-pendants might have formed part of an oicial’s usekh-collar,
cf. an example in he Egyptian Museum, Cairo (CG 52677). he pendants are nearly identical and are 11 mm long by 7 mm high.
Technological study of gold jewellery pieces dating from the Middle Kingdom to the New Kingdom in Egypt
Standards NMS
Rolled gold
GCS5
GCS4
GCS7
Au %
Ag %
Cu %
heoretical Value
80.0
10.0
10,0
PIXE - 2 values
80.0
10.7
9,3
XRF - 5 values
standard deviation
79.4
10.6
10,0
0.3
0.3
0,1
SEM-EDS - 4 values
standard deviation
80.9
9.6
9,5
0.9
0.7
0,3
heoretical Value
80.0
17.1
2,9
PIXE - 2 values
79.4
17.9
2,7
XRF - 5 values
standard deviation
78.5
18.6
3,0
0.5
0.4
0,1
SEM-EDS - 3 values
standard deviation
79.2
17.9
2,9
1.1
1.4
0,4
heoretical Value
61.9
35.1
3.0
XRF - 8 values
standard deviation
61.4
35.6
3.0
0.7
0.8
0.1
heoretical Value
45.0
39.8
15.2
XRF - 6 values
standard deviation
44.5
40.0
15.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
Table 1: Compositional results (in wt%) of gold-silver-copper alloy
standards by PIXE, XRF and SEM-EDS.
Tableau 1 : Compositions (en %) des alliages étalons en or-argentcuivre par PIXE, FX et MEB-EDS.
3. RESULTS
All the jewellery showed indications of wear, particularly the Qurneh girdle and one of the Amarna inger-rings
(A.1883.49.2). For the girdle, we were able to observe loose
a
113
decoration, and deformations of the edges of the beads and
of holes in the wallet spacers where they sit against the beads
(Fig. 1a). Occasionally, some small barrel beads are trapped
within wallet beads (Fig. 1b). For the inger-ring, we observed that the granules on the bezel are lattened, except those
immediately beside the bezel hole, which remain perfectly
spherical (see Fig. 5).
Gold Alloys
We observed and analysed PGE inclusions, ranging from
a few to a few hundred microns in diameter, in all the jewellery items except the ly-pendants. PGE inclusions are characteristic for gold from alluvial deposits (Ogden, 1976),
and can be found in all the Qurneh objects. However, only
a single inclusion was found in the woman’s earrings, and
a single small inclusion was found in the tail of the ishpendant (Fig. 2a). By comparison, the Amarna inger-rings
contain numerous inclusions, which may indicate the use
of gold from other deposits. he inclusions show a range of
composition, with an average of 36% iridium, 42% osmium
and 22% ruthenium, corresponding well with compositions
reported by Meeks and Tite (1980) in their investigation of
Egyptian objects from the British Museum, and also with
the range otherwise expected for Egyptian deposits (Ahmed,
2007). We also observed variable ratios of iridium, osmium
and ruthenium in the PGE inclusions within the same
object, making the formulation of any conclusions regarding the gold deposits diicult. However, the absence of
platinum, rhodium or palladium indicates that the gold is
not associated with the alluvial deposits of Yubdo (Wallaga)
in Ethiopia (Molly, 1959).
With regard to the alloys (Table 2; Fig. 3), we observed
that most of the artefacts were made from gold with a silver
b
Figure 1: Qurneh girdle (A.1909.527.17): (a) OM image showing
some deformation of barrel beads; (b) X-radiograph showing small
barrel beads that have slipped inside a wallet bead.
Figure 1 : Ceinture de Qurneh (A.1909.527.17) : (a) image sous
loupe binoculaire illustrant la déformation des perles coniques ; (b)
radiographie X illustrant les petites perles coniques à l’intérieur d’une
perle en portefeuille.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 111-119
Lore G. TROALEN et al.
114
a
b
Figure 2: PGE inclusions in (a [See colour plate]) pendant (A.1914.1081) from el-Harāgeh by OM; (b) Qurneh child’s necklace
(A.1909.527.11) by SEI.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Inclusions de platinoïdes (a [Voir planche couleur]) du pendantif (A.1914.1081) d’el-Harāgeh sous loupe
binoculaire ; (b) du collier d’enfant de Qurneh (A.1909.527.11) au MEB.
Figure 3: Ternary diagram (gold, silver, copper) showing the average alloy composition of the jewellery investigated (for some objects,
multiple analyses of the diferent components were undertaken).
Figure 3 : Diagramme ternaire (or, argent, cuivre) montrant la composition moyenne des alliages des pièces d’orfèvrerie analysées (pour certains
objets l’analyse a été efectuée pour leurs diférentes parties).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 111-119
Technological study of gold jewellery pieces dating from the Middle Kingdom to the New Kingdom in Egypt
Qurneh
Bracelet A199-527-16
standard deviation
Earring adult A1909-527-18
standard deviation
Necklace A.1909.527.19
Girdle A.1909.527.17
Average on 26 beads
Average on 10 beads
Ring 1
standard deviation
Ring 2
standard deviation
Ring 3
standard deviation
Wallet Beads (XRF)
standard deviation
Barrel Beads (XRF)
standard deviation
Child’s mummy (PIXE)
Earring A.1909.527.43 A
standard deviation
Earring A.1909.527.43 B
standard deviation
Ring 1
standard deviation
Ring 2
standard deviation
Fish pendant A.1914.1081 Harāgeh (XRF)
Tail
standard deviation
Body
standard deviation
Amarna Rings
A.1883.49.2
Hoop (XRF)
standard deviation
Low row
Granules (SEM-EDS)
standard deviation
Upper row
standard deviation
A.1883.49.8 (XRF)
Necklace A.1909.527.11
Fly-shaped pendants 19th Dynasty (XRF)
A.1977.140.A
A.1977.140.B
A.1977.140.C
A.1977.140.D
A.1977.140.E
A.1977.140.F
A.1977.140.G
A.1977.140.H
A.1977.140.I
A.1977.140.J
A.1977.140.K
A.1977.140.L
A.1977.140.M
A.1977.140.N
A.1977.140.O
A.1977.140.P
Solder
Qurneh
Bracelet A.1909.527.16
standard deviation
Earring adult A.1909.527.18
standard deviation
Necklace A.1909.527.19
Earring A.1909.527.43 A
standard deviation
Earring A.1909.527.43 B
Amarna Rings
Granules (SEM-EDS)
Au %
Ag %
Cu %
88.2
0.8
95.8
1.0
87.6
1.6
87.7
1.1
88.0
11.6
0.7
4.1
0.9
10.5
1.6
10.7
0.9
10.0
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.1
1.9
0.1
1.5
0.2
2.0
0.8
1.1
0.3
43.8
0.3
42.1
2.7
52.5
0.3
53.1
1.4
3.7
0.1
4.8
1.5
82.5
0.5
83.7
1.2
71.3
1.4
65.9
0.6
14.6
0.5
14.2
1.0
26.8
1.4
32.1
0.8
2.9
0.4
2.1
0.4
2.0
0.1
2.0
0.2
45.0
1.5
82.6
1.1
51.7
1.5
16.3
1.0
3.3
0.1
1.1
0.2
Adult’s mummy (PIXE)
98.2
1.7
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
89.4
7.9
2.8
1.0
1.3
0.4
94.0
3.3
2.7
1.3
0.9
0.4
81.1
18.1
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.1
Single analysis for each
pendant
74.3
21.7
4.0
70.5
23.4
6.1
67.8
23.3
8.9
74.3
19.7
6.0
77.4
19.9
2.7
68.2
23.5
8.2
74.7
21.6
3.7
74.5
21.7
3.9
73.9
19.6
6.5
81.8
16.2
1.9
71.5
22.9
5.6
72.3
22.6
5.1
68.7
22.6
8.7
77.9
18.3
3.8
76.8
21.4
1.8
73.0
22.3
4.7
Adult’s mummy (PIXE)
Ring
standard deviation
Terminal Part (XRF)
Child’s mummy (PIXE)
A.1883.49.2
Low row
standard deviation
Upper row
standard deviation
84
3
93
1
87
3
80
10
1
5
2
9
2
15
6
3
2
0
4
0
5
81
0
84
12
1
9
7
1
7
83
5
86
3
9
2
9
3
8
4
5
2
115
content ranging from 2 to 20%. he exceptions from the
Qurneh burial are made of electrum, as deined by Pliny, i.e.
a gold alloy in which the silver content is greater than 20%
(Natural History, XXXIII): in the girdle, the silver content
reaches 52.5-53% in the wallet beads and the barrel beads,
and in the child’s necklace, the silver content varies between
27 and 32%. he tail of the Harāgeh pendant is also made
of electrum containing 51.7% silver. herefore, variation in
alloys does not seem to be linked to chronology, but rather
to type and presumably use of the objects, as well as perhaps
to colour (Schorsch, 2001; Frantz and Schoesch, 1990),
considering that the Egyptian words for gold (noub) and
silver (hat) are colour-oriented.
Copper is generally present in quantities of less than 2%;
however, some objects exhibit a copper content higher than
3%. he wallet beads of the Qurneh girdle contain 3.7%
copper, while in the barrel beads the copper content varies
from 2.8 to 7.4%. We found 3.3% copper in the tail of
the ish-pendant, and, inally, the ly-pendants exhibit up
to 9% copper. It seems unusual for Egyptian gold deposits
to contain more than 2% copper (Ogden, 2000), so most
of the jewellery could have been manufactured using native
alloys. For the wallet and barrel beads of the girdle, and the
tail of the pendant, copper in the range of a few percent
could have been added to a silver-rich electrum alloy. For the
ly-pendants, the alloys could have been produced by adding
copper to a native alloy with a relatively high silver content
of 25% (such as the one that is found, for example, in the
Qurneh child’s necklace). he addition of copper to debase
gold is usually reported from the 18th Dynasty onwards, with
copper-contents reaching 75% in some artefacts (Lucas,
1962: 229; Ogden, 2000). However, the amount of copper
found in the barrel beads of the girdle clearly indicates that
this process was in use since the 17th Dynasty.
he Qurneh adult jewellery forms a speciic group in Figure
3, with a relatively high gold content ranging between 87.8%
and 95.2%. he child’s earrings show a similar composition,
with 82.5% and 83.7% gold, but with a higher level of copper, which may indicate an addition meant to harden the
alloy. According to Ogden (2000), Egyptian gold during
the 2nd millennium BC typically contained 15-30% silver
and copper in amounts lower than 2%, while the use of the
cementation method to reine gold was not practised there
before the 1st millennium BC (Ramage and Craddock, 2000).
Table 2: Compositional results (in wt%) for all the objects analysed
by PIXE, XRF and SEM-EDS.
Tableau 2 : Compositions (en %) des alliages des objets analysés par
PIXE, FX et MEB-EDS.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 111-119
116
Such expected compositions were identiied in the Qurneh
child’s necklace, the Harāgeh pendant, and one of the Amarna
inger-rings (A.1883.49.8), as well as in published jewellery
from the tomb of the foreign wives of hutmose III (Lilyquist,
2003). Indeed, Lilyquist (2003) argues that, in the collections
of the Metropolitan Museum, only forgeries have alloys with
gold content above 80% 4. Nevertheless, three of four items
analysed from the tomb of Yuia and Tjuiu (Tomb KV46, early
14th century BC) are at least 82% gold (Lucas 1962: 545),
and one contains 96.4% gold, 1.9% silver, and less than 1%
copper (Lucas 1962: 545) 5. At NMS, the Qurneh woman’s
earrings contain 95.6% gold, 4.1% silver and 0.2% copper 6,
while one Amarna inger-ring (A.1883.49.2) contains 98.2%
gold, 1.7% silver and 0.1% copper. Such analyses indicate
that Ancient Egyptians had access to gold of exceptional
purity, either from alluvial deposits, or by importing from
abroad (James, 1992). With regard to the Qurneh jewellery,
at least, Nubian gold must be considered a possibility, because
the burial itself shows deinite cultural links with Nubia
(Eremin et al., 2000; Manley et al., 2002). However, without
further studies of contemporary objects, we cannot establish
speciic provenances for the placer gold used to manufacture
the jewellery.
Lore G. TROALEN et al.
Qurneh jewellery clearly exhibits the use of hard soldering in
the fabrication of the adult’s gold earrings and bracelets, and
of the child’s earrings, as well as the necklace. he child’s earrings seem to be melted from over-heating while hard soldering to create joins between the diferent rings (Fig. 4a); Petrie
also noted that they “had been over-heated while on a mandril
in the furnace for soldering; the solder had stuck them together,
and they parted and began to drop away, being half melted”
(Petrie, 1909). PIXE analyses of the soldered area show an
increase in the copper content to 7%, with a silver content of
12%. In the soldered area of the adult’s bracelets, the copper
level reached 6%, with 10% silver (Table 2).
he XRF investigation of the terminal part of the Qurneh
necklace gave an estimate of 80% gold, 15% silver and 5%
a
Solder Analysis
here are but few published analyses of solders from
Egyptian jewellery, with the exception of the study of a necklace from the burial of Wah, dated to the late 11th Dynasty
(Schorsch, 1995), and of some objects dated to the 18th
Dynasty (Lilyquist, 2003). he common joining technique
in Ancient Egypt might have been colloidal hard soldering
(or difusion bonding), using a copper salt and organic adhesive. Hard soldering using an alloy with a lower melting
point than that of the alloy to be soldered (Maryon, 1949)
is considered less usual (Ogden, 1992; Lilyquist, 2003).
However, on beads from the Wah burial, Schorsch (1995)
found an atypical joining technique, perhaps involving hard
soldering by adding diferent amounts of copper to the
basic alloy; and the investigation of a ring from the Qurneh
necklace has shown the use of a hard solder alloy made by
adding copper (Tate et al., 2009).
Distinguishing between diferent soldering techniques is
diicult when using only non-invasive analyses. However, the
4. In some apparent instances of forgery, the gold composition is exactly
22 carat, corresponding to English gold coinage from the early 20th century (Lucas 1962; Lilyquist 2003).
5. Compositions from assay analysis by W.B. Pollard (1908).
6. hese new analyses conirm the surface analysis undertaken by
Eremin et al. (2000).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 111-119
b
Figure 4: Detail of solder in (a [See colour plate]) Qurneh child’s
earring (A.1909.527.43) by OM and (b) Qurneh adult’s earrings
(A.1909.527.18) by SEI.
Figure 4 : Détail de la soudure des boucles d’oreilles de Qurneh (a
[Voir planche couleur]) de l’enfant (A.1909.527.43) sous loupe binoculaire ; (b) de l’adulte (A.1909.527.18) au MEB.
Technological study of gold jewellery pieces dating from the Middle Kingdom to the New Kingdom in Egypt
copper. he PIXE investigation of the solder between the
tubes of the adult’s earrings indicated about 2% more copper than for the main body (Table 2). All these compositions correspond to a natural alloy with a fusion temperature
slightly lower than the composition of the objects (Scott
1990), as is the case with the hard soldering of the beads of
the necklace (Tate et al., 2009).
Granulation
Granulation is obtained by joining spheres to a metal
sheet using hard soldering techniques or copper salt
(Lilyquist, 1993). One of the irst examples of granulated objects in Egypt is a gold cylinder-pendant, also from
el-Harāgeh, which shows the use of hard soldering (Ogden,
1992). A similar morphology in the joining areas is found
for the granules of an Amarna inger-ring (A.1883.49.2),
details of which can be seen in Figure 5. EDS surface analysis of the granules showed that they are heterogeneous in
composition (top: 2.8% copper, 7.9% silver, 89.4% gold;
bottom: 2.7% copper, 3.3% silver, 94.0% gold). Although
these compositions are unlikely to correspond to the sulk
composition – due to surface enrichments this could indicate a decoration undertaken in two stages. Experimentally,
it is diicult to obtain an accurate quantitative analysis on
such three-dimensional objects, which is probably the reason
for the high variability of copper and silver analyses in the
soldered areas. However, the indication is that in the top
row, the copper content ranges from 5 to 13%, and silver
Figure 5: Detail of granulation observed on the bezel of the ingerring A.1883.49.2 by SEI.
Figure 5 : Détail de la granulation du chaton de la bague A.1883.49.2
au MEB.
117
from 7 to 12%, while in the bottom row the copper content
ranges from 4 to 7%, and silver from 6 to 11%, which could
indicate the use of separate hard solders in each row, with
diferent melting points.
Construction and wirework
he Amarna inger-rings show a similar mounting technique, whereby a wire is coiled around the hoop and enters
the bezel (Fig. 6a). his may be analogous to technology
from late 5th millennium Egypt, when rings could be made
with “small strings of beads, gold-foil bands and wires of copper
or silver closed by twisting the ends together” (Andrews, 1990).
In the case of inger-ring A.1883.49.8, the round section
of the hoop is reduced, and has been worked into a wire
that crosses the bezel and is coiled upon each extremity. In
the case of inger-ring A.1883.49.2, a much thicker hoop
has been worked at the terminals into a thinner section and
passed through the bezel, while, in addition, a wire is coiled
round the hoop, crossing the bezel. Similar techniques may
be seen in inger-rings in the British Museum (Andrews,
1991: 164-165, 175) and necklaces from the burial of the
foreign wives of hutmose III (Lilyquist, 2003: 196).
Hammering, block-twisting, strip-drawing and striptwisting have all been suggested as possible techniques for
producing wires in antiquity (Oddy, 1977). Although no
speciic work published on Ancient Egyptian wires exists,
hammering was usual in Bronze Age jewellery according
to Petrie, strip-drawing was identiied by Williams (1924),
although this has been signiicantly questioned, while striptwisting was largely discussed by Carroll (1972). As regards
Ancient Egyptian objects, Williams (1924) suggests the use
of strip-drawing and strip-twisting, while Scheel (1989) suggests that thick wires were produced by strip-twisting and
thinner wires by block-twisting. Hammered wire presents
facetted surfaces; block-twisted wire has a more or less round
section with a solid interior; while both strip-drawing and
strip-twisting result in a round section wire with a hollow
interior (Oddy, 1977).
For the Amarna inger-rings, we identiied the following
characteristics: the wire of A.1883.49.2 is relatively thick,
with a section that is solid but sometimes not circular, whereas the wire of A.1883.49.8 is solid, rounder in section, and
shows some longitudinal lines. In the wires of both rings,
we observed laking and overlapping of gold, possibly corresponding to rolling and burnishing treatments (Fig. 6b).
Excluding the efects of wear, we observe a homogeneous
wire with a near round section and seams on the surface
similar to those produced by strip-twisting. Further examination of the wires is in progress at the NMS in order
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 111-119
Lore G. TROALEN et al.
118
a
turies BC. We have shown that the gold alloys used during
this period are preponderantly produced with alluvial gold
containing iridium-ruthenium-osmium inclusions. he
alloys used to produce the studied jewellery range from high
purity ones, with a gold content that can reach 95%, to
electrum containing 51 to 53% silver. Apart from objects
in which copper was certainly added to the alloy, the copper content was typically found to be below 2%. he use
of iligree and granulation in the decoration of the Amarna
inger-rings revealed the use of hard soldering, and traces of
this technique were found in joints for the majority of the
objects studied. he seams in the limited sample set of wires
have sections that may indicate the use of strip-twisting.
Acknowledgment
b
he authors would like to thank colleagues at NMS, in particular Henrietta Lidchi and Lesley-Ann Liddiard from the World
Cultures Department, for giving us access to the objects and supporting the project; colleagues at C2RMF, especially the AGLAE
team and hierry Borel for his help and advice on X-Radiography
of gold objects; Katherine Eremin at the Harvard Art Museum
for comments on her previous work; Susan La Niece and Nigel
Meeks at the British Museum for their comments while writing
the article, and inally the Eu-ARTECH project for funding the
PIXE analysis.
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Figure 6: Amarna inger-rings: (a) X-Radiograph of A.1883.49.8
showing the construction of the bezel and (b) detail of A.1883.49.2
showing the work of the wire coiled upon each end of bezel.
Figure 6 : Bagues d’Amarna : (a) radiographie X de A.1883.49.8
montrant le montage du chaton et (b) détail de A.1883.49.2 illustrant
le travail du il enroulé autour de l’anneau de chaque côté du chaton.
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4. CONCLUSION
his study represents a irst approach to the production
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he 17th Dynasty gold necklace from Qurneh, Egypt
Le collier en or de Qurneh daté de la XVIIe Dynastie, Égypte
Jim Tate*, Katherine Eremin**, Lore G. Troalen*,
Maria Filomena Guerra***, Elizabeth Goring**** and Bill Manley****
Abstract: In 1908, the archaeologist Flinders Petrie discovered a rich intact burial of an adult and child at Qurneh, near Luxor. Stylistically, the
burial has been dated to the late 17th Dynasty, in the 16th century BC. he complete burial group came to Edinburgh in 1909.
A recent examination of the rings of the necklace found with the adult burial is presented as part of a wider study of the mummy collections of
the National Museums Scotland (NMS). he necklace shows sophisticated workmanship, with 1,699 rings threaded onto four strands, the rings
having uniform diameter and thickness, and very few of them showing any visible joints.
he necklace rings have been examined by Optical Microscopy, X-radiography, Scanning Electron Microscopy with Energy Dispersive X-ray
analysis (SEM-EDS), air-path X-ray Fluorescence (XRF), and proton induced X-ray analysis (micro-PIXE). We summarise these indings and
propose the method of manufacture. We also describe an experimental attempt to make joint-less rings in order to compare them with the originals.
Résumé : En 1908, l’archéologue Flinders Petrie découvre à Qurneh, près de Louxor, sur la route de la Vallée des Rois, la tombe intacte et richement
pourvue d’un adulte et d’un enfant. L’ensemble de la tombe a été stylistiquement daté de la in de la XVIIe dynastie, XVIe siècle av. J.-C., et son contenu
fut transféré à Edimbourg en 1909.
Dans le cadre d’un projet de recherche sur la collection des momies égyptiennes du Musée National d’Écosse (NMS), le collier trouvé associé à l’adulte a
été étudié. Ce collier se compose de 1 699 anneaux enilés sur quatre rangs, chaque anneau présentant une section circulaire très uniforme avec très peu
de joints apparents. Comment ses anneaux ont-ils été réalisés ?
Le collier a été analysé par microscopie optique, radiographie de rayons X, Microscopie Électronique à Balayage couplée à un système d’énergie dispersive
de rayons X (MEB-EDS), Fluorescence de rayons X (FX) et analyse par faisceaux d’ions (micro-PIXE). Les résultats de cette étude sont présentés et discutés
en parallèle avec les résultats d’un travail de recréation expérimental, visant à réaliser des anneaux sans joints apparents.
Keywords: Qurneh, mummy, necklace, rings manufacture, analysis.
Mots-clés : Qurneh, momie, collier, manufacture anneaux, analyse.
* National Museums Scotland, Department of Conservation & Analytical Research, NMCC – 242 West Granton Road, Edinburgh EH5 1JA. (j.tate@
nms.ac.uk), (l.troalen@nms.ac.uk)
** Straus Centre for Conservation, Harvard Art Museum – 32 Quincy Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. (keremin@fas.harvard.edu)
*** Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR171 CNRS – 14, quai François-Mitterrand, 75001 Paris, France.
(maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr)
**** National Museums Scotland, Department of World Cultures – Chambers Street, Edinburgh EH1 1JF. (b.manley@nms.ac.uk)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 121-128
Jim TATE et al.
122
1. INTRODUCTION
he NMS Mummy Project
National Museums Scotland (NMS) has extensive
Ancient Egypt collections. hey were mainly assembled
from 1819 until the early 20th century, and include eleven
mummies, over sixty (more or less fragmentary) decorated
coins, mummy-boards and masks, and a great number of
associated burial goods (Dodson and Manley, 2010). he
NMS Mummy Project was initiated in order to raise professional and public understanding about the people whose
bodies and belongings had been preserved with such care.
Individual mummies and coins have been examined in
a programme of whole body and dental X-radiography,
CT-scanning, and material analysis and identification
(Eremin et al., 2000; MacLeod et al., 2000; Buckley and
Evershed, 2001; Manley et al., 2002).
Perhaps the greatest treasure of the NMS Ancient Egypt
collections is the intact burial of an adult and child in a
simple pit-grave at Qurneh, near hebes (modern Luxor),
discovered and excavated by Flinders Petrie on 30 December
1908 (Petrie, personal diaries). Petrie sent the entire contents
of the burial to the Royal Scottish Museum (a forerunner
of NMS) the following year. he grave itself was on the
way to the ancient cemetery at the Valley of the Kings, an
area containing the tombs of several kings and queens of
the 17th Dynasty. he burial was centred on a large anthropomorphic coin with feathered decoration, painted dark
blue, and gilded. he ine decoration on the coin (generally
) was
known as rishi, from the Arabic for ‘feathered’,
a heban innovation dating from the 17th Dynasty, i.e. the
early or mid-16th century BC (Miniaci, 2007), surpassed
only by those of two 17th Dynasty kings discovered near
Qurneh. Only the coins of two heban queens from the
early 18th Dynasty, i.e. the late 16th century BC, are larger.
herefore, dating the coin to the 16th century BC seems
straightforward, and other elements of the burial, such as
the ceramics, tend to conirm this.
he rishi-coin contained the mummy of a young adult
female, unwrapped by Petrie at the time of discovery and
now complete, but disarticulated. he grave goods included
furniture, ceramics, food-oferings, a sceptre, an inlaid headrest, a decorated oil-horn, and jewellery. A simpler chestshaped coin containing the remains of a young child was
also unwrapped by Petrie. he wealth of the burial is evident from the jewellery found with both mummies, which
Petrie described as “the largest group of goldwork that had
left Egypt” (Petrie, 1932). his wealth is remarkable considering that Egypt was politically divided, and the kings at
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 121-128
hebes had no direct access to the wealthy trade routes of
the Mediterranean, nor to the gold-rich mines of Nubia.
Even the burials of kings of this period were quite simple.
he most obvious explanation is that the occupants were
members of the 17th Dynasty royal family at hebes, which
would certainly accord with the location of the tomb at
Qurneh (Eremin et al., 2000; Roehrig, 2007).
Nevertheless, the woman’s speciic identity remains a mystery, and none of the studies carried out so far have allowed
us to establish whether the child and adult woman were
related, although that would be what we may expect of a
shared burial in Ancient Egypt. We have not yet undertaken
DNA analysis of the human remains, but have concentrated
on studying the grave goods, particularly the jewellery, to see
what these could reveal.
he jewellery is described in Petrie (1909) and Eremin
et al. (2000). Both the adult and child had necklaces and
earrings: in this study, we concentrate on the adult necklace
(NMS A.1909.527.19, Fig. 1a), but refer also to some shared
similarities with the child’s earrings (NMS A.1909.527.43).
he Gold Necklace
he style of the necklace is straightforward: a large number of gold rings strung together to form four decorative
bands that combine into each side of a clasp (Fig. 1), the
two halves of which are made from four groups of eight
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Coin of the adult woman and necklace showing clasp and pin.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Cercueil de la femme adulte et collier
illustrant le fermoir et l’épingle.
he 17th Dynasty gold necklace from Qurneh, Egypt
rings fused together. he necklace is closed by itting the
two parts of the clasp tightly together and inserting a short
gold pin through the centre of four overlapping gold loops
from either side. Only a small number of necklaces of this
type and date are known from museum collections (Roehrig,
2007; Binder, 2008).
Petrie noted that the rings were “thick enough not to collapse
when squeezed between the ingers” (Petrie, 1909). He measured and weighed them and counted 1,653 rings. A re-count
carried out during conservation works in 2006 increased
the number to 1,699 (Melville, pers. comm.), possibly by
including some of the fused rings from the clasp. here is
no record of any additional rings being found and added to
the necklace, although Petrie did re-string it because “a very
thick pack of ibre illed the rings; so compact that only two rings
could be dragged of at a time” (Petrie, 1909).
he rings are full rings, that is to say the vast majority are
not open, like many of the rings making up parts of other
Egyptian jewellery, including a smaller necklace found with
the child burial (NMS A.1909.527.11). Petrie stated that
“each has been soldered to join it” (Petrie, 1909), but in fact
only a very small number of them show external marks that
clearly support this statement.
2. METHODS
Technical examination
Optical and SEM imaging using both secondary electron
(SEI) and backscattered electron (BSE) detectors were used
to examine the surface appearance and details. he SEM
was a Camscan MX2500 operated in both high vacuum
and controlled pressure mode. We focused on three of the
rings removed during conservation, which were placed on
a standard SEM stub and imaged directly. he composition was determined using a hermoNoran Vantage Energy
Dispersive (EDS) system (recognising the possibility of
slight surface enrichment of gold from the bulk composition).
X-radiography was used under various experimental
conditions to look for seams or joints. he three rings were
analysed along with two earrings from the child burial
and other gold jewellery items by XRF and PIXE (see
Troalen et al., 2009). he XRF system is an air-path Oxford
ED2000SW instrument conigured to provide a collimated
X-ray beam of 1.5x2 mm at the object, the precise spot
identiied by crossed lasers and using XpertEase fundamental parameters analysis calibrated against internal NMS
laboratory gold/silver/copper standards (GCS5 and Rolled
123
Gold). he PIXE 1 at C2RMF used 3 MeV protons (Dran
et al., 2004) and experimental conditions for gold (given in
Guerra and Calligaro, 2004 and Guerra, 2004) calibrated
with in-house gold/silver/copper standards Gold 6917 and
the same NMS standards.
Methods used to make the rings
he question of how the rings were made was asked before
it became possible to remove and examine some of the rings
in technical detail. We commissioned experimental reconstructions from a modern goldsmith, reported here along
with the subsequent technical examination.
hree methods that could have been used to make such
uniform rings are:
– cutting wire segments to uniform lengths, looping into
circles and soldering the joints;
– casting in a single or multiple ring mould;
– punching each ring individually.
he irst method would require uniform lengths of wire,
thin strips cut from a hammered sheet, or short cast-segments. Wire could also be made by strip- or block-twisting
(there is no evidence of Egyptian drawn wire, Andrews,
1990), wound round a uniform diameter hard (bronze?)
rod, and cut to produce a collection of open rings which
could then be joined by difusion bonding or soldering.
For the former, a ine copper-rich powder (possibly with an
organic glue) would be applied to a tight joint and strongly
heated (Andrews, 1990; Ogden, 2000; Lilyquist, 2003). For
the latter, a more open joint could be illed with a lower
melting point alloy. Burnishing would hide any visual traces
of the joint.
Casting would entail a precision two-part mould or a simpler open mould. More complicated lost-wax casting would
entail the initial modelling of the rings in wax prior to encasing them in a clay mould, melting the wax, and illing the
negative volume with molten gold alloy. Each method could
theoretically produce individual rings or multiple groups of
rings. Lost-wax cast rings would have no joint, but there
would be a sprue; lash lines at the joints might show from
two-part moulds.
Punching could be performed from a lat sheet or lattened blob of gold, drilling or punching a central hole which
could be enlarged to produce rings with no joint. here are
several images of craftsmen using single and multiple drills
to bore holes in stone beads (Andrews, 1990).
1. hanks to funding from EuArtech.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 121-128
Jim TATE et al.
124
Before we were able to examine individual rings, we
investigated the feasibility of punching and commissioned a modern gold worker (Ms Jacqueline Mina) to make
‘joint-less’ gold rings to look like those from the necklace.
She made equal weight gold droplets, lattened them, and
then formed a central hole with a series of steel punches,
annealing the rings throughout to maintain workability. he
intention was feasibility rather than reproduction, and the
work used 24-carat gold, steel tools, and a gas lame, rather
than more archaic materials.
3. RESULTS
Examination of the necklace
he form of the rings was shown in optical and SEM
images to be very regular (Fig. 2). he three rings examined
individually measured between 4.2 and 4.5 mm external
diameter, 0.8 mm thick, and with a 3.5 mm internal hole.
Each ring has a ‘D’ shaped section, so they were not cut
from simple lat strips. he outer surface shows tool marks:
ine parallel scratches running around the circumference,
strong radial gouges, and areas of overlapping metal at the
edges (Fig. 2d). We interpret the gouges as signs of the
removal of metal using a very ine pointed chisel (the point
around 10 microns across) before hammering the edges of
a
c
b
d
Figure 2: (a) Optical image of rings; (b), (c) & (d) SEM-BSE
images showing dimensions and tool marks.
Figure 2 : (a) Images sous binoculaire des anneaux (b), (c) & (d)
Images MEB-BSE montrant les dimensions et les marques d’outils.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 121-128
the segment lat and smoothing and polishing. he inner
surface of each ring is lat, but less smooth. here are no
spiral lines from strip or block twisting, nor hammering
marks on the lat inner surface, so the rings were not formed
from round-section wire.
here is no evidence of any lashing line on the inner
surface, as expected from a two-part mould; instead, the
only concentric internal line is slightly recessed. he rings
are symmetric, and their regularity is inconsistent with
being cast in an open mould. hese observations conirm
the assumption that they were not cast as complete rings.
he rough central band on the outer surface of the ‘D’ is
similar to the inner surface of the ring: we interpret it as part
of the original surface of the metal, which was cast as a wire
segment into a ‘D’ shaped mould, the outer surface subsequently being worked to a smooth inish prior to looping
each segment to form a ring.
However, optical and SEM examination and
X-radiography failed to characterise the joints in the majority of the rings on the complete necklace. here are very
few open rings, and some with joint-like marks, i.e. the
metal is thinner, or thickens into a bulge (e.g., the 4th ring
in Fig. 2a). hese could be the result of poor casting or
damage rather than fabrication.
he joint
he experimental reproduction demonstrated that it is
perfectly possible to create joint-less rings, but that these did
not match several of the features of the originals. It is evident
from the SEM images (Fig. 3, a-f ) that the punched rings
are less uniform, and that the proile of the inner surface is
quite diferent, having a raised inner ridge. While increased
symmetry might come with practice, it seems unlikely that
either the regularity or the lat, rather porous looking, inner
surface of the originals could be achieved. We do not believe
therefore that the rings were made using a punch.
Following the above examination and analysis, the more
damaged of the three rings that had been removed was
mounted and polished so that the existence or otherwise of
a joint could be determined. he polished and etched ring
is shown in Figure 4 (a and b), where the form of the joint is
clear. he joint was made with added copper-rich solder (see
below), the ends of the metal loop having been thinned to
maintain the same thickness as the rest of the ring. he grain
structure of the ring itself suggests working and annealing,
while the solder shows a dendritic structure, similar to that
shown in Scott and Doehne (1990).
he thickness, structure and composition of the joint
conirm that it is the result of an added solder, not difusion
he 17th Dynasty gold necklace from Qurneh, Egypt
A
D
B
E
125
C
F
Figure 3: SEM-BSE images showing stages in the production of
reproduction rings (ring diameter 5 mm).
Figure 3 : Images MEB-BSE illustrant les étapes de production des
recréations des anneaux (diamètre des anneaux 5 mm).
Figure 4: (See colour plate) (a) Optical and (b) SEM-BSE images
of polished and aqua regia etched area of joint in ring. Scale bar
is 200 microns.
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Images (a) sous binoculaire et (b)
MEB-BSE de surfaces polies et attaquées à l’eau régal de la jointure
de l’anneau. Barre de l’échelle 200 microns.
bonding. his use of hard soldering with addition of a distinct metal alloy is considered less common than difusion
bonding, but has been found occasionally on pieces from
the ancient world (Lilyquist, 2003). Plotting the compositions on the Au-Ag-Cu ternary liquidus diagram provided
by Scott and Doehne (1990) indicates a melting temperature of c. 950 °C for the solder, as opposed to just over
1000 °C for the ring, demonstrating a rigorous control of
the temperatures during soldering.
Comparison with other necklaces
While there are many Egyptian gold necklaces from this
period containing ring beads (as illustrated in Lilyquist,
2003), most appear to be square sectioned, often with quite
clear (and open) joints. We have examined only two other
necklaces of the 17th-18th Dynasty; one at the Metropolitan
Museum, New York (Object 16.10.314) and one at the
British Museum, London (inventory number EA 14693).
Binder (2008) also refers to these necklaces and their distinct characteristics of the shebu-type. We are grateful for
technical and analytical information regarding the necklaces
in the Metropolitan and British Museum to Mark Wypyski
and Deborah Schorsch from the Metropolitan Museum, and
Nigel Meeks from the British Museum.
he Metropolitan necklace is 335 mm long, with approximately 450 ring beads, each 6 mm in diameter (Roehrig
2007). here are hemispherical end-caps, but no clasp. he
ring widths vary, and clear joints are present, either square
or chamfered. Some of the jointed areas appear as swellings,
presumably where there is excessive solder or the metal has
begun to melt (Fig. 6). he SEM-EDS analysis shows that
the joints have a higher copper content than the rings (4%,
as compared to around 2%). he rings have visible platinum
group inclusions, but have a higher silver content than those
from Qurneh (see below). he SEM examination shows
some tool marks and a line around the circumference similar to the Qurneh rings, but the ‘D’ shaped cross-section of
the outer side of the rings is less triangular.
he British Museum necklace has very inely inished
rings with square joints. he clasp has a closing mechanism
very similar to that from Qurneh. he rings lack visible
PGE group inclusions and are of higher purity gold than
those from Qurneh. here were no visible working marks
or surface features similar to those seen on the other two
necklaces.
Compositional analysis
he results of each of the experimental methods (Table 1)
show that the Qurneh necklace, with its high percentage of
gold (86-88%), silver (10-12%), and copper (2%), is in all
probability made of alluvial gold. his is supported by the
presence of inclusions of osmium-iridium-ruthenium (PGE
group elements, Meeks and Tite, 1980; Ogden, 1976) on
many of the rings (as well as on other pieces from the burial,
see Troalen et al., 2009).
A concern with any analysis of ancient gold is the extent
of surface change, either deliberate or from corrosion during
burial, a problem noted by Lilyquist (2003) for Egyptian
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 121-128
Jim TATE et al.
126
Figure 5: Compositions of the Qurneh
gold, artefacts in Lilyquist (2003),
and comparison of necklaces in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art (courtesy
of Mark Wypyski and Deborah
Schorsch) and British Museum (courtesy
of Nigel Meeks).
Figure 5 : Compositions des objets de
Qurneh, des objets publiés par Lilyquist
(2003), et comparaison des colliers du
Metropolitan Museum of Art (courtoisie
de Mark Wypyski et Deborah Schorsch) et
du British Museum (courtoisie de Nigel
Meeks).
a
b
Figure 6: (See colour plate) Necklace 16.10.314 in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art: (a) optical image; (b) SEM BSC
image (Courtesy of Mark Wypyski).
Figure 6 : (Voir planche couleur) Collier 16.10.314 du Metropolitan
Museum of Art: (a) image sous binoculaire (b) image MEB-BSC.
(Courtoisie de Mark Wypyski).
gold. he polished section of the necklace ring allowed us
to compare directly the surface- and core-gold compositions using SEM-EDS. A small compositional change was
found, but the composition determined from the core metal
in the section was very close to the PIXE and XRF results
(see Table 1). hus, while there may be some surface change
resulting from the burial, it represents only a very thin layer
which efects the SEM-EDS analysis, and the XRF and PIXE
data are essentially corresponding to the bulk composition.
Figure 5 compares the Qurneh gold with the published
analyses by Lilyquist (2003) for ‘presumed ancient’ mateArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 121-128
rial from the Metropolitan Museum collection, plus speciic
data from necklace (16.10.314) 2 and preliminary SEM-EDS
surface analysis data from diferent areas on the British
Museum necklace 3. he alloy used for the adult’s necklace
and for other pieces from the Qurneh burial (summarised
in Troalen et al., 2009) is notably richer in gold and with
a lower silver content than the majority of the comparable
artefacts presented by Lilyquist (2003).
Finally, we compared the adult’s necklace rings with the
jewellery from the child’s burial. he child’s necklace difers
signiicantly from the adult’s, and resembles the small ring
bead strings illustrated in Lilyquist (2003); the rings are
smaller than those of the adult, uneven in width, and have
open joints; they were clearly formed by rolling metal strips
into circular loops. heir composition is also very diferent
from the adult’s necklace, with a high but variable silver
content (see Troalen et al., 2009). In contrast, the child’s
earrings resemble the rings of the adult’s necklace more closely, being ‘D’ shaped in section, with radial tool marks and
a lat inner surface. he alloy is also similar, but with slightly
higher copper and silver contents (Table 1). While in no way
conclusive, this aspect does tentatively support an association between the adult’s and the child’s burials.
2. hanks to Mark Wypyski and Deborah Schorsch.
3. hanks to Nigel Meeks.
he 17th Dynasty gold necklace from Qurneh, Egypt
127
Piece
Cu
(wt%)
Au (wt%)
Ag (wt%)
Adult necklace
rings 1-3:
surface
XRF
1.6 sd
0.1
86.0 sd 0.2
12.0 sd 0.6
Adult necklace
rings 1-3:
surface
PIXE
1.8 sd
0.2
87.8 sd 0.2
10.4 sd 0.3
Child earring A
PIXE
2.9 sd
0.4
82.5 sd 0.5
14.6 sd 0.5
Child earring B
PIXE
2.1 sd
0.4
83.7 sd 1.2
14.2 sd 1.0
Adult rings
1&2: surface
SEMEDS
1.1 sd
0.4
91.7 sd 1.5
7.2 sd 1.2
Adult ring 3:
polished section
SEMEDS
2.4 sd
0.2
85.5 sd 0.2
12.2 sd 0.4
Adult ring 3:
polished solder
SEMEDS
8.2 sd
0.3
80.4 sd 0.6
11.5 sd 0.3
Adult ring 3,
area near joint
PIXE
4.0
86.8
9.1
Table 1: Summary of compositional data from diferent techniques
for the three adult necklace rings and the two child earrings (sd
is the standard deviation from a number of separate analyses and
does not include calibration estimates or counting errors).
Tableau 1 : Les compositions obtenues par les diférentes techniques
pour les 3 anneaux du collier de l’adulte et pour les deux boucles
d’oreille de l’enfant (sd représente l’écart-type d’analyses indépendantes
et ne considère pas les mesures de calibration et les erreurs de comptage).
4. CONCLUSIONS
he rings of the necklace from the adult burial at Qurneh
were most probably made from individual fragments of gold
from an alluvial source cast into a ‘D’ shaped wire segments
in an open mould, formed into rings, and joined using a
metallic solder. Comparison of the surface and polished
section of one ring conirmed the composition of the gold
and provided clear evidence indicating that the surface composition of the necklace determined by PIXE and XRF is
close to that of the bulk metal. Finally, SEM examination
and PIXE analysis of the two damaged earrings from the
child’s burial have shown that these are similar in form and
composition to the adult’s necklace, adding to the likelihood
that the two burials are associated.
Acknowledgements
NMS colleagues, especially Lesley-Ann Liddiard, for making
the objects available; Ms Jacqueline Mina for the reproduction experiments; colleagues at the British Museum: Catherine
Higgitt, Susan La Niece, Duncan Hook and Nigel Meeks, and
at the Metropolitan Museum: Catharine Roehrig, Deborah
Schorsch and Mark Wypyski, for making their results available;
hierry Borel at C2RMF for radiography and EuArtech for
funding for the PIXE analysis. David Scott is acknowledged
for metallurgical advice, as are the referees for their helpful
comments.
References
ANDREWS, C., 1990. Ancient Egyptian Jewellery. London, he
British Museum Press.
BINDER, S., 2008. he Gold of Honour in New Kingdom Egypt. he
Australian Centre for Egyptology Studies 8. Oxford, Aris and
Philips Ltd.
BUCKLEY, S.A. and EVERSHED, R.P., 2001. Organic chemistry of
embalming agents in Pharaonic and Graeco-Roman mummies. Nature 413: 837-841.
DODSON, A.M. and MANLEY W.P., 2010. Life Everlasting. Ancient
Egyptian Coins in National Museums Scotland. Edinburgh:
NMS Publishing.
DRAN, J.C., SALOMON, J., CALLIGARO, TH. and WALTER, P., 2004.
Ion beam analysis of art works: 14 years of use in the Louvre.
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 219220: 7-15.
EREMIN, K., GORING, E., MANLEY, W.P. and CARTWRIGHT, C.,
2000. A 17th dynasty Egyptian Queen in Edinburgh? KMT
Modern Journal of Egyptology 11(3): 32-40.
GUERRA, M.F., 2004. Fingerprinting ancient gold with proton
beams of diferent energy, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in
Physics Research B 226: 185-198.
GUERRA, M.F. and CALLIGARO, TH., 2004. Gold traces to trace
gold. Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 1199-1208.
LILYQUIST, C., 2003. he tomb of the three foreign wives of Tuthmosis
III. New York, he Metropolitan Museum of Art.
MACLEOD, R.I., WRIGHT, A.R., MCDONALD, J. and EREMIN, K.,
2000. Historical Review, Mummy 1911-210-1. Journal of the
Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh 45(1): 85-92.
MANLEY, B., EREMIN, K., SHORTLAND, A. and WILKINSON, C., 2002.
he facial reconstruction of an Ancient Egyptian Queen. Journal
of Audiovisual Media in Medicine 25(4): 155-159.
MEEKS, N.D. and TITE, M.S., 1980. he analysis of platinum
group elements inclusions in gold antiquities. Journal of
Archaeological Science 7: 267-275.
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MINIACI, G., 2007. Marietta at Dra Abu el-Naga and the Tomb of
Neferhotep: a Mid 13th Dynasty Rishi Coin. Egitto e Vicino
Oriente 31: 5-25.
OGDEN, J., 1976. he so called “platinum” inclusions in Egyptian
goldwork. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 62: 138-144.
OGDEN, J., 2000. Metals, in P.T. Nicholson, I. Shaw (eds.), Ancient
Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press: 148-175.
PETRIE, W.M.F., 1909. Qurneh. London, BSAE Publishing.
PETRIE, W.M.F., 1932. Seventy Years in Archaeology. London, H.
Holt & Co.
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Jim TATE et al.
ROEHRIG, C.H. (ED.), 2007. Hatshepsut from Queen to Pharaoh.
New Haven and London, he Metropolitan Museum of Art/
Yale University Press.
SCOTT, D.A. and DOEHNE, E., 1990. Soldering with gold alloys in
ancient South America: examination of two small gold studs
from Ecuador. Archaeometry 32(2): 183-190.
TROALEN, L., GUERRA, M.F., TATE, J. and MANLEY, B., 2009.
Technological Study of Gold Jewellery from the 17th and 18th
Dynasties in Egypt. ArcheoSciences 33.
Preliminary observation on three Late Bronze Age
gold items from Ras Shamra-Ugarit (Syria)
Observations préliminaires de trois objets en or de l’Âge du Bronze récent
de Ras Shamra-Ougarit (Syrie)
Romain Prévalet *
Abstract: Studies of technical mechanisms of ancient gold work from the Near Eastern Bronze Age still remain rare. he identiication of marks
and reconstruction of manufacturing techniques and processes must involve a multidisciplinary approach, where visual inspection, photomicrographs, experimentation, and elementary analyses are considered. Within the framework of my PhD research on the decoration of ancient gold
in the Levant, I conducted a preliminary study of three items, decorated with iligreed and granulated designs, which were discovered at Ras
Shamra-Ugarit (Syria) and were dated to the Late Bronze Age. In the present paper, I describe the results of my irst observations of the technical
characteristics of the iligree and granulation, as well as of the joining processes that were employed by the craftsmen of that famous Levantine
kingdom at the end of the second millennium BC. Finally, I also discuss the issues that should be considered in future research.
Résumé : Les études sur les techniques du travail de l’or ancien au Proche-Orient à l’âge du Bronze demeurent rares. L’identiication des traces et la
reconstitution des techniques et des procédés de fabrication impliquent une approche pluridisciplinaire dans laquelle l’observation, les macrophotographies,
l’expérimentation et des analyses élémentaires pourraient être considérées. Dans le cadre de ma thèse de doctorat sur la décoration des ors anciens au Levant,
j’ai efectué une étude préliminaire de trois objets en or décorés de motifs iligranés et granulés, découverts à Ras Shamra-Ougarit (Syrie) et datés de l’Âge
du Bronze récent. L’article propose les résultats d’une première observation des caractéristiques techniques des procédés de iligrane, de granulation et de
soudure employés par les artisans de ce prestigieux royaume levantin de la in du IIe millénaire av. J.-C., ainsi que les problématiques qui devraient être
envisagées dans le futur.
Keywords: Filigree, Granulation, Joining, Ugarit, Syria, Bronze Age.
Mots-clés : Filigrane, Granulation, Soudure, Ougarit, Syrie, Âge du Bronze.
1. INTRODUCTION
Filigree and granulation are two techniques of decoration
(Ogden, 1982) employed on Near Eastern gold jewellery for
creating basic geometric patterns on beads, earrings or pendants as early as the 3rd millennium BC (Maxwell-Hyslop,
1971). According to the archaeological data, a technical system that consists of ixing gold wires or granules on a golden
core by a metallurgical process appeared in the Levant at
the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC at Byblos, on the
Lebanese coast. In western Syria (northern Levant), there is
evidence for such techniques from the Middle Bronze Age
in the royal tombs of Ebla, and then from the second part
of the 2nd millennium BC at Alalakh, Qatna and Ugarit
(Nicolini, 1990; Lilyquist, 1993; Prévalet, in press).
* Université Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne, Institut d’Histoire de l’art et d’Archéologie – 3 rue Michelet 75006 Paris. (Romain.Prevalet@malix.univ-paris1.fr)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 129-133
130
Romain PRÉVALET
he present paper provides a irst study of the technical
characteristics of iligree and granulation at Ugarit, useful
for reining our knowledge of gold jewellery manufacture
in the workshops of this Levantine kingdom where diverse
inluences, cultures and craftsmen interacted at the end of
the 2nd millennium BC.
2. METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
his analysis involved three gold items currently in the
collections of the National Museum of Damascus in Syria:
a pair of crescent-shaped earrings (RS 20.57, S 2584 and RS
20.26, S 2582 – plate 1), a lat round bead (RS 21.197, S
5744 – plate 2) and a composite bead (RS 21.60, S 5726 –
plate 3). he description of the typology, shape and surface
of the wires and granules, as well as the hypothesis related
to the identiication of the joining processes, are based on
direct inspection of the artefacts under a magnifying lens
and with micrographs, as the irst step of the multidisciplinary methodology of my research.
Plate 2: (See colour plate) Flat round bead.
Planche 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Perle circulaire plate.
3. RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS
Wires
Filigree is applied on the three items not so much to decorate them, but rather to underline the edges or the han-
Plate 3: (See colour plate) Composite bead.
Planche 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Perle composite.
Plate 1: (See colour plate) Pair of crescent-shaped earrings.
Planche 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Paire de boucle d’oreille à navicelle.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 129-133
ging hole, or to support elements. I have observed only one
type of wire, round wire, but it was obtained by diferent
methods. On the lat round bead, the two holes used for
suspension are underlined by a plain hexagonal-section wire
almost a millimetre in diameter (micrograph 1, 120X). he
longitudinal rectangular facets are clearly imprinted on the
wire, and the annealing granular surface shows superimposed
layers and creases caused by the repeated impact of the hammer. hese wires were probably produced from a square rod
and hammered so that the surface became more regular and
rounder. Its function was to reinforce the thin stamped foil
where depressions existed, and also to prevent the edges of
the foil from cutting the wire from which the bead is sus-
Preliminary observation on three Late Bronze Age gold items from Ras Shamra-Ugarit (Syria)
131
In contrast, the wires of the earrings are solid and regularly round, with a diameter ranging between 0.50 and 0.60
millimetres. On the border of the crescent shape, a twist of
the rectangular-section strip clearly appears where the rolling
was uninished (micrograph 3, 120X), and furrows may be
observed on two wires around the barbs of the earrings.
Both of these aspects may represent evidence of block-twisting wire.
Granules
Micrograph 1: Hammered wire.
Micrographie 1 : Fil martelé.
pended. his aspect explains its thickness and perhaps also
the methods of manufacture.
he technique employed to produce the wires examined
on the composite bead and on the pair of earrings must be
block-twisting (Mello et al., 1983). he square-section wires
of the bead, from 45 up to 75/100e in diameter, are coarse
with a lot of irregularities in shape and rough marks on their
surfaces. Nevertheless, it is possible to observe slight twists of a
few extremities that may result from the helical seams created
while rolling the twisted wires (Oddy, 1977) (micrograph 2,
30X). In addition, it also seems that some parts of the wires
bear hammered marks, such as facets and wide grooves resulting from the crushing of the edges of the square wire.
Micrograph 2: Twist of a block-twisted wire.
Micrographie 2 : Torsion d’un il tors roulé.
he earrings and the lat round bead are decorated by granulation. he arrangement of the granules in linear, triangular and circular designs is well known from the Bronze
Age in the Near East and adjacent areas (Maxwell-Hyslop,
1971; Nicolini, 1990).
At Ugarit, there are medium calibrated granules of
40-60/100e, often regular; a majority of them is lattened
by use. he bead has three large granules of 75/100e, and
several are irregular in shape and sometimes completely
elongated or deformed. In this case, the granules were not
well calibrated and graded before their application on the
item (cf. micrograph 5).
Diferent methods for producing granules are known
by alchemists, goldsmiths and specialists, and some of
them may have been available to the ancient craftsmen
(houvenin, 1973; Eluère, 1993; Nestler and Formigli,
1994; Carroll, 1974). For example, experimentation shows
that bits of strip cut to almost the same dimensions and
smelted in charcoal powder in a crucible up to the melting point of gold could produce medium and even coarse
Micrograph 3: Uninished block-twisted wire.
Micrographie 3 : Fils tors roulé non achevé.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 129-133
132
Micrograph 4: Brazing of granules.
Micrographie 4 : Brasage de granules.
Romain PRÉVALET
which melts at a lower temperature than the melting point
of the gold base.
he use of a brazing alloy, which appeared in the Near
East during the 4th millennium BC (Nicolini, 1990), can
usually be distinguished by the presence of a thick joint,
as for example on the composite bead, where the wires are
holding the globules by a reddish bulky trail of soldering
(cf. micrograph 2). he wires of the lat bead are ixed to
the item by two bits of solder, one at the bottom against the
base foil and one at the top.
he granule patterns in a circular shape that decorate the
bead often look looded on a thick and compact layer of
soldering (micrograph 4). At the centre of the bead there is a
round line of granules; each sphere is placed on an independent neck-shaped joint resulting from a copper salt joining
(micrograph 5, 120X), a process practiced in the Levant at
the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC, at Byblos. he
association of alloy brazing and copper salt joining on the
same object is also visible on the earrings. Most of their
granulated designs are ixed on the gold foil with a copper
salt join, as the link between granules of the triangles and
the thin neck joint (cf. micrograph 3), in spite of a few
thickening-outs or traces of solder at the level of the lines
and the triangles, as well as the thick joints of the wires
around the barbs, which might represent evidence of alloy
brazing. Pieces of solder may have been added where the
copper salt joining had not fused because of a lack of contact
between the parts.
4. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
Micrograph 5: Copper salt joining of granules.
Micrographie 5 : Soudure de granules aux sels de cuivre.
non well-calibrated granules similar to those present on the
jewellery of Ugarit.
Joining system
Microscopic inspection enables us to examine the joining.
Two distinct processes were recognized: alloy brazing and
copper salt joining, their combination resulting in an alloy
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 129-133
Filigree and granulation are not common techniques in
Ugarit, as compared to repoussé and incision. Rolled or hammered round wires and medium-calibrated granules characterize those techniques, which are simple processes already
known from at least the beginning of the 2nd millennium
BC in the Levant. In terms of the joining operations, the
craftsmen employed both alloy brazing and copper salt joining, according to their functions: the irst one was probably
used more structurally, in the assemblage of the diferent
parts of the object, while the second was more appropriate
for minute decoration. However, alloy brazing could also
have been practiced to join granules, as in the case of the lat
bead. In addition, sometimes it seems that complete control
of the joining processes, and more speciically a mastery of
the temperature, had not been established, an aspect which
led to overheating and looding.
At this stage of the study, much direct inspection is necessary to sustain the author’s assumptions about these three
Preliminary observation on three Late Bronze Age gold items from Ras Shamra-Ugarit (Syria)
gold items representing the iligree and granulation techniques employed for the gold jewellery of Ugarit. In future
research work, scientiic analysis and examination must be
conducted in order to determine the elementary composition of the gold alloy, and to support the identiication
of the methods of joining the wires and granules. hen, a
multidisciplinary study of all gold jewellery in the Levant
dating from the Bronze Age should be undertaken in order
to investigate a larger collection of iligreed and granulated
items, and to determine the technical choices between alloy
brazing and copper salt joining.
Acknowledgements
I thank the Syro-French archaeological excavation team of
Ras Shamra-Ugarit and the Directorate General of Antiquities
and Museums, Syrian Arab Republic, for their permission to
study and publish the gold inds from Ugarit. I should like
to extend my gratitude to Alessandro Pacini for his technical
advice.
References
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Bulletin 10(3): 79-87.
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Shamra-Ougarit: iligrane et granulation, in V. Matoïan, M.
Al-Maqdissi, Y. Calvet (eds.), Études ougaritiques II, Ras
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THOUVENIN, A., 1973. La soudure dans la construction des œuvres
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ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 129-133
La tombe mycénienne de Kazanaki (Volos)
et le mythe de la Toison d’or
he Mycenaean tomb of Kazanaki (Volos) and the myth of the Golden Fleece
Vassiliki Adrimi-Sismani*, Maria Filomena Guerra** et Philippe Walter**
Résumé : Parmi les sites mycéniens de hessalie, Dimini, situé près de Volos, pourrait correspondre au fameux centre mycénien d’Iolkos, ville
gouvernée par Pélias et qui est à l’origine du mythe de Jason et de la Toison d’or, célèbre peau de bélier reliée à la récupération d’or des alluvions.
Une nouvelle tombe mycénienne à tholos, datée de 1 350 av. J.-C., découverte en 2004 à Kazanaki, a livré un nombre très important d’objets en
or. L’examen et l’analyse élémentaire de feuilles et disques d’or, colliers et perles de collier au LC2RMF et à Volos avec des équipements portables,
nous a permis de faire une première approche des techniques orfèvres de la période mycénienne et de mettre en évidence l’utilisation d’or d’origine
alluvionnaire, parfois avec ajout de cuivre, pour la fabrication de l’orfèvrerie.
Abstract: Among the Mycenaean sites in hessaly, Dimini, situated close to Volos, could correspond to the famous Mycenaean centre of Iolkos, ruled by
Pellias, the site that was at the origin of the myth of Jason and the Golden Fleece, the famed ram’s skin related to the exploitation of alluvial gold. A new
Mycenaean tholos tomb discovered in Kazanaki in 2004, and dated to 1350 BC, brought to light a very important number of gold objects. he examination and analysis of gold foils and discs, necklaces, and necklace beads have been undertaken at the LC2RMF laboratory and at Volos with portable
systems. In this contribution, we present a irst approach to the Mycenaean goldsmithing techniques and we demonstrate that the goldwork was produced
with alluvial gold, sometimes with the addition of copper.
Mots-clés : Mycènes, Toison d’or, analyse, orfèvrerie, Kazanaki.
Keywords: Mycenae, Golden Fleece, analysis, goldwork, Kazanaki.
1. INTRODUCTION
Une tradition mythologique très riche relie la hessalie à la
civilisation mycénienne, à la famille royale d’Iolkos (AdrimiSismani, 2007) et au mythe de Jason et des Argonautes,
envoyés en Colchide – la région du Caucase en mer Noire –
pour chercher la Toison d’or.
Environ 200 sites mycéniens ont pu être identiiés en
hessalie, parmi lesquels Dimini, situé près du port de la
ville moderne de Volos (Adrimi-Sismani, 2004), qui comporte des ateliers d’orfèvrerie, avec des outils en bronze, et
d’importants entrepôts (Adrimi-Sismani et Godart, 2005).
Ces espaces administratifs, économiques et religieux avec les
habitats voisins de Palia/Kastro Volos et Pefkakia et quatre
tombes à tholos destinées à l’enterrement de membres de
familles royales, semblent correspondre au fameux centre
d’Iolkos.
* Archaeological Institut of hessalian Studies – 74-76 Gambetta Str., 38221 Volos Greece. (aiths@culture.gr)
** Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR 171 CNRS – 14, quai François-Mitterrand, 75001 Paris, France
(maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr), (philippe.walter@culture.fr)
rec. Oct. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 135-141
136
Pendant les travaux efectués dans les environs nord de la
ville moderne de Volos une quatrième tombe à tholos, de la
période HR IIIA2 – HR IIIB1 (1350 av. J.-C.), a été mise à
jour à Kazanaki, en 2004 (Adrimi-Sismani, 2008). La tombe
comporte un long dromos, une entrée et une chambre funéraire circulaire de 6,7 m de diamètre, avec quatre tombes à
fosse. Des signes incisés ont été repérés sur le linteau supérieur de la façade monumentale de la tombe. Des ossements
de plusieurs corps ont été identiiés (Papanastasiou, 2006).
Tous les objets, parmi lesquels un nombre important en or,
et les ossements avaient été regroupés dans un seul tas, brûlés in situ et puis remis dans les tombes à fosse, qui ont été
ensuite scellées.
Pour approcher la question de l’exploitation de gisements
d’or alluvionnaire, associés au mythe des Argonautes et de la
Toison d’or, 17 feuilles et disques de la tombe de Kazanaki
ont été déplacés au C2RMF pour être analysés à l’accélérateur AGLAE. D’autres éléments en or ont été étudiés in
situ avec des équipements portables, pour faire une première
approche aux techniques orfèvres utilisées dans la production d’objets mycéniens.
2. MÉTHODES
Les objets sélectionnés pour ce travail ont été examinés
sous loupe binoculaire ainsi que, au C2RMF, par radiographie X et par microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB)
avec un Philips XL30 ESEM en mode SE à 20 kV. Leur
analyse élémentaire a été efectuée à Volos avec un dispositif d’analyse par spectroscopie de luorescence des rayons X
basé sur un tube à rayons X Moxtek à anode ine d’argent et
fonctionnant à 35 kV et 95 μA. Le détecteur est une diode
SDD AXAS-V de Ketek, refroidie par efet Peltier. Sa résolution en énergie est de 140eV à 5.9 keV dans les conditions
usuelles de fonctionnement. La quantiication des données
est obtenue avec le logiciel PyMCA (Sole et al., 2007) par la
méthode des paramètres fondamentaux, après modélisation
précise de la source de rayons X. Les résultats quantitatifs
ont été validés dans diférents cas (Gianoncelli et al., 2006 ;
Viguerie et al., 2009) et pour les ors, une série de standards
ont permis de vériier la justesse des résultats (Tableau 1).
Au C2RMF l’analyse élémentaire est réalisée à l’accélérateur AGLAE au moyen des techniques PIXE et PIXE-XRF
(particle induced X-ray emission et FX induite par PIXE)
avec un faisceau de protons de 3 MeV extrait à l’air. La
technique PIXE utilise deux détecteurs de Si(Li), un dédié
à la détection des éléments majeurs et l’autre, avec un iltre
sélectif de 75 μm de Cu, dédié à la mesure des éléments
mineurs et traces (Guerra et Calligaro, 2004). La technique
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 135-141
Vassiliki ADRIMI-SISMANI, Maria Filomena GUERRA, Philippe WALTER
Lyon Allemand 6917
mesuré
certiié
Lyon Allemand A
mesuré
certiié
Lyon Allemand 893
mesuré
certiié
Authentico E-2
mesuré
certiié
Authentico A-1
mesuré
certiié
Authentico A-2
mesuré
certiié
Authentico E-1
mesuré
certiié
Au %
74,2
76,0
90,1
92,0
72,6
75,2
56,7
56,0
91,0
92,6
73,8
74,6
53,1
50,8
Ag %
18,3
17,0
5,3
4,0
7,4
5,7
42,8
43,5
7,7
6,4
23,4
22,6
46,8
49,2
Cu %
7,5
7,0
4,6
4,0
20,0
19,1
0,5
0,5
1,3
1,0
2,8
2,8
0,1
0,0
Tableau 1 : Valeurs certiiées et mesurées par luorescence à
rayons X d’un groupe de standards.
Table 1: heoretical values and compositional results for a group of
standards analysed by XRF.
PIXE-XRF utilise pour la mesure du Pt dans les alliages en
or, une cible primaire de As et un iltre de 25 μm de Zn
(Guerra et al., 2005 ; Guerra, 2004).
3. RÉSULTATS ET DISCUSSION
Nous avons étudié 22 fragments de bandes d’or décorées
en ondulé et d’épaisseur et tailles diférentes, 14 disques,
13 perles de collier à doubles spirales et à papyrus, et 2 colliers à rosettes et leurs de lis (types de perles selon Higgins,
1980). La composition élémentaire des objets se trouve sur
le Tableau 2.
Les feuilles et les disques
Les feuilles et les disques sont fabriqués par martelage, des
oriices de 130-140 μm de diamètre permettent leur application sur des vêtements (Higgins, 1980). Leur morphologie,
l’absence de traces d’usure et leur ine épaisseur indiquent
qu’il s’agit d’une production à but funéraire. Certaines
feuilles, très ines et froissées, ne révèlent leur décoration
ondulée qu’à la radiographie X. Leur composition est homogène (Tableau 2), seules deux feuilles possèdent des teneurs
en Cu supérieures à 2 %, et correspond à l’électrum naturel
(selon la déinition de Pline, Zehnacker, 1983). D’autres
objets possèdent des teneurs identiques, comme une épingle
à cheveux du IIIe millénaire, de typologie proche de l’épingle
de Troie (Swann et al., 1997).
137
La tombe mycénienne de Kazanaki (Volos) et le mythe de la Toison d’or
Feuilles (PIXE)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
en vague
Feuilles (XRF)
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
moyenne (sans n°3)
écart-type
Disques (PIXE)
1
2
Disques (XRF)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Collier BE36161 (XRF)
lis 1
2
3
4
5
rosette 1
2
3
4
5
moyenne
écart-type
Collier BE36137 (XRF)
1
2
3
4
5
moyenne
écart-type
Perles BE 30000 (XRF)
1
2
3
4
5
Perles BE36111
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
moyenne
écart-type
Tableau 2 : Résultats obtenus par PIXE et
FX portable pour tous les objets de Kazanaki
analysés et pour des objets mycéniens analysés par d’autres auteurs.
Table 2: Compositional results for all the analysed objects from Kazanaki by XRF and PIXE
and for a few Mycenaean objects analysed by
other authors.
Autres auteurs
Schliemann 1878
Hackens 1993
Hartmann 1970
Vavelidis and Andreou
2008
Au %
Ag %
Cu %
Pd ppm
Sn ppm
Sb ppm
76,1
75,4
87,1
79,2
76,2
71,5
76,0
74,8
76,5
75,4
70,7
73,7
76,4
75,4
75,7
21,7
22,8
12,0
19,0
21,7
25,0
22,7
22,9
21,5
22,8
25,3
24,2
21,5
22,8
21,2
1,4
1,4
0,6
1,5
1,5
2,9
0,9
1,4
1,5
1,4
2,7
1,3
1,5
1,4
2,0
100
120
70
90
100
130
140
100
100
100
130-320
<30
100
100
120
750
650
100
40
700
500
700
770
600
650
600
700
850
700
600
50
50
25
<30
40
50
50
50
60
100
30-800
50
50
75
50
78,0
78,0
78,3
81,0
78,2
79,2
77,7
76,4
2,5
20,6
20,5
20,2
17,2
20,1
19,2
20,6
21,6
2,0
1,5
1,5
1,5
1,8
1,7
1,6
1,7
1,6
0,5
71,7
63,6
23,1
31,4
4,8
4,3
70
200
150
70-350
<30
<30
83,9
76,5
84,8
70,8
82,2
75,0
83,4
83,0
76,4
85,3
68,0
68,2
14,7
19,7
14,0
25,1
16,4
19,4
15,2
15,3
20,8
11,7
29,9
30,9
1,4
3,8
1,3
4,2
1,4
5,6
1,4
1,6
2,8
3,0
2,1
0,9
73,4
74,4
73,7
74,0
74,7
73,0
71,4
73,8
75,0
75,2
73,9
1,1
25,7
24,8
25,4
25,5
24,8
25,9
28,2
25,2
24,4
24,2
25,4
1,1
0,9
0,8
1,0
0,5
0,6
1,1
0,4
1,0
0,6
0,6
0,8
0,2
80,0
80,3
83,2
81,9
81,1
81,3
1,3
18,3
18,4
15,8
17,3
17,6
17,5
1,0
1,7
1,3
1,0
0,9
1,3
1,2
0,3
82,2
74,2
76,1
78,1
80,2
15,4
16,9
21,3
17,1
15,9
2,3
8,9
2,6
4,8
3,9
87,6
86,5
86,1
86,9
84,0
87,4
88,8
88,6
87,0
1,5
9,2
10,9
11,8
10,0
13,6
10,5
9,6
9,3
10,6
1,5
3,2
2,6
2,1
3,1
2,4
2,2
1,7
2,1
2,4
0,5
Tombe 4
Tombe 4
coupe moyenne
écart-type
bande
diadème
feuille
perle
il
globule
Au %
89,36
73,11
82,45
0,78
87,85
75,1
90,3
77,5
99,8
78,8
Ag %
8,55
23,37
17,47
0,76
12,17
24,9
9,25
22
0,15
20,35
Cu %
0,57
2,22
0,08
0,04
0,5
0,55
<0,10
3,5
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 135-141
138
Vassiliki ADRIMI-SISMANI, Maria Filomena GUERRA, Philippe WALTER
a
c
Les disques se séparent en trois groupes chimiques
(Fig. 2), dont un s’approche de celui des feuilles. La couleur
des feuilles se situe dans le vert-jaune du diagramme ternaire
de couleur (Rapson, 1990), alors que la couleur des disques
se situe dans la région jaune.
Les colliers BE36137 et BE36161
et les perles BE36111
Le collier BE36137 est constitué de perles creuses en
forme de rosette à six pétales. Ces mêmes perles intercalées de perles en forme de leur de lis constituent le collier
BE36161. Les perles BE36111 sont à double spirale.
Toutes les perles sont fabriquées de façon identique : une
feuille lisse à l’arrière (parfois pliée sur la feuille avant) et une
feuille avant (Fig. 3a), dont le motif est obtenu par pression
sur une matrice (Treister et Hargrave, 2001). Les perles sont
percées de chaque côté (vers l’intérieur) d’un oriice pour
BE36137 (environ 230 μm de diamètre), de deux oriices
pour BE36161 (environ 200μm de diamètre, Fig. 3b) et
de trois oriices pour BE36111 (200-300 μm de diamètre).
Malgré l’absence de soudures visibles sous binoculaire, il est
possible que cette technique ait été utilisée (Schorsch, 1992).
L’absence de traces d’usure indique que ces objets sont une
production à but funéraire.
La composition de chaque collier est très homogène
(Tableau 1). BE36161 est réalisé avec un alliage très proche
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 135-141
b
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Les perles : (a) en rosette et lis
du collier BE36161 ; (b) à papyrus BE30000 ; (c) à double spirale
BE36111.
Figure 1: (See colour plate) he beads: (a) rosette and lily from necklace BE36161; (b) papyrus BE30000; (c) double volute BE36111.
de celui des feuilles alors que BE36137 a une composition
très proche de celle des disques de meilleure qualité. Malgré
des teneurs en cuivre qui varient de 1,7 à 3,2 %, la teneur
en argent de BE36111 est homogène mais inférieure aux
teneurs mesurées pour les autres objets de Kazanaki. Les
teneurs en argent et en cuivre des alliages se situent dans les
valeurs espérées pour l’or natif et leurs couleurs se partagent
entre les régions vert-jaune et jaune du diagramme ternaire
de couleur (Rapson, 1990).
Les perles BE30000
Cinq perles creuses à papyrus BE30000 (motif utilisé à
l’époque minoenne en orfèvrerie et céramique, Evans, 1921),
présentant des signes d’usure, sont de couleur, d’épaisseur de
feuille et de facture distinctes des autres perles étudiées dans
ce travail. Deux feuilles estampées sont soudées pour former
la perle, qui est percée en haut et en bas, vers l’intérieur,
d’oriices de 300 μm de diamètre. Les alliages possèdent des
teneurs en argent de 15 à 21 % et en cuivre de 2 à 9 %.
Leur couleur va du jaune rougeâtre au jaune verdâtre du
diagramme ternaire de couleur (Rapson, 1990).
Les alliages et l’origine de l’or
La concentration d’or est inférieure à 89 % pour tous
les objets analysés, ceci concordant avec la composition
des feuilles de la tombe 4 de Mycènes (Schliemann, 1878),
d’une coupe mycénienne dite de Syrie (Hackens, 1983), de
deux objets mycéniens publiés par Hartmann en 1970, de
feuilles et globules de creuset trouvés dans une tombe mycénienne en hessalie et des objets de Kastanas (Vavelidis et
Andreou, 2007) (voir Tableau 2).
La tombe mycénienne de Kazanaki (Volos) et le mythe de la Toison d’or
139
a
b
Figure 2 : Diagramme ternaire représentant les éléments Au-Ag-Cu
(en %) pour les objets de la tombe de Kazanaki analysés par PIXE
et par FX portable.
Figure 2: Ternary diagram for the base-alloys of the objects from
Kazanaki, Au-Ag-Cu (in %), analysed by PIXE and by portable XRF.
Les deux colliers et les perles à double spirale possèdent
une composition élémentaire très homogène pour chaque
ensemble, ce qui permet de suggérer une fabrication unique
par ensemble. Si l’on en exclue deux, les feuilles d’or possèdent aussi une composition homogène, contrairement aux
disques (l’analyse d’un plus grand nombre pourrait révéler
trois groupes distincts) et aux cinq perles à papyrus.
Tous les alliages contiennent des teneurs en argent
typiques des ors alluvionnaires (Raub, 1995), néanmoins
les teneurs en cuivre de certains de ces objets ne peuvent
être obtenues que par ajout volontaire (Guerra et Rehren,
2009 ; Hauptamann et Klein, 2009). La teneur en cuivre de
certains disques et de trois perles à papyrus peut atteindre,
respectivement, 6 et 9 %. Rappelons que la cémentation
est un procédé métallurgique qui n’apparaît qu’au Ier millénaire av. J.-C. (Ramage et Craddock, 2000) ; la couleur et
les propriétés des alliages à l’époque mycénienne dépendent
alors de la teneur en argent des ors disponibles et ne peuvent être modiiées que par ajout de cuivre. Les concentrations en cuivre mesurées pour nos objets varient entre 0,5 et
9 %. Les concentrations mesurées par Vavelidis et Andreou
(2007) pour des pépites provenant de gisements alluvionnaires en Grèce, pour Kastanas et pour les feuilles d’or ne
dépassent pas 0,5 % (alors que l’argent varie de 1 à 22 %) ;
des valeurs identiques ont été mesurées pour les objets mycéniens publiés par Schliemann (1878), Hartmann (1970) ;
Figure 3 : Détails sous loupe binoculaire du montage des perles à :
(a) double spirale BE36111 ; (b) rosette et lis du collier BE36161.
Figure 3: Details under the stereomicroscope of the mounting of: (a)
double volutes beads BE36111; (b) rosette and lily beads from necklaces BE36161.
Hackens, 1983. Néanmoins, le globule de creuset publié
par Vavelidis et Andreou, 2007 possède 3,5 % de cuivre.
L’addition de cuivre à des ors alluvionnaires est une pratique
qui semble avoir été employée aussi à la même époque en
Égypte et en Géorgie (respectivement Troalen et al., 2009 ;
Hauptmann et Klein, 2009) et en Anatolie dès le milieu du
IIIe millénaire (Swann et al., 1997).
En ce qui concerne la question de l’origine de l’or, l’analyse de 17 feuilles et disques par PIXE montre des teneurs en
Sn qui peuvent atteindre 850 ppm (Tableau 2). Un groupe
chimique avec de fortes teneurs en Pd et Sn est accompagné
d’une droite (Fig. 4) où s’alignent les autres objets, notamment les trois disques analysés. La présence de Sn et/ou Pt
dans les ors est en général liée à l’exploitation de gisements
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 135-141
140
Vassiliki ADRIMI-SISMANI, Maria Filomena GUERRA, Philippe WALTER
Figure 4 : Représentation des teneurs
en Pd et en Sn (en ppm) mesurées par
PIXE.
Figure 4: Pd and Sn contents (in ppm)
measured by PIXE.
alluvionnaires (Dube, 2006). Néanmoins, aucune inclusion
de platinoïdes (Meeks et Tite, 1980) n’a pu être décelée sur
la surface des objets. Malgré la taille et l’épaisseur des feuilles
d’or, nous avons estimé par PIXE-XRF les concentrations
de Pt pour six d’entre elles. Les résultats montrent qu’une
partie des objets possède des teneurs inférieures à la limite
de détection (80 ppm) alors que les autres possèdent des
concentrations estimées à 200-500 ppm. Seul un plus grand
nombre d’analyses permettrait de vériier l’existence de deux
groupes.
La présence de Sn et de Pt dans les alliages conforte l’hypothèse de l’utilisation d’ors alluvionnaires à Volos pendant
la période mycénienne. Néanmoins, le manque de données
sur les caractéristiques géochimiques des sources d’or à l’Age
du Bronze en Méditerranée, en Égypte et dans le Levant
– nous rappelons les circuits commerciaux à cette époque,
notamment le lapis-lazuli qui devrait provenir d’Afghanistan (Hughes-Brock, 1999) – nous empêche de proposer à
présent une provenance pour ces ors. Il faudra néanmoins
remarquer que les ors analysés par Hauptmann et Klein
(2009) de mines en Géorgie exploitées à l’Âge du Bronze
présentent de faibles teneurs en Sn et Pt.
4. CONCLUSION
L’étude analytique de feuilles, disques et perles de colliers
de la tombe à tholos de Kazanaki nous a permis de réaliser
une première approche aux pratiques orfèvres et à l’origine
de l’or en hessalie à l’époque mycénienne. Si l’on excepte
les perles à papyrus, tous les objets ont vraisemblablement
été produits dans un but funéraire, à partir de ines feuilles
d’or, parfois décorées par estampage. Les perles sont creuses,
obtenues par assemblage de deux coques et ensuite percées.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 135-141
Les disques et les feuilles sont percés pour application sur
des vêtements.
Les teneurs en argent varient entre 9 et 31 % et en cuivre
entre 0,5 et 9 %. Si les teneurs en argent sont typiques des
ors natifs, les teneurs en cuivre dépassant 2 % correspondent à des alliages volontaires. Nous pouvons suggérer la
recherche d’efets polychromes par simple ajout de cuivre à
des ors natifs, dont la quantité d’argent est variable, ce qui
laisse un large choix à l’orfèvre. Les ensembles sont homogènes, sauf les perles à papyrus et les disques. L’analyse de la
totalité des disques pourrait montrer trois groupes homogènes correspondant à trois séries de fabrication distincte.
L’homogénéité des alliages pourrait, après analyse de tous les
objets de la tombe, séparer les productions par enterrement.
L’analyse PIXE et PIXE-XRF de feuilles et disques révèle
la présence de Sn et Pt, éléments caractéristiques des ors alluvionnaires. Les ors mycéniens de Volos peuvent ainsi avoir
été exploités grâce à l’utilisation de peaux de béliers, ou toisons d’or. Si l’origine alluvionnaire de ces ors est clairement
prouvée, leur provenance reste non identiiée par manque
de données géochimiques. Seule l’analyse d’objets provenant
d’autres sites mycéniens et de sites en Géorgie chronologiquement proches, permettrait de montrer le rapport entre
la hessalie et la Colchide prouvant que les ors de Kazanaki
sont ceux de la mythique Toison d’or.
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ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 135-141
he Phoenician gold jewellery from Kition, Cyprus
L’orfèvrerie phénicienne en or de Kition, Chypre
Pavlos Flourentzos* and Maria Luisa Vitobello**
Abstract: In 1998, a built tomb was excavated on the southern outskirts of the town of Larnaca. he tomb was labelled MLA 1742 and included
a unique collection of jewellery that likely adorned the deceased. heir assemblage totalled twenty three pieces belonging to various jewellery
typologies, manufactured in gold and ornate with semi-precious stones. he tomb shows several ritual similarities with the famous Royal Tombs
of Salamis. It can be suggested that a member of the Kition Phoenicians’ upper classes was buried here, possibly even a member of the royal family
of this city. he tomb is dated to a period around the end of the 8th century BC, when Cyprus was under a strong orientalising inluence, due in
all probability to the presence of Phoenician settlers in Kition. Various goldsmithing techniques, such as granulation, cloisonné, etc., were applied
in the production of artefacts. Some of the jewellery typologies are quite rare or even unique. he rings and swivel rings found in the tomb show
a strong Egyptian inluence, revealed in the decorative representation of various Egyptian deities and other Egyptian motifs.
he variety of the jewellery and their well-known ind spot provided the opportunity to study the hoard and gather more precise data that will facilitate the investigation of similar artefacts in the future. A pilot study, reported in this volume by Guerra and Rehren, within the AUTHENTICO
research project activities was carried out on some of the artefacts, showing the high caratage of the gold alloys used in the fabrication of the
jewellery.
Résumé : En 1998 une tombe a été fouillée dans la banlieue sud de la ville de Larnaca. La tombe, référencée MLA 1742, comprenait un ensemble
unique d’orfèvrerie de parure du défunt. L’ensemble était constitué de vingt-trois pièces de typologies diverses, fabriquées en or et ornées de pierres semiprécieuses. La tombe présente plusieurs signes de rituels comparables à ceux des fameuses Tombes royales de Salamis. Nous pouvons suggérer qu’un membre
de la haute société phénicienne de Kition y était enterré, voire même un membre de la famille royale de la cité. La tombe est datée de la in du VIIIe siècle
av. J.-C. quand Chypre se trouvait sous une forte inluence orientalisante, attribuable selon toute probabilité à la présence de colons Phéniciens à Kition.
Plusieurs techniques orfèvres, telles la granulation, le cloisonné, etc., ont été utilisées pour la production de ces pièces d’orfèvrerie. Certaines typologies de
ces pièces sont très rares, voire uniques. Les anneaux et les bagues pivotantes trouvés dans la tombe présentent une forte inluence égyptienne, révélée par
les représentations de diférentes divinités Egyptiennes et de motifs égyptiens. La variété de l’orfèvrerie et leur célèbre lieu de découverte ont fourni l’opportunité d’étudier ce dépôt et de rassembler des données exactes qui faciliteront les recherches dans l’avenir sur des objets similaires. Une étude pilote, dans le
cadre des activités de recherche du projet AUTHENTICO et présentée dans ce volume par Guerra et Rehren, a été menée sur cette orfèvrerie permettant
de montrer la haute qualité des alliages d’or utilisés pour fabriquer les pièces.
Keywords: cloisonné, Cyprus, ibula, granulation, jewellery, Phoenicia, Kition.
Mots-clés : cloisonné, Chypre, ibule, granulation, orfèvrerie, Phénicie, Kition.
1. INTRODUCTION
Kition was one of the most important kingdoms of
Cyprus, located in the south-eastern part of the island
(Fig. 1) and hosting one of the most signiicant hoards
in Cyprus dating from Antiquity. he ancient town has a
Mycenaean pre-history; however, it also lourished since
the 9th century BC, when an important tribe of traders and
* Department of antiquities – 1, Museum Avenue, 1516 Nicosia, Cyprus. (plourentzos@da.mcw.gov.cy)
** EJTN GEIE – 124, Rue du Commerce, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium. (info@ejtn.org)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 143-149
144
Pavlos FLOURENTZOS, Maria Luisa VITOBELLO
Figure 1: Map of Cyprus with
the localisation of Larnaca.
Figure 1 : La carte de Chypre
avec la localisation de Larnaca.
seafarers came to colonize the area. hose seafarers were of
course Phoenicians, originally from the famous city of Tyre
in the Levant (Geling and Viemer, 1990).
Since the Ancient and Classical periods (8th to 5th century BC), a Phoenician dynasty ruled Kition. In 1998, an
isolated built tomb – as it was not part of a wider necropolis – of monumental architecture was excavated in the
south-western outskirts of modern Larnaca (Fig. 2). he
tomb had a chamber and a dromos where sacriices of horses
were exposed, with bronze components from the horses’
harnesses. Inside the tomb, due to great amount of water
lowing in throughout the centuries, completely deteriorated
bones were found (Hadjsawas, 2000; Karageorghis, 1976).
Apart from the jewellery that is presented below, various
vessels imported from Phoenicia were also found. An
amphora showing a unique decoration, which was closed
with a lid, deserves special attention. he jewellery consists
of various types of pendants and beads (part of a necklace
or necklaces), earrings, bracelets, rings and a unique gold
ibula (Pierides, 1971).
2. EARRINGS
Five earrings were found: all of them belong to the boat
or leech shape typology, and are forged from a single piece
of solid cast gold, hammered and shaped as a crescent. One
end of the crescent extends to form the hanging hoop from
which the hook is tapered, smoothed out into a ine needle
for insertion into the ear.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 143-149
3. RINGS
hree rings of solid gold were discovered in the tomb. he
irst one (MLA 1742/1) is a gold ring with an ivory intaglio
bezel. he hoop and the bezel were worked separately; the
ring is made of a single piece of solid gold, cast in a mould,
while the hoop’s surface is roughly inished by burnishing.
he upper side of the hoop has an elliptical bezel, bearing
a separate seal device. he sphragistic device, broken into
three pieces, is engraved with the representation of an ibis
standing on its side, while the background is illed with crossed lines representing bamboo or papyrus.
he second one (MLA 1742/2) is a gold ring with an
indigo (sodalite) intaglio gem. he artefact shows an identical structure and manufacturing techniques to the previous
ring, also having an elliptical bezel with a removable seal
device. he sphragistic device is engraved and depicts the
Egyptian goddess of life Maat with a feather. he goddess
Maat was the personiication of the basic laws of all existence; she embodied the concepts of law, truth and world
order. In the Egyptian tradition, judges were regarded as
priests of Maat.
he third object (MLA 1742/3) is also a gold ring with
faience intaglio. he manufacturing techniques are similar
to those already mentioned above; the seal, however, is not
removable, possibly to withstand daily use. Another interesting feature of this ring is that the intaglio, broken and
partly worn, possibly depicts an ibis and a feather.
he Phoenician gold jewellery from Kition, Cyprus
145
Figure 2: The localisation of the
Phoenician tomb of Kition in modern
Larnaca.
Figure 2 : La localisation de la tombe phénicienne de Kition dans la ville moderne
de Larnaca.
4. BRACELETS
he tomb also yielded two unique bracelets. he irst one
(MLA 1742/18) (Fig. 3) consists of two parts: a ribbon bracelet and a circular box setting, holding a discoid cabochon
agate, having at the centre an eye reminiscent of the eye of
Horus, having an apotropaic signiicance in ancient tradition. he stone is set into a box setting, the sides of which
and top frame are granulated. he strap consists of a ribbon
obtained from four parallel double loop-in-loop chains,
threaded through by additional loops linking the chains
and forming the braided strap up to the desired length. At
both ends of the ribbon, the inials have their loops extended
by approximately 25 mm to provide hinges through which
pivots connect the ribbon to the box setting. he box setting
is decorated with a row of granules and alternating granulated triangles; a row of granules runs along the full length
of the side; a border of round wire encircles the entire side
below, with an additional double braided wire above the
round wire. A thin top plate is fused to a cylinder forming
the outer wall of the box; starting from the outer edge, the
centre frame is decorated with a circle of round wire and a
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 143-149
146
Pavlos FLOURENTZOS, Maria Luisa VITOBELLO
Figure 3: (See colour plate) he bracelet from the tomb of Kition
with circular box setting holding a discoid cabochon agate, reference MLA 1742/18.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Le bracelet de la tombe de Kition
possédant une monture circulaire contenant une agate en cabochon,
référence MLA 1742/18.
row of granules alternating with granulated triangles pointing inward towards the centre of the box. A second row
of granules, showing granulated triangles pointing outward
from the centre and a circlet of round wire, delimitates the
inner border of the frame. On both sides of the box, diagonally opposed, tiny cylinders obtained from coiled wires
form the hinges through which the pivots are inserted to
connect the ribbons’ hinges to the box setting.
From a technical and an artistic point of view, this bracelet is
extremely attractive and rare; if considering the manufacturing
techniques, the combination and reinement of the applied
competences and skills of the ancient craftsman that fabricated
this artefact render it more than exceptional worldwide.
he second bracelet (MLA 1742/19) (Fig. 4) is manufactured with an entirely diferent technique. It consists of
a quadruple loop-in-loop chain, with a wire diameter of
0.4 mm and a chain length of 180 mm. At both ends of
the chain, an inner tapering wire pivot is inserted through
the scarab’s suspension-hole to allow swivelling; the wire
is wound into and around the bracelet’s inal loops, coiled
fourfold around itself to secure the scarab. he scarab is set
inside an elliptical bezel, with its sides smoothly rounded of
at both ends, two globules (recalling dung balls) holding the
scarab. he globules are embossed, and joined to the bezel
by fusing. Both globules show a round hole in the lower
part, to allow the connecting tapered wire to pass through.
he scarab is carved both on the soft round top and lat on
the backside, and its surface is decorated with an inscription showing Egyptian hieroglyphics: on its lower part, two
goddesses seated side by side and three ‘beathyls’ topped by
a cartouche. he cartouche is typically evidence of objects
often associated with the Pharaoh.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 143-149
Figure 4: (See colour plate) he bracelet from the tomb of Kition with
a scarab and a quadruple loop-in-loop chain, reference MLA 1742/19.
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Le bracelet de la tombe de Kition avec un
scarabée et une chaîne en quadruple loop-in-loop, référence MLA 1742/18.
5. THE NECKLACE
Another important ind is an extraordinary necklace
consisting of seventeen beads and pendants of various
shapes and signiicances. he gold elements of the necklace
are obtained from high carat natural gold alloy, an aspect
conirmed by further characterization (Guerra and Rehren,
2009). One of these is a gold sheet disc (MLA 1742/25)
(Fig. 5) made of beaten gold sheet and framed by a round
wire edge fused onto it. A large granule is positioned in the
centre of the disc. Such a disc is a diagnostic symbol of the
goddess Astarte, often represented ornate with a crescent,
the goddess’ symbol.
hree beads of this necklace (MLA 1742/34, 6, 7) are
spherical, made of high carat gold alloy, and obtained by
joining two hemispheres, each one embossed out of thick
plate. he joining of the two halves is clearly outlined by
magniication. he upper hemisphere is pierced at the top,
where a small round suspension loop is inserted and fused.
In addition, there are also two acorn-shaped beads made
of high carat gold alloy (MLA 1742/30, 9), obtained by the
same technique described above; the upper hemisphere is
147
he Phoenician gold jewellery from Kition, Cyprus
Figure 5: (See colour plate) Mounting proposal for the necklace of
Kition, containing seventeen beads and pendants of various shapes.
Figure 5 : (Voir planche couleur) Proposition de montage du collier
de Kition, consistant en dix-sept perles et pendentifs de formes variées.
bordered by a row of granules from which three granulated
triangles pointing downwards provide additional decoration.
he necklace also consists of four cylindrical beads (MLA
1742/17, 28, 31, and 32). hree beads (numbers 28, 31,
32) are made from marble and agate, pierced longitudinally
and itted at both ends with gold sheet inials. he other
one, no. 17, is made from ivory, is plain and does not bear
golden sheet inials.
Another element of the necklace is a plain spherical agate
pierced through (MLA 1742/33).
An additional outstanding bead (MLA 1742/29) is executed in a stone – probably marble – representing a bull’s
protome, delicately carved to enhance the eyes, nose, and
ears: the forehead is decorated with the Astarte sun disc,
represented by carved dots. he bezel which surrounds the
bead is obtained from gold sheet; two decorative rows of
round wire and a central row of braided wire are positioned
and fused along the lower side of the bezel, encircling the
seal; both bead and bezel are pierced through in the top
part to allow threading, while the two opposed holes are
bordered by two round loops. he height of the pendant
allows for an engraved back side seal representing a goddess
with uplifted arms.
Two scarabs (MLA 1742/4, 5) represent further elements
of the necklace. No. 4 consists of an engraved faience scarab,
pierced longitudinally for suspension. On each side of the
opening, two globules (dung balls), obtained by embossing
thin gold plate, are fused to the bezel, holding the jewel. he
high bezel is made of gold sheet; the scarab’s backside seal is
engraved, showing centred on the surface an alabaster bottle,
lanked by two C-shaped ornaments and, on the outer edge,
on both sides, two ankhs symbols are engraved.
he other scarab (no. 5) is quite unique in its conception; it is composed of two superimposed elements: a scarab,
obtained from embossed gold sheet, with delicate features
reproducing the animal’s details, is positioned over a back
seal stone, in turn set into a golden bezel. he entire upper
gold surface of the embossed scarab has a patina, the origin of which needs further investigation. he back side
seal, positioned under the golden carapace, is also carved,
showing probably a hieroglyphic symbol lanked by two
feathers.
Finally, the necklace has two other golden beads. he irst
(MLA 1742/16) is made of gold alloy, possibly representing
a vase; the body is topped by a cylindrical neck, its upper
part decorated with one loop of round wire, one loop of
braided wire (two twisted wires facing opposite direction),
and another loop of round wire; the wires are fused onto
the neck surface.
he second bead (MLA 1742/8) has a lentoid shape, and
is obtained from two hemispheres of embossed gold sheet;
the bead is open on both sides to allow threading; both sides
of the opening are bordered by rows of granules. Along the
circumference, two rows of granules deine each hemisphere;
along each row, six granulated triangles, alternating with six
granulated lozenges, decorate both the upper and the lower
hemisphere of the bead.
6. THE FIBULA
he gold ibula (MLA 1742/20) (Fig. 6) is obtained from
a single gold rod, skilfully forged to the desired triangular
shape, which recalls an inverted bow. he bow is pinched
at the top into a loop from which both sides extend and
are elegantly shaped into inverted curves; on one side, the
body lows into the coiled spring, and then tapers into the
needle; on the other side, the body is forged shaped into the
foot and catch plate. his typology of ibula is deined as
an inverted bow-shaped ibula (Gjerstad, 1948). As decorative elements, three cloisonné rosettes are positioned on the
top and on both sides of the ibula. he Egyptian inluence
of these particular elements is worth mentioning: similar
rosettes decorate the head-dress of an Egyptian lady from
the court of Tuthmosis III, 18th Dynasty, 1450 BC, hebes
(Heiniger and Heiniger, 1974).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 143-149
148
Figure 6: (See colour plate) he unique inverted bow-shaped gold
ibula of Kition, reference MLA 1742/20.
Figure 6 : (Voir planche couleur) L’unique ibule en or à l’arc inverse
de Kition, référence MLA 1742/20.
he top rosette is eleven-petalled, the right rosette (facing
the coil) is ten-petalled, while the left rosette (facing the
catch-plate) is nine-petalled. Each rosette is obtained from
gold sheet, strips of which form the cloisons. he cloisons outline the petals, which are illed with polychrome enamels of
various colours. Additional decorative elements of the artefact
are double loop-in-loop chains linked to the coiled spring:
from each chain, connected by means of suspension rings,
three delicately chiselled bells, recalling stylized lotus buds,
are hanging. A further extraordinary feature of this ibula is an
alef (a Phoenician letter) engraved on the front side, above the
rosette, probably representing the initial letter of the owner’s
name. During the Late Cypro-Geometric and Early CyproArchaic period (circa 850-700 BC) this type of ibulae were
mostly made of bronze; the shape is typically and diagnostically Cypriot, often found in tombs of the above mentioned period all over the island. Very rarely, this type of ibula
is made of silver: the ibula from the Kition-Larnaca built
tomb no. 1 thus represents a golden work of art of exceptional
importance for Cypriot and world heritage.
Preliminary to a inal publication which will reconstruct
the excavation’s context and methodology, some introducArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 143-149
Pavlos FLOURENTZOS, Maria Luisa VITOBELLO
tory content is provided in this paper, aiming to position
the artefact within its historical and archaeological context.
he ibula’s main body, of irregular triangular shape, can
easily be referred to Type 4b (Fig. 7) of the Cypriot ibulae,
according to the criteria already presented by the Swedish
Cyprus Expedition (Gjerstad, 1948: 145, Fig. 26, Bronze,
4a and 4b) and further conirmed by the typological analysis
(Stronach, 1959); it represents an original Cypriot type.
he chronological horizon appears to be clearly established around the 8th-7th century BC (Cypro-Geometric
period), tending to a lower dating of such a chronology. his
typology is common in the Syro-Palestinian area, and in
the Anatolian and Aegean environments, especially Rhodos
and Aegina.
Characteristic features of the Kition ibula are the addition of three chains and lotus bud pendants, and, above all,
the exceptional enrichment of three cloisonné rosettes to the
main body, enhanced by polychrome enamel cloisons, which
are placed two at the centre of each of the ibula’s arms, and
one at the top of the ibula’s apex, respectively.
With their curved shape, both of the ibula’s arms appear
to recall the Egyptian solar boat: this appears evident in the
bows’ shapes, which meet towards the apex with an elegant
decorative efect, while the two rosettes, topping both arms,
are placed in the area where the cabin is usually located.
Such a tendency to use Egyptian or Egyptianizing elements or symbolism in such an eclectic and audacious way
is a typical and founding aspect of Phoenician art, of which
the Kition ibula is certainly one of the most original and
uncommon examples (Ciafaloni, 1995). Not only in jewellery, but also in glyptic arts (i.e. on a chalcedony scarab
at the Louvre Museum) and in ivories (Herrmann, 1986:
nn. 989-994, Pls. 2255-2257), the solar boat symbolism
is widely asserted, and represented in numerous and ingenuous variations with respect to the classical Egyptian interpretation.
Phoenician sumptuous objects had a widespread difusion
with all Mediterranean elites, in this particular instance in
Figure 7: he elbow ibula of type 4 from Stronach (1959).
Figure 7 : La ibule à l’arc coudé de type 4 de Stronach (1959).
149
he Phoenician gold jewellery from Kition, Cyprus
its oriental area, in the chronological span already identiied, and in particular in Cyprus, as shown by the example
of the so-called Cypro-Phoenician bowls (Markoe 1985),
which constitute the most evident manifestation of such an
eclectic trend.
Within the Levantine and Cypriot environments, the
Phoenician craft was permeated with Mesopotamian and
Near-Eastern inluences; in fact, it can probably be inferred
that it shares an ample aesthetic and technical Koiné only
partially known.
Notwithstanding this aspect, the extraordinary recent
discovery of the Nimrud Queens Tombs (Damerji, 1999)
has added an impressive quantity of artefacts to the meagre
evidence related to Mesopotamian jewellery from the irst
millennium BC.
As an example, cloisonné and champlevé techniques are
widely exempliied by the application of enamels and semiprecious stone inlays on sumptuous bracelets (Damerji,
1999: Abb. 27-30), known until now only from relief reproductions of neo-Assyrian palaces.
It then appears that not only Egypt should be taken into
consideration as a source of the decorative technique applied
on the rosettes, even if, since the New Kingdom period,
there are undoubtedly copious testimonials of loral elements characterized by these techniques in Egypt (see the
head-dress of one of Tutmosis III’s wives from hebes, now
at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), as well as
in a Mycenaean setting (Demakopoulou, 1988).
To conclude, it could be stated that, in the Kition ibula,
the corpus of Egyptianizing elements generally recalling the
religious world steers towards an eschatological and symbolic interpretation of the artefact, possibly destined, since
its creation, for a real use in everyday life, to be worn by a
prince or a member of the Kition aristocracy, as well as for
funerary use.
Furthermore, the rosette motive in the Mesopotamian area
appears linked to the major oriental female goddess Ishtar/
Astarte, i.e. in neo-Assyrian setting, chronologically parallel (8th century BC) to the Kition ibula: cloisonné rosettes
appear on a bracelet from the above mentioned Nimrud
Queens Tombs (Damerji, 1999: Abb. 30), where the same
goddess is represented in the bracelet centre-plate. Taking
into account the eclectic and syncretic orientation of the
Phoenician culture already identiied above, it is possible to
assume that both sources, the Egyptian and Mesopotamian,
eiciently merge into a certainly unique artefact.
Acknowledgements
With thanks to Prof. Davide Ciafaloni, Università di Milano
Bicocca, Italy, for his collaboration and contribution concerning
the humanistic aspects of the research on the Kition ibula.
References
CIAFALONI, D., 1995. Iconographie et Iconologie, in V. Krings
(ed.), La civilisation phénicienne et punique. Manuel de recherche. Leiden: Brill, 535-549.
CULICAN, W., 1966. he irst merchant venturers: the ancient Levant
in history and commerce. London, hames & Hudson.
DAMERJI, M.S.B., 1999. Gräber assyrischer Königinnen aus Nimrud.
Mainz, Verlag des Römisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums.
DEMAKOPOULOU, K. (ed.), 1988. he Mycenaean World: Five
Centuries of Early Greek Culture, 1600-1100 BC. Athens:
Ministry of Culture, National Hellenic Committee (ICOM).
GELING, U. and VIEMER, H.G., 1990. Die Phoenizier in Zeitalter
Homer. Mainz.
GJERSTAD, E., 1948. he Cypro-Geometric, Cypro-Archaic and
Cypro-Classical Periods. he Swedish Cyprus Expedition, Vol.
IV, part II, Arts & Crafts. Stockholm, he Swedish Cyprus
Expedition.
GUERRA, M. F. and REHREN, Th. 2009. In-situ examination and
analysis of the gold jewellery from the Phoenician tomb of
Kition (Cyprus), ArcheoSciences 33.
HADJISAVVAS, S., 1999. Chronique de fouilles et decouvertes archeologique à Chypre. In BCH (123).
HEINIGER, E.A. and HEINIGER, J., 1974. he Great Book of Jewels.
Boston, New York Graphic Society.
HERRMANN, G., 1986. Ivories from room SW37 Fort Shalmanesher.
London, British School of Archaeology in Iraq.
KARAGEORGHIS, V., 1976. Kition Mycenaen and Phoenician discoveries in Cyprus. London, hames & Hudson.
MARKOE, G., 1985. Phoenician Bronze and Silver Bowls from
Cyprus and the Mediterranean. Berkeley, CA, University of
California Press.
MOSCATI, S., 1988. he Phoenicians, Milan.
PIERIDES, A., 1971. Jewellery in the Cyprus Museum. Nicosia,
Republic of Cyprus, Ministry of Communications and Works,
Department of Antiquities.
STRONACH, D., 1959. he Development of the Fibula in the Near
East. Iraq 21: 180-206.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 143-149
In-situ examination and analysis of the gold jewellery
from the Phoenician tomb of Kition (Cyprus)
Examen et analyse in situ d’orfèvrerie en or
de la tombe phénicienne de Kition (Chypre)
Maria Filomena Guerra* and hilo Rehren**
Abstract: he Phoenician tomb discovered in Kition in 1998 yielded some of the most impressive gold jewellery items recovered by archaeological excavations in Cyprus. Seal inger-rings, lunate earrings, necklace pendants, bracelets and a richly decorated elbow ibula exemplify the
goldsmith’s skill in the 8th-7th century BC. he aim of this work is to describe and illustrate the goldsmith’s techniques with low magniication
micrographs and to determine the variety in composition of the gold alloys used in the manufacture of 25 items. he study, integrated in the
European project AUTHENTICO, was carried out at the National Museum of Archaeology of Nicosia with a portable video camera equipped
with a zoom and a handheld XRF spectrometer.
Résumé : Parmi les objets d’orfèvrerie les plus impressionnants livrés par les fouilles archéologiques menées à Chypre, se trouvent ceux découverts en 1998
dans la tombe phénicienne de Kition. Bagues à sceau, boucles d’oreille, pendants de colliers, bracelets et une ibule à l’arc coudé richement décorée, mettent
en évidence la virtuosité de l’orfèvre au VIIIe-VIIe siècle av. J.-C. Le but de ce travail est de décrire et illustrer les techniques employées par l’orfèvre et de
déterminer la variété des alliages en or employés. L’étude analytique a été réalisée dans le cadre du projet européen AUTHENTICO, au Musée national
d’archéologie de Nicosie, à l’aide d’une camera vidéo portable équipée d’un zoom et d’un analyseur de luorescence X portable miniaturisé.
Keywords: Jewellery, analysis, Kition, Phoenician, gold.
Mots-clés : Orfèvrerie, analyse, Kition, phénicien, or.
1. INTRODUCTION
he Phoenician tomb MΛA 1742, with two chambers and a step dromos excavated near Larnaca in 1998
(Hadjisawas, 1999), delivered Phoenician pottery and
jewellery of high quality and exceptional iconography
described in a publication by Flourentzos and Vitobello
in this issue of ArcheoSciences. Similar costume jewellery
was found in other Phoenician sites of the Mediterranean
(Carpenter, 1958).
he aim of this work is to describe the diferent steps of
production of some of the 25 gold items found in the tomb
and to determine the base alloys used in the manufacture
of their diferent parts. Very few analytical studies address
Cypriot gold jewellery, and the number of gold objects generally found in the archaeological excavations from before
* Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR171 CNRS – 14, quai François-Mitterrand, 75001
Paris, France. (maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr)
** UCL Institute of Archaeology – 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, United Kingdom. (th.rehren@ucl.ac.uk)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 151-158
152
Maria Filomena GUERRA, hilo REHREN
the Late Cypriot period is small, most likely due to the
absence of gold sources on the island (Maxwell-Hyslop,
1971).
he jewellery inds in Cyprus are often stylistically connected to Syria-Palestine – ropes of twisted wire, rosettes,
granulated triangles, etc. – and Minoan-Mycenae – granulations (Lilyquist, 1993), pins, pennanular and twisted earrings, etc. – gold work. he rich Late Cypriot II inds of
Enkomi (Myres, 1914 ; Murray et al., 1970 ; Åström, 1972)
demonstrate the existence of relations with Tell Ajjul and
Meggido in Palestine, with Ras Shamra in Syria, with Troy
in Greece, etc.
From the 8th to the 7th century BC, the Mesopotamian inluence on the various jewellery working centres of the Levant
persists (Maxwell-Hyslop, 1960). he excavations of Amathus,
Salamis and Kition in Cyprus show that rich Phoenician goods
reached Cyprus during this period (Bikai, 1989).
The jewellery items from the Kition tomb that are
most representative of the relation of Cyprus with other
Mediterranean civilisations are the solid lunate earrings
(Fig. 1a) and the elbow triangular ibula (Fig. 1b); see also
the contribution by Flourentzos and Vitobello in this issue.
a
he main focus of this paper is on the massive gold
elbow triangular ibula of Kition, decorated with three
rosettes in inlaid cloisonné and hanging down chains with
lotus lower-shaped bells. he arrival of this type of ibula
in the Mediterranean region is related to the expansion of
Mycenaean trade, which brought new types of artefacts to
Cyprus towards the end of the 13th century BC (Stronach,
1959): along these lines, we can refer to the chamber
tomb with a dromos inds from Enkomi (Courtois, 1982),
Kato Alonia/Kouklia (Karageorghis, 1963), Amathus
(Karageorghis, 1988), Ayios Athanasios (Karageorghis,
1986) in Kourakou/Nicosia (Karageorghis, 1965), and
Alassa-Kandou/Limassol (Karageorghis, 1988). Usually in
bronze, triangular bow (or ‘knee’ or ‘elbow’) ibulae are very
popular from the 8th century BC to the 1st century AD in
Cyprus, Egypt and Persia, but also in France (Mohen et
al., 1971), Portugal (Ponte, 1999), the Caucasian regions
(Muscarella, 1965) and Spain (Chamorro, 1987).
he ibula from Kition has inlaid cloisonné rosettes and
lower bell-shaped pendants. he use of decorative rosettes
dates back to the 3rd millennium BC in Mesopotamia and
Egypt (Tait, 2006; Cline and O’Connor, 2006), and can
b
c
+
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 151-158
153
In-situ examination and analysis of the gold jewellery from the Phoenician tomb of Kition (Cyprus)
also be seen in a pin from Troy (Schliemann, 1880). hose
in inlaid cloisonné with red and blue glass paste can be seen
in the 15th century BC Egyptian Queen Iahhotep’s collar
(Collective, 2004) and in the Mycenaean inger ring from
Vapheio (Collective, 1988). he use of chains and bells is
common in Phoenician jewellery, and examples of it are represented by the earrings from Camyrus (Salzmann, 1863),
harros (Acquaro, 1984) and Liomilya/Kouklia (Brunet and
Moretti, 1990).
Solid lunate earrings in gold, bronze and silver, characterized by a solid crescentic body from one end of which
the pin for suspension rises, were found as early as the 3rd
millennium BC at Ur and took various forms during the
Iron Age (Hawkes, 1961). In this context, we are reminded
of those from Ajjul (10th century BC), Nimrud (7th century BC) and Tell Fara (11th-10th century BC) (Curtis and
Maxwell-Hyslop, 1971). In Cyprus, leech-shaped earrings
– an elongated version of the tapered hoop (Higgins, 1980),
but with elongated loop – were found in Kouklia (Catling,
1968), Mesayitonia – Limassol (Karageorghis, 1963b), and
in Amathus (Karageorghis, 1979).
Other inds from the tomb include a necklace with stone
inlay and a bracelet with a scarab inlay, both with delicate
loop-in-loop wirework; several beads or pendants made
entirely from gold, some with ine iligree work, and several stone or faience beads with gold inials; and several
metal signet rings with cartouche-shaped bezels containing
faience, glass or stone inlays. A full presentation of the inds
is in preparation (Flourentzos forthcoming).
2. RESULTS
For the study of the jewellery items from Kition, we used a
high resolution Flexia video microscope with a zoom reaching x80, a built-in LED illumination and a Bersoft image
measurement software. he analysis of the alloys was carried
out with a handheld XRF spectrometer, Innov-X Systems
Model Alpha 8000 LZX, with a silver tube, and operating
at 40 kV, 29 μA, and employing a quantiication method
optimised for alloys.
he XRF analyses were carried out with an acquisition
time of 25 sec, resulting in lifetimes of 19-22 sec. Precision
and accuracy were tested by repeated analyses of a range of
both certiied and internal reference materials with compositions comparable to the gold alloys studied (Table 1).
Precision was found to be always better than 5% relative,
and accuracy was typically better than 10% relative. he
majority of the results reported are averages of 2-3 measurements, and they have been normalised to 100 wt%. In
Au wt%
Ag wt%
Cu wt%
1814 coin
given
measured
balance
4.8
4.3
90.8
4.3
4.9
A1 EJTN
given
measured
balance
5.1
2.2
92.4
6.1
1.5
A2 EJTN
given
measured
balance
20.5
4.2
75.1
21.2
3.8
E2 EJTN
given
measured
balance
41.5
0.5
59.6
39.6
0.7
Table 1: Internal reference analyses by XRF.
Tableau 1 : Résultats des analyses de standards d’or par FX.
some instances, low concentrations of iron were found, but
disregarded as potential surface contaminations.
Earrings
he ive solid gold lunate-shaped earrings with a bent over
the hoop are cast close to shape. he hoop is hammered to
form the crooked pin (Fig. 2), and the other end is inished
by polishing. he compositions of the gold alloys used in
the fabrication of these ive items have silver contents ranging from about 11% to 21%, and copper contents from
about 1% to just over 2% (see results on Table 2). hus,
despite their stylistic and technical similarity, and internal
consistency, they are made from a rather wide range of gold
alloys. Interestingly, the silver to copper ratio is about 10 for
all analyses. he variety of the Phoenician gold alloys was
shown for the Gadir region by Ortega-Feliu et al. (2007).
Figure 2: Both ends of earring 1742/24, with the hammer facets
on the surface typical of hammering.
Figure 2 : Les deux terminaux de la boucle d’oreille 1742/24 avec les
facettes typiques du martelage.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 151-158
154
Maria Filomena GUERRA, hilo REHREN
region of analysis
Au wt%
Ag wt%
Cu wt%
Earrings
1742/21
body
83.8
14.5
1.7
1742/22
body
78.7
19.0
2.3
1742/23
body
77.3
20.7
2.0
1742/24
body
88.2
10.9
0.9
1742/25
body
77.9
20.0
2.1
2 bells on pendant 1
82.7
15.8
1.5
2 bells on pendant 2
81.7
16.0
2.3
2 bells on pendant 3
82.3
15.4
2.3
3 chains jointly
82.0
16.4
1.6
spiral
84.1
14.9
1.0
shield of pin
82.6
16.6
0.9
side of lower
83.3
15.7
1.0
1742/1475
hoop
97.7
2.1
0.2
1742/1476
hoop
97.9
1.9
0.2
1742/1477
hoop
99.9
0.0
0.2
Fibula 1742/20
Finger-rings
he ibula
he massive gold elbow triangular-shaped ibula is decorated with rosettes in cloisonné, inlaid with red and blue
glass paste. he plain triangular pin is approximately 2 mm
in diameter and shaped by casting and hammering – one
soldering point on the top (Fig. 3a) reinforces the item. It
is decorated with engraved lines produced with a triangular
burin. he cloisonné rosettes consist of a base gold foil, cut
and polished on the borders, where strips around 400 μm
thick and 1000 to 1200 μm in length, cut with a chisel,
are hard-soldered. We note that this technique was found
previously in Tartesic (Ontalba-Salamanca et al., 2001) and
Phoenician (Ortega-Feliu et al., 2007) jewellery. he internal surfaces of the petals are scratched (Fig. 3b), potentially
to improve the adherence of the glass paste, either directly,
when applied as a hot semi-molten mass, or to provide more
grip for any adhesive that might have been used if the inlays
were applied cold. On the back-side of the gold foil, one
wire covers the joining with the pin.
he loop-in-loop chains are obtained with strip-twisted
wires of 450-500 μm in diameter (Fig. 3c), and the bells are
made of rolling gold foils in repoussé adorned with wires
of about 600 μm in diameter (Fig. 3d). he suspension
rings are of about 700μm in diameter, and the round ring
of which diferent pendants are suspended has a diameter of
about 950-1000 μm.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 151-158
Table 2: Results obtained by XRF for the
lunate earrings, the elbow triangular ibula,
and the signet inger-rings.
Tableau 2 : Résultats obtenus par FX pour
les boucles d’oreille en lune, pour la ibule
triangulaire coudée et pour les bagues à sceau.
All the elements of the ibula were produced with a relatively similar base alloy, containing 82 to 83 wt% gold, 15
to 16 wt% silver, and 1 to just over 2 wt% copper. Within
this already relatively narrow range two discrete subgroups
emerge, with their main diference residing in the copper
content. he chains and bells forming the pendants are
made from an alloy containing a slightly higher copper
content (1.5 to 2.3 wt% Cu), while the body of the ibula
has consistently only 1 wt% copper. In contrast to the earrings, where the copper and silver contents were directly
correlated, no such correlation is apparent here. he silver
content is almost the same for all parts of the ibula, while
the copper content difers by a factor of two between the
pendant parts and the main body of the ibula. Whether
the diferent concentrations of copper were used in order
to change the hardness, or simply relect the assemblage of
parts obtained from diferent sources or even workshops,
is impossible to decide on the basis of these analyses alone.
he remaining gold artefacts were also studied and a full
publication is forthcoming. Here, it may suice to say that
the workmanship is consistent with the details described
above for the ibula and earrings, and that the majority of
the other items are made from gold of similar or even baser
composition than the one used for the ibula pendant parts,
that is to say of gold with 15 to 25 wt% silver and 2 to
3 wt% copper. he bracelet with scarab and the necklace
with stone inlay are made from higher-quality gold, with 15
In-situ examination and analysis of the gold jewellery from the Phoenician tomb of Kition (Cyprus)
155
a
b
c
d
Figure 3: (See colour plate) he ibula construction: (a) the two branches are hard-soldered; (b) cloisonné rosette – the internal surfaces of
the petals are scratched; (c) lotus lower bells hoop; (d) the loop-in-loop chains.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) La construction de la ibule : (a) les deux branches soudées par brasure ; (b) la rosette en cloisonné – les surfaces
internes sont grattées ; (c) les anneaux des cloches en forme de leur de lotus ; (d) les chaînes de suspension.
to 18 wt% silver and 1 to 2 wt% copper. Remarkably, the
three signet inger-rings with cartouche-shaped bezels (Fig. 4
shows that the internal surface of the bezel is also scratched)
form a compositionally very diferent group, being made of
high-carat gold. heir silver content is consistently below
2 wt%, and copper below 0.5 wt% in almost all analyses
(Table 2).
he microscopic study of the objects did not reveal any
hard grey inclusions in the gold, and the XRF analyses did
not indicate the presence of platinum group elements in
any of the analysed areas. Tin was found only in one of the
XRF spectra, in one of the inger rings, at a level too low to
reliably quantify.
3. DISCUSSION
he technical study of the inds shows the use of casting
and hammering as well as of hard-soldering for the production of the jewellery from the Kition tomb. All these
techniques could be identiied on Phoenician, Punic and
Tartesic jewellery. Similarly, the techniques of decoration
by application of lower bells, glass paste in cloisonné, loopin-loop chains, ropes made with twisted wires, etc. are also
expected for this type of jewellery.
Traces of use-wear could be seen on the surface of all
objects. his indicates that the objects were used for some
period of time, and not only made for funerary purposes.
Phoenician jewellery is frequently accepted as the precursor
of Etruscan gold work; however, the diameters of the wires,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 151-158
156
the thickness of the gold foils, the wire and iligree patterns,
and so forth seen in our objects are far from the delicate
craftsmanship of Etruscan gold.
Chemically, there appear to be two diferent compositional groups represented among the gold objects; both are
consistent with unalloyed native gold. With the exception
of the three inger rings, the silver content varies from 15
to 25 wt%, while the copper content is mostly between 1
and 2.5 wt%. he silver content is what one would expect
from mined natural gold, neither reined nor alloyed.
Hough et al. (2009) report typical silver values for primary
or hypogene gold of 5 to 20 wt%, only occasionally exceeding 50 wt%. Analytical data for geological gold suggest
that most individually analysed gold particles have between
10 and c. 40 wt% silver, but almost always less than 1%
copper (e.g. Chapman and Mortensen, 2006). However,
most gold deposits also have small amounts of copper and
silver minerals associated, and during the concentration
of the gold from the mined rock ore, some of these heavy
minerals will inevitably be retained in the resulting concentrate (see e.g. Hauptmann and Klein, 2009) in this volume
of ArcheoSciences). hus, during the smelting of the gold
concentrate, this copper will be partly alloyed into the bullion, resulting in the slightly elevated levels reported here. In
modern gold mining, using advanced mineral concentration
methods and aiming for complete gold recovery, this results
in much higher silver and copper concentrations in the raw
bullion than are found in the individual gold grains from
the same deposit.
Gold obtained from secondary placer deposits, in contrast,
difers systematically in its composition from the gold in the
primary deposits. During transport, the silver content of the
primary gold is more and more reduced due to leaching (e.g.
Krupp and Weiser, 1992; Knight et al., 1999; Hough et al.,
2009), while the primary accessory minerals such as chalcopyrite and various silver minerals are quickly dissolved and
hence efectively separated from the placer gold. Depending
on the make-up of the geological hinterland of the river system from which the placer gold is panned, it can be enriched
in platinum group elements (Meeks and Tite, 1980) even
though gold and platinum rarely occur together in the same
primary deposits. his is noteworthy for example in the gold
from Sardis in Turkey (Meeks et al., 1996). hus, placer gold
will have less copper and lower silver on average than freshly
mined gold, but potentially more PGE inclusions.
It is of course possible that the copper was added intentionally; the efects of even small amounts of copper on
hardness are relatively high, due to the c 12% diference in
atomic radii between gold and copper (Hough et al., 2009),
while the efect on the colour is probably too low to have
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 151-158
Maria Filomena GUERRA, hilo REHREN
Figure 4: he bezel of gold signet inger-ring 1742/1476: the internal surfaces of the bezels are scratched.
Figure 4 : Le chaton de la bague à sceau 1742/1475 : les surfaces
internes du chaton ont été grattées.
been manipulated at such a ine level. Equally, it is possible
that a batch of gold of a certain composition, and hence
property, was chosen for a speciic task, that is, a coppercontaining gold might have been preferred for objects that
could exploit the improved hardness, such as thin sheet or
wire making.
he three inger rings with their exceptionally high
gold content of 98 % or more form a very distinct group
among the material excavated from the tomb; such a highpurity gold could indicate that it was reined and parted.
However, current knowledge suggests that gold parting,
that is the intentional removal of silver from native gold,
was only introduced sometime in the mid-1st millennium
BC, in the context of the development of gold coinage
in Sardis (Ramage and Craddock, 2000). herefore, it is
more likely that these rings were made from a particular
gold source rather than from fully reined gold. Such pure
gold most likely comes from a secondary or supergene
deposit. Supergene gold forms under speciic environmental conditions, such as the warm and humid paleoclimate
that resulted in the lateritic soils of SE Europe and Turkey
to form (Herrington et al., 2007). During lateritic weathering, primary argentiferous gold is temporarily brought into
solution and then re-deposited as almost pure gold grains
and nuggets, typically containing 2 wt% silver or less, and
nearly no copper (Freyssinet et al., 1989, 2005; Hough et
al., 2009). On balance, we assume that the inger rings were
made from supergene gold rather than from gold that had
been subjected to parting.
In-situ examination and analysis of the gold jewellery from the Phoenician tomb of Kition (Cyprus)
4. CONCLUSION
he investigation of the Kition jewellery has given detailed
insight into the manufacturing skills of the Phoenician jewellers producing these outstanding objects, as well as showing
their competent selection of natural gold alloys for diferent
applications. he level of craftsmanship is consistent with
the best of the known jewellery from the period, and the
assumption that these objects were made by Phoenicians
with some Egyptianizing inluence on the iconography and
design. While we can not exclude the possibility that the
low copper concentrations in the gold containing 15 to 20
wt% silver are due to the alloying of a purer gold with a
copper-silver alloy, we believe that the compositional characteristics of mined gold and supergene gold, respectively, are
suicient for an interpretation based on selection of natural
gold varieties, rather than active manipulation of the gold
composition.
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New finds from an old treasure:
the archaeometric study of new gold objects
from the Phoenician sanctuary of El Carambolo
(Camas, Seville, Spain) 1
Nouvelles trouvailles pour un ancien trésor :
l’étude archéométrique de nouveaux objets en or du sanctuaire phénicien
de El Carambolo (Camas, Séville, Espagne)
Alicia Perea* and Mark A. Hunt-Ortiz**
Abstract: In this paper, we present the results of an archaeometric study by SEM-EDS, carried out on six gold objects originating from the historical site where, 50 years ago, an important gold treasure, belonging to the Orientalizing-Tartesian period, was found. The new finds came to
light recently, during rescue excavations that unearthed a monumental complex described as a Phoenician sanctuary.
Résumé : Nous présentons les résultats d’une étude archéométrique par MEB-EDS effectuée pour six objets en or provenant du site historique où, 50 ans
auparavant, un trésor important, appartenant à la période orientalisante-tartésique, a été trouvé. Les nouvelles découvertes ont été mises à jour récemment,
pendant des fouilles de sauvetage qui ont exhumé un complexe monumental décrit comme un sanctuaire phénicien.
Keywords: Archaeometry, archaeometallurgy, goldwork, SEM-EDS, Orientalizing period, Southern Spain, Tartesian archaeology.
Mots-clés : Archéométrie, archéométallurgie, Travail de l’or, MEB-EDS, période orientalisante, Espagne méridionale, Tartessique, archéologie.
1. INTRODUCTION
On 30 September 1958, a treasure of gold objects was
found by workmen refurbishing a public building at the top
of a hill overlooking the fertile Guadalquivir river valley. The
Carambolo gold hoard consists of two sets of objects, representing a total of 21 ornaments, including 16 rectangular
plaques, two pendants, a pair of bracelets, and a pendant
necklace. They have recently been dated to a period around
the 8th century BC, except for the necklace, which is prob-
* Arqueometal Research Group. CCHS, CSIC, Albasanz 26-28, 28037-Madrid, Spain. (alicia.perea@cchs.csic.es)
** ATLAS Research Group. Prehistory and Archaeology Department. Universidad de Sevilla. María de Padilla S/N, 41004-Sevilla. Spain. (mhunt@us.es)
1. This paper is part of the Research Project entitled: “Grounds for an archaeometric and technomic research on metallurgy during Prehistory and
Antiquity. The Iberian Peninsula” (Ref. nº HUM2006-06250), within the Programme CONSOLIDER INGENIO 2010 (CSD-TCP), funded by the
Ministry of Science and Innovation, Spain.
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 159-163
Alicia PEREA, Mark A. HUNT-ORTIZ
160
Figure 1: Loop-in loop chain.
Figure 1 : Chaîne en loop-in-loop.
ably Cypriot in origin and of a later date, around the 6th century BC, the period when the treasure was concealed. From
a technological point of view, it has been interpreted as the
joint production of two different workshops, one indigenous
and the other of Mediterranean origin, suggesting a peaceful coexistence between local people and the Phoenicians,
although no evidence for technological transmission has
been detected (Perea and Armbruster, 1998). Rescue excavations at the time brought to light some structures that were
interpreted as a ‘pit dwelling’. The pottery was said to be
found in mixed archaeological levels containing both local
and Phoenician types (Carriazo, 1973).
For many years, El Carambolo was the only site to produce
a stratigraphy for the period when natives and Phoenician
colonists first came into contact. Years later, a bronze statue
of Astarte, the Phoenician goddess, was found nearby. This
and other finds alerted archaeologists to the possibility that
the site may have been more than a simple settlement, and
that it might have had a religious function.
Rescue excavations carried out at this site from 2002 to
2004, due again to building works in the expanding city
of Seville, unearthed a monumental sanctuary, dated to a
period between the 8th and the 6th centuries BC. The complete stratigraphic sequence of the site extends from the final
Bronze Age to the end of the Orientalizing period in the 6th
century BC, when the site was abandoned (Fernández and
Rodriguez 2005; 2007).The discovery of new gold objects
during the most recent excavation has reopened the old
debate on native versus Phoenician workshops.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
Figure 2: Cylindrical lining.
Figure 2 : Revêtement cylindrique.
2. THE NEW FINDS
AND THE METHOD OF RESEARCH
The new find consists of six gold objects:
– a 42 cm long fragment of a double loop-in-loop chain. It
displays the marks of an ancient repair and several broken
links.
– a 1.3 cm long cylindrical bead or lining made from
grooved sheet, misshapen and incomplete.
– four identical discoidal appliqués, 0.2 cm in diameter,
each with a central hemispherical boss and a wire looped
attachment on the back.
These objects were sent to the Laboratorio de Microscopía
Eletrónica CENIM, CSIC, in Madrid, for topographic
examination using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM),
and were initially analysed by Energy Dispersive X-ray
Spectroscopy (EDS) in order to determine the elemental
composition of the alloys, and also the type of solder used,
if any.
3. TOPOGRAPHIC STUDY
The cross-section of thewire employed for making the
chain links is circular, with traces of a helicoidal line that
has largely disappeared due to wear. These features indicate,
firstly, a prolonged use, and also the fact that the wire was
manufactured by twisting a thin strip of gold (also known as
strip-twisting). It also shows the marks of an ancient repair.
At the midpoint of the chain, an interconnected link appears
which could represent the beginning of a second branch of
the chain, or a link for suspending a pendant.
New finds from an old treasure: the archaeometric study of new gold objects…
161
Figure 3: Discoidal apliqué (left) with the wire loop at the back (right).
Figure 3a, b : Applique discoïde (gauche) avec la boucle sur le revers (droite).
The cylindrical piece seems to be the lining of a cord or
thick wire, rather than a separate bead. It is made from
grooved foil rolled into a tube, which is considerably worn
at the edges.
The four discoidal appliqués are real miniatures made by
stamping small circular pieces of sheet, and had a wire loop
soldered onto the back so that they could be sewn onto
cloth. The wire loop was made by the same system of twisting as the one used for the chain. They are so small that the
soldering process which had to avoid fusing the tiny objects
was difficult. Traces of these problems can be seen in the
dendritic structures throughout the surface.
4. MICROANALYTICAL STUDY
Table 1 records the complete results of the analysed areas.
The chain is made from an alloy of 12% silver and 1% copper.
The cylindrical lining has a silver content of 16% and about
1% copper. We cannot provide an approximate composition for the four appliqués, because all the measurements are
affected to a greater or lesser extent by the process of soldering
the loop to the back. However, they seem to be of fairly pure
gold, with a silver content that cannot have exceeded 8%.
In the case of the solder, we think it was carried out using a
ternary alloy as a soldering material, with a silver content of
around 20-25% and about 2% copper. There is no indication that an autogenous welding method or a bonding using
copper salts was used, since the curve of the silver and copper
measurements increases notably at the interfaces.
5. THE IBERIAN DISCOIDAL GOLD APPLIQUÉS
The objects that provide most information for interpreting this find are the discoidal appliqués. We are aware of a
small but significant number of these objects, which always
appear in relatively numerous sets. All the finds are distributed in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula, and their
chronological contexts point to the final Bronze Age / Early
Iron Age transition period, which encompasses the so-called
Orientalizing period.
The hill fort (castro) of Ratinhos (Moura, Portugal) presents signs of continuous occupation from the Final Bronze
Age to the 6th century BC (Silva and Berrocal-Rangel, 2005).
In the higher part of the castro, a large building, described
as a palace, was located, where a set of seven discoidal appliqués with a diameter of about 0.8 cm was found. The edges
of the appliqués were decorated with a square cross-section
twisted wire. EDXRF and PIXE analyses (Valerio et al.,
2007) showed that the fabrication material was a gold alloy
with 10% silver. The authors think that solid phase welding
was used to attach the loop to the back by heating below the
melting point without using a solder.
A second set of two appliqués, with a diameter of
approximately 1.6 cm, is currently on display in the Lisbon
Museum. It originates from Outeiro da Cabeça (Torres
Vedras, Lisbon, Portugal) and was associated with earrings,
beads and double spiral pendants, but it has no contextual
data (Pingel, 1992: 295-296, nº 277).
A third set consists of 39 items from Fortios (Portalegre,
Portugal), again lacking an archaeological context, and
is also held in the Lisbon Museum (Pingel, 1992: 298,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
Alicia PEREA, Mark A. HUNT-ORTIZ
162
Item & analysis Nº
Area
Au
Ag
Cu
Others
Item & analysis Nº
Area
Solder loop/sheet 73.10
Au
Ag
24.96 1.94
Cu
25.25 2.05
CRB01 201 Chain
Link
88.91
11.09 -
CRB04207
CRB01202
Link
86.06
13.94 -
CRB04208
Solder loop/sheet 72.70
CRB01203
Link
87.44
12.56 -
CRB04209
Solder loop/sheet 74.40
CRB01204
Repair
75.67
22.55 0.66
Fe, Ca
CRB05 201 Discoid Sheet back
80.39
19.27 0.34
CRB01205
Repair
77.97
19.09 0.70
Fe, Ca
CRB05202
Sheet back
92.50
7.03
Fe, Ca
CRB05203
Sheet back
79.86
19.23 0.91
23.23 2.37
0.48
CRB01206
Repair
72.90
24.42 0.67
CRB02 201 Lining
Sheet
83.14
16.17 0.70
CRB05204
Loop
83.08
16.78 0.13
CRB02202
Sheet
82.45
16.70 0.85
CRB05205
Loop
87.84
11.10 1.05
CRB02203
Sheet
65.44
17.09 0.71
CRB05206
Loop
91.50
8.14
Solder loop/sheet 72.88
26.01 1.11
26.24 1.51
Si,Al, K
0.36
92.26
7.25
0.48
CRB05207
CRB03 201 Discoid Sheet
100
-
-
CRB05208
Solder loop/sheet 72.25
CRB03202
Sheet
90.34
8.81
0.85
CRB05209
Solder loop/sheet 72.64
25.45 1.65
CRB03203
Sheet
99.19
-
0.81
CRB05210
Sheet
100
-
CRB03204
Sheet back
90.88
9.12
-
CRB05211
Sheet
88.46
11.03 0.52
0.55
CRB05212
Sheet
89.44
10.56 -
CRB02204
Used edge
89.69
9.76
Fe
-
CRB03205
Sheet back
CRB03206
Sheet back
88.91
10.68 0.41
CRB06 201 Discoid Sheet back
75.46
24.16 0.38
CRB03207
Loop
87.59
11.38 1.03
CRB06202
Sheet back
81.93
18.07 -
CRB03208
Loop
89.69
10.31 -
CRB06203
Sheet back
80.37
19.48 0.15
CRB03209
Loop
80.61
18.41 0.98
CRB06204
Loop
82.67
17.33 -
CRB03210
Solder loop/sheet 75.14
22.63 2.23
CRB06205
Loop
77.55
22.19 0.27
CRB03211
Solder loop/sheet 73.52
24.27 2.20
CRB06206
Loop
77.17
22.83 -
CRB03212
Solder loop/sheet 76.10
22.10 1.79
CRB06207
Solder loop/sheet 73.07
25.82 1.11
CRB06208
Solder loop/sheet 73.57
25.91 0.51
Fe
Others
CRB04 201 Discoid Sheet back
87.41
12.35 -
CRB04202
Sheet back
71.26
26.99 1.76
CRB06209
Solder loop/sheet 74.38
25.18 0.44
CRB04203
Sheet back
74.65
23.27 2.08
CRB06210
Sheet
82.81
16.74 0.45
CRB04204
Loop
84.60
14.97 0.43
CRB06211
Sheet
77.10
22.90 -
CRB04205
Loop
81.60
17.01 1.39
CRB06212
Sheet
78.22
21.19 0.59
CRB04206
Loop
90.38
9.62
-
Table 1: Elemental spot composition (SEM-EDS, wt%).
Tableau 1 : Composition élémentaire ponctuelle (MEB-EDS en %).
nº 287). The objects have a diameter of about 2 cm, wire
loops on the back, and are decorated with concentric circles.
This is the largest set of such artefacts, and it also contains
the largest examples known to date.
Other comparable objects have been found, rather different morphologically from those under discussion here, but
which could have been used in a similar manner to decorate
garments, although they do not have the loop on the back,
the defining feature of the sets described earlier. These are
the appliqués from Sâo Martinho (Alcácer do Sal, Setúbal,
Portugal) and El Castañuelo (Huelva, Spain), which have
holes on the outer edge, probably for sewing or fixing. The
association of the find of Sâo Martinho (Armbruster and
Parreira, 1993: 188-191) with spirals, and the context of
the items from El Castañuelo – a cist necropolis (Schubart,
1975: 95-96, lám. 54; Perea, 1991: 107) – seem to indicate
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
an earlier date than that of the items with a loop on the back
instead of holes (Perea, 2005). They could be dating to the
Final Bronze Age of the southwest.
As a hypothesis, we propose that these ornaments originated from garments belonging to the local elites of the
Final Bronze Age. The subsequent adoption of the new
Mediterranean technology brought by the Phoenician colonists included soldering. This enabled the wire loops to
be attached to the back, so that they could be sewn onto
cloth – something which had been previously accomplished
by using holes. Soldering also enabled the appliqués to be
adorned with twisted wires around the edges.
New finds from an old treasure: the archaeometric study of new gold objects…
6. CONCLUSION
The great treasure of El Carambolo and this new find
must be compared. The first one was hidden intentionally
so that the jewels could be recovered. The objects were in a
perfect state of preservation and showed few signs of wear.
The new find, however, consists of fragmentary, incomplete
objects that display traces of having been used for a long
time, an aspect which seems to reflect an unintentional loss.
As we can observe from the finds of discoidal appliqués
that appear from the Final Bronze Age onwards, the adornment of garments with gold must have been relatively
common in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula. This
represents new evidence for the same process, i.e. the coexistence of native and Phoenician workshops, or the presence
of goldsmiths with different technical knowledge. This is an
interesting case of technological transmission: the Atlantic
versus the Mediterranean.
Acknowledgements
We are very grateful to Álvaro Fernández Flores, director of
the excavations at El Carambolo, for entrusting the study of the
gold finds to us.
References
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Museu Nacional de Arqueologia. Colecçâo de Ourivesaria. 1º
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CARRIAZO, J.M., 1973. Tartessos y El Carambolo. Investigaciones
arqueológicas sobre la protohistoria de la Baja Andalucía.
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Madrid, Dirreción General de Bellas Artes, Ministerio de
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del Carambolo Alto, Camas (Sevilla). Un santuario orientalizante en la paleodesembocadura del Guadalquivir. Trabajos de
Prehistoria 62(1): 111-138.
FERNÁNDEZ, A. and RODRIGUEZ, A., 2007. Tartessos Desvelado. La
Colonización Fenicia del Suroeste Peninsular y el Origen y Ocaso
de Tartessos. Córdoba, Editorial Almuzara.
PEREA, A., 1991. Orfebrería Prerromana. Arqueología del Oro. Caja
de Madrid: Comunidad de Madrid, Consejería de Cultura,
Dirreción General de Patrimonio Cultural.
PEREA, A., 2005. Mecanismos identitarios y de construcción de
poder en la transición Bronce-Hierro. Trabajos de prehistoria
62(2): 91-103.
PEREA, A. and ARMBRUSTER, B., 1998. Cambio tecnológico y
contacto entre Atlántico y Mediterráneo: el depósito de El
Carambolo, Sevilla. Trabajos de Prehistoria 55(1): 121-138.
PINGEL, V., 1992. Die Vorgeschichtlichen Goldfunde der Iberischen
Halbinsel. Eine Archäologische Untersuchung zur Auswertung
der Spektralanalysen. Madrider Forschungen, Band 17. Berlin,
Walter de Gruyter und Co.
SCHUBART, H. 1975. Die Kultur der Bronzezeit im Südwesten der
Iberischen Halbinsel. Madrider Forschungen 9. Berlin, Walter
de Gruyter und Co.
SILVA, A.C. and BERROCAL-RANGEL, L., 2005. O Castro dos
Ratinhos (Moura), povoado do Bronze final do Guadiana:
1ª campanha de excavaçôes (2004). Revista Portuguesa de
Arqueología 8(2): 129-176.
VALÉRIO, P., CERQUEIRA, L., MONGE, A., BERROCAL-RANGEL, L.,
SILVA, A. and ARAÚJO, F., 2007. Early Iron Age gold artefacts from Castro dos Ratinhos (Moura, Southern Portugal),
in Archaeometallurgy in Europe 2007, (Aquileia-Grado, 17-21
June). CDRom. Milano, Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
Two small orientalising spirals
(Rome, 10th-9th century BC):
common objects – precious jewels
Deux petites nattes en spirale orientalisantes (Rome, Xe-IXe siècle avant J.-C.) :
objects du quotidien – bijoux précieux
Daniela Ferro*, Alessandro Bedini** and Ida Anna Rapinesi***
Abstract: The finding of hair decorations is not rare in archaeological excavations. It is well known that pins, gold nets, gold wires and threads
embellished noble ladies’ heads, but it is less common to find small accessories meant to bind braids created as small jewels, such as the 7th century
BC spirals found in Lazio. Two hair coils of great refinement, probably used as ‘braid binders’, with terminals decorated by filigree have been found
in two funeral sets from two princely tombs of the Laurentina Acqua Acetosa Necropolis (n. 74 and n. 133). The objects present similarities with
other items of the same typology from Amendolara (CS), Narce, Marsiliana and Vetulonia. The item from tomb 133 is made of silver covered
by electrum, while the second one, from tomb 74, was made entirely in gold. Their analytical study allowed the determination of peculiar details
concerning their fabrication, from the composition of the constituent materials to the technological solutions used for their production. The
scientific observations, carried out by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersion spectroscopy (EDS), furnished important data
for the characterization of the single object, to be used also as a base for comparison with the few homologous jewels known to date.
Résumé : La découverte de décorations de cheveux dans les fouilles archéologiques n’est pas rare. Il est bien connu que les têtes des dames nobles étaient
ornées de coiffures d’or, mais il est peu fréquent de découvrir de petits accessoires, réalisés comme de petits bijoux, servant à coiffer les cheveux. Les pièces
concernées par ce travail sont datées du VIIe siècle avant J.-C. et ont étés découvertes dans le Lazio. Deux spirales très raffinées, probablement utilisées comme
décoration de nattes et dont les extrémités sont ornées de filigranes, ont été trouvées dans les fouilles de deux tombes princières de la nécropole Laurentina
(n.74 et n.133). Les objets présentent des similitudes avec d’autres de même typologie provenant d’Amendolara (CS), Narce, Marsiliana et Vetulonia. Le
bijou de la tombe 133 est en argent couvert d’électrum alors que la deuxième pièce de la tombe 74 est entièrement réalisée en or. Leur étude analytique a
permis de déterminer les détails particuliers de leur fabrication, la composition des matériaux constitutifs et les escamotages technologiques utilisés pour leur
création. Les observations scientifiques, réalisées à l’aide d’un système de microscopie électronique à balayage et par microanalyse électronique, fournissent
des éléments importants pour la caractérisation des objets.
Keywords: gold hair decoration, filigree, electrum-silver, production technology, SEM-EDS.
Mots-clés : coiffures d’or, filigrane, électrum-argent, technologie de fabrication, MEB-EDS.
* Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche – Institute for Nanostructured Materials (CNR-ISMN), c/o Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome,
P.le A. Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy (daniela.ferro@cnr.it)
** Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici, Rome, Italy
*** Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici, Rome, Italy
rec. Aug. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 165-168
166
1. INTRODUCTION
Among personal female objects from archaeological
contexts, one of the most frequent is the hair coil, linked to
a particular hair-style that seems to be a constant throughout
the entire Iron Age (10th-9th century BC) in the Tyrrhenian
area. This style was characterized by two plaits of hair on
each side of the head, fixed by spirals made of a simple wire
wrapped more or less tightly, with diameters ranging from
2-2.5 to 4 cm. This type of spiral appears in the tombs of
the first Iron Age (11th-10th century BC), both in the necropolises of the Latium area, as well as in the Faliscan and
Veio areas. The spirals are probably a translation in metal of
strings of organic fibres but, in any case, it is not possible
to separate their decorative function from the more functional properties of the spring spiral. Specific metal alloys
had to be used, and a particular metal treatment had to be
chosen as a function of the ‘elastic’ effect of the ornamental
object. In general, the spirals were composed of two or more
turns of double wires with the terminal part often flat and
undulate, with a diameter varying from 2 to 4 cm. In the
richest tombs of the 8th and 7th centuries BC, representative
of a more differentiated society, these simple coils evolved
into more precious objects through the use of noble metals
finely decorated by elements in filigree or gold lamina. These
last two variants characterize the jewels of the orientalising
period (Formigli, 1976).
The shape of the spirals varies: some exemplars present a
double torsion, while others are decorated all along the wire;
however, in all cases, they represent a concentration of style,
jewellery, technology and science containing important diagnostic information. Previously, two exceptional hair coils
were found by Alessandro Bedini in a princely tomb (101) of
the Laurentina Necropolis in Castel di Decima (Rome) and
dated to the end of the 7th century BC (Bedini, 1977; 1985).
In the 7th century BC, found always only in princely tombs,
the spirals have a small diameter of about 1 cm, perhaps
indicative of a new fashion of hair style, with the two terminals decorated by a horizontal and undulating motif in
filigree between two series of horizontal parallel threads, as
visible in the exemplar from tomb 74 described in the present work. This object can be compared with other hair coils
of silver covered by electrum of the ‘pseudo-camera’ tomb
(133) of the same necropolis (Bedini and Cassotta, 2006).
This new typology is also present in the Faliscan area (Narce)
and in Etruria (Marsiliana and Vetulonia), and is probably
of Greek inspiration, as the exemplars from Amendolara
(Cosenza) indicate (De la Genière, 1973).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
Daniela FERRO, Alessandro BEDINI, Ida Anna RAPINESI
The analytical study by non-destructive methods is aimed
at gathering information on the ancient goldsmiths’ degree
of knowledge and ability to optimize the elastic properties
of metals through specific treatments. Scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) and X-ray energy dispersive microanalysis (EDS) have been employed for the purpose of determining the micro-morphology of the metal surface and the
chemical composition of the areas that present some details
of interest for the technological definition of processes. From
the interpretation of the morphological and analytical data,
it is possible to derive information on micro-diagnostic markers for the characterization of the spring metal treatment,
to be compared to similar objects.
2. METHODS
The use of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and
energy dispersion spectroscopy (EDS) has been employed
to investigate both the technological peculiarity of the item,
as well as the possible transformation of the precious metal
into an elastic spring.
In the year 1678, the physicist Robert Hooke formulated a method useful for the description of the macroscopic
action of a spring, by studying the mechanical behaviour
of a metallic wire wrapped in a cylindrical-shaped spiral
operating by compression or strength. In both cases, the
microscopic effect of the elongation/compression motion is
the stretching of the intermolecular bonds, within the limits
of elastic deformation, after which the atomic bonds rearrange, causing irreversible deformation. The archaeological
evidence indicates that the existence of springs dates back
to the Bronze and Copper Ages. Examples of metal artefacts
functioning as springs or containing spring actions are: fibulae widely used in the Mediterranean area, certain fastenings
of necklaces, bracelets, earrings, and diverse typologies of
hair binders, the subject of the present work. The origin of
the spring is beyond the scope of this article, but we can
start analyzing some peculiar aspects of these items, useful
for the identification of the intentional creation of an elastic
system. A metal presents a crystalline structure constituted
by grains of different shape and dimension, dependant on a
series of factors, including mechanical and thermal stresses.
Particular working processes are necessary in order to exploit
the cold plastic properties of any metallic material. In fact,
only by employing cold-working processes, such as hammering or drawing, is it possible to directionally elongate the
grains. Not all metals are suitable for making springs, and
specific compositions of alloys, as well as particular mechanical procedures, are necessary to enhance characteristics of
Two Small orientalising spirals (Rome, 10th-9th century BC)…
elasticity. The impossibility of any metallographic sampling
of the precious object only allowed an analytical study based
on the morphology of the surface and on the microstructure and chemical composition of small areas. Anticipating
more detailed studies, the information derived from the
understanding of the working process suggests that spirals
are not to be considered solely as simple hair decorations,
but mainly as a technological achievement.
3. RESULTS
Laurentina Necropolis tomb 133 – The analyzed object
is a silver strip spiral (ø 0.750 mm) covered by an electrum
sheaf, with a high Ag content, circa 40 wt%, as revealed by
EDS analysis. An electrum wire, produced by torsion of a
small lamina with a composition similar to the lamina of the
spiral body, makes up the filigree decoration on the terminal
parts (Fig. 1). Beyond the possible economic reasons for the
choice of a two body system consisting of an inner strip of
silver mechanically enclosed in a lamina of electrum, it is
suggested here that the artefact’s system was also developed
for its elastic properties and general wear resistance to further unintentional cold plastic deformation. Longitudinal
lines all along the strip’s length are observable on the internal
side of the lamina, suggesting the use of a burnishing tool
to further cold harden the electrum lamina and ‘iron out’
eventual buckles and kinks that tend to form on the inside
surface and lateral inner edges while forming the spiral.
Figure 1: Spiral in silver/electrum, from Laurentina Necropolis
tomb 133.
Figure 1: Spirale en argent/électrum provenant de la tombe 133 de la
Nécropole Laurentina.
167
The formation of Ag corrosion compounds, such as AgCl
and Ag2S, has been detected by SEM-EDS analysis. The
natural formation of Ag corrosion products on the internal wire is the likely cause of electrum lamina detachments.
Furthermore, the preferential corrosion of the silver alloyed
in the electrum produces a black patina on the gilded coating (Carraro et al., 2005). The irreversibility of these physical-chemical processes involving the metal microstructure
allows their consideration as diagnostics in authenticity tests.
Concerning the soldering process employed to fix the filigree elements, EDS analysis revealed the presence of silver
soldering, where the Ag content was 100%. The use of silver
soldering is typical for filigree work from the Classic and
Imperial Roman periods (Ferro et al., 2008), owing to its
high degree of wettability, leaving intact the decoration’s tridimensionality. In this case, in which the filigree was made
with an electrum alloy with a low melting point, the excessive heating caused the loss of relief definition.
Laurentina Necropolis tomb 74 – A simple gold wire
forms a regular spiral with the terminals decorated with filigree. The filigree wire (ø 0.2 mm) was produced by torsion
of a gold strip (Fig. 2). The precious metal composition of
the coil and of its decorations shows a high gold content
(Au 94 wt%), with silver and copper as the other major
elements, a composition typical for precious objects from
the Roman period.
The use of high gold is not optimal for the production of
an ‘elastic’ metal, despite cold work hardening procedures.
Figure 2: Spiral in gold from Laurentina Necropolis tomb 74.
Figure 2 : Spirale en or provenant de la tombe 77 de la Nécropole
Laurentina.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
168
Longitudinal and parallel traces all along the wire’s length
are well visible also in this coil, suggesting the use of a burnishing tool employed to further surface harden the wire
while creating a polished finish.
From the verified invariance of the spring wire’s diameter
(0.4 mm), it is possible to assume the use of a procedure
employing a calibration system. The filigree soldering was
carried out with silver, found in the form of snippets, as
observed in the false colour EDS map, with silver in red,
copper in green and gold in blue (Fig. 3). The fact that
the choice of silver as a solder is verified once more suggests an improvement of the scientific knowledge derived
from empirical experience: in fact, the wettability of silver
is higher than that of most brazing alloys, due to its superficial tension properties. With respect to the spring from
tomb 133, the filigree appears more detailed, because the
heat induced to melt silver in this case had no influence on
the nearly pure gold, with a much higher melting point.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The investigation of the two hair coils is part of a more
complex study of the technology applied in their production. The results obtained on the hair coils from Via
Laurentina, compared with those obtained on other similar
items originating from Etruscan areas (Carraro and Ferro,
2008), allows the identification of different fabrication procedures; however, all of them were carried out according to
Figure 3: (See colour plate) EDS false colour X-ray map of the
filigree soldering area in the spirals from tomb 74: Ag – red, Au
– blue, Cu – green.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Cartographie de rayons X en fausses
couleurs de la soudure du filigrane sur la spirale de la tombe 74:
Ag-rouge, Au-bleu, Cu-vert.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. ??-??
Daniela FERRO, Alessandro BEDINI, Ida Anna RAPINESI
common rules and design. Further analyses on such samples,
reproduced by experimental archaeology, will be necessary in
order to identify distinctive elements for this type of common, yet precious, objects.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to David Loepp for the editing and
to Vania Virgili for her collaboration.
References
BEDINI, A., 1977. L’ottavo secolo nel Lazio e l’inizio dell’Orientalizzante antico, alla luce di recenti scoperte nella necropolis di
Castel di Decima. La Parola del Passato 32: 274-309.
BEDINI, A., 1985. Tre corredi protostorici dal Torrino. Osservazione
sull’affermarsi e la funzione delle aristocrazie terriere nell’VIII
secolo nel Lazio. Archeologia Laziale 7 (QAEI 11): 44-64.
BEDINI, A. and CASSOTTA, A., 2006. Technical reports, in M.A.
Tomei (ed.), Memorie dal Sottosuolo-Ritrovamenti Archeologici
1980-2006. Milano, Electa Press, 467 and 479.
CARRARO, A. and FERRO, D., 2008. Binomio archeometria e
restauro nello studio delle oreficerie etrusche, in Lo Stato
dell’Arte congresso nazionale IGIIC. Spoleto: IGIIC publisher,
521-527.
CARRARO, A., FERRO, D., MARGHELLA, G. and ZOCCOLILLO, L.,
2005. Multidisciplinary diagnostic approach to the degrade
state of the jewel exposed in a showcase of Villa Giulia museum
in Rome, in Acta 8th International Conference on Non destructive
testing and microanalysis for diagnostic and conservation of the
cultural and environmental heritage - May, 15th-19th Lecce, Italy.
CD-ROM.
DE LA GENIÈRE, J., 1973. A propos de quelques mobiliers funéraires d’Amendolara, Mélanges de l’École Française de Rome
Antiquité 85/1: 7-53.
FERRO, D., FORMIGLI, E., PACINI, A. and TOSSINI, D., 2008. La
saldatura nell’oreficeria antica. Roma, Ed. Kappa.
FORMIGLI, E., 1976. L’antica tecnica dei bracciali a filigrana. Studi
Etruschi 44: 203-210.
Investigation of ancient gold objects
from Artemision at Ephesus using portable µ-XRF
Enquête sur les objets anciens en or de l’Artemision à Ephèse
au moyen d’un équipement de µFX portable
Michael Melcher*, Manfred Schreiner*, Birgit Bühler**,
Andrea M. Pülz*** and Ulrike Muss****
Abstract: During two measurement campaigns in the Archaeological Museum in Istanbul and the Ephesus Museum in Selçuk, Turkey, more than
80 ancient gold objects (e.g. appliqués, statuettes and coins) from the 8 th-6th centuries BC were analyzed using portable XRF instruments in order
to obtain information on the chemical composition and homogeneity of the artefacts discovered during excavations in the sanctuary of Artemis
at Ephesus. hese results and complementary studies on the manufacturing techniques employed for making these objects will contribute to our
knowledge of metalworking, trade, as well as the transfer of ideas and technologies at Ephesus and in Western Asia in the Archaic period.
he objects can be characterized as homogeneous alloys, mainly consisting of gold (Au), silver (Ag) and copper (Cu). A high compositional variation of Au and Ag between diferent objects could be determined (Au between 48.7 and 99.9%, Ag between <detection limit (dl) and 50.9%,
Cu between <dl and 4.4%).
hese results demonstrated the range of gold alloys represented within the collection and allowed a discrimination between natural and artiicial
gold alloys (including the identiication of ‘reined’ gold). In some cases, objects which were closely related from a typological, stylistic and/or
technological point of view were also similar in composition, difering only in the sub-percent range.
Résumé : Plus de 80 objets anciens en or (p.ex. appliques, statuettes et monnaies) datés du VIIIe-VIe siècle av. J.-C. et trouvés lors des fouilles du sanctuaire
d’Artémise à Ephèse, ont été analysés au moyen d’un équipement de FX portable pendant les deux campagnes de mesure réalisées au musée archéologique
d’Istanbul et au musée d’Ephèse à Selçuk, Turquie, de façon à obtenir des informations sur leur composition chimique et sur leur homogénéité. Ces résultats, complémentés par des études sur leurs techniques de fabrication, contribuent à la connaissance du travail du métal, de son commerce, ainsi que du
transfert d’idées et technologies à Ephèse et dans l’Asie de l’Ouest pendant la période Archaïque.
Les objets ont été fabriqués avec des alliages homogènes, se composant en majorité d’or (Au), argent (Ag) et cuivre (Cu). Une forte variation de teneurs a
pu être mise en évidence pour l’Au et l’Ag dans le cas de diférents objets (Au entre 48,7 and 99,9 %, Ag entre < limite de détection (dl) et 509 %, Cu
entre < dl et 4,4 %).
Ces résultats montrent la gamme d’alliages d’or de la collection et permettent de discriminer entre alliages d’or naturels et artiiciels (en incluant l’identiication d’or « ainé »). Dans certains cas d’objets de typologie, style et/or techniques de fabrication proches, leurs compositions sont identiques, la diférence
n’apparaissant qu’au niveau du sous-pourcent.
Keywords: Gold, Ephesus, Artemision, XRF.
Mots-clés : Or, Éphèse, Artemision, FX.
* Institute of Science and Technology in Art – Academy of Fine Arts, Schillerplatz 3, 1010 Vienna, Austria. (m.melcher@akbild.ac.at) (m.schreiner@
akbild.ac.at)
** Vienna Institute for Archaeological Science (VIAS) – University of Vienna, Franz-Klein-Gasse 1, 1190 Vienna. (birgit.buehler@univie.ac.at)
*** Österreichisches Archäologisches Institut – Franz-Klein Gasse 1, 1190 Vienna. (andrea.puelz@oeai.at)
**** Institut für Klassische Archäologie – University of Vienna, Franz-Klein-Gasse 1, 1190 Vienna. (ulrike.muss@univie.ac.at)
rec. Aug. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 169-175
170
1. INTRODUCTION AND HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
About 1.500 gold objects were found in the sanctuary
of the goddess Artemis at Ephesus, Turkey (Pülz, 2009).
Most of these occurred in strata located under the Archaic
dipteros – the so-called “Temple of Croesus” – and may thus
be dated to the second half of the 7th or the irst half of the
6th century BC (Hogarth, 1908; Bammer and Muss, 1996).
Within the Archaic period, the Artemision is unique in
terms of the large number and variety of gold jewellery. No
other sanctuary from this period has yielded a similar wealth
of gold objects. During the British and Austrian excavation
campaigns at this site, a small number of igural objects,
such as statuettes in human or animal form and miniature
objects, were found. hey were deposited in the sanctuary
as votive gifts. he vast majority of gold objects, however,
are dress ornaments and jewellery.
Among the gold inds, approximately 530 appliqués were
found in the sanctuary of Artemis, representing at the same
time the major group of artefacts (Pülz and Bühler, 2006).
Most of them show holes on the edges and can therefore
be addressed as garment decorations (e.g. Selçuk, inv. no.
1/71/89, Fig. 1). Because of the lack of parallels which
would point to individual appliqués votive oferings in the
Artemision, an interpretation of these objects as representing decorations of the cult image (Romano, 1988) or ritual
garment oferings seems likely.
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Appliqué from the sanctuary of
Artemis (Selçuk, inv. no. 1/71/89).
Figure 1: (Voir planche couleur) Appliqué du sanctuaire d’Artemise
(Selçuk, inv. no. 1/71/89).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 169-175
Michael MELCHER et al.
It is interesting, however, that none of the gold statuettes
found in the Artemision from the 7th or 6th centuries BC
which represent the adored goddess show garments or
dresses with appliqué decorations, like later copies. A solemn
igurine wears a dress whose border is decorated with meander patterns (Selçuk, inv. no. 2/59/80).
he second most important group of gold jewellery items
consists of spherical and drop-shaped pendants and beads
(some of which look like fruit), pins with loral heads, ibulae
(predominantly of the Phrygian ‘Asia Minor’ type), brooches
in the shape of birds of prey, and boat-shaped earrings with, in
some cases, elaborate decoration (Bühler and Pülz, 2009). he
vast majority of gold earrings found in the Archaic temple of
Artemis at Ephesus belong to the so-called ‘boat-shaped’ type
(sometimes also referred to as ‘leech-shaped’), with a swollen body, which may be plain or decorated. Earrings of this
type are very common in Western Anatolia. he best parallels for the examples from Ephesus were found in the Güre
region (Özgen and Öztürk, 1996), Sardes, Lydia (Waldbaum,
1983), the Bayındır grave mound in northern Lycia (Özgen
and Öztürk, 1996) and among the objects from the Norbert
Schimmel Collection (Muscarella, 1974).
Most of the motifs or igurines refer to Artemis as the
goddess of fertility, or her representation as the mistress of
animals. For example, the bird of prey (Istanbul, inv. no.
3093, Fig. 2) is considered to be sacred to the goddess, and
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Bird of prey (Istanbul, inv. no. 3093).
Figure 2: (Voir planche couleur) Rapace (Istanbul, inv. no. 3093).
Investigation of ancient gold objects from Artemision using portable µ-XRF
it is found in the form of brooches, pendants or statuettes in
the sanctuary (Bühler and Pülz, 2008). he bee, a symbol of
reincarnation and fertility which is closely connected with
the cult of Artemis, also appears in many variations, from
naturalistic to very abstract forms (Pülz, 2001). Various
pendants, beads and pin heads resemble fruits or seed and
can therefore be interpreted as symbols of fertility. However,
there are also individual inds, like a gold object in the form
of a barley seed, with a real seed inside, which links it directly
to the cult of Artemis.
here is no other sanctuary in the Archaic period which
is, both in terms of quantity and quality, comparable to
the Artemision in terms of the assemblage of gold objects.
Only collections of artefacts originating from graves, especially gold jewellery from Rhodes (650-600 BC) (Laineur,
1978), and from the Lydian Tumuli (Özgen and Öztürk,
1996) are similar in numbers. he latter, of course, are dated
to a much later period (the end of the 6th and the beginning
of the 5th century BC), but, in terms of their forms, motifs,
and techniques, they strongly resemble the Ephesian inds.
When considering the artefacts found in the Artemision,
it can be shown that the majority of them are related to
forms indigenous to Ionia, and that they were created in
local workshops. he unique ibulae decorated with a combination of lion heads and falcon heads embedded in a
lower (Selçuk, inv. no. 1/43/94, Fig. 3) have no parallels
Figure 3: Fibulae decorated with a combination of lion heads and
falcon heads embedded in a lower (Selçuk, inv. no. 1/43/94).
Figure 3 : Fibule décorée d’une combinaison de têtes de lions et de
faucons entourée de motifs loraux (Selçuk, inv. no. 1/43/94).
171
in the Archaic world, and can therefore be addressed as a
speciic Ephesian product (Freiberger and Gschwantler,
2008). On the other hand, there are a few objects, such as,
for example, a richly decorated head of a grifon (Selçuk,
inv. no. 117/61/90) or a piece of jewellery in the form of
a blossom, whose style and technology is strikingly similar
to Rhodes jewellery of the Orientalizing period, so that the
hypothesis of an import can be considered.
Statuettes and miniature objects (such as human extremities and small vessels) in particular were not objects intended
for daily use, but designed for the purpose of giving.
hrough precious votive oferings, such as gold objects, one
could show not only one’s religious faith but also demonstrate one’s status as compared to other individuals. However,
votive oferings were obviously even more than that: they
were also prestige objects for the recipient, that is the deity
or its mortal representative (i.e. the priest), because, through
precious gifts, status and power over other sanctuaries were
strengthened (Godelier, 1999).
2. METHODS
83 of these objects, among them 11 coins, were selected
for material analysis using two diferent self-built portable
X-ray luorescence (XRF) instruments (henceforth referred
to as XRF I and XRF II), according to the diferent requirements of the areas on the objects’ surfaces to be analyzed.
Instrument XRF I (COPRA, Compact Portable Roentgen
Analyzer, Fig. 4), constructed within the EU-Project No.
SMT4-CT98-2237 and used for the measurement campaign in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum, is characterized by a very small diameter (half-value width of 126
µm at 40 kV, 0.4 mA, Fe-Kα) of the primary X-ray beam
(anode material: molybdenum), which is achieved by a polycapillary. As a result, this instrument is particularly suited
for investigations of micro-domains on the surfaces of (gold)
objects. A proper focusing on the desired domain is achieved by an external object positioning system (allowing for a
positioning of the object with an accuracy of 0.01 mm in all
3 spatial directions), a microscope and a CCD-camera. For
the detection of the luorescence radiation, a drift chamber
detector (Röntec X-lash L) with an energy resolution of
<170 eV is used.
Instrument XRF II (Fig. 5), used for investigations in the
Ephesus Museum in Selçuk, is equipped with a Rhodium
(Rh) X-ray tube (Oxford XTF5011), a silicon drift detector
(Röntec XFlash 1000), and a positioning system consisting
of two laser beams (Desnica, 2005; Desnica and Schreiner,
2006). he diameter of the primary beam is approximately
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 169-175
172
Michael MELCHER et al.
set on an object’s surface. he spectra were quantiied using
18 appropriate standard materials in the systems Au-Ag-Cu
and Ag-Cu, as well as the software WinAxil (Win Axil X-ray
Analysis Software, Canberra Benelux, Belgium). he crosschecking of the quality of the quantiication in order to estimate analytical errors was carried out by the quantiication
of these standard materials. Relative errors of less than 3%
for the main components Au and Ag (compositional range
≥30 wt%), and less than 20% for the minor component Cu
(compositional range ≤5 wt%) were veriied.
Figure 4: Scheme of the instrument XRF I used for the investigation of objects in the Archaeological Museum, Istanbul.
Figure 4: Schéma de l’équipement de FX-I utilisé dans l’étude des
objets du musée archéologique d’Istanbul.
Figure 5: Scheme of the instrument XRF II used for the investigation of objects in the Ephesus Museum, Selçuk.
Figure 5 : Schéma de l’équipement de FX-II utilisé dans l’étude des
objets du musée d’Ephèse à Selçuk.
1 mm. Due to their relatively low weight, both instruments
are especially suited for investigations of objects on site (i.e.
in museums, collections, or near excavations) and enable a
qualitative and quantitative determination of major, minor
and trace elements in a non-destructive manner.
For all measurements, a tube voltage of 35 kV, a tube current of 0.8 mA, and a measurement time of 200 s were used.
Additionally, the tube was equipped with a 12.5 µm palladium (Pd)-ilter for suppression of difraction peaks in the
resulting spectrum. Typically, 3-4 measurement points were
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 169-175
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 presents the results of the analyses in tabular form.
In addition to the major and minor elements Au, Ag and
Cu, in some cases Fe was also detected in small amounts. As
the Fe intensities also showed signiicant variations between
diferent measurement points, the presence of Fe might be
due to supericial contaminations of the objects. he most
important result of these XRF analyses is the identiication
of 8 objects that were made of a gold alloy with very high
Au content, of more than 97%, that is of almost pure – and
therefore reined – gold. Four of these objects have an Au
content of more than 99%, containing only traces of Cu
and/or Ag: one is a cast miniature pendant in the shape of
a human being (Istanbul, inv. no. 3071), while the other
three objects (Istanbul, inv. nos. 3175 a, 3175 b and Selçuk,
inv. no. 42/41/86) are appliqués of identical type (type b.5variant 10, according to A.M. Pülz; see e.g. Pülz and Bühler
2006). he other four objects in this group are high-quality
jewellery items which consist of a large number of individual sheet-gold components and ine decorative elements
(mainly granulation, in some cases also beaded wires): a
brooch (Istanbul, inv. no.3157) and an earring (Istanbul,
inv. no. 3033), which may have been products of the same
workshop, as well as an insect-shaped miniature pendant
(Istanbul, inv. no. 3087) and brooch (Istanbul, inv. no.
3088). he Au content of these four objects varies between
97.2% and 98.9%, the Cu content between 1.1% and 2.8%,
and they all contain no Ag. As these four objects consist of
a large number of components, it is possible that at least
some of the copper detected on the surface of these objects
is due to the process of reaction soldering with copper salts,
which may have been used to join these components. If this
assumption is correct, the actual gold content of the sheetgold components used to produce these objects may have
been even higher. Signiicantly, all eight jewellery items with
an Au content of more than 97% are products of outstanding quality.
173
Investigation of ancient gold objects from Artemision using portable µ-XRF
Object
inv. no.
Au
Ag
Cu
Object
inv. no.
Au
Ag
Cu
Object
inv. no.
Au
Ag
Cu
3175
99.9 (0.0)
0.0 (0.0)
0.1 (0.0)
105/30/77
70.0 (2.5)
28.2 (2.5)
1.9 (0.0)
184/54/88
58.0 (1.5)
40.5 (1.6)
1.6 (0.2)
3176
99.9 (0.0)
0.0 (0.0)
0.1 (0.0)
50/41/86
68.6 (0.3)
28.7 (0.1)
2.9 (0.3)
18/41/86
57.7 (0.7)
41.0 (0.9)
1.3 (0.3)
3071
99.5 (1.4)
0.0 (0.0)
0.6 (1.4)
53/32/85
68.6 (3.4)
29.4 (3.5)
2.1 (0.4)
3079
57.6 (5.0)
40.4 (5.4)
2.0 (0.4)
42/41/86
99.5 (0.1)
0.4 (0.1)
0.1 (0.0)
115/61/90
68.1 (0.4)
31.1 (0.5)
0.8 (0.0)
17/41/86
57.0 (1.0)
41.5 (1.0)
1.6 (0.1)
3157
98.9 (0.7)
0.0 (0.0)
1.1 (0.7)
1/42/93
67.5 (2.3)
31.9 (2.1)
0.6 (0.2)
58/38/81
56.6 (2.6)
41.4 (2.4)
2.0 (0.2)
3087
98.4 (1.1)
0.0 (0.0)
1.6 (1.1)
47
67.3 (0.2)
32.0 (0.3)
0.8 (0.1)
29/68/89
56.2 (1.3)
42.2 (1.7)
1.7 (0.4)
3033
98.3 (1.7)
0.0 (0.0)
1.7 (1.7)
37/41/86
67.0 (3.4)
31.7 (3.3)
1.4 (0.1)
3078
55.7 (5.9)
42.4 (6.4)
1.9 (0.5)
3088
97.2 (0.5)
0.0 (0.0)
2.8 (0.5)
12/42/93
66.2 (1.3)
31.3 (1.2)
2.6 (0.1)
3106
55.3 (4.4)
42.3 (4.4)
2.4 (1.5)
133/61/87
95.3 (0.0)
4.0 (0.2)
0.8 (0.1)
1/59/80a
66.0 (0.7)
33.0 (1.0)
1.0 (0.7)
2/59/80
55.1 (2.0)
43.8 (2.3)
1.7 (0.3)
2/42/93
92.4 (1.7)
3.8 (0.8)
3.9 (1.0)
45/41/86
65.9 (5.7)
32.9 (5.8)
1.3 (0.1)
3061
52.6 (1.8)
45.4 (2.7)
2.1 (0.9)
12/41/86
92.2 (1.3)
6.0 (0.9)
1.9 (0.4)
1/59/80b
65.8 (0.7)
33.2 (0.7)
1.1 (0.1)
3062
52.2 (1.3)
45.6 (1.9)
2.2 (0.6)
3/42/93
91.3 (2.5)
4.3 (0.9)
4.0 (1.3)
13/42/93
64.2 (2.2)
33.5 (2.3)
2.4 (0.1)
3077
51.5 (1.2)
45.7 (1.4)
2.9 (0.4)
4/42/93
91.1 (3.4)
4.6 (0.7)
4.4 (3.2)
3/51/91
62.9 (0.0)
35.1 (0.1)
2.0 (0.2)
3118
50.2 (2.1)
47.8 (2.0)
2.0 (0.4)
1/43/94
91.0 (1.0)
4.8 (0.5)
4.3 (1.1)
3159
62.8 (3.6)
34.9 (3.1)
2.3 (1.4)
32/68/89
50.0 (0.7)
46.8 (0.8)
3.2 (0.2)
3084
84.2 (2.9)
14.6 (3.1)
1.1 (0.2)
38/68/89
62.6 (0.5)
36.2 (0.4)
1.2 (0.0)
183/54/88
49.0 (4.7)
49.6 (4.1)
1.4 (0.8)
40/41/86
48.7 (9.8)
50.9 (9.7)
0.4 (0.0)
3083
84.1 (2.2)
14.9 (2.9)
0.8 (0.7)
50/32/85
62.4 (2.8)
34.3 (3.0)
3.3 (0.1)
117/61/90
83.4 (1.4)
15.4 (0.5)
1.2 (0.9)
7/43/94
62.3 (2.1)
35.6 (2.0)
2.0 (0.6)
Coins
3090
80.6 (8.7)
16.0 (7.4)
3.4 (3.2)
15/43/94
61.9 (2.8)
36.3 (2.8)
1.8 (0.1)
101/41/86
83.2 (4.2)
15.7 (4.2)
1.2 (0.1)
1/41/86
78.7 (0.6)
18.5 (0.3)
2.9 (0.9)
52/32/85
61.3 (1.3)
37.3 (1.2)
1.5 (0.1)
99/43/94
66.5 (7.0)
31.9 (7.3)
1.6 (0.3)
111/61/87
78.1 (0.8)
20.3 (0.7)
1.7 (0.1)
75/32/85
61.2 (1.5)
36.6 (1.6)
2.2 (0.4)
99/41/86
64.5 (1.2)
34.7 (1.2)
0.8 (0.1)
63/32/85
77.5 (0.2)
19.9 (0.4)
2.6 (0.2)
29/51/91
61.2 (0.7)
36.1 (0.6)
2.8 (0.1)
100/41/86
62.2 (2.0)
36.7 (2.1)
1.2 (0.1)
135/61/87
77.2 (-)
21.0 (-)
1.8 (-)
91/32/85
60.8 (3.0)
36.9 (3.3)
2.4 (0.3)
98/43/94
60.7 (1.3)
37.7 (1.2)
1.7 (0.1)
182/54/88
74.4 (0.9)
23.3 (1.1)
2.3 (0.2)
3093
60.8 (1.0)
36.3 (1.8)
2.9 (0.8)
318/61/87
60.7 (4.4)
37.0 (4.1)
2.4 (0.5)
3076
74.2 (7.3)
24.2 (7.2)
1.7 (0.3)
174/38/81
60.6 (1.6)
35.8 (1.7)
3.6 (0.2)
96/41/86
60.6 (1.9)
38.4 (1.7)
1.1 (0.2)
110/61/87
73.9 (0.8)
24.0 (1.0)
2.2 (0.1)
3039
60.1 (5.0)
35.7 (5.6)
4.3 (3.2)
95/41/86
60.5 (3.2)
38.3 (3.2)
1.2 (0.0)
112/61/87
72.5 (0.4)
25.1 (0.5)
2.5 (0.0)
6/19/81
59.7 (0.7)
37.9 (0.6)
2.5 (0.0)
317/61/87
57.1 (3.8)
41.1 (3.4)
1.8 (0.4)
17/51/91
71.4 (3.9)
27.0 (3.6)
1.6 (0.3)
1/71/89
58.8 (2.3)
37.9 (2.9)
3.3 (0.7)
98/41/86
56.4 (0.3)
42.1 (0.3)
1.6 (0.0)
8/59/80
70.1 (1.4)
27.6 (1.1)
2.3 (0.4)
10/43/94
58.5 (1.5)
39.2 (1.4)
2.4 (0.1)
23/51/91
43.4 (6.8)
51.1 (6.9)
5.6 (0.1)
Table 1: Composition (average values of typically 3-4 measurements) of all 83 gold objects (72 jewellery items of diferent types, appliqués and
statuettes, as well as 11 coins) examined in the Archaeological Museum, Istanbul and in the Ephesus Museum, Selçuk. he data are sorted by descending Au content. he numbers in brackets indicate the range (maximum value minus minimum value) observed in the single measurements.
Tableau 1: Composition (teneurs moyennes de typiquement 3-4 mesures) de tous les 83 objects en or étudiés au musée archéologique d’Istanbul
et dans le musée d’Éphèse à Selçuk. Les 11 derniers objets sont des monnaies. Les données sont répertoriées par valeur décroissante de la teneur en
Au. Les valeurs entre parenthèses correspondent aux gammes (valeur maximale et valeur minimale) observées pour les mesures.
he use of gold alloys with a high gold content for the
production of a number of jewellery items from the sanctuary of Artemis at Ephesus is signiicant because this gold
was obviously reined. Considering the evidence from the
gold reinery at Sardis, Lydia (see Ramage and Craddock,
2000), which is dated to “no later than the middle of the
sixth century BC” (Ramage and Craddock, 2000: 95), it
is possible that either the raw material (the reined gold –
perhaps in the form of gold bars or coins?) or the inished
jewellery items were imported from Sardis. Provided this
assumption is true and the date suggested for the Sardis
reinery is correct, the use of reined gold could be employed
as a chronological criterion, which would allow us to ascribe
the objects in question to the 6th century BC. At present,
most gold objects from the sanctuary of Artemis at Ephesus
are ascribed to the second half of the 7th or the irst half of
the 6th century BC. An alternative hypothesis would be that
the gold was reined in Ephesian workshops. However, to
date, there is no evidence available in favour of this theory,
and it is not very likely that a gold reinery was active at
Ephesus before the workshops recently excavated at Sardis,
which provide so far the only certain evidence for the use of
the cementation process (separation of silver and gold using
salt) known from the ancient world.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 169-175
174
In this context, it is important to note that the Lydians
are credited with the invention of struck coinage in the 7th
century BC, and that “the irst coins were of native alluvial
gold, with the composition carefully adjusted by the addition of small quantities of silver to bring the gold content
down to a ixed composition, just below the minimum gold
content found in the metal from the Pactolus” (Ramage and
Craddock, 2000: 212-213). Analyses of Lydian coins of this
type from the collections of the British Museum have shown
that the majority of them contain about 54% Au (with a
variation of about 2%), 44% Ag (with a variation of about
2%) and 2% Cu (with a variation of 0.5%), as well as traces of Pb (up to 0.2%) and Fe (0.1-0.2%) (Ramage and
Craddock, 2000: 172). Two of the ‘Lydian’ coins from the
sanctuary of Artemis at Ephesus which were analyzed in
the context of the present study have a similar composition
(Selçuk, inv. nos. 317/61/87 and 98/41/86), and the same
is true for a considerable number of gold objects from the
same site.
During the reign of the last king of Lydia, Croesus (561547 BC), the irst bimetallic currency system of pure gold
and silver was introduced, and this required the ability to
separate and reine gold and silver. All analyses of Lydian
gold and silver coins have shown them to be of very high
purity (98% or more), and gold of similar purity or higher
was found on the sherds used to melt the reined metal in
the Sardis workshops (Ramage and Craddock, 2000: 169174).
Although native gold usually contains silver, typically
between 5 and 40%, its copper content rarely exceeds 1%
(Ramage and Craddock, 2000: 254). herefore, if a gold
alloy contains more than 1-2% Cu, it is likely to be an intentional alloy. Alluvial gold extracted from the river Pactolus
varies in composition and is said to contain about 17-30%
Ag (Ramage and Craddock, 2000: 172). he area analysis of
the cross-section of a natural granule of alluvial gold found
during the excavation of the Lydian gold reinery at Sardis
has shown it to contain 69.6% Au, 29.8% Ag and 0.6%
Cu (Ramage and Craddock, 2000: 148). his is particularly
interesting in comparison with a gold globule (Selçuk, inv.
no. 42/68/89) found in the sanctuary of Artemis at Ephesus,
which contains 67.3% Au, 32.0% Ag and 0.8% Cu. It is
thus possible that this is indeed a droplet of unreined native
gold, possibly alluvial gold from the river Pactolus or other
Lydian deposits.
A number of inished gold items found in the sanctuary
of Artemis at Ephesus have a similar composition, so that
it is possible that they were made of unreined native gold,
possibly from Lydian deposits. Signiicantly, all these objects
seem to be dated to the 7th century BC. Examples of such
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 169-175
Michael MELCHER et al.
artefacts are: a high-quality, massive human statuette produced by casting, with extensive cold-working (Selçuk, inv. no.
1/42/93 – 67.5% Au, 31.9% Ag and 0.6% Cu) and three
ibulae of the Phrygian ‘Asia Minor’ type (one pair: Selçuk,
inv. no. 1/59/80a – 66.0% Au, 33.0% Ag, 1.0% Cu and inv.
no. 1/59/80b – 65.8% Au, 33.2% Ag, 1.1% Cu; small single ibula: Selçuk, inv. no. 115/61/90 – 68.1% Au, 31.1%
Ag, 0.8% Cu). At least one of the coins of ‘Lydian’ type analyzed as part of this study (Selçuk, inv. no. 99/41/86) also
belongs to this category, as it contains 64.5% Au, 34.7%
Ag and 0.8% Cu.
4. CONCLUSION
he XRF analyses presented in this study have shown that a
wide range of gold alloys, both natural and intentional, were
used to produce the gold objects from the temple of Artemis
at Ephesus (second half of the 7th – irst half of the 6th century BC). Signiicantly, the composition of these gold objects
relects important cultural and technological innovations of
the period in question, such as the invention of the cementation process to achieve a complete separation of gold and
silver, and the invention of coinage (irst, a gold alloy with
high silver content in the 7th century BC, then pure gold and
silver coins in the 6th century BC). As these innovations took
place at Sardis (Lydia), the data provide further evidence for
a strong link between the sanctuary of Artemis at Ephesus
and the Kingdom of Lydia. A small number of inished gold
objects, as well as a piece of workshop debris, seem to consist
of unreined native gold with 32-33% Ag and approximately
1.0% Cu or below. Another small group of objects was made
of virtually pure (97-98% Au or above) – and therefore reined – gold. he vast majority of objects, however, in particular most of the appliqués, have a gold content in the range
of 55-70%, and a copper content of more than 1.5-2.0%,
suggesting that they may have been alloys formed by adding
additional silver (which presumably also contained some copper) to a natural, unreined gold alloy.
Acknowledgement
he results presented in this paper were obtained during a
research project inanced by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF)
and directed by PD Dr. Ulrike Muss. he authors also would
like to thank the Turkish Department of Antiquities and
Museums (Ankara) and the directors and staf of the Istanbul
Archaeological Museum and the Ephesus-Museum Selçuk for
the permission to examine the gold objects from the Artemision
at Ephesus.
Investigation of ancient gold objects from Artemision using portable µ-XRF
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LAFFINEUR, R., 1978. L’orfèvrerie Rhodienne orientalisante. Paris,
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of Turkey.
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Goldappliken aus dem Artemision von Ephesos, in U. Muss
(Hrsg.), Der Kosmos der Artemis von Ephesos. Sonderschriften
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Institutes, 221-232.
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Ephesos, Forschungen in Ephesos XII/5. Wien, Verlag der
Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (with a contribution from B. Bühler).
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Technologie. Österreichische Jahreshefte 75: 229-245.
RAMAGE, A. and CRADDOCK, P., 2000. King Croesus’ Gold.
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ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 169-175
Analytical study of the manufacturing techniques
of Kushan gold jewellery (National Museum
of Antiquities of Tajikistan)
Étude analytique des techniques d’orfèvrerie Kouchane
(musée national des Antiquités du Tadjikistan)
Maria Filomena Guerra*, Guy Demortier**, Maria Luisa Vitobello***,
Saidmurod Bobomulloev****, Dominique Bagault*, hierry Borel*
and Ikhom Mirsaidov*****
Abstract: Little is known about goldsmithing during the period of the Great Kushans. In order to undertake a irst approach to the technological
choices and the gold alloys used in the fabrication of the diferent parts of Kushan objects, ive gold jewellery items from the collections of the
National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan containing wires and granulation were transported from Dushanbe to Paris to be studied within
the European research project “AUTHENTICO” with non-destructive scientiic-based techniques at the C2RMF. All the items were found in
archaeological excavations carried out in the 1970s in several regions of Tajikistan and were examined by optical microscopy, scanning microscopy,
and X-ray radiography. he compositions of the alloys were determined by ion beam analysis (PIXE) at the AGLAE accelerator.
Résumé : Les techniques orfèvres de la période des Grands Koushans sont très méconnues. Ain de décrire les choix techniques de l’orfèvre et comprendre
le choix des alliages d’or utilisés pour fabriquer des diférentes parties constituant les bijoux, cinq objets d’orfèvrerie de la période Kouchane, appartenant aux collections du musée National des Antiquités du Tadjikistan, ont été transportés de Douchanbe à Paris, dans le cadre du projet européen
« AUTHENTICO », pour être étudiés au C2RMF au moyen de techniques scientiiques non-destructives. Tous les objets proviennent de fouilles archéologiques menées dans les années 1970 dans diférentes régions du Tadjikistan. Ils ont été observés par microscopie optique, microscopie électronique et
radiographie X. Leur composition a été déterminée par analyse par faisceau d’ions (PIXE) à l’accélérateur AGLAE.
Keywords: Kushan, jewellery, analysis, PIXE, gold.
Mots-clés : Koushan, orfèvrerie, analyse, PIXE, alliages d’or.
* Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR171 CNRS – 14, quai François-Mitterrand, 75001
Paris, France. (maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr)
** LARN, University of Namur – 61, Rue de Bruxelles, 5000 Namur, Belgium; Center for Dating and Diagnostics, Department of Engineering of
Innovation, Faculty of Cultural Heritage, University of Salento, Lecce, Italy. (guy.demortier@tvcablenet.be)
*** National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan, Academic Rajobov – 5, Dushanbe, Tajikistan. (said@ac.tajik.net)
**** EJTN GEIE, European Jewellery Technology Network – 124 rue du Commerce, Brussels, Belgium. (info@ejtn.org)
***** Nuclear and Radiation Safety Agency – 33 Rudaki Avenue, 734025, Dushanbe. (agentilhom@mail.ru)
rec. Sept. 2007 ; acc. Nov. 2007
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 177-185
178
Maria Filomena GUERRA et al.
1. INTRODUCTION
he Kushan Empire had its origins in the 2nd century BC,
when a confederation of nomadic Indo-European Yuezhi
tribes invaded and settled in the Sogdiana and the Bactria
areas in Central Asia (Puri, 1999; Rapin, 2007). his branch
of the Yuezhi had their origins in north-western China,
where they lived until being pushed back by the Xiongnu.
he Xiongnu, a pastoral nomadic tribal confederation from
the Ordos (horley, 1971) who produced a large quantity of
gold work (Bunker, 1993), occupied a large territory, from
the Yellow River to the North of Siberia. Only Sima Qian
(145-86 BC) provides in his Shiji (Record of the Historian)
some details about this civilisation and about their military superiority, which allowed them to defeat the Han and
become the irst powerful empire of the steppes along the
Chinese frontier (Sarkhosh Curtis and Stewart, 2007).
he branch of the Yuezhi pushed back by the Xiongnu settled along the Oxus River and in southern Bactria (present
day Afghanistan and Tajikistan), but expanded from the 1st
to the 4th century AD, especially under Kanishka I (early 2nd
century AD), to north-western India, Pakistan, Uzbekistan
and Afghanistan (Dani et al., 1996). Between the 1st and
the 3rd century AD, the Kushan controlled Gandhara, where
the main road connecting India with the Silk Road and the
Mediterranean Sea ran (Wood, 2002; horley, 1971).
he Kushan Empire was marked by a time of intensive
development of the economy (Mukhamedjanov, 1994)
and culture, with two distinct periods separated by a ‘dark
age’ (Sarianidi, 1980): the downfall of the Greco-Bactrian
Kingdom during the middle of the 2nd century BC, and the
powerful empire of the Great Kushan in the 1st-2nd century
AD (Dani et al., 1996). Chinese, Iranian and Indian traditions were brought together under the Kushan Empire, but
the Greek traditions brought by the conquest of Alexander
the Great are also evident in the typology of their art. he
objects from Tillya Tepe, including the gold Achaemenid
type mountain goat, the aureus of Tiberius, the Mithradates
II coin, the intaglios with proiles of Athena and inscriptions
in Greek, the Bactrian Aphrodite, the jades from China,
the garnets from India and other artefacts illustrate all these
inluences (Sarianidi, 1980).
Little is known about the diferent goldsmithing techniques and choices from the period of the Great Kushan
Empire (Drevnosti Tadzhikistana, 1985). he aim of this
work is to undertake a irst approach to this question by
studying a few items with known provenances, originating
from secure archaeological contexts situated in the most
important archaeological regions in Tajikistan (Fig. 1): the
Beshkent Valley (Medvedskaya et al., 1975; Sedov, 1979)
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 177-185
Figure 1: Map of Tajikistan showing the regions of Beshkent and
Dangara.
Figure 1 : Carte du Tadjikistan avec la localisation des régions de
Beshkent et de Dangara.
and the Dangara Valley (Mandelshtam, 1968). Five items
found in established excavations, representative of the
Kushan jewellery and containing gold wires and granulation, were selected from the collections of the National
Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan (Vitobello et al., 2009).
hree of them were found in the Beshkent Valley and are
dated to a period between the 1st and the 2nd century AD:
an amphora-shaped pendant and a globular openwork pendant, found in the mid 1970s during the excavation of the
Beshkent cemetery V (Figs. 2a and 2b); and a cloisonné pendant found in 1978 during the excavation of the Beshkent
cemetery VII (Fig. 2c). he pendant earring (Fig. 2d) was
found in the late 1970s during the excavation of the Ksirov
cemetery III, mortuary enclosure 19, in the Dangara Valley
and is dated to a period between the 1st century BC and the
2nd century AD. Finally, an amphora-shaped earring dated
to a period between the 1st and the 2nd century AD was
found in 1973-1974 during the excavation of the “Ittifoq”
cemetery in the Parkhar Valley (Fig. 2e).
Within the context of Work Package 5 of the European
project AUTHENTICO, the jewellery was transported to
the C2RMF in Paris for non-destructive examination by
optical microscopy, SEM, and X-radiography (for details
on the complementary use of these techniques see Guerra,
2008). he composition of the jewellery was determined by
PIXE (particle induced X-ray emission) at the AGLAE accelerator of the C2RMF, with a 3 MeV external proton beam
of 50 µm diameter and an intensity of 30-40 nA, allowing
a depth of analysis which in general is suicient to avoid
the copper depletion. Simultaneous PIGE (particle induced
179
Analytical study of the manufacturing techniques of Kushan gold jewellery…
a
d
b
e
c
Figure 2: (See colour plate) he ive gold Kushan
items selected for analysis from the collections of the
National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan: (a) pendant 274 (length 24 mm, width 10 mm, weight 1.870
g); (b) pendant 267 (length 30 mm, width 19 mm,
weight 3.780 g); (c) pendant earring 270 (length 55.9
mm, disc length 18.0 mm, width 10.5 mm, weight
2.483 g); (d) earring 271 (length 38.0 mm, width 10.0
mm, weight 3.447 g); (e) earring 274 (length 23 mm,
width 14 mm, weight 1.654 g).
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Les cinq objets
Kouchanes en or appartenant à la collection du musée
National des Antiquités du Tadjikistan, sélectionnés pour
analyse : (a) pendentif 272 (longueur 24 mm, largeur
10mm, poids 1,870 g) ; (b) pendentif 267 (longueur
30mm, largeur 19 mm, poids 3,780 g ; (c) pendentif earring 270 (longueur 55,9 mm, largeur du disque
18.0 mm, width 10,5 mm, poids 2,483 g) ; (d) boucle
d’oreille 271 (longueur 38,0 mm, largeur 10,0 mm, poids
3,447 g) ; (e) boucle d’oreille 274 (longueur 23 mm, largeur 14 mm, poids 1,654 g).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 177-185
180
Maria Filomena GUERRA et al.
gamma-ray emission) was carried out in order to compare
the compositions of the deep and surface layers.
2. TECHNOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION
OF THE JEWELLERY ITEMS
Earring 274
he amphora-shaped earring reference 274 in Catalogue
1983 and reference 8 of Masov et al. (2005), page 120
(Fig. 2a) is composed of gold strips of about 950 µm diameter, bent, folded and joined to produce symmetric handles
holding the amphora’s body. Two discs of 130-200 µm thickness separate a bead of certainly iron pyrite (this type of
decoration is common for Tillya Tepe jewellery, Collectif,
2006) and pearl elements that constitute the body. he top
of a rod going through the body is threaded around the
amphora’s suspension hook and is inished with a pyramid
of four large granules of 1650 µm diameter.
Pendant 272
Globular pendant reference 272 in Catalogue 1983, reference 6 of Masov et al. (2005), page 120 (Fig. 2b) consists
of an iron pyrite bead covered with an open net birdcage of
500 µm diameter strip-twisted wires bent to form loops at
the bottoms (Fig. 3). he junction points of the wires are
ornate with small plain discs of 800 µm diameter. A suspension solid gold ring is joined to a strip of gold folded into a
narrow cylindrical shape surrounded by a ringlet of granules
of 650 µm diameter. hese elements are joined to a disc.
No solder is visible and a scan carried out by PIXE did not
detect the presence of an alloy with diferent contents of
Cu or/and Ag; however, the morphology of the joins corresponds to the use of hard soldering. A rod with seams running longitudinally along the wire (morphologically similar
to the wires from pendant MK01.40.109 of Tillya Tepe, as
discussed by Ogden, 2007) goes through the bead, is coiled
around the lower half of the loop, and is completed with a
pyramid of four granules of 1450 µm diameter. Additional
smaller pyramids formed with granules of 650 µm diameter
are hard-soldered to the top of each larger granule.
Pendant 267
Pendant reference 267 in Catalogue 1983 and reference
4 of Masov et al. (2005), page 120 (Fig. 2c) consists of one
disc and one half-disc in cloisonné inlaid with turquoise and
glass paste (identiied by visual observation), bordered with
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 177-185
Figure 3: he X-radiography shows that all the wires from pendant
272, as well as the sustaining rod that goes through the pendant,
are hollow. he top of the rod is coiled around the suspension
ring. Under the stereo microscope, the seams on the wires appear
typical of strip-twisting.
Figure 3 : La radiographie à rayons X montre que tous les ils du
pendentif 272 sont creux ainsi que la tige de soutien qui traverse le
pendentif. La tige est ensuite enroulée autour de l’anneau de suspension. La morphologie de surface des iligranes sous loupe binoculaire
montre les traces typiques des ils creux tordus.
Analytical study of the manufacturing techniques of Kushan gold jewellery…
181
granulated pyramids. he cloisons are 300-400 µm thick, and
the encircling cloison about 2 mm large (Fig. 4). A 1500 µm
rod shaped by hammering is bent as a hook and is joined
to the back-plate of both elements, holding them together.
An additional hook is joined to the back of the half-disc.
One end of the hook was lattened while the other end was
sharply cut straight.
he outer borders of the setting boxes are surrounded by
a row of granules of 1200 µm diameter topped by a tiny
pyramid of four granules of 400 µm diameter on average
(Fig. 4). he entire front part of the pendant was lattened,
partially damaging a large number of granules.
Pendant earring 270
Pendant earring reference 270 in Catalogue 1983 and
reference 17 of Masov et al. 2005, page 124 (Fig. 2d) is
typologically very similar to many objects from Tillya Tepe
(Collectif, 2006). A long rod about 1000 µm in diameter,
forged as a hook and serving as suspension loop and ear
hook, is lattened to be joined to the central body (Fig. 5),
consisting of one mango-shaped turquoise setting and one
round-shaped garnet setting, both in cabochon, placed on
the same back plate. Two gold strips, 2 mm large, form
the box settings, which are surrounded by a row of granules about 1 mm in diameter (Fig. 5). A hammered disc
is suspended with a 450 µm diameter coiled strip-twisted
wire from the main body through a small ring made from a
750 µm diameter strip-twisted wire.
Earring 271
Earring reference 271 in Catalogue 1983 and reference
8 of Masov et al. (2005), page 124 (Fig. 2e), is composed
of a suspension hook and a complex pendant. he suspension hook consists of strip-twisted wire of uniform 750 µm
circular section, each strip bent into a loop, interlocking
facing opposite directions, resulting in a Gordian knot that
supports a turquoise setting in cabochon surrounded by
700 µm diameter granules. hese granules are half-melted,
maybe because of a poor control of the joining process. On
the back side of the hook, one set of 500 µm diameter striptwisted wires (Fig. 6a) is joined on the inside of a cylindrical
hinge 1000 µm large, while the other set of wires is inserted
into the same cylinder, emerging for threading into the earlobe. A ring surrounded by one 850 µm diameter spooled
wire is joined to the two dolphin-shaped handles decorated
by chiselling and to the golden amphora’s neck. his type
of wire is almost absent from Afghani gold work (Ogden,
2007). A strip-twisted wire is wound around the upper part
Figure 4: Pendant 267: at the top, detail of the granules under the
SEM; below, detail of the cloisonné under the stereomicroscope.
Figure 4 : Pendentif 267 : en haut, détail des granules au MEB et en
bas, détail du cloisonné sous loupe binoculaire.
of the neck from where the amphora hangs. A coiled striptwisted wire joins the amphora to the ring, functioning as a
central rod. At its bottom hangs a lower-shaped bell on 100
µm thick gold foil, decorated with 500 µm diameter twisted
and spooled wires (Oddy, 1977 deinition), as illustrated
in Figure 6b. Two suspension rings are joined to the external side of the dolphins’ tails, hanging a single loop-in-loop
chain of 500 µm diameter strip-twisted wire; each chain is
obtained by inserting four links into each other. A lowershaped bell decorated with 500 µm diameter strip-twisted
wires is suspended at the bottom of a coiled strip-twisted
wire (Fig. 6c).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 177-185
182
Maria Filomena GUERRA et al.
Figure 5: SEM images showing details of earring 270: on the left, the suspension ring, the coiled wire, and the back plate; on the right,
the settings box and the granulation.
Figure 5 : Les images MEB montrent diférents détails de la boucle d’oreille 270 : à gauche l’anneau de suspension, les ils torsadés et la plaque
de soutien ; à droite la boîte et la granulation.
a
b
b
Figure 6: Earring 271: (a) the X-radiography shows that the wires
are hollow; (b) and (c) the diferent wires used in the decoration
under the SEM.
Figure 6 : Pendant d’oreille 271 : (a) la radiographie X montre que
les ils sont creux ; (b) et (c) au MEB les diférents ils utilisés dans les
motifs de décoration.
3. THE GOLD ALLOYS
he composition of the diferent parts of each jewellery
item was determined by PIXE at the AGLAE accelerator of
the C2RMF, with a 3 MeV external proton beam of 50 µm
diameter and an intensity of 30-40 nA. he acquisition
times ranged from 3 to 5 minutes. For the bigger parts, a
region of 200 x 200 µm was scanned for homogenization.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 177-185
183
Analytical study of the manufacturing techniques of Kushan gold jewellery…
Two Si(Li) detectors were used to collect the X-rays emitted by the sample. One of the detectors is dedicated to the
measurement of major elements, while the second detector,
equipped with a 75 µm Cu ilter to selectively decrease the
intensity of the gold L-lines, can be used to identify minor
and trace elements when higher acquisition times are used
(Guerra, 2004; Guerra and Calligaro, 2004). he compositions of the diferent parts of the items are presented in
Table 1. he limits of detection are on average 40 ppm for
Cu, 300 ppm for Ag and 400 ppm for Au.
he alloys used to fabricate pendant 267 have the following average composition: 82.0±1.2% Au, 14.7±1.0% Ag,
3.1±1.1% Cu. hese alloys are of better quality than those
used in the production of the other four objects, which
have the following average composition: 75.2±2.5% Au,
22.7±2.6% Ag, 1.9±0.8% Cu. We must however note the
slightly higher copper contents of some decorative elements
of the disc of pendant 267 as compared to the elements of
the half-disc.
he compositions of pendant 272 and earring 271 are
very similar; the average composition is the following:
76.3±2.1% Au, 21.8±2.3% Ag, 1.7±0.8% Cu. However,
the granules of the dome plaque of pendant 272 have higher
copper contents than the other elements of this item, and
some elements have lower silver contents, such as the granules and the junction disc. he back plaques of earring 271
also present higher copper contents than the other elements
of this item.
Very few publications consider scientiic analyses carried
out on Kushan gold objects. However, the analysis of a few
Kushan coins, of a gold pendant with garnets, and of a gold
coin struck by Kanishka (Sachs et al., 2003) showed the use
of gold alloys with compositions which are rather far from
our results. he results obtained for the gold alloys used
in the fabrication of the Kushan jewellery pieces analysed
in this work are also distinct from the compositions found
for several gold objects and decoration gold foils from a
Xiongnu necropolis, which are separated in two main
groups, with silver and copper contents of respectively 2%
and < 1% for one group and ~10% and 1-2% for the other
group (Guerra et al., 2005, Guerra and Calligaro, 2003).
However, our results are very similar to the composition of
the alloys used under Vasudeva II (after circa 261 AD) to
strike concave dinars (Fussman, 2003).
As previously noted, the pendant earring 270 is typologically very similar to several objects from Tillya Tepe. A very
small set of objects from this necropolis was analysed at the
C2RMF, and the results were published by Calligaro (2006).
In contrast to the Kushan jewellery analysed in this work,
all the analysed objects from Tillya Tepe are of very good
Cu%
Ag %
Au %
2.8
2.7
1.8
2.2
2.4
2.1
21.7
20.6
22.6
21.3
21.0
21.7
75.4
76.5
75.5
75.7
76.5
76.2
1.9
1.1
1.1
4.0
4.0
1.2
1.1
1.1
1.6
1.8
1.4
1.4
1.5
2.0
1.8
22.3
23.2
25.0
19.0
18.9
22.3
23.1
22.0
19.2
18.7
23.8
23.5
19.2
18.6
26.2
75.7
75.4
73.6
76.7
76.8
76.4
75.7
76.9
79.1
79.4
74.7
74.9
79.1
79.3
71.9
4.7
3.6
5.9
3.0
2.2
3.2
2.7
3.0
2.5
2.3
2.7
2.5
2.0
14.7
16.1
13.1
16.1
15.8
15.8
14.3
13.9
13.6
15.0
14.2
13.5
15.3
80.6
80.2
80.9
80.6
82.0
81.0
82.6
82.9
83.4
82.5
83.0
83.8
82.4
1.6
1.5
1.1
2.1
2.1
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.3
2.4
27.2
27.7
29.1
24.6
24.7
23.5
20.9
25.2
24.7
25.4
70.8
70.3
69.1
73.1
73.0
73.4
75.3
72.0
72.6
72.1
2.7
1.3
0.9
2.6
1.5
1.0
1.4
1.3
20.2
22.2
26.2
22.8
21.0
21.8
20.2
22.5
76.9
76.4
72.3
74.4
77.3
76.8
78.2
76.1
Earring 274
strip
central rod
cylinder
granule
Pendant 272
suspension hoop
dome plaque
dome granule
wire
junction disc
pyramid big granule
pyramid small granule
ring
Pendant 267
disc front plate
disc back plate
disc big granule
disc small granule
disc cloisonné
half-disc cup cloisonné
half-disc cup external strip
half-disc cup back plate
Hook
Earring 274
disc
hoop
suspension wire
mango box
garnet box wire
garnet box
garnet box granule
Earring 271
right pendant plaque
right pendant decoration wire
right pendant suspension wire
left pendant plaque
left pendant decoration wire
left pendant suspension wire
suspension chain
Table 1: PIXE results obtained for the composition of the gold
alloys used in the Kushan jewellery analysed (in %).
Tableau 1 : Résultats obtenus par PIXE pour la composition des
alliages utilisés dans la fabrication de l’orfèvrerie kouchane (en %).
quality. Among those objects, we draw attention to the pendant MK04.40.109, found in tomb V, and a gold appliqué
MK04.40.113, found in tomb II (Collectif, 2006), dated
to the 1st century AD, which contain on average 96% Au,
3% Ag and 1% Cu, and 97% Au, 1.8% Ag and 1.1% Cu,
respectively. An equivalent composition was obtained for the
ingot dated from the 4th-2nd century BC found in the Palace
of Al Khaouïn, a town founded by Alexander the Great and
situated close to the present day Tajikistan border.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 177-185
184
4. CONCLUSION
he analytical study of ive jewellery items containing gold wires and granules from the collections of the
National Museum of Antiquities of Tajikistan provides a
irst approach to the goldsmiths’ technological choices during the Kushan period. he non-destructive examination of
the jewellery revealed the use of a large variety of techniques
and decoration elements, sometimes very similar to those
observed for the Afghani gold work of Tillya Tepe, such as
the strip-twisted wires with seams running longitudinally
along the wire, the absence of complex granulation patterns,
the stone settings, the hammered elements, and so on.
he non-destructive analysis of the objects by PIXE
revealed the use of two distinct gold alloys, which contain
on average about 15% Ag and 3% Cu for one type of alloy
(pendant 267) and 19-26% Ag for the other (the other four
objects), with copper contents that are either around 1% or
around 2%. Data on particular elements, such as wires and
granules, cannot be generalized, but, if we exclude pendant
272, we note that these elements have similar compositions
to the other elements of one and the same item.
Our elemental results are distinct from the compositions
obtained by several authors for a few items and an ingot from
Tillya Tepe, for several items produced by the Xiongnu, for
one Kushan pendant, and for most of the coins struck by the
Kushans. Only the concave dinars struck under Vasudeva II
show a composition similar to our objects.
We must note that the results obtained for these ive
objects cannot be generalized for Kushan jewellery, with
technological traditions and skills that were inluenced by
Chinese, Iranian, Greek and Indian craftsmen. his combination of diferent traditions certainly also led to the use of
many diferent alloys. In addition to this aspect, we must
also bear in mind the diversity of the supplies in a region
that beneited from contact with the trade routes between
Orient and Occident.
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Gold technology of the ancient Scythians –
gold from the kurgan Arzhan 2, Tuva
La technologie de l’or chez les Scythes anciens – l’or du kurgan Arjan 2, Touva
Barbara Armbruster*
Abstract: In 2000-2003, a ‘royal’ burial site in Tuva Republic, Siberia, dating to early Scythian times, was excavated by a joint German-Russian
research program. housands of gold articles were discovered in the wooden chamber of ‘royal’ burial no. 5, dated to the late 7th century BC. he
majority of these ornaments are decorated in the Scythian animal style. he study of the technological aspects reveals the variety of manufacturing
techniques and designs employed for these extremely rich ornaments, and provides an insight into the complexity of the art of the early Scythian
goldsmiths at the end of the 7th century BC. his paper aims to present the large variety of distinct processes used in the manufacture of these
gold artefacts. he technical expertise and the equipment at the disposal of the Early Iron Age craftsmen can be inferred from tool marks and
analysis of surface structures. he early date of these inds, demonstrated by a combination of radiocarbon and dendrochronology, supports the
assumption that this particular, sophisticated style of early Scythian metal work originated in the Tuva region.
Résumé : Une sépulture princière, datée du début de la période Scythe, a été fouillée en 2002-2003 dans la République de Touva, Sibérie, dans le
cadre d’un programme de recherche germano-Russe. Des milliers d’objets en or ont été découverts dans la chambre funéraire de la sépulture n° 5, datant
du VIIe siècle av. J.-C. La majorité de ces parures est décorée dans le style animalier Scythe. L’étude technologique a révélé la variété des techniques de
fabrication et des motifs employés pour ces ornements extrêmement riches. Elle a aussi donné un aperçu de la complexité de l’art des orfèvres Scythes à la
in du VIIe siècle av. J.-C. Cet article vise à présenter la grande variété des procédés distincts utilisés dans la fabrication de ces objets en or. La compétence
technique et l’équipement à la disposition de l’artisan à l’Âge du Fer ancien peuvent être déduits des traces d’outils et de l’analyse des structures de surface.
La précocité de ces trouvailles, démontrée par la combinaison de la datation radiocarbone avec la dendrochronologie, soutient l’hypothèse que ce style
particulier et sophistiqué du travail du métal au début de l’époque Scythe trouverait son origine dans la région de Touva.
Keywords: Scythians, goldwork, Arzhan 2, manufacture, tool marks.
Mots-clés : Scythes, orfèvrerie, Arjan 2, fabrication, traces d’outils.
1. INTRODUCTION
his paper deals with early Scythian precious metal technology, more precisely with the manufacture of the gold
jewellery and ornamented weapons buried in the kurgan
(burial mound) of Arzhan 2 in the north of the Republic
of Tuva, in Siberia. One kurgan of this important Scythian
royal necropolis was fully excavated from 2000 to 2003
as part of a German-Russian research program, headed
by Hermann Parzinger and Anatoli Nagler (German
Archaeological Institute, Berlin), as well as by Konstantin
Chugunov (State Hermitage, Saint Petersburg) (Chugunov
* TRACES – UMR 5608 du CNRS – Maison de la Recherche, Université de Toulouse Le Mirail, 31058 Toulouse cedex. (barbara.armbruster@univtlse2.fr)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 187-193
188
et al., 2003; Menghin and Parzinger, 2007). Arzhan, in the
district of Turan, is located in a plain where hundreds of
kurgans are arranged in alignments. he kurgan Arzhan 2,
which is nearly 80 m in diameter and more than 2 m in
height, consisted of a platform constructed from stone
slabs, as it is characteristic of the early Scythian period. he
wooden chamber of the burial no. 5 was dated by radiocarbon and dendrochronology to the 2nd half of the 7th century
BC. During the excavations of 2001, more than 5700 gold
items were discovered in the undisturbed royal burial no. 5
(Chugunov, 2004; Chugunov et al., 2006). he results of
current research on Arzhan 2 are forthcoming (Chugunov
et al., 2010).
he two individuals in the prestigious burial no. 5, a man
and a woman, were literary covered with gold. hey were
adorned with personal ornaments, such as torcs, necklaces,
ear ornaments, pendants and pins. Gold also embellished
the head-dress and boots, while a large number of appliqués
covered the dress. he man’s upper garment, clearly a cape,
was adorned by about 2500 small cast panther igures, while
the woman’s cape was covered by much lighter, but aesthetically identical, panther igures worked in pressed sheet. In
addition to gold beads, beads of diferent materials, such as
carnelian, garnet, glass paste, malachite, and turquoise, are
also present in the ensemble of personal ornaments. Other
gold products, such as a miniature cup, a quiver and its
carrying belt, as well as a wooden bowl with its handle covered with gold, are also part of this extraordinary discovery.
Finally, iron weapons decorated with gold and silver inlay,
such as daggers, knives, arrow-heads and a battle-axe form
yet another category of these precious grave goods. he
majority are decorated in the Scythian animal style.
A general problem related to the scientiic study of early
Scythian gold lies in the fact that precious metal artefacts are not known from hoards or settlement sites, but
exclusively from funerary contexts, or as isolated objects,
presumably from looted tombs. Scythian gold work from
Siberia is particularly well known due to the Siberian collection of Peter the Great, on display in the State Hermitage
Museum, St Petersburg (Schiltz, 1994; Popescu et al., 2001).
International exhibitions showed some Scythian gold ornaments from Siberia dating to the 7th and 6th centuries BC,
such as the splendid rolled panther from Kélermes, or other
animal igures, like the deer from Kostromslaïa (Busch,
1993; Popescu, 2001). However, the undisturbed tomb
from Arzhan 2 represents the most luxuriant Siberian grave
of the early Scythian period with regards to the number
and combination of artefacts, as well as to the variety of
diferent styles present, allowing one to distinguish diferent
workshop traditions. he grave goods provide evidence of
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 187-193
Barbara ARMBRUSTER
the high quality of the gold work in both aesthetical and
technical terms (Armbruster, 2010). A signiicant part of the
gold objects bear traces of wear, proving that they were used.
However, there are also items without any traces of wear,
which still maintain rough edges that make them unsuitable
for use. hey were most probably especially made for the
burial and its ceremony, as is known in the case of the gold
work from the early Celtic princely grave from EberdingenHochdorf, Ludwigsburg, Germany (Biel, 1985).
2. WORKSHOP AND TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE
For the 7th century BC, there are no written or iconographic sources available to inform us about the technical
skill of the Scythian goldsmiths. hat is why our knowledge
of techniques is based above all on the study of archaeological artefacts with the help of analogies, experiments and
material sciences. Tool marks and surface textures on the
gold work from Arzhan 2 testify to the advanced technological knowledge of the goldsmiths and their well equipped
workshops. However, no evidence of any early Scythian
goldsmith workshop has ever been found. hey must have
consisted of a set of specialised tools and furnaces fanned
with bellows in order to achieve a temperature of about
1000 °C, necessary for the melting of gold with a low silver
or copper content. he furnaces must have been equipped
with adequate tuyères and controlled air draft. Analyses of
tool marks conirmed the following workshop equipment:
A pair of scales and weights are assumed to have been
present for measuring. For casting, annealing and soldering,
a furnace with bellows, charcoal, crucible, casting mould
(clay or stone), and tongs (wood or iron) were needed, and a
blow-pipe was probably also used. Plastic shaping was executed with hammers and anvils (stone or iron), and with dies
(bronze or hard wood). he bending of wire, particularly of
iligree elements, involves some sort of pliers. Decoration
techniques required punches, scrapers, engraving tools,
and chisels (hard iron or steel). Finishing could have been
carried out with grinding stones, sand, ashes and acids.
Ethnographic analogies demonstrate that in the nomadic
lifestyle these tools can be transported in a sack or chest over
long distances (Armbruster, 1995).
Before manufacturing an object, the goldsmith irst developed a concept. In the case of the complex Scythian animal
style, he irst had to sketch the outline of the desired motif.
Gold objects from Arzhan bear tool marks resulting from
outlines. Any gold work starts from a cast ingot. Gold must
be melted in a crucible and cast in a mould. For the gold
from Tuva, two methods are evident. Ingot casting was used
Gold technology of the ancient Scythians – gold from the Kurgan Arzhan 2, Tuva
for preliminary products; then, the cast ingot was transformed by plastic shaping techniques in order to obtain wire
or sheet. A large number of the Arzhan gold items consist
of an assemblage of sheet and wire work.
Casting
However, lost wax casting was used for massive objects
decorated with the complex relief motifs. Examples of such
cast ornamental objects are the man’s neck-ring and the
woman’s pectoral, pins, clasps, and waist buckles (Fig. 1),
and various belt and strap elements. In addition to the animal igures that are worked fully in three dimensions (e.g.
big cats, ibexes, deer, and eagles), other zoomorphic representations are realised individually in bas-relief, or arranged
as animal groups integrated in the metal surface, occupying
it entirely (e.g. boars, camels, big cats, deer, horses).
Flat igures cut out of thick gold sheet are another type of
animal art occurring in Arzhan 2 (e.g. deer, horse, and ibex).
he Scythian animal style appears in both a naturalistic version and a more or less stylised one.
Sheet work
Sheet metal and wire were produced through plastic shaping with a hammer and anvil. Repeated annealing prevented the gold from getting hard and brittle. he animal style
sheet ornaments were executed by cutting the silhouette of
the desired object using a chisel. Holes were formed with the
help of a conical instrument. Chisels and engraving implements were used to remove metal. Sheet metal and wire were
joined to create jewellery by soldering, as, for instance, in
the case of complex ear-ornaments.
189
Engraving and openwork
Several decorative techniques were applied in the early
Scythian gold work from Arzhan in addition to the predominant method employed for ornaments cast in relief. Less
complicated decorations were executed by engraving and
cut in open work (Fig. 3). Engraving is a cutting technique
that requires hardened steel tools to remove metal chips.
Such hardened tools were needed for engraving certain gold
decorations, as well as for preparing the grooves for precious
metal inlay in the iron surfaces. Although no steel tools are
known from that period, small steel scrapers were most probably used. Inlay was used to embellish the iron artefacts.
Pressed sheet technique for serial production
Chasing and pressed sheet are plastic deformation techniques also employed for decoration. he tools used for
chasing are punches, chisels, and an elastic working surface,
such as a chasing cement or thick leather. Only a single
object from Arzhan 2, a panther igure, is deinitely chased.
In contrast, thousands of small sheet panthers were realised by the pressed sheet technique using dies (Fig. 2b)
(Armbruster, 2003). he sheet’s relief is pushed with a pointed tool while the gold metal is positioned over the die. he
use of dies serves for the manufacture of a series of pieces
with little weight, but much optical efect. he small panther
igures of the garment of the princess are examples of the
pressed sheet technique. Another technique of pressed relief
on sheet decoration is also present, using the carved relief of
a wooden itting as a die and producing single objects. he
unique ornamental quiver and the handle of a wooden bowl
a
b
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Lost wax casting with ‘kerbschnitt’
relief, waist buckle.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Fonte à la cire perdue avec relief
‘kerbschnitt’, boucle de ceinture.
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Panther igures serial production; a:
cast in lost wax; b: pressed sheet technique.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Figures de panthères fabriquées en
série ; a) fonte à la cire perdue ; b) technique de pression sur tôle.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 187-193
190
Barbara ARMBRUSTER
Figure 4: (See colour plate) Sheet work, decorated with iligree,
granulation and enamel: ear plugs and pendants with chain.
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Travail de la tôle, décorée avec du
iligrane, de la granulation et de l’émail : pendants d’oreille et pendentifs avec chaînes.
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Flat sheet ornaments, with cut contours and decorated with engraving and open work: horse igure
from the woman’s head ornament.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Ornements en tôle plane, avec des
contours découpés, décoration gravée et ajourée : cheval de l’ornement
de tête de la femme.
Helicoidal tool marks of this technique are clearly present on
gold wire decorating the sheet animal igures, boots, decorative bands, and the headgear. Fine iligree wires were ixed
on the metal support by soldering with metallic solder, as
shown by clearly visible traces of solder.
Granulation and iligree are decorative techniques based
on the application of granules or ine wires on a metal sur-
bear a motif of ish scales. hese scales are in relief, which
was transferred to the golden sheet by the pressed sheet technique. he wood was left as a backing, strengthening the
gold sheet element. he quiver, composed of the wooden
itting, the ornamental gold sheet, a leather recipient and
strap, had to withstand the weight of bow and arrows.
Filigree and granulation (Fig. 4)
Wire of up to a diameter of one millimetre in thickness
was produced by manual hammering. Small rings made of
wire served for the production of chains made of simple
loops or with the loop-in-loop technique (Fig. 5) (Reist
Stark and Reist Smith, 2000). Very ine wires for iligree
and the outline of the enamel panel were produced by
coiling a narrow gold strip, a procedure well known from
ancient wire, the so-called ‘strip-twisting’ (Formigli, 1993).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 187-193
Figure 5: Loop-in-loop chain: miniature cauldron with chain.
Figure 5 : Chaîne en loop-in-loop: chaudron en miniature avec chaîne.
Gold technology of the ancient Scythians – gold from the Kurgan Arzhan 2, Tuva
face attached by soldering (Wolters, 1986; 1987). Both
techniques of decoration were also applied in combination
with enamel. Enamel was already well developed in early
Scythian art. Metallic solder was used for hot joining. his
solder is a gold alloy whose melting point is lower than that
of the base metal. Small particles were placed on the surface
to be joined and then melted. Remnants of solder are clearly
recognizable on the gold work.
In addition to soldering, riveting and folding were also
used as joining techniques in the gold work from Arzhan 2.
Ear ornaments (Fig. 4), decoration bands from the boots,
zoomorphic sheet igures, and beads from Arzhan are
outstanding examples of enamelled iligree and granulation
work. Enamel is used here as a pale whitish glass on gold
sheet, applied on the metal surface as a crushed powder and
then melted in the furnace.
Metal inlay is a polychrome decorative technique present
in Arzhan 2 on iron weapons ornamented with gold and silver (Fig. 6). Small precious metal elements were incrusted in
the iron surface. hese small sheet or wire pieces were hammered and rubbed into grooves executed in advance. For
this type of work, hardened steel implements were needed
to engrave or cut the grooves and hollows. he spectacular
iron weapons of the prince of Arzhan were already highly
complex, three-dimensional and ornamental works of art
created by a blacksmith, before the ine metalworker began
to add the gold and silver inlay.
191
3. WORKSHOP GROUPS
Diferent technical workshop groups from Arzhan 2 can
be distinguished. One group consists of cast objects, massif
and hollow, with ‘kerbschnitt’ relief, made by lost wax casting (Figs. 1 and 2a). Another category consists of lat sheet
ornaments, with cut contours and decorated with engraving
and openwork (Fig. 3). Sheet working was also identiied on
three dimensional, hollow sheet ornaments worked with dies
or by chasing. Flat sheet work, decorated with iligree, granulation and enamel represents yet another group (Fig. 4).
Serial production of identical articles is evident in numerous objects cast in lost wax, and others worked in pressed
sheet (Fig. 2). he next group contains wire work, such as
simple loop and loop-in-loop chains (Fig. 5). Finally, gold
and silver inlay in iron weapons constitutes the last group
in the assemblage of ine metal work (Fig. 6).
he diferent ine metal working techniques used in the
manufacture of the gold and iron artefacts from Arzhan 2
were not new inventions. hey were previously known in
other regions, such as the Near East, as well as China, before
the 7th century BC, while lost wax casting, soldering, iligree
and granulation, and also polychrome metal inlay, were also
in use in Anatolia and Mesopotamia, as well as in Iron Age
Europe. However, this discovery represents the irst instance
of the application of such a wide range of metal working
techniques in the production of objects in the Scythian animal style.
he gold technology in Arzhan 2 can be summed up
according to technical categories as follows:
Casting techniques:
◊ ingot casts for sheet and wire production
◊ lost wax casting, massif and hollow single pieces and
series
Plastic shaping techniques:
◊ lat hammered sheet; chased sheet with repoussé
◊ pressed sheet, serial production with dies
◊ wire production, chains
Joining techniques:
◊ soldering, riveting, folding
Figure 6: (See colour plate) Gold inlay in iron weapons: detail of
the man’s dagger.
Figure 6 : (Voir planche couleur) Incrustations d’or dans des armes en
fer: détail du poignard de l’homme.
Decorative techniques:
◊ cast relief, inished by scraping and chiselling
◊ cut decoration: engraving, chiselling, open work
◊ application of small elements: granulation and iligree
(solder)
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 187-193
Barbara ARMBRUSTER
192
◊ enamel (colour spots)
◊ inlay: iron objects with precious metal inlay (polychrome)
Finishing techniques:
◊ grinding and polishing
◊ pickling with acids
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
he exceptional discovery of the intact elite burial of
Arzhan 2 provides new insights into the complex gold work
of the early Scythians in Siberia. he gold ornaments were
worked both for the living and for the dead, some exclusively
for ceremonial rituals. hey testify to the high technical and
artistic level of the complex Scythian goldsmiths’ craft in
the late 7th century BC. he gold work provides evidence
of the organization and specialization of applied arts and of
extended cultural contacts. he early date of the 2nd half of
the 7th century BC proves that the gold work from Arzhan
2 is older than parallels from Kazakhstan, and represents
the irst evidence of that technology in Scythian Siberia.
he particularly rich combination of techniques applied to
speciic designs seems to be a local feature. However, the
sophisticated gold technology, including lost wax casting,
soldering, iligree, granulation, and enamel was known prior
to the 7th century BC, both in the East and West.
he brief account of the virtuoso and diverse gold work
of the early Scythians reveals a sophisticated knowledge of
the metal. he tool marks and techniques identiied on the
artefacts from Arzhan 2 provide evidence of the equipment
of the goldsmith’s workshop. From ethnological analogies,
it is known that the tools of a mobile atelier could easily be
transported in a sack over long distances. his observation
corresponds to the nomadic lifestyle of the Scythians. Four
diferent craft traditions were identiied among the objects
under consideration: cast products with ‘kerbschnitt’ relief,
chased and pressed sheet items, objects with granulation,
iligree, and enamel, and gold and silver inlay in iron. More
than 2500 years ago, early Scythian goldsmiths equipped
with a few archaic tools were able to create gold ornaments
of high aesthetic and technical level.
Acknowledgements
he author should like to express her gratitude to Hermann
Parzinger for the invitation to study the gold work from Arzhan
2. Konstantin Chugunov provided every assistance during the
research stay at the State Hermitage in St Petersburg, where
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 187-193
Svetlana Burshneva kindly supported my investigations in the
research laboratories. Anatoli Nagler provided support both in
St Petersburg and in Berlin for inishing my task. I am also very
grateful to Niamh Whitield for polishing my English.
References
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ARMBRUSTER, B.R., 2003. Preßblecharbeiten. Technologisches,
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Gruyter, 409-413.
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Goldschmiedekunst aus Arzan 2, in K.V. Chugunov, H.
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the Kings, Tuva. Artifacts from the Arzhan barrow. Exhibition
at the Hermitage, Sankt-Petersburg (in Russian).
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CHUGUNOV, K.V., PARZINGER, H. and NAGLER A. (eds.), 2006. Der
Goldschatz von Arzhan. Ein Fürstengrab der Skythenzeit in der
südsibirischen Steppe. München, Schirmer/Mosel.
CHUGUNOV, K.V., PARZINGER, H. and NAGLER A. (eds.), 2010. Der
skythenzeitlichen Fürstenkurgan Arzan 2 in Tuva. Archäologie
in Eurasien 26. Berlin.
FORMIGLI, E., 1993. Sulla tecnica di costruzione dei ili d’oro
nell’oreiceria etrusca, in C. Eluère (ed.), Symposium “Outils
et ateliers d’orfèvre des temps anciens”. Saint-Germain-en-Laye
1991. Antiquités Nationales, mémoire 2. Saint-Germain-enLaye: Société des Amis du Musée des Antiquités Nationales et
du château de Saint-Germain-en Laye, 35-38.
MENGHIN, W. and PARZINGER, H. (EDS.), 2007. Im Zeichen des
goldenen Greifen. München, Berlin, London, New York,
Prestel.
POPESCU, G.A., 2001. La pantera e il cervo, in G.A. Popescu, A.
Alekseev, J. Piotrovskij (eds.), Siberia. Gli uomini dei iumi
Gold technology of the ancient Scythians – gold from the Kurgan Arzhan 2, Tuva
ghiacciati. Museo Statale dell’ Ermitage, San Pietroburgo.
Milano, Electa, 67-77.
POPESCU, G.A., ALEKSEEV, A. and PIOTROVSKIJ, J. (eds.), 2001.
Siberia. Gli uomini dei iumi ghiacciati. Museo Statale dell’Ermitage, San Pietroburgo. Milano, Electa.
REIST STARK, J. and REIST SMITH, J. Classical loop-in-loop chains
and their derivatives. London, A. & C. Black.
SCHILTZ, V., 1994. Les Scythes et les nomades des steppes, VIIIe siècle
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ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 187-193
Funeral golden mask and hand with a ring
he necropolis of Trebeniste
Le masque funéraire en or et la main baguée – la nécropole de Trebeniste
Pavlina Ilieva* and Petia Penkova**
Abstract: his study reviews the historical background of the Necropolis of Trebeniste while also highlighting some of the main hypotheses that
help date this site and explain its signiicance. Furthermore, it provides a description of the tombs and focuses on two of the golden objects excavated from the graves – a funeral golden mask and a hand with a ring. It lays out the results of an analysis of the crafting techniques used – one
that was conducted at a laboratory of the National Archaeological Institute with Museum under the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences in Soia,
Bulgaria. his analysis aims to contribute to the further investigation and argumentation pertaining to the dating of these indings. It also hopes
to suggest potential new areas of research.
Résumé : Cette étude fait un bilan du contexte historique de la Nécropole de Trebeniste et souligne quelques unes des hypothèses qui contribuent à la
datation de ce site et qui expliquent sa signiication. En outre, ce travail fourni une description des tombes et se concentre sur deux objets en or fouillés
dans les tombeaux – un masque funéraire et une main avec une bageue. Cette étude expose brièvement les résultats d’une analyse des techniques artisanales
utilisées – une qui a été menée au laboratoire de l’Institut national d’Archéologie avec Musée, de l’Académie Bulgare de Sciences, à Soia. Cette analyse
a pour but de contribuer aux recherches et argumentations se rapportant à la datation de ces découvertes. Ce travail prétend aussi suggérer de nouveaux
domaines potentiels de recherche.
Keywords: Trebeniste, funeral mask, hand with ring, techniques.
Mots-clés : Trebeniste, masque funéraire, main avec bague, techniques.
1. INTRODUCTION
Ninety years ago, nearby Lake Ohrid, the seven graves of
Trebeniste were excavated. he necropolis was discovered by
accident in 1918 by a Bulgarian military unit mending roads
in the region. he First World War hindered archaeologists
Bogdan Filov and Carel Shkorpil from publishing material
about these inds before 1927 (Filov and Schkorpil, 1927). In
the past, the Trebeniste region was renowned for its rich silver
bed – the silver mines of Damastius mentioned by Strabo were
nearby. he most important Balkan roads used to intersect
there as well, stretching in all four directions of the world. hree
and a half kilometres west of Lake Ohrid lies a plain crossed by
the Drin river. he mountains of present day Albania separate
this area from the Adriatic Sea. Two rivers, Shkumbin (Genesis)
and Semeni (Aspus), connect this land to the shore.
* Head of Collections Department, National Archaeological Institute with Museum, Soia, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences – 2, Saborna str., Soia 1000,
Bulgaria. (polly_ilieva@mail.bg)
** Head of the Laboratory of Analysis, Conservation and Restoration, National Archaeological Institute with Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences
– 2, Saborna str., Soia 1000, Bulgaria. (petiapenkova@yahoo.com)
rec. Oct. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 195-199
196
Early Greek inluences had an impact on this area during the period of Greek colonization, when the ist historic
contacts started to take place. In the 7th century BC, the
Greeks started building a network of apoikoi spreading out
across the Adriatic Sea and based on powerful settlements
such as Korkyra (present day island of Corfu), Epidamnus
(Dirahium, present day Duresu) and Apolonia (present day
Pozhan). Korkyra was the irst Greek colony in the Adriatic:
it was used by the Greek colonizers as a support base for
penetration further north. Sea access was under the control
of the colony in Korkyra: its propitious geographic location
turned it into an important centre for Greek colonization.
A very similar picture can be drawn regarding the shores of
the Black Sea and the Aegean Sea. hese developments are
usually considered evidence supporting the hypothesis that
a signiicant number of items excavated from the Trebeniste
necropolis were imported from Greece, while others are considered to be of hracian-barbarian origin with Greek inluences. Since a signiicant chronological gap of eight centuries
exists between the end of the Mycenaean civilization and the
golden days of Classical hrace, we could also accept interpretations of some items of hracian material culture from
the Classic and early Hellenistic period as being ‘reminiscent
of the Aegean’. here is, however, strong evidence which
documents the relocation of the Aegean civilization to the
north – north-east, and the Trebeniste necropolis can thus
be viewed as an intermediary link between the hracian and
Mycenaean civilizations.
Studies of the necropolis show a prolonged period of existence – from the 7th century BC to the end of the 4th and the
beginning of the 3rd century BC. he Trebeniste necropolis
is dated back to a period between the 7th century BC and
300 BC. A rich funeral inventory is only found in tombs
dated towards the end of the 6th century BC. his fact conirms the thesis regarding the presence of lavish ‘imported’
vessels, goblets and silver rhytons – only to be found in
the tombs of ‘kings’. Written sources about hrace, Skythia,
Macedonia, and Asia Minor interpret these objects as royal
insignias (Popovic, 1994). Certain graves of men, women
and children, dated back to the late 6th century BC, contain
notably rich grave goods, treasured today in three states –
Bulgaria (in Soia), Serbia (in Belgrade), and Macedonia (in
Ohrid). he graves are pits with loors of trampled down
earth and illings of soil mixed with big stones (Vulic, 1933).
Warriors have been buried there, in ceremonial attire, with
their arms, vessels and other belongings.
hin golden lamellae (bratteae) in the shape of embroidery
and rosettes beautiied gorgeous mantles made probably of
multicoloured fabrics. Elegant silver or silver gilt pins fastened the mantles (Stibbe, 1994). Golden bands also decoArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 195-199
Pavlina ILIEVA, Petia PENKOVA
rated the helmets, cuirasses, shields and swords. A golden
band has been fastened above the forehead of a helmet, or
runs along the entire front of another piece. he golden
lamella shaped as a crescent, and the bronze ones representing horses were once probably fastened upon the breastplate
of a cuirass and the leather overall of a shield. A golden
rosette also decorated the sword scabbard from grave no. 7.
he funeral golden masks, a hand with a ring, and a sandal
made of a thin sheet of gold, found in three graves, relect
the high social status of the warriors (the graves are dated to
a period around the end of the 6th century BC), and their
particular role as heralds of the ideology and traditions of
the society they belonged to. Beads of amber and glass, and
numerous vessels made of silver, bronze, glass or clay are also
found among the oferings.
2. ANALYTICAL EQUIPMENT
A digital microscope by Keyence has been used for the
observation of the production technology. he magniication range is 25x – 175x.
The XRF instrument used is model EDX-720 of
Shimadzu; Atmosphere: Air; Collimator: 1 mm.
Analyte
TG
kV
uA
Acq. (keV)
Anal. (keV)
Ti-U
Rh
50
Auto
0-40
0.00-40.00
Na-Sc
Rh
15
Auto
0-20
0.00-4.40
he calculation method is Quan-FP (fundamental parameters). he detection limit was 0.01%, but varies for the
diferent elements. he analyser automatically detects statistical data concerning the presence or absence of elements
around the detection limit. he lack of standard samples
and the fact that no preliminary treatment was carried out
on the surface renders the interpretation of the results as
semi-quantitative. Despite the limitations of the method,
the presence or absence of an element is a valid inding.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mask: a focus on the technology used in crafting the mask
allowed us to trace the sequence and types of techniques that
were involved in this process. We can infer that, initially,
the craftsperson cut out a thin golden sheet – estimated
to be about 0.03 mm in width and approximately the size
of a human face. If we assume that the mask was crafted
especially for the person buried with it, then its size was
Funeral golden mask and hand with a ring. he necropolis of Trebeniste
197
most probably measured accordingly. It is also possible that
it was even laid out on this person’s face in order to obtain
correct measurements of the exact location of the eyes, nose
and lips. he nose is depicted by an aperture – most likely
to avoid a potential rupture of the thin golden sheet that a
high relief can cause. he nose – crafted separately – and the
entire mask were both punctured with eight holes and connected via inserting and folding of lat golden wires (Fig. 1).
he following technique has been used before illing the
eyes: the relief was formed using repoussé (free hand forging)
and then the contours were deined by punching, through
chiselling on the side of the face, where this technique left
clear marks of the tool. he eyebrows were deined by means
of repoussé and chiselling, but these were both crafted from
the back side. he lips were crafted with a technique very
similar to that used for the eyes – their relief crafted from the
back side, while the contours were deined from the front.
Particularly aesthetically pleasing and interesting from the
standpoint of its crafting is the bee, placed on the forehead
right above the nose. he contours on the side of the face are
clearly formed (Fig. 2). While it is possible that this part was
crafted using a technique similar to the one used for the eyes
and lips, we cannot rule out the possibility that a mould or
a press was used. It is clearly visible that the chiselled lines
along the wings have been crafted from the back. Similarly,
we cannot rule out the possibility that moulds were used in
the crafting of the decorative ornaments – a meander-shaped
and a two linked number-eights-shaped one. A clear pattern
of repetition of every ifth element emerges. We can also
infer that the mould was placed at the back of the mask. It
is clear that at one point the mould was dislocated to the
upper left corner, next to the linked number-eights. his
is clearly suggested by the surface of the object, which was
visibly lattened out and then a relief was formed once again
(Fig. 3). he decorative points have been crafted from the
back side of the mask.
Hand: Similar to the mask, the hand was most probably
also initially cut in the respective shape. Subsequently, its
anatomic elements were marked of, namely the position
of the phalanges and the nails. he main content of the
phalange was crafted from the back side and subsequently
completed from the front. he nails were crafted by means
of a series of dots from the back. In places, we can see
the line which served to guide the crafting of the dots by
punching. At the base of the hand, Pavlina Ilieva noticed
a igure which had not been described by researchers so
Figure 1: Fitting of the nose with a lat gold band.
Figure 1 : Ajustement du nez avec une bande d’or plate.
Figure 3: Distinct decoration outlines on the outside.
Figure 3 : Les décorations du contour sur le côté extérieur.
Figure 2: A detail of the bee on the forehead.
Figure 2 : Détail de l’abeille sur le front.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 195-199
198
Pavlina ILIEVA, Petia PENKOVA
Figure 5: (See colour plate) he golden mask Inv. n° 6859.
Figure 5 : (Voir planche couleur) Le masque d’or, référence d’inventaire 6859.
Figure 4: (See colour plate) he igure on the hand.
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) La igure sur la main.
far (Fig. 4). It has been crafted mainly from the back side
of the hand. he decorative ornament of linked numbereights has been crafted in a way that is identical with that
used for the mask.
Inv n°
Au %
Ag %
Cu %
Fe %
58,9
38,2
0,7
0,8
57,9
40,4
0,7
-
69,7
27,8
-
-
25,4
0,8
4,4
6859
Golden mask
6861
Golden hand
6862
Golden ring
6885
Golden appliqué
62,7
Table 1: Results of the EDX analysis of the gold alloys of the four
studied objects.
Tableau 1 : Résultat de l’analyse EDS des alliages d’or des quatre
objets étudiés.
his preliminary study is part of a more extensive project
which will allow a more comprehensive investigation of the
gold objects from the Necropolis of Trebeniste. Keeping in
mind that the objects from this necropolis are hosted in the
above-mentioned three countries, this study corresponds to
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 195-199
Figure 6: (See colour plate) Golden hand with ring Inv. n° 6861
and Inv. n° 6862.
Figure 6 : (Voir planche couleur) La main en or avec une bague,
référence d’inventaire 6861 et 6862.
Funeral golden mask and hand with a ring. he necropolis of Trebeniste
the presentation of preliminary results on the objects currently located in Bulgaria.
he aim of this work was to describe the crafting techniques and to determine the composition of the gold alloys
in order to be able to use these irst results as a basis for
further study and for comparison. If a semi-quantitative
analysis is not suicient for drawing inal conclusions on
the gold objects from the Necropolis of Trebeniste, these
irst results nevertheless open up paths for future discussion.
199
References
FILOV, B.D. and SCHKORPIL, K., 1927. Die archaische Nekropole
von Trebenischte am Ochridasee. Berlin and Leipzig, de Gruyter.
POPOVIC, L.B., 1994. Collection of Greek Antiquities. Belgrade,
National Museum Belgrade.
STIBBE, C.M., 1994. Laconian drinking vessels and other open
shapes. Laconian black-glazed pottery, Part II. Amsterdam,
Allard Pearson Museum.
VULIC, N., 1933. Neue Gräber bei Trebenischte, Archäologischer
Anzeiger: 459-482.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 195-199
Les parures en or de la nécropole thrace de Duvanli
du e siècle av. J.-C. : le cas du tumulus de Kukova
he gold jewellery from the hracian necropolis of Duvanli (5th century B C):
the case of the Kukova mound
Milena Tonkova* and Petia Penkova**
Résumé : L’article présente les premiers résultats du projet de création d’une base de données relative aux caractéristiques typologiques, stylistiques
et technologiques des parures de l’époque classique et hellénistique de la collection du Musée National d’Archéologie de Soia. La discussion
scientiique porte sur l’origine des bijoux en or de la tombe de Kukova, du tumulus du ve siècle av. J.-C. Ces objets constituent les éléments d’un
ensemble original de bijoux de tête et de corps typiques de l’élite thrace également présents dans deux autres riches tombes de la nécropole de
Duvanli. Ces parures sont exécutées dans un style qui renvoie à des prototypes grecs, macédoniens et thraces. Les caractéristiques technologiques
des bijoux sont examinées au moyen d’analyses semi quantitatives des alliages d’or par la méthode de luorescence à rayons X et des observations
sous un microscope optique digital, ain de diversiier les possibilités de recherche concernant leur origine. L’étude a fourni de nouveaux arguments
à la description des groupes stylistiques formés auparavant.
Abstract: he paper presents the irst results of a project aiming to create a database containing the typological, stylistic and technological characteristics
of the Classical and Hellenistic jewellery kept in the collections of the National Archaeological Museum of Soia. he present study discusses the set of gold
jewellery originating from a 5th century BC tomb in the Kukova mound. hese adornments are components of an original head and body decoration, a set
typical for the hracian elite. his set originates from two other graves of the Duvanli necropolis. he stylistic analysis points toward Greek, Macedonian
and hracian prototypes. he technological characteristics of the pieces of jewellery have been studied through a semi-quantitative analysis of the gold
alloy by X-ray luorescence. Observations of the artefacts under the microscope have also been carried out in order to diversify the methodology employed
for the research of the genesis of Duvanli jewellery. he study added new arguments to the already existing description of the respective stylistic groups.
Mots-clés : analyses technologiques, nécropole de Duvanli, Odryses, or, orfèvrerie, hrace.
Keywords: Duvanli necropolis, gold, jewellery, Odrysians, technological analysis hrace.
1. INTRODUCTION
En 2008 a été lancé un projet de création d’une base de
données pour les caractéristiques typologiques, stylistiques et
technologiques des pièces d’orfèvrerie de l’époque classique
et hellénistique appartenant au Musée National d’Archéologie de Soia. Cet article présente les premiers résultats de
ce projet.
* Chargé de recherches, Institut et musée national d’Archéologie, Académie des Sciences Bulgare – 2, rue de Saborna, Soia 1000, Bulgarie. (milenatonkova@hotmail.com)
** Responsable du Laboratoire d’analyses, de conservation et de restauration, Institut et musée national d’Archéologie, Académie des Sciences Bulgare – 2,
rue de Saborna, Soia 1000, Bulgarie. (petiapenkova@yahoo.com)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 201-209
202
Milena TONKOVA, Petia PENKOVA
La discussion scientiique prend comme exemple le plus
prometteur des bijoux en or du tumulus de Kukova, une des
tombes exceptionnellement riches de la nécropole classique
bien connue de Duvanli, région de Plovdiv. Il s’agit d’un
ensemble composé de plusieurs bijoux de types diférents,
dont le poids total est de 1265,35 grammes. Il est fort probable que lors de leur découverte les bijoux étaient encore
plus nombreux, étant donné que la trouvaille n’est pas complète. Le tombeau a été fouillé en 1925 par des paysans et
l’inventaire a été conisqué à plusieurs reprises (Filov, 1934:
19-39). Cela a déterminé le sort ultérieur des trouvailles qui
ont été partagées entre deux musées archéologiques, ceux de
Soia et de Plovdiv.
La plupart des parures ont été attribuées au Musée
National d’Archéologie de Soia. C’est exactement celles-ci
qui font objet de l’actuelle étude. La trouvaille comprend
huit boucles d’oreilles en forme d’anneau ouvert et deux pendants d’oreilles en forme d’oméga, dont les bouts se terminent en pyramides ornées de granules (sept sont représentés
sur la Fig. 1) ; un collier d’onze perles, composées d’éléments
cylindriques et sphériques et reliées par une liaison immobile, et d’une pendeloque en forme de bourgeon ainsi que de
deux perles biconiques (Fig. 2) ; une plaque ornée de l’eigie
d’un insecte et munie d’un double tube cannelé au dos, que
B. Filov a supposé être un élément du fermoir du collier
(Fig. 3) ; deux bracelets massifs coulés, se terminant par des
têtes de serpent stylisées, ornés de ils torsadés et de grandes
globules en or (Fig. 4) ; deux bagues dont les anneaux lourds
sont plus épais sur leur partie inférieure. L’une des bagues
est ornée d’une eigie de coq incisée, l’autre est sans décor
(Fig. 5a, b).
La collection du Musée d’Archéologie de Plovdiv possède
une autre boucle d’oreille, quatre perles du même collier, un
torque de corps constitué de ils torsadés et dont les extrémités sont recourbées vers l’extérieur (Fig. 6), un pectoral,
trois plaques en or estampées d’une eigie de poisson, une
amulette en forme de boîte cylindrique miniaturisée en or et
une pendeloque en or en forme de pyramide (Filov, 1934 :
41-46). À ce jour leur étude technologique n’a pas encore
été réalisable.
Le tombeau du tumulus de Kukova est parmi les plus
riches sépultures de la nécropole de Duvanli, connues par
l’abondance d’objets de luxe importés. Les deux autres
tumuli sont ceux de Muchovitza et le soi-disant tumulus
d’Arabadjiiska.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Boucles d’oreilles et pendants d’oreilles.
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Earrings and ear pendants.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Collier.
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Necklace.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 201-209
Les parures en or de la nécropole thrace de Duvanli du Ve siècle av. J.-C. : le cas du tumulus de Kukova
203
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Plaque décorative.
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Decorated plate.
Figure 6 : Torque.
Figure 6: Torc.
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Bracelets.
Figure 4: (See colour plate) Bracelets.
Figure 5a, b : (Voir planche couleur) Bagues.
Figure 5a, b: (See colour plate) Finger-rings.
Dans le tumulus de Muchovitza, la tombe est demeurée
intacte et nous possèdons des informations complètes sur
le nombre de bijoux et leur position (Filov, 1934 : 88). La
composition des pièces d’orfèvrerie répète celle des bijoux
du tumulus de Kukova et leurs types sont aussi les mêmes,
malgré les variations dans la forme et le décor : les boucles
d’oreille en forme d’anneau ouvert sont au nombre de dix
mais plus élaborées, portant des rosettes suspendues, et les
deux pendants d’oreilles portent un col orné de granules et
de ils perlés. Le collier est identique, présentant une variation des perles du type précédent. La parure inclut aussi un
pectoral avec des sphinx estampés, attaché par des ibules en
or « de type thrace », avec de longues chainettes et des pendeloques. Comme pour la tombe du tumulus de Kukova, la
parure en or est entourée d’ofrandes aussi riches que dans
la tombe de Muchovitza, (Filov, 1934 : 89-97).
La parure ornant la tête du défunt du tumulus d’Arabadjiiskata est composée des mêmes types de bijoux mais
présente une variante encore plus remarquable. Les boucles
d’oreilles, en nombre de six, sont en forme de nacelle et les
deux pendants d’oreille sont spiralés. Le collier, malgré la
diversité des perles, est de type identique aux deux colliers
des tumuli de Kukova et de Muchovitza. Tous les bijoux de
cette tombe se caractérisent par leur granulation très ine et
abondante qui donne à cette parure une allure très remarquable. Une bague en or ornée d’une eigie de cavalier et
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 201-209
204
d’une inscription ainsi qu’un pectoral au décor estampé font
aussi partie de la parure (Filov, 1934 : 129-133).
Une bague d’un style moins rainé présentant une inscription d’un nom propre thrace, accompagnée de deux
pectoraux en or au décor estampé, a été découverte dans la
tombe d’un guerrier du tumulus de Golyamata de la même
nécropole (Filov, 1934 : 105-106).
Les objets complexes et exceptionnellement riches furent
accumulés pendant longuement. La plupart des vases en
argent doré ou en bronze, des vases grecs igurés et en vernis
noir, tous de vrais œuvres d’art, se rapportent à la péruode
qui va de la in du vie, surtout du deuxième quart, à la moitié du ve siècle av. J.-C. (Reho, 1990 : n° 453, 454, 457 ;
Archibald, 1998 : 158-166 ; Bozkova, 2004 : 55-59). Les
pièces d’orfèvrerie datent de la même période (DeppertLippitz, 1985 : 122, 126, 130, 149).
2. MÉTHODES
L’analyse des parures du tumulus de Kukova est réalisée
en trois volets: l’un concerne l’étude typologique des pièces
d’orfèvrerie, l’autre portant sur l’analyse de la composition
chimique des diférents types de bijoux constituant une
parure composite originale et un troisième portant sur l’analyse de leur particularités technologiques.
3. ANALYSE TYPOLOGIQUE
ET STYLISTIQUE DES PIÈCES D’ORFÈVRERIE
Une partie des bijoux des tombes de Duvanli se rapporte
aux types fondamentaux de l’orfèvrerie grecque de l’époque
classique. Ces types sont étudiées par R. Higgins (1961 : 119,
122-4, 141, 213), Deppert-Lippitz (1985 : 122, 126, 130) et
Boardman (1970 : 296, 301). Z. H. Archibald (1998 : 190194) met l’accent sur leur liaison particulièrement étroite avec
des spécimens de la Macédoine et de la Chalcidique.
Des analogies peuvent être établies entre les boucles
d’oreilles en forme d’anneau ouvert (Fig. 1) du tumulus de
Kukova et des spécimens en bronze et en argent d’Olynthe
(Robinson, 1941 : Pl. VII, 286, 289, 295). La variante la
plus élaborée des boucles d’oreilles en anneau ouvert, ornée
de rosettes ‘suspendues’, a été trouvée dans le tumulus de
Muchovitza et s’approchent des formes macédoniennes
particulières (Archibald, 1998 : 191-192). Les analogies les
plus évidentes concernent les boucles d’oreilles en forme
de nacelle du tumulus d’Arabadjiiskata. Une ressemblance
encourageante ressort des boucles d’oreilles en bronze doré
de la in du ve siècle av. J.-C. de la nécropole de l’ancienne
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 201-209
Milena TONKOVA, Petia PENKOVA
Pydna, en Macédoine (Tsigarida et Ignatiadou, 2000 : 47,
ig. 43), ainsi qu’une boucle d’oreille en argent et en bronze
d’Olynthe ornée de iligrane et de granulation (Robinson,
1941 : 299, Pl. VII).
Les pendants d’oreilles en forme d’oméga (Fig. 1) et spiralés
de Duvanli sont tout aussi emblématiques pour l’orfèvrerie
grecque, avec une très large dispersion et nombreuses variantes
locales (Despini, 1996 : 32). Ici sont à mentionner les boucles
d’oreilles spiralées du trésor de Kyme, en Asie Mineure, de
la in du ve siècle av. J.-C. (Williams et Ogden, 1994 : 95,
n° 47), qui rappellent le décor de plusieurs triangles granulés
des boucles d’oreilles du tumulus d’Arabadjiiskata.
Quant aux colliers de Duvanli, ils sont aussi des exemples
du développement de l’orfèvrerie grecque du ve s. av. J.-C.
(Deppert-Lippitz, 1985 : 122, 126, 130, 149). Le pendentif en forme de bourgeon et les perles faites d’une base,
d’une tige solide et d’une perle biconique ou sphérique ou
en forme de lentille (Fig. 2), avec des rosettes et ornées de
iligrane et de granulation, montrent des parallèles généraux des pièces d’orfèvrerie synchrones (Archibald, 1998 :
190-191), mais ils manquent de ressemblances assez proches
pouvant ofrir une base de localisation des ateliers initiaux
en dehors de la hrace. En tant que composition complète,
le modèle des colliers de Duvanli n’est pas retrouvé hors de
la hrace, où il est représenté par trois variantes très proches
l’une de l’autre. Ceci nous donne des arguments pour avancer l’hypothèse qu’ils étaient faits par des maîtres Grecs, liés
eux-mêmes à la cour royale des Odryses.
Les bagues du tumulus de Kukova (Fig. 5 a, b) présentent
des types grecs de la in du vie ou du début du ve siècle av.
J.-C. Le coq est présent sur des gemmes archaïques tardives
(Boardman, 1970 : 145, pl. 325, 326), ainsi que sur des
bagues métalliques de la même période (Zagdoun, 1984 :
193-195, n° 8). Le style réaliste de l’oiseau nous oriente vers
un atelier grec, probablement de la côte sud de la hrace,
où le symbole du coq se trouve sur des pièces de monnaie
de Selimbria, sur la mer de Marmara, et de la Dycée thrace
(Plant, 1979 : n° 1674, 1670), ou encore sur des pièces de
monnaies anciennes du Pangée (Svoronos, 1919 : 229).
Les bracelets (Fig. 4) du tumulus de Kukova sont pour
le moment des spécimens uniques, qui se caractérisent par
une tige coulée et lourde, plus large au milieu, se terminant
par des têtes de serpents stylisées parsemées de globules d’or
et de iligranes. Ces bracelets manifestent une stylisation
très spéciique dans l’exécution des têtes de serpent, qui est
connue sur des nombreux exemples de la région de la péninsule de Chalcidique (Amandry, 1953 : 50-1, cat.112-9).
C’est dans leur style qu’on peut observer (Archibald, 1998 :
192 ; Tonkova, 2000-2001 : 283) le lien le plus proche et
étroit entre les parures de Duvanli et de la Macédoine.
Les parures en or de la nécropole thrace de Duvanli du Ve siècle av. J.-C. : le cas du tumulus de Kukova
Le torque (Fig. 6) du tumulus de Kukova, aux ils torsadés et extrémités recourbées vers l’extérieur, suit des prototypes thraces du Premier Âge du fer faits en bronze ou en fer
(Tonkova, 2000-2001 : 283 ; Gergova, 1987 : 65-6, A55-8 ;
Archibald, 1998 : 192). Il s’agit sans doute d’une réminiscence du passé qui peut s’expliquer par le rôle d’insigne que
joue le torque pour les aristocrates hraces.
A l’origine des pectoraux l’on peut saisir l’inspiration des
plaques ornementées de Macédoine, mais depuis le début du
ve siècle av. J.-C. ils demeureront un phénomène thrace. Les
ibules ‘de type thrace’ de Duvanli restent les seules connues
exécutées en or. Leur nombre sera abondant dans les siècles
suivants et leur dispersion couvrira tout le territoire de la
hrace ancienne.
L’analyse stylistique des bijoux de Duvanli a démontré
une grande diversité de styles. Les boucles d’oreilles et les
pendants d’oreilles ainsi que les colliers et les bagues sont des
œuvres grecques. Pour certaines parures, des parallèles très
concrets avec la Macédoine et les villes grecques de l’Égée
peuvent être évoqués. Le style des bracelets nous oriente
aussi vers des ateliers de la même région, mais travaillant
dans un style local. Les pectoraux, le torque et les ibules
portent les traits des œuvres de l’orfèvrerie thrace.
4. ANALYSE DE L’ENSEMBLE DES PIÈCES
D’ORFÈVRERIE – UNE COMPOSITION STABLE
Dans le groupe homogène de bijoux de style grec de
Duvanli ressort une particularité qui le classe dans une catégorie incompatible avec les traditions d’orfèvrerie grecque :
le grand nombre de boucles d’oreilles et leur composition
avec des pendants d’oreilles dans une parure complexe
ornant la tête.
La manière de porter plusieurs boucles d’oreilles vient
plutôt d’Orient, où il y a des exemples du ve siècle av. J.-C.,
c’est-à-dire contemporains des parures de Duvanli. Sept
boucles d’oreilles en argent de ce type ont été trouvées dans
un tumulus de la nécropole de Bayindir en Lycie septentrionale (Özgen et Öztürk, 1996, 164). Un autre exemple
du début du ve siècle av. J.-C. vient du sarcophage d’enfant
du célèbre tumulus de Kizoldun, de la région de Canakkale,
où ont été trouvées huit boucles d’oreilles en or en forme de
nacelle, interprétées comme quatre paires qui étaient simplement déposées des deux côtés de la tête et pas portées.
Ce n’est qu’en Grèce ancienne que quelques exemples de
multiples percements ont pu être trouvés (Özgen et Öztürk,
1996 : 56, ig. 126 ; Sevinc et Rose, 1999 : 500-502).
Pourtant, le cas des boucles d’oreilles de Duvanli
s’avère diférent, car dans les trois tumuli les paires de
205
boucles d’oreille présentes s’avèrent nombreuses : dix à
Mouchovitza, neuf à Kukova (ici ces paires auraient pu
être aussi dix, étant donné que la tombe n’était pas intacte),
six à Arabadjiiskata. B. Filov (1934 : 88) nous renseigne sur
la manière de les porter, en décrivant leur position dans la
tombe de Muchovitza. Cette information précieuse nous
permet de proposer une reconstruction hypothétique de
cette parure originale : les boucles d’oreilles en chaîne ou
attachées sur une bande ornaient plutôt la tête jusqu’aux
tempes, où étaient suspendus les pendants d’oreilles
(Tonkova, 2000-2001 : 277-283).
Cet ensemble, se répétant dans trois riches tombes
voisines et presque contemporaines de la nécropole de
Duvanli, demeure original dans son unité, sans parallèle
en Grèce ou ailleurs. Il est logique de considérer l’ensemble
comme une parure de prestige, créée intentionnellement
comme un riche accessoire d’un costume cérémonial.
Combinée avec un collier de perles et un torque, des
bagues, des bracelets et un pectoral, la parure devient une
insigne, montrant le statut de leur propriétaires, haut et
particulier dans la hiérarchie de la société des Odryses,
où elle persiste sans changement au cours des deux siècles
suivants (Tonkova, 1997 : 20).
Étant intentionnelle, la création de ces parures complexes devrait être liée à des ateliers ailiés à la cour des
Odryses. Ces ateliers pourraient être localisés dans les centres
urbains de la mer Égée, les régions de la Macédoine et de la
Chalcidique étant les plus probables, ainsi qu’à l’intérieur
de la hrace. La deuxième hypothèse n’est pas infondée :
parmi les bijoux il y a des œuvres d’orfèvrerie locale, telles
le torque, les ibules et le pectoral ; des bijoux de types semblables sont fabriqués pendant une longue période et sont
organisés dans des compositions presque identiques au cours
de deux siècles durant. Le savoir-faire grec dans l’exécution
des bijoux en or de Duvanli est bien visible et l’on peut
admettre qu’auprès de la cour des Odryses eurent travaillé
des orfèvres qualiiés dont le pays d’origine fut dans les
régions mentionnées.
Une présence grecque est signalée dans des sites de la in
du vie et au ve siècle av. J.-C., très proches de la nécropole
de Duvanli. Dans la région de la montagne Sredna gora,
où se trouvent tous les sites mentionnés, sont concentrés
des restes de gisements d’or exploités dans l’antiquité,
qui pourraient être une des explications de la richesse de
parures en or de la nécropole de Duvanli. Dans ce contexte,
l’étude des bijoux en or de Duvanli pourrait trouver une
perspective nouvelle.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 201-209
206
Milena TONKOVA, Petia PENKOVA
5. ANALYSES ÉLÉMENTAIRES DE L’OR
7. RÉSULTATS
ET OBSERVATIONS TECHNOLOGIQUES
L’analyse chimique des pièces d’orfèvrerie du tumulus
de Kukova a été faite au Laboratoire du Musée national
d’Archéologie, équipé d’un système d’ED-FX et d’un
microscope optique digital. Comme les bijoux en question font partie de l’exposition permanente du musée, le
temps nécessaire pour leur investigation était très limité et
leur déplacement impossible. Ces circonstances ont limité
le choix des méthodes d’analyse à l’utilisation des deux
appareils disponibles.
L’observation sous microscope optique avait pour but
l’identiication et la documentation des indices des techniques utilisées dans l’exécution et la décoration des bijoux.
Les analyses EDX avaient pour but, malgré le manque de
standards de référence mais utilisant les mêmes conditions
expérimentales, de nous donner la possibilité de former des
groupes de bijoux à partir des alliages d’or utilisés.
6. MÉTHODE D’ANALYSE
L’équipement de luorescence à rayons X utilisé est le
modèle EDX-720 de Shimadzu. Les analyses sont réalisés à l’air, avec un tube à rayons X à anode de rhodium et
fonctionnant à 50 kV et 100 μA, et avec un collimateur de
1 mm. Le tableau suivant présente les caractéristiques de
l’équipement.
Analyte
anode
kV
µA
Acq. (keV)
Anal. (keV)
Ti-U
Rh
50
Auto
0-40
0,00-40.00
Na-Sc
Rh
15
Auto
0-20
0.00-4.40
Le calcul des teneurs est réalisé au moyen du logiciel
Quan-FP (paramètres fondamentaux). Une seule analyse est
faite dans chaque région d’un objet. Les limites de détection
sont de 0,01% pour les diférents éléments déterminés. La
présence d’éléments dans les limites de détection est déterminée automatiquement par le logiciel. En tenant compte
du fait qu’aucun standard de référence n’ait été utilisé ainsi
qu’un quelconque traitement préliminaire de la surface des
objets, les résultats obtenus doivent être considérés comme
semi quantitatifs.
Malgré les restrictions de la méthode utilisée et le fait
que les données obtenues ne concernent que la surface des
objets, les résultats sur la présence ou l’absence d’un élément
sont valables ainsi que les compositions relatives.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 201-209
Les techniques décoratives (méthode d’exécution des ils
iligranés des boucles d’oreilles en forme d’anneau ouvert
(Fig. 1 ; Tableau 1) et du collier (Fig. 2 ; Tableau 4) sont
proches. Les boucles d’oreilles possèdent un corps creux, et
consistent en deux parties en repoussé jointes et deux bouts
massifs (Fig. 1). Ces objets sont décorés de ils creux tordus tréilés (strip-twisted wire) (diam. 0,54 mm), de il perlé
(beaded wire) (diam. 0,83 mm) et de granules seuls ou triples
de dimensions diférentes (diam. 0,82 mm ; 0,92 mm).
Les perles du collier et le pendentif (Fig. 2) sont faits en
repoussé, et décorés de ils creux tordus tréilés (diam. 0,39 ;
0,47 mm), de il bobine (spooled wire) (diam. 0,68 mm) et
de granules de diférentes dimensions. Ces bijoux possèdent
des alliages d’or de composition identique. Pour les boucles
d’oreilles et les perles du collier, les analyses FX ont montré la
présence de cuivre uniquement dans les régions de jonction
des granules et du iligrane (Tableaux 1, 4). L’interprétation
de ce fait demande des analyses futures plus approfondies.
Quant à la diférence des résultats 12 et 13 du Tableau 4,
il s’agit de deux perles biconiques qui difèrent des autres
perles et pourraient ainsi avoir été rajoutées plus tard à la
composition originale du collier, ou lors de la reconstruction
hypothétique faite au musée (étant donné que les bijoux du
1
Au%
Ag%
Cu%
Zn%
76,2
23,3
–
0,2
2
77,6
23,6
0,6
–
2-1
76,4
21,5
–
–
3
76,4
22,8
0,6
0,3
3-1
82,9
15,8
–
0,3
4
73,9
22,3
–
–
4-1
77,3
21,9
–
–
5
76,6
22,2
0,3
0,3
5-1
75,0
23,1
–
0,3
6
76,8
23,2
0,5
0,1
6-1
75,2
22,6
–
–
7
75,7
23,0
0,4
0,3
7-1
76,7
20,9
1,0
0,5
Tableau 1 : Sept boucles d’oreilles, No d’inv. 6130, 6131, 6191.
n : n° d’analyse dans la partie décorée ; n-1 : n° d’analyse sur la
surface lisse ; n 3-1 : n° d’analyse de la plaque de réparation de la
boucle d’oreille n° 3.
Table 1: Seven earrings, Archive n. 6130, 6131, 6191.
n:analyse reference on the decorated part; n-1: analyse reference on
the lat surface; n 3-1: analyse reference on the restoration plaque of
earring n°3.
207
Les parures en or de la nécropole thrace de Duvanli du Ve siècle av. J.-C. : le cas du tumulus de Kukova
tumulus de Kukova n’ont pas été découverts au cours de
fouilles régulières). La présence de Cr ne peut pas être expliquée, sauf par le manque de documentation du traitement
de la surface depuis 1929 quand les bijoux ont été rachetés
par le musée.
Les pendants d’oreille en forme d’oméga (Fig. 1) sont
décorés de pyramides recouvertes de granules, dont une plus
grande se trouve au sommet ; la jonction avec la tige étant
recouverte d’une plaque cannelée et de il perlé. L’alliage d’or
(Tableau 2) est diférent des alliages utilisés pour fabriquer
les bijoux commentés précédemment. Nous pouvons supposer qu’ils étaient exécutés simultanément aux autres mais
à partir d’un lingot diférent, ou qu’ils ont été ajoutés plus
tard pour compléter l’ensemble des boucles d’oreille.
La plaque décorative (Fig. 3, Tableau 6) est ornée d’une
eigie d’insecte en repoussé, contournée d’une ligne de granules (plutôt que de il granulé), de ils creux tordus tréilés
et de granules. La composition de l’alliage d’or est proche
de celle des bagues.
Les bagues (Fig. 5a, b ; Tableau 3) sont exécutées en deux
parties séparées (technique visible surtout dans la deuxième
bague (Fig. 5b) : le chaton et l’anneau (coulé ou martelé)
Au%
Ag%
Cu%
Cr%
1
74,0
24.9
–
0,2
2
73,2
23,1
–
0,1
2-1
73,7
24,8
0,5
0,3
3
71,3
26,7
–
–
3-1
72,4
25,8
0,6
–
4
75,8
21,9
–
–
4-1
73,7
23,0
0,5
–
5
73,0
25,2
–
–
5-1
72,9
23,8
0,6
–
6
72,2
25,4
–
–
6-1
73,0
25,0
–
–
7
67,8
21,0
–
–
7-1
76,1
21,5
–
–
8
72,04
25,9
–
–
8-1
70,2
26,4
0,4
–
9
73,8
24,2
–
–
9-1
71,8
25,2
0,7
–
10
71,3
26,6
–
–
10-1
60,3
36,2
2,2
–
11
71,5
26,2
–
–
73,0
25,5
0,3
–
–
Au%
Ag%
Cu%
11-1
1
84,4
15,2
-
12
76,0
19,6
1,1
1-1
82,8
15,6
0,7
12-1
77,7
19,3
0,9
–
76,0
18,5
1,7
0,1
76,5
16,6
1,6
–
1-2
82,7
16,0
0,8
13
2
84,4
15,2
0,3
13-1
2-1
85,0
13,7
1,2
Tableau 2 : Deux pendants d’oreilles, n° d’inv. 6134, 6190.
n : n° d’analyse sur la surface lisse ; n-1 : n° d’analyse de la pyramide granulée.
Table 2: Two ear pendants, Archive n. 6134, 6190.
n: analyse reference on the lat surface ; n-1: analyse reference of the
granulated pyramid.
Au%
Ag%
Cu%
1
76,8
21,5
0,8
1-1
77,5
18,9
1,2
2
76,2
21,8
-
2-1
75,4
22,6
0,5
Tableau 3 : Deux bagues, n° d’inv. 6129, 6132.
n 1, n-1 : n° d’analyse de la bague à l’eigie de coq ; n-2, n-1 : n°
d’analyse de la bague à chaton lisse.
Table 3: Two inger-rings, Archive n. 6129, 6132.
n 1, n-1: analyse reference of the cock’s inger-ring; n-2, n-1: analyse
reference of the lat inger-ring.
14
73,0
24,8
–
–
14-1
73,1
25,4
0,2
–
Tableau 4 : Collier, n° d’inv. 6136, 6192, 6193.
n : n° d’analyse de chaque perle sur la surface lisse ; n-1 : n° d’analyse de chaque perle de la partie décorée ; n-12, 13 : n° d’analyse
des deux perles biconiques cannelées ; n-14 : n° d’analyse du pendentif.
Table 4: Necklace, Archive n. 6136, 6192, 6193.
n: analyse reference for each bead on the lat surface; n-1: analyse reference for each bead on the decorated part; n-12, 13: analyse reference
of both biconical luted beads; n-14: analyse reference of the pendant.
d’une section ronde avec au milieu le gonlement caractéristique de l’époque. Le chaton de la bague à l’eigie de coq
est ciselé (Fig. 5a) d’après l’observation sous microscope. Le
chaton de la bague en forme de nid (Fig. 5b) est décoré d’un
il lisse qui l’entoure à l’intérieur, et d’un il torsadé (très usé)
qui accompagne les méandres de la bordure.
Les bijoux de style grec du tumulus de Kukova sont exécutés avec une grande inesse, la qualité des granules et des ils,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 201-209
208
Milena TONKOVA, Petia PENKOVA
1
Au%
Ag%
Zn%
Cr%
82,2
15,7
–
0,2
1-1
81,4
17,3
0,4
–
2
83,9
14,1
–
–
2-1
80,9
17,5
–
–
Tableau 5 : Deux bracelets, n° d’inv. 6128, 6189.
n : n° d’analyse sur la surface lisse ; n-1 : n° d’analyse de la partie
décorée.
Table 5: Two bracelets, Archive n. 6128, 6189.
n: analyse reference on the lat surface; n-1: analyse reference on the
decorated part.
Au%
Ag%
Cu%
1
77,1
20,2
0,3
2
76,7
21,4
0,5
Tableau 6 : Plaque décorative, n° d’inv. 6135.
1 : n° d’analyse sur la plaque en repoussé ; 2 : n° d’analyse du côté
inverse.
Table 6: Decorated plaque, Archive n. 6135.
1: analyse reference on the in repousse plaque; 2: analyse reference on
the obverse.
leur diversité, les jonctions précises, bien inies et cachées,
sont dans les meilleurs traditions de l’orfèvrerie grecque.
Toutes les techniques décoratives utilisées sont typiques de
l’orfèvrerie de l’époque (Nicolini, 1990 ; De Cuyper, 1983).
Les bracelets (Fig. 4 ; Tableau 5) du tumulus de Kukova
qui difèrent nettement par leur style inspiré des modèles
macédoniens, se diférencient aussi par leurs paramètres
technologiques et par la composition de leurs alliages d’or.
Les bracelets sont coulés et la jonction des deux parties
du moule est bien visible. Les têtes de serpent, très caractéristiques, sont ornées de gros granules (de diam. max.
de 3,78 mm) et légèrement aplaties ; une décoration qui
demeure pour nous sans parallèle. Le il est massif, à section
rectangulaire et torsadé. Visiblement, ces objets sont l’œuvre
d’un atelier diférent.
8. CONCLUSION
Bien que les observations des caractéristiques technologiques ne portent que sur une partie des parures du tumulus
de Kukova, elles ouvrent une bonne perspective de recherche
sur ces bijoux. Quoique préliminaires, les analyses de composition des alliages d’or utilisés et les particularités technologiques de l’exécution des bijoux de ce complexe funéraire
complètent les connaissances sur les groupes formels et styArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 201-209
listiques déjà établis. Ces données dessinent aussi de nouvelles pistes d’étude de la collection unique de bijoux en or
du ve siècle av. J.-C. de la nécropole de Duvanli. Les variétés
des caractéristiques technologiques des bijoux, dont les types
sont eux-mêmes divers, viennent conirmer les résultats des
analyses visuelles, indiquant la présence d’objets provenant
de multiples ateliers d’orfèvres. Le style des bijoux aide à
supposer des milieux culturels diférents pour leur provenance.
Remerciements
Le projet de recherche a pu être réalisé grâce à la subvention
du Ministère de l’éducation et de la science de la République
de Bulgarie (Contrat 01-1167/15.12.2007 entre l’Institut et
Musée National d’Archéologie, Académie des Sciences Bulgare
et le Ministère).
Références
AMANDRY, P., 1953. Collection Hélène Stathatos. Les bijoux antiques,
Strasbourg.
ARCHIBALD, Z. H., 1998. he Odrysian Kingdom of hrace. Oxford,
Clarendon Press.
BOARDMAN, J., 1970. Greek Gems and Finger Rings. Early Bronze
Age to Late Classical, London, hames and Hudson.
BOZKOVA, A., 2004. Attic black-glazed kylikes with inset lip from
Bulgaria. – Archeologia, Soia, XLV, (1-2): 52-60 (en bulgare,
un résume en anglais).
DE CUYPER, F., 1983. Filigree, in T. Hackens and R. Winkes
(eds.) Gold Jewelry. Craft, Style and Meaning from Mycenae to
Constantinopolis (Aurifex 5), Louvain-La-Neuve, 196-204.
DESPINI, A., 1996. Ancient Gold Jewellery. Athens, G.A.
Christopoulos ed.
DEPPERT-LIPPITZ, B., 1985. Griechischer Goldschmuck, Mainz am
Rhein, Kulturgeschichte der Antiken Welt, 27.
GERGOVA, D., 1987. Früh- und ältereisenzeitliche Fibeln in
Bulgarien, PBF XIV, 7. Band, München.
FILOV, B., 1934. Nadgrobnote mogili pri Duvanli, Plovdivsko (Les
tumuli près de Duvanli, région de Plovdiv). Soia.
HIGGINS, R., 1961. Greek and Roman Jewellery. London, Methven
and co.
NICOLINI, G. 1990. Techniques des ors antiques. La bijouterie ibérique du VIIe au IVe siecle. Paris, Picard.
ÖZGEN, I. et ÖZTÜRK, J., 1996. he Lydian Treasure. Istanbul,
Ministry of culture.
PLANT, R., 1979. Greek Coin Types. London, Numismatic Fine
Arts.
Les parures en or de la nécropole thrace de Duvanli du Ve siècle av. J.-C. : le cas du tumulus de Kukova
REHO, M., 1990. La ceramica attica a igure nere e rosse nella Tracia
Bulgara. Roma, Bretschneider.
ROBINSON, D., 1941. Excavation at Olynthus. Olynthus, Part X,
London.
SEVINC, N. et ROSE, Ch. B., 1999. A child’s sarcophagus from
the salvage excavations at Gumuscay, Studia Troica, band 9,
489-509.
SVORONOS, J.-N., 1919. L’hellénisme primitif de la Macédoine. Paris.
TONKOVA, M. 1997. Traditions and Aegean inluences on the
Jewellery of hracia in early hellenistic times, Archaeologia
Bulgarica I, (2): 18-31.
209
TONKOVA, M. 2000-2001. Classical Jewellery in hrace: origins
and development, archaeological contexts, Talanta, XXXIIXXXIII: 277-288.
TSIGARIDA, B. and IGNATIADOU, D., 2000. he Gold of Macedon.
Archaeological Museum of hessaloniki. Athens.
WILLIAMS, D. and OGDEN, J., 1994. Greek Gold. Jewelry of the
Classical World. New York, H.N. Abrams ed.
ZAGDOUN, M.-A., 1984. L’antre Corycien II. Bagues et anneaux.
BCH, supplément IX, chapitre IV, 183-260.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 201-209
he technique of gold inlaid decoration
in the 5th-4th centuries BC: silver and iron inds
from the early Sarmatian barrows of Filippovka,
Southern Urals
La technique de décoration par inclusion d’or aux Ve-IVe siècles av. J.-C. :
les trouvailles en argent et fer des tumulus de la période Sarmate ancienne
de Filippovka au sud de l’Oural
Marina Shemakhanskaya*, Mikhail Treister** and Leonid Yablonsky***
Abstract: he present paper addresses silver and iron objects (iron sword awl, silver quiver hooks, and an iron knife with a silver handle) decorated with inlaid gold strips and plates. he artefacts were excavated recently in the barrows near the village of Filippovka, in the Southern Urals,
and were dated to the 5th-4th centuries BC. Typological and stylistic analyses are complemented with the study of technological features of the
objects. Analysis under the Analytical Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), carried out during the restoration of the objects, revealed the speciic
features of Urals gold. Most of the objects analysed represent local forms of the early Sarmatian culture. his technique of gold inlaid decoration
was spread by the nomads of the Eurasian steppes from the Altai Mountains in the east to Central Kazakhstan and the Southern Urals in the
west during a period between the 7th and the 4th centuries BC; furthermore, the technique is also attested in Achaemenid metalwork. A unique
silver black patinated handle of a knife, shaped in the form of a stag, was inspired by the ‘Achaemenid international style’, but the peculiarities
of style and the inlaid technique do not exclude the possibility that it could have been manufactured in a provincial Achaemenid workshop for
a Sarmatian customer.
Résumé : L’article traite les objets en fer et argent (épée et alêne en fer, agrafes de carquois en argent et couteau avec poignée en argent) décorés de bandes
et de feuilles d’or, trouvés récemment dans les tumulus proches de la ville de Filippovka, dans le sud de l’Oural, et datant des Ve-IVe siècles av. J.-C. Les
analyses stylistiques et typologiques sont complétées par l’étude des détails techniques des objets. Les observations réalisées sous microscope électronique à
balayage (MEB) pendant leur restauration ont révélé les caractéristiques de l’or de l’Oural. La majorité des objets analysés appartiennent aux formes locales
de la culture Sarmate ancienne. La technique de décoration par inclusion d’or, observée dans le travail du métal des Achéménides, a été difusée pendant
le VIIe-IVe siècle av. J.-C. par les nomades des steppes Eurasiennes, à partir des monts Altaï vers l’est jusqu’au Kazakhstan central et vers l’ouest jusqu’au
sud de l’Oural. Une poignée de couteau, pièce unique en forme de cerf patiné à l’argent noir, a été inspirée par le style Achéménide international, mais
les particularités du style et de la technique d’inclusion n’excluent pas la possibilité d’une fabrication dans un atelier Achéménide provincial destinée à
un Sarmate.
Keywords: Early Sarmatian culture, gold inlaid decoration, iron, silver, Southern Urals.
Mots-clés : Culture Sarmate, inclusion d’or, décoration du fer, argent, Oural du sud.
* State Institute for Conservation – Gastello St., 44, 107014 Moscow, Russia. (71aniram@gmail.com)
** Institute of Near Eastern Archaeology, Free University of Berlin – Weißenburgstr. 59, 53175 Bonn, Germany. (mikhailtreister@yahoo.de)
*** Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of Sciences – Dmitriya Ul’yanova St., 19, 117036 Moscow, Russia. (leonid.yablonsky@mtu-net.ru)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 211-220
212
1. IntroductIon
he recent excavations (2004-2008) of the barrows near
the village of Filippovka, in the Southern Urals, carried
out by the Institute of Archaeology, Russian Academy of
Sciences, brought to light remarkable burial and ritual
complexes belonging to the early Sarmatian culture (5th4th centuries BC) (Yablonsky and Meshcheryakov, 2007;
Catalogue Orenburg 2008). his paper focuses on a series
of silver and iron objects with gold inlays, originating from
the Filippovka barrows nos. 4 and 15, currently on display
in the Orenburg Museum of local lore.
2. Methods
Typological and stylistic analyses of archaeological objects
were performed. he gold inlays of the iron and silver objects
from Filippovka were studied under the microscope during
restoration works. he gold inlaid decoration of the sword
was studied with the SEM coupled with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer.
3. results (M. Shemakhanskaya, M. Treister
and L. Yablonsky)
Barrow no. 4, one of the two largest, centrally located,
and most probably princely barrows, included numerous
burials of horses, a sacriice place, and burial pits, four of
which are dated to the early Sarmatian period (Yablonsky
and Meshcheryakov, 2007). he objects under discussion
were found in burials nos. 2, 3 and 5.
An iron sword from burial no. 2 has a butterly-shaped
cross-piece decorated with engraved compositions, including a scene of hunting and immolation of deer. Its base
is formed with two iron bars, with cast silver gold inlaid
reliefs ixed on them. On the blade, there are inlays showing
animals and the sacriice of a stag by the warriors (Catalogue
Orenburg 2008: no. 39) (Fig. 1). Various types of gold wires
and narrow plates were hammered in the hollows carved on
the iron blade (Fig. 1[2]) and on the pommel (Fig. 1[3]).
he proiles of the hollows may be seen, mirror-relected,
on the rear side of the inlays. he hollows on the blade and
on the pommel are made with diferent instruments. Two
other objects originate from the same burial: a small iron awl
with a pendant attached to its inial and a blade with gold
inlays forming a spiral pattern, executed in the same way as
the inlays on the blade of the sword (Catalogue Orenburg
2008: no. 40) (Fig. 3, [1-2]), and a cast silver quiver hook,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 211-220
Marina SHEMAKHANSKAYA, Mikhail TREISTER, Leonid YABLONSKY
with thin gold inlays of various shapes (Fig. 4), showing a
predator devouring a griin.
A quiver hook of cast silver from burial 3 shows a composition with a griin and a panther. he details are accentuated with gold inlays of thin sheet gold, hammered in the
hollows (Catalogue Orenburg 2008: no. 9) (Fig. 5, [1-3]).
Numerous burials were investigated in barrow no. 15,
located in the north-eastern part of the cemetery. Burial 1
yielded remains of a battle-axe, with its head in the form of a
bear, inlaid with gold wires (Fig. 3, [3]) (Balakhvantsev and
Yablonsky 2007: 147, Fig. 1, 7). In burial 3, a silver quiver
hook showing a feline predator and a head of a bird of prey,
inlaid with gold (Catalogue Orenburg, 2008: no. 84) (Fig.
5, [4-5]), was found. Stylistically and technologically, this
artefact it is similar to the ind from burial 3 of the barrow
no. 4 (Fig. 5, [1-3]), although it varies in details and the
workmanship is more crude.
An iron knife with a cast silver handle in the form of a
stag with antlers, decorated with inlays of gold (Col. pl., a-c)
(Catalogue Orenburg, 2008: no. 42), found in the central
burial 5 of the barrow no. 4, attracted our special attention. he handle was cast after the wax model of silver, with
admixture of copper (2-5%) over the blade of the knife. he
material used for the inlays shows ca. 84% gold, 14% silver,
and small admixtures of copper. he surface is covered by
silver sulphide (silver chlorides, characteristic for archaeological silver, are completely absent) of almost black colour.
his aspect is unusual for archaeological silver objects, and
indicates that it was probably done intentionally, to contrast
with the gold inlays. Gold inlays in the form of circles, curls,
strips and triangles decorate the head (Col. pl., b) and the
body (Col. pl., a) of the stag, which is rendered in a low
relief. Nine parallel inlays, slightly waved and narrowing
towards the inial, deviated originally from the bottom of
the handle towards the head of the stag – three of them are
lost, leaving open the hollows of the inlays (Col. pl., c).
he objects from Filippovka under discussion here have
various shapes and functions, and the inlaid gold strips and
plates were used to stress elements of animal bodies, or to
create ornamental or igural compositions. On the majority
of objects, these strips and plates were inserted in the hollows cut in their bodies (as on the sword or quiver hooks).
In iron objects, they were hammered inside the hollows. In
the silver hook shown in Figure 4, the gold inlays have even
edges, and only minor signs of hammering are present. In
some cases, the inlays are somewhat smaller than the hollows, and they were most probably glued in – in antiquity,
natural resins were used for gluing gold foils (Hockey et al.,
1992: 281-291; Oddy, 1990: 29-33). he bottoms of the
hollows on the basis of the silver knife handle are lat and
he technique of gold inlaid decoration in the 5th-4th centuries BC…
213
Figure 1: Iron sword with silver cross-guard and gold inlays. Filippovka, barrow no. 4/2006, burial 2. (1): general view; (2-4): undersides
of the gold inlays showing marks of the tools used to create the groove in which it was set – (2), (3): on the blade; (4): on the pommel;
(5): detail of the inlay decoration on the blade.
Figure 1 : Épée en fer hachurée à l’argent et avec des inclusions d’or. Filippovka, tumulus no. 4/2006, sépulture 2. 1 – vue générale; 2-4 –dessous
des inclusions d’or montrant les marques des outils utilisés pour la production de la rainure (2-3 – sur la lame ; 4 – sur le pommeau) ; 5 – détail
de la décoration en inclusion de la lame.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 211-220
214
Marina SHEMAKHANSKAYA, Mikhail TREISTER, Leonid YABLONSKY
even, the walls are vertical, and there are no marks of cutting
instruments. his leads us to the assumption that they were
made by the insertion of thin gold plates in the wax model,
which were later inlaid in the hollows, and ixed with an
amalgam of mercury – the presence of the latter is conirmed
by the microprobe analysis of the edge of the inlay, showing
gold, silver and mercury. he use of mercury for ixing gold
foils to the surface of silver objects is attested in ancient
metalwork (Vittori, 1979: 35-39).
4. the analytIcal study of gold
(M. S. Shemakhanskaya)
During the restoration of the inlaid decoration of the
sword, in all the parts analysed by various techniques applied
to the gold surface, small hard bright inclusions of indeinite shapes and various dimensions could be observed’? But
what does ‘light’ mean in this context. he SEM study of
the gold inlays, carried out at the Institute of Geology of
Ore Deposits, Petrography, Mineralogy and Geochemistry,
Russian Academy of Sciences (IGEM RAS), revealed that
these inclusions contain platinum group elements: osmium,
iridium, ruthenium and platinum (Fig. 2, [1-2]). he correlation of these elements in diferent inclusions of the
same object varies. Such inclusions, in various quantities,
are attested in the gold inlays of all examined objects, except
for the two silver hooks from burials 3 in the barrows nos.
4 and 15 (Fig. 5).
Similar inclusions were revealed during the study of other
gold objects found in contemporary nomad burials in the
Southern Urals; one particular example is that of a gold
animal style bracelet found in the barrow no. 3 at Kichigino
(Zaikov et al., 2008b: 47). he presence of osmium, iridium, ruthenium and platinum in the gold inlays (Fig. 2) is
generally comparable with the composition of granules of
alluvial gold from the Miass and Kochkar mining regions,
located 500-600 km north-east of Filippovka (Yushkin
1990: 46-48; Kobiashev and Nikandrov, 2007: 223; Zaikov
et al., 2008a: 404; Zaikov et al., 2008b: 47, 49). Although
methods of reining gold from inclusions were known in
antiquity (Craddock, 2000: 200-211), it is evident that the
gold used for the inlays of the sword from Filippovka was
not reined.
5. dIscussIon (M. Treister)
Most of the objects under discussion represent local
forms, characteristic of the early Sarmatian culture of the
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 211-220
Figure 2: Results of the analytical study of the gold inlays of the
sword (see Fig. 1). (1): inclusion of a platinum group metal in the
gold inlay of the sword under SEM; (2): the Roentgen spectrum
of the platinum group metals obtained with SEM; the parameters
of the spectrum are given at the bottom.
Figure 2 : Résultats de l’étude analytique au MEB des inclusions d’or
de l’épée (voir Fig. 1). 1. inclusion de platinoïdes sur la feuille de
l’épée ; 2. spectre à rayons X de l’inclusion de platinoïdes, en bas les
paramètres d’acquisition.
Southern Urals. hus, the quiver hooks analysed here, representing compositions of griins and predators, ind parallels
among the bronze inds from the barrows of the Southern
Urals, Mountainous Altai, Tuva, and Eastern Kazakhstan
(Korol’kova, 2006: pls. 60, 1-6; 61, 13-14; 63, 1. 3). At
he technique of gold inlaid decoration in the 5th-4th centuries BC…
Figure 3: (a): Iron awl with gold inlays. Filippovka, barrow no.
4/2006, burial 2; (b): detail of the gold inlay of the awl; (c): detail
of an iron battle-axe. Filippovka, barrow no. 15/2004, burial no.
1; gold inlays shown as lighter grey/white.
Figure 3 : 1. Alêne en fer avec des inclusions d’or. Filippovka, tumulus
no. 4/2006, sépulture 2 ; 2. détail de l’inclusion d’or ; 3. détail de la
hache de guerre en fer. Filippovka, tumulus no. 15/2004, sépulture
no. 1 ; inclusions d’or en gris clair/blanc.
the same time, the style of execution of a panther’s head,
especially on the hook from burial 3 in the barrow no. 4
(Fig. 5, [2]) reminds us of that of the gold torc from burial
2 of the same barrow (Catalogue Orenburg, 2008: no. 1).
In contrast, the ‘running wave’ pattern decorating the beak
of the griin is a decorative element unusual for Sarmatian
objects, but widespread in the Greek world. he decoration
of the sword may be compared with those present on the
swords from the Filippovka barrow no. 1 (Aruz et al., 2000:
nos. 5-6; Catalogue Orenburg 2008: 98, no. 39), and with
those from the princely Saka burial in the Issyk barrow in
215
Kazakhstan (Akishev, 1978: 105, pl. 24, right; Popescu et
al., 1998: 187, no. 331), while the general category to which
these swords belong may be traced back to the 7th century
BC sword and dagger (Čugunov et al., 2006: 118, no. 8,
pls. 19-20; 133, no. 28, pls. 63, 65) from the Arzhan-2
barrow in the Altai Mountains. Also, the decoration style
of the small iron awl, in the form of elaborate S-shaped
spirals (Fig. 3) is characteristic for numerous gold objects
from Filippovka, including golden overlays of wooden vessels (Aruz et al., 2000: nos. 25, 27-28, 69).
he knife handle (Col. pl., a-c) inds a close parallel
in a hippopotamus ivory handle of a knife (Sevinç et al.,
1998: 312, Figs. 8-9; 320, no. 17) found in a tumulus at
Dedetepe in north-western Turkey, dating to ca. 480-460
BC. Its Achaemenid inspiration is further conirmed by the
outlined beard leading to the ears, and especially by a typical
representation of the animal’s hindquarters in relief, as seen
on some of the Achaemenid rhyta, or on the majority of
silver amphora-rhyta (Amandry, 1959: 38-56; Pfrommer,
1990: 191-209; Calmeyer, 1993: 152-153, pls. 43-44;
Boardman, 2000: 188-189, 246, note 129), including the
recent ind from burial 4 of the Filippovka barrow no. 4
(Yablonsky and Meshcheryakov, 2007: 57, Fig. 3, Col. pl.
1; Yablonsky, 2007: 88, 93, Fig. 7; Catalogue Orenburg
2008: no. 5; Balakhvantsev and Yablonsky, 2008: 30, 34,
Fig. 5, 1; Treister, 2008: 158-160, Fig. 6). We can also ind
similar treatments of animal bodies in gold Achaemenid
jewellery, in particular on the bracelets (Yablonsky and
Meshcheryakov, 2007: 57-58, Fig. 4, Col. pl. 2; Yablonsky,
2007: 89, 95, Fig. 9; Catalogue Orenburg, 2008: no.
14) and on the torc from the same barrow in Filippovka
(Yablonsky and Meshcheryakov, 2007: 58, Fig. 5, Col. pl.
1; Catalogue Orenburg, 2008: no. 2). At the same time, the
treatment of separate elements of the representation (the
eyes, wings, joints, shoulder blades, etc.) on the knife handle
from Filippovka diverges from the canons characteristic for
art of the Achaemenid style. While on the Achaemenid
rhyta/amphora-rhyta and jewellery, as well as on the ivory
knife handle from the Dedetepe tumulus, we come across
the canonical depiction of the eye, framed with relief rims
and with an accentuated lacrimal sac (Rehm, 1992: 257),
on the knife handle from Filippovka, the stag’s eye is round,
slightly convex, and framed with a cut and a wide gold strip.
he wings of the animals on the Achaemenid silver vessels
always show carefully treated detailed feathering (Rehm,
1992: 256-257, 263-264); in contrast, in the case of the
object under consideration here, the modelling of the wing
is very coarse, and the feathering is shown by strips of the
same width as those making up the outline of the wing. In
Achaemenid jewellery and toreutics, the joints are usually
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 211-220
216
Marina SHEMAKHANSKAYA, Mikhail TREISTER, Leonid YABLONSKY
Figure 4: Silver quiver
hook with gold inlays.
Filippovka, barrow no.
4/2006, burial 2. (a),
(b): side views; (c): view
from above; (d): detail –
the hollow for the gold
inlay; (e): side view with
gold inlays fallen out;
(f ): gold inlays.
Figure 4 : Agrafe de
carquois en argent
avec inclusions d’or.
Filippovka, tumulus no.
4/2006, sépulture 2. 1 ;
2. vues de côté ; 3. vues
d’en haut ; 4. détail de
l’oriice pour l’inclusion
de l’or ; 5. vue de côté
avec des inclusions d’or
tombées ; 6. inclusions
d’or.
worked in detail, and there are canonical ways of rendering
the shoulder blades, consisting of two oval, or one circular
and one drop-shaped, elements (Rehm, 1992: 254-255,
262-263). Once again, this is not the case for the knife
handle from Filippovka.
he technique of decorating silver objects with gold inlays
is attested in Achaemenid metalwork already since the 6th century BC (Moorey, 1988: 231-246), in particular for the silver
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 211-220
bowls and a rhyton, the outer surface of which was decorated
with the friezes of gold matrix-hammered appliqués showing
a Persian king, warriors, birds, or stepped pyramids. A silver
vessel, decorated with concentric incised lines, and inlaid with
gold wire, originates from cache 1 of the barrow no. 1 in
Filippovka (Aruz et al., 2000: no. 19). A horse-harness strapdivider in the form of a griin head, of unknown provenance,
currently on display in the British Museum, requires special
he technique of gold inlaid decoration in the 5th-4th centuries BC…
217
Figure 5: Silver quiver hooks with gold inlays. (1)-(3): Filippovka, barrow no. 4/2006, burial 3 (1, 3: general view; 2: detail – head of a
panther); (4), (5): Filippovka, barrow no. 15/2004, burial 3 (4: side view; 5: detail – head of a panther); gold inlays shown as lighter grey.
Figure 5 : Agrafe de carquois en argent avec inclusions d’or. 1-3. Filippovka, tumulus no. 4/2006, sépulture 3 (1, 3. vue générale ; 2. détail : tête
de panthère) ; 4-5. Filippovka, tumulus no. 15/2004, sépulture 3 (4. vue de côté ; 5. détail : tête de panthère) ; inclusions d’or en gris clair.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 211-220
218
Marina SHEMAKHANSKAYA, Mikhail TREISTER, Leonid YABLONSKY
Col. pl. 1: (1)-(3): (See colour plate) Silver knife handle with gold inlays, Filippovka, barrow no. 4/2006, burial 5; (4): gold work on the
blade of the sword (see Fig. 1); (5): gold inlays in the silver quiver hook (see Fig. 5, 1-3).
Col. pl. 1 : (Voir planche couleur) 1-3: Poignée de couteau en argent avec inclusions d’or, Filippovka, tumulus no. 4/2006, sépulture 5 ; 4 : travail
de l’or sur la lame de l’épée (voir Fig. 1) ; 5: inclusions d’or de l’agrafe du carquois en argent (voir Fig. 5, 1-3).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 211-220
219
he technique of gold inlaid decoration in the 5th-4th centuries BC…
attention, as its details are rendered with gold inlays. he
object is a cast piece of copper-gold alloy, and it has been deliberately given a dark patina in antiquity in order to enhance
the surface contrast with the inlay (Curtis and Tallis, 2005:
no. 389). his, we suggest, was also the case with the knife
handle from Filippovka. No technical investigation of the
Achaemenid silver vessels with gold inlays has been published
to date. In the bowl from the British Museum, ANE 134740
(Moorey, 1988: 233-234, no. 1, pl. Ia; Seipel, 1996: no. 60;
Curtis and Tallis, 2005: no. 111), the hollows were cut for the
inlays, and they were hammered into the undercut edges; no
mercury was found on the gold inlays by XRF.
Although the silver igures of animals forming a circle,
which were used primarily as Achaemenid vessel handles,
are often additionally inlaid with gold, the decoration of
the knife handle from Filippovka difers from these in the
shape of the gold inlays. he treatment of the details of the
stag body on the handle of the silver knife (Col. pl., a) also
difers from the images of stags in the inlaid decorations
on the sword (Fig. 1[5]; Col. pl., d), from the gold overlays of wooden vessels (Aruz et al., 2000: nos. 25-28, 30,
34), and from wooden sculptures of stags overlaid with gold
(Aruz et al., 2000: nos. 1-4, 20-22, 84-92) originating from
Filippovka, with their highly stylized decorations of elaborate spirals. he style is much more similar, although not
identical, to the more realistic images which we encounter
in the art of the Pazyryk culture of the Altai, dating to the
4th-3rd centuries BC, for example, that of the wooden carved
plates of horse-harness from the barrow no. 11 of the Berel
cemetery in Eastern Kazakhstan (Samašev et al., 2002: 269,
Fig. 26), and of the silver belt plaques from the Pazyryk barrow no. 2 (Rudenko, 1953: 124, pl. XXVII, 1-2; Polos’mak
and Barkova, 2005: 49, Fig. 2.22, d).
6. conclusIon
(M. S. Shemakhanskaya and M. Treister)
he use of the technique of decorating iron and bronze
objects with gold inlays by the nomads of Eurasia already
in the 7th century BC is attested by the decoration of a
battle axe (Čugunov et al., 2006: 121, no. 13, pl. 26) and
arrowheads (Čugunov et al., 2006: 123-124, no. 16, pls.
31-32) from the princely Arzhan-2 barrow in Southern
Siberia (Armbruster, 2007: 99). his technique remained
in use in the period between the 6th and the 4th century
BC, as indicated by the inds of: a gold-inlaid iron knife
handle in the Shibe barrow in Southern Siberia (Popescu
et al., 2001: no. 201), a gold-inlaid iron pin in the barrow
no. 22 of the cemetery Doge-Bary in Tuva (Čugunov, 1998:
302, Fig. 16, 3), and the plaques in the barrow no. 3 of the
Tasmola-V necropolis in Central Kazakhstan (Popescu et al.,
1998: nos. 145-150). he locations of the inds span the vast
belt stretching from the Altai Mountains in the east to the
Southern Urals in the west.
he handle of the knife from Filippovka (Col. pl., a-c) cannot be discussed as an example of ‘international Achaemenid
style’, although it was inspired by such an item, most probably dating to the irst half of the 5th century BC. We do
not know who created this knife handle. It is worth noting
that the technique of making hollows for the inlays already
in the wax model is diferent from the technique of cutting
hollows, used for the decorations of the hooks and the crossguard of the sword. Also remarkable is the method used for
ixing the inlays in the hollows. he peculiarities related to
its style and to the inlaid technique itself do not exclude the
possibility that the knife was manufactured in a provincial
Achaemenid workshop and that the respective craftsmen
considered the tastes of a Sarmatian customer.
he characteristic features of Urals gold were irst attested in
the course of our study in numerous objects from nomad burials.
his allows a correlation of the metal of these items with the
sources of gold. he geographical and chronological distribution
of objects with such features requires further studies.
Acknowledgements
he present study was carried out with the inancial support
of the German Science Foundation (Grant no. BO 1599/61) and the Russian Foundation for Humanities (Grant no.
09-01-00070a/d). he authors are grateful to Dr. Andrew V.
Mokhov and Dr. Pavel M. Kartashov (IGEM RAS, Moscow)
for the analyses of the objects discussed, and to Dr. Susan La
Niece for the information on the bowl ANE 134740 from the
British Museum.
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kotlyarov, v.a., 2008b. Sostav zolotykh izdelii iz kurganov
Yuzhnogo Urala, in L.T. Yablonsky (ed.), Rannie kochevniki
Volgo-Ural’skogo regiona. Materialy mezhdunarodno nauchno
konferentsii “Rannie kochevniki uzhnogo Priural’ya v svete noveishikh arkheologicheskikh otkryti”, 21-25 aprelya 2008. Orenburg,
Orenburg State Pedagogical University, 46-49.
Dacian bracelets and Transylvanian gold:
ancient history and modern analyses
Bracelets de Dacie et or de Transylvanie :
histoire ancienne et analyses modernes
Bogdan Constantinescu*, Roxana Bugoi*, Viorel Cojocaru*, Martin Radtke**,
homas Calligaro***, Joseph Salomon***, Laurent Pichon***, Stefan Röhrs***,
Daniele Ceccato****, Ernest Oberländer-Târnoveanu*****,
Corine Ionescu****** and Dana Pop*******
Abstract: he recovery of the Dacian gold bracelets was the most thrilling archaeological event of the last years in Romania. he artefacts are
exhibited in the Historical Treasure section of the National History Museum of Romania, Bucharest, being recovered from the international
antique markets through a concerted efort of the Romanian, French, and German authorities.
his paper reviews the X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analyses carried out on these exquisite artefacts. hese measurements followed the visual examination of qualiied experts, which concluded that the gold spiralled bracelets showed strong stylistic similarities with the Dacian silver bracelets
discovered until that date in archaeological contexts.
Since the most likely source – for geographical and historical reasons – for the metal used to manufacture these artefacts was the Transylvanian
Apuseni mountains, additional measurements on several fragments of natural Transylvanian gold, both from placers and primary deposits, were
performed using Synchrotron Radiation X-ray Fluorescence (SR-XRF) at the BESSY synchrotron, Berlin, and micro Particle Induced X-ray
Emission (micro-PIXE) at the AGLAE accelerator, Paris, and at the AN2000 accelerator of LNL, Padova.
he conclusion of this study was that the recovered spirals are genuine Dacian artefacts, made by cold hammering, chiselling and punching
Transylvanian unreined gold – gold panned from riverbeds mixed with primary gold, most likely extracted from surface veins.
Résumé : La saisie des bracelets en or de Dacie a été un des événements archéologiques les plus remarquables de ces dernières années en Roumanie. Les
objets sont exposés dans le Trésor Historique du Musée National d’Histoire de Roumanie, Bucarest, et ont été récupérés du marché international d’antiquités
grâce aux eforts concertés des autorités Roumaines, Françaises et Allemandes.
Cet article fait le bilan de l’analyse de ces objets exquis, réalisée par luorescence à rayons X (FX). Ces mesures suivent l’examen visuel par des experts
qualiiés qui ont conclu que les bracelets en or à spirales montrent des similitudes stylistiques fortes avec les bracelets en argent de Dacie découverts en
contexte archéologique.
Comme pour des raisons historiques et géographiques la source la plus probable du métal utilisé pour la fabrication de ces objets se trouve dans les Carpates
transylvaniens, des mesures complémentaires ont été réalisées sur diférents fragments d’or natif de Transylvanie, provenant tant de placers comme de
* Horia Hulubei National Institute for Nuclear Physics and Engineering – Bucharest 077125, Romania.
** BAM Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing – Berlin D-12489, Germany.
*** Laboratoire de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, CNRS UMR 171 – Palais du Louvre, Paris cedex 01, France.
**** Laboratori Nazionali di Legnaro, Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare – Padova 35020, Italy.
***** National History Museum of Romania – Bucharest 030026, Romania.
****** Department of Mineralogy, Babeş-Bolyai University – Cluj-Napoca 400084, Romania.
******* Museum of Mineralogy, Babeş-Bolyai University – Cluj-Napoca 400084, Romania.
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 221-225
222
Bogdan CONSTANTINESCU et al.
gisements primaires, par luorescence de rayons X avec radiation de synchrotron (SR-XRF) au synchrotron BESSY, à Berlin, et par émission de rayons X
induite par particules chargées (micro-PIXE) à l’accélérateur AGLAE, à Paris, et à l’accélérateur AN2000 du LNL à Padoue.
L’étude à permis de conclure que les bracelets en spirale récupérés sont des objets Daciens authentiques, produits par martelage à froid, ciselure et poinçonnage d’or de Transylvanie non ainé – de l’or de rivière obtenu par batée et mélangé avec de l’or primaire, certainement extrait de ilons de surface.
Keywords: gold, authentication, provenance, XRF, micro-PIXE, micro SR-XRF
Mots-clés : or, authentiication, provenance, FX, micro-PIXE, micro SR-XRF.
1. IntroductIon
he eleven Dacian gold bracelets recovered until the summer of 2009 are multi-spiralled (5-7 spirals), and weigh
from 682 g up to 1196 g. he spirals feature at both ends
zoomorphic protomes, most likely representations of snakeheads, and stylized palmettes (Fig. 1).
he artefacts were found by looting an UNESCO World
Heritage archaeological site – Sarmizegetusa Regia, located
in the Carpathian Mountains (nowadays Romania), the
capital of the Dacian Kingdom during the period between
the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD (Daicoviciu and
Daicoviciu, 1963). he poachers resorted to illegal metal
detectors, the bracelets being found buried in several places
(most of them being intentionally specially built hideouts)
near the sacred precincts of Sarmizegetusa. he artefacts were
illegally exported and sold on the antiquity market, being
recovered through the concerted eforts of the Romanian,
French and German authorities, and with the involvement
of the INTERPOL (Lazăr et al., 2008).
To asses their authenticity, the bracelets were visually
examined by a group of experts, who decided on stylistic
grounds that the artefacts present strong similarities with the
Dacian silver bracelets discovered until then in archaeological contexts, and which are exhibited in (or stored in the
deposits of ) several Romanian and foreign museums. By
studying the marks left on the surfaces of the bracelets, it
was concluded that the manufacturing techniques used for
the spirals were cold hammering, punching and chiselling
(Lazăr et al., 2008).
Due to their special shape, decoration and heavy weight,
and, not least, to the material they were made of – the fascinating and powerful gold – it was suggested that these
artefacts had a tremendous signiicance for Dacian society,
most likely being ritual objects and/or power insignia.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 221-225
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Bracelet no. 3.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Bracelet référence 3.
Since the Romanian judicial bodies that investigated the
case of poaching an UNESCO World Heritage site required
further arguments supporting the authenticity of the bracelets, a compositional analysis of the gold alloy of the spirals
was requested. Because only local, non-destructive and noninvasive analyses were allowed, XRF was chosen to provide
the details regarding the elemental composition of the artefacts.
Taking into account the wealth of ancient gold artefacts
unearthed on the Romanian territory, an extensive study of
Transylvanian native gold fragments was performed as well,
since this geographical area is known to have been a source
for gold exploitation since prehistory (Hauptmann et al.,
1995). hese investigations started with the gold sources –
primary and secondary – located closest to the places where
the artefacts were found (results reported in Bugoi et al.,
2008), and continued with other Transylvanian gold sources
(see Neacşu et al., 2009).
223
Dacian bracelets and Transylvanian gold: ancient history and modern analyses
2. Methods
he XRF compositional analysis of the bracelets was performed using a setup based on a 241Am (30 mCi) annular
radioactive source and a Si(Li) horizontal detector – see the
XRF spectrum shown in Figure 2.
The micro-PIXE measurements carried out on
Transylvanian native gold samples were performed both in
air with a 3 MeV proton micro-beam (50 × 50 µm2) at the
AGLAE accelerator in Paris, and in vacuum with a 2 MeV
proton beam (4 × 4 µm2) at the AN2000 accelerator of the
LNL, INFN, Padova.
he micro SR-XRF analyses of another set of Transylvanian
geological gold samples were performed at the BESSY synchrotron, Berlin, in air, the characteristic X-rays being excited
with a 34 keV monochromatic X-ray beam (100 × 200 µm2).
he detailed description of the employed experimental setups, as well as the previously reported results, can be found
in Bugoi et al. (2008) and Constantinescu et al. (2008).
3. results and dIscussIon
he results of the XRF analyses obtained for each bracelet
are provided in Table 1. It can be easily observed that the
spirals contain large amounts of silver (11% on average)
and very small amounts of copper (0.9% on average). his
compositional pattern is consistent with the one of natural
gold, which contains up to 40% silver and up to 1% copper
(Guerra, 2000; Tylecote, 1987).
Obviously, there was no intention to reine the gold
employed to manufacture these artefacts. Presumably, different gold ingots were used to manufacture the bracelets,
an aspect suggested by the slight diferences in the compositions of the eleven artefacts.
Traces of Sn were observed in the XRF spectra – see
Figure 2 and Table 1. Most likely, the Sn originates from
the irst melting in reducing atmosphere of alluvial gold, in
which cassiterite (SnO2) grains were present (Dube, 2006;
Guerra and Calligaro, 2003).
he composition of bracelet no. 8, with the highest Sn and
Cu content of all the investigated armbands, points towards
a hypothesised tin-bronze alloying of the gold ingot used to
manufacture this object (Dube, 2006).
Ca, Ti, Mn, Fe, and Ba traces, most likely from soil contamination (the artefacts were supposedly buried for two
thousand years), were detected on almost all bracelet surfaces. Sb traces were also detected in some bracelets, pointing towards the use of a primary deposit gold source.
Figure 2: XRF spectrum of bracelet no. 11.
Figure 2 : Spectre FX du bracelet référence 11.
Bracelet no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Au (wt%)
89.8
78.2
82.4
91.5
92.8
92.0
92.9
85.0
87.1
87.1
86.1
Ag (wt%)
9.5
20.3
16.2
8.1
6.9
7.1
6.3
12.8
12.2
11.8
12.6
Cu (wt%)
0.6
1.5
1.4
0.4
0.3
0.9
0.7
2.1
0.6
0.7
0.7
Sn (mg/kg)
200
60
360
125
< MDL
230
< MDL
1500
120
425
400
Table 1: XRF concentrations of the Dacian gold bracelets (the
overall relative uncertainty is estimated to be ~1% for Au concentrations, ~10% for Ag and Cu concentrations and ~20% for Sn
concentrations).
Tableau 1 : Compositions obtenues par XRF des bracelets en or
Daciens (incertitudes relatives moyennes sont estimées à ~1% pour les
teneurs en Au, ~10% pour les teneurs en Ag et en Cu et ~20% pour
les teneurs en Sn).
Both micro-PIXE and micro SR-XRF led to the following
conclusions: Transylvanian gold, both placer and primary,
contains high and variable amounts of Ag (from 8% up to
35%), low amounts of Cu (hundreds of mg/kg on average,
but up to 1.5%), traces of Sn for placer gold (500 mg/kg on
average), and traces of Sb (up to 900 mg/kg) and Te (up to
3000 mg/kg) for primary gold.
hese results are in agreement with the geochemical data
for Transylvanian gold from Berbeleac (1985) and Tămaş et
al. (2006). hey also conirm the previously published data,
showing that Transylvanian primary gold is characterized by
relatively large Ag amounts (more than 10% on average, but
more often 20% or even 30%) (Tylecote, 1987; Hauptmann
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 221-225
224
et al., 1995; Bugoi et al., 2008 and references therein). he
amount of Ag is generally lower for the Transylvanian gold
samples of alluvial origin, an aspect explained through the
weathering of the gold particles, Ag and Cu being more
susceptible to dissolution or leaching, depending on the pH
of the surrounding environment (Dube, 2006).
he native gold samples turned out to be very inhomogeneous, an aspect highlighted by employing the scanning
option of these micro-analytical techniques. From a methodological point of view, it is worth mentioning that the
sensitivity of micro SR-XRF is signiicantly superior to the
one of micro-PIXE, especially for Sn detection.
he Cu content of the bracelets was slightly higher than
the one of the natural gold samples. his was most likely due
to the melting of the accompanying gold minerals, which
leads to an ‘enrichment’ in terms of Cu content in the inite
objects (Hauptmann et al., 1995).
By comparing the XRF results of the bracelets with the
micro-PIXE and micro SR-XRF results of Transylvanian
gold samples, the determined trace elements and the overall compositional pattern, it was concluded that, most
likely, the Dacian gold bracelets were made from unreined Transylvanian native gold – natural panned gold
(gold that has not been deliberately alloyed or puriied)
mixed with primary gold, using a primitive metallurgy.
hus, in addition to the stylistic and historical arguments,
the XRF analyses further supported the authenticity of the
Dacian bracelets.
4. conclusIons
he recovery and investigation of the Dacian gold bracelets is a good example of the close cooperation between the
judicial and police bodies, archaeologists, cultural heritage
experts, physicists and geologists. Despite their turbulent
recent history, these gorgeous artefacts inally found their
peace, allowing themselves to be admired in their shining
splendour in the showcases of the Historical Treasury of the
National History Museum of Romania in Bucharest.
he elemental analyses carried out by means of X-ray methods played an important role in the authentication of these
artefacts. Taking into account the location where the bracelets were found, the historical arguments about the Dacian
civilization, and, not least, the results of the elemental analyses undertaken both on natural gold samples and on the
recovered artefacts, it was concluded that, most likely, natural panned gold (gold that has not been deliberately alloyed
or puriied) mixed with primary gold from Transylvania was
used to manufacture the Dacian spiralled bracelets.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 221-225
Bogdan CONSTANTINESCU et al.
Acknowledgements
he inancial support of the EU-ARTECH project (allowing
access to the AGLAE accelerator, Paris), of the EU FP6 contract
EURONS no. RII3-CT-2004-506065 (granting access to the
AN2000 LNL accelerator, Padova) and of EU FP6 contract no.
RII3-CT-2004-506008 (funding the experiment at the BESSY
synchrotron, Berlin) are gratefully acknowledged.
References
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BugoI, r., cojocaru, V., constantInescu, B., callIgaro, t.,
PIchon, l., röhrs, s. and saloMon, J., 2008. Compositional
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in Physics Research B 266(10): 2316 -2319.
constantInescu, B., BugoI, r., cojocaru, V., radtke, M.,
callIgaro, t., saloMon, j., PIchon, l., röhrs, s., ceccato,
d. and oBerländer-târnoVeanu, E., 2008. Micro SR-XRF
and micro-PIXE studies for archaeological gold identiication
– the case of Carpathian (Transylvanian) gold and of Dacian
bracelets. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research
B 266(10): 2325-2328.
daIcoVIcIu, c. and daIcoVIcIu, H., 1963. Sarmizegethusa: les
citadelles et les agglomerations daciques des Monts d’Oraştie.
Bucureşti, Ed. Meridiane (in French).
DuBe, R.K., 2006. Interrelation between gold and tin: A historical
perspective. Gold Bulletin 39(3): 103-113.
Guerra, M.F., 2000. he study of the characterisation and provenance
of coins and other metal work using XRF, PIXE and Activation
Analysis, in D.C. Creagh, D.A. Bradley (eds), Radiation in Art
and Archeometry. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 378-416.
guerra, M.F. and callIgaro, T., 2003. Gold cultural heritage
objects: a review of studies of provenance and manufacturing
technologies. Measurement Science and Technology 14: 15271537.
hauPtMann, a., rehren, th. and PernIcka, E., 1995. he composition of gold from the ancient mining district of Verespatak/
Roşia Montană, România, in G. Morteani, J.P. Northover
(eds.), Prehistoric Gold in Europe – Mines, Metallurgy and
Manufacture. Berlin, Springer Verlag, 369-381.
lazăr, a., dePPert-lIPPItz, B. and FerrI, P.G. (eds.), 2008.
Combating the criminality against the European archaeological
heritage. Bucureşti, Lumina Lex Publishing House.
neacşu, a., PoPescu, g.c., constantInescu, B., VasIlescu, a.
and ceccato, d., 2009. he geochemical signature of native
gold from Roşia Montană and Musariu ore deposits, Metaliferi
Dacian bracelets and Transylvanian gold: ancient history and modern analyses
Mts. (Romania); Preliminary Data. Carpathian Journal of
Earth and Environmental Sciences 4(1): 49-59.
tăMaş, c., BaIlly, l., ghergarI, l., o’connor, g. and MInuţ,
a., 2006. New occurrences of tellurides and argyrodite in
Roşia Montană, Apuseni Mts., Romania, and their metallogenetic signiicance. he Canadian Mineralogist 44(2): 367383.
225
tylecote, r.h., 1987. he early history of metallurgy in Europe.
London and New York, Longman.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 221-225
he gold belt buckle from Apahida III (Romania),
5th century AD
La boucle de ceinturon en or d’Apahida III (Roumanie), Ve siècle apr. J.-C.
Rodica Oanţă-Marghitu *, Gheorghe Niculescu **, Doina Şeclăman *,
Roxana Bugoi *** and Migdonia Georgescu **
Abstract: his study focuses on the understanding of the elaborate construction of a cloisonné gold belt buckle, found in a princely grave from
Apahida, dated to the 5th century AD. Starting from the careful analysis of the object’s proportions and dimensions, a geometrical pattern of
the belt plate construction and decoration design is proposed. he intricate composition of this complicated cloisonné adorned object is also
illustrated with the exploded view of its structure. X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) analyses of the composition, performed on diferent elements forming the buckle, led to conclusions regarding the relations between the variation of gold purity and the role played by diferent elements in the
structure of the object. Some sequences of actions from the entire chaîne opératoire are also emphasized. Most likely, there was a certain degree of
standardization in the workshops producing these cloisonné objects, and probably the craftsmen had at their disposal large batches of individual
constructive elements – cell walls and gems.
Résumé : Cette étude se propose de décrire la construction élaborée de la boucle de ceinture en or et cloisonné, trouvée dans la tombe princière d’Apahida
et datée du Ve siècle de notre ère. L’analyse minutieuse des proportions et dimensions de l’objet, a permis de proposer un motif géométrique, base de la
construction de la plaque-boucle et du dessin de décoration. La composition très élaborée de cet objet de parure au cloisonné complexe est aussi illustrée
par une vue éclatée de sa structure. Les analyses par luorescence à rayons X (FX) de la composition des diférents éléments de la boucle, ont apporté des
hypothèses sur les rapports entre la variation de la pureté de l’or et le rôle joué par les diférents éléments dans la structure de l’objet. Quelques séquences
de la chaîne opératoire ont aussi été mises en évidence. Il est probable qu’un certain degré de standardisation avait été mis en place dans les ateliers de
production de ces objets en cloisonné et que l’artisan avait à sa disposition de grands lots d’éléments individuels de construction – gemmes à sertir et cloisons.
Keywords: gold, cloisonné, Apahida, 5th century AD, XRF.
Mots-clés : or, cloisonné, Apahida, ve siècle AD, FX
1. IntroductIon
A large number of cloisonné adornments dated to the
5th-6th century AD were discovered by archaeological
research and/or by chance on the former territory of the
Roman Empire and also beyond its boundaries. Among
all these artefacts, a group of items crafted in gold, inlaid
with garnets on all visible sides, with S and Ω-shaped cells,
undulated (‘stepped’) cell walls, and bordered with a string
of small cabochon garnets can be distinguished (Werner,
* National History Museum of Romania, Bucharest 030026, Romania – 1-97. (rodicamarghitu@yahoo.com), (tezaur@mnir.ro)
** National Institute for Research, Conservation and Restoration of the Cultural Heritage, Bucharest 030026, Romania.
*** “Horia Hulubei” National Institute for Nuclear Physics and Engineering, Bucharest 077125, Romania.
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 227-233
228
1958; Carnap-Bornheim, 1995; Schmauder, 2002: inds
lists nos. 2, 3, 4). It was suggested that these spectacular
pieces of jewellery, manufactured with special attention to
every single detail, were most likely produced in the most
prestigious workshops of the Roman Empire (Arrhenius,
1985: 100-124). he occasional presence of such exquisite
ornaments deep in barbarian territory was explained as a
result of diplomatic relations between the imperial court
and the barbarian elite (Harhoiu, 1998: 155). To date, due
to their special value and intricate structure, none of these
objects was thoroughly investigated. he present paper tries
to cover this gap by studying a gold belt buckle inlaid with
garnets found at Apahida.
hree princely graves, all dating from the second half of
the 5th century AD, were discovered at Apahida, near Cluj,
the ancient Napoca (Finály, 1889; Horedt and Protase,
1972; Matei, 1982; Harhoiu, 1998: 157-158; Périn et al.,
2000, 172-191). hese inds made Apahida one of the
most important sites on the map of the Migration Period in
Europe. he impressive number of garnet inlaid objects that
were preserved and the close resemblance with the adornments found in the Childeric grave from Tournai (Böhner
1981; Périn and Kazanski, 1996) emphasize its signiicance
even more.
he existence of a third grave was deduced from the discovery of a gold belt buckle (Fig. 1) in 1979 (Matei, 1982)1.
After its discovery and before being inally taken in custody
by the National Bank of Romania, the buckle was dismantled, all garnets being extracted from the cells and the illing
material completely removed. It is the unfortunate discovery
conditions and the history of the artefact immediately after
its recovery that favoured our investigation; this approach
would have been impossible on a better preserved object.
In 2001, the National Bank of Romania donated the
gold belt buckle from Apahida III to the National History
Museum of Romania. At that moment the artefact was
composed of 130 distinct elements: the buckle with a belt
plate and a detachable tongue, all these ornamented with
a total of 120 empty cells (Fig. 1, a-h); 34 gold fragments
– thin patterned foils and cell walls (Fig. 1i); 56 garnets –
among them, we can ind both whole and broken stones,
lat cut gems and oblong, slightly rounded garnets (Fig. 1j);
38 semispherical garnets – of which 26 are larger, initially
mounted on the belt plate border, and 12 are smaller, initially mounted on the border of the tongue plate (kidney
shaped) (Fig. 1k).
1. According to Prof. Dumitru Protase and Dr. Ioan Stanciu (personal
communications), it is quite likely that this buckle is also part of the
second Apahida grave inventory.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 227-233
Rodica Oanţă-Marghitu et al.
2. PremIses and methods
As already mentioned above, this study focuses on the
understanding of the elaborate construction of the cloisonné gold buckle found in the Apahida III grave. he poor
conservation state of this artefact represents an advantage
for the investigation, ofering the opportunity for a better
understanding of its construction.
By carefully examining the buckle, we noticed its extremely elaborate structure. Consequently, we concluded
that the only possible way to assemble it was starting
from an initial geometrically constructed project. By
analyzing the ratios between diferent dimensions of the
buckle, we found a solution for the construction of the
buckle (Fig. 2a).
In order to obtain additional information on the
manufacturing technologies, it was decided to perform
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) measurements on as many as
possible constructive elements of the belt buckle. Prior
to the analysis, all gold items were cleaned in an ultrasonic bath.
he preliminary XRF analyses were performed using an
Innov-X Systems Alpha Series X-Ray Fluorescence portable
spectrometer with an X-ray tube based on a W anode, operated at 35 kV and 40 µA. Due to its technical characteristics, we used this equipment only for the investigation of the
metallic elements larger than the sampling window (17 mm
diameter) of the measuring head, or for the analysis of the
smaller and detached elements, such as the patterned foils.
hese XRF measurements provided a rough estimate of the
elemental composition for a number of gold components
and stand-alone fragments. he results of these irst XRF
measurements on Apahida items were reported elsewhere
(Niculescu et al., in press).
However, due to the complicated structure of the object,
it was necessary to reine the XRF information, especially
for the areas that were diicult to reach using the portable
spectrometer. herefore, it was decided to perform a new set
of analyses on diferent points from each metallic element
composing the buckle – including the thin cell walls. hese
measurements were performed using an ARTAX 400 microXRF spectrometer, with an X-ray tube with a W anode,
operated at 50 kV and 700 µA, with a 650 µm diameter
collimator.
he quantiication of the XRF measurements was performed through direct comparison of the count rates
method and by using standards with known elemental
concentrations, measured with exactly the same spectrometer settings as the investigated archaeological items. he
standards were ternary Au-Ag-Cu alloys from the former
229
he gold belt buckle from Apahida III (Romania), 5th century AD
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Photographs showing the Apahida III belt buckle, as well as the related (and dismantled) parts. he black dots
on the photographs indicate the points in which the XRF analyses were performed; the quantitative results are summarized in Figure 3.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Photos illustrant la boucle de ceinture d’Apahida III ainsi que les parties en relation (et démontées). Les points
noirs sur les photos pointent les régions où les analyses par FX ont été efectuées ; les résultats quantitatifs sont résumés sur la Figure 3.
Assay Oice of the National Bank of Romania2 that are
routinely used for touchstone testing of gold jewelleries,
and in which the Au content was determined by the ire
assay method. For the quantiication of Ag, the K X-ray
lines of this element were employed. In this study, there
was no special interest for the determination of trace elements that might have been contained in the gold alloy
of the investigated artefacts; consequently, at this stage of
the research, the interpretation of the results obtained was
based only on the content of the major elements (Au, Ag
and Cu). he relative standard deviations of the determined concentrations were less than 0.2% for Au and less
than 2% for Ag and Cu.
2. Functioning nowadays as the Precious Metals and Precious Stones
Department of the National Authority for Consumer Protection, Romania.
he ternary diagram (Au-Ag-Cu) in Figure 3 summarizes
all concentrations (expressed in weight percent) obtained
with the ARTAX spectrometer on diferent metallic parts
of the buckle.
3. results and dIscussIon
Although the object we are examining today is only one
buckle, we should not neglect the fact that the inite object
was a belt, not a buckle. he obverse of the belt plate extends
to a rectangular frame which connects the three elements of
the buckle: the frame is bent around the link and welded
on the back to a plain golden sheet having a shape identical to that of the belt plate. he hook of the tongue passes
through the hole of the frame and is fastened to the ring.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 227-233
230
Rodica Oanţă-Marghitu et al.
Figure 2: a. Geometrical construction of the decorative pattern; b.
Reconstructed, ideal aspect of the
buckle plate; c-d. Exploded view
of the buckle plate.
Figure 2 : a. Construction géométrique du motif de décoration ; b.
Reconstruction, aspect idéal de la
plaque-boucle ; c-d. Vue éclatée de la
plaque-boucle.
he distance between the reverse of the belt plate and the
golden plain sheet was about 1-2 mm, corresponding to the
belt’s thickness. All these three ‘layers’ – the belt plate, the
leather (or a type of textile material), and the golden foil on
the reverse – were connected and fastened with four rivets –
nowadays lost – whose hemispherical heads were integrated
into the decoration and visible from the obverse. he same
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 227-233
system could be observed on similar buckles preserved in the
inventories of the irst and second Apahida graves (Périn et
al., 2000: 176, 188).
he belt plate was assembled from more than 100 gold
fragments and 74 garnets; the cells were initially illed with
a kind of putty. By analogy with other buckles of the same
category, we can assume that the quatrefoil and the round
231
he gold belt buckle from Apahida III (Romania), 5th century AD
group. A separate group corresponds to the S-shaped cell
walls of the tongue. he obverse and the reverse golden thick
foils of the buckle plate are clustered in the fourth group,
while all the interior and edge cell walls of the buckle plate
are found in the ifth group. hree isolated points correspond to the measurements of the link and four others to
the tongue’s hook. he same diagram suggests that perhaps
for diferent sets of elements, ‘prefabricated’ components cut
from diferent gold ingots were used.
It is worth emphasizing that the purity of the gold used
to manufacture the buckle was never less than 22.5 karats.
he gold concentration derived from the XRF measurements varies between a minimum of 94.0% for the link
and a maximum of 99.4% for one of the patterned foils.
he very high ineness of the patterned foils suggests that
the goldsmith wished to take advantage of the remarkable
malleability of pure gold. For the cell walls, an alloy with a
lower gold content was chosen, a material which could at
the same time ensure a high malleability to bend the gold
straps in the appropriate shapes, as well as a certain hardness
(the upper edges were always slightly bent over the stones).
A possible explanation for the relatively high amount of
silver and copper found in the link was that an alloy with
improved mechanical properties was intentionally chosen
to manufacture this component of the buckle. In particular,
a constructive material with increased hardness makes this
mobile element more resistant to stress and wearing.
Taking into account that the metallic composition of
the cell walls depends on their shape, but does not show
considerable diferences, we could infer that the goldsmiths
determined an optimal gold title for these elements. hey
prepared a certain number of similar cell walls and used
Uncia
(1/12 pes ≈ 24.7
mm)
Digitus
(1/16 pes ≈ 18.5
mm)
Diameter of the quatrefoil cell
12
1/24
1/12
2/3
Actual length (buckle + belt plate)
72
≤1/4
≤3
≤4
Large diameter of the buckle
57
1/5
Length of the belt plate
54
≈ 2/11=1/5.5
≈ 11/5
<3
Width of the belt plate
37
1/8
3/2
2
Diameter of the large hemispherical garnet
3
1/96
1/8
1/6
Dimensions
(Fig. 1)
Table 1: he dimensions of the
Apahida III belt buckle.
Tableau 1 : Les dimensions de la
boucle de ceinture d’Apahida III.
Roman system
Pes (296 mm)
Metric system (mm)
central cells were not inlaid with garnets. he graphical
reconstruction in Figure 2, c-d, may give an idea about the
complicated structure of this object.
By examining the shape of the belt plate and the geometrical composition of the cloisonné panel, it can be noticed
how the peculiar kidney contour was created (Fig. 2a). hree
corners of a square inscribed in a circle represent the centres
of three other circles, joined to compose the kidney contour.
he round prominences on the edge are evenly distributed at 18° intervals. he careful harmonious design of the
buckle is also suggested by its proportions, which it with a
remarkable precision into the Roman measurement system
(see Table 1) (Wikander, 2008: 766-767). Illustrative of
this aspect, the cloisonné decoration of the belt plate is built
around a quatrefoil cell with a length of 12.3 mm, which
corresponds to ½ uncia.
In order to craft the cloisonné adorned jewellery, the goldsmiths had to assemble a lot of similar entities, like cell walls,
gold patterned foils or garnets of diferent shapes. hus, it
is quite likely that before connecting all these elements in
one single object, the craftsmen had to prepare all the necessary components, i.e. a complete set of S-shaped, Ω-shaped,
undulated or simple rectangular cell walls.
Signiicant data about the crafting process of the buckle,
especially regarding the preparation of all the elements to be
assembled, were inferred from the XRF analysis of its components. In the diagram in Figure 3, one can notice several
clusters, most likely corresponding to elements cut from the
same gold ingot. Gold patterned foils can be found in one
group, while the three longitudinal walls of the tongue, the
Ω-shaped cell walls (used on the edge of the tongue kidney
plate), as well as a patterned foil, are clustered in another
Actual thickness of the belt plate
7,7
Probable total thickness of the mounted
belt plate
8,2
1/36
1/3
4/9
9,3
1/32
3/8
1/2
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 227-233
232
Rodica Oanţă-Marghitu et al.
procedure with a precise sequence of operations, based on
the exact knowledge of the required amount of raw materials
and also of the characteristics (shapes and numbers) of the
components (gold and garnets) to be assembled.
4. conclusIons
Figure 3: Ternary diagram (Au-Ag-Cu) of the concentrations
(expressed in weight percent) determined by XRF on the Apahida
III belt buckle.
Figure 3 : Diagramme ternaire (Au-Ag-Cu) des concentrations (exprimées en pourcent) déterminées par FX de la boucle de ceinturon d’Apahida III.
them to assemble diferent objects, depending on the requirements of the decoration design. hey could also have used
old, recuperated metal. Most likely, the available gold pieces
were separated in diferent groups, according to their title,
and used afterwards when an alloy of a certain type/purity
was needed. In any case, we can assume the existence of
an important degree of standardization in the workshop/
workshops where adornments similar to this Apahida III
buckle were produced. hus, it is possible that large stocks
of metallic elements, such as cell walls, cut into diferent
shapes and sizes, were readily available at the actual moment
of manufacturing the objects.
Recently, some test measurements on the garnets belonging to the Apahida belt buckle were also performed with
the ARTAX spectrometer, this time in a helium-lushed
atmosphere. Taking into account the results of these additional XRF analyses, as well as the previously published data on
Merovingian gems (Calligaro et al., 2002), the irst conclusion was that the garnets used to decorate the Apahida III
buckle were of diferent types, and, most likely, originated
from diferent sources. he interpretation of the XRF results
obtained on the garnets is still in progress, and further measurements are to be carried out.
Our investigation points out that the efective construction of the buckle was only the last phase of a much longer
endeavour. he assembling process implied a well deined
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 227-233
his paper summarizes a thorough study of the Apahida III
belt buckle, which was recovered from a 5th century AD princely grave. Starting from the object’s proportions, a geometrical pattern of the belt plate construction and decoration
design was proposed. he buckle’s appearance was irst ideally
conceptualized, and then a reference model was geometrically
designed. By analyzing sets of several similar constructive elements, we gained a better understanding of the assembling
process, underlining the stages of transforming an ideal project into a concrete object. It is highly possible that the workshop where the gold belt buckle from Apahida III was crafted
employed a certain standardization of the objects, assembling
components with similar shapes to obtain diferent adornments and diferent decorative patterns.
It is quite likely that, in order to produce new objects of
this kind, recuperated metal was often used. he hypothesis
of the use of ‘prefabricated’ elements – such as cell walls and
garnets, cut into diferent shapes and sizes – to assemble
cloisonné jewelleries of this kind appears reasonable. he
main goal of the craftsmen was the inal aspect of the object,
which could include elements of variable gold purity, as it
was demonstrated by the XRF analyses. In the structure of
such elaborated objects as the garnet inlaid adornments of
Apahida, the manufacturing process required not only a
high technical background, but also a particular specialization of the craftsman and appropriate skills. Finally, the
value of the object largely exceeded that of the gold and
gems built in it, the intrinsic material value blending with
the much more important symbolic one.
Acknowledgements
he inancial support of the ROMARCHAEOMET project
in performing this study is kindly acknowledged. We are grateful
to Prof. Dumitru Protase and Dr. Ioan Stanciu for the information on the discovery of the Apahida III belt buckle. We also
thank Mr. Marius Amarie for taking the photos of the Apahida
III gold belt buckle and related parts.
he gold belt buckle from Apahida III (Romania), 5th century AD
References
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and Social Implications. Stockholm, Almqvist & Wiksell
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CallIgaro, t., colInart, s., PoIrot, J.-P. and sundres, C.,
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harhoIu, r., 1998. Die frühe Völkerwanderungszeit in Rumänien.
Archaeologia Romanica I. Bucureşti, Editura Enciclopedică.
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Musei Napocensis 19: 387-392.
nIculescu, g., oanţă-marghItu, r. and georgescu, M.,
in press. On the Gold Adornments from Apahida – 5th
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Die Franken Wegbereiter Europas. Vor 1500 Jahren: König
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Mannheim: Reiss-Museum, 173-182.
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princes barbares. Du Caucase à la Gaule ve siècle après J.-C. Paris,
Éditions de la Réunion des Musées Nationaux.
schmauder, m., 2002. Oberschichtgräber und Verwahrfunde in
Südosteuropa im 4. und 5. Jahrhudert n. Chr. Zum Verhältnis
zwischen spätantiken Reich und barbarischer Oberschicht aufgrund der archäologischen Quellen. Archaeologia Romanica 3.
Bucureşti: Editura Academiei Române.
Werner, J., 1958. Eine ostgotische Prunkschnalle von KölnSeverinstor. Kölner Jahrbuch für Vor- und Frühgeschichte 3:
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he Oxford Handbook of Engineering and Technology in the
Classical World. New York, Oxford University Press, 759-769.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 227-233
‘More like the work of fairies than of human beings’:
the filigree on the ‘Tara’ brooch, a masterpiece
of late Celtic metalwork
« Œuvre des fées plus qu’œuvre des hommes » :
le filigrane de la fibule de « Tara », un chef d’oeuvre de l’orfèvrerie celtique tardive
Niamh Whitfield*
Abstract: In the early Middle Ages, Irish goldsmiths achieved a rare mastery of gold working techniques. he ‘Tara’ brooch, dated to c. 700
AD, shows many characteristics of this late Celtic style of metalwork. his paper discusses the manufacture of its iligree, drawing on the writer’s
microscopic study and hitherto unpublished scientiic investigations carried out in the British Museum in 1962-1963.
Résumé : Au Haut Moyen Âge les orfèvres irlandais ont réussi un niveau technique rare dans les arts du métal. La ibule de ‘Tara’, fabriquée vers 700 de
notre ère, présente un grand nombre de traits distinctifs de ce style celtique tardif. Cet article décrit la fabrication des iligranes de cette ibule. L’étude est
basée sur des examens au microscope optique par l’auteur, et aussi sur des études scientiiques inédites faites au British Museum en 1962-1963.
Keywords: Beaded wire, Celtic, iligree, granules, Ireland, ‘jewellers’ stitches’.
Mots-clés : Fil perlé, Celtique, iligrane, granules, Irlande, millegrifes.
1. INTRODUCTION
Although the art of goldsmithing, including the manufacture of gold iligree, lourished in prehistoric Ireland, the
working of gold seems to have been completely forgotten
there in the early centuries of our era. However, in the 6th
and 7th centuries AD, the Irish, through their missionary
activities, forged strong contacts with rich and powerful
Anglo-Saxon, Frankish and Lombardic leaders. One result
of these contacts was the reintroduction of gold and simultaneously, it seems, of gold iligree. he inluence of Germanic,
and in particular Anglo-Saxon, traditions is clearly seen in
the new so-called ‘Hiberno-Saxon’ (or ‘late Celtic’) iligree
style they developed (Whitield, 1987; 2007). However, the
Irish goldsmiths also introduced innovations, and developed
the craft to an exceptionally high degree of sophistication
and virtuosity. he ‘Tara’ brooch (Fig. 1), which dates to the
late 7th or very early 8th century AD, is one of the earliest
pieces of Irish metalwork to display this new style of iligree.
he brooch was discovered in 1850 at Bettystown,
Co Meath, on the east coast of Ireland, rather than at
the nearby, ancient necropolis of Tara. Its irst owners,
* 47 Faroe Road, London W14 0EL, UK. (mail@niamhwhitield.com)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 235-241
236
Niamh WHITFIELD
Figure 1: (See colour plate) ‘Tara’ brooch iligree: a. Pin-head; b. Part of the brooch; c. Diagram showing attachment of iligree disc to amber stud;
d. Amber stud on right side. (Photography: a, b, d: reproduced by the kind permission of the National Museum of Ireland; Drawing: M. Bimson).
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Filigranes de la ibule de « Tara » : a) Tête de l’ardillon ; b) Une partie de la ibule ; c) Schéma de la monture
du disque orné de iligranes sur une perle d’ambre ; d) Perle d’ambre à droite. (Photographies : a, b, d : reproduction avec la permission du Musée
national d’Irlande ; dessin : M. Bimson).
Waterhouse and Co., jewellers of Dame Street, Dublin,
were in the habit of attaching evocative names to brooches
of which they sold replicas: they are responsible for the
misleading reference to Tara in the ‘name’ given to the
brooch. he object was almost completely intact when discovered, but some iligree was subsequently lost. It measures 8.6 cm in diameter and weighs 224.36 g. Although
it is cast in silver, the underlying silver is barely visible,
because it is elaborately decorated on all faces with a profusion of designs and materials, either inset into the brooch
or directly applied on its surface.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 235-241
his paper is concerned only with the manufacture of its
iligree, all of which is made of gold. he writer, an archaeologist, not a scientist, has not been able to carry out any
scientiic analyses. his paper draws primarily on her microscopic examination of the object in the National Museum of
Ireland. However, when the ‘Tara’ brooch was cleaned in the
British Museum Laboratory in the early 1960s, it was closely
examined using the scientiic methods then available. Robert
Organ has kindly made available an unpublished lecture in
which he presented the new discoveries made at that time
(Organ, 1964), and access has also been given to other iles
‘More like the work of fairies than of human beings’: the iligree on the ‘Tara’ brooch…
237
in the British Museum. In addition, some excellent black
and white photographs of the ‘Tara’ brooch taken in the
British Museum in the 1960s, not hitherto published in the
specialist literature, are reproduced here.
With the exception of some lattened gold beaded wire
as rings around the three rivets on the back, gold iligree is
found only on the front of the ‘Tara’ brooch. here, it was
never applied directly. Instead, it was soldered to small backplates made of thin gold sheet to form individual panels,
each edged by a iligree border and decorated with an allover pattern ‘drawn’ with wires and granules (Figs. 1 and
2). he thickness of the gold sheet was not measured, but
a back-plate measured on the similar Hunterston brooch,
from the west coast of Scotland, was found to be 0.1 mm
thick (Stevenson, 1974: 23), while another, on the closely
related Westness brooch, from a 9th-century Viking grave in
Orkney, was 0.1-0.15 mm thick (Stevenson, 1989: 248).
Nor were analyses of the solder joining the wires and granules to the back-plates carried out. However, clear traces
of metallic solder were observed at some points by both the
writer and by the British Museum team.
2. MOUNTING THE FILIGREE PANELS
Filigree panels were ixed on the front of the brooch:
– In sunken compartments about 3 mm deep, covering
the front of the brooch and pin-head – twenty-eight compartments in all, separated from each other by studs of
various types.
– On the tops and edges of the ive dome-shaped amber
studs.
– On the tops of three of the glass studs, one lozengeshaped and two circular.
Diferent methods were used to attach the gold panels in
each of the three diferent locations, and these will now be
described.
In the sunken compartments
After the brooch had been cast, the walls of the sunken
compartments were gilded, and wires and granules made
separately and soldered to small gold back-plates, which had
been cut exactly to shape. hese were then itted snugly in
the base of each compartment (Fig. 1a, b). How were they
held in place there?
When the brooch arrived in the British Museum for
conservation in the 1960s, it was discovered that the gold
panels were secured by three types of mastic: red wax,
beeswax, and (apparently, the earliest of the three) a mixture
Figure 2: ‘Tara’ brooch: four iligree panels removed from their
compartments (Photography: British Museum Conservation
Laboratory).
Figure 2 : Fibule de « Tara » : Quatre plaques de iligranes enlevées de leur
boîtes. (Photographie : Laboratoire de Conservation du British Museum).
of rosin and beeswax (Organ, 1964). However, the mastic
was so thick that the panels were raised above the level of
features in the cell walls, which seems to have been the primary method of holding them in place.
hese were ‘jewellers’ stitches’, i.e., tiny tongues of silver, gouged from the compartment wall, which projected
over the edge of each back-plate and held it in place (Fig.
3). Some intact stitches survive on the ‘Tara’ brooch, but
many have corroded and broken of, which partly explains
the loss of the minute panels in the 19th century. Traces of
this are still visible, because they pierced the gilding on the
compartment walls revealing the silver beneath (Fig. 1d).
he stitches were at a height from the bottom of the cells
that corresponded exactly with the thickness of the iligree
panels (Werner, unpublished). It was therefore concluded
that originally jewellers’ stitches alone secured the iligree
panels, and that the mastic was modern, applied to preArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 235-241
Niamh WHITFIELD
238
On the three glass studs
Figure 3: ‘Tara’ brooch: three ‘jewellers’ stitches’ (Photography:
British Museum Conservation Laboratory).
Figure 3 : Fibule de « Tara » : trois «millegrifes». (Photographie :
Laboratoire de Conservation du British Museum).
vent further losses; the remaining panels are now secured
by Duraix (Organ 1964).
Jewellers’ stitches (also known as ‘bead settings’ or ‘milligraining’) are used in modern stone setting (Untracht, 1982:
619-621), but in the early Middle Ages they seem to occur
only in a late Celtic context.
On the dome-shaped amber studs
Filigree originally decorated each of the ive dome-shaped
amber studs, in two positions: (i) on lat discs, about 3.25 mm
in diameter, ixed to the apex of the studs, only two of which
survive today (Fig. 1b), and (ii) as a iligree collar circling the
base of the studs, the largest of which is approximately 7 mm
in diameter (Fig. 1d). Scrutiny in the British Museum revealed that these were secured in the following ways:
(i) In the case of the iligree on the tops of the amber studs,
the latter were drilled through their centres, and each gold disc
soldered to a hollow gold tube to make a mushroom-like unit.
his was then passed through the drilled hole, and the tube
splayed out at the lower end, anchoring the iligree-decorated
disc to the top of each stud (Fig. 1c). he gold tube can still be
seen, embedded in a stud that has lost its iligree disc (Fig. 1d).
Moreover, when another stud was removed from its socket,
scrutiny of the back revealed that only just over half the tube
is intact; the rest was carefully cut away by the goldsmith, who
must have had to use gold sparingly (Organ, 1964).
(ii) In the case of the iligree collars, the circumference of
the stud was enclosed in a ring of thin gold sheet: a decorative band of iligree wire is soldered around it (Fig. 1d).
When the studs were removed from their sockets, the gold
sheet could be seen to extend underneath each one, where it
had been nicked and bent back under the stud to hold the
sheet as a whole fast.
he amber studs in their entirety appear to have been
secured to the brooch itself by a rivet passing through a hole
in the loor of each stud socket.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 235-241
A third method was used to attach the little iligree panels
to the tops of the glass studs (Fig. 1b). Mavis Bimson of
the British Museum observed that on the lozenge-shaped
stud (maximum width: 12 mm), the glass slightly overlaps the iligree panel, particularly on the upper part of the
lozenge. his showed that the glass must have lowed into
this position. hus, the gold lozenge-shaped iligree panel
was placed on the stud when the glass was molten, and stuck
to it when it solidiied. his seems to have been the most
secure method of all of attaching the iligree panels to the
‘Tara’ brooch, because only on the tops of the glass studs has
all the original iligree survived.
3. ORNAMENTAL WIRES AND GRANULES
As Figures 4 and 5 show, many ornamental forms of iligree adorn the ‘Tara’ brooch. Individual plain round wires of
gold are not used decoratively. However, as indicated below,
individual strands are twisted together to form wire ropes.
hese strands are solid and helical marks occasionally appear,
suggesting that the round wire was made by block-twisting,
i.e. by twisting a gold strip of squarish or rectangular section
and then rolling it between two lat surfaces to produce a
smooth round-sectioned wire (Whitield, 1990: 14).
he following simple iligree forms are found:
(a) Beaded wire (Fig. 4a): All the beading is located at
right-angles to the long axis of the strand. Although there
are some laws, the beads normally follow each other in an
orderly succession and gaps between them are rare. hey are
generally regular in form, and a medial seam (äquatorschnitt)
is often present. All wires appear to have been hand-rolled
at right-angles under a rolling swage or ‘beading ile’. his
tool probably had a single groove lanked by teeth, like the
tool described by heophilus (Whitield, 1998: 62), but the
possibility of more grooves cannot be ruled out. A number
of beaded wires were measured across their broadest point.
hree, and possibly four, gauges seem to have been made
deliberately. In descending order, they have maximum diameters of approximately 0.35 mm, 0.25 mm, 0.2 mm, and
0.15 mm.
A few measurements were made of the number of beads
per ive divisions on the graticule, which equalled c. 0.9
mm. On the beaded wire measuring c. 0.25 mm in diameter there were approximately four beads per 0.9 mm, while
on the beaded wire of c. 0.15 mm in diameter there were
approximately six beads per 0.9 mm. his suggests that a
iner tool was used to bead the latter.
‘More like the work of fairies than of human beings’: the iligree on the ‘Tara’ brooch…
Figure 4: ‘Tara’ brooch: simple iligree forms (Drawing: Nick
Griiths).
Figure 4 : Fibule de « Tara » : Formes simples de iligrane. (Dessin:
Nick Griiths).
(b) Flattened beaded wire on edge: he scalloped ribbon
illustrated in Figure 4b is, in fact, beaded wire which was
hammered lat, and set on the edge in the manner described by heophilus (Whitield, 1998: 79). his is evident
because, when these wires are examined under the microscope, it is visible that the undulations on each side not only
match, but are also often linked by tiny transverse lines
representing the breaks between each bead. his produces a
very narrow upper surface, in this case of the order of 0.10.15 mm wide.
(c) Twisted ribbon (Fig. 4c): his consists of a lat strip
of gold that has been twisted by securing at one end and
turning the other. he torsion is often uneven. he ribbons
themselves were not measured, but they are all similarly narrow. Where measured, the thickness of the ribbon was found
to be just under 0.1 mm, and the width of the twisted strand
as a whole c. 2.5mm.
(d) 2-ply twisted wire rope (Fig. 4d) (sometimes known as
‘rope-twist’ or ‘twined wires’), made by twisting two round
wires together, either to the right or to the left. he torsion
is fairly even. On some panels the individual round wires
were found to be c. 0.17-0.2 mm in diameter; on others c.
0. 12 mm.
(e) 2-ply twisted beaded wire rope (Fig. 4e), made by twisting two beaded wires together in the manner described
above. hese wires were not measured, but the inest beaded
wires seem to have been used, probably with a diameter of
the order of 0.15 mm.
239
(f ) 3-ply twisted wire ropes (Fig. 4f ), a variation of (d)
made by twisting three, rather than two, plain round wires
to produce a thicker cord. No measurements were recorded.
(g) 3-ply twisted beaded wire rope (Fig. 4g), a variant of
(e) made by twisting three, rather than two, beaded wires
together. he individual beaded wires appear to be of very
ine gauge, but were not measured.
(h) Granules (Fig. 4h), i.e. minute spheres formed when
small chips of gold are melted, and upon cooling coalesce
naturally into minuscule spheres which retain their shape.
Some variations in granule size can be seen with the naked
eye. Diameters of c. 0.15, 0.25, 0.35 and 0.45 mm were he
following forms occur.
Not only are there a large number of simple iligree forms
on the ‘Tara’ brooch, but a range of stock combinations of
various types also occur, as Figure 5 shows. Sometimes wires
and/or a granule are juxtaposed; alternatively, one wire is
placed on top of another; at other times yet, wires are coiled.
as follows:
he imitation plait (Fig. 5a) (sometimes also known as a
‘herring-bone’), formed by neatly paired 2-ply wire ropes,
one twisted to the right, the other to the left, so as to form
a succession of ‘V’ patterns along its length and create the
illusion of plaiting. he illusion depends on extraordinary
precision, particularly as the individual round wires which
form the components of the ‘ropes’ may measure only c.
0.15 mm in diameter.
he 3-strand band has a thicker central and iner lanking
strands of beaded wire, in this case measuring c. 0.25 and
0.15 mm in diameter, respectively. Figure 6b shows a similar
arrangement but with a iner central wire. he individual
Figure 5: ‘Tara’ brooch: combined iligree forms (Drawing: Nick
Griiths).
Figure 5 : Fibule de « Tara » : Formes combinées de iligrane. (Dessin:
Nick Griiths).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 235-241
240
wires are sometimes of diferent lengths and were not cut
as a band. hey may have been soldered separately to the
back-plate.
he herring-bone band (Fig. 5c), which builds on the imitation plait by adding a beaded wire to either edge.
he herring-bone band with spine (Fig. 5d), a variant on
the above formed by placing a wire between the individual
wire ropes in the middle of the band.
One beaded wire on top of another (Fig. 5e). It seems that
the two wires were soldered together before being mounted
on the back-plate, because they appear to have been cut in
one piece. he two wires appear to be of about the same
gauge; the upper one is c. 0.25 mm in diameter.
A beaded wire on a ribbon on edge (Fig. 5f ), a variant on
the theme described above at (e): the uppermost beaded wire
is soldered onto a lat ribbon of gold set on edge, the two
components being again probably soldered together before
being mounted on the back-plate. he beaded wire has a
diameter of the order of 0.15-0.2 mm. he height of the
ribbon was not measured, but it is relatively broad from
edge to edge, so that this particular combination creates an
efect comparable to empty cloisonné cells. However, study
in the British Museum established that the ‘cells’ between
the wires were not inilled.
A conical spiral (Fig. 5g) formed of a beehive-shaped cone
of beaded wire capped by a granule. It is diicult to see how
many wires are involved, but similar cones on the Ardagh
chalice were made by coiling up a pair of beaded wires
(Organ, 1973: 258, pl. 41).
A collared granule (Fig. 5h), which consists of a single granule enclosed in a ring of beaded wire, to form a dot and
ring.
None of the individual forms and combinations listed
above is unique to the ‘Tara’ brooch: all are part of the stockin-trade of the late Celtic goldsmiths. hree compound
forms (one beaded wire on top of another; a beaded wire on
a ribbon on edge; and the conical spiral) seem to be Celtic
innovations, but all the other forms have longer pedigrees,
some originating in the Classical world (Whitield, 1987;
2007).
Nevertheless, the ‘Tara’ brooch iligree has a very distinctive character. As shown above, it is remarkable for the sheer
number and diversity of its components, and for the extreme
delicacy of the wire. Not only is the wire extremely ine, but
also the panels themselves are very small. his aspect can be
illustrated by making reference to Figure 2, which shows
four panels photographed together. he two long narrow
panels at the top are just 4 mm wide. he panel beneath,
which is the largest on the brooch, has a maximum width
of 12 mm, and a chord of 20 mm along its curved side. he
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 235-241
Niamh WHITFIELD
lowest panel is 14 mm high and has a maximum width of 8
mm. Yet, these minute panels are ornamented with a wide
range of types of iligree.
here is order among all these features. he front of the
‘Tara’ brooch is sub-divided into diferent zones of ornament (Fig. 1), and, technically, whatever the type of pattern displayed, the panels in each zone are treated as a unit.
However, within these constraints, the goldsmith managed
to avoid repeating himself to an extraordinary degree, and
to create many variations on simple themes.
Beaded wire is always used to ‘draw’ the motif in the panel
centres, but diferent variants of it appear in the diferent
ornamental zones. To take Figure 2 as an example, the top
two panels are from the side-compartments on the brooch
(Fig. 1b). he motifs there difer, but each is outlined by a
lattened beaded wire on edge, as on all other panels in this
zone. Here, the choice of wire imposes order, even if the patterns display diversity. In contrast, the outline of the interlaced animal in the sub-trapezoidal panel below (from the
body of the brooch, Fig. 1b) is ‘drawn’ by one beaded wire
on top of another. On the other hand, the other interlaced
animal at the bottom of this photograph (which is from the
centre of the pin-head, Fig. 1a) is outlined by a beaded wire
on a ribbon on edge. Yet another variant is used to ‘draw’
the interlace on the hoop: a 3-strand band of beaded wire
(not illustrated). It is remarkable that nowhere on the ‘Tara’
brooch is simple beaded wire alone used to draw a pattern.
Simple beaded wire is reserved for panel borders, where
it may be juxtaposed with twisted ribbon and twisted wire
ropes of various types. hese borders show a similar virtuoso
spirit. A particular ploy was to juxtapose twisted ribbon with
twisted wire ropes, plain or beaded, 2-ply or 3-ply, to form
a patterning reminiscent of the more traditional ‘imitation
plait’. Given the diferent nature of the strands, however, the
resultant ‘plait’ is slightly ‘of-key’, as the juxtaposed twists
fail to match up exactly.
he length to which the goldsmith was sometimes prepared to go in order to vary the efect is evident from a
comparison between the two panels with animal ornament
in Figure 2. On the body of the brooch (Figs. 1b, 2), the
border is composed of an outer 3-ply beaded twisted wire
rope, inside which is a, far iner, twisted ribbon (Fig. 2).
he animal’s outline, ‘drawn’ by one beaded wire on top of
another, is inilled with opposed 2-ply twisted plain wire
ropes, separated from each other by a beaded wire spine, but
where the body expands there are also granules and short
strands of twisted ribbon. he shoulder and hip are each
emphasised by a beaded wire cone, while other focal points,
including the eye, are marked by granules. It is diicult to
identify the particular forms of iligree on this panel without
‘More like the work of fairies than of human beings’: the iligree on the ‘Tara’ brooch…
magniication, but the diverse elements have the efect of
creating considerable glitter.
On the panel with an animal ornament on the pin-head
(Figs. 1a, 2), on the other hand, the iligree is relatively
sparse: there is a single-wire border of twisted beaded wire
rope; the animal is outlined by a beaded wire on a ribbon
on edge, and there are granules on focal points. Scrutiny
of the border, however, reveals a very subtle detail: 2-ply
twisted beaded wire rope is used for most of its length. At
this point, the smith drew attention to the animal’s head
by replacing the 2-ply rope with a short length of thicker,
3-ply beaded rope.
hese examples must suice for showing how ingenious
and delicate is the iligree on the ‘Tara’ brooch. Not only
is the work carried out on a minute scale, it is also so exact
that it can be greatly magniied without revealing laws in
manufacture. his is no doubt one of the reasons why when
the ‘Tara’ brooch was displayed in London in 1863, one of
the Castellani brothers remarked that it had been “worth a
journey from Italy to see it” (Waterhouse et al., 1897), and
why a contemporary commentator in the London Times
remarked that it was “more like the work of fairies than of
human beings” (O’Neill, 1863: 54).
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Éamonn Kelly and other staf of the National
Museum of Ireland for facilitating the examination of the ‘Tara’
brooch; to Robert Organ for giving me the text of his unpublished lecture; to Susan La Niece for locating photographs in
the British Museum, and to Claudio Mari and Ivor Kerslake
for digitizing them; and to Barbara Armbruster for other help.
241
References
O’NEILL, H., 1863. he ine arts and civilization of ancient Ireland.
Dublin, George Herbert.
ORGAN, R., 1964. Text of a lecture on the ‘Tara’ brooch given
to the UK Group of IIC on 28 May 1964. Department of
Conservation and Scientiic Research, he British Museum.
Unpublished.
ORGAN, R., 1973. Examination of the Ardagh Chalice – A
Case History, in W.J. Young (ed.), Application of Science in
Examination of Works of Art. Proceedings of the Seminar: June
15-19, 1970. Boston, Massachusetts, Research Laboratory,
Museum of Fine Arts, 238-271.
STEVENSON, R.B.K., 1974. he Hunterston brooch and its signiicance. Medieval Archaeology 18: 16-42.
STEVENSON, R.B.K., 1989. he Celtic brooch from Westness,
Orkney, and hinged pins. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society
of Scotland 119: 469-477.
UNTRACHT, O., 1982. Jewelry concepts and technology. London,
Robert Hale.
WATERHOUSE and Co, 1852. Ornamental Irish Antiquities. Irish
Antique Brooches. Dublin, Waterhouse & Co.
WATERHOUSE and Co, 1897. Letter dated 3 December 1897 to
Daily Irish Independent.
WERNER, A., Unpublished. Text of an undated lecture on the ‘Tara’
brooch and Ardagh chalice. Department of Conservation and
Scientiic Research, he British Museum.
WHITFIELD, N., 1987. Motifs and Techniques of Celtic Filigree:
Are they Original? in M. Ryan (ed.), Ireland and Insular Art
AD 500-1200. Dublin, Royal Irish Academy, 75-84.
WHITFIELD, N., 1990. Round wire in the early Middle Ages.
Jewellery Studies 4: 13-28.
WHITFIELD, N., 1998. he manufacture of ancient beaded wire:
experiments and observations. Jewellery Studies 8: 57-86.
WHITFIELD, N., 2007. Motifs and Techniques of Early Medieval
Celtic iligree: their Ultimate Origins, in R. Moss (ed.), Making
and Meaning. Dublin, he Four Courts Press, 18-39.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 235-241
From the goldsmith’s point of view: gilding
on metals during the first millennium AD –
techniques and their development
in the Germanic area
Du point de vue de l’orfèvre : dorure sur métal au premier millénaire apr. J.-C. –
les techniques et leur évolution dans l’aire germanique
Iris Aufderhaar *
Abstract: During the irst millennium AD, gilding was of great importance for the decoration of ornaments in the Germanic area. With respect
to archaeological inds, the diferent techniques used to produce them are hard to distinguish without scientiic investigations. Nevertheless, it
is possible to put forth some hypotheses regarding these methods on the basis of the analyses carried out so far, and the observation of typical
attributes, like workmanship and choice of material.
he gilding techniques used for some ibulae and brooches are analysed exemplarily, and discussed together with the advantages and disadvantages
related to their speciic attributes, and changes in their technique and design during the irst millennium AD. In addition, the supply of raw
materials and the correlations between gold imports into the Germanic area and the amount of gilded material are discussed.
Résumé : La dorure était une technique majeure de décoration d’ornements dans l’aire germanique au premier millénaire AD. Les diverses techniques
employées dans la production des trouvailles archéologiques sont diiciles à diférencier sans une étude scientiique. Néanmoins, il est possible d’avancer
quelques hypothèses sur ces techniques, en se basant sur des analyses réalisées jusqu’à présent et l’observation de caractéristiques précises comme l’exécution
et le choix du matériel.
Les techniques de dorure utilisées dans la fabrication de ibules et broches pendant le premier millénaire AD sont ici analysées et discutées, en ce qui
concerne les avantages et désavantages correspondant à leurs caractéristiques spéciiques et aux changements techniques et stylistiques. En plus, les approvisionnements en matière première et les corrélations entre les importations d’or dans l’aire germanique, ainsi que la quantité de matériel doré, sont discutés.
Keywords: Gilding, gold work, brooch, Roman Iron Age, Migration Period, Merovingian Period.
Mots-clés : Dorure, travail de l’or, broche, Âge du Bronze romain, Migrations, Mérovingien.
* Niedersächsisches Institut für historische Küstenforschung, Lower Saxony Institute for Historical Coastal Research – Viktoriastraße 26-28, 26382
Wilhelmshaven, Germany. (aufderhaar@nihk.de)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 243-253
244
1. INTRODUCTION
During the irst millennium AD, gilding was of great
importance for the decoration of ornaments in the Germanic
area. he difusion bonding method was veriied on several items from the Late Roman Iron Age in Germany and
Norway (Becker, 2002a; b; Becker et al., 1996a; b; 1998;
von Carnap-Bornheim, 2006: 91; Füting, 2001; Plather et
al., 1995; Plather and Siemensen, 2002) around the middle
of the 1990s, and represented an addition to the three gilding techniques that were known for the Germanic area until
that date: plating, leaf gilding, and ire gilding.
In most of the goldsmith workshops in existence today,
those ancient techniques were replaced by electro-gilding;
however, some of them, like ire gilding, are carried out on
rare occasions. Leaf gilding is mainly used for the decoration
of non-metallic items.
With respect to archaeological inds, the diferent techniques used to produce them are diicult to distinguish
without scientiic investigations. Nevertheless, it is possible
to put forth some hypotheses regarding these methods on
the basis of the analysis carried out so far, and the observation of typical attributes, like workmanship, as well as the
choice and thickness of the material.
2. GILDING TECHNIQUES
he term ‘plating’ is used for a variety of techniques having in common a feature in which the gold foil is ixed
mechanically to a substructure by langing or punch marks,
as well as by gluing it to the base (Fig. 1). Some disadvantages of these techniques are the weak connection between
the components, which cannot prevent a corrosion of the
base, and the high quantity of gold required by the comparably thick foils (von Carnap-Bornheim, 2006: 89f; Ebert,
1929: 131; Hammer, 1998: 190; Hammer and Voß, 1998:
325; Oddy, 1993: 172f ).
In contrast, the advantage of leaf gilding is the relatively
small and easily measurable amount of gold required. On
archaeological objects, the gold foils that were attached to a
substructure coated with glue (Fig. 1) and considered as gold
leafs were only up to 6 μm thick (von Carnap-Bornheim,
2006: 88f; Hammer, 1998: 190f; Hammer and Voß, 1998:
315). On objects like ornaments, whose surface is frequently
touched, a thin coating and a bond based on glue are less
suitable because they can be easily removed (Aufderhaar,
2005: 8).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 243-253
Iris AUFDERHAAR
he difusion bonding method (Fig. 1) is based on the
natural difusion process of atoms, which can be accelerated by heating at a temperature of about 300 °C. A thin
difusion layer is formed between two metal surfaces that
are in close contact, causing a bond that provides a long
lasting and even gilding of high quality and with good
resistance to corrosion. A detailed description of the gilding
process is included in the book De Diversis Artibus, written in the 12th century AD by the monk and goldsmith
heophilius Presbyter (Brepohl, 1987: 236): after gilding
had already been executed on thicker material, the gilded silver plate was hammered to foil and embossed (von CarnapBornheim, 2006: 91; Hammer, 1998: 189f; Hammer and
Voß, 1998: 316f; Oddy et al., 1981: 240; Riederer, 1987:
90). According to the description, this technique is mainly
suitable for the gilding of foils, but hardly for objects that
are already produced in a certain shape, like cast items
(Becker et al., 1996b: 58f ), or for objects with deeply proiled surfaces, where the gold foils can hardly be attached
neatly enough, as well as for gilding copper alloys, because
the quick oxidation of copper exposed to heat prevents the
development of a difusion layer (Anheuser, 1999: 8). With
coatings between 8 and 20 μm as detected on archaeological objects, this method requires a slightly higher quantity
of gold than leaf gilding (Becker, 2002a: 29; Becker, 2002b;
Hammer, 1998: 191f ). In addition to this repeated heating,
other procedures, such as annealing processes or soldering,
can lead to the inishing of the gilding on silver.
he process of ire gilding is also based on the difusion of
metal atoms. In this case, gold and mercury are mixed into
an amalgam which is distributed evenly on the surface of
the object (Fig. 1). he mercury in the amalgam supports
and accelerates the difusion between substructure and coating; it evaporates from the coating at temperatures between
250 and 350 °C, leaving only a very small but characteristic amount of mercury of 5 to 25% in the gold coating
(Anheuser, 1999: 34; Auleger, 1996: 628; Brepohl, 1987:
111; 2003: 401f; Bühler, 1998/1999: 443f; von CarnapBornheim, 2006: 90f; Hammer, 1998: 192f; Hammer and
Voß, 1998: 325; Lins and Oddy, 1975: 370; Roth, 1986:
54f). On the basis of the amalgam paste, ire gilding is
not only suitable for copper alloys, but also for items with
deeply proiled and uneven surfaces, as well as cast objects
(Becker et al., 1998: 207f ). In addition to the comparably
high quantity of gold required, due to coatings with a thickness of up to 100 μm (Hammer, 1998: 191, 193), the other
main disadvantage of this technique results from the use of
mercury: to date, there is no archaeological or historical evidence that the cinnabar deposits in the Germanic area were
exploited for the distillation of mercury before the Middle
From the goldsmith’s point of view: gilding on metals during the irst millennium AD…
245
Figure 1: Schematic illustration of gilding techniques: plating, leaf gilding, difusion bonding and ire gilding (von Carnap-Bornheim,
2006, Fig. 1).
Figure 1 : Illustration schématique des techniques de dorure: placage, dorure à la feuille, mise en couleur et dorure à l’amalgame (von CarnapBornheim, 2006, Fig. 1).
Ages (Anheuser, 1999: 17; Weisgerber, 2003: 10; 2007). It
can also be assumed that another possibility to obtain mercury was trade, for example with the Roman Empire (Becker
et al., 1998: 208f ), and later on with the Byzantine Realm.
As mercury was not an easily obtainable raw material, the
idea that gilders were searching for an adequate replacement
seems reasonable. Several arguments can be mentioned arguing against the theory developed by B. Arrhenius (1964:
38f; Arrhenius et al., 1968: 236; von Carnap-Bornheim,
1994: 101), that during the Vendel and Viking Ages, resin
instead of mercury was used for ire gilding: resin chars
during heating and would rather prevent a difusion of the
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 243-253
246
gold into the substructure than support it; additionally, the
advantage of mercury in lowering the melting point would
be lost (Anheuser, 1999: 16). Resin would be more likely it
for gluing gold onto an object.
At irst sight, the method entailing the replacement of
mercury with lead in ire gilding seems more practicable,
as proposed by A. Oldeberg (1966: 187). A similar description is preserved in the Leyden Papyrus X, a collection of
receipes from the 3rd or 4th century AD (Raub, 1993: 104):
gold and lead are ground together, mixed with gum serving as
an adhesive, and distributed on the object to be gilded (Caley,
1926: 1156, here referred to as receipe 38; Halleux, 2002: 94,
here referred to as receipe 37). According to the translation
by E.R. Caley (1926: 1156), the lead was supposed to be
consumed by heat, and thus evaporate, like mercury. As the
boiling point of lead at 1750 °C is considerably higher than
the melting point of gold (1057 °C) or those of materials like
silver (950 °C) or coppee (1084 °C), a vaporization of the
lead is not feasible (Aufderhaar, 2009: 33f; discussion with S.
Greif, RGZM). Since some receipes of the Papyrus Leyden X
contain inaccurate descriptions, K. Anheuser (1999: 20f) put
forth the hypothesis that the papyrus relies on the knowledge
of craftsmen, but that the writer himself was most likely not
one of them. Based on Caley’s translation, C. Raub pointed
out that it was not obvious if metallic lead was meant, and
proposed that probably yellow lead oxide (PbO) may have
been used to dilute the gold particles and stick them to the
object. As a variation, he considered that by heating the mixture of metallic lead and gold in an oxidising manner up to
temperatures of more than 800 °C, the lead would not alloy
with the copper but oxidise to PbO, lux the copper oxides
and accordingly enable a difusion of the gold (Raub, 1993:
104; see also von Lippmann 1919: 7).
R. Halleux (2002: 94) provided a new translation and
another interpretation of the Leyden Papyrus X: according
to it, the lead was not consumed by the heat, but liqueied.
As the melting point of lead at 327 °C is considerably lower
than the one of gold, the lead was most likely meant to serve
as a soft solder ixing a supericial gold layer to the copper
object (Halleux, 2002: 174-175, remark 7). Gold and lead
do not alloy but build up diferent intermetallic compounds
inluenced by the amount of lead in the mixture (Brepohl,
1987: 99f; 2003: 29, 75; Wolters, 1981: 49).
3. THE DEVELOPMENT OF GILDING ANALYSED
ON THE EXAMPLE OF BROOCHES
In addition to their practical function, fibulae and
brooches also represented decorative elements of the garb,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 243-253
Iris AUFDERHAAR
and therefore frequently became subject to decorations.
his aspect makes them especially suitable for an exemplary
analysis of changes in the technique and design of gilding.
Furthermore, ibulae and brooches are types of ornaments
presenting the greatest continuity, and are preserved in large
numbers and numerous variations throughout the irst
millennium AD. Indeed, an analysis on the development
of gilding can only be carried out exemplarily due to the
huge amount of gilded material from this period; however,
the number of ibulae that can be presented in this article is
limited. he brooches discussed in this article are considered
to be representative for groups of ornaments featuring the
same characteristics in terms of their manufacturing process,
type of decoration and choice of material.
In period B2 (Eggers, 1974) of the early Roman Iron
Age, the predominant method of gilding was plating with
gold sheets that were mechanically ixed to the object. One
example of this is gold plating covering silver iligree: the
embossed marks of the iligree work are reminiscent of
decorations with gold wire known from some ibulae from
period B1 (Eggers, 1974). Plated iligree is therefore a comprehensive decoration necessitating a lesser amount of gold
(von Carnap-Bornheim, 1998: 467f; 2006: 90). Some
specimens belonging to ibulae of the Almgren types 27 to
30 (Almgren, 1973), found mainly in Jutland, Denmark,
bear small scale stamped gold foil inlays (Cosack, 1979:
49f, 98f; Nørling-Christensen, 1942). he evidence that a
centre point was used for drilling the sockets for those inlays
on a ibula from Quern-Scheersberg, Schleswig-Holstein,
Germany (Fig. 2), and the decoration of the triangular inlays
with ir branch-shaped punch marks indicate some technical
inluences from the Roman provinces (Bölckow, 2006: 66;
Cosack, 1979: 49f ).
During the late Roman Iron Age, the type of decoration
with stamped foils was continued. he important innovation was the use of gilded silver sheets that were ixed to the
substructure of the given ornament. he advantage of this
technique was that it required a smaller amount of gold.
A polychrome design was achieved by various combinations
of methods, and decorations range from simple collars of
gilded foil attached to the bow of a ibula, like on an example
from the 3rd century burial in Gommern, Saxony-Anhalt,
Germany (Becker, 2001: 131f ), to rather complex combinations of gilded foils, silver elements such as small rivets,
and rims and glass inlays, like on the Scandinavian rosette
brooches (Almgren, 1973: group VII), or on brooches of
type Mackeprang IX (Eggers, 1964: 37f; Ethelberg, 2000:
51f; Lund Hansen, 1971; Lund Hansen et al., 1995: 212f ).
Difusion bonding was scientiically identiied as a gilding
technique on the foil collar of the ibula from the Gommern
From the goldsmith’s point of view: gilding on metals during the irst millennium AD…
247
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Silver ibula with gold inlays and plated iligree work from Quern-Scheersberg, Schleswig-Holstein,
Germany (Bölckow, 2006: 67).
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Fibule en argent avec des inclusions
d’or et du iligrané plaqué, de Quern-Scheersberg, Schleswig-Holstein,
Allemagne (Bölckow, 2006: 67).
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Disc brooch from Tangendorf, Lower
Saxony, Germany (Brandt, 2006: 71).
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Broche discoïde de Tangendorf, Basse
Saxonie, Allemagne (Brandt, 2006: 71).
burial (Becker, 2002a; b; Becker et al., 1996a; b; 1998),
and on the fragments of two rosette brooches from Norway:
the bonding was achieved by hammering the gold foil to
the silver plate and subsequently heating both components.
On two other Norwegian rosette brooches, evidence that
the bonding was supported by a copper-bearing solder was
found (Plather et al., 1995: 12f; Plather and Simensen,
2002: 547f).
he design of the disc brooches follows the same principles, using gilded and stamped silver foils, silver elements,
and sometimes glass inlays. Since difusion bonding had
already been carried out before hammering the metal, the
foils must have been stamped after the gilding, but some
of the disc brooches show traces of a ire gilded surface.
he production of chased foil, like on the disc brooch from
Tangendorf, Lower Saxony, Germany (Fig. 3), with its elaborate representation of a deer (Brandt, 2006: 70; Drescher,
1955: 25f), or other intensely curved foils, like on tutulus
shaped brooches (Adomat, 2000: 411f; Eichhorn, 1908:
903f; Ethelberg, 2000: 312f; homas, 1966: 103) requires
repeated annealing processes, as the distortion of precious
metals through techniques such as hammering or embossing
has to take place in a cold state. During such procedures,
the crystal structure is forced into an unnatural condition;
the metal hardens and can break under further distortion.
In order to prevent this, precious metals are annealed after
certain stages of distortion to achieve a re-crystallization of
the structure and to regain their lexibility. he annealing
process requires a minimal temperature of 200 °C, but can
also be carried out at higher temperatures (Brepohl, 2003:
184f; Wolters, 1981: 26f ). Silver that is already gilded
would easily fade if heated several times. It is reasonable to
assume therefore that the respective foils were gilded after
curving by the technique of ire gilding. Scientiic evidence
that ire gilding was carried out during the Late Roman Iron
Age was detected on the top of a silver shield boss from
the aforementioned Gommern burial (Anheuser, 1999: 16;
Becker et al., 1998: 207, 209; Bühler, 1998/1999: 444). he
same argumentation is valid for gilded foils soldered to the
substructure of the brooches.
From the times at the end of the Roman Iron Age and the
Migration Period, several types of brooches are preserved
that display gilding applied to more massive material, and
in combination with several new decorative techniques, as
for example on the silver bow brooches of the Wiesbaden
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 243-253
248
Iris AUFDERHAAR
type from the period between the end of the 4th and the
early 5th century AD (Fig. 4), which are mainly distributed throughout the Middle Rhine Area. he decorations of
those ibulae, carried out in niello and with punch marks as
well as motifs like beaded string, are reminiscent of objects
manufactured in the nearby Roman provinces during the
late Roman Iron Age. hose objects can be considered as
models for the decorations of the ibulae in terms of technique and ornamentation, as was already pointed out by
Joachim Werner (1981). Mercury contents detected by
spectral analysis on a closely related ibula from GroßKöris, Brandenburg, Germany (Fig. 5) support this thesis:
ire gilding was carried out both on the thicker material
of the foot, itself decorated by chip-carving, but also on
silver foils mechanically attached to the bow of the ibula
(Franke, 1987: 237f; Gustavs, 1987: 215f; Voß et al.,
1998). Mercury contents on the surface of a gilded silver
ibula from a grave ind on the farm of Roligheten, Norway,
represent yet another evidence of ire gilding during this
period (Plather and Simensen, 2002: 548, 555).
Massive cast items gilded directly on their copper based
alloys are found among the Saxon and Anglo-Saxon equal
arm brooches and disc brooches, which are also decorated
with elements deriving from the Roman provinces, like the
Figure 5: (See colour plate) Fibula decorated with chip-carving technique
from Gross-Köris, Brandenburg, Germany (Voß et al., 1998: pl. 65b).
Figure 5 : (Voir planche couleur) Fibule décorée au moyen de la technique de chip-carving, de Gross-Köris, Brandebourg, Allemagne (Voß
et al., 1998: pl. 65b).
Figure 4: Fibulae of the Wiesbaden-type. Fibula from Wiesbaden,
Hesse, Germany, decorated with niello inlays and punch marks,
and ibula from Wulfen, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, decorated with
beaded string imitation (Werner, 1981: attachment 2, Figs. 15
and 1).
Figure 4 : Fibules de type Wiesbaden. Fibule de Wiesbaden, Hesse,
Allemagne, décorée avec des inclusions de niello et marques de poinçonnage, Fibule de Wulfen, Saxonie-Anhalt, Allemagne, décorée avec
des imitations de cordons perlés (Werner, 1981: document joint 2,
Fig. 15 et 1).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 243-253
egg and dart motif (Böhme, 1974: 14f, 220; Bruns, 2003:
32, 57f; Haselhof, 1979: 153f; Kühn, 1981: 64f ). he
only possible method for obtaining a durable gilding of
those alloys is ire gilding.
Fire gilding was clearly established as the main gilding
technique when the Germanic goldsmiths started to produce ornaments of more massive materials, like silver plate,
or by casting of copper based alloys. hese profound changes
occurred together with the adoption of several techniques
and decorative styles from metal objects manufactured in
the Roman provinces during the end of the Roman Iron
Age.
During the Migration and Merovingian Periods, the
combination of decorative techniques (niello, chip-carving
and ire gilding) on brooches cast of silver or copper alloy
became a regular pattern for the decoration of the bow ibulae (Göldner, 1987; Koch, 1998).
In contrast, a unique phenomenon in the gilding of
brooches during the irst millennium AD is veriied on some
From the goldsmith’s point of view: gilding on metals during the irst millennium AD…
samples of small garnet brooches from the period between the
end of the 5th and the beginning of the 6th century AD: while
made of iron, the brooches were gilded by mechanically ixed
gold or gilded silver sheets (Vielitz, 2003: 20f, 162, 165,
207). Clearly, the technically challenging operation of ire gilding on iron, which requires a preliminary copper plating of
the iron surface (Anheuser, 1999: 22; Hammer, 1998: 198),
was not known or at least not carried out before then.
Gilded embossed foils were not abandoned as decorative elements, but were frequently used on disc brooches
throughout the Migration and Merovingian Periods.
While disc brooches bearing sockets or iligree decorations
(Rademacher, 1940; hieme, 1978) soldered to the foil, or
brooches bearing copper alloy foils, must have been to be
ire gilded, some of the disc brooches bearing stamped silver foils (Klein-Pfeufer, 1993) could also have been gilded
by difusion bonding. To date, no analysis was carried out
on those brooches, but a hint that the difusion bonding
method was not at all forgotten by the end of the Roman
Iron Age is the detailed description provided in the 12th
century AD by heophilius Presbyter (Brepohl, 1987: 236).
he number of gilded pieces among brooches increased
considerably until the 6th century AD, and gilding of
brooches was common during the Merovingian Period
(Göldner, 1987; Koch, 1998; Kühn, 1981). From the end
of the Merovingian Period onward, a clear decline in the
amount of gilded material can be observed, which continued, at least on the continent, throughout the Carolingian
Period. his development can be exempliied by the equal
arm brooches manufactured between the beginning of the
7th century AD and the Carolingian Period: only approximately 2% of the material was gilded (hörle, 1998: 106f;
2001: 1, 5, 13, 309). Only very few gilded brooches are preserved from the Carolingian Period, and most of them are
quite small objects, like bird shaped brooches or brooches
with enamel inlays (Frick, 1992/1993; Haselhof, 1990).
In Viking Age Scandinavia, the situation was quite different. A signiicantly higher number of brooches, like disc
brooches (Jansson, 1984a; b) and oval brooches (Jansson,
1985), mainly made of copper based alloys, were gilded.
After carrying out microscopic analysis on oval brooches,
A. Oldeberg (1943: 270f; 1966: 186f ) postulated that both
leaf gilding and ire gilding were employed in their making.
he diferences in the use and frequency of gilding during
this period may have several reasons. In the Carolingian
Empire, a signiicant number of brooches were made of tin or
lead, metals not appropriate for ire gilding (Frick, 1992/1993).
Furthermore, Viking Age Scandinavia also had the advantage of
being able to purchase mercury because of its trade connections
with the Byzantine Realm and Arabian countries.
249
4. THE SUPPLY OF GOLD
To date, there is only limited evidence regarding gold
extraction in the Germanic area during the irst millennium AD (Andersson, 1995: 11; Siegmund, 1998: 308).
he only indications concerning placer gold mining in the
Upper Rhine Area are the distinctive platinum and silver
contents detected on gold objects from the Merovingian
Period (Hartmann and Wolf, 1975: 23ff ). Therefore,
imports from the Roman Empire, and later from the East
Roman and Byzantine Realm, are commonly considered to
represent the source of the gold used in the Germanic area
(Andersson, 1995: 11; Siegmund, 1998: 308). Nevertheless,
evidence of gold imports is not readily available. In spite
of this, there are some indications that the gold imports
correspond quite well with the amount of gilded material.
he irst few gilded objects were from period B2 (Eggers,
1974) of the early Roman Iron Age, corresponding to a irst
increase of the gold imports into the Germanic area, which,
after a brief caesura, continued during the Late Roman Iron
Age (Andersson, 1995: 10; Roggenbuck, 1988: 55, 61). It
is not evident in which form the gold was imported. F.
Siegmund (1998: 308) suggests that imported gold coins
served as raw material. His argument is supported by the
inding of gold coins at the workshop site of Helgö, Sweden,
bearing marks which may originate from testing the gold
contents (Kyhlberg, 1986: 30).
In Denmark and Sweden, the amount of imported gold
coins in deposits indicates an increasing import, which was
interrupted after reaching its peak during the 5th and 6th centuries AD (Jørgensen and Vang Petersen, 1998: 279; Lund
Hansen, 1987: 231). A shortage of precious metals from the
middle of the 6th century AD onwards becomes apparent in
the Frankish Realm as well, as golden ornaments became
scarce in Middle and Northern Europe (Siegmund, 1998:
212). In addition, examinations carried out by J.P.C. Kent
(1972: 70f) on Merovingian gold coins indicate a reduction
of the gold contents from 90-100% down to 30% during
the period between the end of the 6th and the beginning
of the 7th century AD. hey were inally replaced by silver
coins at the end of the 7th century AD. he considerable
decrease of gilded objects from the 7th century AD onwards
follows this tendency, showing however a certain delay. For
Viking Age Scandinavia, an increase in gold imports can be
observed from the amount of gold ornaments and deposits
(Jørgensen and Vang Petersen, 1998: 286), which once again
corresponds to the amount of gilded material.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 243-253
250
5. CONCLUSIONS
Addressing the reasons for the development of gilding
techniques, it can be assumed that the shift from plating
to difusion bonding was most likely caused by an efort to
save gold. Nevertheless, this argument is not appropriate for
explaining the success of ire gilding, because in that case the
gold layer is considerably thicker than those produced by
difusion bonding. In addition to this, ire gilding required
not only gold, but also mercury, as raw material. he success
of the ire gilding method is therefore most likely related to
its more comprehensive applicability, associated with a high
quality of the gilding. It represented the best technique for
gilding massive or deeply proiled objects, and pieces made
of copper alloys. Nevertheless, it is premature to set a limit
for the difusion bonding method to the Roman Iron Age.
he development of gilding was inluenced by several factors. he coherence of gilded material with the amount of
gold available in the Germanic territories is noticeable. One
other inluence was related to developments in the manufacturing of jewellery. his meant that the technique that was
most suitable for a given type of ornament was used more
frequently. During the early Roman Iron Age, the use of
gilded and stamped silver foils enabled a production of a larger amount of similar decorative elements without a considerably higher use of gold (von Carnap-Bornheim, 2006:
92.). he ire gilding method opened up new possibilities
for the mass production of gilded ornaments, because it was
suitable for gilding cast objects. Inluences from the Roman
Empire were most likely another factor having an impact
on further developments: evidently, changes in gilding
techniques occurred contemporarily with new decorative
techniques and styles deriving from the Roman Provinces
(Aufderhaar, 2005: 122f).
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ROTH, H., 1986. Kunst und Handwerk im frühen Mittelalter.
Archäologische Zeugnisse von Childerich I. bis zu Karl dem
Großen. Stuttgart, heiss.
SIEGMUND, F., 1998. Gold. Reallexikon der Germanischen
Altertumskunde 12. Berlin and New York, De Gruyter, 308312.
From the goldsmith’s point of view: gilding on metals during the irst millennium AD…
THIEME, B., 1978. Filigranscheibenibeln der Merowingerzeit aus
Deutschland. Bericht der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission
59: 381-500.
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Bügelibeln im westlichen Frankenreich. Acta Praehistorica et
Archaeologica 30: 106-112.
THÖRLE, S., 2001. Gleicharmige Bügelibeln des frühen Mittelalters.
Universitätsforschungen zur prähistorischen Archäologie 81.
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Römischen Kaiserzeit im freien Germanien. Berliner Jahrbuch
für Vor- und Frühgeschichte 6: 1-187.
VIELITZ, K., 2003. Die Granatscheibenibeln der Merowingerzeit.
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germanische Bunt und Edelmetallfunde im Vergleich. Bericht
der Römisch-Germanischen Kommission 79: 107-382.
253
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Altertumskunde 24. Berlin and New York, De Gruyter, 9-11.
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WERNER, J., 1981. Zu einer elbgermanischen Fibel des 5.
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ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 243-253
Gold foil covering of the handle of an iron knife from
burial 2 of the Hunnic Period cemetery at Mukhino,
in the Upper Don area
L’ornement en or du manche d’un poignard en fer de la tombe 2
de la période des Huns de la nécropole de Moukhino, dans le Haut Don
Irina Saprykina*, Yurii A. Teterin** and Robert Mitoyan***
Abstract: he chemical composition of 7 fragments of the gold foil covering the wooden (?) handle attached to an iron knife from the burial of a
noblewoman in the Upper Don area was investigated by two methods – XRF and X-ray electronic spectroscopy (XRS). All samples showed that the
gold foil was produced from an Au-Ag-Cu alloy (type III), with a high degree of Ag concentration in the XRS samples. he data suggests that this is
the result of the process of silver difusion to the surface of the samples, but the reasons for this are not clear yet. he actual quality of the knife handle
is low and, in comparison with other high-status objects, it cannot be included in the category of high-quality artefacts. hus, we cannot exclude the
possibility that the knife from burial 2 at Mukhino is a local copy, or an item produced in the ‘metropolis’ especially for export to the ‘barbarian’ world.
Résumé : Les compositions chimiques de 7 fragments de feuilles d’or couvrant le manche en bois (?) d’un couteau en fer provenant de la tombe d’une
femme noble, trouvée dans le Haut Don, ont été déterminées par deux méthodes – FX et spectroscopie de difusions de rayons X (XRS). Tous les échantillons
montrent que les feuilles d’or ont été produites à partir d’un alliage Au-Ag-Cu (type III), avec une forte teneur en Ag dans le cas des échantillons analysés
par XRS. Ces données suggèrent qu’il s’agit du résultat d’un procédé de difusion d’argent vers la surface des échantillons, mais le mécanisme n’a pas encore
pu être clairement déini. Le manche du couteau est de mauvaise qualité et, en comparaison avec d’autres objets de prestige, ne peut pas être inclus dans
le groupe d’objets de bonne qualité. Pour cette raison, il ne peut pas être exclu que le couteau de la tombe 2 de la nécropole de Mukhino soit une copie de
fabrication locale ou un objet produit dans la « métropole » spéciiquement pour exportation vers le monde « barbare ».
Keywords: Burial of a noblewoman, gold foil covering of a knife handle, XRF analysis, X-ray electronic spectroscopy.
Mots-clés : Tombe noble, feuille d’or, manche de couteau, XRF, XRS.
1. INTRODUCTION
In 2002, a rich burial of a woman (burial 2) was discovered at the settlement of Mukhino, in the Upper Don
region. So far, this is the only high-status burial in the Upper
Don area (Southern Russia) dating to the Hunnic period.
Judging by the grave goods, the burial dates to the second
quarter of the 5th century AD, that is, to the end of period
D2 (Untersiebenbrunn horizon: 380/400-440/450 AD), or
to the beginning of period D2/D3 (Smolin-Kosino horizon: 430/440-460/480 AD) on the chronological scale of
the European Barbaricum. Such graves mark certain power
* RAS Institute of Archaeology – 117036, Dm.Ulyanova str., 19, Moscow, Russia. (dolmen200@mail.ru)
** he Kurchatov Institute – 123182, Kurchatov sq., 1, Moscow, Russia. (antonxray@yandex.ru)
*** Geological Faculty of the MSU, Chair of Geochemistry – 119992, Leninsky Gory, 1, Moscow, Russia. (mitoyan@geol.msu.ru)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 255-257
256
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Fragment of gold foil covering.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Fragment de feuille de couverture.
centres in the ancient pre-state formations of the East
European ‘barbarians’ and also demonstrate that, geographical distances notwithstanding, the barbarian societies had
a common hierarchical system.
he rich grave goods from burial 2 at Mukhino cemetery
are compatible with the well-known ‘princely’ inds from
sites in Central and Western Europe, such as for example
Untersiebenbrunn or Airan. Together with other inds from
Eastern Europe, the materials from Mukhino represent a
reliable basis for creating a uniied chronological scale for
East European antiquities of the Great Migration period.
he materials can also be useful for the study of social differentiation, as revealed by the quality and quantity of the
grave goods.
Burial 2 yielded over 30 gold fragments, including the
covering of the handle of an iron knife, made of a thin metal
plate (foil) of golden colour, with a characteristic ornament
not encountered on any of the other artefacts from the
burial.
he iron knife with gold foil covering on the handle was
found inside one of the samples of wood selected for radiocarbon analysis. he type of wooden item inside which the
knife was found could not be identiied with certainty, yet
the part which is still extant and contained the knife could
be interpreted as a sheath or scabbard.
he gold covering is fragmentary; yet, the overall amount
of fragments and their location on the handle allow achieving a reliable reconstruction of the artefact.
Fourteen fragments of the gold foil are extant, all of
them representing a thin and lexible plate with a maximum thickness of 0.5 mm. he face is golden in colour
and shows dark, almost black, spots. he reverse is dark
and shows traces of some organic bonding agent. he foil
must have been glued to the wooden handle with animal
glue, since no traces of the chemical elements that indicate
gilding have been found. he ornament was applied with a
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 255-257
Irina SAPRYKINA, Yurii A. TETERIN, Robert MITOYAN
Faulenzerpunzen tool, which had a defect of the working
surface. All fragments of the gold foil showed the same
defect, which indicates that all the fragments belong to one
and the same object.
he other artefacts from burial 2 (plaques, mounts of
plated metal) showed no analogies to the technique used
for creating the knife handle covering. Nonetheless, similar coverings of sword handles and, less frequently, knife
handles, are encountered in East European (Poland,
Hungary) and North Caucasian cemeteries, and are characteristic of the Hun and post-Hun times. he metallurgy
of gold-based alloys has been the subject of several studies
(McDonald and Sistare, 1978; Rapson, 1990; Pinasco and
Stagno, 1979).
he main focus of our work was to study the chemical
composition of the gold foil covering from burial 2 at the
Mukhino 2 cemetery and to compare it with the available
data on other similar items.
2. METHODS
XRF was used to analyze the chemical composition of
the metal (7 fragments of the gold foil have been analyzed).
The analysis was carried out in the spectroscopy
Laboratory of the Geological Faculty of Moscow State
University (MSU) with a portable XRF analyzer: a laptop
with special software, multichannel analyzer and sensor
with radioisotope source (Am241 and Cd109 isotopes)
(developed by R. Mitoyan, S. Koloskov, N. Eniosova,
T. Saracheva). he measurement procedure is standardized,
and the methodology of the experiment is provided in the
study by N. Eniosova, R. Mitoyan and T. Saracheva (2008:
114-120). he resulting data is presented in Table 1.
In order to obtain additional data regarding the gold and
silver concentrations on the surface of the samples, their
chemical composition was analyzed by X-ray electronic
spectroscopy (XRS). he analysis was carried out in the
precision spectroscopy laboratory of the Kurchatov Institute.
he samples were foil fastened to an aluminum support plate. he X-ray spectrum of the investigated samples
(191, 192, 195, 200, 205, 207, 208) were obtained using
a MK II VG Scientiic spectrometer with AlKα X-ray in
vacuum 1.3∙10-7 Pa at room temperature. he methodology
of the experiment is provided in the study by A. Yu. Teterin,
M.V. Ryzhkov et al. (2006). he surface of the samples was
strongly contaminated.
Gold foil covering of the handle of an iron knife from burial 2 of the Hunnic Period cemetery at Mukhino…
Reference
191
192
195
200
205
207
208
Au %
15.15
16.67
15.63
5.99
2.20
1.98
12.66
XRS - (~5 nm) (surface)
Ag %
Cu %
63.64
55.00
51.56
3.12
65.27
61.90
3.08
70.30
55.70
-
S%
21.21
28.33
29.69
28.74
32.82
27.72
31.64
XRF (>0.5 nm) (body)
Au %
Ag %
Cu %
77.74
19.59
2.67
84.23
14.22
1.55
65.75
31.95
2.3
69.36
29.15
1.49
68.57
30.11
1.32
65.02
33.31
1.67
62.13
35.9
1.97
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A comparison of the data obtained with the two methods
shows signiicant diferences in the main concentrations of
the metal (Table 1).
hus, the chemical analysis of the metal showed a variation in Au and Ag content: the surface of the foil contains
Au in the range of 1.98-16.67%, Ag 51.56-70.30%; the
body of the sample shows other results: Au 62.13-84.23%,
Ag 14.22-35.9%. he copper content also shows variations.
No other elements have been discovered (sulphur excluded).
Since the method of analysis is so well-developed that
we can exclude the possibility of faulty methodology, other
possible explanations for these results should be considered.
he data suggests that the silver difused to the surface of
the samples. his assumption is supported by the diferent
Au and Ag concentrations on the surface and in the body of
the samples. We assume that the initial Au and Ag content
in the samples represented a medium value of the ‘extreme
points’ presented in Table 1. hus, the samples could have
initially contained Au and Ag in equal proportions.
It is not clear why this particular type of gold alloy (type
III, after Rapson 1990: 127-128) was used for the gold foil
covering, since it is especially diicult to shape by pressure. As we recall, the knife originates from a rich burial
of a woman who had a high social status (insofar as it can
be conirmed by the results of analyzing other burials at
Mukhino cemetery). On the colour scale, the alloy falls
within the category of bleach alloys (Cretu and van der
Lingen 1999), which are low-carat according to the modern
classiication (under 14 carat).
Our assumption is the following: during the Hunnic
period, such gold-handled knives were status objects, certain
power insignia, as far as the territory in question is concerned. Findings of such knives in the Upper Don area are
extremely rare. Nonetheless, the actual quality of the knife
handle is low, and, in comparison with other status objects,
it cannot be included in the class of high-quality artefacts.
257
Table 1: XRF and XRS data for
the investigated samples (data from
analysis of the samples without prior
treatment of the surface; concentrations are given in atomic %).
Tableau 1 : Données par FX et
XRS pour les échantillons analysés (correspondant à l’analyse des
échantillons sans traitement au
préalable de la surface, les concentrations sont présentées en %).
hus, we cannot exclude the possibility that the knife
from burial 2 at Mukhino is a local copy or an item produced in the ‘metropolis’ especially for export to the ‘barbarian’ world.
Further research on the subject will probably involve isotope analysis, which should clarify the origin of the metal.
Acknowledgements
his research was produced with the support of RSHF grant
08-01-00013a.
References
CRETU, C. and VAN DER LINGEN, E., 1999. Coloured gold alloys.
Gold Bulletin 32(4): 115-126.
MCDONALD, A.S. and SISTARE, G.H., 1978. he metallurgy of
some carat gold jewellery alloys. Gold Bulletin 11(3-4): 66-73.
PINASCO, M.R. and STAGNO, E., 1978. Deformation and recrystallization of a jewellery white gold alloy. Gold Bulletin 12(2):
53-57.
RAPSON, W.S., 1990. he metallurgy of the coloured carat gold
alloy. Gold Bulletin 23(4): 125-134.
TETERIN, YU.A., RYZHKOV, M.V., MASLAKOV, K.I., VUKCEVIC, L. and
PANOV, A.D., 2006. Electronic structure of solid uranium tetraluoride UF4. Physical Review B 74(4): 045101 (1-9).
ENIOSOVA, N., MITOYAN, R. and SARACHEVA, N., 2008. Methods
for the study of nonferrous chemical compounds, in Nonferrous
and precious metals and alloys in Medieval Eastern Europe.
Moscow, (in Russian).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 255-257
he wire ‘at astragals’, or beaded wire,
from medieval tradition to the technique and tools
used by the Roman goldsmiths Castellani
in the 19th century
Le fil « à astragales », ou fil perlé, de la tradition médiévale à la technique
et aux outils utilisés par les orfèvres romains Castellani au XIXe siècle
Maurizio Donati*
Abstract: his research describes the methods of construction of beaded wire (‘at astragals’), used as decoration by goldsmiths from medieval times
until the 19th century, in the work of the Roman goldsmiths Castellani. his paper focuses on ifteen original steel tools from Alfredo Castellani’s
Legacy, retrieved in 1978, restored and inventoried by the author. hese tools are used to describe the technique used in the Castellani workshop.
his technique is compared with the technique described in the heophilus Presbyter’s treatise.
Résumé : Ce travail démontre les méthodes de construction du il perlé (« à astragales ») utilisé par les orfèvres comme décoration dès la période médiévale
jusqu’au XIXe siècle, période pendant laquelle ce il est utilisé par les orfèvres Castellani, à Rome. Cet article se concentre sur 15 outils originaux en acier,
provenant de la Succession d’Alfredo Castellani, récupérés en 1978 et restaurés et inventoriés par l’auteur. Grâce à ces outils, il a été possible de décrire la
technique de production utilisée dans les ateliers des Castellani. Cette technique est comparée à celle décrite dans le traité de héophile.
Keywords: beaded wire, astragal, Castellani, tools, heophilus Presbyter.
Mots-clés : il perlé, astragale, Castellani, outils, héophile.
he purpose of this research on the production of wire ‘at
astragals’, or beaded wire, is to establish a complete description of its construction methods, inherited from the medieval tradition and passed on by the German or Lombard
monk heophylus Presbyter (end of the 11th-early 12th century) in his treatise “Diversarum artium schedula” (Dodwell,
1961). his wire was used for goldsmiths’ decorations in
ancient times, fell into disuse after the Middle Ages, and
continued in the 19th century, returning especially in vogue
with the work of the Roman goldsmiths Castellani (Archivio
di Stato di Roma (A.S.R.) Fam. Castellani, reg. 87),
prompted by the inds from archaeological excavations.
his research has made use of a theoretical approach
informed by the medieval treatise, and of a practical one con-
* Master goldsmith, emeritus professor at the Istituto Statale d’Arte di Roma 1, honorary member of the “Università e Nobil Collegio degli Orai Gioiellieri
Argentieri dell’Alma Città di Roma” – Via Alessandro Stradella, 90, 00124, Roma, Italy. (donati.m@email.it)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 259-263
260
sisting of ifteen original steel tools suited for this wire (Fig.
1), part of a collection of 1327 tools, belonging to the Legacy
of Alfredo Castellani to the “Museo Artistico Industriale di
Roma” (M.A.I.), donated when he died in 1930, retrieved
in 1978, restored and inventoried by the author. Alfredo
Castellani, son of Augusto (Roma 1865-1930), left to the
M.A.I. in 1930 some drawings, tools and many other objects
issuing from his father’s workshop. he Legacy went partly
lost, partly dispersed among the Museo di Palazzo Barberini,
Museo della Civiltà Romana and the Instituto Statale d’Arte
di Roma (I.S.A. 1) (Donati, 2005). he found tools lie at present in I.S.A. 1, with the following marking: Castellani Legacy,
group Diverse / from entry 890 to 904, nn, V/36-V/50.
Judging from the works created in the Castellani workshop, as one discovers in the registers of the inventories,
beaded wire and also the tools suited for its making were
already in use starting with the years 1852/1853, coinciding precisely with the proofs worked out for granulation.
he wire was usually made by a workman, a certain Belli
[Gaetano] (1832-1872), as can be read in A.S.R., Famiglia
Castellani, Reg. 132: “Belli, oro a stampare sdragoli, novembre
1862”. Belli is cited in the Castellani registers from number 126 to number 137, and also in numbers 37, 38, 39,
and 44. He was mostly responsible for melting gold, for the
production of grains of gold, for moulding various motifs,
for repairs of silver objects, for the preparation of welds and
earths to produce the ‘colour’, or indeed for the ‘sdragola’.
In the records of Castellani’s workshop (which are all kept
in the A.S.R.), it is interesting to observe the following terms
in the goldsmith’s lexicon: the term ‘astragal’ (derived through
Maurizio DONATI
the Latin astragalus from the Greek astravgalo~: rib, bone,
dice) is misspelled as the dialect term ‘sdragola’ or ‘asdragola’,
as repeatedly found in inventories and catalogues.
Concerning the production of beaded wire, for many years
various studies (Hofmann and Davidson, 1966; Lipinsky,
1975; Formigli, 1985) have indicated two likely methods of
construction with tools referable to classical or medieval jewellery, or from conjecturing or referring to descriptions present
in some treatises. Speciically regarding the system adopted
by the Castellani, mere hypotheses have been put forward to
date, failing objective comparisons (Ogden, 2004).
herefore, the recovery of their original tools was important
for pinpointing their methods, as they allowed the discovery of
the technique used in their workshop to produce beaded wire.
For the construction of these tools, the Castellani have certainly followed the description from heophilus Presbyter’s
treatise (in Caput IX of Liber tertius, “De instrumento quod
organarium dicitur”), considering that the entire technical
concept corresponds to the medieval annotations made
by heophilus, with the exception of the percussion: the
Castellani used a rocker arm, whereas in heophilus it was
made “cum malleo corneo”.
he typology of the Castellani tools under discussion here
varies according to their use: some of them are suitable to
produce apical parts of beaded wires (for hanging details of
necklaces, Castellani’s Legacy, tool entry 895, V/41), others to produce continuous beaded wires (Donati, 2007), a
feature that was more frequently used by the Castellani (see
Fig. 2). he matrices are also diferent in dimensions and in
number, size, form, and diameter of the stamped sections.
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Four original
steel tools from the Alfredo Castellani
Legacy to M.A.I. of Rome, entries 897-898,
V/43, V/44; entries 899-900, V/45, V/46
(I.S.A. 1) (Photography by M. Donati).
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Quatre
outils en acier originaux appartenant à la
Succession d’Alfredo Castellani, M.A.I. de
Rome, entrées 897– 898, V/43, V/44; entrées
899 – 900, V/45, V/46. (I.S.A. 1) (photographie par M. Donati).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 259-263
he wire ‘at astragals’, or beaded wire, from medieval tradition to the technique and tools used…
Figure 2: Detail of beaded wire, with typical faults: middle groove
and irregularity of beads (Photography by M. Donati).
Figure 2 : Détail d’un il perlé avec les anomalies typiques : sillon au
milieu et l’irrégularité des perles (photographie par M. Donati).
Normally they are used two by two (Castellani’s Legacy,
tool entries 894, 896, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903,
904): one above and the other below, each with appropriate anchor seats drawn from the same tools, and through a
rocker arm (Fig. 3).
One half of the sections are printed in the upper stool,
the other in the bottom one. he upper one has a support
shank; the bottom one, parallelepiped, shows two ‘projec-
Figure 3: Original Castellani steel tool (une seule partie présentée)
with proof on silver, apical part of beaded wire. Entry 895, V/41
(Photography by M. Donati).
Figure 3 : Outil en acier original de Castellani (sans l’autre) avec
épreuve en argent, partie trillée du il perlé. Entrée 895, V/41 (photographie par M. Donati).
261
tions’, which are correlated with the two suitable anchor
seats of the upper tool, so that they can be irmly joined
together.
For the procedure, the golden or silver wire was laid down
between the two parts, usable in superimposed position, just
in the grooves of their respective seats; afterwards, the wire
was twisted on its axis and was simultaneously hammered
with a rocker arm; its position was maintained with the
aid of a buckle of wood or metal, in order to prevent the
movement of the wire from their location. Once it reached
the complete form of beads, it was continued for a segment,
usually in proportion to the length of the tool, leaving out
only one bead in the last seat for measuring, in order to
secure a regular work without imperfections.
he section of the wire, before beading, could have been
diverse: round, square, hexagonal, octagonal. However, the
initial diameter, or the distance between the faces, should
have been slightly smaller than that of the completed bead,
proportionately of the order of a few tenths of millimetres
(in the Castellani’s pair of tools V/43 and V/44, the wire’s
section had the following initial and inal diameters: 2.43
and 2.72 mm, respectively. he upper tool (entry 897)
includes 15 cells, the bottom tool (entry 898) 13. A basic
measurement gave the following dimensions: 30.7 x 21.7
mm for the upper tool; 38.4 x 30 mm for the bottom tool.
For tools V/46 (entry 900) and V/47 (entry 899), the initial
and inal wire’s diameters are 3.05 and 3.29 mm, respectively; for the upper tool: 10 cells, 31.5 x 21.7 mm; for the
bottom tool: 9 cells, 41 x 30.5 mm), in order to prevent
that the continuity of the beads was interrupted with an
abnormal overlap related to the increase due to supericial
waves of metal. his defect occurred always in cases of initial
excess of metal and was usually irreparable.
However, an approach to work with a scanty amount of
metal could have been inadequate for an optimum result,
because, due to the shortage, it could have created a furrow
in the middle, a feature that nevertheless should have been
remedied by actions repeated until the disappearance of the
same furrow. Moreover, there could be other causes, not
considered yet, of further defects, for example the fortuitous
small displacement of the two tools.
A considerable number of works with this type of decoration is currently on display on the shelves of the Modern
Augusto Castellani Collection in the National Etruscan
Museum of Villa Giulia in Rome: almost 106 jewels (Fig. 4),
one sixth of the entire collection, divided in seven or eight
parts, associated with various historical periods, referred
to as: “Primigeno” (Primitive), “Tirreno” (Tyrrhenian),
“Etrusco” (Etruscan), “Siculo” (Siculian), “Romano”
(Roman), “Medievale” (Medieval), “Rinascimento”
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 259-263
262
Maurizio DONATI
a
Figure 4: (See colour plate) Brooch with cameo of George
Washington. Made by Castellani; cameo by G. Girometti. Gold,
sardonyx; frame with wire ‘at astragals’. Museo Nazionale Etrusco
di Villa Giulia, Roma, 85211, from Soros and Walker, 2004: Fig.
4-21 (Photography by S.A.E.M.).
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Broche avec camée de Georges
Washington. Fabriqué par Castellani; camée par G. Girometti. Or,
sardonyx, monture avec il aux astragales. Museo Nazionale Etrusco
di Villa Giulia, Rome, 85211, d’après Soros et Walker, 2004 : Fig.
4-21 (photographie par S.A.E.M.).
(Renaissance), “Moderno” (Modern). We note that in the
shelf “Primigeno” there are no beaded works.
Another typical example of working with beaded wire can
be observed on a work prepared by Augusto Castellani to
decorate a silver plate with niello, representing a crib and
adopted in the form of ‘Peace’ for liturgical functions, a
work that later – June 4, 1865 – was donated by him to
the University of Goldsmiths of Saint Eligio in Rome, in
memory of his father. his work is almost unique among
those of Fortunato Pio (Figs. 5a and 5b).
With these notes, we hope to inspire further studies, with
the purpose of advancing more and more the understanding of the goldsmith’s art, a ield both interesting from a
technical-scientiic point of view and fascinating from an
aesthetic-anthropological one.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 259-263
b
Figure 5: (See colour plate) Fortunato Pio Castellani: “Pace”, silver and niello. Gold(?)-mounted wire to astragals, by Augusto
Castellani (1865). Archivio Storico, Università e Nobil Collegio
degli Oreici Gioiellieri Argentieri dell’Alma Città di Roma
(Photography by Di Giacomo): (a) obverse and (b) reverse.
Figure 5 : (Voir planche couleur) Fortunato Pio Castellani: “Pace”,
argent et niello. Montage en or (?) avec ils aux astragales par Augusto
Castellani (1865). Archivio Storico, Università e Nobil Collegio
degli Oreici Gioiellieri Argentieri dell’Alma Città di Roma (photographie par Di Giacomo): (a) avers et (b) revers.
he wire ‘at astragals’, or beaded wire, from medieval tradition to the technique and tools used…
References
DODWELL, C.R., 1961. heophilus: he various arts (de diversis artibus). London: homas Nelson & Sons.
DONATI, M., 2005. Materiali già appartenuti al M.A.I. di Roma e
recuperati pressa l’I.S.A. di Roma, in G. Borghini (ed.), Storia
del Museo Artistico Industriale di Roma. Roma, I.C.C.D., 223240.
DONATI, M., 2007. Sur quelques aspects de l’orfèvrerie Castellani
dans la seconde moitié du xixe siècle. L’atelier: des prototypes
à la technique, in F. Gaultier, C. Metzger, Les bijoux de la
collection Campana: de l’antique au pastiche. Paris, École du
Louvre, 118-119.
263
FORMIGLI, E., 1985. Tecniche dell’oreiceria Etrusca e Romana.
Firenze, Sansoni Ed., 94-95.
HOFFMANN, H. and DAVIDSON, P.F., 1966. Greek gold: jewelry from
the age of Alexander, ed. by A. von Saldern. Boston, Museum
of Fine Arts.
LIPINSKY, A., 1975. Il ilo perlinato, in A. Lipinsky, Oro, argento,
gemme e smalti: tecnologia delle arti dalle origini alla ine del
Medioevo 3000 a. C.-1500 d. C. Firenze, Leo S. Olschki, 206208.
OGDEN, J., 2004. Revivers of the lost art: Alessandro Castellani
and the quest for classical precision, in S.W. Soros, S. Walker
(eds.), Castellani and Italian Archaeological Jewelry. New York,
Bard Graduate Center, 181-200.
SOROS, S.W. and WALKER, S. (eds.). Castellani and Italian
Archaeological Jewelry. New York, Bard Graduate Center.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 259-263
he jewellery from the casket of Maria Pia of Savoy,
Queen of Portugal, produced at Castellani’s workshop
Les bijoux du coffret de Maria Pia de Savoie, Reine du Portugal,
fabriqués à l’atelier Castellani
Maria José Oliveira*, Teresa Maranhas**, Ana Isabel Seruya***,
Francisco A. Magro*****, hierry Borel***** and Maria Filomena Guerra*****
Abstract: he casket of Queen Maria Pia of Savoy, belonging to the collection of the Palácio Nacional da Ajuda, contains a set of thirty-three
pieces of gold jewellery in the archaeological style created by the Castellani workshop in Rome. his family of jewellers, fascinated by the ancient
techniques of gold working, restored but also reproduced several antique pieces, giving rise to the emergence of the so-called ‘archaeological
jewellery’, very popular in the 19th century, using characteristic techniques of antique jewellery such as granulation, iligree, micro-mosaic and
engraving of stones in intaglio.
he main purpose of this paper is to present the results of the analyses of the base metals used in the manufacture of the jewellery and also to
identify the production techniques, such as mounting, joining and decoration, used by the Castellani workshop in making the jewellery for the
casket of Queen Maria Pia of Savoy. For this purpose, portable equipment of examination and analysis was brought to the museum. he results
obtained in situ show the use of standard wires and granules, as well as of three diferent base alloys. One element of a hairpin pair which appears
to have originated from a diferent production is discussed.
Résumé : Le cofret ofert à la Reine Maria Pia de Savoie, appartenant aux collections du Palácio Nacional da Ajuda, contient trente trois pièces d’orfèvrerie en or fabriquées par les ateliers Castellani. L’attrait de cette famille d’orfèvres pour les techniques de l’orfèvrerie antique les a amenés à restaurer
mais aussi à reproduire plusieurs pièces anciennes faisant émerger au XIXe siècle le style archéologique. Pour fabriquer leurs bijoux, les Castellani ont utilisé
diférentes techniques caractéristiques de la décoration des pièces d’orfèvrerie ancienne, dont la granulation, le iligrane, la gravure de gemmes en entaille
et la mosaïque sont des exemples.
Dans cette étude nous présentons les résultats analytiques obtenus pour la composition des alliages utilisés dans la fabrication des pièces du cofret de la Reine
Maria Pia ainsi que la description des techniques de production des objets – montage, assemblage, décoration – utilisées par les Castellani. À cette in, des
équipements portables d’examen et analyse ont été transportés au musée pour efectuer une étude in situ. Les résultats obtenus montrent l’utilisation de ils
et granules de forme homogène et de trois alliages d’or. Un élément d’une paire d’épingles à cheveux, dont la production semble être diférente, est discuté.
Keywords: jewellery, gold, analysis, Castellani, XRF.
Mots-clés : bijoux, or, analyses, Castellani, FX.
* Laboratório de Conservação e Restauro José de Figueiredo, Rua das Janelas Verdes 37, 1249 – 018, Lisboa, Portugal. (mariaoliveira@imc-ip.pt)
** Palácio Nacional da Ajuda, Largo da Ajuda, 1349-021, Lisboa, Portugal. pnajuda.(teresamaranhas@imc-ip.pt)
*** Centro de Física Atómica da Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto 2, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal. (anaseruya@gmail.com)
**** Academia Portuguesa da História e Associação Numismática de Portugal, Rua Angelina Vidal 40, 1170-020, Lisboa, Portugal
***** Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR171 CNRS, 14, quai François-Mitterrand, 75001 Paris,
France. (maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr)
rec. Oct. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 265-270
Maria José OLIVEIRA et al.
266
1. INTRODUCTION
he work of the Castellani family on antique jewellery
gave rise to the ‘archaeological style’ jewellery that was very
much in fashion during the 19th century (Rudoe, 1986). In
1862, they created one of their most famous productions,
the jewellery casket, a good example of their skill, to be
ofered by the people of Rome to Queen Maria Pia of Savoy
when she married King Luís I of Portugal.
he casket of Queen Maria Pia of Savoy (PNA, inv.
52545/A), held in the Palácio Nacional da Ajuda in Lisbon,
Portugal, contains 33 pieces of jewellery produced by the
Castellani workshop in the archaeological style. his type
of jewellery emerged as a consequence of the excavations of
archaeological tombs in Egypt, Greece and Italy, namely in
Pompeii, at the end of the 18th century. he techniques used
by Etruscan goldsmiths (between the 7th and 3rd centuries
BC) greatly fascinated the Castellani family. heir curiosity
and innovation led them to the revival of the ancient production techniques, particularly granulation and iligree, in
which the Etruscans were experts.
he casket of the Palácio Nacional da Ajuda, created in
the 19th century, is probably a copy of an original example
that Augustus, the irst emperor of Rome, ofered to his
daughter on the occasion of her marriage. he jewels of this
casket are meant to replicate the needs of a noble woman’s
toilette in ancient times. Some objects are stylistically very
close to known ancient pieces of jewellery, others contain
ancient gold and silver coins. hese items are inspired by
the iconography and mythological themes of ancient Rome:
a medallion, two pairs of culinks, a stickpin, three rings,
a laurel diadem, fourteen hairpins, two pairs of earrings, a
bulla pendant, a brooch, a hair comb, a bracelet with Roman
coins, and a chain with Greek coins (Fig. 1).
Castellani did not stamp all these pieces in a regular way.
His maker’s punch – monogram “CC” within a cartouche,
or just “CC” without the cartouche – appears only on some
items.
he ancient coins used by Castellani in these jewels were
classiied and dated individually, their date of issue ranging
from the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD. he chain
has seven Greek silver coins, issued from the 5th to the 3rd
century BC; the bracelet has seven Roman silver coins from
the 1st century BC, and the bulla pendant has two Roman
coins, one in gold from the 2nd century AD, and one in
bronze, from the 4th century AD.
In spite of the work dedicated to 19th century jewellery
and more speciically to the work of the Castellani (Donati,
2006; Soros and Walker, 2004; Formigli, 1993), very few
studies include analytical information on the techniques and
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 265-270
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Casket with the jewels of Queen Maria
Pia of Savoy.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Cofret avec les joyaux de la Reine
Maria Pia de Savoie.
alloys used by the goldsmiths (Cesareo and Von Hase, 1976;
Ogden, 2004; Swaddling et al., 1991). he aim of this work
is to identify and classify the techniques used at Castellani’s
workshop for the production of archaeological style jewellery by studying the casket ofered to Maria Pia with nondestructive analytical-based techniques carried out in situ.
he results obtained in this work should provide references
for the identiication of the assumed interventions of these
goldsmiths on diferent ancient gold items.
2. METHODS
All the jewellery items were studied in situ at the Palácio
Nacional da Ajuda. he items were examined with a portable optical microscope and an X-radiography system, and
analysed with a portable X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) equipment. All these methods are non-invasive (Guerra and
Calligaro, 2003).
he study of the techniques of decoration and production
used by Castellani in the execution of Maria Pia of Savoy’s
jewellery was performed using an optical microscope Leica
he jewellery from the casket of Maria Pia of Savoy, Queen of Portugal…
267
MZ6, with a magniication of up to 40x, a digital camera,
Leica DC200, and a digital X-radiography system ArtXRay,
NTB GmbH (X-Ray generator Y.MBS/160-F01).
he portable XRF was an E.I.S. Srl system, model XRS38,
with W anode (0.40 mA, 30 kV). he spectrum treatment
and the quantiication of the results were carried out using
the QXAS 3.6 program developed by the International
Atomic Energy Agency. he results have been normalized
to 100%. A set of ternary gold alloy standards were used
to calibrate the equipment. heir composition is 75% Au,
12.5% Ag, 12.5% Cu, and 75.0% Au, 6.0% Ag, 19.0%
Cu, respectively.
3. RESULTS
Production techniques
he examination of the jewels under the optical microscope allowed the identiication of four types of wire used in
the manufacture of the iligree decoration patterns: plain
circular section wire, rope or cable pattern wire (obtained by
twisting two plain wires together), beaded wire and helicoidal wire. he plain circular section wires are of two diferent
diameters: on average, 0.49 and 1.00 mm, respectively. he
cable wires vary in diameter, averaging between 0.15 mm
and 0.72 mm. he beaded wire has an average diameter of
0.72 mm, and the helicoidal wire of 0.53 mm.
Modern wires were produced by drawing, which means
passing the wires through the holes of a draw-plate in order
to obtain the required diameter, contrary to what is typically
assumed for ancient wire. Drawn wires can be recognised
by the seams on the surface of the wire. hose seams are
longitudinal and parallel to the axis of the wire. All the wires
used in the production of the jewellery contained in Maria
Pia’s casket were produced with drawn wire. Figure 2 shows
the striation on the surface of one wire.
In addition to iligree, the jewellery contained in the
casket of Queen Maria Pia of Savoy presents patterns of
granulation and evidence of other decorative techniques,
such as micro-mosaic and engraving. he granules are of two
diferent sizes: the smaller ones have an average diameter of
1.50 mm, while the larger ones have an average diameter of
about 3.00 mm.
Some of the pieces show repetition of motifs, such as the
leaves on the diadem and the hair comb, which were executed by stamping each individual leaf with a matrix.
he hairpins with ram’s heads show skilled decoration,
in which a roughened surface efect is obtained by chasing.
his technique was not used for any of the other pieces.
Figure 2: Detail of the seams on the surface of the wire (PNA,
inv. 52563).
Figure 2 : Détail des sillons sur la surface du il (PNA, inv. 52563).
All the elements of the earrings and pins were executed by
a skilled goldsmith, using the same techniques and the same
decorative elements. However, one pair of hairpins with an
imperial eagle and the inscription SPQR presents signiicant
diferences in terms of technical execution between the two
elements of the pair. he decoration of these pieces is essentially obtained through the application of cable patterned
wire and small gold foils in the form of leaves. he ropes
consist of two wires twisted together (Fig. 3). Only one of
Figure 3: Details of the iligree decoration of the pair of hairpins
with the imperial eagle.
Figure 3 : Détails de la décoration en iligrane d’une paire d’épingles
à cheveux avec l’aigle impériale.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 265-270
Maria José OLIVEIRA et al.
268
the pins has a few granules fused to it (PNA, inv. 52570).
On both hairpins, the inscription was applied using plain
circular section wire, although the construction of the letters
difers from one element of the pair to the other, as shown
by the images obtained under the optical microscope for
letters ‘Q’ and ‘R’ (Fig. 4). he letters shown in Figures 4e
and 4f are of better quality. However, not only the letters are
technically diferent between the two elements of the pair.
he crowns of leaves and the paws of the eagles, for example,
also difer between the two pins (Fig. 5). Again, the elements
in Figures 5c and 5d demonstrate a higher level of technical
execution than those in Figures 5a and 5b.
Figure 4: (See colour plate) Details of the pair of hairpins with
the imperial eagle.
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Détails d’une paire d’épingles à cheveux avec l’aigle impériale.
he radiographic images of these two pieces (Fig. 6)
highlight the diferences between them (wings, head and
paws of the eagles, drums, etc.). he diferences in radiographic density are related to the diferent thickness of the
metal foils used in the execution of each piece.
Base-alloys
Table 1 presents the results obtained by portable XRF
for all the individual jewellery items belonging to Maria
Pia’s casket. We were able to identify three distinct groups
according to the alloys used. he irst two groups include
the jewellery with the simpler decoration, while the third
group includes the jewellery with more complex decoration.
Figure 6: (See colour plate) X-radiography of the pair of hairpins
with the imperial eagle.
Figure 6 : (Voir planche couleur) Radiographie aux rayons X d’une
paire d’épingles à cheveux avec l’aigle impériale.
Figure 5: (See colour plate) Details of the pair of hairpins
with the imperial eagle.
Figure 5 : (Voir planche couleur) Détails d’une paire d’épingles
à cheveux avec l’aigle impériale.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 265-270
he jewellery from the casket of Maria Pia of Savoy, Queen of Portugal…
Composition
Alloy 3
Alloy 2
Alloy 1
Jewellery items
Table 1: Characterization of the diferent alloys by XRF.
Tableau 1 : Caractérisation des diférents
alliages par XRF.
269
Au (%)
Ag (%)
Cu (%)
Culink ROMA/AMOR (PNA, inv. 52685)
90.6
8.4
1.1
Culink ROMA/AMOR (PNA, inv. 52686)
92.7
6.7
0.6
Ring with lapis lazuli intaglio (PNA, inv. 52547)
93.1
6.5
0.4
Stickpin (PNA, inv. 52475)
92.6
6.2
1.2
Hairpin pointed head (PNA, inv. 52552)
90.0
9.1
0.9
Hairpin acorn head (PNA, inv. 52555)
85.0
10.7
4.4
Chain with Greek coins (PNA, inv. 52572)
90.8
8.2
1.0
Hairpin with imperial eagle (PNA, inv. 52571)
93.6
3.3
3.1
Ring Mercvril (PNA, inv. 52546)
86.7
11.6
1.7
Diadem (PNA, inv. 52548)
86.9
11.7
1.4
Hairpin spherical head (PNA, inv. 52549)
85.9
12.3
1.7
Hairpin spherical head (PNA, inv. 52550)
86.7
11.9
1.4
Hairpin pointed head (PNA, inv. 52551)
88.1
10.6
1.3
Earrings (PNA, inv. 52558)
88.4
10.7
1.0
Earrings (PNA, inv. 52559)
88.1
10.8
1.1
Earrings crotalia (PNA, inv. 52560)
88.0
10.5
1.5
Earrings crotalia (PNA, inv. 52561)
87.9
10.7
1.4
Hair comb (PNA, inv. 52565)
88.5
9.8
1.7
Bracelet with Roman coins (PNA, inv. 52568)
88.1
10.6
1.4
Culink EROS (PNA, inv. 52443)
79.1
17.3
3.6
Ring with cornelian intaglio (PNA, inv. 52545)
82.7
13.9
3.4
Pendant bulla (PNA, inv. 52563)
80.7
16.6
2.7
Brooch NODVS HERCVLEVS (PNA, inv. 52564)
82.8
15.2
2.1
Hairpin pin ram’s head (PNA, inv. 52566)
80.4
17.1
2.5
Hairpin pin ram’s head (PNA, inv. 52567)
78.7
18.9
2.4
Hairpin with imperial eagle (PNA, inv. 52570)
83.9
13.5
2.6
In contrast to all the other pairs of jewels – for example,
the pair of ram’s head pins, with the composition 79.6% Au,
18.0% Ag and 2.4% Cu, the pair of hairpins with the imperial eagle also shows a diference in composition between
the two elements. he second pin (Fig. 4d) has an average
percentage of gold of approximately 94%, itting the irst
group, while the other pin (Fig. 4a) has an average percentage of gold of about 84%, with higher silver contents, itting the third group.
he jewellery in the irst group has a composition similar to the one of the ibulae in the set of copies made by
Castellani and kept at the Villa Giulia museum in Rome
(Cesareo and Von Hase, 1976). he limited number of analysis results available from objects in the Villa Giulia does
not match our results.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The decorative elements of almost all the jewellery
included in Maria Pia’s casket are identical in type and
dimension. his may be the result of a continuous ‘assembly line’ type of production undertaken in the Castellani
workshop, which is typical of 19th century manufacturing
methods.
he gold/metal alloys used in the fabrication of these
objects have gold contents ranging from 73 to 98%, silver
contents between 2 and 24%, and copper contents from 1
to 13%. However, the higher amounts of silver and copper
are only present in a few particular objects. Although all the
items in Queen Maria Pia of Savoy’s casket have been made
by Castellani, we can now ascertain that diferent base alloys
were used.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 265-270
270
All the jewellery denotes a high manufacturing skill. In
spite of the diferent alloys employed in the manufacture
of this jewellery, only the hairpin with the imperial eagle
presents major diferences relative to the other element of
the pair, and to the entire suite of jewellery.
he jewellery collection of the Palácio Nacional da Ajuda
includes other items in the archaeological style, namely a
gold necklace with 23 beetles and a parure of gold iligree
with cornelian settings (a bracelet, a bar-brooch and a pair
of earrings), made by an unknown goldsmith. In the future,
we intend to submit these pieces to a similar study in order
to compare the results with those of the analyses of the
Castellani jewellery.
References
CESAREO, R. and VON HASE, F.W., 1976. Analisi di ori etruschi del
VII sec. a.C. con uno strumento portatile che impiega la tecnica luorescenza X eccitata da radioisotope. Atti dei Convegni
Lincei 11: 259-296.
DONATI, M., 2006. Les bijoux Campana et le fonds Castellani
du Museo Artistico Industriale di Roma, in F. Gaultier, C.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 265-270
Maria José OLIVEIRA et al.
Metzger (eds.), Trésors antiques, bijoux de la collection Campana.
Paris, Musée du Louvre, 103-107.
FORMIGLI, E., 1993. Einige Fälschungen antiken Goldschmucks
im 19. Jahrhundert. Archäologischer Anzeiger 3: 299-332.
GUERRA, M.F. and CALLIGARO, T., 2003. he analysis of gold:
manufacture technologies and provenance of the metal.
Measurement in Science and Technology 14: 1527-1537.
OGDEN, J., 2004. Revivers of the lost art: Alessandro Castellani
and the quest for classical precision, in S.W. Soros, S. Walker
(eds.), Castellani and Italian Archaeological Jewelry. New York,
Bard Graduate Center, 181-200.
RUDOE, J., 1986. Elizabeth Barrett Browning and the taste for
Archaeological-Style Jewelry. Philadelphia Museum of Art
Bulletin 83(353): 22-23.
SOROS, S.W. and WALKER, S. (eds.), 2004. Castellani and Italian
Archaeological Jewelry. New York, Bard Graduate Center.
SWADDLING, J., ODDY, A. and MEEKS, N., 1991. Etruscan and
Other Early Gold Wire from Italy. Society of Jewellery Historians
5: 7-21.
South America:
gold studies in the New World
Amérique du Sud :
étudeS deS orS du NouveAu moNde
Archéologie précolombienne et analyses scientifiques :
la figurine d’El Angel, une œuvre composite
d’orfèvrerie de la culture La Tolita Tumaco
(Équateur-Colombie)
Pre-Columbian archaeology and science-based analysis : the figurine of El Angel,
a composite goldwork from La Tolita Tumaco culture (Ecuador – Colombia)
Jean-François Bouchard* et Maria Filomena Guerra**
Résumé : Une petite igurine en or provenant du site El Angel est associée aux traditions orfèvres Tumaco La Tolita, alors qu’elle provient d’une
région hors de l’aire culturelle de cette civilisation, à l’extérieur de la frange côtière. L’étude, au moyen de méthodes non-destructives, des techniques de mise en forme, assemblage et décoration utilisées pour sa fabrication montre que la igurine a subi un remontage moderne, mais que la
grande majorité de ses parties principales est authentique.
La composition élémentaire des alliages et surtout la présence de fortes teneurs en Fe, Pd et Pt sont typiques des ors utilisés pour l’orfèvrerie La
Tolita Tumaco. La igurine provenant du site d’El Angel, en Sierra, serait ainsi un des rares exemples d’objets exportés loin de son aire géoculturelle.
Abstract: A small gold igurine found at the site of El Angel, far from the coast threshold, is usually associated with the Tumaco La Tolita goldsmith
traditions, in spite of a location outside the cultural area of this civilisation. he study of the igurine by non-destructive scientiic methods, evidencing the
diferent steps of production, such as joining and decoration, shows that the object was remounted. However, the majority of its main parts are genuine.
he composition of the alloys and especially the presence of Fe, Pd and Pt are typical of the gold used in the production of La Tolita Tumaco objects. he
analytical results attest that the igurine from El Angel, in Sierra, could have been one of the exceptional objects exported far away from its geo-cultural
area.
Mots-clés : La Tolita Tumaco, analyse, composition, orfèvrerie, El Angel.
Keywords: La Tolita Tumaco, analysis, composition, goldwork, El Angel.
* Archéologie des Amériques, UMR 8096 CNRS – Maison René Ginouvès, 21 allée de l’Université, 92023Nanterre Cedex. (jean-francois.bouchard@
mae.u-paris10.fr)
** Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR171 CNRS, 14, quai François Mitterrand, 75001 Paris, France.
(maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr)
rec. Oct. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 273-279
274
1. INTRODUCTION
La métallurgie préhispanique est surtout devenue célèbre à
travers les pillages des conquistadors. À peine arrivés dans le
Nouveau Monde, ceux-ci ont mis à sac les « trésors » des indigènes. Par la suite, les fouilles clandestines des pillards, visèrent surtout les sépultures et lieux funéraires préhispaniques.
Divers pays, comme la Colombie, l’Équateur, le Pérou, la
Bolivie, pour ne citer que ceux de la tradition métallurgique
andine, ont perdu une grande part de leur orfèvrerie, souvent
fondue en lingots car les pillards n’y voyaient le plus souvent
que des objets bien « monnayables » dans tous les sens du
mot. Ces mêmes pillards étaient les premiers sur place pour
ouvrir les tombes et les chercheurs n’y avaient accès qu’une
fois le pillage terminé. Commençait alors un traic occulte
où les œuvres inissaient par être vendues discrètement et se
retrouvaient dans des collections privées et publiques. Ce n’est
qu’une très inime partie des œuvres d’orfèvrerie de tous les
musées publics qui échappent à cette règle générale. Ce rappel
permet de comprendre pourquoi les archéologues sont souvent mal informés sur ces œuvres.
Parmi les traditions orfèvres des Andes, l’une des plus
anciennes est celle de la civilisation La Tolita Tumaco qui
s’est épanouie sur le littoral Paciique de la Colombie et de
l’Équateur (600 av. J.-C.-400 apr. J.-C.). La métallurgie de
La Tolita Tumaco a été étudiée par divers auteurs, archéologues et archéomètres (Bergsoe, 1937 ; Verneau et Rivet,
1912-1922 ; Scott et Bray, 1994 ; Plazas, 1998 ; Bray, 2000 ;
Bouchard et Usselmann, 2003 ; Scott, 2004).
Un certain nombre de musées possèdent dans leurs collections des œuvres d’orfèvrerie provenant de la région
La Tolita Tumaco. Le musée du Quai-Branly, Paris, nous
montre ainsi une petite igurine en or, pour laquelle nous
avons pu mener une étude particulière. Bien que provenant
d’une région hors de l’aire culturelle Tumaco La Tolita (site
El Angel, au sud-ouest de Tulcán, dans les environs du volcan Chiles, province du Carchi, Equateur), elle est considérée comme ayant été réalisée par les orfèvres de cette culture
(Fig. 1). L’œuvre est composée d’un assemblage de 12 éléments majeurs, façonnés en feuilles d’or martelées, puis mis
en forme. Ils sont assemblés par des ils d’aspect métallique
et de couleurs diférentes. Sur le visage, deux éléments en
amande représentant les yeux sont ixés et entourés de ils
torsadés. L’absence de données précises dans les enregistrements du musée rendait hypothétique l’attribution culturelle
suggérée pour cette œuvre.
L’examen et l’analyse de la igurine du site El Angel au
LC2RMF, études peu usuelles en archéologie préhispanique,
mettent en évidence les techniques de mise en forme, assemblage et décoration utilisées pour sa fabrication mais aussi
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 273-279
Jean-François BOUCHARD, Maria Filomena GUERRA
la présence de restaurations modernes par addition de certaines parties. L’analyse des alliages a aussi révélé le type d’or
utilisé et permis la comparaison avec d’autres productions
d’orfèvres de cette aire géoculturelle, de façon à entreprendre
une recherche sur la provenance de l’or.
2. RÉSULTATS ANALYTIQUES
L’examen de la igurine d’El Angel a été réalisé sous loupe
binoculaire, par radiographie X et par microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB) avec un Philips XL30 ESEM en
mode SE à 20 kV. L’analyse élémentaire a été efectuée à l’accélérateur AGLAE au moyen des techniques PIXE et PIGE
(particle induced X-ray emission et γ-ray emission) avec un
faisceau de protons de 3 MeV extrait à l’air. La technique
PIXE utilise deux détecteurs de Si(Li), un dédié à la détection des éléments majeurs et l’autre, avec un iltre sélectif de
75 μm de cuivre, dédié à la mesure des éléments mineurs et
traces ; la technique PIGE utilise un détecteur HPGe avec
une eicacité de 30 % placé à 45° avec le faisceau (Guerra
et Calligaro, 2004 ; Guerra, 2004). Le Tableau 1 présente les
résultats obtenus pour les régions plates centrales des diverses
parties de la igurine d’El Angel. Ces valeurs sont le résultat
de deux mesures avec balayage de 200 μm2 à 500 μm2, selon
les dimensions de la partie analysée.
Les modes de fabrication et les alliages employés
La radiographie X pratiquée sur la igurine permet de
comprendre le montage des diférentes plaques obtenues
par martelage et des ils utilisés (Figure 2). La plus grande
épaisseur des plaques constituant la jambe et le pied gauches
de la igurine semble indiquer un ajout ou un remontage
postérieur à la découverte à l’aide de deux éléments modernes copiés sur la jambe droite originale. Cette hypothèse est
confortée par l’absence de platine dans l’alliage des plaques
suspectes.
Les yeux sont formés chacun de deux éléments : un
contour d’œil en forme d’amande, réalisé en il d’or torsadé
et un élément, lui aussi de forme ovale, réalisé en métal de
couleur gris-moyen et d’aspect plutôt terne. Dans l’enregistrement d’origine, il est seulement spéciié que l’un des
yeux est en platine. Notre analyse a montré que la plaque
blanchâtre de l’œil droit a bien été fabriquée avec un alliage
or-platine, obtenu par frittage (en anglais sintering, p. ex.
Scott et Bray, 1994). Par contre, l’analyse de la plaque noirâtre de l’œil gauche montre qu’elle est composée d’argent
et de cuivre, ce serait un ajout postérieur efectué lors du
remontage de la jambe gauche.
Archéologie précolombienne et analyses scientiiques : la igurine d’El Angel…
275
Figure 1 (a) et (b) : La igurine composite d’El Angel (or, argent, platine). Dimensions : hauteur 13 cm ; largeur 6 cm (© C2RMF, D.
Bagault).
Figure 1 (a) et (b): he composite igurine found at the site of El Angel (gold, platinum, silver). Dimensions: 13 cm high; 6 cm large (© C2RMF,
D. Bagault).
Ces résultats sont en accord avec les conclusions de d’Harcourt publiées en 1948. Par ailleurs, la composition de l’œil
droit se situe dans la région chimique déinie par les teneurs
en platine, or et argent obtenues par Bergsoe (1937) et par
Scott and Bray (1994) pour des objets attribués à La Tolita.
La teneur en fer de l’alliage est de 3,3 % ce qui se situe dans
les valeurs types avancées par Scott (1998) pour les grains de
platine natif d’Amérique du Sud, typiquement de 1 à 4 %. Il
semble donc que l’œil droit ait une composition conforme
à celle qu’on est en droit d’attendre pour un objet Tumaco
La Tolita.
L’observation détaillée des yeux sous loupe binoculaire
met en évidence les deux types de fabrication des ils torsadés
formant le contour de l’œil. Malgré l’utilisation de ils lisses
pleins dans les deux cas, l’œil en or-platine est entouré d’un
il façonné par martelage, dont l’alliage possède en moyenne
environ 2 % de platine, alors que l’œil en argent-cuivre est
entouré d’un il fabriqué par tréilage, avec un alliage sans
platine, et il est donc nécessairement moderne.
Les diférents éléments constituant la igurine sont assemblés à l’aide de ils. Dans certains cas, l’assemblage est assez
discret, comme pour la jonction de parties des jambes, mais,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 273-279
276
plaque
iligrane
plaque
œil gauche
iligrane
pied
jambe gauche jambe
cuisse
pied
jambe droite jambe
cuisse
avant
torse
arrière
bras
bras gauche
main
bras
bras droit
main
nez
tête
menton
main / bras
gauche
jambe gauche
ils
d’assemblage bras gauche /
torse
bras droit / torse
œil droit
Jean-François BOUCHARD, Maria Filomena GUERRA
Au %
Ag %
Cu %
54,6
82,7
0,4
76,9
76,5
76,3
79,4
78,0
77,3
78,1
77,6
78,2
78,6
78,9
79,7
78,1
71,1
77,7
8,6
12,7
49,5
17,3
17,2
17,3
10,4
10,8
11,8
10,9
10,5
12,9
9,0
9,9
10,7
10,6
12,0
10,7
1,0
2,7
47,1
4,8
5,0
5,5
7,2
8,3
8,5
8,2
8,3
5,8
9,5
8,6
7,9
8,6
6,4
8,8
74,1
20,4
4,4
61,9
75,4
18,0
Zn %
Pt %
32,3
1,8
2,8
2,8
2,3
2,7
2,0
3,0
2,6
2,4
1,6
2,7
9,7
2,6
Ru
ppm
810
40
60
140
190
40
40
90
28
826
Rh
ppm
6010
90
380
460
430
340
330
370
220
210
115
215
3230
270
Pd
ppm
3175
200
210
260
300
320
325
390
225
270
185
290
725
355
Sn
ppm
Sb
ppm
1650
320
170
390
85
145
30
170
50
162
168
36,2
795
645
5,5
62,8
Fe
ppm
33000
385
200
650
40
730
35
50
800
45
45
550
1220
520
540
490
6735
485
770
34,4
ailleurs, il peut être plutôt grossier et, même, fait au moyen
de ils tortillés qui dépassent à l’extérieur de la igurine, en
particulier à la jonction des bras et des épaules (igure 3b).
D’après Scott (Scott, 2004), les ils utilisés par les orfèvres
de la civilisation La Tolita Tumaco sont typiquement façonnés par martelage quand le but est de produire des attaches
de parties de fabrication indépendante. En ce qui concerne
les ils de décoration, ils sont généralement pleins-tordus et
martelés, mais aussi parfois tubulaires-tordus (ou en très ine
tôle d’or roulée sur elle-même).
Les ils de la igurine d’El Angel peuvent être lisses pleins,
d’aspect noirâtre (igure 3a) ou jaune, et aussi tubulaires
de couleur jaune. Leur analyse montre que les ils jaunes
sont fabriqués à partir d’alliages d’or et les ils noirâtres sont
en laiton. Ces caractéristiques suggèrent l’hypothèse d’un
remontage des parties principales, après la découverte de
l’œuvre avec un matériau d’origine non archéologique, au
moins en partie. Le fait que le dernier type d’alliage soit
inconnu à l’époque préhispanique conirme bien l’hypothèse
d’un remontage moderne.
Hypothèses de provenance de l’or
La présence d’éléments du groupe du platine dans les ors
de la région du Nord-Ouest de l’Amérique du Sud, ainsi
que la composition du platine natif, sont connus depuis de
longues années, grâce aux analyses efectuées au xixe siècle
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 273-279
104
1014
610
Tableau 1 : Résultats obtenus par
PIXE pour les diférentes parties
de la igurine d’El Angel.
Table 1: Compositional results
on all the analysed parts of the El
Angel igurine by PIXE.
par Berzelius pour la Colombie (Berzelius, 1928) et par Wolf
pour Esmeraldas (Wolf, 1912).
L’analyse des diférents éléments supposés originaux
de la igurine d’El Angel montre qu’ils ont été fabriqués
à partir d’un alliage dont la composition moyenne est de
77,7±2,1 % d’or, 10,8±1,0 % d’argent, 8,0±1,0 % de cuivre
et 2,5±0,4 % de platine (remarquons la présence d’inclusions
de platinoïdes, identiiées au MEB-EDS et constituées d’Ir,
Pt et Os). La comparaison de cet alliage avec la composition
des objets publiés par Bergsoe, 1937 ; Scott et Bouchard,
1988 ; Rovira, 1994 ; Scott et Bray, 1994 ; Estevez, 1998 ;
Barrandon et al., 2004 et Valdez et al., 2005, montre que la
igurine s’approche des réalisations des orfèvres de la civilisation La Tolita Tumaco. Il s’avère donc que cet alliage est
bien diférent de celui utilisé dans la fabrication des parties
que nous supposons être des ajouts modernes. En efet, les
ils d’assemblage, le il de l’œil gauche et les plaques de la
jambe et pied gauches ont une composition moyenne de :
75,8±1,1 % d’or, 18,1±1,3 d’argent et 5,1±0,5 % de cuivre ;
le platine ne pourrait être présent qu’à des quantités inférieures aux limites de détection. La présence de platinoïdes
dans les parties jugées antiques semble ainsi suisante pour
indiquer que la plupart des éléments constituant la igurine
paraissent bien originaux.
De façon à vériier l’attribution de l’or utilisé dans la fabrication des parties originales aux gisements alluvionnaires de
la côte, nous avons comparé nos résultats pour les éléments
Archéologie précolombienne et analyses scientiiques : la igurine d’El Angel…
277
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Images sous loupe binoculaire des
ils : (a) noirâtres et (b) tortillés (© C2RMF, D. Bagault).
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Low magniication micrographs under the binocular of the wires : (a) blackish and (b) wriggled (© C2RMF, D. Bagault).
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Radiographie aux rayons X de la
igurine d’El Angel (© C2RMF, T. Borel).
Figure 2: (See colour plate) X-radiography of the igurine from El
Angel (© C2RMF, T. Borel).
traces avec les compositions de divers objets de La TolitaTumaco et d’Esmeraldas publiés par Barrandon et al., 2004
et par Valdez et al., 2005. Parmi les éléments traces les plus
signiicatifs nous avons sélectionné le palladium et le platine.
Sur la Figure 4 ces deux éléments sont corrélés (corrélation
typique des gisements alluvionnaires) pour les objets de La
Tolita, des objets fabriqués par les civilisations côtières, ainsi
que pour la igurine d’El Angel.
Les objets provenant des régions de la Sierra possèdent des
teneurs plus basses et plus dispersées en palladium et platine.
Ceci peut être expliqué par l’utilisation des gisements aurifères de type primaire ainsi que par un possible mélange d’or
alluvionnaire avec de l’or ilonien.
L’or de la statuette d’El Angel s’approche bien de l’or des
alliages utilisés par les diférents groupes d’orfèvres qui ont
travaillé le métal à La Tolita. Non seulement la statuette
d’El Angel présente des analogies stylistiques de cette région
côtière, comme il ressort de l’étude morphologique et technologique, mais surtout les parties originales de cette œuvre
sont très proches en composition des divers produits d’orfèvrerie réalisés à partir des matières premières obtenues dans
les mêmes types de gisements aurifères.
3. CONCLUSION
Les analyses et examens menés sur la igurine d’El Angel
suggèrent bien qu’elle a fait l’objet de diverses interventions
modernes, en particulier un remontage maladroit et l’ajout
de parties non préhispaniques. Sont suspects : l’œil gauche
(en alliage d’argent-cuivre) et le il du contour de cet œil
gauche, la jambe gauche et, sans doute, le pied gauche, la
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 273-279
278
Jean-François BOUCHARD, Maria Filomena GUERRA
Figure 4 : Représentation des concentrations en Pd et en Pt (en ppm) pour la igurine d’El Angel et pour divers objets de La Tolita Tumaco
et d’Esmeraldas publiés par Barrandon et al., 2004 et par Valdez et al., 2005 et des monnaies sud américaines (Guerra, 2004b).
Figure 4: Pd and Pt contents (in ppm) for the igurine from El Angel and for objects from La Tolita Tumaco and Esmeraldas published by
Barrandon et al., 2004 and Valdez et al., 2005 and South America coins (Guerra, 2004b).
plupart des ils d’assemblage (voire tous). Nous pouvons
aussi remettre en question l’articulation et la mobilité des
parties de la igurine : elles n’étaient qu’une simple conséquence de la restauration moderne. À l’origine, elle avait
certainement été assemblée fermement et il n’était pas
possible de lui donner diverses postures en déplaçant ses
membres ou sa tête. Il n’y avait donc pas d’articulation mais
un assemblage. Cela est d’ailleurs plus conforme au montage
d’autres igurines La Tolita Tumaco connues. Pour tenter
d’évaluer l’époque de l’intervention moderne, on notera que
les parties suspectes, de par leurs compositions élémentaires,
correspondent à une métallurgie européenne.
L’analyse a donc bien conirmé des soupçons sur quelques
éléments de la igurine d’El Angel, mais, la grande majorité
des parties principales semblent authentiques et typiques par
leur composition élémentaire de cette orfèvrerie La Tolita
Tumaco. La igurine, si elle provient bien du site d’El Angel,
en Sierra, n’a donc pas été trouvée dans la frange côtière
correspondant au territoire La Tolita Tumaco. Pourtant par
sa composition, l’or utilisé dans la fabrication de la igurine
possède les éléments caractéristiques espérés pour un travail
d’orfèvrerie de cette zone culturelle. Cette igurine serait
ainsi un des rares exemples d’objets exportés loin de son
aire géoculturelle.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 273-279
Dans l’état actuel de nos connaissances, il reste néanmoins
inexplicable qu’elle soit ainsi parvenue dans les hautes terres.
Remerciements
Nous remercions Christiane Naffah, alors chargée du
Chantier des Collections du Musée du Quai Branly, MarieFrance Fauvet-Berthelot, responsable des collections Amérique
du Musée de l’Homme, et hierry Borel, Dominique Bagault
et l’équipe AGLAE du C2RMF, qui ont rendu possible l’étude.
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Pre-Columbian alloys from the royal tombs of Sipán
and from the Museum of Sicán: non-destructive XRF
analysis with a portable equipment
Alliages précolombiens des tombes royales de Sipán et du musée de Sicán :
analyse non-destructive avec un système FX portable
Roberto Cesareo*, Angel Bustamante**, Julio Fabian**, Cristina Calza***,
Marcelino dos Anjos***, Ricardo T. Lopes***, Walter Alva****, Luis Chero****,
Fidel Gutierrez****, Maria del Carmen Espinoza****, Rosendo Rodriguez****,
Marco Seclen****, Victor Curay*****, Carlos Elera***** and Izumi Shimada*****
Abstract: On the north coast of present-day Peru, approximately between 50 and 700 AD, lourished the Moche civilization. It was an advanced
culture, and the Moche were sophisticated metalsmiths. he Moche metal working ability was impressively shown by the excavations of the
“Tumbas Reales de Sipán”, discovered by W. Alva and co-workers in 1987.
he Sicán culture is a successive civilization (750-1375 AD) which extended as far as present day Piura in the north and Trujillo in the south.
he Sicán culture was strongly inluenced by the Moche culture, particularly in its metallurgical development (Shimada and Griin, 1994).
he metal objects from the Museums of Sipán and Sicán were analyzed with a portable equipment which uses energy-dispersive X-ray luorescence
(XRF). his portable equipment is composed of a small size X-ray tube and a Si-PIN thermoelectrically cooled X-ray detector. It was determined
that the analyzed artefacts are composed of gold, silver and copper alloys, of gilded copper, of silvered gold, and of tumbaga, the last being a poor
gold alloy enriched at the surface by depletion gilding, i.e. removing copper from the surface.
In the case of gold, silver and copper alloys, their composition was determined by EDXRF analysis employing standard alloys. In the case of gilded
copper, silvered copper and of tumbaga, the ratio Cu(Kα/Kβ) was accurately determined from the X-ray spectra, irst in order to clearly distinguish
them, and subsequently in order to determine the thickness of the gilding. Mean values of 0.4 μm and 2.7 μm were determined for gilded copper
and tumbaga, respectively. For gilded silver, the ratio Ag(Kα/Kβ) was measured. he ratios Au-Kα/Cu-Kα, Ag-Kα/Cu-Kα and Au-Kα/Ag-Kα
(gilded copper, silvered copper, and gilded silver, respectively) also depend on the thickness of gilding or silvering, and were employed to this aim.
Résumé : Sur la côte nord de l’actuel Pérou, entre environ 50 et 700 AD, prospérait la civilisation Moche. Cette culture était très avancée et les Moches
étaient des métallurgistes avertis. Leur talent pour travailler le métal est illustré par les fouilles du site des “Tumbas Reales de Sipán”, découvert par W.
Alva et collaborateurs en 1987.
La culture Sicán est une civilisation qui se succède de 750 à 1375 AD et qui s’étend au nord jusqu’à Piura et au sud jusqu’à Trujillo. La culture Sicán a
été fortement inluencée par la culture Moche, et tout particulièrement leur métallurgie (Shimada et Griin, 1994).
Les objets métalliques des musées de Sipán et Sicán ont été analysés avec un spectromètre portable à luorescence X à dispersion d’énergie. Cet équipement
est constitué d’un tube à rayons-X miniaturisé et d’un détecteur de rayons-X de type Si-PIN à refroidissement thermoélectrique. Nous avons pu montrer
* Dip. di Matematica e Fisica, Università di Sassari – Sassari, Italy. (cesareo@uniss.it)
** Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos – Lima, Perù. (angelbd1@gmail.com)
*** COPPE, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro – Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. (ricardo@lin.ufrj.br)
**** Museo “Tumbas Reales de Sipán” – Lambayequee, Perù. (museosipan@museosipan.com)
***** Museo de Sicán” – Ferrañafe, Perù. (museosican@speedy.com.pe)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 281-287
282
Roberto CESAREO et al.
que les objets sont fabriqués avec des alliages d’or, argent et cuivre, avec du cuivre et de l’argent doré ainsi qu’avec du tumbaga, alliage d’or enrichi par
mise en couleur, c’est-à-dire par appauvrissement en surface du cuivre.
Les compositions des alliages en or, argent et cuivre ont été déterminées par ED-FX au moyen de standards d’or. Pour diférencier les cuivres et les argents
dorés ainsi que les tumbaga et ensuite déterminer l’épaisseur de la dorure, le rapport Cu(Kα/Kβ) a été déterminé avec précision à partir des spectres à
rayons X. Des valeurs moyennes de, respectivement, 0,4μm et 2,7μm ont été déterminées pour les cuivres dorés et les tumbaga. Pour les argents dorés, c’est
le rapport Ag(Kα/Kβ) qui a été mesuré. Les rapports Au-Kα/Cu-Kα, Ag-Kα/Cu-Kα et Au-Kα/Ag-Kα (cuivres dorés, cuivres argentés et argents dorés,
respectivement) dépendent aussi de l’épaisseur de la dorure et de l’argenture.
Keywords: X-ray luorescence, gold leaf thickness, Moche culture.
Mots-clés : Fluorescence à rayons X, épaisseur de feuille d’or, culture Moche.
1. IntroductIon
Objects belonging to the Moche civilization (Vetter
Parodi, 2006; Alva, 2006) were analyzed in the past using
various destructive techniques (Andrade et al., 2005; Burger,
1992; Lechtman, 1998; Ruvalcada Sil, 2005; Saettone et
al., 2003; Scott, 2000); fragments of gold and silver artefacts (and also of silvered gold) from Loma Negra, Peru,
were accurately studied and analyzed by Schorsch (1998) by
employing EDXRF attached to a scanning electron microscope, and wave length dispersive X-ray Spectrometry. he
gold objects showed the following composition: Au ~ 80%,
Ag = 10-20%, Cu = 5-15%. he silver objects showed a high
Ag content, of about 97-99%. Copper represents the rest of
the composition, to 100%. An interesting and unusual feature is the case of silvered gold, with a silver sheet measured
to have a thickness of about 5 μm.
Fragments from 17 Moche objects from the “Museo
Tumbas Reales de Sipán” have been analyzed by Hörz and
Kallfass (2000), using various techniques. hese authors
were able to identify: a) gilded copper objects: they are characterized by a thin gold ilm (2-6 μm). he coatings consist
of a gold-copper alloy containing some silver; b) coppersilver alloys: fragments from several human head shaped
beads have been analyzed, showing a mean composition of
79% Cu, 20% Ag, and 1% Au; c) copper-gold-silver alloys
(tumbaga): fragments from a headdress, a chin ornament, an
ornamental disc, and ornamental beads were analyzed; the
average compositions were calculated to be varying between
20-60% Cu, 35-65% Au and 6-15% Ag. he alloy composition is strongly dependent on the distance from the surface.
For the systematic analysis of Sipán and Sicán metal
objects, the use of non-destructive techniques may be proposed, and, among them, energy-dispersive X-ray luorescence analysis (EDXRF) appears to be the most suited,
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 281-287
because it is non-destructive, multi elemental, reliable,
rapid, and may be carried out in situ (Cesareo et al., 2004).
his method is able to quantify the composition of a gold or
silver alloy when standard samples are used. EDXRF analysis
provides reliable results regarding the concentration of high
carat gold alloys with a reduced quantity of copper, and also
in the case of high concentration copper or silver alloys. In
the case of tumbaga, of copper-rich gold alloys, of gilded
copper, and of copper-rich silver alloys, the results provided
by EDXRF are incomplete or erroneous.
EDXRF is a surface analysis, and it is useful in this case
because the respective thickness of the alloy is of the order
of a few μm to a maximum of tens of μm; because of this
peculiarity, EDXRF is able to distinguish a gold alloy from
gilded copper or tumbaga, and a silver alloy from gilded
silver, by using the internal ratio of Cu and Ag-lines. he
method is also able to determine the gold thickness value in
the case of gilded copper or tumbaga gold.
2. ExpErImEntal sEt-up
he portable equipment employed for the analysis of
Sipán and Sicán alloys is composed of an X-ray tube and
a Si-PIN detector, both manufactured by AMPTEK. he
X-ray tube has a weight of 300 g, length of 17 cm – including the collimator – and diameter of 3.7 cm. It has an
Ag-anode, and works at 30 kV and 100 μA maximum voltage and current. X-rays from the tube irradiate areas of
about 5 mm diameter, when the object is at a distance of
~2 cm. he X-ray beam intensity is too high when alloys
are analyzed, because the Si-PIN detector is able to process
only a few thousands of photons/sec without losing energy
resolution. he X-ray beam is therefore collimated with a
brass cylinder 2 cm long and with an internal hole of 2 mm
283
Pre-columbian alloys from the royal tombs of Sipán and from the Museum of Sicán…
3. thEorEtIcal background
Quantitative analysis of gold,
silver and copper alloys
Figure 1: Experimental setup, showing, on the left, the Eclipse
II X-ray tube and the Si-PIN detector (both collimated with a
brass cylinder), measuring a Moche golden mask in the Museum
“Tumbas Reales de Sipán”.
Figure 1 : Coniguration expérimentale avec, sur la gauche, le tube à
rayons-X Eclipse II et le détecteur Si-PIN (les deux collimatés avec un
cylindre en laiton) pendant l’analyse du masque d’or Moche au musée
« Tumbas Reales de Sipán ».
in diameter. Furthermore, in order to excite silver in a more
eicient manner, the X-ray tube output is also iltered with
about 0.1 mm Ti.
he X-ray detector is a thermoelectrically cooled Si-PIN,
with 300 μm thickness, 7 mm2 area of the Si-crystal, and a
thin Be-window. his detector has an energy resolution of
about 180 eV at 5.9 keV, and an eiciency of 90%, 25%
and 8% at 10, 20, and 30 keV, respectively. It has a weight
of 150 g and a length of 14 cm. It is also collimated. he
measuring time was of approximately 100 sec, according to
sample composition and geometry.
Standard gold and silver alloys, with certiied Au, Ag and
Cu concentrations, were employed for calibration and for
the quantitative determination of the alloy composition.
In order to measure the gilding thickness of gilded gold
or silver, the Cu(Kα/Kβ) or Ag(Kα/Kβ) ratios, and the
(Au-Lα/Cu-Kα) or (Au-Lα/Ag-Kα)-ratios were employed.
Au leaves and Ag foils were employed for calibration (the
foils were each 0.125 μm and 0.28 μm thick for Au and
Ag, respectively). hick sheets of pure Cu and Ag were also
employed. hickness values were tested by transmission
measurements with mono-energetic X-rays.
Artefacts of very diferent sizes, compositions and surfaces
were analyzed. It is therefore very diicult to reproduce a
ixed geometry. For this reason, determination of the alloy
components on the basis of the fundamental parameters
method is diicult, and an alternative approach was preferred, using the intensity ratio of two components (for
example Cu/Au, assuming that Au(%)+Cu(%)+Ag(%) =
100), which is not dependent on the geometry. Other elements present are determined by using fundamental parameters.
Gilding thickness in gilded Cu (or Ag) and in
tumbaga through determination of (Kα/Kβ),
(Lα/Lβ)- or (Au-Lα/Cu-Kα)-ratio, and (Au-Lα/
Ag-Kα)-ratios
(Kα/Kβ), (Lα/Lβ), (Lα/Lγ)-ratios altered
by self-attenuation
The Kα/Kβ, Lα/Lβ and Lα/Lγ-ratios are tabulated
(Cesareo, 2000; Markowicz, 1992). For example, for copper, Kα/Kβ = 7.4, and for gold, Lα/Lβ = 1. hese values
are valid for an ininitely thin sample, corresponding to a
thickness < 1μm, < 0.5μm and < 0.2μm for Cu, Ag and Au,
respectively. For larger thicknesses, self attenuation efects
must be considered (Cesareo and Brunetti, 2008).
(Kα/Kβ), (Lα/Lβ), (Lα/Lγ)-ratios of an element
altered by attenuation by a second element
When a sheet of metal (a), for example copper, of ininite
thickness, is covered by a sheet of another metal (b), for
example gold, then the ratio (Kα/Kβ)a or (Lα/Lβ)a is altered
because of the attenuation of the covering sheet:
(Kα/Kβ) = (Kα/Kβ)s.a.exp-[μ1-μ2] d
(1)
(Kα/Kβ)s.a. is the ratio of metal (a) according to possible
self-attenuation; μ1 and μ2 (cm-1) are the attenuation coeficients of element (b) at the energy of Kα and Kβ rays
of element (a); d is the thickness (in cm) of the sheet of
element (b) (Cesareo and Brunetti, 2008; Cesareo et al.,
2009). Similar equations may be calculated for Lα/Lβ and
Lα/Lγ-ratios.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 281-287
284
Figure 2: Gilded copper: attenuation of Cu(Kα/Kβ) ratio by Au
(or Au alloys) vs Au thickness.
Figure 2 : Cuivre doré: atténuation du rapport Cu(Kα/Kβ) par l’Au
(ou les alliages d’Au) versus l’épaisseur d’Au.
(Au-Lα/Cu-Kα)-ratio versus Au thickness
Another way to experimentally determine, from the X-ray
spectrum, the thickness of the second element (b) assuming that the irst element (a) has an ininite thickness is the
use of the X-ray ratio of the two elements, for example, the
ratio (Au-Lα/Cu-Kα). his ratio, for two generic elements
at ixed incident energy and geometrical arrangement, is
provided by the following formula:
N b /N a ∝ (µ a0 +µ aa )/(µ b0 +µ bb )[1-exp-{µ 0b +µ bb }ρ b d b ]
(2)
exp{µ0b+µba}ρbdb
−µa0 or µb0 (in cm2/g) are the total mass attenuation coeficients of elements (a) and (b) at incident energy; µab (in
cm2/g) indicates the mass attenuation coeicient of element
(a) at energy of the involved line of element (b); ρb (in g/
cm3) is the density of element b.
In Equation (3), the proportionality should be quantitatively determined according to experimental data. Figure 3
represents theoretical values (from Eq. 3) and experimental
measurements values for the (Au-Lα/Cu-Kα)-ratio versus
Au thickness, assuming Cu with ininite thickness.
4. rEsults
Alloys from “Tumbas Reales de Sipán”
About 50 objects from the “Tumbas Reales de Sipán” were
analyzed, made of gold, gilded copper, tumbaga, silver and
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 281-287
Roberto CESAREO et al.
Figure 3: heoretical (squares) and experimental values for (AuLα/Cu-Kα) ratio vs Au thickness, assuming Cu with ininite
thickness.
Figure 3 : Valeurs théoriques (carrés) et valeurs expérimentales du
rapport (Au-Lα/Cu-Kα) versus l’épaisseur d’Au, en assumant une
épaisseur ininie pur le Cu.
copper alloys, the majority of them originating from the
tomb “Señor de Sipán”.
Gold objects composition
Several objects are made of gold (an example is shown
in Fig. 4) and are characterized by Au, Cu and Ag as main
components. In some samples, traces of Fe, Zn and Br are
visible. he mean results of the EDXRF analysis carried out
on gold objects are the following:
Au = 69.5 ± 7%; Ag = 21 ± 4%; Cu = 9.5 ± 5%.
Gilded copper: analysis and Au-thickness measurement
Only a few objects are surely of gilded copper. hey were
identiied by the exclusive presence of Cu in some analyzed
areas, and by a deteriorated surface. In many cases, it was
possible to clearly determine the Au leaf thickness from Cu
(Kα/Kβ) and (NAu-L/NCu-K) ratios.
Several sheets of gilded copper were analyzed. hey are
characterized by a Cu(Kα/Kβ) ratio of 6.1 ± 0.1, corresponding to a gilding thickness of 1.2 ± 0.5 μm. From the
(Au-Lα/Cu-Kα) ratio of 0.1 results a value of ~ 0.5 μm,
however. A beautiful mask of gilded copper was analyzed in
detail, showing the following composition: Au ~97.5%, Ag
~2.5%. he gilding thickness was measured to be ~ 0.5 μm.
Cu could not be determined, because it was present below
the gilding.
Pre-columbian alloys from the royal tombs of Sipán and from the Museum of Sicán…
Figure 4: Peanut heads made of gold, belonging to a necklace. he
average composition is: Au = 58%, Ag = 26%, Cu = 16%.
Figure 4 : Perles en forme de cacahuète exécutées en or et appartenant
à un collier. D’après la Ref. (2). La composition moyenne est: Au =
58%, Ag = 26%, Cu = 16%.
Tumbaga (or gilded copper) mean composition
and gold thickness measurement
he majority of the gold alloys were identiied as tumbaga
(an example is shown in Fig. 5), which behaves in a similar
manner as gilded Cu for EDXRF analysis. he ‘gold-equivalent’ surface thickness can be determined from Cu-Kα/
Kβ and from (NAu-L/NCu-K) ratios (see Section 3). he mean
Au-Cu-Ag concentration and Au thickness values are:
Au = 60 ± 10%; Cu = 30 ± 9%; Ag = 10 ± 4%.
he (NAu-L/NCu-K) ratio = 1.44 ± 0.7, corresponding to an
Au thickness of 3.10 ± 0.7 μm;
he (Cu-Kα/Kβ) ratio = 5.35 ± 0.5, corresponding to an
Au thickness of 2.5 ± 1.4.
Silver objects
he EDXRF analysis of silver objects shows that the silver
content is relatively high, and that it systematically contains
gold. he following mean concentration values were determined:
285
Figure 5: Leg protector made of tumbaga. he ratio Cu(Kα/Kβ)
is 4.8, corresponding to an Au thickness of 3.1 μm
Figure 5 : Protecteur de jambe en tumbaga. Le rapport Cu(Kα/Kβ)
est 4,8, correspondant à une épaisseur d’Au de 3,1 μm
Turquoises
Many of the gold objects include turquoise, which is a
hydrated phosphate of aluminium and copper. he turquoise shows an occasional presence of Zn, Fe and Cr as
impurities, resulting in deviations from the blue colour.
Results pertaining to Sipán turquoise show a systematic
presence of Fe and Zn, at an average concentration of 10%
and 8.5%, respectively.
Alloys from the museum of Sicán
About 20 objects from the Museum of Sicán (Shimada
and Griin, 1994) were analyzed, the majority of which
were of gilded copper; others were made of gold, tumbaga,
silver and copper alloys.
Objects made of gold
he following mean values could be determined:
Au = 62 ± 4% ; Ag = 32 ± 3% ; Cu = 6 ± 2%.
Ag = 92 ± 4%; Cu = 5 ± 2.5%; Au = 3 ± 1.5%.
Copper objects
Parts of a few objects are made of copper, composed of
about 99% Cu, and traces of Fe and Ni.
Objects made of gilded copper
he following mean values could be determined for the
gilding: Au = 67%; Ag = 33%.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 281-287
286
Roberto CESAREO et al.
Objects made of tumbaga
Acknowledgements
A few objects are of uncertain composition; they could
either be made of gilded copper or of tumbaga. In fact, the
gilded copper objects are identiied because of the altered
Cu(Kα/Kβ) ratio, and because of the presence of highly corroded areas on almost pure copper. In other cases, the ratio
Cu(Kα/Kβ) is altered, but no corroded areas were detected.
One artefact, a beautiful mask, is certainly made of tumbaga, whose concentration and characteristic thickness parameters are the following:
his work was partially carried out within the framework
of the project IAEA-CRP (G4.20.02/1371) “Uniication
of nuclear spectrometry: integrated techniques as a new tool
for material research”. J. Fabian expresses his gratitude to the
International Centre for heoretical Physics Abdus Salam for a
5 months grant at the University of Sassari.
Au = 34 ± 6%; Cu = 57 ± 5%; Ag = 7 ± 1.5%.
he Cu(Kα/Kβ) ratio = 4.9 ± 0.3, corresponding to an Au
thickness of 3.8 ± 0.9 μm.
he (Au-L/Cu-K) ratio = 1.05 ± 0.02, corresponding to
an Au thickness of 4.5 ± 0.8 μm.
Objects made of silver
Only one object is made of silver, i.e. a brooch in the form
of a monkey, with the following composition: Ag = 94%,
Cu = 3.7%, Au = 0.5%, Pb = 0.8%, Br = 1%.
Objects made of copper
he following mean values could be determined:
Cu = 98 ± 1%; Fe = 1.2 ± 0.5%; As = 0.8 ± 0.5%.
5. conclusIons
EDXRF analyses of precious objects from Sipán and Sicán
demonstrate their complexity and variety; they are made of
the following alloys: gold, gilded copper, tumbaga, silver,
silvered copper, silvered gold, copper, and so on, and their
nature is not always easy to identify.
From the metallurgical point of view, a comparison
between the Moche (50-700 AD) and Sicán (750-1375)
civilizations shows that:
– Moche precious objects seem to be more sophisticated
in terms of beauty and technology;
– he average compositions of gold and silver are similar;
– he Moche civilization largely used tumbaga-gold (representing more than 50% of the ‘gold’ artefacts), while Sicán
used more gilded copper;
– he Moche employed almost pure copper; the Sicán
civilization had a knowledge of arsenical copper.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 281-287
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andradE, E., murIllo, g., polIcronIadEs, r., acosta, l.,
Zavala, E.p., rocha, m.F. and cEntEno, S.A., 2005. IBA
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BurgEr, R.L., 1992. Chavín and the origin of Andean civilization.
London, hames and Hudson Ltd.
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Bologna, Ed. Compositori.
CEsarEo, r., brunEttI, a., castEllano, a. and rosalEs, m.a.,
2004. Portable equipment for X-ray luorescence analysis, in
K. Tsuji, J. Injuk, R.E. van Grieken (eds.), X-Ray Spectrometry:
Recent Technological Advances. Chichester J. Wiley & Sons,
307-341.
CEsarEo, r. and brunEttI, A., 2008. Metal sheets thickness
determined by energy-dispersive X-ray luorescence analysis.
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CEsarEo, r., rIZZutto, m.a., brunEttI, a. and rao, D.V.
Metallocation and thickness in a multilayered sheet by
measuring Kα/Kβ, Lα/Lβ and Lα/Lγ X-ray ratios. Nuclear
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hőrZ, g. and kallFass, M., 2000. he treasure of Au and Ag
artefacts from the Royal Tombs of Sipán, Peru. Materials
Characterization 45: 391-420.
lEchtman, H., 1998. New perspectives on Moche Metallurgy:
techniques of gilding copper at Loma Negra, Northern Peru.
American Antiquity 47(1): 3-30.
MarkowIcZ, A.A., 1992. X-ray Physics, in R.E. van Grieken, A.A.
Markowicz (eds.), Handbook of X-ray Spectrometry. New York:
M. Dekker Inc., 1-92
Ruvalcada sIl, J.L., 2005. PIXE analysis of pre-Hispanic items
from ancient America, in M. Uda, G. Demortier, I. Nakai
(eds.), X-rays for archaeology, Dordrecht, Springer, 123-149.
saEttonE , E.a.o., matta , J.a.s., a lva , w., c hubacI ,
J.F.o., FantInI, m.c.a., galvão, r.m.o., kIyohara, p.
and tabacnIks, M.H., 2003. Plasma cleaning and analysis
of archaeological artefacts from Sipán. Journal of Physics D:
Applied Physics 36: 842-848.
Pre-columbian alloys from the royal tombs of Sipán and from the Museum of Sicán…
schorsch, D., 1998. Silver and gold Moche artefacts from Loma
Negra. Metropolitan Museum Journal 33: 109-136.
scott, D.A., 2000. A review of gilding techniques in ancient
South America, in T. Drayman-Weisser (ed.), Gilded Metals:
History, Technology and Conservation. London, Archetype
Publications in association with he American Institute for
Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, 203-222.
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ShImada, I. and grIFFIn, J.A., 1994. Precious metal objects of the
Middle Sicán. Scientiic American 270(4): 60-67.
VEttEr parodI, l., 2006. Gold of ancient Peru. Lima, Roberto
Gheller Doig Ed.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 281-287
Technological and material features
of the gold work of Mesoamerica
Caractéristiques technologiques et matérielles du travail de l’or en Mésoamérique
José Luis Ruvalcaba Sil*, Gabriela Peñuelas Guerrero**,
Jannen Contreras Vargas**, Edith Ortíz Díaz***
and Eumelia Hernández Vázquez****
Abstract: he metallurgical work in Pre-Columbian America achieved a high degree of development. In the Mesoamerican area, the development
of metallurgy started very late, during the post-Classic period (800 AD). Nevertheless, various techniques, such as lost wax casting and false
iligree, were rapidly developed and improved. Most of the gold metallurgy was developed in the Oaxaca region, in the South of Mexico, by the
Mixtec people.
A limited number of gold alloy based artefacts survived after the conquest of Mexico. Few collections are related to archaeological contexts and
may be used to obtain reliable information about the technical features and materials used in the Mesoamerican gold metallurgy. For this reason,
non-destructive analyses have been performed on some artefacts of the most important collections of the Mexican museums using portable XRF
and PIXE in the laboratory.
In this work, a full review of the main technical features and alloys of the analyzed gold artefacts from the Mesoamerican area collections are
presented. his database may be used to study collections of gold artefacts from the Mesoamerican areas.
Résumé : Le travail du métal a atteint un niveau élevé en Amérique précolombienne. Dans l’aire Mésoaméricaine, ce développement débute très tard,
pendant la période postclassique (800 AD). Néanmoins, diférentes techniques, notamment la fonte à la cire perdue et le faux iligrané, rapidement se
développent et se perfectionnent. La majeure partie de la métallurgie de l’or a été développée par le peuple Mixtèque dans la région d’Oaxaca, au sud du
Mexique.
Seul un nombre limité d’objets fabriqués avec des alliages d’or ont survécu à la conquête du Mexique. Quelques rares collections possèdent des objets dont
les contextes archéologiques sont connus et peuvent ainsi être utilisées pour obtenir des informations iables sur les procédés techniques et les matériaux
utilisés en Mésoamérique dans le cas de la métallurgie de l’or. Pour cette raison, une sélection d’objets appartenant aux plus importantes collections des
musées mexicains a été analysée d’une façon non-destructive au moyen d’une FX portable et par PIXE au laboratoire.
Ce travail présente un bilan complet des procédés technologiques et des alliages des objets mésoaméricains en or étudiés. La base de données obtenue peut
être appliquée à l’étude de collections d’objets en or fabriqués dans l’aire mésoaméricaine.
Keywords: Mesoamerica, gold, depletion gilding, PIXE, XRF.
Mots-clés : Mésoamérique, or, mise en couleur, PIXE, XRF.
* Instituto de Fisica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México – Apdo. Postal 20-364 Mexico DF 01000, Mexico. (sil@isica.unam.mx)
** Escuela Nacional de Conservación, Restauración y Museografía-INAH – General Anaya 187 Col. San Diego Churubusco, Coyoacán, cp, 04120.
México D.F. (gabrielapenuelas@gmail.com), (jannencontreras@gmail.com)
*** Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México – Circuito Exterior s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico DF
04510, Mexico. (edithd@servidor.unam.mx)
**** Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México – Circuito Mario de la Cueva s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico
DF 04510, Mexico. (euihernandez@gmail.com)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 289-297
290
1. INTRODUCTION
he main cultural area extending approximately from
contemporary central Mexico to Honduras and Nicaragua
is called Mesoamerica (Fig. 1). In this area, several civilizations and cultures developed from 1500 BC until the
Spanish conquest in the 16th century AD. Despite the fact
that Mesoamerican cultures achieved a signiicant degree of
development in agriculture, mathematics, astronomy, calendaric and technological knowledge, metallurgy appeared
in speciic areas quite late, around 800 AD. It is generally
accepted that the irst metallic artefacts and metalwork
knowledge arrived to Western and Southern Mexico and
the Yucatan peninsula from Central America, Colombia and
Peru by several paths (Fig. 1). First, the artefacts arrived as
a result of exchange. Some of the basic forms were copied
and afterwards modiied following local and cultural inlu-
José Luis RUVALCABA SIL et al.
ences (Hosler, 1995). Later, the metalwork focus in Western
Mexico and in Oaxaca – South of Mexico – developed rapidly, with local and original contributions that gave rise to a
high level of technical manufacturing of artefacts.
Copper metallurgy was developed especially in Western
and Central Mexico, while gold and silver were mainly
worked in the Oaxaca area, in the South of Mexico.
Apparently, the mineral and metal sources available in these
regions determined these speciic developments. Gold was
obtained mainly from rivers, as powder and nuggets. Mining
and gold extraction were not developed until the conquest
and Spanish colonization.
By the end of the Mesoamerican Age, copper and gold
metallurgy became widespread in Western and Central
Mexico, and the metallic artefacts were traded and used by
the elites of the Mesoamerican peoples both as symbols of
power and for ritual purposes in oferings and burials. Only
Figure 1: Map of the areas of Mesoamerican
and South American gold work traditions. he
possible routes of contact are shown.
Figure 1 : Carte des aires de tradition orfèvre
mésoaméricaine et sud-américaine. Les routes
probables de contact sont visibles.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 289-297
291
Technological and material features of the gold work of Mesoamerica
high level rulers and warriors were allowed to wear metallic
artefacts. Gold and silver were considered symbols of the
sun and moon. Nevertheless, precious metals did not have
monetary value. In fact, other materials such as green stone
objects or fully coloured feathers had a high value and were
much appreciated by the Mesoamerican cultures. Most of
the usual artefacts were ornaments: chin ornaments, ear
ornaments, rings, pendants, necklaces and foils.
2. GOLD COLLECTIONS
FROM MESOAMERICAN AREAS
Few gold based artefacts from Mesoamerica survived the
European destruction and the ambition for gold and silver.
In Europe and North America, there are few items that are
representative of the goldsmiths’ technological skills and
developments (Matos Moctezuma and Solis, 2003). he
Mexican collections are composed of items recovered mainly
from archaeological excavations of burials and oferings.
hey may be used to infer reliable information about the
technical features and materials used in the Mesoamerican
gold metallurgy. he Mesoamerican collections of Mexico
correspond to the Maya area, West Mexico, Aztec gold artefacts, and the sets from the Oaxaca region (Solis, 2004).
he Maya
he gold artefacts discovered in the Maya area originate
mainly from the Yucatan region. In fact, most of the artefacts were recovered from the Chichen Itza Cenote during
the irst decade of the 20th century. hese items were part
of oferings and ritual ceremonies. heir chronology corresponds to the post-Classic period (800-900 AD), but,
judging by the style, shape and size of the artefacts, it is
clear that these zoomorphic pieces, bells and pendants were
traded from the Central American peoples Diquis and
Veraguas (Fernández and Segura, 2004). Only a few foils
in the shape of serpents may have been manufactured in
the Maya area. his represents the biggest collection of gold
artefacts discovered in Mesoamerica, but we have to take
into consideration the fact that it is not representative of the
local metal work technology. Most of the artefacts are currently on display in the Peabody Museum. Part of the collection was given back to Mexico, and they are exhibited in the
Maya room of the National Museum of Anthropology and
History of Mexico (MNAH), and in the Yucatan Museum
of Palacio Canton.
Artefacts from West Mexico
One of the major loci of metallurgy in Mesoamerica was
the Western region, ruled by the Tarascan, rivals of the
Aztecs. hey used extensively copper based artefacts for
ornaments and weapons. Nevertheless, a limited number
of gold artefacts have also been discovered in this region.
Most the artefacts are bells, plates, zoomorphic items and
ear ornaments with clear stylistic inluences from South
America.
Aztec gold artefacts
he artefacts belonging to the Aztec culture were discovered during excavations in Mexico City and among the oferings found in the remains of the archaeological site of the
main temple of Tenochtitlan, the capital city of the Aztecs,
in the historic centre of Mexico City (Matos Moctezuma
and Solís, 2003). he sets of artefacts are part of the collections of MNAH and the Museum of the Great Temple
of Tenochtitlan (MTM). hey are small plates, pendants
and bells decorated with false iligree, and correspond to
the period of 1325-1521, the dates of the foundation and
conquest of Tenochtitlan, respectively.
he gold raw materials, such as powder and ingots, or
even foils, were brought from the Oaxaca and Guerrero
regions, as tributes from the peoples under Aztec rule. he
historical registers indicate the amounts of gold provided
by the diferent regions of the Aztec Empire. Manufactured
pieces may also be originating from tributes, but pendants
and other items were especially ofered as presents for rulers,
priests or elite warriors. he historical sources indicate that
goldsmiths from the Oaxaca area worked in the Aztec workshops to produce artefacts for the Aztec rulers and ceremonies. he Florentine Codex, written under the supervision
of the Franciscan priest Sahagun in the second part of the
16th century, describes in the ninth book the manufacturing process and technology employed by the goldsmiths to
produce the gold artefacts by lost wax casting and depletion
gilding (Sahagun, 2000).
he most outstanding artefacts were discovered among
the MTM oferings: a few pendants with spherical beads
with a clay nucleus; however, most of the items are gathered in practically three oferings only (#3, #34 and #126).
Unfortunately, most of the smaller items were melted, since
the items of the ofering were often ired, and they appeared
as small solid beads in the archaeological context.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 289-287
292
Mixtec artefacts
he Mixtecs were the most skilled goldsmiths of Mesoamerica.
heir civilization developed in the Oaxaca regions during the
post-Classic period (from 900 AD until the conquest) and
replaced the Zapotecs, the dominant culture during the Classic
period in Oaxaca, in various sites of the Central Valleys.
About 80% of the existing Mesoamerican gold artefacts
belong to the Mixtec tradition. he most important collections are in the Oaxaca Room of the MNAH, in the Museo
de las Culturas de Oaxaca (MCO), and in the Fisherman’s
Treasure in the Baluarte de Santiago in Veracruz (BSV).
he collection of MNAH is composed of artefacts from
various regions of the Oaxaca area: the Central Valleys and
the Sierra. he collection includes pendants, chin ornaments
(bezotes), zoomorphic pieces, necklaces, rings and ear ornaments, bells, foils, etc. Some of the artefacts were acquired at
the beginning of the last century and they lack an archaeological context. Nevertheless, the main gold artefacts from the
tombs of Zaachila and other artefacts discovered in archaeological contexts are also on display. Among the Zaachila pieces,
a huge solar pendant made by the lost wax technique, fully
decorated ring ornaments and chin ornaments, as well as ear
pieces, are exhibited. he Papantla pendant, discovered in the
Gulf of Mexico area but belonging to the Oaxaca tradition, is
an exceptional piece, similar in terms of technological manufacturing to the inds of Tomb 7 of Monte Alban.
he most outstanding gold treasure of pre-Hispanic Mexico
was discovered in 1934 at Monte Alban, in a tomb reused
by the Mixtec people (Caso, 1969). In this multiple burial,
artefacts made of green stones, turquoises, shells, bones, gold
and silver were found. About 121 gold artefacts and 24 silver
pieces were found. All types of artefacts were discovered, such
as sets of remarkable pendants, fully decorated rings, bells,
rich necklaces, strings of beads, ear pieces, chin ornaments,
etc. he collection includes sets of almost identical pendants
and inger ornaments, with practically the same decoration in
gold and silver alloys (Fig. 2, a-c and Fig. 3).
he third collection is located in the port of Veracruz,
on the Gulf coast of Mexico. It was recovered from the sea
by a isherman who sold part of the items to a jeweller.
Fortunately, an important number of artefacts were not melted. he treasure is attributed to the shipwreck of the boat
on which the entrusted Figueroa was returning to Spain
after looting tombs in the Sierra of Oaxaca. he collection
of 40 pieces includes beautiful pendants, seven bracelets,
fully decorated beads, zoomorphic pieces, discs, as well as
two ingots. According to their style and shape, the artefacts
undoubtedly share features with the Oaxaca artefacts of the
MNAH, and with the MCO pieces.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 289-297
José Luis RUVALCABA SIL et al.
Following the main discoveries described above, few gold
artefacts have been found in the Oaxaca area in recent times.
One such case is that of the San Francisco Caxonos site in
the Sierra region, where a pendant was recovered (Fig. 2d).
his artefact was fully studied using various non-destructive
techniques, since it is remarkable in terms of the technology
used for its gilding (Ortiz Diaz and Ruvalcaba, 2009).
3. MAIN METALLURGICAL TECHNIQUES
AND TECHNOLOGICAL FEATURES
he amount of gold artefacts from Mesoamerica is limited in comparison with South American metallic objects.
Nevertheless, it is possible to infer some patterns related to
the materials used, as well as technological features.
First, all the types of gold artefacts from Mesoamerica
were manufactured in combination with other precious
materials, such as green stones, turquoise, obsidian, crystal
rock and sea shells. In very few cases, two examples actually,
symmetric bimetallic artefacts, with one half made from a
silver-rich alloy and the second half made using a gold-rich
alloy, were cast. he irst example, a pendant from Teotitlan,
Oaxaca, is currently on display in the Oaxaca room of the
MNAH collection, and the second case is that of the set of
two discs from Tomb 7 of the Monte Alban collection in
the MCO.
he main diiculties in the study and characterization of
the artefacts are, irst of all, the limited number of items,
and, second, the fact that, since they belong to museum
collections, it is generally not possible to move them to the
laboratory for technological analyses. Moreover, sampling
is not allowed or is limited. hus, the analytical approach
that we have considered in our research is that of performing non-destructive analyses in situ by imaging techniques,
in order to detect restorations and mounting materials,
followed by microscopic studies with a 40-80X stereoscope, and inally by elemental analysis by XRF (Peñuelas
Guerrero, 2008).
he main techniques used to fabricate the Mesoamerican
artefacts are hammering for the foils and plates, and lost
wax casting using a nucleus of a mixture of clay and carbon. his manufacturing technique allowed the optimization of the amount of gold alloy required for the casting.
In fact, native gold was not as abundant in Mesoamerica
as we may expect. Undoubtedly, the false iligree technique
was developed and improved in comparison with the South
American artefacts. All the inest details employed to simulate the threads were produced by lost wax casting. his
technique was also used to produce granulations (false gra-
293
Technological and material features of the gold work of Mesoamerica
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Various artefacts from Tomb 7 of Monte Alban: a) Pendant with
dates, b) zoomorphic pendants, c) Ball game pendant, and d) Warrior pendant from Caxonos,
Sierra of Oaxaca.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Diférents objets de la Tombe 7 de Monte Alban: a) Pendentif
avec dates, b) pendentifs zoomorphes, c) pendentif au jeu de bale et d) pendentif au guerrier de
Caxonos, Sierra of Oaxaca.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 289-287
294
José Luis RUVALCABA SIL et al.
Figure 3: hree of ive of
the Xochipilli pendants
set of Tomb 7 of Monte
Alban. Details of false iligree modelling are shown.
Figure 3 : Trois des cinq
pendentifs Xochipilli de la
Tombe 7 de Monte Alban.
Détails du faux iligrane.
nulation) and mesh decorations. After hundreds of analyses
using XRF and PIXE (Cesareo et al., 1994; Ruvalcaba et al.,
1995; Peñuelas Guerrero, 2008), as well as SEM-EDS measurements carried out on the artefacts (La Niece and Meeks,
2000), no indication of soldering has ever been observed in
the Mesoamerican gold artefacts.
he collection of Tomb 7 of Monte Alban provides
outstanding information about the modelling and lost wax
casting of the metal work. Since this collection includes sets
of almost identical pendants and inger ornaments, from a
careful examination it is clear that they were produced in
series in the same workshops, following the same iconography, size and decoration. However, the back parts show
small diferences in the wax modelling of the threads, and
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 289-297
the unions of the various parts in the original model (Fig. 3).
hus, each object is in fact unique, despite their similarity.
Also, the composition of the gold alloys used, determined by
XRF, indicates that the same alloys were used to cast one set
of pieces, like in the case of the small zoomorphic pendants
(78% Au, 13% Ag, 9% Cu) of Figure 2b. Nevertheless, the
sets may have diferent compositions as well. For example,
four of the ive pendants of the Xochipilli goddess in Figure
3 have the same composition (47% Au, 33% Ag, 20% Cu),
but for the ifth piece the elemental contents are diferent
(54% Au, 26% Ag, 20% Cu). he diference in the composition of these sets may suggest two diferent workshops.
he elemental analysis of the huge ball game pendant (Fig.
2a) indicates that three alloys were used to manufacture this
Technological and material features of the gold work of Mesoamerica
artefact; the irst four sections have a similar composition
(59% Au, 26% Ag, 15% Cu), while for the feathers section
(5), the mean composition is completely diferent (50% Au,
38% Ag, 12% Cu), and it also changes slightly for the bits
and bells sections 6 and 7 (50% Au, 36% Ag, 15% Cu). his
behaviour has also been observed for the eagle chin ornament
from the Zaachila tombs and for the Caxonos pendant (Fig.
2d). From these results, we may infer that the casting of this
kind of pieces was carried out by rows, sometimes using the
same alloy, and in other cases diferent alloys, as a function of
the amount of available materials. A comparison of the mean
composition of the artefacts of Tomb 7 of Monte Alban and
other collections indicates that the Mixtec goldsmiths were
able to produce a signiicant number of alloys with similar
composition, but also that they were using similar native gold
sources to manufacture the artefacts.
On the other hand, in terms of inishing the items, the
historical sources report the use of a depletion gilding
technique (mise-en-couleur) by successive oxidation and
cleaning of a gold-poor alloy. According to this technique,
the amount of gold increases gradually at the surface due to
the elimination of copper and the consequent nucleation
of gold (Bray, 1993; Ruvalcaba et al., 2004); however, so
far this was only identiied in one piece from Mesoamerica.
his is the case of the warrior pendant discovered at the San
Francisco Caxonos site in Oaxaca (Fig. 2d). When this kind
295
of depletion gilding is used, we may expect that the surface
composition presents both lateral and depth heterogeneity
because of the irregular loss of copper by pickling and the
dynamics of gold nucleation during heating. X-ray based
techniques, such as EDS, PIXE and XRF, provide the mean
elemental composition, and only by changing the incident
beam energy and performing the analysis on several regions
of the surface it is possible to detect this heterogeneity and
the use of a depletion gilding technique (Demortier and
Ruvalcaba, 1998). For the Caxonos pendant, diferential
PIXE combined with RBS was applied to determine the gold
enrichment depth proile, ranging from 50% gold content
in the bulk up to practically 100% gold concentration at the
upper surface, on the irst 4 µm depth. Copper concentration may reach more than 35% in the bulk (Demortier and
Ruvalcaba, 2005; Ortiz Diaz and Ruvalcaba, 2009).
According to the data reported in analytical studies,
it is possible to show in Figure 4 the composition of the
gold alloys of the Mesoamerican items by regions (Franco
Velazquez and Torres Montes, 1989; Cesareo et al., 1994;
Ruvalcaba et al., 1995; Ortiz Diaz and Ruvalcaba, 2009;
Peñuelas Guerrero, 2008). In this igure, the data for the
Maya artefacts imported from Central American regions
show high amounts of gold (higher than 90%) and do not
it with the composition of other Mesoamerican regions. On
the other hand, the data for the Aztec collection overlaps
Figure 4: Comparison of the elemental composition of gold artefacts from the main Mesoamerican
areas.
Figure 4 : Comparaison de la composition élémentaire d’objets d’or des
principales aires mésoaméricaines.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 289-287
296
with that pertaining to the artefacts from the Central Valleys
of Oaxaca, made by the Mixtec goldsmiths. he compositions of the gold alloys range from 60 up to 85% gold, and
may reach about 20% copper; the silver contents rises from
10 to 40%. Nevertheless, the artefacts from the Sierra of
Oaxaca (Caxonos and Fisherman’s Treasure) do not it very
well with the composition of the Central Valley and Aztec
pieces. heir gold alloys are richer in copper (from 10 to
40%) and silver amounts vary from 10 to 35%. here is a
diference of about 60° C in the melting temperatures of the
alloys. Also, depletion gilding may have been used, since the
amount of copper is signiicantly higher. For these reasons,
the hypothesis of two loci of metal work, one including
the Oaxaca area and the Central Valleys, and the other the
Sierra, has been proposed.
hese data may be used as a reference for Mesoamerican
style artefacts without an archaeological context or reported
provenance. For instance, the composition of the gold artefacts from the British Museum its perfectly our reported
data for the Central Valley artefacts.
Finally, a comparison of the reported data for
Mesoamerican pieces with the gold alloys measurements
carried out for the Panama traditions (Veraguas and Cocle)
and some Colombian cultures (Calima, Tolima and Muisca)
indicates an overlap between the Veraguas items and the
Maya artefacts from the Cenote of Chichen Itza, as it may
be expected, while the Colombian pieces show some similarity with the pieces from Oaxaca areas.
4. FINAL REMARKS
Despite the fact that metallurgy developed quite late in
Mesoamerica – after 800 AD – a quick development and
high technological level were achieved in the manufacturing
of gold artefacts after this date.
A limited number of objects (less than 500 pieces) have
been preserved. From the analyses of these items, we can
infer reliable information about the work and skills of
Mesoamerican goldsmiths; in particular, they were masters
of the false iligree and false granulation techniques.
here are very few cases of artefacts inished by depletion
gilding. his fact may be due to the low amount of copper in the gold alloys. Other gilding techniques, such as
electrochemical replacement plating, have been observed in
imported artefacts recovered in the Maya region of Yucatan
(Contreras et al., 2007). So far, there is no technical evidence
of soldering techniques.
Since the collections are unique, it is diicult to access the
items. hus, in situ analysis represents a convenient irst step
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 289-297
José Luis RUVALCABA SIL et al.
that might justify further analyses in the laboratory, and/
or establish a suitable strategy for sampling with minimal
damage to the artefact.
Acknowledgements
his research is part of the MOVIL project Non destructive methodologies for the study of the Mexican cultural
heritage, with the inancial support of the CONACyT Mexico
U49839-R.
References
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Metal Plating and Patination: Cultural, Technical and Historical
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CASO, A., 1969. El Tesoro de Monte Albán. Memorias del Instituto
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DEMORTIER, G. and RUVALCABA SIL, J.L., 2005. Non-destructive
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in Amerindian gold jewellery artefacts, in R. Van Grieken,
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Costa Rica: Identiicación de Producciones Locales basadas
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FRANCO VELAZQUEZ, F. and TORRES MONTES, L., 1989. La orfebrería prehispánica en el Golfo de México y el Tesoro del
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of ancient west Mexico. World Archaeology 27(1): 100-115.
LA NIECE, S. and MEEKS, N., 2000. Diversity of Goldsmithing
Traditions in the Americas and the Old World, in C. McEwan
(ed.), Pre-Columbian Gold, Technology, Style and Iconography.
London, Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 220-239.
MATOS MOCTEZUMA, E. and SOLIS, L.F., 2003. Aztecs. London,
Royal Academy Books.
ORTIZ-DIAZ, E. and RUVALCABA SIL, J.L., 2009. An historical
approach to a gold pendant: he study of diferent metallurgic
techniques in ancient Oaxaca, Mexico, during the late postclassic period, in Archaeometallurgy in Europe: 2nd International
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Milano, Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia, 511-518.
PEÑUELAS GUERRERO, G., 2008. Caracterización por Medio de
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ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 289-287
Technological study of pre-Columbian bimetallic discs
from Monte Alban, Oaxaca, Mexico
Étude technologique des disques bimétalliques précolombiens de Monte Alban,
Oaxaca, Mexique
Gabriela Peñuelas Guerrero*, Jannen Contreras Vargas*,
José Luis Ruvalcaba Sil** and Ángel García Abajo*
Abstract: One of the most remarkable examples of metalwork from Mesoamerica is the collection from Monte Alban’s Tomb 7. Among its
items, we encounter extraordinary examples of bimetallic artefacts; a pair of solar representations whose main particularity is that they are
formed by two diferent alloy sheets: one rich in silver and the other rich in gold. he silver-rich zones show deterioration characterized by
brittleness, fractures and the loss of some fragments; this fragility is apparently due to dislocations caused by repeated hammering and insuficient annealing during the manufacturing process. Because sampling of the original items was not allowed, test specimens were prepared
replicating the manufacturing techniques and alloy compositions, based on data previously obtained by X-ray Fluorescence Analysis of the
original pieces. Examination of these test specimens was undertaken in order to understand the thermodynamic behaviour of the metallic
microstructure and its relation to the alteration processes. Samples of each alloy were then taken and analyzed by metallographic methods.
Résumé: Un des plus remarquables exemples du travail du métal en Mésoamérique est l’ensemble trouvé dans la Tombe 7 de Monte Alba. Parmi ces
objets, certains sont des exemples extraordinaires de productions bimétalliques, comme une paire de représentations solaires dont la principale particularité est l’utilisation de deux feuilles d’alliages diférents : un riche en argent et l’autre riche en or. Les régions riches en argent montrent une dégradation
caractérisée par des cassures, fractures et perte de fragments; cette fragilité est apparemment due aux dislocations causées pendant leur fabrication par des
coups de marteau répétés avec une chaufe insuisante. Comme il est impossible de prélever des objets originaux, des analogues ont été préparés en utilisant
les mêmes techniques de fabrication et des alliages identiques, révélés par les analyses réalisées précédemment par FX sur les pièces originales. L’examen des
analogues a été réalisé de façon à comprendre le comportement thermodynamique de la microstructure métallique et son rapport aux procédés d’altération.
Des échantillons de chacun des alliages ont été prélevés pour efectuer une analyse métallographique.
Keywords: Bimetallic artefacts, gold alloys, silver alloys, metallography, X-ray luorescence.
Mots-clés : objets bimétalliques, alliages d’or, alliages d’argent, métallographie, FX.
1. INTRODUCTION
In October 2007, part of the jewellery collection which
constitutes the ofering of Tomb 7 of Monte Alban,
Oaxaca, Mexico, was analyzed by means of portable X-ray
Fluorescence (XRF) with the purpose of characterizing
the alloys and manufacturing techniques, and of obtaining relevant information on the alteration phenomena,
* Escuela Nacional de Conservación, Restauración y Museografía-INAH – General Anaya 187 Col. San Diego Churubusco, Coyoacán, México D.F. CP.
04120., Mexico. (gabrielapenuelas@gmail.com), (jannencontreras@gmail.com)
** Instituto de Física, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México – Apdo. Postal 20-364, México D.F 01000, Mexico. (sil@isica.unam.mx)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 299-302
300
in order to prepare a conservation proposal (Peñuelas
Guerrero, 2008).
his ofering represents one of the most representative,
varied and rich metalworking traditions of the Mixtec area,
and even of the entire Mesoamerican area (Caso, 1969). Even
though some analyses of a few gold objects were carried out
before (Camacho Bragado, 2005), this was the irst one using
portable XRF to obtain elemental composition data, enabling
one third of the entire metalwork collection to be studied.
Moreover, this analytical approach was the irst one employed
for characterizing the silver alloys of the artefacts.
Among the jewellery items, there are two small and
unique artefacts with solar representations in relief, made
with two diferent alloys: one rich in silver and the other rich
in gold. hese pieces are known as bimetallic discs (Fig. 1).
In Mexico, besides these pieces, only one other bimetallic pendant originating from Teotitlan del Camino, Oaxaca
(Fig. 2) is known. It is conserved in the Museo Nacional de
Antropologia e Historia – INAH (Carmona Macias, 1997).
he main diference between the Monte Alban discs and the
Teotitlan pendant is that the pendant was clearly made by
lost wax casting while, because of their thinness, the discs
were probably made by hammering.
he production of bimetallic items with gold in preColumbian America is not as uncommon as we may think,
but platinum was used instead of silver. Fray Bernardino de
Sahagun, one of the most representative chroniclers of New
Spain, describes the extraordinary objects that Aztecs were
able to make by combining gold and silver (Sahagun, 2000).
he irst archaeologist to analyze the manufacture technique of the bimetallic discs was Easby (Caso, 1969), who
proposed that the discs were made by hammering two different sheets together: one of an alloy rich in silver, and the
other of an alloy rich in gold, achieving a difusion boun-
Gabriela PEÑUELAS GUERRERO et al.
Figure 2: (See colour plate) he Teotitlan del Camino, Oaxaca,
bimetallic pendant.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Le pendentif bimétallique Teotitlan
del Camino, Oaxaca.
dary of the foils. Besides the unusual manufacture technique, the bimetallic discs present a speciic conservation
problem: the silver-rich zones are brittle, show fractures and
have lost some fragments; this fragility is apparently due to
dislocations caused by repeated hammering with insuicient
annealing. he actual study was carried out to understand
their deterioration phenomena as well.
2. METHODOLOGY
Figure 1: (See colour plate) he bimetallic discs from Tomb 7 of
Monte Alban, Oaxaca, Mexico.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Les disques bimétalliques de la
Tombe 7 de Monte Alban, Oaxaca, Mexique.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 299-302
Previous XRF measurements of the two discs provided
information on their composition. For the irst disc, the mean
composition of the part rich in gold is 85.8% Au, 13.7%
Ag and 0.6 % Cu, while the silver-rich alloy section has an
average composition of 91.1% Ag, 6.4% Au and 2.5% Cu
(Peñuelas Guerrero, 2008). For the second disc, the average
compositions for the gold and silver sections are 81% Au,
18.2% Ag, 0.7% Cu, and 91.3% Ag, 5.5% Au and 3.2% Cu,
respectively. Based on Easby’s hypothesis and knowing the elemental composition of each alloy from XRF measurements,
replica alloys were designed to test his hypothesis.
he irst step involved the reproduction of the alloys with
a mean composition about 85% Au, 14% Ag and 1% Cu,
Technological study of pre-Columbian bimetallic discs from Monte Alban, Oaxaca, Mexico
and 91% Ag, 6% Au and 3% Cu, and the casting of each
part individually. Subsequently, the homogeneity of the
elemental composition of the replicas was veriied using a
portable XRF spectrometer with a Mo X-ray tube with a
voltage of 45 kV, a current of 0.2 mA, and a CT detector.
he exciting X-ray beam had a diameter of 1.5 mm on the
sample surface and each measurement lasted 30 sec.
Once the foils were reproduced, we proceeded to try to
join them by hammering and heating. Although we were
unable to join them according to this procedure, after obtaining a similar thickness to that of the original discs, we
proceeded to take samples of each alloy for metallographic
examination.
3. RESULTS
After a long hammering and annealing process, it proved impossible to join the two sheets, due to their diferent
behaviour. Without soldering, higher temperatures were
required to join them, but the diferent melting points of
each alloy (the gold-rich alloy melts at 1010 °C while the
silver-rich alloy melts at 954 °C), in combination with the
rapid heat difusion caused by the limited thickness of the
foil (0.8 mm), caused the silver-rich alloy to begin to fuse
instead of joining to the gold one.
he fusing of the silver alloy was veriied by means of
metallographic analysis; while the structure of the gold alloy
showed crystals and macles characteristic of cold work, the
301
silver-rich alloy had a cast-like structure, even though both
metals were worked at the same temperature (Fig. 3).
4. CONCLUSION
Based on observations of the tests performed on the
replica alloys and the study of the other existing bimetallic
artefact, the Teotitlan pendant made by lost wax casting, a
hypothesis regarding the manufacture of the Monte Alban
bimetallic discs is proposed. he Teotitlan pendant was probably cast by irst casting the higher melting point alloy
and then completing the mould with the other lower melting point alloy. We believe that the alloys of the bimetallic
discs were likely cast in a similar manner and were then
joined mechanically, with heat. Afterwards, the goldsmith
must have hammered the cast objects to obtain the desired
thickness, size and design. he beating and heating should
have strengthened the join and produced a slight silver diffusion into the gold-rich alloy.
We can conclude that the brittleness of the silver-rich
alloy is due to an excess of dislocations resulting from the
diferent behaviour of the two alloys that were cold worked
(hammered) together. Nevertheless, the next step of this
experiment is to reproduce the lost wax casting and hammering in order to obtain further information regarding the
deterioration phenomena.
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Metallographic plates of the silver and gold alloys
made for the bimetallic replica test (200X
and 400X).
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Planches
métallographiques des alliages d’argent et
d’or réalisées pour efectuer les analogues
bimétalliques (200X and 400X).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 299-302
302
Acknowledgements
his research is part of the MOVIL project Non destructive methodologies for the study of the Mexican cultural
heritage, with the inancial support of the CONACyT Mexico
U49839-R.
References
CASO, A., 1969. El Tesoro de Monte Albán. Memorias del Instituto
Nacional de Antropologia e Historia III. México, Instituto
Nacional de Antropologia e Historia.
CARMONA MACIAS, M., 1997. Entre Crisoles y Dioses: La orfebreria prehispánica de Oaxaca, in M. Dalton Palomo, V. Loera
y Chávez Castro (eds.), Historia del Arte de Oaxaca, Arte
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 299-302
Gabriela PEÑUELAS GUERRERO et al.
Prehispánico, vol. 1. Oaxaca, México, Gobierno del Estado de
Oaxaca, Instituto Oaxaqueño de las Culturas, 286-307.
CAMACHO BRAGADO, A., ORTEGA, M., VELASCO, M. and JOSÉYACAMÁN, M., 2005. A microstructural study of gold treasure
from Monte Alban’s Tomb 7. Journal of the Minerals, Metals
and Materials Society 57(7): 19-24.
PEÑUELAS GUERRERO, G., 2008. Caracterización por Medio de
Análisis Instrumentales de los Materiales Constitutivos de la
Orfebreria de la Tumba 7 de Monte Albán, Oaxaca. México:
Esc. Nal. de Restauración. Conservación. y Museografía,
Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia.
SAHAGUN, B., 2000. Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva
España. México, Conaculta, Colección Cien de Mexico.
Location of gold placers in Oaxaca during the late
pre-Hispanic period and early Colonial times:
1250 to 1550 AD
Localisation de placers aurifères à Oaxaca pendant la période préhispanique tardive
et la période coloniale récente : 1250 à 1550 apr. J.-C.
Edith Ortiz Díaz *
Abstract: During the late post-Classic period (1250-1521 AD), the Mesoamerican region of Oaxaca was well known for the pre-Hispanic gold
metallurgy developed by the Mixtecs and Zapotecs. In this epoch, the most important burials were adorned with exceptional jewels, such as the
well know items of Tomb 7 from the archaeological site of Monte Alban, and from other sites, like Zaachila. In addition to the Central Valley of
Oaxaca and the Mixtec area, there are other zones in Oaxaca where the ancient goldsmiths manufactured exquisite gold objects, like the Northern
Sierra of Oaxaca, or the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Nevertheless, there is a huge lack of information regarding the location of the principal gold
placers of Oaxaca. he objective of this paper is to situate the most important gold placers of Oaxaca during the late post-classic period and the
irst decades of the Colonial times.
Résumé : La région mésoaméricaine d’Oaxaca est reconnue par la métallurgie préhispanique de l’or, développée par les Mixtèques et les Zapotèques pendant
la période postclassique récente (1250-1521 AD). À cette époque, les sépultures les plus importantes étaient remplies de pièces d’orfèvrerie exceptionnelles
telles les fameux objets de la Tombe 7 du site archéologique de monte Alban ou encore des objets d’autres sites comme Zaachila. En plus de la vallée centrale
d’Oaxaca et de la zone d’inluence des Mixtèques, d’autres régions à Oaxaca, comme le nord de la Sierra d’Oaxaca ou l’isthme de Tehuantepec, ont dévoilé
des objets en or exceptionnels, manufacturés par les anciens orfèvres. Néanmoins, les informations sur la localisation des principaux placers d’Oaxaca sont
quasi inexistantes. Pour répondre à cette question, ce travail se propose de situer les principaux placers d’Oaxaca exploités pendant la période postclassique
tardive et les premières décades de la période coloniale.
Keywords: colonial, locate, Mexico, Oaxaca, gold placers, pre-Columbian.
Mots-clés : colonial, localisation, Mexique, Oaxaca, placers, précolombien.
1. INTRODUCTION
Techniques of gold and silver smithing, introduced in
Mesoamerica from South America since the 8th century
AD, were admirably assimilated and even improved by
the Mixtec and Zapotec artisans of Oaxaca. However, the
Mixtec and Zapotec goldsmiths of the Mixtec area and the
Central Valley of Oaxaca were not the only artisans in this
region. Documentary evidence indicates that the Chinantecs
(Díaz del Castillo, 1979) and the highland Zapotecs of the
*Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Exterior s/n – Ciudad Universitaria, 04510, México
D.F., Mexique. (edithd@servidor.unam.mx)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 303-307
Edith ORTIZ DÍAZ
304
Northern Sierra of Oaxaca were creating gold jewels (Ortiz
and Ruvalcaba, 2007) by the end of the pre-Hispanic period
(1250-1524 AD), and also that the Zapotecs of the Isthmus
of Tehuantepec were ine artisans (Saville, 1920). Based on
this information, we can establish at least three centres of
gold manufacture in Oaxaca before the Spanish conquest.
In consequence, in no other part of Mexico have so many
objects of gold been found as in Oaxaca. Nevertheless, to
date we do not have any information about the gold production process, or about who controlled the access to the gold
placers. Even if these questions are critical for understanding
the complexity of past societies, archaeological and historical
research have left aside such inquires until now, as well as
the issue of what happened with the ancient gold placers
after the Conquest. It is clear that we cannot answer all these
questions in the present work. As a result, in this paper we
are going to focus our attention on locating the ancient gold
placers of the Mixtec area, Central Valley of Oaxaca, and the
Northern Sierra (Highlands and Lowlands) (Fig. 1).
2. METHODS
he alluvial placers of Oaxaca have been exploited since
approximately the 10th century AD. Even if this activity
became very important for Mixtecs and Zapotecs, we do
not have too much archaeological evidence regarding it. he
main reason for this is that most of the ancient artefacts
that were employed to extract gold from the rivers have not
been found until today in the archaeological record. his is
partly because some of these ancient tools used to extract
gold from the rivers were crafted from organic materials, like
wood vessels. We also have to consider the possibility that
the Spanish exploitation of the ancient native gold placers
could have altered the pre-Columbian evidence pertaining
to gold working. Yet another inconvenience in terms of
situating the placers is that the rivers could have moved and
lood stages have changed since ancient times. hus, in order
to achieve our objective, we will examine early historical
records from Oaxaca and central Mexico. In addition, we
will incorporate in this study a brief review of the geological
information pertaining to each area under consideration, in
order to determine the gold potential that actually exists in
selected zones.
3. RESULTS
Gold placers in the Mixtec area
he valley of Nochixtlan-Yanhuitlan is part of the Mixtec
area. According to the Codex Yanhuitlan, which was painted
after the Spanish conquest, we can clearly identify two place
signs, or toponyms, on the eleventh plateau (Fig. 2). Some
scholars have proposed a location for each place sign. First, on
the left side of the bottom of the plateau there is a place sign
that can be translated as tlachtepec or tepetlachco, which means
“ballgame on the hill”. Nineteen kilometres to the south of the
modern town of Yanhuitlan, there is a settlement whose name
is “Tlachitongo”. Based on the ethno-historical records, it is
Figure 1: he studied area.
Figure 1 : La région étudiée.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 303-307
Location of gold placers in Oaxaca during the late pre-Hispanic period and early Colonial times: 1250 to 1550 AD
305
Figure 2 : Codex Yanhuitlan, Eleventh Plate indicating the toponymic of the river.
Figure 2 : Codex Yanhuitlan, onzième planche indiquant la toponymie du leuve.
possible to think that this town could be the old Tlachtepec
or Tepetlachco (Jiménez Moreno and Mateos Higuera, 1940).
he second place sign which appears on another scene of the
codex has been identiied as “house” or “place site” (Smith,
1973). Smith (1973) argues that this toponym is not necessarily attached to a speciic place, but could also indicate a
boundary. his ancient gold placer was probably situated on
the border of the old polity of Yanhuitlan.
After the Spanish conquest, Europeans exploited the gold placers that the Mixtec Indians had in use in Yanhuitlan, but placers
were abandoned by the second half of the 16th century. Perhaps
the reason was that those gold placers were not as rich as they
might seem. In a recent survey, the Mexican Geological Service
(SGM) did not report this Mixtec area as part of an active gold
mineral region (Servicio Geológico Mexicano, 2005).
Gold placers in the Central Valley of Oaxaca
he Central Valley of Oaxaca was occupied by Mixtec
and Zapotec populations by the end of the 14th century. In
1486 the Aztecs conquered the Central Valley and forced
the Mixtecs and Zapotecs to pay tribute to the Aztec Empire
(Marcus, 1983). A list of the tributes paid by the towns of
the Valley of Oaxaca is shown on Folio 43v. of the Codex
Mendoza (Berdan and Anawalt, 1992). Saville (1920) indicated that one of the most signiicant things of this Folio is
that the place named in nahuatl Teocutlan or Teocuitlan can
be translated as “the place where gold is found” (Fig. 3).
Even if we were not able to locate this town with certainty in
present day Mexico, the settlement could have been located
in the south of the Valley of Oaxaca.
Figure 3. (See colour plate) Codex Mendoza, Folio 43v. he town
of Teocuitlai.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Codex Mendoza, Folio 43v. La ville
de Teocuitlai.
As it happened in the Mixtec area, as soon as the Spanish
conquered this Valley, they began to wash the gold rivers,
trying to get as much gold as they could, but they found
that this activity was far from being productive because gold
was rare (Chance, 1982). However, the Mexican Geological
Service actually indicates that the Central Valley is one of
the two principal mineral regions of the State. According
to the SGM, the main mineral district of this region yields
between 2.2 and 13 g/t of Au and between 82 and 146 g/t
of Ag (Servicio Geológico Mexicano, 2005).
Gold placers in the Northern Sierra
In order to study the Northern Sierra gold placers, we are
going to divide the mountain range in two diferent areas:
the highlands, including the mountains that are higher than
1000 m.a.s.l., and the lowlands, including the mountains
that are below 1000 m.a.s.l. and the coastal plain.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 303-307
Edith ORTIZ DÍAZ
306
Highlands: he Northern Sierra was inhabited by three
diferent ethnic groups: Highland Zapotecs, Highland
Chinantecs, and Mixes. In the beginning of the 16th century, Moctezuma II informed Cortes that there was gold
in this area, but that this region was not subjected to the
Aztec Empire. Some of the main watercourses of Mexico
have their origin in the Northern Sierra, and the rivers were
well known in the 16th century for representing sources of
precious metal. Based on early historical records, we know
that the Zapotecs and their neighbours, the Chinantecs,
used to pay gold as tribute to the Spanish Crown after the
conquest. he native populations obtained the gold from
various rivers. Nevertheless, colonial authorities complained
about the amount of gold they obtained from the rivers and
about the quality of gold artefacts that they received from
the native populations because they were very thin (Chance,
1998). Between 1520 and 1530, the conquerors tried to
establish gold and silver mines in the Mixe and Highland
Zapotec areas, but they did not prosper at all (Chance,
1998).
Lowlands: As mentioned above, the Aztecs conquered
the Mixtec area and the Central Valley of Oaxaca, but
they also conquered the northern part of the actual state
of Oaxaca and the south of Veracruz. According to the
Codex Mendoza, the towns in this area, named the province of Tuxtepec, used to pay their tribute to the Aztecs
in ine gold objects, among other items. Díaz del Castillo
(1979) emphasized the skill of the Chinantecs in working
metal. he author does not provide a speciic name for the
rivers in this area, but we can identify two possibilities: the
Tuxtepec and the Malinaltepec rivers. Both streams were
part of the Papaloapan causeways that have their origin in
the Highlands of the Northern Sierra. After 1524 AD, the
Spanish tried to exploit the gold placers, but by the end
of the irst half of the 16th century the Tuxtepec area was
practically uninhabited by native populations, because of
epidemic diseases. his lack of a native workforce radically
afected the exploitation of gold in the lowlands (Acuña,
1984). According to the Mexican Geological Service, four
diferent mineral districts currently exist in the Northern
Sierra (highlands and lowlands). he values for precious
metals are in the range of 0.5 to 6.4 g/t of Au, and of 200
to 280 g/t of Ag.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
As we have seen in this paper, the native populations of
Oaxaca obtained gold from placer mining. hose placers
were formed in watercourses, creeks, rivers, lood plains and
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 303-307
deltas. Even if in some areas it is not possible to determine
where these gold placers were exactly located, we begin to
have a clearer idea of their position.
According to the actual percentage of gold reported by the
Mexican Geological Service, the Central Valley of Oaxaca
area is the richest in gold. he Northern Sierra occupies
the second place, and the Mixtec area is in the third place.
In pre-Columbian times, the Mixtec region paid a tribute
to the Aztecs of twenty vessels of gold dust. Mixtecs and
Zapotecs from the Valley of Oaxaca also sent to Moctezuma
twenty large gold plaques. he plaques had the size of an
average plate and the thickness of a thumb (Saville, 1920).
According to the Codex Mendoza, the towns that were settled in the lowlands of the Northern Sierra or the province
of Tuxtepec used to pay tribute to the Aztecs in inished
objects, even if the Central Valley of Oaxaca was the richest
in gold resources. Nevertheless, during the last century,
archaeologists have recovered more gold objects from the
Central Valley of Oaxaca. he cause of this could be the
lack of archaeological exploration in the Northern Sierra. In
contrast, archaeologists have focused their attention to the
Central Valley of Oaxaca and the Mixtec area.
On the other hand, the Spanish conquest made it evident
that the gold sources of Oaxaca were not as plentiful as they
had thought. he gold and silver was not suicient to support an intensive exploitation, and it was only adequate for
the creation of a small number of luxury gold objects for the
pre-Columbian societies.
Finally, the importance of establishing the location of gold
placers in pre-Columbian times is related to the reconstruction of the entire gold work process, from placer mining to
the ancient gold workshops. In order to achieve this goal,
an interdisciplinary combination of archaeology, history,
gold objects characterization, geomorphology, geology, and
geochemical information pertaining to each area must be
employed.
References
ACUÑA, R., 1984. Relaciones geográicas del siglo XVI: Antequera.
México City: Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas,
Universidad Nacional Autonóma de México.
BERDAN, F.F. and ANAWALT, P.R. (eds.), 1992. Codex Mendoza.
Berkeley, University of California Press.
CHANCE, J.K., 1982. Razas y clases de Oaxaca colonial. México
City, Instituto Nacional Indigenista.
CHANCE, J.K., 1998. La conquista de la Sierra. Españoles e indígenas de Oaxaca en la época colonial. México City, Instituto
Oaxaqueño de las Culturas, CIESAS.
Location of gold placers in Oaxaca during the late pre-Hispanic period and early Colonial times: 1250 to 1550 AD
DÍAZ DEL CASTILLO, B., 1979. Historia verdadera de la conquista de
la Nueva España. México City, Editorial Promexa.
JIMÉNEZ MORENO, W. and MATEOS HIGUERA, S., 1940. Códice de
Yanhuitlan. Facsimilar edition with a preliminary study. México
City, Secretaria de Educación Pública, Instituto Nacional de
Antropología e Historia.
MARCUS, J., 1983. Aztec military campaign against the Zapotecs:
the documentary evidence, in K. Flannery, J. Marcus (eds.),
he cloud people. Divergent evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec
civilizations. New York, Academic Press, 314-318.
ORTIZ-DIÁZ, E. and RUVALCABA SIL, J.L., 2007. An historical
approach to a gold pendant: he study of diferent metallurgic techniques in ancient Oaxaca, Mexico, during the
307
late post-classic period, in Archaeometallurgy in Europe: 2nd
International Conference, Aquileia, Italy, 17-21 June 2007.
Milano: Associazione Italiana di Metallurgia, CD-ROM.
SAVILLE, M., 1920. he goldsmith’s art in ancient México. New York,
Museum of the American Indian and Heye Foundation.
SERVICIO GEOLÓGICO MEXICANO, 2005. Carta Geológico Minera
E14-9 Oaxaca, Puebla Esc 1: 250,000. Aguascalientes, Ags.
México: Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e
Informática (INEGI).
SMITH, M.E., 1973. Picture Writing from Ancient Southern
Mexico: Mixtec Place Signs and Maps. Norman, University of
Oklahoma Press.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 303-307
he irst gold coins struck in Brazil: myth or reality?
Les premières monnaies en or frappées au Brésil : mythe ou réalité ?
Mathieu Duttine*, Maria Filomena Guerra**, Rejane Maria Lobo Vieira***,
Rosa B. Scorzelli****, Carlos Eduardo Pereira*****
and Carlos A. Perez******
Abstract: Besieged in Pernambuco by the Portuguese, the Dutch issued in 1645 and 1646, to pay their soldiers, the irst coin inscribed “BRASIL”.
Named obsidional, it is said to have been fabricated by melting either African gold or gold tableware. It is only in 1694 that the Brazilian itinerant
mint was created in Bahia, and successively closed and transferred to Rio de Janeiro in 1698, to Pernambuco in 1700, and back to Rio de Janeiro
in 1702. his itinerary is related to the exhaustion of the local metal supplies, until the discovery of gold in Brazil in the late 1600s. SR-XRF
analyses of a small set of coins issued by the Dutch West Indies Company and the irst Rio de Janeiro mint show the use of diferent gold alloys
and the ratios of trace elements allow advancing several assumptions on the provenance of the gold.
Résumé : Ain de payer la solde de leurs soldats assiégés par les Portugais à Pernambuco, les Hollandais frappèrent, en 1645 et 1646, les premières
monnaies portant l’inscription « BRASIL », dites obsidionales, à partir de la fonte d’or africain ou de vaisselle d’or. Ce n’est qu’en 1694 que le premier
atelier itinérant brésilien fut créé à Bahia; il fut ensuite fermé et transféré à Rio de Janeiro en 1698, puis à Pernambuco en 1700 avant de s’installer de
nouveau à Rio de Janeiro en 1702. Ces délocalisations successives apparaissent liées à l’épuisement des stocks de métal jusqu’aux découvertes de gisements
d’or au Brésil à la in du XVIe siècle. L’analyse par SR-XRF de quelques monnaies émises par la Compagnie Hollandaise des Indes Occidentales et d’autres
frappées par le premier atelier de Rio de Janeiro indique que l’utilisation de diférents alliages d’or et les teneurs en certains éléments traces apportent
quelques indices quant à la provenance de l’or.
Keywords: Gold, Brasil, obsidional, coin, SR-XRF.
Mots-clés : or, Brésil, monnaie, obsidional, SR-XRF.
1. INTRODUCTION
Until the end of the 17th century, many Spanish and
Portuguese coins circulated in Brazil with countermarks,
which were applied during temporary operating periods in
the Capitanias mints. Only emergency issues were struck in
1645 and 1646 by the Dutch to pay their soldiers, besieged
on the Pernambuco coast by the Portuguese. he obsidional coins are the very irst coins having Brasil inscribed
on the reverse and G.W.C. (Geoctroyeerde Westindische
* Institut de Chimie de la Matière Condensée de Bordeaux. UPR 9048 CNRS – 87, Avenue du Docteur-Albert-Schweitzer, 33608 Pessac cedex, France.
(m.duttine@icmcb-bordeaux.cnrs.fr)
** Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR171 CNRS – 14, quai François-Mitterrand, 75001
Paris, France. (maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr)
*** Museu Histórico Nacional, Acervo de Numismática – Praça Marechal Âncora, s/n° 20021-200 Rio de Janeiro-RJ, Brazil.
**** Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas – Rua Dr. Xavier Sigaud 150, Urca-Rio de Janeiro, 22290-180, Brazil. (scorza@cbpf.br)
****** Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia (INT) – Rua Venezuela 82, 20081-312, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
******* Laboratório Nacional de Luz Síncrotron-LNLS/CNPq – Caixa Postal 6192, 13038-970 Campinas, Brazil. (perez@lnls.br)
rec. Oct. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 309-312
310
Compagnie), indicating the West Indies Company, on the
obverse. hey could have been issued using African gold
brought by the ships circulating between the Netherlands,
the African coast (to take gold), and Brazil (to take sugar and
pau-brasil) or by simple melting of gold and silver tableware
(Vieira et al., 2007).
It was only on the 8th of March 1694 that a royal decree
by Peter II (1667-1706) created the Brazilian mint in Bahia,
which was successively closed and transferred to Rio de
Janeiro in 1698, to Pernambuco in 1700, and back to Rio de
Janeiro in 1702 (Lima, 2005). his itinerary is supposed to
be related to the exhaustion of the metal supplies, until the
discovery of gold in the state of Minas Gerais in 1695 (Noya
Pinto, 1979). In a previous work, it was shown that the irst
Bahia mint (1694-1698) struck a mixture of Colombian
and other Latin American gold, certainly part of the old
supplies, while the second Bahia mint (after 1714) struck
a gold typical of the new Brazilian sources in Minas Gerais
(Guerra, 2004).
he aim of the present study is to conirm whether the
same practice was observed in the irst Rio de Janeiro mint,
issuing coins in 1699 and 1700, and to provide valuable
information regarding the gold used to issue the obsidional
gold coins.
Mathieu DUTTINE et al.
Figure 1: (See colour plate) (a) 4.000 réis gold coin from the mint
of Rio de Janeiro (1699); (b) III lorins obsidional gold coin struck
in Brazil (1645) for the Dutch West Indies Company.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) (a) Monnaie en or de 4 000 réis
frappée par l’atelier de Rio de Janeiro (1699) ; (b) monnaie obsidional
en or frappée au Brésil (1645) pour la Compagnie Hollandaise des
Indes Occidentales.
2. METHODS AND RESULTS
All the gold coins studied in this work belong to the collection of the Museu Histórico Nacional (MHN), Rio de
Janeiro. Six coins of 1.000, 2.000 and 4.000 réis issued in
1699 and 1700 by the Rio de Janeiro mint (Fig. 1a) and
four obsidional coins (III, VI and XII lorins) struck by the
Dutch West Indies Company in 1645 and 1646 (Fig. 1b)
were selected for analysis by Synchrotron Radiation X-ray
Fluorescence (SR-XRF) at the Laboratório Nacional de Luz
Síncrotron (LNLS), Campinas, Brazil. Micro-SR-XRF analyses were performed in air with an incident photon energy
of 4.2 keV provided by a Si(111) double crystal (channel-cut
type) monochromator (energy resolution ∆E/E=3.10-4 in the
4-14 keV energy range). he photon lux was about 4-x-109
photons/s. he characteristic X-rays were collected in energydispersive mode by a Ge(Li) detector (150 eV FWHM at 4.2
keV) positioned at an angle of 90° with respect to the incident
beam. he SR-XRF data was analysed with the AXIL software
(Van Espen et al., 1977) in order to evaluate the contribution
to ED-XRF spectra of several elements, such as Au, Ag, Cu,
Pb, Hg, Pt, Pd, Sn, Sb and Zn. Samples of known composition were used as calibration standards to estimate the atomic
concentrations of these elements in the analysed gold coins.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 309-312
Unfortunately, some experimental problems (parasitic X-ray
emissions of unidentiied origin) rendered impossible the
measurement or even estimation of the Pt and Hg contents
for all the analysed coins.
Table 1 shows the results obtained for the gold coins analysed by SR-XRF. he ternary diagram in Figure 2a shows
that the base alloys used for the fabrication of the obsidional
coins difer from those used in the Rio de Janeiro and Bahia
mints; these two mints were issuing coins, except one, of
equivalent ineness and close silver and copper contents.
Figure 2b shows the concentrations of Sn, Sb and Pd (in
ppm) normalised to the concentrations of gold in % and to
100%, for the coins issued in Rio de Janeiro analysed in this
work and the coins issued in Bahia, published in a previous
work (Guerra, 2004). It is clear from this diagram that the
metal used in Rio de Janeiro is close to the gold used in
the irst Bahia mint. However, the impossibility to quantify
the Pt content for the Rio de Janeiro issues does not allow
conirming the use of Latin American gold.
he obsidional coins were fabricated with a diferent gold.
However, the concentrations of Sn, Sb and Pd are clearly
distinct from the results obtained for both the Islamic coins
struck in Northern Africa with local gold (Godonneau and
he irst gold coins struck in Brazil: myth or reality?
311
Au %
s
Ag %
s
Cu %
s
Pd ppm
s
Sn ppm
s
Sb ppm
s
XII lorins 1645
86,1
0,7
12,57
0,25
0,48
0,06
167
38
201
50
151
VI lorins 1645
87,2
0,5
11,20
0,51
0,76
0,03
111
27
258
62
159
III lorins 1645
87,0
0,6
11,45
0,11
0,53
0,02
210
47
229
59
186
30
935
60
III lorins 1646
87,9
0,8
10,59
0,23
0,86
0,05
120
33
271
42
201
27
1250
101
4000 réis 1699
92,6
0,6
4,52
0,04
2,60
0,13
72
11
142
31
108
16
309
26
4000 réis 1700
93,2
0,7
3,73
0,39
2,82
0,14
75
19
82
25
122
10
195
23
2000 réis 1699
91,9
0,6
5,61
0,13
2,34
0,10
99
28
129
27
149
35
307
77
2000 réis 1700
92,2
0,5
4,84
0,07
2,49
0,11
91
21
121
24
107
12
199
15
1000 réis 1699
91,7
0,5
5,36
0,04
2,35
0,12
87
16
178
39
98
19
215
16
1000 réis 1700
92,3
0,8
4,87
0,43
2,51
0,11
101
27
197
27
190
37
357
55
Type of coin
Fe ppm
s
19
985
43
31
1129
58
Obsidional
Rio de Janeiro
Table 1: Compositions of the gold coins analysed by SR-XRF (Bahia coins were published in Guerra, 2004).
Tableau 1 : Résultats des analyses élémentaires par SR-XRF des monnaies en or étudiées (pour les monnaies émises in Bahia cf. Guerra, 2004).
a
b
Figure 2: Ternary diagram for the analysed coin representing the concentrations of (a) the major elements Au-Ag-Cu (in %) and (b) the
trace elements Sn-Sb-Pd (in ppm) normalised to Au (in %) and to 100%.
Figure 2 : Diagramme ternaire présentant les teneurs en (a) éléments majeurs Au-Ag-Cu (in %) et (b) éléments traces Sn-Sb-Pd (en ppm) normalisées à la teneur en Au (en %) et à 100%.
Guerra, 2002) and from the Portuguese coins struck during
their control of São Jorge da Mina on the African Coast
(Guerra, 2005). hese results seem to indicate that African
gold was not used to fabricate the obsidional coins. he
second assumption – melting of gold tableware – can only
be veriied by analyses of Brazilian and Dutch gold tableware
from the period under consideration.
3. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
he analysis of the irst coins struck in Brazil, issued by
the United West India Company in Pernambuco, showed
the use of a base alloy of poorer quality than the monetary alloy used in the irst itinerant Brazilian mint. Both the
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 309-312
Mathieu DUTTINE et al.
312
Bahia (1694-1698) and Rio de Janeiro (1699-1700) mints
issued coins made of an equivalent alloy of good quality.
he measurement of trace elements characteristic of the
gold’s provenance, and the comparison with results previously obtained for Brazilian, Portuguese, Latin American
and North African gold coins, showed the similarity of
the gold used in the irst Rio de Janeiro and Bahia mints.
However, only the quantiication of the Pt contents would
allow drawing a conclusion concerning the use of the same
mixture of South American gold. he high contents of Sn,
Sb and Pd measured for the obsidional coins do not conirm
the assumption that gold carried by the Dutch ships circulating from the African Coast to Brazil and to Netherlands
was melted to fabricate this coinage. Further analyses appear,
however, necessary in order to conirm these results and to
show whether gold Brazilian or Dutch tableware could have
been used for this purpose.
Acknowledgements
he authors wish to thank Dr. Martin Radtke for his assistance and helpful comments regarding data calculation and are
grateful to the CNRS (France) and to the CNPq (Brazil) for
inancial support.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 309-312
References
GONDONNEAU, A. and GUERRA, M.F., 2002. he circulation of
precious metals in the Arabic Empire: the case of the Near and
the Middle East. Archaeometry 44(4): 473 & 599.
GUERRA, M.F., 2004. he circulation of South American precious metals in Brazil at the end of the 17th century. Journal of
Archaeological Science 31(9): 1225-1236.
GUERRA, M.F., 2005. he circulation of gold in the Portuguese
area from the 5th to the 18th century, in A. Perea, I. Montero,
O. Garcia-Vuelta (eds.), Ancient gold technology: America and
Europe. Madrid: Anejos de AespA XXXII, CSIC, 423-431.
LIMA F.C.G.C., 2005. Uma Análise Crítica da Literatura Sobre a
Oferta e a Circulação de Moeda Metálica no Brasil nos Séculos
XVI e XVII. Estudos Econômicos 35(1): 169-201.
NOYA PINTO, V., 1979. O ouro brasileiro e o comércio anglo-português. Brasiliana 371. São Paulo, Nacional Edição.
VAN ESPEN, P., NULLENS, H. and ADAMS, F., 1977. A computer
analysis of X-ray luorescence spectra. Nuclear Instruments and
Methods 142 (1-2): 243-250.
VIEIRA, R.M.L., GUERRA, M.F., SCORZELLI, R.B., SOUZA AZEVEDO,
I., DUTTINE, M. and BRITO PEREIRA, C.E., 2007. Estudo preliminar de algumas moedas holandesas da colecção Museu
Histórico Nacional do Rio de Janeiro. Revista Brasileira de
Arqueometria, Restauração e Conservação 1(6): 296-300.
Precious metals determination in ancient coins
by portable ED-XRF spectroscopy
with a 238Pu source
Détermination des métaux précieux dans les monnaies anciennes par spectroscopie
ED-XRF portable avec une source de 238Pu
Paulo S. Parreira*, Carlos R. Appoloni*, Rejane M. Lobo Vieira**,
Rosa B. Scorzelli***, Laetitia Le Corre*** and Maria Filomena Guerra****
Abstract: A portable X-ray luorescence system (pXRF) was employed to analyse a set of gold, silver and billon coins from the collection of the
Museu Histórico Nacional do Rio de Janeiro (MHN), struck during the Brasil Colônia period, under the Dutch occupation, and in Portuguese
mints under the reigns of Fernando I (1367 to 1383) and his successor João I (1383 to 1433). he experimental setup consisted of a mini Si-PIN
detector and a radioactive source of 238Pu for the excitation of the samples. he aim of the study was to test the possibilities and limitations of
this portable system for the determination of the coins’ base alloys, and to verify whether the results obtained were consistent with historical
facts. he Brasil Colônia period coins show about 80.5% gold and 96.8% silver. For the Portuguese coins, we could identify a possible monetary
debasement during the reign of João I. No matrix corrections were made for these preliminary results.
Résumé : Un équipement portable à luorescence X (pFX) a été utilisé pour l’analyse de monnaies en or, en argent et en billon appartenant à la collection
du Museu Histórico Nacional de Rio de Janeiro (MHN). Certaines de ces monnaies ont été frappées au Brésil pendant la période Brasil Colônia et sous
l’occupation hollandaise, alors que d’autres ont été frappées au Portugal sous les règnes de Ferdinand I (1367-1383) et de son successeur Jean I (13831433). Le montage expérimental est constitué d’un mini détecteur Si-PIN et d’une source radioactive de 238Pu, dont la radiation émise est utilisée comme
source d’excitation. Le but de ce travail est double : vériier les possibilités et les limites de ce système portable lors qu’il s’agit de déterminer les alliages
constitutifs de monnaies en métal précieux et vériier les rapports entre l’évolution des compositions des monnaies et les diférents faits historiques. Les
monnaies appartenant à la période Brasil Colônia sont constituées de 80,5% d’or et de 96,8% d’argent et les monnaies frappées au Portugal montrent
une dévaluation sous Jean I.
Keywords: coins, ineness, gold, silver, X-ray luorescence.
Mots-clés : monnaies, titre, or, argent, FX.
* Dept. de Física/CCE, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Cx.P. 6001, 86051-990 Londrina/PR, Brazil. (parreira@uel.br), (appoloni@uel.br)
** Museu Histórico Nacional,Rio de Janeiro/RJ, Brazil. (arjlobo@terra.com.br)
*** Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas, Rio de Janeiro/RJ, Brazil. (scorza@cbpf.br)
**** Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR171 CNRS, France. (maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 313-318
314
1. INTRODUCTION
Among the analytical techniques used in the studies of
cultural heritage objects, energy dispersive X-ray luorescence (ED-XRF) is a very versatile one due to its portable
coniguration allowing in situ measurements. In situ experimental setups (Cesareo et al., 2007; Karydas, 2007) have
been used to perform analyses in speciic situations, such as
in the case of large sculptures, frescos, paintings, etc., and
to characterise metallic alloys, as well as several pigments.
In the present work we used a handmade portable X-ray
luorescence system (pXRF) (Neiva et al., 2005; Appoloni
et al., 2007) to analyse a set of gold, silver and billon coins
from the collection of the Museu Histórico Nacional do Rio
de Janeiro (MHN).
The analyses were carried out in the Numismatic
Department of the MHN, and the aim of the study was to
test the possibilities and limitations of this portable system
for the determination of the coins’ base alloys, and to verify
whether the results obtained were consistent with historical
facts. he assessment of this portable system was accomplished by comparing some of the compositions obtained in
this work with the compositions obtained for the same coins
with a ixed ED-XRF, as well as results from the literature
on similar coins.
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Images of the
gold coin of 4000 Réis from the Brasil
Colônia period (top) and silver coin from
the reign of Fernando I, Portugal (bottom), showing the obverse and reverse
sides, respectively.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Images
de l’avers et du revers des monnaies d’or de
4 000 Réis de la période Brasil Colônia (en
haut) et d’argent du règne de Ferdinand I,
Portugal (en bas).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 313-318
Paulo S. PARREIRA et al.
he base alloys were determined for coins struck during
the Brasil Colônia period (from 1500 to independence, in
1822) and during the Dutch occupation (since the invasion of Bahia in 1624 to the insurrection of Pernambuco
in 1654), as well as for Portuguese coins struck in Portugal
during the reigns of Fernando I (1367 to 1383) and his successor João I (1383 to 1433). Figure 1 shows the pictures of
a 4000 Réis gold coin (Brasil Colônia period, Bahia, 1695)
and a silver coin of Real ‘with FR’ (Reign of Fernando I).
For the coins struck in Brazil, it was intended to verify
whether a change in composition is visible with the moving
of the royal mint from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in 1698,
to Pernambuco in 1700, and to Rio de Janeiro in 1702,
before the discovery of gold in Minas Gerais, as well as to
obtain the irst results on the quality of the coins struck by
the Dutch during the siege of Pernambuco, the so-called
‘obsidional coins’, the irst coins bearing the name of Brazil.
Concerning the Portuguese coins, it was under Fernando
I that a irst reform of the Portuguese monetary system was
observed. his reform, related to the war in Spain, is said
to have resulted in a general debasement of the coins that
was strengthened under João I, Fernando’s successor. he
analysis of coins struck under these two kings should allow
verifying this assumption. For a irst approach to those questions, a set of the coins and their dates of issue were selected
in collaboration with the Numismatic Department of the
MHN as follows.
Precious metals determination in ancient coins by portable ED-XRF spectroscopy with a 238Pu source
Brasil Colônia period
Four coins minted in Bahia (BA), Pernambuco (PE) and
Rio de Janeiro (RJ) were analysed. One is a silver coin of 640
Réis, and three are gold coins of 4000 Réis, struck under
Pedro II of Portugal.
relative values, based on Millazzo’s work (Milazzo, 2004),
with the diference that in the present case, instead of the
pure massive standards for the determination of the elements’ concentrations, experimental sensitivity curves, Si,
were used.
Wi =
Dutch occupation period
he obsidional coins, also called necessity currencies, were
the irst emissions minted in Brazilian territory with the inscription of the name Brasil (Vieira et al., 2007). hese coins
are rectangular plates. hree gold and three silver coins of
diferent values were analysed.
Fernando I
Five silver coins of Real ‘with FR’, one coin of half Forte,
and one coin of half Real ‘with F’ were analysed.
João I
For this period, a total of six billon coins were analysed:
two coins of Real of three and half libras, one coin of half
Real of ten soldos, one coin of a quarter Real Cruzado, and
two coins of half Real Cruzado.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
he experimental setup consisted of a 7 mm2 Si-PIN
detector (FWHM of 265 eV for the 6.4 keV Fe line) and a
95 mCi annular radioactive source of 238Pu (13.6 and 17.2
keV lines) for the excitation of the samples, arranged in a
speciic handmade system (PXRF-LFNA-01). he focus
of the radiation beam strikes an area of approximately 180
mm2, while the coins have surfaces with areas ranging from
314 to 962 mm2; thus, the focus of the radiation beam covers between 57% and 19% of the coins’ area, respectively.
For each piece, one measurement was carried out at the
centre of the obverse and another one at the centre of the
reverse, with 1000 s of excitation-detection time. he spectra were processed by AXIL (IAEA, free access software) and
the results were expressed in weight percent. he Au and Ag
contents were determined by using their Lα lines and Cu
by using its Kα line.
he quantitative analysis was performed applying the
well-known formula of the fundamental parameters to all
the identiied elements, without the matrix correction term.
he results were scaled to the unit, equation 1, to obtain
315
Ci
∑Cn
(1)
Where
Ci is the concentration of the i element;
Wi is the relative concentration of i element (%).
Experimental sensitivities Si were obtained for each of the
elements that constitute the gold and silver coins, employing
MICROMATTER™ standards (thin ilm standards of the
elements and compounds for use in the calibration of X-ray
luorescence (XRF) equipment). he sensitivities obtained
for the K and L lines are shown in Figures 2 and 3, respectively.
In the present work, the calculations were performed
with no matrix corrections. his means no corrections
for the self absorption of the characteristics X-rays by the
matrix, and no corrections for the enhancement efects
(luorescence produced by heavier elements over lighter
elements in the matrix). his approach does not signiicantly interfere with the quantiication of the major elements Au and Ag of the coins, the main objective of this
work, since they are present in high concentrations in the
gold and silver coins, respectively, as can be seen in the
following discussion of the results.
Figure 2: Calculated sensitivity for the K lines.
Figure 2 : Sensibilité calculée pour les lignes K.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 313-318
316
Paulo S. PARREIRA et al.
Figure 3: Calculated sensitivity for the L lines.
Figure 3 : Sensibilité calculée pour les lignes L.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Figures 4 and 5 show typical spectra of gold and silver
coins where the Cu lines and the lines of the excitation
source are also presented.
he average detection limits for the major elements Au,
Ag and Cu were 3.2%, 36.1%, and 1.3% respectively for
Au, Ag and billon coins matrix.
he results obtained for the Au, Ag and Cu contents are
shown in Table 1. he reported results are the average of the
two measurements performed on each coin, and its standard
deviation. It was also possible to verify the occurrence of
some other elements in the X-ray luorescence spectra, such
as Ca, Fe, Hg and Pb, even if in much smaller concentrations, a matrix correction being necessary for their correct
quantiication.
Table 1 shows that all gold coins struck under the Dutch
occupation have a homogeneous composition, containing
on average 90.3% Au, 8.3% Ag and 0.6% Cu. he value of
the coin is obtained by simply changing the gold weight. For
example, for a coin of III Florins we could measure 1.87 g,
while for a coin of VI Florins we could measure 3.72 g. he
same situation was veriied for the silver coins.
Measurements of Ag and Au contents for the coins struck
during the Dutch occupation were also carried out using the
ixed ED-XRF system of the Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia
(INT). he values obtained for gold and silver contents,
shown in Table 2, are on average 87.9% and 94.8%, respectively, while the values determined with the portable system
were 90.4% and 87.7%. It can be seen that the results obtained with the PXRF system for Au in the coins of III and VI
Florins show a diference of 2 to 4% from those reported by
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 313-318
Figure 4: Typical spectrum obtained for gold coins.
Figure 4 : Spectre typique des monnaies en or.
Figure 5: Typical spectrum obtained for silver coins.
Figure 5 : Spectre typique des monnaies en argent.
the INT, while for the content of Ag in the coin of X soldos,
the diference was about 7%. his comparison shows that
the simpliied choice of no matrix correction was appropriate for the purpose of this work.
For the gold and silver coins struck during the Brasil
Colônia period (1695-1702), an average of 96.8% and
80.5%, for gold and silver contents, respectively, were
Precious metals determination in ancient coins by portable ED-XRF spectroscopy with a 238Pu source
Origin
III Florins
Dutch occupation
1645-1654
Brasil Colônia
1695-1702
Portugal
King Fernando I
1367-1383
Date of
issue
1646
1645
1645
1654
1654
1654
1702
1695
1699
1701
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
Denomination
1
2
VI Florins
XXXX Soldos
1
2
X Soldos
4000 Réis (PE)
4000 Réis (BA)
4000 Réis (RJ)
640 Reis (PE)
Real with FR
½ Forte
½ Real with F
Real of 3 ½ libras
Portugal
King João I
1383-1433
½ Real of 10 soldos
¼ of Real cruzado
½ Real cruzado
Origin
Denomination
1
III Florins
Dutch occupation
1645 - 1654
2
VI Florins
XXXX Soldos
1
Weight g
Au %
Ag %
Cu %
1.83
1.87
3.72
12.04
—
—
8.17
8.03
8.01
18.39
3.5
3.47
3.51
3.55
3.49
1.64
1.84
2.8
1.84
1.9
0.44
2.18
1.89
89.6±0.3
91.0±0.3
90.5±0.3
0.70±0.04
1.8±0.1
0.5±0.1
98.8±0.2
95.8±0.2
95.7±0.2
0.4±0.1
4.1±0.1
1.20±0.04
3.90±0.04
1.6±0.1
1.2±0.1
0.7±0.1
1.1±0.1
—
—
0.20±0.04
—
—
—
9.6±1.5
7.8±1.7
7.6±1.4
88.3±5.7
86.7±5.2
88.1±2.2
—
1.7±0.5
—
81±16
84±14
77±2
79,8±1,5
76±3
82.5±2.1
83.0±3.7
82.6±2.8
14.4±0.8
2.7±0.6
39.2±1.2
15.4±1.4
10.4±0.9
6.8±0.7
0.49±0.04
0.39±0.04
0.80±0.04
10.0±0.1
9.7±0.1
10.9±0.1
0.67±0.02
1.70±0.02
2.19±0.03
17.1±0.1
8.7±0.1
21.0±0.1
14.7±0.1
21.2±0.1
15.2±0.1
14.6±0.1
15.1±0.1
84.7±0.1
93.8±0.1
59.9±0.1
83.7±0.2
79.7±0.1
90.3±0.1
Au %
Ag %
Cu %
88.09
10.75
0.45
88.95
10.25
0.35
86.82
12.08
0.61
0.19
94.77
4.55
Table 2: Results obtained with the INT stationary EDXRF system.
Tableau 2 : Résultats obtenus avec le systèmes ixe de l’INT.
determined, while for the period from 1695 to 1698, the
values obtained by Guerra (2004) were 91.5% and 93.3%,
for coins minted in Bahia. When the results for Cu concentrations are compared, those obtained with PXRF vary
from 0.7 to 2.2% for gold coins, while those obtained by
Guerra (2004) vary from 0.9 to 1.7%. hese last results were
obtained by PAA (Proton Activated Analysis) and TFNAA
(hermalised Fast Neutron Activated Analysis), which are
absolute techniques with detection limits in the range of the
ppm; however, both techniques use the induction of nuclear
reactions and require the use of a particle accelerator to carry
out the analysis.
Concerning the question of whether there was a change in
composition of the coins struck in Brazil with the moving
of the royal mint from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in 1698, to
Pernambuco in 1700, and to Rio de Janeiro in 1702, it can
be observed in Table 1 that there is no diference between
gold coins from 1695 and 1699, but that they are diferent from the gold coin from 1702, which has a greater Au
content.
317
Table 1: Results obtained for Au,
Ag and Cu concentrations with
pXRF.
Tableau 1 : Résultats obtenus pour
les concentrations d’Au, d’Ag et de
Cu par pFX.
Regarding the coins struck in Portugal under Fernando I
and João I, in the work of Norma Botelho Portugal (2000),
it is assumed that due to large expenditures incurred because
of wars with Castile, internal crises and conquest of the colonies in Africa, the debasement observed during the reign of
João I was more important than the debasement observed
under his predecessor Fernando I. his monetary debasement was experimentally demonstrated in this work and
can be seen in Table 1. Hence, the average concentrations
of Ag and Cu, 80.6% and 15.8%, respectively, during the
reign of King Fernando I, changed to 14.8% and 82.0%,
respectively, during the reign of King João I.
hese results show the replacement of silver by copper in
the monetary alloys used under the reign of King João I. For
some of the analysed coins, it was also possible to verify the
presence of Ca, Fe, Hg and Pb, but the concentrations of
these elements are close to the detection limits of our system
and are strongly afected by the matrix, taking into account
the expected higher deviations of pXRF systems (Kump et
al., 2005). herefore, the lack of precision in these measurements would also inluence the accuracy of the results for
the major elements Au and Ag, since in this methodology
the relative determination takes into account all the elements observed in the X-ray spectra. In addition to this, the
presence of Ca is generally related to the cleaning processes
performed in museums, and the Fe contents may be afected by many other phenomena than metallurgical processes.
Only Hg and Pb could provide useful information on the
metals and on the extraction techniques.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 313-318
Paulo S. PARREIRA et al.
318
4. CONCLUSIONS
References
he irst results obtained with our portable XRF system for the measurement of major element (Au, Ag
and Cu) concentrations in gold and silver monetary
alloys showed a good agreement with the results obtained for the same coins by ED-XRF (Energy Dispersive
X-Ray Fluorescence) using a ixed system, as well as with
those previously published for coins from the same period,
analysed with nuclear activation techniques.
We must however denote that the advantage of this portable system is the fact that in situ measurements can be
carried out with a relatively high analytical speed without
moving the object from the museum to the laboratory. his
portable system proved to be a viable technique in the study
of coins, but the results may still be improved by considering
matrix corrections, i.e. corrections for self-absorption and
enhancement efects.
he more signiicant limitation of this system (and any
portable system) is the fact that it is not possible to obtain
reliable results for minor elements, due to the low activity of
the radioactive source (or X-ray tube power of other pXRF
systems). his limitation could, in part, be improved for
future analysis by applying matrix correction.
he irst results related to the quality of the X soldos coin
struck by the Dutch during the siege of Pernambuco were
obtained, results which can be included among similar data
for Ag and Au coins already measured (Vieira 2007). hese
coins represent the so-called ‘obsidional coins’, the irst coins
bearing the name of Brazil.
Results indicates that there was no change in the composition of the coins struck in Brazil with the moving of
the royal mint from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro in 1698 and
to Pernambuco in 1700, but there was an increase in gold
content after the returning of the royal mint to Rio de
Janeiro in 1702.
he results obtained for the silver coins struck in Portugal in the
14th-15th century veriied the assumption that a higher
monetary debasement was observed during the reign of João
I than during the reign of his predecessor, Fernando I.
APPOLONI, C.R., BLONSKI, M.S., PARREIRA, P.S. and SOUZA,
L.A.C., 2007. Study of the pigments elementary chemical composition of a painting in process of attribution to
Gainsborough employing a portable X-rays luorescence system. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A
580: 710-713.
CESAREO, R., FERRETTI, M., GIGANTE, G.E., GUIDA, G., MOIOLI, P.,
RIDOLFI, S. and GARCIA, C.R., 2007. he use of a European
coinage alloy to compare the detection limits of mobile XRF
systems. A feasibility study. X-Ray Spectrometry 36: 167-172.
GUERRA, M.F., 2004. he circulation of South American precious
metals in Brazil at the end of the 17th century. Journal of
Archaeological Science 31: 1225-1236.
KARYDAS, A.G., 2007. Application of a portable XRF spectrometer
for the non-invasive analysis of museum metal artifacts. Annali
di Chimica 97(7): 419-432.
KUMP, P., NÈCEMER, P. and RUPNIK, P., 2005. Development of
the quantiication procedures for in situ XRF analysis. Report
IAEA-TECDOC-1456. Vienna.
MILAZZO, M., 2004. Radiation applications in art and archaeometry X-ray luorescence applications to archaeometry. Possibility
of obtaining non-destructive quantitative analyses. Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B 213: 683-692.
NEIVA, A.C., MELO, H.G., BENDEZÚ, H.R.P., RIZZUTTO, M.A.,
TABACNIKS, M.H., ADDED, N., APPOLONI, C.R., PARREIRA, P.S.
and CUNHA LIMA, S., 2005. Caracterização espectroscópica
das ligas e dos produtos de corrosão de peças metálicas do
Museu de Arqueologia e Etnologia da USP, in Proceedings of
2o Congresso Latino-Americano de Restauração de Metais, Rio
de Janeiro, 25 to 28 July of 2005. Rio de Janeiro: Museu de
Astronomia e Ciências Ains (MAST), 143-157.
PORTUGAL, N.B., 2000. D. João I, Regência e reinado, in R.M.L.
Vieira (ed.), Moedas Portuguesas da Época dos Descobrimentos
na Coleção do Museu Histórico Nacional 1383-1583. Rio de
Janeiro: Museu Histórico Nacional Press, 29-51.
VIEIRA, R.M.L., GUERRA, M.F., SCORZELLI, R.B., SOUZA AZEVEDO,
I., DUTTINE, M. and BRITO PEREIRA, C.E., 2007. Estudo preliminar de algumas moedas holandesas da coleção do Museu
Histórico Nacional do Rio de Janeiro. Revista Brasileira de
Arqueometria, Restauração e Conservação 1(6): 296-300.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to LIN/CENA/USP for the loan of the 238Pu
source, to Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas for the inancial
support, and to the Museu Histórico Nacional for providing
the coins.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 313-318
Gold jewellery of devotional images
in Campeche State, Mexico
Bijoux en or des images de dévotion dans l’état de Campeche, Mexique
Eva Brito* and Feliciano Chaire**
Abstract: he objective of this work is to understand the cultural signiicance of gold, speciically in the use of jewels for the decoration of devotional sculptures, for a population of Mayan origin that currently lives in the State of Campeche, Mexico. We study three cases of cult images of
great reputation among Catholics: one from Campeche City and two others from rural areas. he method mainly consisted in recovering data
from historic documents, living testimonies and oral traditions, and carrying out an analysis of religious festivities. he cultural value given to
these objects by people makes it necessary to recognize them as Communal Cultural Heritage. Only through joint action and cooperation between
Catholic communities, the Mexican Government, Church and society in general, we will be able to guarantee their security and preservation.
Résumé : L’objectif de l’étude est de comprendre la signiication culturelle de l’or pour la population d’origine Maya qui vit actuellement dans l’état de
Campeche, au Mexique, particulièrement en ce qui concerne l’utilisation de bijoux pour la décoration de sculptures de dévotion. Trois images de culte,
qui jouissent d’excellente réputation parmi les catholiques, ont été étudiées : une située dans la ville de Campeche et les autres deux dans des villes rurales.
La méthode comprend l’étude de documents anciens, la récolte de témoignages et traditions orales en direct et l’analyse des fêtes religieuses. La valeur
culturelle que les gens donnent à ces objets exige qu’ils soient reconnus comme un héritage de la communauté culturelle. Seule une action conjointe et la
coopération entre les communautés catholiques, le gouvernement mexicain, l’église et la société en général, nous garantira leur sécurité et leur préservation.
Keywords: gold jewels, devotional images, Mayan ethnic groups, popular religiosity, México.
Mots-clés : bijoux en or, images de dévotion, groupes ethniques Maya, religiosité populaire, Mexique.
1. INTRODUCTION
he ancient Mayan civilization lourished in south-eastern
Mexico, in an area including the current states of Campeche,
Yucatán, and Quintana Roo (Yucatan Peninsula), Chiapas
and Tabasco, extending to Nicaragua in Central America.
It was characterized by a polytheistic religion in which gods
were classiied according to diferent categories, such as: the
creation of the Universe; stars and planets (e.g. sun, moon,
Venus); natural phenomena (e.g. rain, wind, thunder); animals (e.g. jaguar, snake); plants (maize, for example); good
and evil; and death. Both historical documentary sources
and archaeological evidence prove that gold was considered
a very important gift to these deities.
With the Spanish conquest of America during the 16th
century, an unknown god and new saints came to these
* Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia – Centro INAH Estado de México, Avenida José Vicente Villada 103, 105 y 107, Toluca, Estado de
México, C.P. 50000. (evalebrito@yahoo.com.mx)
** Archaeologist (Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia), independent collaborator – Calle José Loco Adam 11, Fraccionamiento Villamar,
Campeche, Cam., México, C.P. 24020. (fchaire@live.com.mx)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 319-325
320
lands and a process of syncretism of Mayan and Catholic
beliefs was initiated (López, 1994). his phenomenon is
visible until today in the living manifestations of regional
popular piety. In Campeche State, we can still witness the
thousand years old relationship between humans and the
sacred, using the precious metal par excellence as a mediator.
It is worth mentioning that today, Campeche State has a
total population of 754,730 inhabitants and that 13.2% of
it has the native language as the primary one.
Addressing this topic, the objective of the present work is
to understand the cultural signiicance of gold, speciically in
the use of jewels for the decoration of devotional sculptures,
for the population of Mayan ethnic origin that currently
lives in this part of Mexico. We speciically studied the cases
of three of the cult images that have the best reputation
among Catholics: the Black Christ of the Parish of Saint
Roman the Martyr, in Campeche City (the capital of the
state); the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary, in
the village of Pomuch; and the Lord of Health, in the town
of Hecelchakán. he local communities contributed money
to buy expensive crowns, necklaces, bracelets, cruciixes, and
other golden objects to adorn these sculptures.
Finally, we raise some points of discussion and a conclusion focused on the cultural importance of this type of
objects, and the necessity to recognize them as Communal
Cultural Heritage.
2. METHOD
he irst phase of our study included documentary research
in order to collect data on the importance of gold for the
ancient Mayan society, consulting the works of J.E. hompson
(1982), M. de la Garza (1990) and M.O. Marion (1994),
three prestigious researchers of this area. he archaeological
evidence pertaining to this subject was taken from the results
published by C. Coggins (1994) and M. Schmidt (1994).
We also reviewed chronicles of the history of the Church in
colonial times, written by Diego López de Cogolludo (17th
century, reprinted 1996), which helped us to select the three
cases of cult images for this study.
he ieldwork was the longest and most important part of
this investigation, which began after we decided to examine
one case from Campeche City and two others from towns
located on the side of the road that connects the states of
Campeche and Yucatan. It consisted, irstly, in the observation and description of the main features of the sculptures,
as well as of the jewellery collection of each of them. hen,
we registered the calendar of religious holidays and attended
to those considered the most signiicant. During the festiArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 319-325
Eva BRITO, Feliciano CHAIRE
vities, we collected information about the traditions transmitted in oral form, and we also obtained testimonies about
the meaning of gold for communal members.
We then confronted all the data we collected in order
to be able to draw conclusions regarding the current role
played by gold jewellery for popular religiosity in the region.
Finally, we evaluated this role based on the Unesco deinition of culture and cultural heritage.
3. AURUM: THE GIFT PAR EXCELLENCE
FOR MAYAN DEITIES
he religious ideas of the ancient Mayans represented the
guiding axis of their lives. hey conceived a Universe inhabited by invisible deities characterized by a dual personality:
fussy and dangerous, but also kind and gentle. herefore,
it was possible for human beings to awake their commiseration, to avoid their attacks and receive their blessings,
satisfying their demands with rituals, sacriices and presents
(Garza, 1990; hompson, 1982).
he main objective of these rituals was to ensure the arrival of the rains in order to guarantee the agricultural cycle,
especially of maize, which was the basis of their food and
was also considered a holy plant. Representations of the
rain god Chac, which we can still see on the facades of the
pre-Columbian ceremonial centres along the old Camino
Real, express concern over this matter (Marion, 1994). One
way to please the sacred beings was ofering them gold gifts,
which were thrown into the cenotes, the natural water deposits located in the Yucatan Peninsula. he clearest example
of this is the Sacred Cenote of Chichen Itza (an ancient city
that reached its apogee between the years 800 and 1100
AD), which was used as a great receptacle for this type of
artefacts (Coggins, 1994; Schmidt, 1994).
However, the essence of this tradition is not a thing of the
past, as current examples are observed in Campeche State.
he irst one is of a place named Hool, where the devotees
ask for favours to the Virgin of Candelaria by throwing golden jewels in a lake beside the village. he second example
is that of the small town of Chuiná, in which, during Easter,
pilgrims from diferent locations launch gold jewels into
the Laguna de Términos, formed by the salt water of the
Gulf of Mexico. At the same time, they pray to Our Lady
of Sorrows, which is best known precisely as the Virgin of
Chuiná. his practice shows the syncretism of the Mayan
and Catholic religions, which undoubtedly agree on the
concept of gold as an ideal present for the deities.
Gold jewellery of devotional images in Campeche State, Mexico
4. THE JEWELS OF THE LORD
321
he town and port of San Francisco de Campeche was established in the year 1540 by the Spanish Captain Francisco de
Montejo; in 1776, it received the title of City, and in 1857 it
became the capital of Campeche State (Brito, 2007).
Oral tradition holds that during the second half of the 16th
century a small chapel was built by local people to implore
God to cease the attack of a plague of locusts. hey also
commissioned an image of Christ to a wealthy merchant
and a frequent traveller, named Juan Cano de Coca Gaitan.
After he bought the artwork, and during the return trip, a
irst miracle happened: the ship had a fast and successful
travel on a rough sea, and inally a safe arrival to Campeche
on September 14 of 1565. It was since then that the seamen adopted him as their Patron Saint; until today, this
representation is the most venerated statue of the Diocese of
Campeche, having the title of Patron Saint of all the residents
of Campeche (Cahuich and Aguayo 1998) (Fig. 1).
he Christ is an anonymous sculpture of unknown origin,
probably manufactured with maize pastry, dark brown, and
nearly two meters tall. he religious celebration takes place
in September, and it has more than four hundred years of
annual performance, becoming one of the oldest traditions
not only in Campeche State, but in all Mexican territory.
During the celebrations, in a similar way to the relationship
between the ancient Mayan gods and the vital luid, the
ishermen make a trip along the seashore with the Lord on
a boat. his is the occasion when the statue proudly displays
its jewellery (Fig. 2).
he sculpture’s collection includes gold and silver objects,
such as crowns, cruciixes, medals and nails, from the 19th
and 20th centuries, donated by the diferent religious guilds
of bakers, carpenters, masons, women and others (Fig. 3).
he jewels are housed in the temple, in a safe-deposit box
under the supervision of the parish priest, but have no
inventory or photographic record. Unfortunately, some of
them were lost without any trace.
Figure 1: (See colour plate) he “Patron Saint of all the residents of
Campeche” of the Diocese of Campeche (Photography: A. Rosado).
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Le « Saint Patron de tous les résidents
de Campeche » du Diocèse de Campeche (Photographie : A. Rosado).
Figure 2: he “Patron Saint of all the residents of Campeche” of
the Diocese of Campeche. (Photography: A. Rosado).
Figure 2 : Le « Saint Patron de tous les résidents de Campeche » du
Diocèse de Campeche. (Photographie : A. Rosado).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 319-325
322
Figure 3: (See colour plate) One of the gold and silver objects from the
collection of the Diocese of Campeche. (Photography: A. Rosado).
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Un des objets en or et argent de la
collection du Diocèse de Campeche. (Photographie : A. Rosado).
Eva BRITO, Feliciano CHAIRE
he Patron Saint is the Immaculate Conception of the
Virgin Mary, represented by a wooden carved and polychrome statue about 1.50 meters tall, with blue dress decorated with small silver stars. It is an anonymous work that
seems to correspond to either the second half of the 17th
century or the irst half of the 18th century. It represents a
young woman of regular complexion, in standing position
and attitude of prayer (Fig. 4).
According to oral tradition, the chaste Lady appeared
miraculously inside a cave next to an underground river;
this aspect is again indicative of the relationship between
divine beings and water (Ucan, undated). Nowadays she is
ensconced in a niche at the centre of the main altar and is
the protagonist of three annual events: the Holy Day of the
Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary on December 8;
the Day of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary on August 15;
and a festival in April just after Easter, when village women
carry the image in a procession (Fig. 5). All this information
was provided by Mr. Rafael Pérez Novelo, trader of Pomuch.
he story of her jewels began in 1981, when two sisters of
the village, Noemí and Emma Carrillo Briseño, convinced
At this location, we encountered a problem with the priest,
who did not allow us to see the collection, much less analyze
it, even though we had a written permission from the bishop.
he solution we found was that another church member (a
deacon) took photographs of the objects and gave us a copy.
5. A GOLDEN REWARD FOR CHASTITY
Pumuch is a small village of Mayan origin, located on one
side of the Camino Real, an old road that connects the states
of Campeche and Yucatán. he word Pumuch comes from
two Mayan terms: poc, meaning ‘burn’; and much, meaning
‘toad’; therefore, it can be translated as “Place where the toads
sunbathe”. Today the population consists of 8,180 inhabitants, of whom 3,029 are reported as speakers of Mayan language; their economic base is agriculture (INEGI, 2005).
With the Spanish conquest, the monks of the order of San
Francis of Assisi arrived in the mid-16th century to the Yucatan
Peninsula with the mission of evangelizing the natives. In
Pomuch, they built a rustic wooden chapel with leaf roofs, which
years later became a masonry building that was consecrated on
January 9, 1636, as indicated by an inscription located on the
facade of the temple, to the left of the front door. Currently,
the Pomuch Church is under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the
Parish of Hecelchakán, assigned to the Diocese of Campeche.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 319-325
Figure 4: he Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary from the
Pomuch Church. (Photography: A. Rosado).
Figure 4 : L’Immaculé Conception de la Vierge Marie de l’Église de
Pomuch. (Photographie : A. Rosado).
Gold jewellery of devotional images in Campeche State, Mexico
323
he Catholic community of Pomuch provided us with all
kinds of facilities to study the sculpture, and allowed us to
photograph it. In addition, they also gave us some photographs. Many people tried to help us by providing testimonies
and mentioning elements of oral traditions, denoting a surprising openness to people who are not part of the village.
6. EXCHANGING GOLD FOR RELIEF
Figure 5: (See colour plate) Easter procession at Pomuch.
(Photography: C. Ucan).
Figure 5 : (Voir planche couleur) Procession de Pâques à Pomuch.
(Photographie : C. Ucan).
the community that their Queen needed a crown. he
Catholics accepted, and the two sisters organized the purchase and all members of the community worked together
very hard to collect money. Finally they bought an 18-karat
gold crown, weighing 4 kilograms, with stone inlays simulating rubies and brilliants. It cost 140,000 Mexican pesos
(about 1,200 US dollars), which is a signiicant sum, considering the poverty of the peasant population. A few years
later, three thieves climbed to the roof of the temple and
tried to steal the jewel, but one of them fell and was successfully apprehended by the police, while the other two
were able to lee. Due to the fact that the theft was not
consummated, the captured ofender obtained his freedom.
Today, the chaste Lady wears her crown permanently,
together with the other gold pieces that make up its collection (rings, necklaces, medals, cruciixes, earrings and rosaries), all of them donated by local devotees. Other metal
jewels (not made of gold) are kept locked in a safe-deposit
box in the temple, whose responsibility is with the sacristan.
here is no inventory or photographic record, but people
airm that there is no missing jewellery.
he word Helelchakán comes from the Mayan words
helel and chakán, meaning ‘rest’ and ‘savannah’, respectively.
herefore, it can be translated as “Savannah for resting”. his
is a town located on the old Camino Real; it was founded
by Mayan Indians before the Spanish arrival. In 1579, the
Franciscan monks built in this place a temple and a convent,
which worked as a base for the evangelization of neighbouring
sites (López de Cogolludo 1996). Nowadays, it has the title of
Parish of Hecelchakán, assigned to the Diocese of Campeche.
he Patron Saint is San Francis of Assisi, but the most venerated image is a Black Christ, known as the Lord of Health
because of its reputation for curing illnesses (Fig. 6).
his is a sculpture of carved wood, dark brown, about
2 meters tall. It is an anonymous work of unknown origin,
but because of its similarity to the Christ of Saint Roman,
it is considered an artwork of the 16th century. he religious
festival in its honour is performed in April, when the statue
is taken on a tour around the town, and the guilds and civil
authorities organize bullights, rides, handicraft selling, cooking of regional foods, ireworks, and folk dances.
Figure 6: (See colour plate) “Lord of Health”, Black Christ of the
Diocese of Campeche. (Photography: E. Brito).
Figure 6 : (Voir planche couleur) Le « Seigneur de la Santé », Christ
Noir du Diocèse de Campech. (Photographie : E. Brito).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 319-325
Eva BRITO, Feliciano CHAIRE
324
he Lord has several cruciixes and a crown of gold (part
of it), and nails of silver with golden cover, all of them
donated by the parishioners asking for health and relief or
thanking for it. he jewels are kept by one of the ministers of the Church at his own home. here is no inventory or photographic record, but members of the Catholic
community say they have not sufered any loss or theft of
jewellery.
At this location, we encountered a similar problem to the
one at Saint Roman, because the parish priest and some
members of the community did not authorize the minister to show us the collection that is stored in his house,
even though we had a written permission of the bishop, nor
did we have the possibility to photograph it. he data that
we obtained was in oral form, from other members of the
Catholic community and priests, and the result of our own
personal observations and photographic record during the
religious events.
7. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
In addition to the historical signiicance that gold had for
the pre-Columbian civilization, it still maintains to this day
an important meaning for the current Mayan population in
Campeche State, where it is still possible to observe practices of popular religiosity that recover past cultural elements.
Neighbours of the towns of Hool and Chuiná throw jewels
into the lake and lagoon similarly to how their ancestors did
it in the cenotes.
However, the ieldwork of this study allowed us to conclude
that nowadays, people prefer ofering more personal items to
their statues. For this reason, they donate jewels such as earrings, necklaces, rings, cruciixes and crowns, which come into
physical contact with the bodies of their sacred images. If the
contact is closer, believers feel they are closer to God and the
saints, and thus, they materialize their need to be comforted,
healed, forgiven, blessed, but most of all, to be heard praying
for the eternal salvation of their souls. In this way, devotees
prove their faith to themselves and to the community, repeating the cycle every time that the image is made to carry and
show the presents, especially during holy celebrations.
Added to this, as gold has historically represented one
of the ideal gifts for the gods, the belief exists that, with a
jewel of this material, a saint will be more pleased than with
objects of other types of material. If the jewel is iner, the
mortal is believed to be closer to heaven.
he fact that we were not allowed to personally examine or photograph the jewellery collections of two of the
representations we studied, rather than relecting a safety
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 319-325
concern, indicates that the objects have already been transferred to a sacred level. Moreover, these objects become
mediators between God or the represented saints, and the
donors, whether individuals or groups (as the religious
guilds). Because of this, only their owners and custodians
are entitled access to the jewellery.
With this experience, we conclude that these gold pieces go
beyond their purely monetary value, and become an essential part of the religious beliefs and rituals. In this regard,
the deinition given by the United Nations Educational,
Scientiic and Cultural Organization (Unesco) for cultural
heritage of the people states that it includes:
[…] the body of values which give meaning to life. It includes
both tangible and intangible works through which the creativity of that people inds expression: languages, rites, beliefs […]
(Unesco, 1982).
hus, according to this deinition, the gold jewels of
devotional images need to be recognized as Communal
Cultural Heritage. his recognition will generate rights
for the owners of the materials, but also an obligation
to ensure their safety and preservation. Nevertheless,
this commitment must also be assumed by the Mexican
government, the Church, religious tourism, and society in
general. Only then we will be able to preserve the culture
that is producing these assets, in this case, the culture of
the population of Mayan origin that currently lives in the
State of Campeche, whose wealth is a gift of gold that
Mexico ofers to the entire world.
Aknowledgements
Alfonso de Maria y Campos Castelló, Director of Instituto
Nacional de Antropología e Historia; Bishop Dr. Ramón Castro
Castro and Priest Armando Rosado Cel, of Diocese of Campeche;
Lic. Carlos Ucan Yam, Mrs. Emma and Mimí Carrillo Briseño,
and Mr. Rafael Pérez Novelo, of the Village of Pomuch.
References
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Constitucional del Estado de Campeche.
CAHUICH, G. and AGUAYO, M., 1998. La Feria de San Román.
Historia de una mentalidad 1505-1997 (México). Secretaría de
Cultura y Deporte, Secretaría de Turismo del Gobierno del
Estado de Campeche, Instituto de Cultura de Campeche.
COGGINS, C.Ch., 1994. El cenote sagrado, Arqueología Mexicana
2(7): 47-49.
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GARZA, M. de La, 1990. El hombre en el pensamiento religioso
náhuatl y maya (México). Universidad Nacional Autónoma de
México.
INEGI, 2005. II Conteo de Población y Vivienda (México). Instituto
Nacional de Estadística y Geografía.
LÓPEZ, A., 1994. El conejo en la cara de la luna (México). Consejo
Nacional par la Cultura y las Artes, Instituto Nacional Indigenista.
LÓPEZ DE COGOLLUDO, D., 1996. Historia de Yucatán 1688. Tomo
II (Campeche), Heroico Ayuntamiento de Campeche.
MARION, M.O., 1994. Fiestas de los pueblos indígenas. Identidad
y ritualidad entre los mayas (México), Secretaría de Desarrollo
Social, Instituto Nacional Indigenista.
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SCHMIDT, M., 1994. Chichén Itzá, Arqueología Mexicana 2(7): 38-45.
THOMPSON, J.E., 1982. Historia y religión de los mayas (México),
Siglo XXI Editores, S.A.
UCAN, C.E., UNDATED. Leyendas Purísima Concepción de la Virgen
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-6 August, 1982.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 319-325
A:
AuthentificAtion : ApplicAtion
des connAissAnces du spéciAliste
Forgeries and public collections
Les contrefaçons et les collections publiques
Susan La Niece*
Abstract: Large public collections, however prestigious, inevitably have some forgeries in their storerooms (and occasionally on display) and,
although this aspect may seem reprehensible in a publicly funded collection, it is almost inevitable, given the means by which collections are
built up by museums. All collectors are vulnerable to forgers who customise their products to tempt the buyer with something that will ill an
important gap in their collection, and museums are just as likely to fall for this as private collectors. Forgeries may also enter museum collections
as gifts. Museums not infrequently receive bequests from generous patrons, sometimes comprising large numbers of objects, and amongst them
a forgery may be included, unrecognised, and may remain unquestioned for many years before coming to the attention of a curator or visiting
scholar. his paper presents some case studies of objects in the British Museum for which scientiic analysis has demonstrated that either the
materials or the technology used in their making are not compatible with their supposed date of manufacture.
Résumé : Les collections publiques, bien que prestigieuses, contiennent inévitablement quelques objets modernes dont certains sont exposés. Bien que cela
puisse sembler critiquable dans le cas de collections publiques, ceci est inévitable au vu de la façon dont les collections des musées se sont formées au cours
des décennies. Tout collectionneur d’art se trouve vulnérable face aux faussaires qui adaptent leurs « produits » pour correspondre à l’attente des acquéreurs ; les collectionneurs privés cherchant à combler une lacune importante dans leurs collections, tout comme les musées. Les faux ou les copies modernes,
peuvent également être entrés dans les collections publiques par voie de donation. Il est en efet courant que les musées publics reçoivent des donations de
personnalités importantes, collections qui sont parfois conséquentes et possédent un ou plusieurs faux. L’authenticité de ces objets ne sera pas questionnée,
parfois pendant plusieurs années, jusqu’au moment où, par chance, dans le cadre d’un projet de recherche spéciique, ils soient proprement analysés par des
méthodes scientiiques. Cet article présente quelques cas d’études d’objets appartenant à la collection du British Museum, pour lesquels l’étude scientiique
a pu prouver que les techniques de fabrications utilisées ne pouvaient pas être compatibles avec leurs dates de fabrication supposées.
Keywords: Analysis, forgery, gold, pastiche, restoration, SEM.
Mots-clés : analyse, faux, or, pastiche, restauration, MEB.
1. INTRODUCTION
he basic rule of free-market economics – that increased
demand will lead to an increase in supply – holds equally
true for the supply of antiquities. he supply of genuine
antiquities is of course inite, and so the demand has to
be met by new ‘antiquities’. In 19th century Europe, collecting antiquities became particularly fashionable amongst
gentlemen of means (though collecting goes back much
earlier), and the output of forgeries of collectibles, which
could encompass anything from Renaissance jewellery to
instruments of torture of the Spanish Inquisition, turned
into an expanding industry (Jones, 1990).
All collectors are vulnerable to forgers who customise their
product to tempt the buyer with something that will ill an
important gap in their collections, and museums are just as
likely as the private collector to fall into the trap. he so-called Tiara of Saitaphernes, who was a historical 3rd century
* Scientiic Research, he British Museum – Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3DG, UK. (slaniece@thebritishmuseum.ac.uk)
rec. Aug. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 329-333
330
BC Scythian king, was purchased by the Musée du Louvre
in 1896 (Collignon, 1899; de Pradenne, 1932). In retrospect, it can be observed that the desire to acquire this unique
and undoubtedly ine example of the goldsmith’s art overcame caution. It soon became known that it had been made
by a Russian goldsmith and that the scenes depicted on it
were inspired by illustrations from contemporary books on
Greek vases, as well as by the tales of the Iliad and Odyssey
of Homer and scenes from Scythian life, mixing together
styles of diferent dates.
Unlike private collectors, who almost invariably acquire
by purchase, museums may acquire their collections by
other routes. he irst of these is direct from archaeological
excavation, which usually provides the best possible provenance. However, it is not unknown for deception to occur
even on excavations, whether as a practical joke, attention
seeking or malice.
A second route by which items enter public collections
is by donation, either of individual items or of a complete
collection (often on the death of a collector, to mitigate
taxation). Such large groups of artefacts sometimes include
forgeries amongst the genuine pieces, and the forgeries may
remain unquestioned for many years before coming to the
attention of a curator or visiting scholar. King George III’s
large collection of coins and medals, deposited at the British
Museum in 1825, included a gold Roman coin depicting ‘Brutus’ (CM B.11447). It was once thought to represent Brutus, the legendary founder of Britain, and was thus
considered very desirable at the time, as a missing link in
a chronological sequence of coins and medals representing
the rulers of Britain. his coin is in fact a close copy in gold
of an ancient Roman silver coin depicting Marcus Junius
Brutus, the assassin of Julius Caesar.
Any artefact of gold will tend to command a higher price
than the equivalent item made of other materials, and in
some respects it is easier to produce a convincing ‘antiquity’
from gold than, for example, from silver. Gold is a particularly diicult material to authenticate scientiically, although
this situation is already changing with the development of
new techniques (Eugster et al., 2009). he forensic approach
to the detection of forgeries relies on inding anachronisms
in the materials or techniques used to make them, and a
comprehensive database of materials and techniques is therefore of prime importance (Craddock, 2009). he holy grail
of a simple test for authenticity may be approaching, but in
reality there is as yet no substitute for knowledge acquired
by in-depth scientiic research into the history of technology,
as the following case studies demonstrate.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 329-333
Susan LA NIECE
2. EARLY MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN JEWELLERY
Early medieval European jewellery became particularly
popular amongst late 19th/early 20th century collectors, attracted to the artefacts of the ancestors of modern European
nations. By the early 20th century, major collections in
Europe and the USA contained forgeries of jewellery purporting to be from this period, and also a number of ‘improved’
genuine artefacts, such as a genuine iron Merovingian buckle
(BM1928,0720.1) which has on it a copper-alloy overlay
with what was claimed to be the earliest representation of the
Cruciixion (Smith, 1928; Baum, 1937). However, radiography revealed the original surface, with its silver-inlaid decoration, beneath the faked additions. When an object has a
feature which makes it the earliest or indeed the only example
of its type, it merits very close inspection.
A group of more than 30 items of gold work, purporting to originate from northern Italy, from the tomb of the
Lombardic King Agilulf (died AD 615) and from that of
his queen, heodelinda (died AD 628), was in fact manufactured about 1929-30. It is no coincidence that it was
contemporaneous with the rise to power of Mussolini, as
the Treasure was designed deliberately to appeal to a sense of
nationalism. Individual items are based on genuine pieces.
For example, the buckle is an extravagant combination of
features from a number of buckles illustrated in the literature, and the dagger handle is remarkably like those on
swords carried by the four emperors in a stone sculpture
at San Marco in Venice. he inscription on the dagger
bears the name of heodelinda and the iconography on the
other pieces derives from the famous Lombardic helmet
fragment depicting her husband King Agilulf, preserved in
the Bargello Museum in Florence. Doubts grew about the
Treasure on stylistic grounds and it failed to ind a buyer,
and was thus withdrawn from the market. Dafydd Kidd,
then a curator at the British Museum, was interested to see
what a scientiic examination of these forgeries might reveal
of the techniques being employed by the forgers, and in
1988 he purchased two gold mounts for a study. he scientiic examination of these two pieces ascertained that the
gold was of unusually high purity, and that the solder of the
major structural joint of each item contained the element
cadmium, an element not found in ancient solders (Meeks
and Craddock, 1991). A buckle from the Treasure has red
and white glass inlay imitating cloisonné work (Fig. 1). he
white glass is opaciied with arsenic oxide, which was not
used for glass making until the 18th century (Craddock,
2009: 213, 224-5). here are numerous other anachronisms
in the technology, although the iron blade of the dagger may
well be ancient.
Forgeries and public collections
331
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Items from the Lombard treasure.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Objets du trésor des Lombards.
3. AN ELECTROFORMED ‘PRE-COLUMBIAN GOLD’
ORNAMENT
An extensive survey of the collection of pre-Columbian
gold at the British Museum, utilizing a range of scientiic techniques, discovered that a fragmentary miniature
model of a spouted vessel, in the style of the Chimu culture
of pre-Columbian Peru, was not what it appeared to be
(BM1947Am21.1) (Fig. 2). he artefact was donated to the
British Museum in 1947, and from a visual examination was
assumed to be of cast gold alloy; indeed, it was until recently
registered as being made of gold. However, X-ray luorescence analysis and examination by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that the metal is not gold, but pure
copper which has been gilded. Furthermore, the columnar
microstructure of a small polished cross-section taken from
a broken edge indicated that it was neither cast nor worked;
rather, it is an electroform, which was subsequently electroplated with a thin layer of gold. Electroforming is a modern
method of depositing metal from solution onto the surface
of a model by means of an electric current, a technique for
making metal items which does not occur until the mid-19th
century.
4. EGYPTIAN NECKLACE WITH FLY PENDANTS
An Egyptian-style necklace of unknown provenance was
donated to the British Museum in 1939 and was accepted
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Fragmentary Chimu-style object (height c.
40 mm) with (right) a polished section through the metal revealing the
columnar microstructure indicative of electroforming. (SEM BSE image).
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Objet fragmentaire de type Chimu (hauteur
c. 40 mm) avec (à droite) une section polie à travers le métal indiquant la
microstructure colonnaire typique de l’électroformage. (image BSE au MEB).
until recently as dating to the New Kingdom (EA65279)
(Andrews, 1996). It consists of 38 cast, solid-gold ly pendant amulets and spherical almandine garnet beads of
4-6 mm in diameter (Fig. 3). he garnet beads are considered peripheral to the question of authenticity, as there is
no certainty that the beads were found together with the
gold amulets: the stringing is modern and no garnet beads
of the size and quality of these could be found amongst
the extensive collections of Egyptian beads at the British
Museum. A scientiic investigation of the piece established
that the alloy composition would not be out of place for
the alloy ranges found amongst Egyptian New Kingdom
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 329-333
332
Susan LA NIECE
family irm in Rome dealt in antiquities as well as making
and restoring jewellery in the antique style so fashionable
at the time. A study of the necklace using SEM established
that one half of the necklace corresponds to the expectations for genuine Hellenistic Greek goldsmithing, but the
wire used on the other half is manufactured by drawing, not
by the classical strip-twist method, and is 99% pure gold
(Meeks, 2007). It is therefore likely that this half was made
by the Castellani irm. Presumably the original necklace was
extensively damaged and had to be restored in the Castellani
workshops to pass it of as a near perfect antiquity.
5. CONCLUSION
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Garnet and gold necklace with ly
amulets, purporting to be New Kingdom period, Egypt.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Collier de grenats et or avec des
amulettes en forme de mouche, attribué au Nouvel Empire, Égypte.
gold work, with circa 75% gold, 20% silver and 5% copper, but it could equally be described as a modern 18 carat
alloy. he ‘wear’ on the gold is unusually coarse, but it is the
manufacturing technique used to make the amulets that is
most unusual. Large, cast amulets of Egyptian deities do
exist, but sets of small identical pendants such as those on
this necklace are usually made of foil and are hollow. In
addition, those which are undoubtedly of ancient manufacture are mostly threaded via holes through the body or
head of the ly, whereas these have a suspension ring at the
top. Lilyquist’s study of Egyptian ly amulets identiied some
examples of modern manufacture, though none of them was
cast (Lilyquist, 2003). It is possible that well-provenanced
examples of cast solid-gold ly pendants will be excavated in
the future and vindicate this piece, but until then its authenticity remains very much in doubt.
he necklace was a bequest, presumably in good faith,
and there may have been no intention to deceive by either
the donor or even by the maker. It is perfectly possible that
it was made as a wearable piece of modern jewellery in the
Egyptian style, but over the years, after changing hands, its
origins have been lost. If this were the case, it would not of
course be deined as a forgery, because forgery implies a deliberate attempt to deceive. A Hellenistic gold strap necklace
with pendants acquired by the British Museum in 1872
from Alessandro Castellani does seem to have been made
deliberately to deceive (BM1872,0604.651). he Castellani
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 329-333
To quote Mark Jones (1990), the curator of the exhibition
‘Fake? he Art of Deception’ at the British Museum and
now Director of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London,
it is “[…] not that the less well informed may sometimes
make mistakes, but even the most …rigorously organised of
institutions can and will occasionally be wrong. And this is
not simply because knowledge and experience can never be
complete, but because perception itself is determined by the
structure of expectations that underpins it.”
Curatorial judgements of potential purchases cannot be
truly objective; all of us are inluenced by the times we live
in. Some of the famous forgeries of the 19th century may
seem obvious to us now, for example, with faces depicted
according to the conventions of beauty fashionable in the
19th century. A forensic scientiic approach, on the other
hand, can be used to determine whether the materials and
techniques are consistent with the date attributed to the
piece. his of course requires extensive knowledge of what
materials and techniques were current during the cultural
period concerned, and such knowledge can only be acquired
by the scientiic study of large numbers of genuine artefacts.
It is an advantage of large collections that they are likely to
include many genuine pieces of well attested provenance
which can be used for comparison. It is a truism that it is
impossible to prove that an object is genuine, but scientiic
analysis is the key to determining whether a piece is restored,
a pastiche, enhanced or an outright forgery.
References
ANDREWS, C.A.R., 1996. Ancient Egyptian Jewellery. London:
British Museum Publications.
BAUM, J., 1937. La Sculpture Figurale en Europe à l’Epoque
Mérovingienne. Paris, Éditions d’art et d’histoire.
Forgeries and public collections
COLLIGNON, M., 1899. Tiare en or oferte par la ville d’Olbia au
roi Säitapharnès. Monuments Piot 6: 5-57.
CRADDOCK, P.T., 2009. Scientiic Investigation of Copies, Fakes and
Forgeries. Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
EUGSTER, O., PERNICKA, E., BRAUNS, M., SHUKOLYUKOV, A.,
OLIVE, V. and ROELLIN, S., 2009. Helium, uranium and thorium analyses of ancient and modern gold objects: estimates of
their time of manufacturing. ArcheoSciences 33: 53-61.
JONES, M., 1990. Fake? he art of deception. Exhibition catalogue.
London, British Museum Press.
LILYQUIST, C., 2003. he tomb of three foreign wives of Tuthmosis III.
New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art: 299-300.
333
MEEKS, N.D., 2007. Un collier grec en or ou le pastiche poussé à
sa perfection, in F. Gaultier, C. Metzger (eds.), Les bijoux de
la collection campana. De l’antique au pastiche. Rencontres de
l’Ėcole du Louvre 21. Paris, École du Louvre, 127-144.
MEEKS, N.D and CRADDOCK, P.T., 1991. Detection of cadmium
in gold/silver alloys. Archaeometry 33.
DE PRADENNE, A.V., 1932. Les Fraudes en Archéologie Préhistorique.
Paris, Émile Nourry, 519-573.
SMITH, R.A., 1928. he cruciixion on a Frankish buckle. British
Museum Quarterly 3: 50-51.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 329-333
Micro rayures et signes d’usure :
authentification d’orfèvrerie archéologique
he analysis of micro-scratches and trace-wear in the authentication
of archaeological gold
Edilberto Formigli*
Résumé : Les traces laissées par les instruments anciens et modernes de travail ont, depuis plusieurs années, fait l’objet d’études avec succès. Aux
diférentes méthodes archéométriques utilisées pour l’identiication de faux, ainsi que dans le domaine d’authentiication d’orfèvrerie archéologique, nous proposons d’ajouter une technique basée sur l’observation de l’objet par microscopie optique ou électronique. Cette méthode repose
sur l’étude de la surface de la tôle, pour identiier les stratiications des traces correspondant soit aux anciennes opérations du travail de l’orfèvre,
soit au contact et au frottement au cours du temps de cette surface avec des matériaux extérieurs, qui viennent se superposer aux traces initiales.
En reconnaissant la séquence chronologique des superpositions des marques, il est parfois possible de reconstruire l’histoire de l’objet et d’avancer
une hypothèse sur son ancienneté. Les traces d’usure visibles sur la surface des objets d’orfèvrerie fournissent également des informations fondamentales sur la durée de vie de ces objets et sur leur utilisation.
Abstract: he traces left by ancient instruments and by modern ones have been successfully studied for many years. In the present paper, we propose to
add to the diferent archaeometric methods employed for the identiication of fakes a supplementary technique involving the observation of the object by
optical or electron microscopy. his technique is based on the study of metallic surfaces in order to identify the stratiications of the marks related to the
ancient stages of construction related to the work of the original goldsmiths and distinguish them from those which were added later to the initial marks.
he latter are related to the contact and friction of the surface with external materials in the course of time. By recognising the chronological sequence of
the marks’ superposition, it is at times possible to reconstruct the history of the object and to put forth hypotheses regarding its age. he visible wear marks
on the surface of goldwork also provide fundamental information about the lifetime and use of the objects.
Mots-clés : orfèvrerie, archéologique, faux, authentiication, micro-rayures, traces d’usure.
Keywords: jewellery, archaeology, fakes, authentication, micro-scratches, use-wear.
1. INTRODUCTION
L’étude scientiique au moyen de sections métallographiques qui mettent en évidence la structure cristalline
interne de l’or, révèle le traitement subit par le métal
pendant la production de l’objet. Il est alors possible de
reconnaître, par exemple, la situation inaltérée de fusion,
le degré et l’orientation des phénomènes de compression
subis pendant le martelage, ou alors de recuit par chaufe
(Scott, 1991). Les microanalyses chimiques en surface,
ou encore mieux sur une section, au-delà de fournir des
indications sur la composition de l’alliage d’or, peuvent
permettre l’identiication de diférentes techniques de soudure (Guerra, 2006 ; Guerra, 2007 ; Ferro et al., 2008).
*Str. Com della Miniera 4, Italy-53016 Murlo (Siena). (edilbertoformigli@gmail.com) (www.anteamurlo.it)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 335-339
336
Enin, l’examen radiographique peut aussi révéler des situations singulières à l’intérieur de l’objet et contribuer ainsi à
reconstruire ses diférentes phases de production (Formigli,
1992 ; Guerra, 2006).
Néanmoins, la simple observation de la surface, ce qui ne
nécessite ni de prélèvement ni d’autre intervention invasive,
peut à elle seule fournir tout une série d’informations utiles
(Fig. 1). L’observation sous loupe binoculaire à divers grossissements et au microscope électronique à balayage (Formigli
et Heilmeyer, 1993 ; Ferro, 2006 ; Meeks, 2007) de la surface
des pièces en or, peut être une aide primordiale à la reconstitution de leur histoire et par conséquent les informations
récoltées peuvent aussi être utilisées pour diagnostiquer leur
authenticité.
En particulier, l’étude microscopique des surfaces plus
exposées au contact des éléments extérieurs contribue à la
compréhension de la séquence des évènements mécaniques
qui se suivent dans le temps, laissant des traces, même
minimes et invisibles à l’œil nu. Nous ne considérons pas
ici les questions de la détérioration de la surface des alliages
anciens en or causée par les phénomènes d’enrichissement
de surface ni la corrosion sélective, phénomènes déjà étudiés
et publiés par diférents auteurs (Scott, 1983), mais seulement les évènements purement mécaniques qui laissent des
traces sur les surfaces.
Il s’agit ainsi de reconnaître en premier lieu les traces initiales du travail artisanal de l’or, ensuite celles fortuites et
involontaires qui se superposent comme des cicatrices plus
ou moins profondes sur la surface pendant la vie de l’objet
et, enin, celles moins fortuites, mais pour nous riches d’in-
Figure 1 : (See colour plate) Observation de la surface de la Phiale
d’Achyris sous loupe binoculaire.
Figure 1: (Voir planche couleur) Observation of the surface of the
Phiale of Achrys under a binocular.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 335-339
Edilberto FORMIGLI
formations, qui sont dues au port et utilisation prolongés
de l’objet selon sa fonction, par exemple de parure (collier,
bracelet, bague, etc.), ou ustensiles ou instruments rituels
(ibules, récipients, etc.).
2. LES MICRO-RAYURES ET LES IMPRESSIONS
DE LA PHASE DE PRODUCTION
Déjà pendant les premières phases de production, les surfaces d’or subissent des micro-rayures : préparation de la
lame, traitement par compression et micro-polissage de la
surface. La technique ancienne pour réduire un in lingot
initial à une épaisseur extrêmement ine était le martelage
alterné de recuit. Pendant la dernière phase de préparation
des feuilles très ines, une technique qui consiste à étirer
l’objet entre des surfaces de peau, dont les traces en négatif peuvent encore parfois être relevées sur certains bijoux
anciens, était aussi utilisée.
Les traces du martelage d’origine sont rarement visibles à
cause de leurs grandes dimensions par rapport aux dimensions des parties des lames utilisées dans les bijoux et à cause
des opérations successives de travail des lames. Parmi ces
opérations, notons deux très répandues dans l’antiquité : le
polissage et le brunissage.
Plus claires et individualisées, les traces du marteau sont
reconnaissables sur les lames de plus grande épaisseur (environ 1-3 mm) qui ont subi une modiication successive pour
obtenir une forme recourbée, comme par exemple celle
d’une patère. Ces marques sont parfois reconnaissables au
niveau macroscopique, avec une simple loupe binoculaire.
Il est alors possible d’observer non seulement les coups de
marteau qui, du fait de leur surface non totalement lisse,
ont laissé leurs caractéristiques imprimées en négatif sur les
objets, mais aussi de l’autre côté de la lame les marques du
support du métal (enclume) sur laquelle la lame a été martelée (Formigli, 1985).
L’instrument moderne utilisé pour aplatir des lames est
constitué de deux cylindres en acier voisins, dont les distances réglables déterminent l’épaisseur de la lame que l’on
a forcé à passer à travers. Comme la surface des cylindres
ne peut pas être parfaitement lisse, l’impression de leurs
défauts, même minimes, est identiiable sur les lames fausses
agrémentées d’un fond de ines rayures en relief régulièrement parallèles. L’utilisation du microscope électronique à
balayage avec un gros grossissement peut être indispensable
pour l’identiication de ces traces, même dans le cas de cylindres extrêmement lisses.
Les traces du travail initial d’aplatissement des lames soit
pour les faux soit pour les objets originaux, sont celles de
Micro rayures et signes d’usure : authentiication d’orfèvrerie archéologique
337
fond, auxquels se superposent toutes les autres traces qui se
succèdent.
3. LES RAYURES OCCASIONNELLES
Pendant la vie de l’objet, aux traces de travail viennent
s’additionner, par superposition, d’autres rayures plus au
moins profondes dont les causes sont variées : la micro-abrasion pendant l’enfouissement des matériaux environnants
déplacés par des phénomènes dus à l’environnement, les évènements successifs de récupération de la terre, les opérations
de polissage pendant la restauration et, enin, les manipulations (normalement plus nombreuses que prévu) par les
individus qui ont pour diverses raisons eu en main les objets
(propriétaires, savants, photographes, experts, etc.) chacun
laissant toujours, involontairement, quelques traces.
Chaque fois que, pendant sa vie, l’objet en or est touché, placé sur une substance ou frotté contre un matériau,
les traces de ces évènements restent marquées sur sa surface. Ces marques apparaissent comme des rayures plus ou
moins larges, longues et profondes, simples ou multiples ;
des rayures peuvent avoir un fond pointu, plat ou ondulé.
Ainsi, en résumé, toutes les rayures se caractérisent par un
grand nombre de traits individuels distinctifs. Quand deux
rayures identiques sont observées alors leur cause et origine
sont les mêmes.
Toutes ces traces observées sous loupe binoculaire, ou
encore mieux, au microscope électronique à balayage, forment un réticule de lignes qui se croisent et se superposent.
Chaque rayure, qui à un grossissement suisant apparaît
comme une ligne presque droite, possède une certaine profondeur et une certaine largeur ainsi qu’une certaine orientation.
Entre deux ou plusieurs rayures qui se croisent (et qui évidemment ne peuvent pas être exactement contemporaines),
il est possible de reconnaître la séquence chronologique se
basant sur l’empreinte présente dans le point de croisement
(Fig. 2). Si les marques d’une rayure, causées par le transport
de matériaux par l’outil ou matériau écorchant, couvrent
l’espace vide, c’est-à-dire la disparition de la rayure croisée, cela veut dire qu’elle succède à l’autre. Si une troisième
rayure “couvre” la deuxième, cela signiie que celle-ci succède à la deuxième, et ainsi de suite.
Si deux ou plusieurs rayures sont orientées dans la même
direction, il est probable qu’elles soient réalisées simultanément. En général, plus longue est la vie et le temps d’utilisation de l’objet, plus haut est le facteur chaos, c’est-à-dire la
variété des trois paramètres et la concentration des tracés.
Figure 2 : (See colour plate) Superposition de micro-rayures sur la
Phiale d’Achyris : image au microscope électronique à balayage.
Figure 2: (Voir planche couleur) Superposition of the micro-scratches
on the Phiale of Achrys: images under the scanning electron microscope.
Un autre critère valide pour évaluer l’état de l’objet est
l’étude micro morphologique des rayures. Les tracés anciens
tendent pendant les longues périodes à être réabsorbés par la
matrice. Par analogie avec les tissus humains, nous pouvons
imaginer assister à un phénomène de « cicatrisation » d’une
blessure pour laquelle les lacérations plus externes s’étirent
et les reliefs s’adoucissent. Ce phénomène est causé par une
recristallisation qui ne se révèle qu’après une période très
longue. Des tracés anciens qui ont subi une telle transformation, sont identiiables par microscopie électronique par
son opacité ; les tracés récents, par opposition, possèdent de
bordures afûtées, identiiables par un contraste plus net. En
efet, une conirmation est fournie par le fait que tracés reconnus comme anciens ne se superposent jamais à ceux que nous
avons, basés sur notre hypothèse, supposés modernes.
L’ensemble du complexe réseau de micro-rayures présent sur la fameuse Phiale d’Achyris (Fig. 1 et 2), étudiée
d’une façon approfondie à diférents grossissements sur ses
diverses zones et résultant en une pièce authentique par ce
type de recherche, montre la présence d’un bruit de fond
tant orienté (traces de travail) que chaotique de type ancien
auquel se superposent abondamment des traces de type
récent, concentrés de façon particulière dans les zones plus
extérieures de la phiale, accessibles à la manipulation.
4. LES TRACES D’USURE PAR UTILISATION
Selon l’utilisation faite d’un objet précieux en or, se forment au long du temps des polissages et aplatissements
dans les zones de frottement de ses diférentes parties. Nous
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 335-339
338
pouvons citer, par exemple, les accroches avec les anneaux
d’une chaîne ou encore des frottements sur la surface la plus
exposée au contact avec des matériaux externes, par exemple
sur un pendentif qui, pendant son utilisation, frotte sur la
peau ou sur le tissu des vêtements.
L’observation précise de telles traces fournit des informations sur le mode d’utilisation de l’objet, sur la période
de temps d’utilisation, sur la présence de réparations ou de
remplacements anciens de parties d’objets ou encore sur la
présence de restaurations modernes. En déinitive, il s’agit
aussi d’informations qui considèrent l’histoire de l’objet
mais également de son état. Un Kardiophylax (bulle pectorale) provenant de Cuma montre distinctement toute une
série de détails d’usure par utilisation (Fig. 3). Si la direction de l’élargissement est vers l’extérieur d’une cavité alors
l’objet se dit porté en longueur, adhérent à la poitrine aussi
au moyen d’un il qui passait derrière le revers, et que le
premier contact avec la lame était fait avec l’anneau d’un
il métallique rond lequel était doublé sur la partie extérieure. L’usure par utilisation d’une zone en relief où passait
la décoration correspond à un objet porté sous les vêtements.
Généralement, toutes les traces d’usure confortent l’authenticité de la pièce.
Pour identiier les faux modernes, l’étude des traces
d’usure est évidement très importante. Même pour des
faussaires expérimentés, il n’est pas aisé de reproduire d’une
façon crédible les traces d’usure par utilisation, conséquence
d’un long port d’un objet. Des cas de fausses traces d’usure
par utilisations apportées par des faussaires ont été observés,
traces facilement identiiables car localisées dans des endroits
impossibles, comme par exemple l’aplatissement d’un il en
or en forme de crochet non sur la partie interne mais sur la
partie externe. De la même façon, l’outil utilisé, dans ce cas
une lime, a laissé des traces possédant des proils aiguisés qui
ne sont pas conformes à la typologie de l’usure par utilisation qui produit toujours des surfaces très lisses.
Un objet ancien peut par une raison ou une autre ne plus
avoir été utilisé quand, par exemple, a été produit volontairement à but funéraire, et ainsi malgré le fait d’être ancien il
ne portera pas de traces d’usure. Cette information est déjà
de grande importance pour l’archéologue qui étudie l’objet.
En réalité, il s’agit de cas très rares car souvent un examen
approfondi des pièces mène à exclure cette éventualité.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Pour obtenir des informations qui apportent des renseignements sur l’âge d’un objet d’orfèvrerie et sur l’histoire des
événements expérimentés par l’objet, il est essentiel d’obArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 335-339
Edilberto FORMIGLI
Figure 3 : (See colour plate) Traces d’usure par utilisation du
Kardiophilax de Cuma.
Figure 3: (Voir planche couleur) Use-wear traces produced by the utilisation of the Kardiophilax from Cuma.
server les marques qui se sont superposées sur sa surface
au cours du temps. Ces marques peuvent être provoquées
par les actions suivantes :
1) Travail artisanal initial
2) Rayures occasionnées pendant la vie de l’objet
3) Traces d’usure par utilisation
4) Micro-abrasion par les matériaux environnants dans la
terre d’enfouissement
3) Evènements pendant la fouille archéologique
4) Traces laissées par la restauration
5) Traces de manipulations successives
Les caractéristiques qui peuvent indiquer un âge ancien
pour un objet et ainsi conirmer son authenticité sont les
suivantes :
1) Superposition de marques selon un ordre logique et
chronologique
2) Caractère aléatoire des marques
3) Grand nombre de traces superposées
3) Présence de traces plausibles d’utilisation
Micro rayures et signes d’usure : authentiication d’orfèvrerie archéologique
Bibliographie
FERRO, D. FORMIGLI, E., PACINI, A. and TOSSINI, D., 2008. La saldatura nell’oreiceria antica, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche,
Roma.
FORMIGLI, E., 1992. Indagini archeometriche sull’autenticità della
ibula prenestina, Mitteilungen, des deutschen archaeologischen
Instituts 99: 330-343.
FORMIGLI, E., 1985. Tecniche dell’oreiceria etrusca e romana, originali e falsiicazioni. Sansoni Editore, Firenze.
FORMIGLI, E. and HEILMEYER W.D., 1993. Einige Faelschungen
antiken Goldschmucks im 19. Jahrhundert. Archäologischer
Anzeiger 3: 299-332.
GUERRA, M.F., 2006. Etruscan gold Jewellery Pastiches of the
Campana’s Collection revealed by scientific Analysis, in
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M. Cavallini, G.E. Gigante (ed.), De Re Metallica, L’Erma di
Bretschneider, Roma, 103-128.
GUERRA, M.F., 2007. Examen et analyse élémentaire de quelques
bijoux de la collection Campana, in Les bijoux de la collection Campana. F. Gaultier, C. Metzger (ed.), Paris, École du
Louvre, 145-177.
MEEKS, N., 2007. Un collier grec en or ou le pastiche puossé à sa
perfection, in Les bijoux de la collection Campana, F. Gaultier,
C. Metzger (ed.), Paris, École du Louvre, p. 127-144.
SCOTT, D., 1983. he Deterioration of Gold Alloys and some
Aspects of their Conservation, Studies in Conservation 28: 194203.
SCOTT, D., 1991. Metallography and Microstructure of Ancient and
Historic Metals, Marina del Rey (Cal.), he J. Paul Getty Trust,
Los Angeles.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 335-339
A new approach to the authentication of goldwork
using combined Scanning Electron Microscopy
and External-beam PIXE
Une nouvelle approche pour l’authentification des objets en or
en couplant la microscopie électronique à balayage et le PIXE en faisceau extrait
Olivier Bobin* and Hervé Guegan**
Abstract: he study of goldwork encompasses several large ields of investigations. Scientiic analyses can respond to questions concerning production techniques, provenance and preservation. However, what about authentication? his type of works of art generally has very high prices,
leading to an increase in the number of forgeries. Today, fakes can imitate artworks produced by most civilisations and with diferent origins.
Moreover, most of the objects we analyse cannot be submitted to destructive sampling. hat is the reason why we employ external-beam PIXE
for the analysis of such objects, a method able to ofer reliable and non-intrusive scientiic investigations. Our methodology consists of two steps,
which, in their combination, provide information about the chronological compatibility of the objects with their presumed period. First, an
optical and electronic microscope investigation allows us to identify tool marks, weathering features, to reveal traditional or fraudulent surface
treatments, and to characterise supericial deposits. his irst approach is able to identify bad quality fakes. However, these analyses are generally
insuicient to establish the authentication of the objects. hat is why we also perform external-beam PIXE analyses on goldwork. hus, the
qualitative and quantitative studies of trace elements are able to provide insights into metallurgical methods and the ineness of alloys. his paper
describes our methodology and presents diferent examples of its application, including the discussion of speciic problems encountered in the
analysis of this type of objects.
Résumé : Les objets en or sont étudiés par des approches très diverses, et parmi celles-ci les analyses scientiiques répondent généralement à des problématiques concernant la recherche des techniques de fabrication ou l’étude de provenance et de conservation. Mais, qu’en est-il de l’authentiication ? Ce type
d’objets d’art étant en efet d’une valeur marchande élevée, ils sont de plus en plus souvent sujets à des contrefaçons, qui imitent aujourd’hui la plupart des
styles et des civilisations. Les investigations scientiiques doivent être absolument non destructive et la technique PIXE en faisceau extrait est alors idéale
pour ce type d’expertise. Nous avons ainsi développé une méthodologie qui nous fournira un faisceau d’indices qui sera compatible ou pas avec l’ancienneté
présumée de l’objet. En premier lieu, l’examen par microscopie optique et électronique permet d’identiier les traces d’outils, les igures de corrosion, de
révéler si l’objet a subi des traitements de surface anciens ou modernes et de caractériser la nature des dépôts supericiels. Ce premier niveau d’investigation
permet d’écarter les faux lagrants ou de mauvaise qualité. Toutefois, cette étude est généralement insuisante pour établir l’ancienneté d’un objet en or.
C’est pourquoi, nous réalisons en complément une étude par PIXE en faisceau extrait qui détermine la composition en éléments traces, eux-mêmes révélateurs des méthodes métallurgiques et de la pureté des alliages. Ce texte décrit cette méthodologie et présente diférents exemples d’application en précisant
les problèmes auxquels nous avons été confrontés sur les diférents types d’objets rencontrés.
Keywords: gold, analysis, Scanning Electron Microscope, Particle Induced X-ray Emission, external beam, trace elements, authentication, fakes.
Mots-clés : or, analyse, Microscope Électronique à Balayage, PIXE faisceau extrait, éléments traces, authentiication, faux.
* CIRAM, Chem’Innov, 16 avenue Pey Berland 33607 Pessac cedex, France. (olivier.bobin@ciram-art.com)
** ARCANE – CENBG (UMR 5797, CNRS – IN2P3 / Université Bordeaux 1) – rue du Solarium BP120, 33 175 Gradignan, France. (arcane@
cenbg.in2p3.fr)
rec. Aug. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 341-347
342
1. INTRODUCTION
he analysis of goldwork interests archaeologists, art
historians, or museum curators. he aims of such investigations are to study the style, the iconography, and the
techniques of manufacture, to establish a hypothetical
period and provenance of these objects, and to develop a
strategy of conservation. To these purposes, scientists can
contribute useful information regarding the composition
of the alloy, the analysis of deposits, and the weathering
degree. Most of the studies on gold artefacts aim to deine
the origins, trade and provenance of the ores based on the
trace elements composition (Guerra and Calligaro, 2003;
2004; Bugoi et al., 2003; Demortier et al., 1999; Ontalba
Salamanca et al., 1998).
Generally, few methodological studies exist about the
authentication of gold (Craddock, 2009; Guerra, 2008).
First of all, gold objects are very resistant to long time
corrosion. hus, we cannot establish our conclusions on
the weathering degree of the gold alloy or the nature of
the corrosion products, as for copper alloys (Craddock,
2009; Robbiola and Portier, 2006). hermoluminescence
tests, performed on casting cores, can provide interesting
chronological information for bronze objects, for example
(Craddock, 2009). However, goldwork does not typically
contain residual cast cores. In addition, gold forgeries have
become progressively lawless, as the falsiiers became aware
of the scientiic tools used in the authentication of works of
art. It is quite easy to use ancient gold shreds to re-create a
new and fake artefact, following an ancient style, and with
a typical ancient trace elements composition. In this case,
a single scientiic approach, which only uses trace elements
to distinguish fakes from original ancient goldwork, is no
longer suicient to discriminate all the forgeries. In order
to improve the authentication of gold objects, this paper
presents a combined approach, including as the irst step an
investigation of the surface by scanning electron microscopy
(SEM-EDX) to observe tool marks, supericial deposits, the
microstructure of the alloy, and eventual weathering features. As the second step, a quantitative analysis of the alloy
by external-beam PIXE is employed, in order to deine its
trace element composition.
2. METHODS
he study of the surface and the chemical composition of
the deposits were carried out with an energy-dispersive X-ray
spectrometer (EDS), using a 20 keV electron beam, coupled
with a scanning electron microscope (SEM) Jeol JSM 840.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 341-347
Olivier BOBIN, Hervé GUÉGAN
hese analyses were performed on the surface without pretreatment or metallization. We employed both back-scattered electron (BSE) and secondary electron (SE) images.
External beam PIXE (Particle Induced X-Ray Emission)
is a non-destructive method of analysis which allows determining the concentration of major, minor and trace elements. For this purpose, we used a 3MeV H+ ion beam
produced by the singletron accelerator of CENBG (Centre
d’Etudes Nucléaires de Bordeaux Gradignan). Due to the
limits of the accelerator, this energy optimizes the ionisation
cross-section for interesting elements, such as Sn, Sb, Cd,
Ru, and Rh. In front of the dedicated external beam-line,
artefacts can be analysed without sampling or limitations
in terms of size. Two detectors are used in the experimental
setup, and allow the measurement of emitted X-rays under
the interaction with the incident ion beam, which constitute
a spot size of 1 mm in diameter on the sample.
3. RESULTS
SEM-EDS investigations
he micrographs of the surface provide information on
the manufacturing techniques employed. We also searched
for tools marks, such as those as a result of hammering, burnishing or polishing. Finally, we also investigated the decoration methods and analysed the supericial deposits. he
small objects (less than 5 cm) can be placed in the specimen
chamber of the SEM. his allowed us to directly determine
their composition (major and minor elements) and observe
their microstructure. For the bigger objects, we worked on
surface replications (cellulose acetate ilm), which reveal the
ingerprint of the surface and remove supericial deposits
(Funga and Sanipelli, 1982).
his irst step allows identifying the noticeable fakes,
which show fundamental anomalies, such as modern tool
marks or traces of acid attack.
Figure 1 shows a surface replication of a gold statuette presumed to originate from the New Kingdow of Egypt (15801085 BC). On the surface, we can observe very thin and
unidirectional ridges, which cannot correspond to restoration
or cleaning phases. hey correspond to burnishing tool marks.
his polishing technique was traditionally performed with a
burnisher, a type of little hammer with a perfectly polished
head (Ogden, 1993; Arminjon and Bilimof, 1998; Scott,
1991). Nowadays, the burnishing is carried out with a mechanical burnisher using thousands of rotating micro-balls. he
thinness and the regularity of the marks observed on the surface of this object are clearly a result of this modern technique.
A new approach to the authentication of goldwork using combined Scanning Electron Microscopy…
343
association of iron and chloride, and the microstructure of
these deposits indicate that they correspond to residues of an
acidic solution, such as ferric chloride (Perego, 2005). he
contents of iron and chloride are too high to correspond to
natural clay or ‘earth’. his indicates that the object underwent a surface treatment to modify the surface aspect of the
object and to simulate mineral deposits and/or presence of
copper corrosion products.
We can see that SEM surface analyses represent a powerful tool for discriminating the obvious fakes, which show
formal traces of modernity. hese investigations are necessary, but not suicient, to establish an object’s authenticity,
because it is easier to attest that an object is a forgery than
to establish its authenticity (Robbiola and Portier, 2006).
External-beam PIXE
Figure 1: SEM SE image of a surface replication from a gold statuette. We observe thin and unidirectional ridges, which correspond
to the use of modern tools and techniques.
Figure 1 : Image MEB de la reproduction de la surface d’une statuette
en or. Les stries ines et unidirectionnelles correspondent à l’utilisation
d’outils modernes.
Following the SEM-EDS study, we also detected silver
chloride micro-particles, which are not mixed with the
mineral deposits. In addition, we did not detect any silver
sulphide micro-particles, which are usually also found in
naturally corroded gold-silver alloys (Gusmano et al., 2004).
As a consequence, it can be inferred that the silver chloride
micro-particles originate from a deliberate chemical attack,
carried out in order to simulate the natural weathering of the
material. Aqua regia treatment leads to a partial dissolving
of the metal and to the formation of numerous silver chloride micro-particles. Finally, we observed supericial cupules,
which are also characteristic of an acid attack. his result is
consistent with the large quantity of chlorine contained in
the deposits. he presence, on the entire object, of modern
tool marks and characteristics of chemical attack is inconsistent with the presumed period of this piece. It is thus easily
understandable that, in this case, a complementary PIXE
analysis is not necessary.
he second example concerns a gold earring from China,
presumed to be from the Shang Dynasty (11th-10th centuries
BC). he SEM observation of the supericial deposits shows
an amorphous to non-crystalline material, which is composed of iron, chloride, calcium and silicated phases. he
he external-beam PIXE developed at CENBG is one
of the ive beam-lines of the AIFIRA platform. Four of
them are dedicated to macro-, micro-, and nano-analysis by
nuclear techniques. AIFIRA is a brand new facility built in
2006 using the 40 years old experience of the CENBG in
Ion Beam Analysis.
While some other external-beam PIXE facilities exist
in the world, for the present study we have developed an
experimental setup dedicated to the analysis of gold items.
For this purpose, two types of information are interesting:
the composition of the gold alloy and the trace elements.
However, it is not possible to obtain both at the same time,
with the same detector.
In our experimental setup, we simultaneously used two
Si(Li) detectors with diferent shields in order to optimize
the diferent types of investigated information. We will
describe below the obtained spectra and the errors in interpretation which could occur if we did not pay attention.
he quantitative data corresponding to Figures 2 and 3
are not included in Table 1. he irst spectrum reported
is obtained from a gold necklace presumed to date from
1500 BC, with the detector equipped with a 315 µm carbon
ilter before the silicon crystal (Fig. 2). his setup was used
to stop the backscattered proton beam and the low energy
X-rays (especially M-lines from Au and L-lines from Ag, Sn,
Cd, etc.). his spectrum allowed the determination of the
Au/Ag/Cu composition (98.1/0.7/0.9%), and the detection
of trace elements Fe (620 ppm) and Ni (114 ppm), because
of their large X-ray emission cross-section. In addition, we
had to move the detector away from the target to prevent
pile-up efects, due to the fact that the counting rate was
so high as compared to the frequency of the multi-channel
analyser. Nevertheless, we observed on the spectrum four
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 341-347
344
Olivier BOBIN, Hervé GUÉGAN
Figure 2: PIXE spectrum of a gold necklace collected with a
315 µm carbon ilter. We identiied the composition of the alloy
as 98.1% Au, 0.7% Ag, and 0.9% Cu, and we detected Fe and Ni
as trace elements.
Figure 2 : Spectre PIXE d’un collier en or dont l’acquisition est réalisée
avec un iltre de 315µm de carbone. La composition de l’alliage a été
déinie (Au 98.1, Ag 0.7, Cu 0.9) et le Fe et le Ni ont été détectés au
niveau d’éléments trace.
Figure 3: PIXE spectrum of a gold necklace collected with a 75
µm copper ilter. his coniguration allows detecting the presence
of tin (1762 ppm) and antimony (123 ppm) in the alloy as trace
elements.
Figure 3 : Spectre PIXE d’un collier en or dont l’acquisition est réalisée avec un iltre de 75 µm de cuivre. Cette coniguration permet de
déterminer l’étain (1762 ppm) et l’antimoine (123 ppm), éléments
présents dans l’alliage à l’état de trace.
little sum peaks due to this phenomenon, which prevent the
detection of important elements in the process of authentication, like Pd and Cd. Furthermore, the little solid angle
in this coniguration is not suitable for the detection of
other trace elements, like Sn and Sb, due to their low X-ray
emission cross-section, and the only interesting trace element which could be detected is Pb, due to its Lγ1 line at
14.762 KeV with a limit of detection (LOD) of 300 ppm.
Detection of other trace elements, such as Hg or Pt, is not
possible due to the high level of Au L-rays. At this stage of
the study, we were only able to determine the composition
of the alloy. Even if this information is important, it is not
suicient for providing reliable chronological information
about the object.
he second experimental setup was thus necessary in order
to obtain data on other trace elements. In this coniguration,
an absorbing copper foil (75 µm thick) is placed in front of
the detector. he reason we used copper is because its edge
of absorption will neutralize especially the energy of the gold
L-rays. his setup prevents the pile-up and allows us to move
the detector closer in order to improve the LOD down to
60 ppm for the elements Ru, Rh, Pd, Cd, Sn, and Sb. On
the resulting spectrum (Fig. 3), we can observe the energy
range where the L-lines of gold are very low in intensity,
the lack of pile-up in the region under consideration, and
the presence of trace elements Sn (1762 ppm) and Sb (123
ppm). On the same spectrum, we can also observe the peak
of xenon, which is present in the air on the path of the
incident proton beams.
his result indicates the fact that the reining of this gold
alloy is quite poor and consistent with ancient processes.
Nevertheless, an old alloy could also be used by a forger to
manufacture a modern item. hus, we have to corroborate
these analyses with an investigation of the surface of the
alloy by SEM in order to identify eventual corrosion microstructures and surface treatments.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 341-347
Combined methods: SEM and PIXE
Example 1
he observation of the surface of a European gold ring
presumed to date from the 5th century AD indicates that
the decorations have been performed with a hand-tool
(Arminjon and Bilimof, 1998). he surface of the metal
is smooth with irregular microstructures. he edges of the
engraved designs are not raised. However, we did not observe
clear weathering features, such as micro-pitting or corrosion
of grain boundaries (Fig. 4). From these results, it is diicult
to provide formal information about the chronological compatibility of this object with its presumed antiquity.
345
A new approach to the authentication of goldwork using combined Scanning Electron Microscopy…
antimony (Bugoi et al., 2003; Craddock, 2009; Demortier
et al., 1999; Guerra, 2008; Guerra and Calligaro, 2003;
2004; Ontalba Salamanca et al., 1998; Ott and Schindler,
2001). he absence of a signiicant set of trace elements in
this alloy is abnormal. his aspect suggests that the metallurgical methods employed in the making of this object do
not correspond to ancient traditional ones. Its composition
indicates that modern extraction and reining (thermal or
electrolytic) were used (19th or 20th century AD).
Example 2
Figure 4: SEM SE image of a gold ring. he surface and the edges
of the engraved designs are smooth and not raised.
Figure 4 : Image MEB d’un anneau d’or. La surface et les bords des
dessins gravés sont lisses et non saillants.
In such a case, PIXE analysis of the trace elements composition of the alloy is necessary. he analysis showed a very
pure gold (99.6 to 99.9 wt% Au), with silver, copper, iron,
nickel, calcium and chromium as trace elements (Table 1).
he last four elements probably originate from the contribution of a mineral deposit. hus, silver and copper would
be the only constituting trace elements of this metal.
he ancient gold alloys contained many trace elements,
such as lead, tin, platinum, palladium, zinc, bismuth, and
Object
Gold ring (presumed from 5th century AD)
Gold dagger (presumed from 4th-3rd centuries BC)
Gold belt (presumed from 6th - 3rd centuries BC)
Point
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
wt %
Au
99.9
99.9
99.6
86.1
84.9
83.6
97.8
98.1
97.8
96.0
wt % or ppm
Ag
Cu
1000
270
716
193
815
580
8.0% 5.0%
9.0% 6.0%
8.6% 6.0%
0.99% 6780
1.1% 4610
0.96% 6630
3.2% 7730
he analysis of a Middle East gold dagger presumed to
date from the 4th-3rd century BC required a combination of
the SEM and PIXE approaches to verify its authenticity. he
material was a gold-silver-copper alloy. he concentration of
the gold was in the range of 84 to 86%. It corresponds to
20.5 carat gold.
he three analysed areas contain iron, nickel and tin as
trace elements (Table 1). he presence of tin and nickel
should indicate an ancient metallurgical method. However,
their concentrations are relatively low, and we did not detect
any other trace elements, such as lead, antimony or platinum, for example. Yet, we also did not observe any formal
evidence of modernity, such as the presence of aluminium
by SEM (more than 0.1 wt%) or of cadmium by PIXE, for
example (Scott, 1991; Craddock, 2009). From the PIXE
results, it was diicult to draw a deinite conclusion regarding the authenticity of this dagger.
he SEM micrographs of the gold indicate it has a smooth
surface with irregular features and numerous pits (Fig. 5).
It presents a rounded microstructure, and the proiles of
depression are not sharp. We also observed an important
micro-porosity. he microstructure of the surfaces appears
to correspond to prolonged and natural weathering pro-
Fe
105
100
980
7723
735
16000
1140
1310
1440
520
Cr
nd
nd
230
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
Ca
nd
nd
3400
nd
nd
nd
3614
1450
6630
nd
Ni
93
125
110
152
238
216
94
105
85
130
Zn
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
ppm
Ru
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
Rh
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
Cd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
Sn
nd
nd
nd
100
200
230
250
2700
1430
485
Sb
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
30
134
60
60
Pb
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
nd
Table 1: Compositions of the alloys of diferent objects. he major and minor elements are expressed in weight percent and trace elements
in ppm. Even if the limits of detection are not presented, they are evaluated for each element and each analysed point. he non-detected
elements or those whose for which the detected levels are less than or equivalent to the detection limit are indicated as ‘nd’.
Tableau 1 : Composition des alliages des diférents objets. Les éléments majeurs et mineurs sont exprimés en % et les éléments traces en ppm. Malgré
l’absence de limites de détection, ces valeurs ont été déterminées pour chaque élément et pour chaque analyse. Les éléments non détectés ou dont
la concentration est égale ou inférieure à la limite de détection sont indiqués « nd »
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 341-347
346
Olivier BOBIN, Hervé GUÉGAN
Furthermore, the alloy also contains signiicant concentrations of tin, antimony and nickel as trace elements (Table 1).
heir presence is in good agreement with ancient extraction techniques that were not able to remove these elements.
hus, once again, the combined study of both the surface
microstructure and the composition of the alloy and the
solders indicate that the object corresponds to ancient and
traditional goldwork practices.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Figure 5: SEM SE image of a gold dagger. he surface of the metal
has a smooth surface with irregular features and numerous pits. We
can also observe a rounded microstructure.
Figure 5 : Image MEB d’un couteau en or. La surface du métal est lisse
avec des traits irréguliers et nombreux petits trous. Une microstructure
arrondie peut aussi être observée.
cesses afecting gold alloys (Ontalba Salamanca et al., 1998;
Ott and Schindler, 2001; Gusmano et al., 2004; Craddock,
2009). hus, the results obtained from the combined
methodological approach are in good agreement with the
presumed period of the object.
Example 3
he SEM examination of an East Central Asian gold belt
presumed to date from the 6th-3rd centuries BC indicates
that supericial deposits are composed of a mix of silicated
mineral phases, such as clay, and calcium carbonate. hey
also contain numerous microparticles of silver salts, which
should result from the natural weathering of the gold alloy.
he object has a smooth surface with irregular features, a
rounded microstructure and a supericial micro-porosity. We
also did not detect any modern tool marks or indications of
a chemical treatment. he solders are composed of a goldsilver-copper alloy, which is consistent with ancient techniques, and we did not detect the presence of any modern
element, such as zinc or cadmium. We detected iron and
calcium as trace elements, but they most likely correspond
to the contribution of supericial deposits.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 341-347
his paper emphasizes that the authentication of gold
objects requires the use of complementary approaches.
A combination of SEM and PIXE analyses is very powerful
for this purpose. he use of a single method only provides
partial information regarding the antiquity of the object.
SEM investigates the surface of the object, and is able
to identify fashioning and polishing tool marks, weathering features, traces of acid attacks, and the composition
of the burial deposits. hese investigations are limited to a
surface study. hus, in most cases, the observations of the
microstructure of the gold are insuicient for obtaining formal evidence about the authenticity of an object, except for
the cases of obvious fakes.
PIXE determines the composition of the alloy and characterises the concentration of trace elements, providing
information about gold working techniques. his method
is non-intrusive and ofers powerful results, which allow
estimating the chronological compatibility of the objects
with their presumed antiquity. However, using this method
exclusively does not allow us to discriminate forgeries made
with ancient gold shreds.
As a matter of fact, the forgers take advantage of the new
scientiic knowledge available. If we want to be ahead of
them, we have to combine several methods in order to investigate diferent characteristics of the objects and to improve
our results in diferent ways. hus, X-ray radiography or CT
scanning can contribute complementary information about
the homogeneity of the objects and the manufacturing techniques used. When sampling is possible, other types of analytical methods, such as ICP-MS (Guerra and Calligaro,
2004) can be useful to improve the limits of detection of
lead and platinum, for example, and to neutralize the efect
of speciic treatments, such as supericial enrichment of gold
by burnishing or la mise en couleur de l’or (Grimwade, 1999;
Jacobson, 2000; Bachmann et al., 1999).
A new approach to the authentication of goldwork using combined Scanning Electron Microscopy…
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technique. Paris, Momum Éditions du patrimoine.
BACHMANN, H.G., BURKHARDT, A., DEHN, R. and STERN, W.B.,
1999. New aspects of Celtic gold coinage production in
Europe. Gold Bulletin 32(1): 24-29.
BUGOI, R., COJOCARU, V., CONSTANTINESCU, B., CONSTANTIN, F.,
GRAMBOLE, D. and HERRMANN, F., 2003. Micro-PIXE study
of gold archaeological objects. Journal of Radioanalytical and
Nuclear Chemistry 257(2): 375-383.
CRADDOCK, P., 2009. Scientiic investigation of copies, fakes and
forgeries. Oxford, Butterworth-Heinemann.
DEMORTIER, G., MORCIAUX, Y. and DOZOT, D., 1999. PIXE, XRF
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and the circulation of gold in the past: the role of X-ray based
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objects: a review of studies of provenance and manufacturing
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and DENK, R., 2004. Gold corrosion: red stains on a gold
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OGDEN, J., 1993. Aesthetic and technical considerations regarding the colour and texture of ancient goldwork, in S. La Niece
and P. Craddock (eds.), Metal plating and patination. London,
Butterworth, 185-147.
ONTALBA SALAMANCA, M.A., DEMORTIER, G., FERNANDEZ GOMEZ,
F., COQUAY, P., RUVALCADA-SIL, J.L. and RESPALDIZA, M.A.,
1998. PIXE and SEM studies of Tartesic gold artefacts.
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ROBBIOLA, L. and PORTIER, R., 2006. A global approach to the
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SCOTT, D.A., 1991. Metallography and microstructure of ancient
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ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 341-347
Copy or authentic? Analysis of a Phoenician gold ring
from the National Museum of Archaeology,
Valletta, Malta
Copie ou authentique ? Analyse d’une bague phénicienne en or
du Musée national d’archéologie, La Vallette, Malte
Daniel Vella*, James Licari**, Nicholas Vella***,
Sharon Sultana**** and Vanessa Ciantar****
Abstract: he present work is a study of a Phoenician inger ring from the collection of the National Museum of Archaeology, Malta. he item
was irst described by the museum’s director hemistocles Zammit in 1925, and is believed to date to the 6th century BC. he ring consists of two
stirrup-shaped hoops, which can be worn separately or itted together and worn as a single piece. Inscribed on the bezel surface is a seafaring vessel.
Zammit described the artefact as manufactured in pure gold, quoting its mass as 9.65 g. he ring in the collection its Zammit’s description but
difers signiicantly in weight. he aim of this paper is throw light on the authenticity of this ring using documentary sources and non-invasive
scientiic techniques of analysis. Optical and electron microscopy allowed a thorough description of the manufacturing technique, while the
material analysis was conducted via energy dispersive spectrometry. As a result of these analyses, it was concluded that the ring is not authentic,
but is most probably a copy, possibly commissioned by Zammit himself.
Résumé : Ce travail décrit l’étude d’une bague phénicienne appartenant à la collection du musée National d’Archéologie de Malte. Cet objet a été décrit
pour la première fois en 1925 par le Directeur du musée, hemistocles Zammit, et est attribuée au VIe siècle av. J-C. La bague se compose de deux anneaux
en forme d’étrier pouvant être portés séparément ou pouvant être assemblés pour être portés ensemble. Le chaton est inscrit d’un vaisseau. Zammit décrit
l’objet comme étant fabriqué en or pur et indique un poids de 9,65 g. La bague de la collection correspond à cette description mais difère considérablement en ce qui concerne son poids. Le but de cet article est de jeter un jour nouveau sur l’authenticité de la bague à partir des sources documentaires et des
analyses scientiiques non-destructives. Les microscopies atomique et électronique permettent une description approfondie des techniques de fabrication alors
que l’analyse des matériaux a été réalisée par spectrométrie à énergie dispersive. Nous avons conclu que la bague n’est pas authentique, mais probablement
une copie, peut-être commandée par Zammit.
Keywords: Gimmal ring, iconography, Phoenician, gold, authentication.
Mots-clés : Bague gimmal, iconographie, phénicien, or, authentiication.
* Department of Metallurgy and Materials, Faculty of Engineering – University of Malta, MSD 2080. (daniel.vella@um.edu.mt)
** Objects Conservation Laboratory, Conservation Division, Heritage Malta, Bighi, Kalkara KKR 9030, Malta. (james.licar@gov.mt)
*** Department of Classics and Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, University of Malta, MSD 2080, Malta. (nicholas.vella@um.edu.mt)
**** National Museum of Archaeology, Heritage Malta, Republic Street, Valletta, Malta. (sharon.sultana@gov.mt), (vanessa.ciantar@gov.mt)
rec. Aug. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 349-355
350
Daniel VELLA et al.
1. INTRODUCTION
Historical background
he National Museum of Archaeology (NMA) in Malta
holds a small collection of gold artefacts, of which a ‘gimmal’
inger-ring (NMA Object ID: 866) merits particular attention. he artefact was irst described by the museum’s director Sir hemistocles Zammit in a short article published in
1925, and is thought to date to the Phoenician-Punic period
(Zammit, 1925; Bonanno, 2005: 31). he ring consists of
two stirrup-shaped hoops, which can be worn separately or
itted together and worn as a single piece (cf. Smith, 1803).
he hoops it to form an elliptical bezel of circa 20 x 10
mm, divided horizontally by twelve indentations on each
side. When the complete ring is assembled, a rowing vessel
appears inscribed on the bezel surface (Fig. 1). Although
this inger-ring is a unique piece and no similar examples
are mentioned in the literature dealing with ancient jewellery that we have consulted (e.g. Culican, 1986; Higgins,
1961; Pisano, 1974; 1987), rings with oval bezels with
engraved devices set within a rim are in fact known from
Punic sites in the western Mediterranean, and are believed
have been produced until the 5th century BC (Boardman,
2003: 12; Quillard, 1987). Even the representation of the
galley, redrawn in order to rectify some errors in Zammit’s
line drawing (compare Fig. 2e with Fig. 2d), would ind
parallels in ship representations from the 7th-6th centuries
BC (Morrison and Williams, 1968).
Figure 1: Photograph of the NMA ring, showing bezel surface
under raking light conditions.
Figure 1 : Photographie de la bague du NMA, montrant le chaton
sous lumière rasante.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 349-355
Figure 2: (a, b) Scanned digitized positive images of two glass plate
negatives believed to have been used in Zammit’s 1925 publication; (c) Zammit’s published photograph (1925: Fig. 1b) of the
ring, clearly retouched to emphasize the engraved lines; (d) a mirror image of Zammit’s published line drawing (1925: Fig. 3) of
the details on the bezel; (e) reconstruction drawing of the features
visible on the bezel photographed in (a).
Figure 2 : (a,b) Images numérisées de deux négatifs sur plaques de
verre dits avoir été utilisées par Zammit dans la publication de 1925 ;
(c) photographies de la bague publiées par Zammit (1925 : ig 1b) ;
(d) image en miroir du dessin publié par Zammit (1925 : ig. 3)
montrant des détails du chaton ; (e) dessin reconstituant ce qui est
visible sur le chaton photographié en (a).
Copy or authentic? Analysis of a Phoenician gold ring from the National Museum of Archaeology…
In his paper, Zammit described the artefact as manufactured in ‘pure gold’, quoting the mass of the ring at 9.650 g
(Zammit, 1925: 266). he ring was shown to Zammit by an
undisclosed owner. From Zammit’s publication we are led to
believe that the owner was reluctant to supply details about
the discovery, but did indicate that the ring was passed on to
him by a farmer, who had found it himself (Zammit, 1925).
In a subsequent note, recently retraced in Zammit’s ield
notes, the identity of the farmer who found the ring is disclosed, and Zammit speciies that the ring was discovered in
a rock-cut tomb at Ghajn Klieb in Rabat, Malta (Zammit,
1926: 1923). He also adds that this was the same tomb
from which he had unearthed a gold amulet in 1906 (Vella
et al., 2001: 12; Sagona, 2002: 794-795). Nevertheless, it is
not known when the ring was removed from the site. he
current ring, which is part of the NMA collection, its the
physical description of Zammit, but difers substantially in
weight. he current ring weighs 4.418 g, about half the mass
of Zammit’s ring.
A thorough search in the NMA archives for notes describing the acquisition of the NMA ring for the museum
collection was inconclusive. he recent discovery of ive gelatine dry plate negatives of the ring published by Zammit has
raised hopes that further documentation may still exist. Two
of the gelatine plate negatives portraying the ring (Figs. 2a
and 2b) are believed to be the same photographs included
in Zammit’s 1925 paper. he photographs were however
edited, perhaps to enhance speciic features appearing on
the ring bezel (Fig. 2c). he glass plate negatives were used
to help authenticate the NMA ring.
he presents study is meant to answer two important
research questions: is the NMA ring the same object described by Zammit in 1925? If the NMA ring is not authentic,
what further information can be obtained from a non-invasive examination of the artefact?
2. METHODOLOGY
Given the uniqueness of the artefact, a non-invasive examination was undertaken. he manufacturing technique
was observed both visually and through optical and electron
microscopy. he material of the ring was characterized by
elemental X-ray analysis using an energy dispersive spectrometer attached to the electron microscope.
Gelatine dry plate negatives
he gelatine dry plate negatives were digitally recorded by
scanning, and the digitized negatives converted into positi-
351
ves using Adobe Photoshop CS Version 8. Two of the more
informative images (the same ones used for Zammit’s 1925
publication) are presented in Figure 2 (a, b). he representation of the vessel obtained from the gelatine plates was
visually compared to the one currently visible on the NMA
ring (Fig. 1) for authentication purposes.
Optical Microscopy
he NMA ring was observed at low magniication using
a Nikon SMZ 2T stereomicroscope at 1x and 3x magniication. Optical ibres (Fibre Optic Source GLI-156P) were
arranged in such a manner that light relects of the surface
of the metal at 45°. his angle reduces difuse relection of
the metal to a minimum and permits a good observation
of the surface. Where necessary, a polarizing plate was placed between the light source and the ring in order to minimize surface relections. Digital photographs were recorded
directly through the microscope via a Leica PFC290 digital
camera. he digital images were processed using the Leica
IM 500 software, Version 5.
Electron Microscopy
Observation at higher magniication was performed
using an Oxford Link 1430 Scanning Electron Microscope
(SEM). Electron imaging was carried out in both secondary
emission and backscatter modes. he secondary emission
detector creates topographic images of the surface and was
used to visualize manufacturing marks and other decorative features. he backscatter (BS) detector is designed for
elemental contrast. In BS mode, the higher atomic weight
elements appear white or light grey, and contrast with the
lower atomic weight elements, which appear dark grey or
black. he elemental X-ray analysis of the NMA ring surface was carried out using the energy dispersive spectrometer
attached to the electron microscope.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Gelatine dry plate negatives
he digitized positives, corresponding to Zammit’s photographs (Figs. 2a and 2b) were compared to the image
of the NMA ring (Fig. 1). A number of diferences are
evident: the galley mast projects into the edge decoration
motif in Zammit’s photograph, while a gap exists between
the mast and the edge decoration in the current ring. he
stern post projects between the 3rd and 4th serration from
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 349-355
352
the right in Zammit’s photograph; it projects between the
4th and 5th serration in the NMA ring. he thickness of
the irst oar, far right of the galley, constricts at its middle
in the NMA ring. his is not the case in Zammit’s photographs. A surface loss occurs adjacent to the irst oar on
the right of the NMA photograph. Again, this is absent
in Zammit’s record. his photographic evidence suggests
that the original ring was used as a model onto which
the NMA ring was cast. he loss of ine decorative detail
and the introduction of new surface defects would seem to
conirm this hypothesis.
Manufacturing technique
and surface decoration
Daniel VELLA et al.
evenly spaced and measure between 5 and 10 µm in width
(Fig. 3b). he even spacing of the iling marks and their small
width suggest that they were made by a modern implement.
Filing marks were also observed on the depressed surface
forming the hull of the galley. he average width of these
marks is 5 µm. he curved geometry of the surface indicates
that a ile with a circular cross-section was used to shape this
area. A coarser ile was used to inish the lat underside of
the two hoops. he average width of these marks is 60 µm.
It is probable that the goldsmith was not concerned about
the quality of the surface inish here, knowing that these
roughened surfaces would be hidden when the ring is worn
or, indeed, when exhibited as a single piece.
It appears that the ring hoops were cast as single pieces
and decorated to produce the inal object (pers. comm.
J. Aquilina, 2009). Tool marks were examined and recorded
in an attempt to identify the technique used to decorate the
ring and to shed light on its authenticity. Tool marks were
categorized into two types, i.e. decoration marks (for example, a decorative motif along the edge of the bezel, oars and
bow screens), and manufacturing marks (for instance, iling
and shaping marks).
Decoration marks
he circular decoration around the bezel was produced by
chasing. Chasing is carried out by tapping the metal surface
with a small lat chisel having a rounded tip and building
up a continuous ridge from a series of individual indentations (Craddock, 2009: 173). No metal is removed from
the object during this process, but the dislodged material is
pushed up and protrudes from the surface. he indentation
marks observed on the NMA ring are circular, with an average diameter of 250 µm. he oars and bow screen structure
were also chased into shape. he width of the marks forming
the sea galley also measure around 250 µm; it appears that
the same tool was used to produce all the decorations on the
bezel. In another area of the edge decoration, the indentation marks are missing, although a palimpsest of the original
decoration is still evident. If the NMA ring were indeed cast
of an original ring, the smith would have had to emphasize the decoration motif by chasing or engraving over. We
believe that this particular area of the ring was overlooked.
Manufacture and shaping marks
he serrated edges were inished using a very ine ile. he
ile marks are barely visible under the stereomicroscope, but
are well deined under the SEM, even at low magniication
(Fig. 3a). At higher magniication, the ile marks appear
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 349-355
Figure 3: (a) Electron micrograph of serrated edges showing horizontal iling marks and (b) magniied image of the surface of one
of the serrations. he width of the grooves is approximately 5-10
microns.
Figure 3 : (a) Image au MEB des bords en dents de scie montrant les
marques horizontales et (b) image ampliiée de la surface d’une des
dents. La largeur des rainures est d’environ 5-10 microns.
Copy or authentic? Analysis of a Phoenician gold ring from the National Museum of Archaeology…
he underside of the bezel piece with the sail decoration
exhibits a number of parallel grooves running along the
horizontal length. he irregular width of the grooves and
their disconnected nature excludes their deliberate manufacture. he marks probably resulted from a defective mould
surface.
Spherical shaped cavities also occur on this surface and
are prominent on the serrations (Fig. 4). he entrapment
of air bubbles between the molten metal and the surface of
the mould during casting can explain these odd features,
and their presence conirms the hypothesis of the NMA ring
being a cast artefact. he fact that these defects are located
on the back of the bezel might explain why the goldsmith
spared their removal.
353
SEM backscattered images of the lat underside of the
hoop exhibiting the bow screens decoration presented white
areas with some dark grey along the outer edge of the ring.
his diference in grey contrast suggests the presence of two
diferent materials. X-ray point analyses were performed on
the separate areas. White areas consisted of elemental gold
(major element) accompanied by some silver and copper.
Elemental silver (major element) and copper formed the
grey areas. Sulphur was also detected over silver rich areas
and indicates the presence of a silver tarnish. he absence
of a gold signal on silver rich areas supports the hypothesis
of a silver cast ring that was plated with gold.
Material Analysis
Close examination of the NMA ring under the stereomicroscope revealed a number of inconsistencies. A dark
grey discoloration was observed in some areas along the ring
edges, suggesting the presence of gold plate rather than a
solid gold artefact. Indeed, if a gold plate were applied, the
edges of the ring would be most at risk of material wear
through handling and cleaning. A green coloured deposit
was observed between the serrated edges of the ring. he
green colour of this material suggests the presence of copper
corrosion products, an unusual inding on gold items.
Figure 4: (See colour plate) Photomicrograph of the underside
of the bezel exhibiting the oar decoration. Note the horizontal
grooves and the spherical cavities.
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Image MEB du dessous du chaton
montrant la décoration en forme de rames. Remarquons les rainures
horizontales et les cavités sphériques.
Figure 5: (a) Back scatter electron micrograph showing the three
adjacent exposed serrations; (b) corresponding EDS X-ray spectrum of the exposed surface. he exposed material is composed of
silver (main element) and copper.
Figure 5 : (a) Image en électrons rétrodifusés de trois dents de scie
adjacents ; (b) spectre de rayons X correspondant à la surface exposée.
Le matériau analysé est constitué d’argent (élément principal) et de
cuivre.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 349-355
354
Unequivocal evidence for a silver cast ring is presented in
Figure 5a. hree of the serrations on the hoop exhibiting
the bow screens were apparently iled down, exposing the
underlying silver. his was performed after the ring was plated. Perhaps the fabricated copy required some adjustment
for the hoops to it properly. he exposed material consists
of silver and copper (Fig. 5b). he weight percentage of copper was determined semi-quantitatively at 10.2 ± 1.3 wt%.
Elemental X-ray analyses performed on the green material revealed the presence of copper, carbon, oxygen, and
sodium. he occurrence of copper corrosion products was
therefore conirmed. Sodium is probably present as carbonate; this compound could have been used as a mild abrasive agent in polishing products. It is possible that in the
early years following the introduction of the ring into the
museum collection, the artefact was cleaned using abrasive
polishing products. Indeed, the ring surface exhibits ine
scratch marks that suggest it was polished, perhaps in preparation for exhibition.
he determination of the thickness and composition of
the gold layer requires destructive analyses of the ring. his,
of course, was not possible. If the ring was plated in the
mid-1920s, then this was very probably carried out by an
electrolytic process – electroplating was introduced in the
mid-19th century, about seventy years prior to the presumed
manufacture date of the NMA ring (Hunt, 1973).
4. CONCLUSION
he results presented above conirm that the NMA ring is
most probably a copy of the original ring seen and published
by Zammit in 1925. he salient evidence supporting our
conclusion is summarized below:
– the clear diferences between the representations seen
on the glass plate negative images (Zammit’s ring) and the
representations on the NMA ring;
– the evenly spaced iling marks observed on the serrated
edges and bezel surface of the NMA ring;
– the presence of copper corrosion products on the NMA
ring.
he SEM-EDS data established that the NMA ring was in
fact composed of silver that was plated with gold. he silver
alloy was found to contain about 90 wt% silver and 10 wt%
copper. he NMA ring is thus not an authentic artefact.
Nonetheless, it represents a very important piece of evidence
in itself. Together with Zammit’s 1925 publication and the
recently discovered dry gelatine glass plate negatives, it is
one of the three surviving records for the existence of this
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 349-355
Daniel VELLA et al.
important archaeological ind. Not only is the NMA ring
considered important for its historical value, but it is now
the only remaining copy of an original ring, very probably
Phoenician. he likelihood that the NMA ring was commissioned by Zammit to serve as a copy of the original ring
holds much ground. his suggestion, however, can only be
conirmed once more evidence comes to light.
Finally, the weight discrepancy between the NMA ring
and Zammit’s published gold ring can be explained. For
simplicity, we consider the gold plate on the NMA ring to
have a negligible mass and Zammit’s published ring to be
made entirely of pure gold. he density of gold is 19.32 g/
cm3 (Lide, 2004, Part 4: 59), which is almost twice that of
the NMA silver, at 10.31g/cm3, calculated from the semiquantitative compositional data and the densities of the pure
elements (Callister, 2000: 71-73). If indeed the NMA ring
was modelled on the original ring, the volumes of the two
rings should be very similar. Hence, a pure gold ring with
this volume should weigh about 1.874 times the weight of
the NMA ring, i.e. 8.280 g. his value comes close to the
original mass measured by Zammit. he remaining discrepancy in mass can be explained by factoring in material
losses resulting from the manufacture of the NMA ring,
especially in shaping the ring serrations by iling.
Acknowledgments
his work would not have been possible without the help
and assistance received from various institutions and individuals: Heritage Malta for inancially supporting this work; Dr
Maria F. Guerra for her assistance with the interpretation of
the analytical data; Lindsey Buttigieg for contributing to the
recovery of the gelatine glass plate negatives; Maurizio Fenech
from the Department of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering,
University of Malta, for allowing use of the light microscopes;
silversmith Joseph Aquilina for his contribution towards elucidating the manufacturing technique of the NMA ring; Alexia
Grech for her help withthe 3D Laser scanning of the ring;
Mario Galea for the fruitful discussions and continuous encouragement throughout this work. One of us (NCV) would also
like to acknowledge the advice received from Sir J. Boardman,
Dr A. Blackman, Prof. A.J. Frendo, Dr K. Lapatin, Dr E.
Marcus, and Dr A.J. Parker whilst carrying out research on the
iconography of this ring as Visiting Scholar at the J. Paul Getty
Research Institute in Spring 2007. Editorial constraints did
not allow the complete publication of the results in this paper.
Copy or authentic? Analysis of a Phoenician gold ring from the National Museum of Archaeology…
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SMITH, R., 1803. Remarks on a gimmal ring. Archaeologia 14:
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VELLA, N.C., BORDA, K., BRIFFA, J.M., FENECH, K., GRINDE, K.,
SCERRI, E., SISK, M., STÖGER, H. and ZAMMIT, M.E., 2001.
Ghajn Klieb, Rabat (Malta): A preliminary report of an archaeological survey. Malta Archaeological Review 4: 10-16.
ZAMMIT, T., 1925. On a Phoenician ring from Malta. Antiquaries
Journal 2: 266-267.
ZAMMIT , T., 1923-1926. Archaeological Field Notes VIII.
Manuscript held at the Archives of the National Museum of
Archaeology, Malta (Heritage Malta).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 349-355
Modern and ancient gold jewellery attributed
to the Etruscans: a science-based study
Orfèvrerie moderne et ancienne attribuée aux Étrusques : une étude scientifique
Anna Rastrelli*, Marcello Miccio*, Lore Troalen**,
Marcos Martinón-Torres***, Maria Filomena Guerra****, Salvatore Siano*****,
Andrej Sumbera****** and Maria Luisa Vitobello*******
Abstract: A ibula with a lion and a pair of cluster earrings from the collection of the Florence National Museum of Archaeology, attributed to
the Etruscans and said to originate from Populonia but suspected to be modern productions, were studied in the framework of the European
project AUTHENTICO. hey were compared to genuine objects from this same collection and from the collection of the National Museums
Scotland. he study was carried out in situ in Florence with a stereomicroscope equipped with a digital camera, a handheld XRF spectrometer,
and the portable LIPS prototype developed by AUTHENTICO. Some objects were studied with SEM and X-radiography. he aim of the study
was to show that portable techniques of examination and analysis provide information on gold jewellery that allow the diferentiation of modern
and ancient productions.
Résumé : La ibule au lion et les boucles d’oreille à motifs loraux de la collection du musée national d’Archéologie de Florence, attribuées aux Étrusques,
provenant de Populonia, mais suspectées d’être des productions modernes, ont été étudiées dans le cadre du projet européen AUTHENTICO et comparées
à des objets originaux de cette même collection et de la collection des Musées Nationaux d’Écosse. L’étude a été réalisée in situ avec une loupe binoculaire équipée d’un appareil photo numérique, un analyseur de luorescence X portable miniaturisé et le LIPS portable développé dans le cadre du projet
AUTHENTICO. Certains objets ont été sélectionnés pour analyse au MEB et par radiographie. Le but de ce travail est de montrer que les informations
obtenues grâce aux techniques portables d’examen et d’analyse permettent de diférentier les productions modernes des anciennes.
Keywords: Etruscan, fakes, goldwork, XRF, LIPS, SEM, stereomicroscope.
Mots-clés : Étrusque, faux, orfèvrerie, FX, LIPS, MEB, binoculaire.
* Soprintendenza Archeologica per la Toscana, Firenze-Centro di Restauro – Via della Pergola, 65, 50121 Floerence, Italy. (annarastrelli@yahoo.it)
** National Museums Scotland, Department of Conservation & Analytical Research – 242 West Granton Road, Edinburgh EH5 1JA. (l.troalen@nms.
ac.uk)
*** UCL Institute of Archaeology – 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, United Kingdom. (m.martinon-torres@ucl.ac.uk)
**** Laboratoire du Centre de Recherche et de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, UMR171 CNRS – 14, quai François-Mitterrand,
75001 Paris, France (maria.guerra@culture.gouv.fr)
***** Istituto di Fisica Applicata, CNR – via Madonna del Piano (Ed C), 50019 Sesto Fiorentino (FI), Italy. (s.siano@ifac.cnr.it)
****** DIGART SME – Conservation & Restoration – Vlnitá 56, 14700 Praha 4, Czech Republic. (a.sumbera@volny.cz)
******* EJTN GEIE, European Jewellery Technology Network – 124 rue du Commerce, Brussels, Belgium. (info@ejtn.org)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 357-364
358
1. INTRODUCTION
he high skill of the Etruscan goldsmiths is largely revealed by the incomparable quality, delicacy, and complexity
of the iligree and granulation patterns of their jewellery,
as well as by the thinness of the gold foils employed and
the excellence of the joining techniques. Among the most
representative objects of the 6th century BC ine Etruscan
gold work, the bauletto (basket) earrings can only be fully
appreciated with a magniication lens.
Accurate observation at low and high magniication of
Etruscan gold items produced around the 6th century BC
shows the following characteristics (Guerra, 2006; Guerra
et al., 2007): plain and hollow granules may reach several
millimetres but, in the case of dust granulation, their diameter may be as small as 120 µm; diferent wires – beaded,
twisted, spooled, strip-twisted, etc. – may reach diameters of
about 150 µm; and the gold foils used in the small pendant
decorations are often about 100 µm thick. he dimensions
of the added decorative elements can be observed under the
stereomicroscope in Figure 1 for one bauletto earring from
the collection of the National Museums Scotland (NMS).
In Etruscan gold objects, joining is usually carried out by
copper difusion (Mello et al., 1983); the technique is described
by Pliny, heophilus and Cellini (Wolters, 1981). However,
hard-soldering was also used for the application of large elements. he use of both techniques can be found in a single
object, when, for example, decoration patterns are made with
elements of diferent dimensions, such as the reels from Vulci
(reference I.8 in Gaultier and Metzger, 2006), dated to the
beginning of the 4th century BC (Guerra et al., 2007).
In spite of the technical diiculties inherent to the reproduction of Etruscan work (Rudoe, 1991), partly owing to
the lack of knowledge regarding Etruscan art, at least in
the 19th century, copies and imitations, as well as invented
items of Etruscan inspiration, have been produced since the
18th century for the antiquities market (Guerra, 2008a).
he Pasinati cista and the Praeneste gold ibula, both attributed to Francesco Martinetti (Gordon, 1982; Williams,
1992), are known Etruscan fakes. he sarcophagus with
the inscription of the gold ibula from Chiusi (Borrelli,
1992) purchased by the British Museum (Williams, 1992),
the bronze chariot said to originate from Orvieto, and the
colossal Etruscan warriors of Orvieto, purchased by the
Metropolitan Museum of Art (Duchêne, 2006) are but three
more examples of famous Etruscan fakes created by restorers who worked in the Campana workshop (19th century,
Rome). he Campana collection included nearly 15,000
objects according to Borrelli (1992), some genuine, other
fantasist and unscrupulous fakes.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 357-364
Anna RASTRELLI et al.
Many gold objects held in museum collections were
repaired in the past. Others are either pastiches produced
using heteroclite ancient parts, or fully modern inventions
(Guerra, 2006; Guerra et al., 2007; Guerra, 2008b). his is
the case of some of the objects presented in this paper: the
ibula with a lion and a pair of cluster earrings from the collections of the Florence National Museum of Archaeology
(FNMA). Purchased in 1911 from Maruzzi and assumed to
originate from Populonia, they can be conidently revealed
as modern fakes.
he aim of this work – carried out in the framework
of the European project AUTHENTICO – is to provide
analytical information on these objects, to compare their
production technology and the composition of their alloys
with genuine objects and pastiches from the FNMA, and
to show how portable equipments can be used to provide
criteria for the identiication of modern jewellery. A small
number of objects from the NMS were also analysed for
comparison.
he study of the objects from the FNMA was carried out
in the museum. hey were examined under a SMZ1000
Nikon stereomicroscope equipped with a digital camera,
and by X-radiography. he analysis of the alloys was carried
out with a handheld X-ray luorescence (XRF) spectrometer, Innov-X Systems Model Alpha 8000 LZX, with a silver
tube, and operating at 40 kV, 29 µA. he area of analysis was
of about 6mm2. Precision and accuracy were tested against
a set of gold standard alloys (Table 1). he majority of the
results provided are averages of 2-3 measurements and they
have been normalised to 100 wt%.
he objects studied at the NMS were examined using
an Olympus stereomicroscope (Olympus SZX12 x 7-90)
equipped with a digital camera (Olympus DP70), a
CamScan Scanning Electron Microscope and a 300 kV
Pantak X-radiography system. hey were also analysed by
X-ray Fluorescence with an Oxford Instruments ED 2000
system, with a Rhodium target X-ray tube at 46 kV. Details
on this equipment can be found in Troalen et al. (2009).
A few objects were selected for analysis with the portable
low-cost laser induced plasma spectroscopy instrument
(LIPS) developed in the scope of the European project
AUTHENTICO, based on a compact Q-switched Nd:YAG
laser (further details in Agresti et al., 2009). In this case,
measurements were carried out with a spot of about 70 µm
diameter. Based on the diferent results obtained for the gold
alloy standards of Table 1, the ablation could be limited to
100-200 µm laser pulses, which prevented major deposition of Cu and Ag oxides around the ablation hole, and
allowed observing the saturation of the elemental depth proile towards the composition of the bulk. he total ablation
Modern and ancient gold jewellery attributed to the Etruscans: a science-based study
359
depth was of about 60 µm. he calibration for quantitative
elemental analyses was carried out with a set of gold alloy
standards.
a
2. RESULTS
he bow-shaped ibula with a lion and the pair of cluster
earrings were purchased by the FNMA in 1911 as Etruscan
jewellery from Populonia. he objects and their mounting,
revealed by X-radiography, are shown in Figure 2. he ibula
was produced in two parts: (1) the lion obtained by joining
two embossed metal sheets decorated with granules; (2) the
shank obtained by decorating a gold sheet with a line of ive
animals in granulation, outlined by two rows of granules.
he 1 mm diameter spring is coiled one and a half times
and soldered to the ibula under the lion. he cluster earrings consist of a horseshoe-shaped central element with a
wide oval single piece clasp on the back. he central element
is decorated with knurled and wavy wires, ropes, lowers
with ive petals and gold dust granulation, and it is adorned
with hollow globules with a diameter ranging from 220 to
3000 µm.
he observation of the ibula under the stereomicroscope
shows that the granules of 300-500 µm diameter forming
the granulation patterns are joined by hard-soldering. Figure
3a reveals some solder left over on the metal sheet. In spite
of being obtained by cutting small pieces of wires in an
Etruscan tradition (Nestler and Formigli, 1994), as illustrated in Figure 3b, the granules are far too irregular to be
considered as ancient work. Comparison of the granulation
patterns from an ancient earring (Fig. 1) and the modern
ibula (Figs. 3a and 3b) clearly shows this aspect. Formigli’s
(1985) assumption of a modern fabrication and our analytical results are conirmed by the observation of the spring,
for which the use of a modern drawn wire, characterised by
its mechanical seams (Oddy, 1977; Ogden, 1991; Swadling
et al., 1991), is obvious (Fig. 3c). We also note that the
section of the spring terminal is reduced by cutting with a
chisel instead of being hammered, as expected for an ancient
fabrication.
he cluster earrings show a quality of work very similar to the one of the lion ibula. Figure 4a shows details of
the earring: the use of hard-soldering can be identiied by
observation only and the thick gold sheets with marks of ile
polishing on the borders that contrast with the delicacy of
the lion’s head and the lower of the genuine bauletto earring
are shown in Figure 4b.
he iligree patterns are also of very dissimilar quality in
modern and Etruscan productions (Ogden, 2004), such as
b
Figure 1: Details of a bauletto earring (reference K2004.40.1) from
the NMS collection showing (a) iligree and (b) granulation patterns.
Figure 1 : Détails des motifs en (a) iligrane et (b) granulation de la
boucle d’oreille à baule (référence K2004.40.1) de la collection du
NMS.
in several objects belonging to the Campana collection held
in the Louvre museum (Bagault et al., 2006). In order to
illustrate these aspects, Figure 5 shows SEM-SEI images of
earring A.1905.914.2 from the collections of the NMS. his
earring consists of modern and ancient beads. he quality
of the strip-twisted wires of the ancient granulated beads
on Figure 5a, certainly joined by copper difusion, contrasts
with the quality of the beaded and block-twisted wires of the
modern beads in Figure 5b, which were joined with thick
hard-solder.
If we exclude some particular cases (such as the use of
modern 18 carat gold alloys, Guerra et al., 2007), the composition of the modern and ancient alloys are in most cases
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 357-364
360
XRF
Oxford rolled gold
heoretical Value
Standards NMS
XRF
Oxford GCS5
gold
heoretical Value
XRF
Authentico A1
heoretical Value
XRF
Authentico A2
heoretical
Value
Standards
AUTHENTICO
XRF
Authentico E1
heoretical Value
XRF
Authentico E2
heoretical Value
XRF
Lyon Allemand A
heoretical Value
XRF
Lyon Allemand
6917
heoretical Value
XRF
Standards
Lyon Allemand
C2RMF
6907
heoretical Value
XRF
Lyon Allemand
6905
heoretical Value
XRF
Lyon Allemand
6906
heoretical Value
Anna RASTRELLI et al.
Au %
79.4
80.0
80.0
79.4
92.1
92.0
71.3
70.0
47.0
50.0
51.9
55.0
91.6
92.0
74.2
75.0
75.8
75.2
74.4
75.0
73.5
75.0
Ag %
10.6
10.0
17.1
17.9
6.7
6.0
25.1
27.0
53.0
50.0
47.7
44.0
4.1
4.0
18.9
18.0
5.0
5.7
6.8
6.0
14.0
12.5
Cu %
10.0
10.0
2.9
2.7
1.2
2.0
3.6
3.0
0.5
1.0
4.4
4.0
7.0
7.0
19.2
19.1
18.8
19.0
12.5
12.5
Table 1: Results obtained by stationary and
handheld XRF for the gold alloy standards.
Tableau 1 : Compositions obtenues par luorescence
X ixe et portable miniaturisée pour les standards
d’or.
a
b
Figure 2: Photography and X-radiography of the FNMA (a) lion ibula (reference 85037: 14.05 g; 9.4 cm long) and (b) one element of
the pair of cluster earrings (reference 85036: 27.70 g; 6.1 cm height and 3.5 cm large).
Figure 2 : Photographie et radiographie à rayons X de (a) la ibule au lion (référence 85037 : 14,05 g ; 9,4 cm de longueur) et (b) d’une des boucles
d’oreille à motifs loraux de la paire du FNMA (référence 85036 : 27,70 g ; 6,1 cm de hauteur et 3.5 cm de largeur).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 357-364
Modern and ancient gold jewellery attributed to the Etruscans: a science-based study
a
361
b
c
Figure 3: (See colour plate) he lion ibula: (a) granulation pattern,
(b) detail of the granulation pattern, and (c) seams characteristic of
the use of a modern drawn-plate to produce the spring.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) La ibule au lion : (a) motifs en
granulation, (b) détail du motif en granulation et (c) lignes caractéristiques de l’utilisation d’une ilière pour fabriquer le ressort.
a
b
Figure 4: Details of the (a) modern cluster earring with indication of the ile marks; (b) ancient bauletto earring reference 15718 FNMA
(Currie’s collection, 1836).
Figure 4 : Détails de la boucle d’oreille à (a) motifs loraux modernes avec localisation des traces de lime et (b) baule étrusque référence 15718
FNMA (collection Currie 1836).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 357-364
362
Anna RASTRELLI et al.
a
b
Figure 5: SEM-SEI micrographs of earring A.1905.914.2 from the NMS, showing the diference in quality between the (a) ancient and
(b) modern gold work (scale: 500 µm).
Figure 5 : Images MEB-SE de la boucle d’oreille A.1905.914.2 du NMS, montrant la diférence de qualité du travail d’orfèvrerie (a) ancien et
(b) moderne (échelle: 500 µm).
barely diferent (Guerra, 2006; 2008b). In the present work,
we analysed the lion ibula and the cluster earrings by portable XRF and LIPS. A few Etruscan bauletto earrings from
the collections of FNAM and NMS, and a genuine pendant
and a pastiche from NMS were also analysed for comparison. he results obtained are shown in Table 2.
Considering the fact that LIPS analysis is carried out on a
small region of the object while XRF analysis is carried out
on a large zone, which may include the region of interest
(plate, granule, etc.) together with the solders, we can say
that the results provided in Table 2 for the two techniques
applied to the FNMA jewellery are in good agreement.
he largest diferences are observed for the bauletto earring
15718, which includes many decorative parts.
he results obtained for the lion ibula and the cluster earrings show the use of diferent alloys to produce their diferent parts. hese alloys consistently have Ag values lower than
10%, and Cu values lower than 3.5%. Within the relative
compositional variation, we can tentatively identify an alloy
containing about 7-9% Ag and 2-3% Cu, another containing about 5% Ag and about 1% Cu, and a third one containing about 2% Ag with variable contents of Cu. We also
note the use of diferent alloys for the production of the two
elements of the pair of cluster earrings. he results obtained
for the lion ibula and the cluster earrings are signiicantly
diferent from the composition of the genuine objects analysed in the present work. hey are also diferent from the
results obtained for the modern parts of several published
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 357-364
Etruscan pastiches (Guerra, 2006; Guerra et al., 2007), such
as cartouche inger-rings (74-79% Au, 15-21% Ag, and 3-6
Cu%, Guerra, 2006).
he high concentrations of silver and copper detected in
the granulation applied to the lion’s head are explained by
the presence of leftover solder. Of potential interest is the
notably high iron content detected on the earrings’ surface
(with one reading reaching a Fe concentration of 11%): this
is possibly due to a surface coating with iron oxides, which
might be explained by the goldsmith’s intention of giving
to the modern productions the aspect of objects originating
from archaeological excavations.
Earring A.1905.914.2, suspected to be a modern mounting of ancient and modern parts, shows a very homogeneous composition, with an average of 10.4% Ag and 2.6%
Cu. his composition is distinct from the other published
genuine objects, such as the Vulci reels, made with an alloy
containing 97.5% Au, 1.5% Ag, and 1% Cu, and the
ancient parts of the hinged bracelets made with an alloy
containing 94% Au, 4% Ag and 2% Cu, while the alloy of
the modern parts contains 98 % Au, 1.3% Ag and 0.7%
Cu (Guerra et al., 2007). However, the granulated bead
is without a doubt ancient. hese results seem to indicate
that the other beads could be partially ancient, but restored
before being assembled in a modern mounting. he higher
silver contents of this alloy are explained by the use of a
silver-rich solder.
Modern and ancient gold jewellery attributed to the Etruscans: a science-based study
Cu %
Ag %
FNAM XRF
Fibula 85037
lion’s body
granulation neck*
spring
shank
Cluster earring 85036/1
back plate
three globules top
side sphere top
central sphere top 1
2
Cluster earring 85036/2
front lower
back hook
three globules top
side sphere top
central sphere top
front lower
Bauletto earring 15718
main barrel
Bauletto earring 15751
main barrel
side plaque
Bauletto earring 7746
main barrel
side plaque
Au %
Fe %
0.6
2.2
0.4
3.4
2.7
17.4
2.2
8.7
96.3
77.0
100.0
88.4
2.8
3.5
0.5
1.1
2.7
2.0
9.7
2.0
2.3
8.8
95.2
85.6
95.8
94.5
77.5
≤0.5
1.2
1.7
2.2
11.0
2.0
1.1
1.3
1.0
1.2
1.9
6.7
≤0.2
7.4
4.9
5.4
5.7
89.1
98.2
88.1
93.4
92.7
88.8
2.3
0.7
3.2
0.7
0.7
3.6
3.1
4.4
91.5
1.0
2.7
2.1
17.8
16.6
78.5
80.7
2.0
2.9
FNAM LIPS
4.5
4.5
92.9
92.2
0.2
1.4
98.4
2.8
2.5
94.7
2.0
1.9
NMS XRF
Bauletto earring A.1956.381
Front plate
1.9
Lateral plate
1.8
Bauletto earring A.1956.381 A
2.3
Front plate
1
2
1.9
Lateral plate
1.7
Earring A.1905.914.2
Granulated bead
2.7
2.7
Small bead
1
2.5
2
3
2.5
4
2.7
3.5
2.9
94.5
95.2
1.9
2.1
96.2
96.2
1.9
3.0
1.8
95.8
95.1
96.5
11.3
11.7
10.7
7.7
10.7
86.0
85.6
86.8
89.8
86.6
Fibula 85037
lion’s body
Cluster earring 85036/1
back plate
Bauletto earring 15718
clasp
big granule
0.7
*granules and solder together
Table 2: Compositions obtained for the diferent objects from
FNMA and NMS collections analysed in this work by handheld
XRF, stationary XRF, and portable LIPS
Tableau 2 : Compositions obtenues pour les diférents objets appartenant aux collections du FNMA et du NMS, analysés pour ce travail
par luorescence X avec système portable miniaturisée et ixe et par
LIPS portable.
It is at this stage impossible to establish convincing criteria
for the diferentiation of modern and ancient productions
by measuring only the elemental composition of the objects.
Only the results published by Cesareo and Von Hase (1976)
on the compositions of the reproductions of gold Etruscan
objects made by Castellani in the 19th century showed the
use of diferent gold alloys, containing 2.5-6.6% Ag and
363
0.6-2.2% Cu. Some of these alloys are close to those obtained for the lion ibula and the cluster earrings. In any case,
it has to be acknowledged that, given the variable compositions documented, it is not possible to discriminate modern
from ancient gold items based on Au/Ag/Cu ratios only.
3. CONCLUSION
he analytical information obtained in the framework
of the European project AUTHENTICO using portable
equipment for the study of the lion ibula and the pair of
cluster earrings from Populonia, attributed to the Etruscans
and belonging to the collections of the FNMA, provided
convincing evidence that they are fakes. Examination of
these objects showed the use of thick gold sheets inished by
ile polishing, drawn wires, and big granules joined by hardsoldering. he delicacy of the Etruscan iligree and granulation patterns, the thinness of the gold foils, and the excellent
joining techniques are not matched in the modern pieces.
he elemental analysis of Etruscan genuine gold items
and pastiches from FNMA and NMS revealed the variety
of the ancient and modern alloys, showing that composition
alone does not provide suicient criteria for distinguishing
between ancient and modern productions. Etruscan genuine
objects, pastiches with modern and ancient parts, and 19th
century reproductions of Etruscan objects published by different authors were also taken into account for this comparison.
Further comparison of the technical aspects of ancient
and modern goldsmithing, as well as further analysis of the
alloys used in the manufacture of modern and ancient gold
items, should allow the establishment of an useful database
for authentication assessment. In the present work, we note
how both XRF with stationary and portable systems and
LIPS can be successfully used in this type of study, even
taking into account the error introduced by the analysis of
non-lat surfaces and the diferent degrees of surface damage.
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bijoux étrusques de la collection Campana, in F. Gaultier, C.
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Gold hracian appliques: authentic or fake?
Appliqués thraces en or : authentiques ou faux?
Ivelin Kuleff*, Totko Stoyanov** and Milena Tonkova***
Abstract: A few years ago, 25 gold appliqués with a total weight of 255 g and dated to a period between the 5th and the 3rd centuries BC were
ofered to the National History Museum in Soia (Bulgaria). Some Bulgarian archaeologists – experts in the ield of toreutics – expressed the
opinion that the ofered inds are originals. At the same time, the results of an investigation carried out by the Bulgarian Police brought evidence
to the contrary, and, on these bases, started a hearing of the case. Using a non-destructive method of investigation (ED-XRF), the concentrations
of Ag, Au, and Cu were determined. A detailed observation of the surface of the inds with relective optical microscopy was carried out, and, at
the same time, stylistic parallels of the ofered inds were sought by comparing them to the known similar ancient appliqués. On the bases of the
chemical composition, technological observations, and the comparison with parallels of similar chronological inds reported in the literature, we
established that the 25 golden appliqués ofered to the Museum by the treasure hunters are fake.
Résumé : Il y a quelques années, le Musée National de Soia (Bulgarie) a acquis 25 appliqués en or, d’un poids total de 255 gr, datées du Ve-IIIe siècle av.
J.-C. Des archéologues bulgares, experts en toreutique, ont identiié les objets comme étant des originaux. Cependant, des recherches menées par la Police
bulgare ont débouché sur une remise en question de l’authenticité de ces pièces.
Une étude non destructive (par ED-FX) a permis de déterminer les concentrations d’argent, d’or et de cuivre des appliqués en or. Leur surface a été
observée minutieusement au microscope optique et une analyse stylistique et iconographique a été réalisée. Les résultats de l’analyse de la composition
chimique du métal, les observations technologiques et la comparaison avec des parallèles archéologiques ont inalement permis de formuler la thèse que
ces 25 appliques en or sont fausses.
Keywords: authentication, Bulgaria, copper, ED-XRF, gold, silver.
Mots-clés : argent, authentiication, Bulgarie, cuivre, ED-FX, or.
1. INTRODUCTION
A few years ago, 25 gold appliqués with a total weight of
254.83 g and dated to a period between the 5th and the 3rd
centuries BC were ofered to the National History Museum
in Soia (Bulgaria). Some Bulgarian archaeologists – experts
in the ield of toreutics – expressed the opinion that the
ofered inds are originals. At the same time, the results of
an investigation carried out by the Bulgarian Police brought
evidence to the contrary, and, on these bases, started a hea-
ring of the case. he authors of the present study were
involved in this project as experts aiming to determine if
the ofered appliqués are original or fake.
Using energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence analysis
(ED-XRF) for the determination of the basic chemical composition of the objects, relective optical microscopy for a
detailed observation of the surface of the inds, and research
for stylistic parallels to the ofered inds in the existing literature, we propose our opinion regarding the originality of the
appliqués. his paper presents the results of this investigation.
* Faculty of Chemistry University of Soia, Bulgaria. (kulef@chem.uni-soia.bg)
** Faculty of History University of Soia, Bulgaria. (totko@mail.bg)
*** National Archaeological Institute with Museum, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Soia, Bulgaria. (milenatonkova@hotmail.com)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 365-373
366
Ivelin KULEFF, Totko STOYANOV, Milena TONKOVA
2. EXPERIMENTAL
Method of analysis
Materials
he chemical composition of the investigated 25 gold
inds was determined using ED-XRF (Shimatzu EDX720) at the Laboratory of Conservation and Restoration of
the National Archaeological Institute with Museum of the
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (NAIM). he X-ray lines
used for analysis and other parameters of the instrument
are presented in Kulef et al. (2009). he analytical results
obtained are presented in Table 2.
he description of the investigated objects is provided in
Table 1. In Figures 1 and 2, some images of the objects
in question are presented. he place where the investigated
gold appliqués were found is unknown, because they were
ofered to the National History Museum in Soia (Bulgaria)
by treasure-hunters. It was assumed that the objects were
found somewhere in north-eastern Bulgaria.
Figure 1. Images of the investigated
objects and some optical observations.
1a = head of ram (5 objects); 3 = struggle
of animals (3 objects) (rectangle form);
6 ÷10 = ‘copies’ of some of the igures
on the bronze mould from Gartshinovo
(6 objects); 11, 12d = grifon attacking
goat (5 objects); 13c = image of grifon
(4 objects); Garchinovo mould – image
of the bronze matrix from the village
of Gartshinovo. Images under the
microscope of the surface of some of
the objects, showing the texture.
Figure 1 : Photographies des objets étudiés
et des observations optiques.
1a = tête de bélier (5 objets) ; 3 = combat d’animaux (3 objets) (forme rectangulaire) ; 6-10 = empreintes de certaines
igures du moule en bronze de Gartshinovo
(6 objets) ; 11, 12a = grifons attaquant
un bouc (5 objets) ; 13c = représentation d’un grifon (4 objets) ; moule de
Gartshinovo – photographique du moule
en bronze du village de Gartshinovo.
Prises de vue microscopiques de la surface
de certains des objets illustrant la texture.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 365-373
367
Gold hracian appliques: authentic of fake?
code
1-a-151*
1-b-155
1-c-156
1-d-161
1-e-173
2 - 2177
3 - 2117
4 - 2066
5 - 2653
6-a-246
6-b-435
7 - 500
8 - 360
9 - 2742
10 - 2310
11-1214
12-a-596
12-b-654
12-c-679
12-d-761
13-a-831
13-b-930
13-c-955
13-d-1076
14 - 1385
description
An appliqué in a shape of a ram’s head with holes (Fig. 1)
An appliqué in a shape of a ram’s head with holes
An appliqué in a shape of a ram’s head with holes
An appliqué in a shape of a ram’s head with holes
An appliqué in a shape of a ram’s head with holes
An appliqué - a head of the Gorgon-Medusa, with holes (Fig. 2)
Rectangular appliqué – two grifons attacking a horse, with holes (Fig.1)
Rectangular appliqué – a lion attacking a grifon, with holes (Fig. 2)
An appliqué with a bust representation of goddess
An appliqué in a shape of a lion (?) walking to the left, with holes (Fig. 1)
An appliqué in a shape of a lion walking to the right, with holes (Fig. 1)
An appliqué in a shape of a kneeling deer, with holes (Fig. 1)
An appliqué in a shape of a boar walking to the left, with holes (Fig. 1)
An appliqué in a shape of a eagle, with holes (Fig. 1)
An appliqué in a shape of a lion walking to the right, with holes (Fig. 1)
Trapezoid appliqué – winged lion attacking a goat, with holes (Fig. 1)
Triangular appliqué – winged lion attacking a goat, with holes
Triangular appliqué – winged lion attacking a goat, with holes
Triangular appliqué – winged lion attacking a goat, with holes
Triangular appliqué – winged lion attacking a goat, with holes (Fig. 1)
Rectangular appliqué – a grifon to the left, with holes
Rectangular appliqué – a grifon to the right, with holes
Rectangular appliqué – a grifon to the left, with holes (Fig. 1)
Rectangular appliqué – a grifon to the right, with holes
An appliqué with a representation of two grifons attacking a goat, with holes (Fig. 2)
Table 1: Description of the investigated objects.
* = he numbers represent the weight of the investigated appliqués, expressed roughly in centigrams.
Tableau 1 : Description des objets étudiés.
* = Les nombres représentent le poids des appliqués exprimé en centigrammes.
Typological classification
A preliminary analysis carried out on the representations
on the appliqués in question leads to their division in two
general groups. he irst one (Table 1, Nos. 1-3, 11-14 –
in all, 18 pieces) includes artefacts having parallels in inds
from the 5th-4th century BC rich burials in Scythia. Some
ive subgroups could be distinguished as well: 1) ive appliqués with representations of a ram’s head (Fig. 1: 1a; see
Artamonov 1970: 36-39, Abb. 35, 48; Galanina and Grach
1986: Abb. 80); 2) three appliqués representing animals
struggling (Fig. 1: 3; Fig. 2: 4, 14; see Artamonov 1970:
36-39, Abb. 35, 48; Galanina and Grach 1986: Abb. 118;
Treister, 2001: Fig. 63); 3) subgroup of 5 appliqués representing a winged lion attacking a goat (Fig. 1: 11, 12d;
see Artamonov, 1970: Taf. 122; Galanina and Grach, 1986:
Abb. 106); 4) subgroup consisting of 4 appliqués representing a grifon (Artamonov, 1970: Abb. 93; Galanina and
Grach, 1986: Abb. 195; also the gold appliqués from a rich
grave at Kralevo, NE Bulgaria – Echt 2004: Kat. No 224g);
and 5) an appliqué representing a head of Medusa (Fig. 2:
2; see Artamonov, 1970: 36-39, Abb. 35, Taf. 103; Galanina
and Grach, 1986: Abb. 218, 259).
he 6 pieces of the second group (Table 1, Nos. 6-10)
are representations of animals which are to be qualiied
as clumsy imitations of some of the animals that are part
of the famous bronze mould from Gartshinovo, Shumen
district, NE Bulgaria (Fig. 1: centre 6-10; see Damyanov,
1998; Treister, 2001: 161-168, Figs. 1-2; Venedikov and
Gerasimov, 1979: 94-96, 370, No 152).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 365-373
368
Ivelin KULEFF, Totko STOYANOV, Milena TONKOVA
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Images
of the investigated objects and some
optical observations.
2 = Medusa (1 object) – image under
the microscope showing traces of
casting (photograph by P. Penkova);
4 = image under the microscope
showing a very smooth surface with
lack of traces of use (photograph by
P. Penkova); 14 = traces indicating
the use of a rolling-mill for the preparation of thin foil (photograph by
P. Penkova).
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur)
Photographies des objets étudiés et des
observations optiques.
2 = Méduse (1 objet) – prise de vue
microscopique montrant les traces de
moulage (photo de P. Penkova) ; 4 =
prise de vue microscopique montrant
une surface polie sans traces d’utilisation (photo de P. Penkova) ; 14 = traces
d’utilisation de cylindres pour la réalisation de ines feuilles.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chemical composition
All the investigated objects are prepared from an alloy with
very high gold content – 89% to 99.4%, corresponding to a
range between 21.4 and 23.8 carats gold (see Table 2). On
the basis of the analytical data, the investigated objects could
be classiied in two groups:
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 365-373
1) objects with basic chemical content of Au and Ag without copper – 6 objects (4; 6-a; 6-b; 7; 8; 10). hese objects
are prepared practically from pure gold (23.8 carats);
2) objects with basic chemical content of Au, Ag and Cu –
19 objects (1-a; 1-b; 1-; 1-d; 1-e; 2; 3; 5; 9; 11; 12-a; 12-b;
12-c; 12-d; 13-a; 13-b; 13-c; 13-d; 14).
According to their copper content, the objects belonging to
the second group could be additionally divided in 3 subgroups:
2.1) objects with copper concentration of less than 2.7%,
lower than that of Ag – 9 objects: 1-a; 1-b; 1-c; 1-d; 1-e; 2; 3;
9; 11. he values of the ratio Ag/Cu are between 1.2 and 4.9;
369
Gold hracian appliques: authentic of fake?
n°
object
gold [%]
silver [%]
M±SD
RSD
M±SD
copper [%]
RSD
M±SD
RSD
Ag/Cu
1
1-a-151
97.78±0.06
0.06
1.44±0.04
2.8
0.81±0.07
8.6
2.53
2
1-b-155
97.66±0.08
0.08
1.61±0.09
5.6
0.72±0.05
6.9
2.24
3
1-c-156
97.54±0.23
0.24
2.02±0.04
2.0
0.55±0.10
18.2
4.93
4
1-d-161
97.26±0.11
0.11
2.10±0.06
2.9
0.64±0.05
7.8
3.28
5
1-e-173
97.77±0.04
0.04
1.43±0.02
1.4
0.80±0.03
3.8
1.79
6
2-2177
98.06±0.06
0.06
1.11±0.05
4.5
0.85±0.03
3.5
1.31
7
3-2117
98.67±0.28
0.29
1.03±0.03
2.9
0.30±0.30
100
3.43
8
4-2066
96.91±0.08
0.08
3.09±0.08
2.6
< 0.001
-
(3090)
9
5-2653
96.93±0.62
0.64
0.64±0.37
57.8
2.43±0.26
10.7
0.26
10
6-a-246
99.24±0.01
0.01
0.76±0.01
1.3
< 0.001
-
(760)
11
6-b-435
99.41±0.03
0.03
0.59±0.04
6.8
< 0.001
-
(590)
12
7-500
99.22±0.02
0.02
0.78±0.02
2.6
< 0.001
-
(780)
13
8-360
99.18±0.03
0.03
0.82±0.03
3.7
< 0.001
-
(820)
14
9-2742
99.20±0.21
0.21
0.61±0.02
3.3
0.19±0.19
100
3.21
(840)
15
10-2310
99.16±0.04
0.04
0.84±0.04
4.8
< 0.001
-
16
11-1214
93.76±0.69
0.74
3.19±0.22
6.9
2.64±0.16
6.1
1.21
17
12-a-596
89.00±0.93
1.04
2.45±0.05
2.0
8.55±0.89
10.4
0.29
18
12-b-654
90.76±1.47
1.62
2.57±0.05
1.9
6.67±1.48
22.2
0.39
19
12-c-679
89.47±0.43
0.48
2.46±0.07
2.8
8.07±0.42
5.2
0.30
20
12-d-761
90.47±0.57
0.63
2.46±0.03
1.2
7.06±0.57
8.1
0.35
21
13-a-831
92.65±0.30
0.32
2.59±0.06
2.3
4.76±0.24
5.0
0.54
22
13-b-930
91.86±0.54
0.59
2.52±0.02
0.8
5.61±0.52
9.3
0.45
23
13-c-955
92.26±0.71
0.77
2.57±0.04
1.6
5.17±0.67
13.0
0.51
24
13-d-1076
92.35±0.55
0.60
2.64±0.09
3.4
5.01±0.64
12.8
0.53
25
14-1385
89.75±0.48
0.53
2.33±0.03
1.3
7.92±0.52
6.6
0.29
Table 2: he concentrations of gold, silver and copper in the investigated objects.
M = mean value; SD = standard deviation; RSD = relative standard deviation RSD =
Tableau 2 : La concentration d’or, d’argent et de cuivre des objets étudiés.
M
100 [%]
M = valeur moyenne ; SD = écart-type ; RSD = écart-type relatif RSD =
M
100
SD
[%]
SD
2.2) objects with copper concentration higher than 4.5%,
higher than that of Ag – 9 objects: 12-a; 12-b; 12-c; 12-d;
13-a; 13-b; 13-c; 13-d; 14. he values of the ratio Ag/Cu
are between 0.3 and 0.5;
2.3) one object (5-2653) with copper concentration of
2.4%, which is higher than that of Ag (0.64 %), but below
2.7 %, with an Ag/Cu ratio of 0.26.
he distribution of the investigated objects according to
the concentrations of Au and Cu is presented in Figure 3.
In all investigated objects, the concentration of iron was
below the detection limit (< 0.001). Iron was found practically exclusively in areas presenting inhomogeneities visible
with the naked eye. he presence of tin or platinum was not
detected in any object.
he results of the analysis could be briely summarized as
follows: the objects are produced using gold alloys with very
high purity – from 21.4 to 23.8 carats. Objects 5 and 11 are
produced with a material which is diferent from the material used for the production of the other objects. Objects
6a, 6b, 7, 8, and 10 were produced using an alloy containing only gold and silver. Objects 1 and 2 were probably
produced using the same alloy used for the production of
appliqués 6a, 6b, 7, and 8. Object 4 was produced using the
so-called ‘gold for artiicial teeth’. Copper was added to the
alloy used for object 4 and objects 12, 13, and 14. Probably
object 12a was produced irst; subsequently, the content of
copper in the alloy decreased, as shown in Figure 3, presenting the sequences of production. According to this hypothesis, the last object that was produced is 13a. he reduction
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 365-373
370
Ivelin KULEFF, Totko STOYANOV, Milena TONKOVA
Figure 3: Diagram of concentration of gold vs copper in the investigated objects.
Figure 3 : Diagramme de concentration d’or vs cuivre des objets analysés.
of the concentration of copper is due to oxidizing of copper
during the melting of the alloy.
he high concentration of gold (21.4 to 23.8 carats) and
relatively low concentration of silver (less than 3.5 %) shows
that the investigated objects were probably not produced
from native gold. his assumption was supported by the
relatively high concentration of copper (higher that 3%) in
some of the investigated objects (12, 13, and 14). herefore,
it could be established with great probability that at least
part of the investigated appliqués were produced with artiicially prepared alloys. It could also be demonstrated with
certainty that the appliqués were not produced with electrum – the alloy used for most of the investigated breast
plates from hrace (see Kulef et al., 2009). At the same
time, the hypothesis that the objects were produced using
natural gold with a very high purity is impossible to accept.
Such a hypothesis is not supported by the data about natural gold from Transylvania (Romania) (see Cojocaru et al.,
2003), Bulgaria (Kovachev et al., 2007a), and Republic of
Macedonia (Kovachev et al., 2007b; Stefanova et al., 2007),
which are the nearest gold sources to the probable place
where the artefacts were discovered.
herefore, according to the results of the analysis, the gold
used for producing the appliqués could be determined as
technologically worked and reined gold, to which, in some
cases, copper was intentionally added.
According to the analytical results presented in Table 2, it
is possible to propose that for the production of part of the
appliqués (objects 12, 13, and 14), copper was intentionally
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 365-373
Figure 4: Images under the microscope of the appliqués (photograph by P. Penkova). very smooth surface with lack of traces of
use; a view of the appliqués.
Figure 4 : Images sous loupe binoculaire des appliques (photographies
par P. Penkova). surfaces très lisses sans signe de traces d’usure ; vue
des appliqués.
added to the gold of object 4. he composition of the gold
alloy (97% Au and 3% Ag) corresponds exactly to the socalled ‘tooth-alloy’ used by the dentists. he concentration
of silver (2.5%), which could provide plasticity to the alloy,
was not suicient, and, in some cases, cracks can be seen on
the plates. hese aspects represent evidence for a low level
of professionalism and a lack of knowledge regarding work
with such types of material.
he ratio Ag/Cu for objects 12, 13, and 14 is between
0.25-0.55. his aspect represents an additional argument
that the alloy used for their production was prepared intentionally.
At the same time, there is no analytical data concerning
the chemical composition of Scythian gold objects from the
period between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC available in
the literature. he lack of such types of analyses makes a
decision about the authenticity of the investigated appliqués
very diicult, because the proposed origin of these objects
is Scythia.
Gold hracian appliques: authentic of fake?
371
casting technique (see Fig. 2: 2 upper). his result is in contradiction with the known hammering technique used by
the craftsmen of the Late Iron Age (for general observations,
see Treister, 2001). he use of a casting technique is most
probably the reason why plots of faceted surface structures
can be observed under the microscope on the pieces of the
‘Gartshinovo group’ (Fig. 1: 6-8). his fact and the intentional (most probably) coarse, barbaric appearance of these
appliqués are indications of forgery.
Using optical microscopy in most of the investigated
objects with parallels in Scythia (No 2, 3, 13a-d, 14), evidence of tracks on the surface were found, indicating the use
of a rolling-mill for the preparation of thin foil (see Fig. 1:
3; 2: 14-left). his aspect represents direct evidence for the
forgery of the ofered appliqués. At the same time, according
to the results of the investigation by optical microscope, no
evidence of wear, or scratches due to usage, has been found
on the surface of the objects (see Fig. 2: 4, 14 right). his
represents yet another evidence for the forgery of the ofered
appliqués. Some of the beads of the rows on the borders of
plaques Nos. 3, 4 13a-d, and 14 look oddly amorphous, and
hemispheres are connected on some spots with strips resembling traces of casting (Fig. 1: 3; 2: 4, 14-right). his is quite
illogical, considering that such ornaments were performed
with a punch by the ancient goldsmiths.
Even if we accept that low quality models have been followed in the making of the artefacts in question, many of
the basic details of the represented beasts – feathers, paws,
even entire limbs, as well as the beak at No 13 – show an
Figure 5: Image under the microscope showing lack of traces of
use on the surface of the appliqués (photograph by P. Penkova).
Figure 5 : Images sous loupe binoculaire illustrant l’absence de traces
d’usure sur la surface des appliques (photographies par P. Penkova).
Technological and traceological observations,
archaeological parallels and evaluation
of the results
he analysis of a group of breast plates from ancient
hrace belonging to the same period has shown that all the
plates are produced from natural gold – the concentration
of the copper in the plates is below 1.1%, and the Ag/Cu
ratio is between 5.9 and 71.3. hese artefacts show clear
evidence of hammering as a manufacturing technique, and
many scratches on both surfaces (Kulef et al., 2009).
According to the investigations carried out on the surface
of some of the objects under consideration here with optical microscopy, it appears that they were produced using a
Figure 6: Image under the microscope showing the surface of
the appliqué which presented traces of casting (photograph by
P. Penkova).
Figure 6 : Images sous loupe binoculaire illustrant la surface des
appliques présentant des traces de coulé (photographies par P. Penkova).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 365-373
372
iconography and a style which are too unconvincing. In
the specialized literature, both on hracian and Scythian
metalwork, it has been established that the artisans always
dedicated special attention to a clear, comprehensible representation of the aforementioned animal details, regardless
of the personal ability of the craftsmen. hus, the appliqués
under consideration here convey the impression of a wanted
coarseness, which, if corroborated with the contents of the
metal, represents in our view an indication of a modern
forgery.
he only subgroup which might not consist of fakes is
the one containing the appliqués with a representation of a
ram’s head (Table 1, 1a-d; Fig. 1: 1a). Surface morphology
observed under the microscope has shown the typical pattern of the use of one or more punches. hus, these artefacts
can be evaluated as roughly performed replicas of the artefacts known from Scythia; this does not exclude the possibility of a forgery of better quality.
Using optical microscopy on some of the investigated
objects, some evidence of tracks was found on the surface,
indicating the use of a rolling-mill for the preparation of
thin foil (see Fig. 2: 14). hat is one piece of direct evidence
for the forgery of the ofered appliqués. At the same time,
according to the results of the investigation of the surface
of the objects under an optical microscope, no evidence of
scratches related to use were found (see Fig. 2). his represents yet another evidence for the forgery of the ofered
appliqués.
4. CONCLUSION
here is suicient evidence that the collection of 25 gold
objects ofered to the National History Museum was produced from diferent materials (see Table 2). he grouping
of the objects on the basis of similarity in terms of chemical
composition generally corresponds to the typological classiication of the objects. he high purity of the gold used for
producing the appliqués is an evidence for the use of reined
gold. his result is in contradiction with the data obtained
from the analysis of hracian breast plates (see Kulef et al.,
2009) and Scythian authentic gold jewellery. hese authentic gold inds were usually produced using natural gold, and
in many cases electrum – a natural gold alloy with a high
content of silver (20-50%). Finds with such a high purity of
gold are normally very rare (according to some evaluations,
less than 0.15% of all Scythian gold objects are made from
the purest gold.)
he objects belong to the so-called ‘Gartshinovo group’
(Nos. 6 ÷ 10), that are also produced from pure gold (98ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 365-373
Ivelin KULEFF, Totko STOYANOV, Milena TONKOVA
99%). Some diferent textures of the gold, as well as amorphous relief and a very rough manufacture, were identiied.
he evidence that these objects were produced by casting
rather than hammering, which was the common practice in
the period under consideration, are arguments that they are
actually forgeries. At the same time, we were surprised by the
coincidence of the golden appliqués with the matrix from
Gartshinovo. his coincidence brings very serious doubt to
the authentications of these appliqués.
For other appliqués (Nr. 2 – head of Medusa; Nrs. 3
and 4, 11 ÷ 14 – representing animals ighting) with some
Scythian parallels, there are insuicient arguments towards
their authentication. At the same time, there is also a lack
of data concerning the chemical composition and technology employed in the making of such types of parallels. In
order to reach a more adequate conclusion regarding the
authenticity of the appliqués, additional investigations are
necessary – for example, destructive chemical investigations
for the determination of the micro-quantities of certain elements. In spite of this, by using XRF for the determination
of the base elemental composition, optical microscopy for
observing the scratches on the surface resulting from use,
and researching the literature for parallels of the investigated
objects, it is possible to obtain objective data for providing some conclusions regarding the authenticity of the gold
artefacts.
Acknowledgements
he authors are indebted to eng. Plamen Bonev for the
ED-XRF analysis and to Petja Penkova for the optical microscopy investigation and observations of traces on the surface of
the gold artefacts, both from the Laboratory for Conservation
of the National Institute of Archaeology with Museum of the
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. he authors would like to
thank Mrs. Elka Penkova from the National History Museum
in Soia for her support with this investigation.
References
ARTAMONOV, M., 1970. Goldschatz der Skythen in der Eremitage.
Hanau, W. Dausien.
COJOCARU, V., BADICA, T. and POPESCU, I.V., 2003. Natural gold
composition studied by proton activation analysis. Romanian
Reports in Physics 55: 460-463.
DAMYANOV, M., 1998. he Matrix from Garchinovo: Problems of
Origin and Dating. Arcaeologia Bulgarica 2(2): 28-39.
ECHT, R. (ed.), 2004. Die hraker: Das goldene Reich des Orpheus:
Bonn, Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik
Gold hracian appliques: authentic of fake?
Deutschland; Soia, Ministerium f̈r Kultur der Republik
Bulgarien; Mainz am Rhein, Philipp von Zabern.
GALANINA, L. and GRACH, N., 1986. Scythische Kunst: Altertümmer
der scythischen Welt, Mitte der 7. bis zum 3. Jahrhundert v. u Z.
Leningrad, Aurora-Kunstverlag.
KOVACHEV, V., MAVRUDCHIEV, B. and YOSSIFOV, A., 2007a. Late
Cretaceous and Palaeogene golden sources and their connection with magmatism and deep structure, in Proceedings of the
International Scientiic-Technological Conference “Gold – he
metal of all times”, Varna, 7-9 June 2007, National Technical
Union – Union of Minig Geology and Metallurgy, 34-47 (in
Bulgarian).
KOVACHEV, V., STEFANOVA, V., NEDIALKOV, R. and MLADENOV, V.,
2007b. Eluvial-alluvial gold from the gold-copper occurrence
Borov Dol (R. Macedonia). Part I: Geochemistry of stream
373
sediments and their relation to the source rocks and ores.
Review of the Bulgarian Geological Society 6: 66-76.
KULEFF, I., TONKOVA, M. and STOYANOV, T., 2009. Chemical
composition of gold breast plates from ancient hrace (5th-4th
century BC). Archaeologia Bulgarica 13(2): 11-20.
STEFANOVA, V., KOVACHEV, V., MLADENOV, V. and STANIMIROVA,
TZ., 2007. Eluvial-alluvial gold from the gold-copper occurrence Borov Dol (R. Macedonia). Part II: Mineralogy of gold
and stream sediments. Review of the Bulgarian Geological
Society 6: 77-91.
TREISTER, M., 2001. Hammering Tecniques in Greek and Roman
Jewellery and Toreutics. Colloquia Pontica, vol. 8. Leiden,
Boston, Köln, Brill.
VENEDIKOV, I. and GERASSIMOV, T., 1979. hracian Art Treasures.
Soia, Bulgarski Houdozhnik Publishing House.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 365-373
A unique 10th century AD gold-plated brooch
from south-east Russia: technical
and stylistic authentication
Une broche unique plaquée or du Xe siècle apr. J.-C. provenant du Sud-Est de la Russie :
authentification technique et stylistique
Natasha Eniosova*
Abstract: he gold-plated brooch with iligree and granulation was recovered by hobby metal-detecting in the vicinity of the city of Bryansk. he
aim of this paper is to present some initial results representing the outcome of the archaeological and technological examination of this unique
piece of jewellery. he composition of the metal and the method of fabrication were investigated using ED-XRF and microscopic analyses. he
technical examination revealed that the brooch belongs to the Scandinavian stylistic and technological circle. However, technically it difers in
three signiicant details from the Northern art tradition of iligree and granulation. First, the upper embossed panel, made of high purity gold,
is placed on a solid silver base and ixed with six gold rivets. Usually, it was constructed of a lat based plate and a domed relief upper plate made
of the same metal. he second unusual technique whose application was identiied on this brooch is the use of a mercury amalgam solder for
joining the iligree and granulation to the substrate. he last peculiar detail is the use of geometrical granulation associated with Slavic art. Such
elements appear on a number of Gotlandic ornaments from the late Viking Age. he gold brooch was possibly produced in Gotland based on
the Scandinavian tradition, but also displays features of Slavic inluence in its design.
Résumé : La broche plaquée or décorée de iligranes et de granulation a été trouvée avec un détecteur de métal dans les environs de la ville de Bryansk. Le
but de cet article est de présenter les premiers résultats obtenus par examen archéologique et technique de cette pièce unique d’orfèvrerie. La composition
du métal et les techniques de fabrication ont été étudiées par ED-FX et au moyen d’analyses microscopiques. L’examen technique révèle que la broche
appartient à l’aire de circulation stylistique et technologique Scandinave. Néanmoins, du point de vue technique, trois détails signiicatifs diférent de l’art
du iligrane et de la granulation du Nord. Premièrement, le panneau supérieur en repoussé fabriqué en or très pur est placé sur une base en argent massif
et ixé à l’aide de six rivets en or. En général, ce panneau était constitué d’une plaque plate et d’une plaque supérieure bombée, en relief, réalisée dans le
même métal. La deuxième technique inhabituelle trouvée dans la fabrication de la broche est l’utilisation de l’amalgame de mercure pour souder les iligranes et les granules au substrat. Le dernier détail particulier est l’utilisation de granulation géométrique associée à l’art Slave. Ces éléments apparaissent
sur certains ornements de Gotland, de l’Age des Viking récente. La broche en or a pu avoir été produite en Gotland, à partir de la tradition Scandinave,
mais sous inluence Slave en ce qui concerne le motif.
Keywords: Filigree, gold jewellery, granulation, Viking Age.
Mots-clés : Filigrane, orfèvrerie, granulation, Âge Viking.
*Department of Archaeology, Faculty of History – Moscow State University. Lomonosovsky prospect, 27-4, 119992, Moscow, Russia. (eniosova@inbox.ru)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 375-380
376
1. INTRODUCTION
he elaborately decorated gold ornament was recovered
as part of an alleged hoard by hobby metal-detecting in the
vicinity of the city of Bryansk, in the region between the
Dnepr and Desna Rivers (Fig. 1). According to the collec-
Natasha ENIOSOVA
tor’s information, this alleged group consists of the brooch
and Byzantine gold coins 1. he provenance of the brooch
is not recorded, but it is of the type found throughout the
Viking sphere of inluence. Brooches are the most common
ornaments of the Viking period. heir function was to hold
up a shawl, cloak or jacket over the dress (Hägg, 1971).
Figure 1: Location map showing the city of Bryansk in the south-eastern part of Russia. he present city of Bryansk has yielded no traces
of settlement dating to the Viking period. According to the chronicle, it was known since the 12th century AD.
Figure 1 : Carte situant la ville de Bryansk dans le sud-est de la Russie. La ville actuelle de Bryansk ne montre pas de traces d’habitation de la
période Viking. Selon les chroniques, la ville est connue depuis le XIIe siècle.
1. Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus with Romanus II (945-959).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 375-380
A unique 10th century AD gold-plated brooch from the south-east Russia…
More than 4,000 brooches have been found in an area
spanning from Iceland and Ireland in the West to the Western
Siberian plain in the East (Jansson, 1985). Almost 300
genuine Scandinavian brooches originate from the territory
of modern Russia, Ukraine and Belorussia, united in the Old
Rus’ Kingdom in the course of the 10th century AD. A signiicant percentage of the brooches belonging to the oval, round,
trefoil, annular, penannular and equal-armed types are made
of copper alloys. Others are made of a gold, silver and leadtin alloy. Brooches made of gold represent the rarest group of
Viking Age jewellery. Twelve gold disc-shaped brooches with
iligree and granulation are already known from the Viking
World (Eilbracht, 1999; Eniosova, 2007). he aim of this
paper is to present some initial results representing the outcome of the archaeological and technological examination
of this unique piece of jewellery in light of the distribution
and use of gold in Scandinavia and Rus’ during the period
between the 10th and the mid-11th century AD.
2. METHOD OF EXAMINATION
he irst aims of the examination were to determine the
composition of the metal of the various components and
to ind out how they were made 2. he identiication of the
nature of the metal was based on ED-XRF analyses, using
an ARTAX (BRUKER AXS) instrument and software, itted with a Mo target and semiconductor detector. Typical
analytical conditions were a tube voltage of 50 kV and a
current of 700 µA. Each spectrum was recorded for 180 s.
he sample regions have been analysed with a 0.2 mm collimator. Quantitative data were obtained for gold, silver,
copper and mercury. he calculation of the weight concentration of elements without standards has been carried out
by a method of fundamental parameters.
he next stage was to investigate the components of
which the brooch was constructed and how they were joined
together. Microscopic examination of small-scale details was
carried out using a Stemi 2000 stereomicroscope with digital
camera and AxioVision (Karl Zeiss) software for a precise
measuring of the delicate grains and wires.
377
gree and granulation and a solid silver back with a silver
pin, pin attachment and catch-holder (Fig. 2). he technical examination of the brooch revealed that a relief of the
upper panel was made from hammered sheet of gold with
a positive die to form the main elements of the relief, with
an animal pattern, where a pair of beasts is opposed in the
mirror symmetry. he upper sheet was folding over a solid
thick (2 mm) silver base. he silver base was cast in the clay
bivalves mould made, possibly, by the same die impression.
Two notches were cut for the pin attachment and one for the
catch-holder in the bottom part of the mould. Both parts
were attached with six gold rivets.
Without radiography, we could not reveal what type of
surface (smooth or relief ) was present under the gold plate.
It is unlikely that the silver base of the brooch was used as a
positive die for making its gold covering, because the silvercopper alloy (Ag – 80%; Cu – 20 %; HV – 45) is much softer than brass, gunmetal or tin-bronze, and would be easily
damaged during its use as a patrix (Scott, 1991; Meeks and
Holms, 1985). he pin attachment and catch-holder also
show a complicated use of the silver base as a die.
Highly stylized animals are shown in the front-facing part
of the brooch, with round eyes and a nose made with a twisted wire (D 0.4 mm) and granules (D 1.2 mm). his particular type of animal ornament corresponds to the Viking
Jellinge art style, dating to the 10th century AD (Jansson,
1991). he necks, bodies, heap and shoulders were ‘drawn’
by two-strand bands of beaded wires and illed by the gra-
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
he equal-armed brooch is 68 mm long and 45 grams
in weight. It consists of an embossed upper panel with ili2. he examination was not complete because the brooch originated
from a private collection.
Figure 2. Front and back of gold equal-armed brooch from the Bryansk area.
Figure 2 : Anvers et revers d’une broche à bras symétriques de la région de Bryansk.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 375-380
378
Natasha ENIOSOVA
nules (D 0.36-1.25 mm). Beaded wires of three diferent
sizes (D 0.7-0.95 mm) were made holding the swages at a
right angle. Interlacing bands composed of beaded wire are
characteristic of the Scandinavian art of iligree and granulation. his tradition is also characterised by the use of dies
with embossed relief and irregular granules. However, the
upper panel of the brooch is decorated with triangles of
regular granules; the row of the animal teeth on the edge is
depicted by triangles made of 3 granules (Fig. 3). Geometric
patterns of regular granules, and the subordinate role of the
iligree occupying the margins and rear, using beaded wire,
are characteristic of Slavic ornaments from the 9th-10th centuries AD (Duczko, 1985).
ED-XRF analyses indicate a high purity of the metal and
a relatively low content of silver and copper (Au – 91.3%;
Ag – 2.51%; Cu – 2.64%; Hg – 3.55%). he silver base
was cast of silver alloyed with copper (Ag – 77.62%; Cu
– 22.38%) and possible minute traces of lead and gold.
here are no visible traces of solder on the upper plate, but
the microprobe analysis shows that the base plate clearly
contains more copper than either the tops of grains or the
wire. We can thus put forth the hypothesis of a conventional
solder alloy – that is, extra copper has been added to a gold
alloy in order to reduce its melting temperature. However, a
small quantity of mercury was detected on the surface of the
upper sheet (Fig. 4). It could derive from the use of an amalgam solder. Gold-mercury solder recipes have survived in
the medieval Mappae Clavicula manuscript, possibly dated
to the 10th century (Ogden, 1994). Soldering experiments
by F. Mishukov in Moscow and A. Minzulin in Kiev clearly
demonstrated that the joining of granules of gold alloy to
a substrate can be performed using a gold/silver alloy and
mercury (1:6). he metallographic examination of the joint
area shows an annealed structure, indicating that the solder was not solidiied from the molten state. In this case,
it would have normally shown a cast structure (Mishukov,
1962; Minzhulin, 1990).
Objects of gold are comparatively rare in Scandinavia,
as well as in the Western and Eastern European countries
where the Northern inluence was considerable. Certain
information has been published on the composition of
Viking Age gold. he list of compositions includes almost
seventy items of gold jewellery, ingots and waiste (foil, wire,
globules). Most Viking Age gold ranges in purity from 54%
to about 99% gold (Table 1). However, high purity gold (Au
> 90%) is much more common for ingots of the period.
We can infer that a wide range of gold alloys was in use in
the Viking period, and that there is no evidence of a progressive
debasement of the metal during this time. Precious metal was
reined or diluted by silver and copper depending on factors
such as the availability of gold, or a customer or goldsmith’s
approach to debasement (Ogden, 1994). Relatively ine gold
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Detail of brooch, showing varied wire
proiles and triangles of granules.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Détail de la broche, montrant diférents proils de ils et de triangles en granulation.
Figure 4: (See colour plate) Spectra of the gold plate showing a
notable concentration of mercury in the metallic solder.
Figure 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Spectre X de la plaque en or montrant
la présence d’une faible teneur en mercure dans la soudure métallique.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 375-380
A unique 10th century AD gold-plated brooch from the south-east Russia…
Purity range (%)
Items of
jewellery
Items of waist
Ingots
99-100
-
2
3
91-98
11
18
5
80-90
6
7
1
54-79
9
7
-
Table 1: Fineness of Viking period gold objects from Sweden and
Great Britain (Oddy and Meyer, 1986); Northern Germany –
Hedeby (Pernicka, 2002); Russia – Gnezdovo (Eniosova, 2007).
Tableau 1 : Titre d’objets en or de la période Viking de Suède et
du Royaume Uni (Oddy and Meyer, 1986); Allemagne du Nord –
Hedeby (Pernicka, 2002); Russie – Gnezdovo (Eniosova, 2007).
was used on occasion, and certainly more frequently than for
manufacture of Gotlandic bracteates in the 7th and 8th centuries
AD, which are mostly made of gold containing between 45%
and 75% Au (Oddy and Meyer, 1986).
4. CONCLUSION
he gold-plated brooch from Russia appears to be without
parallels. We can compare its overall shape with a large
group of Scandinavian equal-armed brooches made of brass
or silver and dated to a period between the late 6th century
and the late 10th century AD (Aagård, 1984). Stylistically
and technologically, the upper relief panel of the brooch
has much more in common with the Scandinavian iligree
art dated to the Late Viking Age. Some distant parallels are
the rectangular silver brooches from the Erikstorp hoard in
Sweden, the gold spur from Röd, Östfold, Norway, and the
gold embossed panels with iligree and granulation on the
shells of the box-shaped brooches from Gotland (Duczko,
1995; Thunmark-Nylén, 1998). Box-shaped brooches
belong to the large group of Gotland ornaments combining
the Germanic animal style with Slavic geometric elements.
hese specimens look entirely Scandinavian; geometric patterns play a subordinate role on these pieces of jewellery,
typically occupying the margins. Outside Scandinavia, ornaments bearing Northern and Slavic features have been found
in Estonia, Pskov and Kiev, and in the regions of the towns
of Novgorod, Smolensk and Vladimir (Duczko, 1983).
hey should be understood as objects made according to the
Scandinavian tradition, but also showing Slavic inluence in
their design. Considered all together, the evidence seems to
suggest the local manufacturing of these obvious hybrids in
Gotland. We can thus assume that the luxury gold brooch
from Russia was produced by Gotlandic craftsmen. One
could also put forth the counter-argument that ‘common
379
Scandinavian’ brooches were not used by the islanders.
Other types of ornaments have been found in the richly
furnished Gotlandic graves. However, judging from the
direct manufacturing evidence, Gotlanders could also have
produced jewellery for customers from the Scandinavian
cultural area outside the island (Jansson, 1995).
Being part of a wealthy Scandinavian woman’s dress, a
gold-plated brooch travelled far to the East. Despite the
considerable remoteness of the Bryansk region from the
main trade routes used by the Vikings to reach the Black
Sea or the Volga Bulgharia State, this particular area provides
evidence for contacts between Scandinavians and the local
Slavs in the late 10th-early 11th century AD. Evidence of such
contacts comprises genuine Northern weapons and amulets
(Shinakov, 1998).
Acknowledgement
I wish to thank Dr Robert Mitoyan, Department of
Geochemistry of Moscow State University, for his kind assistance with the ED-XRF analysis of the Viking Age gold objects
from Russia.
References
AAGÅRD, G-B., 1984. Gleicharmige Spangen, in G. Arwidsson
(ed.), Birka II:1. Systematische Analysen der Gräberfunde.
Stockholm, KVHAA, 95-110.
DUCZKO, W., 1983. Slaviskt och gotländskt smide i älda metaller,
in I. Jansson (ed.), Gutar och vikingar. Stockholm, Staten historiska Museum, 347-356.
DUCZKO, W., 1985. Filigree and granulation work of the Viking
Period: an analysis of the material from Björkö. Stockholm,
Almqvist & Wiksell.
DUCZKO, W., 1995. Kungar, thegnar, Tegnebyar, juveler och silverskatter. Om danskt inlytande i Sverige under senvikingatid.
TOR. 27(2): 625-662.
EILBRACHT, H., 1999. Filigran-und Granulationkunst im
Wikingischen Norden Untersuchungen zum Transfer frühmittelalterlicher Gold-und Silberschmiedetechniken zwischen
dem Kontinent und Nordeuropa, in W. Janssen et al. (eds.),
Köln and Bonn, Zeitschrift für Archäologie des Mittelalters 11:
58-65.
ENIOSOVA, N., 2007. Viking Age Gold from Old Rus’, in U.
Fransson, M. Svedin, S. Bergerbrant, F. Androshchuk (eds.),
Cultural interaction between east and west. Archaeology, artefacts
and human contacts in Northern Europe. Stockholm, Stockholm
University, 175-180.
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HÄGG, I., 1971. Mantel och Kjortel; vikingatidens dräkt.
Fornvännen 66: 144-145.
JANSSON, I., 1985. Ovala spännbucklor. En studie av vikingatida
standard smycken med utgångpunkt från Björkö-fynden. Aun 7.
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JANSSON I., 1991. År 970 och vikingatidens kronology, in M.
Iversen (ed.), Mammen. Grav, kunst og samfund i vikingetid.
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R C
RestauRation et conseRvation
Observations and questions on gold artefacts
from underwater excavations
he view of an archaeologist-restorer working in situ
Observations et interrogations sur des objets en or
provenant de fouilles archéologiques sous-marines
Le point de vue d’un archéologue-restaurateur travaillant in situ
Olivier Berger*
Abstract: In the present paper, we will study examples of settlement excavations that can sometimes reveal abundant gold material. hese
underwater excavations took place in Alexandria and Aboukir Bay, Egypt, where we found numerous gold or gold-plated objects. Of these,
some objects provide us with information about the trade routes used in those times, and others show us that reinement existed even during the
Byzantine period. Some objects tell us fabulous stories, while others attest a high mastery of the available technology.
hrough speciic examples, we will approach the scientiic, aesthetic, historical and technological aspects pertaining to these gold objects.
While most of these gold objects, jewellery and coins, have been studied before, and the results published elsewhere, considering the number of
excavated objects, it is typically the less spectacular ones or the ones that were too diicult to interpret that have been neglected.
Being an archaeologist specialised in the restoration of metal, I am thus not a metallurgist, a technologist, or even a numismatist, nor a historian
specialised in the production or trade of gold objects. However, on the boat, underwater, or in the land laboratory, many questions concerning
these archaeological objects deserve attention.
With the help of three case studies, we will see that some problems related to these objects have come up, and that a close collaboration with
various gold artefact specialists appears necessary in order to try to solve these uncertainties.
Résumé : Seront abordés des exemples de fouilles d’habitats qui parfois peuvent livrer un abondant matériel en or. Ces fouilles sous-marines, sont menées
en Egypte, à Alexandrie et Aboukir. Lors de nos campagnes de fouilles, nous avons trouvé de nombreux objets en or ou recouverts d’or. Certains objets
nous parlent des voies commerciales, certains nous démontrent un rainement d’une période dite décadente. D’autres objets nous racontent de fabuleuses
histoires, d’autres encore sont des preuves d’une haute maîtrise technologique.
Au travers de quelques découvertes, nous allons approcher l’aspect scientiique, esthétique, historique et technologique de ces objets d’or.
Si la majorité des objets, monnaies ou bijoux, sont étudiés et publiés étant donné la masse de documents exhumés, il en est de moins spectaculaires et de
plus délicats à interpréter qui sont délaissés.
Etant un archéologue spécialisé dans la restauration du métal, je ne suis donc ni analyste, ni métallurgiste, ni technologue, ni numismate, ni non plus un
historien spécialiste de la production, du commerce ou de la circulation des objets en or, et pourtant, que de questions se posent face à ces objets archéologiques trouvés lors de fouilles et restaurés in situ.
A travers trois cas, sera entrevue une base d’étude où seule une collaboration pluridisciplinaire pourrait répondre aux problématiques posées.
Keywords: FTIR, Egypt, goldsmith, gold-working, metal restoration, underwater archaeology.
Mots-clés : FTIR, Égypte, orfèvre, travail de l’or, restauration du métal, archéologie sous-marine.
*Conservateur-restaurateur au musée des Antiquités de Bâle – 5, St. Alban-Graben, 4051 Bâle, Suisse. (bergoliv@hotmail.com)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 383-387
384
Olivier BERGER
1. INTRODUCTION
he methods employed by the ancient Egyptian goldsmiths
have been covered in some detail elsewhere, although there is
still a need for a far more comprehensive study (Ogden, 2000:
164).
The European Institute of Underwater Archaeology
(Institut européen d’archéologie sous-marine, IEASM) led
by Franck Goddio, has been carrying out excavations in
Egypt for more than ten years. We are working in the Nile
Delta, and more precisely in Alexandria and Aboukir Bay,
where, under the sea, we found the remnants of the sunken
cities of Canopus and Heracleion. More than 15,000 artefacts were discovered at these sites, and, among this abundant material, we mainly found stone work. However, we
also found objects made of organic material, ceramic, glass,
and diferent metals. Some rare objects made of silver and
those made of iron generally disappear in the sea water environment, but bronze, lead and gold objects are frequently
discovered.
What is unusual about these sites is that they were abandoned because of several natural cataclysms and not reoccupied during the last centuries. hat is why we had the chance
to ind many intact artefacts, such as ritual dishes, which are
rather infrequent in other excavations.
he corpus of gold artefacts is mainly represented by jewellery and gold coins, originating mostly from the Ptolemaic
and Byzantine periods. he jewellery is relatively standard,
and it includes rings, earrings, beads, pendants, and pendants with some gem stones (amethyst, emerald, sapphire,
garnets), glass, or pearls. Several rings are delicate and some
are made of massive beaded wires. Some of them are without
decoration or with just one gem, but some others are inely
decorated and show scenes of everyday life.
hrough speciic examples, we will approach the scientiic,
aesthetic, historical and technological aspects pertaining to
these gold objects.
2. METHODS § 1
Some rings show interesting stories, like a romantic
Byzantine wedding ring originating from Canopus and
dating from the 6th or 7th century AD (Fig. 1). he translation of the Greek inscription engraved inside the ring reads
“Peace, which is mine, I give it to you. Amen”. his citation
is from the Gospel of John (14, 27). here are, interestingly,
two orthographic mistakes in this sentence.
he face of the ring bears the inscription OMONOIA,
which means ‘union’ (Lat. ‘concordia’), as was traditionally
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 383-387
Figure 1: Wedding ring and ring with a bezel in the shape of an
oil lamp.
Figure 1 : Bague de mariage et bague avec un chaton en forme de
lampe à huile.
written on wedding rings at that time. OMONOIA was
an inscription chosen by Christians in reference to the irst
word of verse 16 of chapter 25 in the book of Sirach, which
deals with marital and family relationships: “he Union of
brothers, the friendship of neighbours, and wife and husband living in perfect harmony” (Tardieu, 2006).
he Byzantine period is nicely represented by a ine handicraft ring with a bezel in the shape of an oil lamp (Fig. 1).
he details are so perfectly made that the top lid can still be
moved. Found on the site of Canopus, this ring is dated to
a period between the end of the 6th and the beginning of the
7th century AD. his type of ring seems unique, as we could
not identify any parallels to it, and only its decorative waves
and vegetal ornament can be compared to those of the ring
found in the treasure of Pantalica, Sicily (Stolz, 2006).
An important discovery was made at the site of Heracleion
in 2003, when we found a gold plaque with inscriptions.
Unfortunately, it was not in its original position but at the
bottom of a canal. he object is 5 cm high, 10.8 cm wide
and 0.8 cm thick. Written in Greek, this gold plaque was
Observations and questions on gold artefacts from underwater excavations
made to celebrate the construction of a monument (gymnasium) by Ptolemy III. In 1818, a 6 by 6 cm gold blade
was found in Aboukir; it is also engraved in Greek, and it
is currently in the British Museum (N° 1063). he plaque
bears the dedication of a Temenos to Osiris in the name of
Ptolemy III and Berenice II (Yoyotte, 2006; Clauss, 2006).
Sometimes, gold objects can be of help in understanding the trade between Egypt and other countries. he
Hemistater of Pumiyaton is an artefact originating from
Cyprus, with a naked walking Heracles wearing only his
traditional lion skin. It dates from the 4th century BC. An
unusual aspect of the representation in this object is the
fact that Heracles is beardless. he reason for this is that
the Cypriot Herakless-Melquart is not heavily bearded, like
the classical one. On the reverse, a Phoenician inscription
with the name of the king Pumiyaton dates the issue to the
seventh or eighth year of his reign (355/353 BC) (Yoyotte,
2006; Lichocka, 2006).
An object that is very interesting from a technological
point of view is a gold eye of Horus (Wedjat) found in
Heracleion (Fig. 2). his bead, hollow inside, is made of
two gold blades and a strip of gold sheet used for the sides
(Stolz, 2006). We can put forth a hypothesis regarding the
technique used to make the pupil, using a lat sphere, iligree and granulation for the decoration. his object is really
small, measures 8 mm and weighs 0.4 g; it is less than 2 mm
thick. It makes us wonder how the ancient craftsmen were
able to weld all those small pieces together, and to produce
such tiny details. Usually, this type of jewellery is embossed
or moulded, and it is quite unusual to identify the use of iligree and granulation, indicating the intricate work involved
in the production of such a small object.
Figure 2: Gold eye of Horus (Wedjat).
Figure 2 : Œil d’Horus (Oudjat).
385
3. METHODS § 2
On the boat, underwater or in the land laboratory, many
questions concerning archaeological objects arise, and even
a simple object can provide signiicant information, but also
bring about numerous other questions.
Case 1 – he most interesting questions that arise from our
research concern a carved limestone deposit holding more
than one kilogram of gold leaves. A hard black substance was
found among the gold leaves. After microchemistry tests carried out at the Expert Center laboratories in Lausanne, we
established that it was an organic substance, and after analyses
with FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry) and
GC-MS (Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrometry), we
were able to determine that it was a natural resin like rosin
with what appear to be traces of perfume rosin, like myrrh
or aloe vera. he gold foil does not have a regular size, but
displays a constant layer thickness of 12.3 ± 0.9 µm, almost
comparable to chocolate paper. he examination of the gold
composition by XRF (X-ray Fluorescence Spectrometry) and
AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrometry), carried out at the
research laboratory of the Swiss National Museum, provided
us with the composition of the metal. he gold contains silver,
platinum and iron, but no copper (Table 1).
Does this information allow us to infer that it was used in
a temple as an ofering to the gods, with gold and perfume
resin, or that it was some type of ofering deposited in the
foundation wall during the construction of an important
building, like a foundation deposit? Is it possible that it was
hidden by a goldsmith, and that the metal was meant to be
melted again, or that it was a sort of kit for gilding, with the
resin used as glue? As mentioned in the literature (Higgins,
1961; Pliny the Elder, 1983), it was not unusual to ind
this thickness for a gold leaf, but the question still remains
concerning the kind of material that this type of gold leaf
was meant to gild: stone, metal or wood?
Case 2 – Gold is stable even underwater; however, in land
excavations, the fragments of gold artefacts or even small
objects are mixed with sediment. In such cases, gold starts to
tarnish and we cannot easily distinguish it from other materials or sediments. On the other hand, gold is not altered
in sea water; in Nile clay, in sand or other sediments, gold
preserves its shiny metal relection. he objects are so shiny
and dense that they can be seen immediately in the sediment
or in the sifter discarded by the water dredge. hat is why,
in the context of our work, we found a considerable amount
of small pieces of gold and elements of goldsmithing, a less
common phenomenon in land excavations.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 383-387
Olivier BERGER
386
Denomination
Gold sample
% Ni
0.0007
% Sn
<0.0010
% Bi
<0.0010
% Co
<0.0010
% Pb
0.0006
% Zn
<0.0010
% As
<0.0010
% Fe
0.0176
% Sb
<0.0010
% Cu
0.0025
% Pt
0.0202
% Ti
<0.0020
% Ag
0.1741
*% Au
99.7843
*% Au: he gold composition has been calculated (100% – total composition of trace elements)
Table 1: Composition of the gold leaves.
Tableau 1 : Composition des feuilles d’or.
We can focus on two small representative deposits of gold
fragments, one containing 63 gold pieces, and the other one
42 fragments. Having a closer look at the fragments, we can
observe that they represent small pieces of objects, mostly
jewellery. We can thus recognise fragments of objects, palmette-shaped appliqués, beads of diferent sizes and shapes,
chain links, ornaments, earrings, parts of necklaces, bracelets, annuli, granules, pendants, wires, etc. he question
that arises is: did they break naturally, were they there to be
melted, or were they intentionally broken to be ofered to
the gods and then spread onto the land?
In the area of one temple, we found many small factice
oferings of lead coins, thousands of them. his inding
conveys perhaps a similar phenomenon: instead of ofering
jewellery, ancient people sometimes preferred to ofer a large
amount of precious metal – but in small fragments.
sculpture has a gold blade inlay for the eyes and is overlaid
with extremely thin gold leaves on the body. he antique
surface was polished without any intentional engraving. It
seems that there was a resin or a drying oil between the
metal and the gold leaves. In seawater, an organic material
like resin can be well preserved. he analyses were performed to see if we could recognise what type of medium they
used to attach the gold leaves. his method has been attested in Egypt since the third millennium BC (Raub, 1993).
Unfortunately, the result was negative and we were not able
Case 3 – Very often, we see that Egyptian archaeological bronze sculptures have been gilded and we can observe
traces of gold or technological details employed in the gilding preparation.
A crown found in Heracleion, from a life-size statue, has
a roughened surface with a lot of cross hatchings made with
gravers or burins; however, we could not ind any trace of
gold on it. It is not rare in Egypt to ind bronze sculptures
overlaid with gold, using the technique of roughening by
stippling or chiselling the surface in order to facilitate the
adhesion of the gold leaf to the copper alloy (Oddy et al.,
1988). his strong and thick gilding requires diferent layers
of gold leaves to cover the cross hatching. In some cases, a
mineral preparation is carried out between the two metals
(Oddy, 1981). On the other hand, some objects are perfectly
polished and gilded, and in many cases we can still observe
the gold leaves. he ire gilding, using mercury-gold amalgam, was unknown prior to the Ptolemaic period (Ogden,
2000); other methods were used instead.
In the research laboratory of the Swiss National Museum,
we analysed a Mummiform Osiris found in Heracleion. his
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 383-387
Figure 3: Deposit of gold fragments.
Figure 3 : Dépôt de fragments d’or.
Observations and questions on gold artefacts from underwater excavations
to ind any organic component, only gold and products
from the corrosion of the bronze.
Can this be an indication that the gold leaves can stick
directly to the metal without any preparation, just with heat
and strongly burnished? As we know from literary sources,
this technique seems to have been attested in Egypt since the
second millennium BC (Oddy, 1982). However, specialists
do not agree on this subject (Ogden, 2000).
he ancient artists were able to cast a life-size sculpture
in bronze, to polish its surface, to chisel all the details,
and, after they spent a signiicant number of hours only to
scratch, to hatch and engrave the nice skin of the sculpture,
they would disigure it for the only purpose of having a
terribly roughened surface. his method, entailing creation
followed by destruction, must have had a higher purpose.
However, if they were able to simply apply the gold leaf
directly on the polished metal surface, with a very nice result
and while using less gold, being faster and requiring less
preparation, the question is why, in the same period, in the
same place, on the same bronze support, for the same object,
would they have used diferent methods for gilding? On
an object like an Osiris, they used two diferent types of
gold: one for gilding with very thin gold leaves, the other,
using thick gold blades, for inlaying the eyes. hus, we can
observe, on the same object, the use of gold blade and gold
leaves without resin, and a roughened surface, carried out
during the same period, at the same archaeological site, and
even in the same temple. hen, the question of why so many
diferent techniques were used remains open.
4. CONCLUSION
As archaeologists, we do not ind many gold objects on
our excavations; as restorers specialised in metal, we do not
have to perform many interventions on stable gold objects,
but, however, we come across many questions and there is
so much information to obtain from these small precious
objects.
Sometimes, as restorers, we enjoy the privilege of having
access to some technological details and useful information.
We spend so many hours working on and with the objects
that we come to know them very closely. For example, we
can observe gold traces in the corrosion products which will
disappear during the restoration treatment. However, if we
have this privilege, we also have the responsibility to describe
and to document our observations. Most of the time we do
our best, but we are not specialized in archaeological gold
objects and we sometimes overlook certain technological
knowledge pertaining to them. We lack reference articles
387
and one cannot help but notice that we are in need of a
more close collaboration with specialists and experts.
Acknowledgements
Hildebrand Erwin, Chemistry scientist, Swiss National
Museum. Hunger Katja, Chemistry scientist, Swiss National
Museum. Chartier-Raymond Maryvonne, Egyptologist. Samson
Guylaine, Translation. Soares-Woerle Marie, Head of the
research laboratory of the Swiss National Museum. WichgersDraganski Anka, Dr. in Archaeology.
References
HIGGINS, R.A., 1961. Greek and Roman Jewellery, London:
Methuen.
CLAUSS, M., 2006. Gold for the house of gods. Ptolemy III foundation plaque, in Franck Goddio, Manfred Clauss (eds.),
Egypt’s Sunken Treasures, Munich and London, Prestel, 140.
LICHOCKA, B., 2006. Cypriot hemistater, in Franck Goddio,
Manfred Clauss (eds.), Egypt’s Sunken Treasures, Munich and
London, Prestel, 351.
ODDY, W.A., 1981. Gilding through the Ages, Gold Bulletin 14: 75-79.
ODDY, W.A., 1982. Gold in Antiquity: aspects of gilding and of assaying, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, 5315 (130): 730-743.
ODDY, W.A., PEARCE, P. and GREEN, L., 1988. An unusual gilding technique on some Egyptian bronzes, in S.C. Watkins
and C.E. Brown (eds.), Conservation of Ancient Egyptian
Materials, Conference Proceedings, Bristol, 15-16 December
1988, London, United Kingdom Institute for Conservation,
Archaeology Section, 35-39.
OGDEN, J., 2000. Metals, in P.T. Nicholson, I. Shaw (eds.), Ancient
Egyptian Materials and Technology, Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 148-176.
PLINE L’ANCIEN, [1983]. Histoire naturelle, livre XXXIII,
chap. XIX, §61.
RAUB, C., 1993. How to coat objects with gold, in C. Eluère (ed.),
Outils et Ateliers d’Orfèvres des Temps anciens, Saint-Germainen-Laye, Antiquités Nationales, mémoire 2, 101-110.
STOLZ, Y., 2006. Styles in early byzantine gold jewellery and the
bead in the shape of an eye of hours or wedjat, in Franck
Goddio, Manfred Clauss (eds.), Egypt’s Sunken Treasures,
Munich and London, Prestel, 212 and 316.
TARDIEU, M., 2006. Wedding ring, in Franck Goddio, Manfred Clauss
(eds.), Egypt’s Sunken Treasures, Munich and London, Prestel, 300.
YOYOTTE, J., 2006. Herakles, a man of mighty deeds, forever
questing for proofs of his courage and Ptolemy III foundation plaque, in Franck Goddio, Manfred Clauss (eds.), Egypt’s
Sunken Treasures, Munich and London, Prestel, 72 and 140.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 383-387
Treasures of Portuguese archaeology
Notes towards a preventive conservation project
Trésors de l’Archéologie portugaise – notes pour un projet de conservation préventive
Isabel Tissot*, Matthias Tissot*, Pedro Pedroso* and Luís Raposo**
Abstract: he permanent exhibition “Treasures of Portuguese Archaeology” of the Portuguese National Archaeological Museum is composed
mainly of gold and silver artefacts which present extensive surface corrosion. he construction of the exhibition room dates from the late 1980s,
and it was conceived with the highest security standards in mind. However, at that time, the importance of the choice of compatible materials
and equipments for the exhibition of metal artefacts was still unknown, and the same was true for the inluence in terms of corrosion development, even for gold objects, if an inappropriate material was selected. Preventive conservation directives and actions have been developed since
then, and presently one is confronted with new paradigms for the exhibition and preservation of artefacts, and, moreover, of cultural heritage.
A preventive conservation project, which is currently in its initial stages, was set up with the objective of identifying and understanding the
pathologies observed, in order to correct the problems presented by the exhibition room. his article presents an overall view of the project, a
description of the alterations observed, and a summary of the methods proposed for obtaining responses to the respective problems, with the
purpose of correcting the room’s fragilities.
Resumé : L’exposition permanente « Les trésors de l’archéologie portugaise» du Musée National d’Archéologie est essentiellement composée de pièces en
or et en argent qui présentent une surface de corrosion étendue. La salle d’exposition date de la in des années 80 et a été conçue en respectant les normes
restreintes de sécurité. Néanmoins, à cette époque, l’importance du choix de matériaux de construction et d’exposition des objets en métal était encore
inconnue ainsi que l’inluence, si le choix est incorrect, que ces matériaux exercent sur le développement de mécanismes de corrosion, même dans le cas
d’objets en or. Nous avons assisté depuis à de nouveaux développements et directives concernant la conservation préventive et aujourd’hui nous sommes
confrontés aux nouveaux paradigmes concernant l’exposition et la préservation des objets de notre patrimoine culturel. Il a été mis en place un projet de
conservation préventive pour identiier et comprendre les pathologies observées, ain de corriger les problèmes de la salle d’exposition. L’article présente un
aperçu de l’ensemble du projet, la description des altérations observées et les méthodes proposées pour obtenir les réponses aux problèmes observés ain de
corriger ces erreurs.
Keywords: Ancient jewellery, gold and silver alloys alteration, preventive conservation, exhibition materials.
Mots-clés : orfèvrerie archaïque, alliages en or et en argent, conservation préventive, matériaux d’exposition.
1. INTRODUCTION
he Portuguese National Archaeological Museum (MNA)
possesses in its collections a remarkable number of ancient
jewellery objects, either originating from excavations, or,
more frequently, bought either from goldsmiths or the
people who found them. his collection, due to its representative quality, allows a general overview of the evolution of
this art in the present Portuguese territory, from the begin-
* Archeofactu – Rua do Cerrado das Oliveiras, nº14 2ºDto. 2610-035 Amadora, Portugal. (isabel.tissot@archeofactu.pt)
** Museu Nacional de Arqueologia – Praça do Império, 1400-206 Lisboa, Portugal. (mnarq.info@imc-ip.pt)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 389-392
390
nings of metallurgy until the Early Middle Ages (Parreira
and Vaz Pinto, 1980).
he collection is on display in the “Treasures of Portuguese
Archaeology” permanent exhibition, inaugurated in 1980.
he exhibition room was conceived and built according to
the highest security standards, relecting the value of the
collection, consisting mainly of gold artefacts (circa 700).
Even today, the concept of value is deeply associated with
the erroneous idea of the inalterability of gold artefacts;
however, most of them are composed of gold alloys, in
which the minor elements can corrode. Also, 20 years ago,
preventive conservation was still in its early development
stage; concerns related to the exhibition of objects and collections were focused on diferent issues, like security. he
choice of stable and compatible materials for showcases was
not a irst priority, because it was still largely unknown.
In contrast, today, museum professionals possess at least a
basic understanding of preventive conservation, even if, as a
new conservation ield, it is still evolving and searching for
models (Cassar, 2000). his evolution relects the interesting
paradigm pertaining to preventive conservation parameters
related to the exhibition of objects, and, in this particular
case, of gold objects.
Isabel TISSOT et al.
the 15th century and is located 250 m north of the Tagus
river and 8 km away from the river mouth.
In 1980, in the east gallery, the Treasury Room was built,
as a structure of aluminium, glass, wood, and wooden
shavings. he walls and the showcases were covered by tissues and carpeting on the loor. he room has air conditioning equipment that regulates only the temperature at
20 ºC, and the relative humidity (RH), varies during the
year between 40 and 80%, with an average value of 65%.
he exhibition still has a current context, notwithstanding
the fact that it presents a maladjusted and outdated aesthetic
(Fig. 2). In 2000, a small room renewal was performed, consisting of the replacement of the showcase fabrics and of the room
carpet, as they displayed colour alterations and deterioration. At
that time, no structural changes were considered, and no adequate material analytical study was carried out. Nevertheless,
some attention was given to the selection of materials, in an
attempt to make them compatible with the ones from the
objects themselves; more speciically, the application of fabric
composed of pure cotton was planned. During this change, a
conservation treatment of the artefacts was performed.
2. THE TREASURY ROOM – A SECURE ROOM
TO PROTECT A PRECIOUS COLLECTION
he National Archaeological Museum is situated at the
Virgin of Belém Monastery, generally known as Jerónimos
Monastery, in Lisbon, occupying an area of almost 200 m,
corresponding to the original dormitory of the monastery
(Fig. 1). he stone foundation of the monastery dates from
Figure 1: he Portuguese National Archaeological Museum.
Figure 1: Le musée ational d’Archéologie du Portugal.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 389-392
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Showcase from the exhibition
“Treasures of Portuguese Archaeology” of the Portuguese National
Archaeological Museum.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Les vitrines de l’exposition « Trésors
de l’archéologie Portugaise » du musée National d’Archéologie.
Treasures of Portuguese Archaeology. Notes towards a preventive conservation project
Only a few years later, a signiicant alteration of the surface of the metal objects could be seen (Fig. 3). he silver
alloy artefacts presented a tarnished surface with a variation between yellow, brown, violet, blue and black blue,
characteristic of silver sulphide, the main component of silver
atmospheric corrosion (Selwyn, 1990). he surface of some
of the gold alloy objects presented a rose coloration in some
areas, also with a multihued iridescent efect. Although representing, apparently, a random efect, the alteration tended
to appear to a more signiicant extent in areas of issures, in
surfaces that were in contact with the showcase fabrics, and
in the objects with a silver content in the range of 20%, based
on the spectrographic analyses presented in the studies carried out by Hartmann (1970; 1982), the only analytic studies
performed until today on the objects from the collection. he
alteration that was observed could be a result of the formation
of silver sulphide from the silver component in the alloys (Járó
and Tóth, 1997) and the sulphide source originating from the
materials of the showcases.
In order to understand the causes of this deterioration, a
simple corrosiveness test, an accelerated corrosion test, based
on the Oddy Tests (Hatchield, 2002; Tétreault, 1999) was
carried out in order to assess the efects of the materials from
the exhibition room on the artefacts. hese tests are merely
indicative of whether the materials can be deleterious to the
metals exposed.
he test consisted in placing the materials – tissue, wood,
wood shavings and carpet – in separate reaction vessels,
some containing pure silver, and others pure copper test
coupons (20 x 10 x 0.05 mm), maintained at 60 ºC with
100% RH over a 30 days period. At the end of this period,
the metal coupons were assessed for visual alterations; the
possible hazards are indicated by the severity of corrosion
on the test coupons.
From the results obtained, it is practically impossible to
distinguish the slight alterations in the copper test coupons,
indicating there was no severe corrosion. he silver coupons
showed no alteration when placed together with the carpet,
wood and wood shaving materials, but presented a severe
tarnishing in the coupon tested with the tissue. hese results
suggest that, although pure cotton tissue was considered an
acceptable material for the exhibition, there is a problem
with this material, which can be related to a dye or a fabric
surface treatment, further testing being necessary to clarify
this.
Notwithstanding the fact that the tissue was identiied
as one of the causes for the accelerated development of the
corrosion processes registered on the artefacts, the deicient
showcase system, which allows particle entrance and accumulation, should also be taken into consideration.
391
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Detail from a torc illustrating the corrosion of the surface.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Détail d’un torque illustrant la
corrosion sur la surface.
In light of these irst tests, and with the aim of extending
further the study of the Treasury Room, the MNA decided
to put together a project involving the study of the material,
not only in view of the conservation issues concerned, but
also of the collection as an assemble. his includes a detailed
study of the materials and equipment from the current exhibition room, and air quality analyses, allowing an assessment
of the characteristics of the materials as potential deterioration sources, through their correlation with the pathologies
observed. he aim is to apply the preventive conservation
guidelines for an exhibition site in order to guarantee the
conservation and appraisal of the collection. his project
will also consider the diagnosis of conservation conditions
and the treatment of the objects on display, c. 700, as well
as a further remodelling of the room, accompanied by the
development of a preventive conservation programme that
will follow the evolution of the objects in the remodelled
room in the future.
To this purpose, a team of specialists was assembled, where
the synergies of various disciplines, including archaeology,
preventive conservation, restoration and conservation,
chemistry and physics, can be efectively targeted in an interdisciplinary endeavour to achieve the goals of such a project
of preventive conservation.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 389-392
392
3. CONCLUSION
Today, the conception, organization, selection of materials
and showcases for cultural heritage exhibitions is a major
and complex issue which requires detailed study, although
some research guidelines already exist (Tétreault, 1994;
Hatchield, 2000), and experimental rules for standardizing procedures in collections conservation have started to
emerge (Borges de Sousa et al., 2007; Afnor, 2007).
hese new trends in conservation can be associated with
the most recent paradigms regarding preventive conservation parameters (Pereira, 2007), valuing the collection
beyond its material value, as a cultural identity. his is an
aspect which undoubtedly represents an inlection of the
concept of heritage, which establishes cultural heritage and
the assumption of preventive conservation as parts of the
concept of the sustainability of objects and collections.
he principal aim of sustainability is to achieve an acceptable quality of life for the population of the world, combined with the economic growth of communities, without
depleting or damaging the natural resources needed to sustain future generations. his concept can be applied to the
present global sense of preventive conservation and its relationship with cultural heritage (Cassar, 2000).
Presently, in order to enhance the value of the collection,
the MNA is planning a study aiming to identify, understand
and correct the fragilities of the Treasury Room, ensuring
the conservation of objects in the long term, and involving
the new paradigms of conservation following the statement:
‘Cultural heritage as a contributing factor to human development’.
References
ASSOCIATION FRANÇAISE DE NORMALISATION, 2007. Normes expérimentale AFNOR XP X80-002 décembre 2007: Conservation
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 389-392
Isabel TISSOT et al.
de biens culturels – Recommandations pour concevoir, aménager, choisir et utilise rune vitrine d’exposition des biens culturels.
Saint-Denis-la-Plaine, AFNOR.
BORGES DE SOUSA, C., AMARAL, J. and TISSOT, M., 2007. Plano de
Conservação Preventiva Bases orientadoras, normas e procedimentos. Lisboa, Instituto dos Museus e da Conservação.
CASSAR, M., 2000. Value of Preventive Conservation. European
Preventive Conservation Meeting. Vantaa, Institute of Art
and Design.
JARÓ, M. and TÓTH, A., 1997. Deterioration of metal threads
and other metallic decorations made of gold, silver, or gilt
silver on Museum textiles – problems of their conservation, in
Metal ’95: Proceedings of the International Conference on Metals
Conservation. London, James & James, 201-208.
HARTMANN, A., 1970. Prähistorische Goldfunde aus Europa. Studien
zu den A,fängen der Metallurgie 3:1. Berlin, Mann.
HARTMANN, A., 1982. Prähistorische Goldfunde aus Europa. Studien
zu den Anfängen der Metallurgie 3:2. Berlin, Mann.
HATCHFIELD, P., 2002. Pollutants in the Museum Environment:
Practical Strategies for Problem Solving in Design, Exhibition
and Storage. London, Archetype.
PARREIRA, R. and VAZ PINTO, C., 1980. Tesouro da Arqueologia
Portuguesa no Museu Nacional de Arqueologia e Etnologia.
Lisboa, Secretaria de Estado da Cultura, Instituto Português
do Património Cultural.
PEREIRA, H., 2007. Contemporary trends in conservation: culturalization, signiicance and sustainability. City & Time 3(2):
15-25.
SELWYN, L., 1990. Historical silver: storage, display and tarnish
removal. Journal of the International Institute for Conservation
– Canadian Group (IIC – GC) 15: 12-22.
TÉTREAULT, J., 1994. Display Materials: he Good, the Bad and
the Ugly. Edinburgh, Scottish Society for Conservation and
Restoration (SSCR) Exhibition and Conservation Preprint.
TÉTREAULT, J., 1999. Revêtements pour l’exposition et la mise en
réserve dans les musées. Bulletin Technique nº 21. Ottawa,
Institut Canadien de Conservation.
Ancient gold patinas: experimental reconstruction
Les patines anciennes de l’or : recréation expérimentale
Alessandro Pacini*
Abstract: he present study is based on the experimental reconstruction of samples of diferent carat gold foil, obtained by hand hammering,
and subsequently subjected to diferent physical-chemical treatments with the aim of reproducing ancient patinas. he treated samples were then
analysed by SEM-EDS in order to provide a valid comparison with the ancient goldsmiths’ techniques.
Résumé : Ce travail se base sur la recréation expérimentale d’échantillons de feuilles d’or réalisées par martelage à la main et dont la composition en
carats est variée. Ces feuilles sont ensuite soumises à divers traitements physico-chimiques pour reproduire des patines anciennes. Les échantillons subissant
ces traitements ont été analysés par MEB-EDS de façon à obtenir une comparaison valide avec les techniques orfèvres anciennes.
Keywords: Patina, gold patination, colouring, giallone, gilding
Mots-clés : patine, patine d’or, coloration, giallone, dorure.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the ield of the recognition of fakes in jewellery, the
laboratory An.te.a. deals with the typical patinas of archaeological jewellery. In general, such objects can be recognized
by four typical patinas:
Natural patinas due to the contact of the jewellery with
earth, water or air.
Non-intentional patinas from contact with substances
associated with the life of the jewellery (blood, perfume,
etc.).
Restoration patinas (due to the process of cleaning).
Artiicial patinas with the aim of forgery.
he major part of jewellery patinas are caused by liquation and alteration of the copper and silver contained in the
alloy and/or supericial deposits of corrosive products, soil,
or decomposed organic material. Rarely, in particular conditions related to the position in which the object is deposited,
alterations to the gold itself can also be veriied, caused by
the formation of gold cyanide or complex compounds with
chlorine, (Grimwade, 1999; Mazzeo, 2005) which result in
an orangey-brown patina. he colours and efects of ancient
jewellery patinas have always been the subject of imitation
on the part of the jewellers who, in various eras, have tried to
reproduce archaeological jewellery. In order to better identify
these artiicial patinas, we carried out a reproduction of patination via chemical processes on some gold samples, based on
old laboratory recipes. he results were then submitted to an
SEM-EDS analysis by Daniela Ferro at the Institute for the
Study of Nanostructured Materials (CNR-ISMN) in Rome.
2. EXPERIMENTATION
he samples were made up of sheets 1 cm wide and 0.1
mm thick, obtained by hammering (M) and by a rolling
mill (L). hree types of alloys similar to the ancient ones
* An.te.a. – Laboratory of archaeometry and experimental archaeology. (ale.pacini@gmail.com)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 393-396
394
have been used: Alloy A = Au 95%, Ag 4%, Cu 1% ; Alloy
B = Au 93%, Ag 5%, Cu 2%; Alloy C = Au 90%, Ag 7%,
Cu 3%. he samples are classiied by: letter of the alloy (A,
B or C), type of work (M or L), and identiication number
(1, 2 or 3).
Some gold samples have been buried for 30 days at 16 °C
in soil rich in organic substances, moistened with water,
ammonia and blood, and submitted every seven days to a
heat of 100 °C for an hour. At the end of the 30 days period,
only one sample presented a supericial change with small
red spots, and part of the surfaces had a dark yellow colour.
A very intense colouring of the surface of sample CM2 was
caused by pickling in a boiling solution of iron sulphate,
ammonium chloride, sodium thiosulphate and potassium
bitartrate in distilled water. he sample was subsequently
heated over a lame, resulting in a toning down of the
bright colours (Fig. 1). Sample AM1 was painted with a red
iron oxide suspension in distilled water, lightly heated over
a lame, and then cooled in water (Fig. 2). Sample BM3
was painted with an iron sulphate suspension in distilled
water, heated to red by a lame and cooled in water, and
then brushed (Fig. 3).
Colouring is a process that can be performed on jewellery
items with the purpose of forgery, by pickling, which dissolves the less precious metals on the surface of the jewellery,
leaving a few microns of thickness of pure gold. Classical
Alessandro PACINI
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Sample AM1.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Échantillon AM1.
Figure 3: (See colour plate) Sample BM3.
Figure 3 : (Voir planche couleur) Échantillon BM3.
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Sample CM2.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Échantillon CM2.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 393-396
pickling is carried out with a watery solution of sodium
chloride, potassium nitrate and alum, but there are also very
ancient recipes (for example No. 67 of the Leiden Papyrus –
Cafaro and Falanga, 2004) for colouring jewellery. Sample
BL1 was immersed for a few seconds in a solution of boiling
water, hydrochloric acid, saltpetre and sodium chloride, in
order to obtain the typical opaque surface and light corrosion associated with antique jewellery.
Around the middle of the 19th century, the archaeological
jewellery of Castellani was coloured by using chemical baths
Ancient gold patinas: experimental reconstruction
to obtain the famous “giallone” of Etruscan gold (Castellani,
1827: 161-164), also employed in this case as a treatment
to enrich the surface with a chemical gilding. he colouring
was caused by dissolving the metal alloys on surfaces, or it
could also be carried out (better on low carat gold, as in the
case of tumbaga) by boiling the article in an acid vegetable
juice, such as that of the plant Rumex acetosa, or in a solution of salt and vinegar. he colourings, in archaeological
fakes, serve above all to uniform the colour of the surface,
hiding the eventual brazing made with alloys richer in silver,
and thus the resulting lighter colour.
he soil deposits often present in antique jewellery are
imitated by using a very ine clay mixed with resin or vegetable paste, easily recognizable by the uniform distribution
on the precious piece and its light consistency.
3. RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS
ON SAMPLES AM1 AND BM3
AM1
395
Figure 5: X-ray EDS spectrum of sample AM1.
Figure 5 : Spectre de rayons X par EDS de l’échantillon AM1.
elements are the ochre components and the other products
used in the experimental procedure.
A part of the qualitative spectrum highlights the iron peak,
while the other elements of ochre are a little more higher than
the background; this observation could allow us to put forth
the hypothesis of the formation of the ferric oxide as being
responsible for the rose colouring of the patina (Fig. 5).
he surface observed by SEM using backscattered electrons highlights a structure with well formed crystal grains
with a darker inter-granulated area. he subsequent EDS
microanalysis carried out on the areas indicated in the illustration (Fig. 4) revealed the values of the elements reported
in Table 1. In area No. 1, the composition corresponds to
the initial alloy, while in the inter-granulated area there is
evidence of a decrease of silver and copper, and of the simultaneous formation of ferrous composites. he other minor
he supericial morphology highlights a rough aspect, almost
spongy, with some formation of crystals. he EDS analysis on
the area indicates a square igure, elaborate in respect of the
single elements of the golden alloy, revealing an impoverishment only of the silver, probably due to the formation of the
silver sulphide then taken from the surfaces (Fig. 6).
Figure 4: EDS microanalysis of sample AM1.
Figure 4 : Micro-analyse EDS de l’échantillon A1.
Figure 6: EDS microanalysis of sample BM3.
Figure 6 : Micro-analyse EDS de l’échantillon BM3.
BM3
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 393-396
Alessandro PACINI
396
Area
C
O
Na
Mg
Al
Si
K
Ca
Fe
Cu
0.54
3.50
95.95
2
30.11
11.18
0.08
0.19
0.21
0.5
0.18
0.78
0.31
0.54
1.88
53.90
3
40.79
13.13
0.21
0.19
0.48
1.5
0.29
1.81
0.39
0.43
1.26
39.05
4
8.75
23.21
0.18
1.01
1.15
2.64
0.15
0.28
0.95
0.49
2.14
58.23
1
Ag
Au
Table 1: Composition of sample AM1; concentrations are given in wt%.
Tableau 1 : Composition de l’échantillon AM1 ; concentrations en %.
Spectrum
C
N
2.73
O
Na
Cl
K
Fe
Cu
Ag
Au
1
7.84
2.91
0.63
1.51
2.97
81.40
2
15.36
13.35
4.58
1.76
2.63
62.33
3
29.13
10.13
1.69
0.87
2.04
54.34
4
15.20
11.03
3.18
1.69
2.27
66.33
5
9.42
6.84
1.74
1.75
2.61
77.64
6
8.88
11.27
3.08
1.47
2.58
69.54
3.18
0.5
0.77
0.53
0.3
Table 2: Composition of sample BM3; concentrations are given in wt%.
Tableau 2 : Composition de l’échantillon BM3 ; concentrations en %.
Table 2 presents the composition (in terms of weight percent) of all the elements present, showing the presence of
iron in noticeable quantity, and thus attesting the formation
of a red colour ferric product (oxide).
4. CONCLUSION
he processes efected on the two samples analysed produced a red colour similar to that of the natural patina, but
which is however diferent, due to the lack of signiicant
alterations to the golden alloy underneath the iron oxide.
his type of artiicial patinas can therefore be revealed by
analytical methods.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 393-396
References
CASTELLANI, A., 1827. Sul pulimento dell’oro. Antologia, giornale
di scienze, lettere e arti XXV: 161-164.
CAFFARO, A. and FALANGA, G., 2004. Il papiro di Leida: un documento di tecnica artistica e artigianale dell’IV secolo d.C. Salerno,
Arci ed., Postiglione.
GRIMWADE, M., 1999. Arricchimento supericiale delle leghe d’oro
per gioielleria. Gold technology 26: 16-23.
MAZZEO, R., 2005. Patine su manufatti metallici, in Le patine:
genesi, significato e conservazione. Nardini ed., Firenze,
Kermesquaderni, 29-43.
L’illusion de l’or
Imitation de dorures dans les peintures
murales médiévales
he illusion of gold
Imitation of gilding in mediaeval mural paintings
Aurélie Mounier*, Floréal Daniel* et Françoise Bechtel*
Résumé : Au Moyen Âge, les métaux et en particulier l’or, associés dans les peintures murales à certaines couleurs, outre leur rôle iconographique
et esthétique, sont porteurs d’une forte charge symbolique en fonction de leur localisation dans l’image. Or, les études récentes de vestiges de
dorures dans les peintures murales des édiices religieux ont montré que des feuilles d’étain, à la place d’or, sont identiiées sur la plupart des sites.
Une couche de vernis sur la surface de l’étain permettait de lui donner un aspect doré et cette « fausse dorure » était connue de tous les ateliers.
Ces techniques sont décrites dans les traités anciens (héophile, xiie siècle ; Cennini, xive siècle ; Denys, xie siècle).
La grande diiculté aujourd’hui est de détecter la présence de ces dorures qui ont disparu lorsque les conditions de conservation ont été défavorables. Grâce à la luorescence des liants, l’examen sous lumière UV permet de retrouver les zones originellement dorées.
Des dorures sur les peintures murales de la chapelle de l’ancien logis abbatial de Moissac (xiie siècle), de l’église de Nogaro (xie siècle) et de la
cathédrale de Cahors (xiiie siècle) ont été découvertes (Mounier et al., 2008). L’analyse des prélèvements (stratigraphies, analyses élémentaires
par MEB/EDS, des pigments par spectrométrie Raman et les liants par IRTF) réalisés dans ces vestiges de dorure informe sur la technique et les
types de métaux utilisés.
Pour les historiens d’art, c’est toute une partie de l’interprétation iconographique qui peut être précisée puisque l’application d’une dorure est
l’indice d’une hiérarchisation des personnages et/ou d’une volonté de valoriser certains éléments de l’image. Par ailleurs, élargi à l’organisation de
l’atelier et la société, l’emploi d’une « fausse dorure » s’explique par des raisons économiques ; autant de facteurs déterminants qui doivent être
pris en considération.
Abstract: In the Middle Ages, metals, and gold in particular, associated in wall paintings with certain pigments and colours, in addition to their iconographic and aesthetic function, also had a strong symbolic meaning related to their localization in the image. Recent studies of traces of mediaeval gildings
still present in mural paintings have shown that tin leaves, instead of gold, can be identiied in most of the sites. A varnish layer allowed giving them a
gold aspect. he use of this ‘false gilding’ was common and well-known by workshops. he techniques pertaining to it are described in ancient treatises.
Today, the main issue at stake is to detect traces of gildings which have disappeared when conservation conditions were unfavourable. Examination under
UV light allows detection of the originally gilded areas. he gildings in the mural paintings of the chapel in the ancient abbey home of Moissac (12th century
AD), the paintings in Nogaro Church (11th century), and on the Cahors Cathedral (13th century) have been discovered according to this procedure. he
analyses of samples collected from these gildings provide valuable information about the techniques and the types of metals used. he analyses of microsamples (stratigraphy, SEM/EDXS, Raman spectrometry for the analysis of pigments and FTIR for the binders) show that a gilding or ‘false gilding’, no
longer visible today, was often originally applied.
For art historians, this allows clarifying part of the iconographic interpretation, as the application of gilding provides information about the hierarchy of
the characters and/or the desire to emphasize certain elements of the representation. Moreover, from the point of view of workshop organization, the use
of ‘false gilding’ can be related to economic considerations (or supplying facilities).
* Institut de Recherche sur les Archéomatériaux (IRAMAT – CRPAA, UMR 5060), Université Bordeaux – CNRS. (fdaniel@u-bordeaux3.fr), (bechtel@ubordeaux3.fr), (mounieraurelie33@yahoo.fr)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 397-403
398
Aurélie MOUNIER, Floréal DANIEL, Françoise BECHTEL
Mots-clés : Argent, dorures, étain, fausse dorure, fausse dorure, dorure, or, argent, étain.
Keywords: False gildings, gildings, gold, silver, tin.
1. INTRODUCTION
« Illusion : Sens abusés par les apparences. »
La réalisation de cette illusion afective qui pousse à représenter matériellement ce qui paradoxalement ne peut être
vu (monde irréel, Dieu…) constitue la gageure que s’imposent les concepteurs d’images à l’époque médiévale. Une
des constantes est le recours à l’or (comme, par exemple,
les fonds dorés des icônes). Chargé symboliquement en raison de son coût, de son inaltérabilité, de sa brillance, l’or
est choisi pour souligner un attribut symbolique, religieux
ou profane (auréole, glaive, leur de lys…). Il faut considérer également l’illusion perceptive guidée par la volonté,
quelles qu’en soient les raisons (économiques ou de conservation), de tromper, en substituant à l’or d’autres métaux
moins nobles qu’on recouvrait d’un vernis pour lui donner
l’apparence du métal le plus précieux. C’est à cette double
illusion que nous sommes confrontés lorsqu’il s’agit d’interpréter les dorures, vraies ou fausses, détectées dans les
peintures murales médiévales. Toutefois, le premier obstacle
à surmonter pour l’étude de ces éléments de décor métalliques est la détection des traces de dorure subsistant dans les
peintures murales. Cette question est résolue par l’examen
sous ultraviolets et l’analyse de micro-prélèvements permettant respectivement de localiser et de caractériser ces décors
métalliques en vue d’une restitution de l’image originelle.
Pour l’interprétation de ces vestiges de dorures, une aide est
fournie par les sources écrites et les études de cas relevés dans
la bibliographie. La technique de la dorure est connue et a
été décrite dans de nombreux traités de l’Antiquité. Pour
le Moyen Âge, on retient ceux du moine Denys de Fourna
(xie siècle), du moine héophile (xiie siècle) et de Cennino
Cennini (xive siècle). De l’étude de cette documentation, il
résulte que deux principales techniques ont été utilisées : à la
détrempe et à la mixtion. Dans le premier cas, le pigment est
mêlé à un liant organique de type colle ou gomme arabique
et permet de faire adhérer la feuille métallique qui peut être
de l’or, de l’argent, de l’étain. Dans le second cas, l’emploi
d’un mordant est nécessaire. Souvent, on emploie l’huile
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 397-403
de lin qui doit être associée à un siccatif comme la litharge
(PbO), ain de coller la feuille de métal. Ces deux techniques difèrent donc principalement par le liant organique
employé qui, en général, est identiiable in situ par sa luorescence sous éclairage UV. Une étude précédente (Mounier
et al., 2009) avait montré que les caractéristiques de la luorescence dépendent du liant employé et que l’observation
sous UV est un bon moyen de détecter les éventuelles traces
de dorures encore conservées.
Dans l’étude présentée ici, la problématique générale
consiste à montrer l’importance de la dorure au Moyen Âge
dans les peintures murales, et à travers quelques exemples,
d’en retrouver leur technique d’application et d’étudier
le lien avec la symbolique et l’iconographie. Nous nous
sommes limités géographiquement à l’Aquitaine historique 1
sur une période allant du xie au xve siècle. Les recherches
bibliographiques et l’analyse de divers sites nous ont permis
de dresser un inventaire qui montre que les dorures, vraies
ou fausses, sont assez présentes et leur technique très diversiiée. Bien que certains articles d’histoire de l’art et des récits
de voyageurs témoignent de la présence de dorures dans les
peintures murales, il convient de rester prudent à leur lecture, car bien souvent, le terme de dorure est employé pour
décrire des auréoles peintes à l’ocre jaune. Enin, d’autres
sites ont été étudiés et analysés par nous-mêmes et diférents
types de dorures ont été identiiés. Certains ne présentent
que de la dorure à l’or, à l’argent ou à l’étain, d’autres combinent deux ou trois types.
2. MÉTHODOLOGIE
Échantillons
Vingt-huit micro-prélèvements (<1mm) ont été réalisés dans diférents sites : les peintures de l’absidiole sud
de l’église de Nogaro ; celles de la voûte en berceau plein
cintre de la chapelle de l’ancien logis des abbés de Moissac ;
1. Région dont le territoire était compris entre la Garonne, les Pyrénées
et l’océan Atlantique.
399
L’illusion de l’or. Imitation de dorures dans les peintures murales médiévales
un bloc polychrome et doré provenant de l’ancien couvent
des Cordeliers d’Oloron Sainte-Marie ; les décors de la
façade de la cathédrale Saint-Étienne de Cahors ; les peintures funéraires de la chapelle Sainte-Anne de la cathédrale
Saint-André de Bordeaux ; l’ensemble peint de l’église SaintSauveur de Saint-Macaire (Tableau 1). Ils ont été réalisés
en collaboration avec les restaurateurs 2 dans les zones qui
présentaient une luorescence sous éclairage UV.
Méthodes physico-chimiques
Les analyses élémentaires ont été réalisées par microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB, Jeol JSM-6460LV). Cet
appareil, qui permet d’obtenir des images en électrons secondaires (contraste topographique) et en électrons rétrodifusés
(contraste chimique), est doté d’un analyseur de rayons X
à dispersion d’énergie (EDS) permettant l’étude de la composition élémentaire des échantillons. Ce système est associé
à un logiciel de microanalyse (Oxford INCA 300) permettant l’acquisition et le traitement des spectres. Les prélèvements ont été soit directement déposés sur des pastilles de
carbone, soit enrobés dans une résine (Sody 33), découpés
transversalement et polis pour l’étude de la succession de
couches de mortier, de pigments et de la feuille métallique.
Site
La possibilité de travailler en pression partielle (15 Pa et 20
Pa) a permis d’éviter la métallisation des échantillons et de
pouvoir les réutiliser pour des analyses ultérieures.
Le spectromètre Raman est un appareil Renishaw
RM2000, avec un laser rouge (633 nm) ou vert (535 nm).
Une caméra CCD permet la visualisation de l’échantillon
en lumière naturelle sur un écran d’ordinateur et le logiciel
informatique GRAMS permet de traiter les spectres. Les
spectres obtenus ont été comparés à ceux de bases de données publiées (Bell et al., 1997).
3. RÉSULTATS
L’examen et l’analyse des échantillons montrent la diversité des types de dorures qu’il est possible de rencontrer : à
l’or, à l’argent, à l’étain pour donner un efet doré ou argenté
(utilisé comme support pour un autre métal ou destiné à être
recouvert de vernis).
La dorure à la feuille d’or
Les exemples de dorure à l’or sont nombreux et se multiplient jusqu’à l’époque Baroque. Par la suite, le lien avec la
Nombre de
prélèvements
Localisation des peintures
Zone des prélèvements
Nogaro (xiie, Gers)
Cul-de-four de l’absidiole sud,
Christ en Majesté
2
Manteau du Christ
Etoile
Moissac (xiie, Tarn-etGaronne)
Voûte en berceau plein cintre,
Christ en Majesté
2
Auréole du Christ
Auréole d’un symbole Évangéliste
Cahors (xiii , Lot)
Portail de la façade occidentale,
sous le linteau XVIIe dégagé
8
Auréoles
Instruments de musique
Fleurs de lys
Fleurettes
Oloron Sainte-Marie (xive,
Pyrénées-Atlantiques)
Bloc conservé au SRA,
DRAC de Bordeaux
8
Voile Vierge
Architecture
Frise
Bordeaux (xiv , Gironde)
Chapelle Sainte-Anne,
peintures funéraires d’Arnaud de Puylehaut et de
Pons de Pommiers
7
Rayons du soleil
Bouton de rose
Couronne et auréole de la Vierge
Étoiles
Saint-Macaire (xive,
Gironde)
Cul-de-four de l’abside centrale,
scène de l’Apocalypse
1
Glaive
e
e
Tableau 1 : Échantillonnage de dorures dans les peintures murales de divers sites du grand Sud-Ouest du xiie au xive siècle. Au total, 28
microprélèvements ont été réalisés ain d’identiier les matériaux et les techniques d’application.
Table 1: Sampling of gildings in the murals of diverse sites in the South West of France. 28 microsamples were taken to identify materials and
techniques.
2. Jean-Marc Stoufs à Moissac et Cahors, Didier Legrand à Nogaro,
Rosalie Godin à Saint-Macaire.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 397-403
400
symbolique de la représentation se distend. L’or sera utilisé
de façon plus systématique, même dans des zones secondaires et à des ins simplement décoratives. Dans notre
échantillonnage, la dorure à l’or est la technique la plus
représentée. Un premier exemple illustre cette technique de
dorure : il s’agit des peintures murales funéraires d’Arnaud
de Puylehaut (xive siècle), conservées à la cathédrale SaintAndré de Bordeaux. Dans le registre supérieur, Dieu dans
sa gloire, est représenté sous la forme d’un soleil (Fig. 1 et
2). L’extrémité des rayons les plus courts se termine par un
bouton de rose doré (Gaborit, 1997).
Les analyses par spectrométrie de rayons X couplée au MEB
et à la spectrométrie Raman nous ont permis d’identiier les
matériaux de ces dorures. Sur la pierre est appliquée une
couche colorée rouge orangée, un mélange de calcite, d’ocre
rouge et d’un peu de cinabre. Par-dessus, une ine couche
contenant du plomb certainement mêlée à un liant organique
sert de couche adhésive à la feuille métallique. L’or est localisé
sur le registre supérieur des peintures, sur la scène représentant
Dieu, là où la symbolique est la plus forte.
De la dorure à la feuille d’or est également présente sur
les peintures murales du cul-de-four de l’absidiole sud de
Figures 1 et 2 : (Voir planche couleur) À gauche : représentation
du soleil dans le registre supérieur des peintures murales funéraires
d’Arnaud de Puylehaut (chapelle Sainte-Anne de la cathédrale
Saint-André de Bordeaux). À droite : détail d’un bouton de rose
peint à l’extrémité des rayons les plus courts du soleil. (Clichés :
A. Mounier).
Figures 1 and 2: (See colour plate) On the left: representation of the
sun in the upper register of the funerary wall paintings of Arnaud de
Puylehaut (Saint-Anne’s chapel in the cathedral of Saint-André in
Bordeaux). On the right: detail of a rosebud painted on the extremities
of the shorter sunbeams (Photos: A. Mounier).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 397-403
Aurélie MOUNIER, Floréal DANIEL, Françoise BECHTEL
l’église de Nogaro datées du xie siècle. La scène représentée est un Christ en Majesté, entouré du Tétramorphe. La
dorure est localisée sur le manteau du Christ. Les analyses
ont permis de montrer que la stratigraphie est composée de
cinq couches : un support de calcite et silice, une couche
rouge mêlant du cinabre à de l’ocre rouge (par mesure d’économie, on peut le supposer), une couche d’oxyde de plomb
sous la couche de mixtion plus ine d’ocre rouge et de blanc
de plomb ain de faire adhérer la feuille d’or.
Il est intéressant de noter que, dans les deux cas, le pigment le plus onéreux, le cinabre, est associé à l’or.
Un dernier exemple illustrant cette technique est le bloc
retrouvé lors des fouilles de l’ancien couvent des Cordeliers
d’Oloron-Sainte-Marie, aujourd’hui conservé au Service
Régional d’Archéologie de la DRAC Aquitaine. Il s’agirait
d’un vestige d’un ensemble funéraire du xive siècle. La scène
représentée est une Vierge au voile doré, tenant un cierge.
Elle se tient sous un élément d’architecture. Les quatre faces
du bloc sont peintes et dorées (Gaborit, 2002). La stratigraphie d’un prélèvement efectué sur la face principale montre
les couches successives suivantes : sur le support de pierre,
une couche de calcite et de minium puis une ine couche de
L’illusion de l’or. Imitation de dorures dans les peintures murales médiévales
401
Figures 3 et 4 : (Voir planche couleur) Stratigraphie de l’échantillon prélevé au revers du bloc polychrome provenant d’Oloron SainteMarie (BDX 12999). À gauche : en lumière naturelle (microscope polarisant, x200). À droite : image au MEB (20 kV, mode électrons
rétrodifusés, x120, pression partielle : 20Pa). Les trois couches ont été identiiées par MEB/EDS et spectrométrie Raman. De bas en
haut : 1- support blanc composé de calcite ; 2- couche d’ocre jaune (goethite) ; 3- feuille d’or.
Figures 3 and 4: (See colour plate) Stratigraphy of the sample collected from the obverse of the polychrome block from Oloron Sainte-Marie
(BDX 12999). On the left: viewed under natural light (polarising microscope, 200x). On the right: SEM image (20 kV, BSE mode, 120x, low
vacuum: 20Pa). he three layers were identiied by SEM/EDX and Raman spectroscopy. From the bottom: 1- white support composed of calcite;
2- layer of yellow ochre (goethite); 3- gold foil.
calcite, une couche d’ocre rouge sur laquelle est appliquée la
feuille d’or. Sur la frise, du côté droit du bloc, la feuille d’or
est appliquée sur une couche constituée de cinabre mêlé à
la calcite déposé sur un support de calcite et d’ocre rouge
Fig. 3 et 4). Sur des échantillons prélevés à d’autres endroits,
la couche colorée est un mélange de minium, cinabre et
hématite.
La dorure est volontairement associée à des pigments
onéreux comme le cinabre ou le lapis-lazuli, pigment bleu
identiié sur la face principale. Toutefois ces pigments sont
souvent mélangés à d’autres matériaux plus communs
comme les ocres ou comme du noir de carbone sous la couche bleue, ain d’économiser les pigments comme l’azurite
ou le lapis-lazuli.
La dorure à la feuille d’argent
Sur les peintures funéraires de la chapelle Sainte-Anne à
la cathédrale Saint-André de Bordeaux, des feuilles d’argent
noircies, très altérées ont été identiiées à divers endroits
sur les rayons du soleil (Daniel et Mounier, 2010). L’argent
est appliqué sur une mixtion rouge orangée composée de
minium et d’ocre rouge. Sous cette couche, se trouve une
autre constituée de calcite et d’ocre sur un support de calcite. L’espace entre les rayons du soleil est garni de petits
anges qui présentent le même aspect noirci sur les ailes et les
auréoles. Celles-ci étaient probablement dorées. Si on considère le thème iconographique, le soleil représentant Dieu,
l’argent était certainement à l’origine recouvert d’un vernis
jaune pour donner une illusion dorée.
Sur ces mêmes peintures, dans le registre inférieur, la couronne et l’auréole d’une Vierge à l’enfant sont « dorées » à
la feuille d’argent. Celle-ci est appliquée sur une couche de
minium et d’ocre rouge.
En règle générale, par souci de réalisme, les auréoles et
couronnes sont dorées. L’argent a pu être verni pour donner
l’aspect de l’or mais a pu également être utilisé pour sa propre couleur. Le choix des métaux est déini en fonction de
la hiérarchisation des scènes. On préfère l’or dans le registre
supérieur illustrant Dieu, et l’argent pour la zone médiane,
où la symbolique est moins forte.
Un dernier exemple est donné avec les peintures murales
de l’église Saint-Sauveur de Saint-Macaire (xive siècle). Elles
sont localisées sur le cul-de-four de l’abside centrale. Ici,
l’argent a été employé par souci de réalisme puisqu’il est
localisé sur le glaive tenu dans la bouche de Dieu. La feuille
d’argent a été appliquée sur une couche orangée composée
d’ocre rouge et de blanc de plomb, sur une couche de calcite
et de blanc de plomb.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 397-403
402
Aurélie MOUNIER, Floréal DANIEL, Françoise BECHTEL
La dorure à la feuille d’étain
L’étain en tant que support
pour un autre métal ou destiné à être verni
Dans l’église Saint-Nicolas de Nogaro, l’étain a été utilisé, selon une technique décrite dans les textes anciens, en
sous-couche à la feuille d’or. Il a été employé pour réaliser
les petites étoiles qui parsèment le fond de la mandorle du
Christ. Sur un support à fresque, deux couches colorées ont
été appliquées (de l’ocre rouge et de l’azurite qui correspond
au bleu du fond de la mandorle). Ensuite, une couche de
mixtion est constituée d’oxyde de plomb et un liant organique identiié comme étant de l’huile de lin (Mounier et al.,
2008). Enin, la feuille d’étain, assez épaisse, sert de base à
la feuille d’or beaucoup plus ine. Cette technique est principalement utilisée en raison de l’état de surface irrégulier
de la peinture qui ne facilite pas l’application d’une feuille
métallique trop mince. L’utilisation de l’étain permet également de donner du relief et d’économiser l’or.
Parfois, l’étain a pu être employé en substitut à l’or. Les
traités anciens décrivent cette pratique. On parle alors de
« fausse dorure ».
À Moissac, par exemple, de la dorure à la feuille d’étain
a été trouvée sur les auréoles du Christ et des évangélistes. Leur localisation sur des personnages importants laisse
penser qu’à l’origine, ces dorures à l’étain étaient dorées à
l’aide d’un vernis jaune appliqué sur le métal. De nombreuses recettes de ce « vernis » appelé auripetrum sont données. Il s’agit généralement d’un mélange de cire, huile de
lin, pigments tels que le sang-dragon ou le safran conférant
au métal un aspect doré (héophile, xiie siècle ; Cennini,
xive siècle ; Denys xie siècle).
Sur le portail de la façade de la cathédrale de Cahors, des
dorures ont été découvertes sur des leurettes et des leurs
de lys peintes au xiiie siècle, bien conservées grâce à un linteau qui les avait recouvertes au xviie siècle. Les leurs de lys
sont constituées d’une feuille d’étain collée sur une couche
d’azurite, puis une couche de blanc de plomb et calcite et
enin le support de pierre (Fig. 5).
La leur de lys est un symbole royal. On la trouve plus
souvent dorée à l’or. Dans le cas des leurettes du portail,
l’étain est utilisé soit en substitut à l’or ou, si l’efet recherché est argenté, l’étain a pu être choisi pour ses qualités de
conservation supérieures à celles de l’argent.
L’étain comme substitut à l’argent
L’analyse de prélèvements efectués sur des leurettes hexalobes rouges décorant le portail occidental de la cathédrale
de Cahors, a permis de montrer que la stratigraphie corresArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 397-403
Figure 5 : Image au MEB (électrons rétrodifusés) de la stratigraphie de l’échantillon prélevé dans une leur de lys ornant le portail
de la cathédrale de Cahors. 1- feuille d’étain (40 µm) ; 2- ine
couche d’azurite ; 3- couche de blanc de plomb (grains clairs) et
de calcite et couche préparatoire. Les deux dernières ne sont pas
clairement délimitées.
Figure 5: Image under the SEM (BSE) of the sample collected from
the leur-de-lis decorating the gate of the Cahors Cathedral. 1- tin
foil (40 µm); 2- thin layer of azurite; 3- layer of white lead (light
grains) and of calcite and preparation layer. he latter two are not
clearly delimited.
pond à la technique de la dorure. Sur la couche préparatoire,
une couche de blanc de plomb et de calcite a été appliquée
sous la couche colorée rouge composée de cinabre ain de
faire adhérer une feuille d’étain. Nous pensons ici que l’efet
escompté était de rendre ces leurettes argentées.
Il s’agissait, à travers ces quelques exemples, de montrer
d’une part la diversité des types de dorures et d’autre part
que le choix de type de métal est orienté par des raisons symboliques, économiques ou par souci de réalisme. Les dorures
sont souvent associées à des pigments onéreux et l’on constate
une hiérarchisation des matériaux (pigments, feuilles métalliques). L’examen des peintures murales de la chapelle de
l’ancien logis abbatial de Moissac montre que l’organisation
et la répartition des matériaux est réléchie. Le lapis-lazuli, le
cinabre et les dorures sont localisés sur le Christ ; l’azurite sur
la Vierge et l’aérinite (un pigment bleu bon marché) (Daniel
et al., 2008) sur le fond des scènes. La dorure est associée à des
pigments chers sur des zones où la symbolique est forte, sur
des personnages que l’on veut mettre en valeur.
L’illusion de l’or. Imitation de dorures dans les peintures murales médiévales
4. INFORMATIONS TECHNIQUES
COMPLÉMENTAIRES
Les caractéristiques techniques de ces diférentes dorures
méritent également d’être considérées. L’épaisseur des couches
métalliques varie entre 1 à 3 µm pour la feuille d’or ; entre
40 et 60 µm pour les feuilles d’étain et de 2 à 10 µm pour
les feuilles d’argent. Bien qu’il faille tenir compte du degré
d’usure de la feuille après plusieurs siècles, l’épaisseur est assez
homogène et plus ou moins identique d’un site à l’autre.
La technique la plus représentée est la technique à la
mixtion. Le liant, de nature lipidique, a été identiié par
infrarouge à transformée de Fourier comme pouvant correspondre à de l’huile de lin. L’huile est dans tous les cas
associée au plomb pour son pouvoir siccatif, sous forme de
pigment (minium, blanc de plomb…).
5. CONCLUSION
Cette étude montre qu’à l’époque médiévale les dorures
étaient certainement beaucoup plus présentes qu’on ne le
pense sur les peintures murales. La combinaison de l’examen sous ultraviolets et de l’analyse permet l’identiication
des matériaux et des techniques de la dorure et montre leur
grande variété. Les résultats obtenus sont en accord avec
la description des techniques de dorures dans les traités de
recettes anciennes. Trois métaux sont employés : l’or, l’argent
et l’étain le plus souvent, selon la technique de la mixtion,
moins sensible à l’environnement, à l’humidité, surtout
quand ces décors sont en extérieur.
La compréhension des techniques, du choix des matériaux
et dorures en fonction des thèmes iconographiques constitue une aide précieuse aux historiens d’art. Elle permet de
comprendre la valeur symbolique et l’importance relative de
certains personnages ou décors.
Néanmoins, au-delà de l’étude des matériaux et techniques et de l’iconographie, il manque des informations essentielles d’ordre historique pour comprendre le choix de ces
matériaux : les ressources économiques du commanditaire,
le savoir-faire technique, la disponibilité des matériaux précieux qui sont en dehors du champ purement technique ou
de l’image. La présence d’un vernis, l’auripetrum, donnant
un aspect doré aux feuilles d’argent ou d’étain n’a pas été
identiié sur ces sites mais il serait intéressant de poursuivre
les recherches et la caractérisation des vernis qui vraisemblablement couvraient les « fausses » dorures.
403
Remerciements
Cette étude a été rendue possible grâce au soutien de la région
Aquitaine et aux conservateurs de la DRAC Aquitaine qui nous
autorisent à efectuer les micro-prélèvements sur sites et aux restaurateurs, pour leur expérience de terrain.
Bibliographie
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AD), Spectrochimica Acta Part A, 53, (2): 2159-2179.
CENNINI, C., XIVe siècle, réédité en 1991. Il libro dell’arte, BergerLevrault, Paris, 188-313.
DANIEL, F., LABORDE, B., MOUNIER, A. et COULON, E., 2008. Le
pigment d’aérinite dans deux peintures murales romanes du
Sud-Ouest de la France, Archéosciences 32: 83-91.
DANIEL, F. et MOUNIER, A., 2010. Alteration of gilts on mediaeval
mural paintings, Communication présentée à l’ICOM-CC
(Interim Meeting), Multidisciplinary Conservation: A holistic
view for historic interiors, Rome, 23-26 mars 2010.
DENYS, H., 1845. Le guide de la peinture, Traduit par Paul Durand
« Manuel d’iconographie chrétienne, grecque et latine », Paris,
Didron.
GABORIT, M., 1997. Découvertes de peintures murales dans la
cathédrale Saint-André de Bordeaux, Revue Archéologique de
Bordeaux, XXXVIII: 67-101.
GABORIT, M., 2002. Des hystoires et des couleurs, peintures murales
en Aquitaine. XIIIe-XIVe siècle, Bordeaux, Conluences.
MOUNIER, A., DANIEL, F. et BECHTEL, F., 2008. Gilding techniques
in mural paintings in the Romanesque period in France, Actes
du colloque « Archéométrie 2008 », 37th International Symposium
on Archaeometry, 12-16 mai 2008. Sienne, Italie, sous presse.
MOUNIER, A. DAYET, L., BELIN, C. et DANIEL, F., 2009. Étude de la luorescence des liants employés dans les dorures sur peintures murales
médiévales, 18e colloque du Groupe des Méthodes Pluridisciplinaire
Contribuant à l’Archéologie, 6-10 avril 2009, Montpellier « Ressources,
Sociétés, biodiversité», Archéosciences, sous presse.
THÉOPHILE (Moine), XIIe siècle, réédité en 1996. Essais sur divers
arts, Publié par le Cte Charles de l’Escalopier, réédition Laget,
Nogent-Le-Roi, 39-44.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 397-403
Gold leafs in 14th century Florentine painting
Feuilles d’or dans la peinture florentine du XIVe siècle
Giovanni Buccolieri*, Alessandro Buccolieri*, Susanna Bracci**,
Federica Carnevale*, Franca Falletti**, Gianfranco Palamà*, Roberto Cesareo***
and Alfredo Castellano*
Abstract: Gold leafs are typically present in paintings and frescoes of the Italian Renaissance in the 13th and 14th centuries. he chemical composition and thickness of gold leafs provide important information toward a better understanding of the technology of that epoch. he present
paper discusses the results of non-destructive analysis carried out with a portable energy dispersive X-ray luorescence (ED-XRF) equipment on
the 14th century panel Annunciation with Saints Catherine of Alexandria, Anthony Abbot, Proculus and Francis by the painter Lorenzo Monaco.
Résumé : L’application de feuilles d’or sur des tableaux et des fresques est typique de la Renaissance italienne aux XIIIe et XIVe siècles. Leur composition
chimique et leur épaisseur fournissent des informations importantes pour la compréhension des techniques de cette période. Ce travail discute les résultats
des analyses non-destructives réalisées avec un système portable de luorescence X à dispersion d’énergie (ED-FX) sur le panel du XIVe siècle Annonciation
avec Saints Catherine d’Alexandrie, Anthony Abbot, Proculus et Francis par le peintre Lorenzo Monaco.
Keywords: Gold leafs; Florentine painting; non-destructive analysis; ED-XRF.
Mots-clés : Feuilles d’or, peinture lorentine, analyse non-destructive, ED-FX.
1. INTRODUCTION
All populations have always used metals to make ornaments, such as leafs, on paintings or other objects of historical art. he most frequent metals employed were gold, silver,
lead, copper, tin, and iron (Scott and Dodd, 2002; Duran
et al., 2008).
Gold leafs are typically present in paintings and frescoes
of the Italian Renaissance in the 13th and 14th centuries,
as background, haloes, or decorations. he non-destructive
determination of gold leaf composition and thickness in
paintings and frescoes is of primary importance for a better understanding of the technological development of the
respective epoch. Generally, when a gold leaf is studied by
ED-XRF analysis, an X-ray spectrum is obtained, typically
containing two Cu-K lines, three Au-L lines and two Ag-K
lines. From a quantitative analysis of these lines, the concentrations of Cu, Au and Ag can be determined. Furthermore,
the thickness of the Au leaf may be obtained by a detailed
study of the internal ratio of the elements. In fact, the X-ray
intensity ratios IKα/IKβ, or ILα/ILβ and ILα/ILγ, for an element
in a multilayer sample, depend on the composition and
* Università del Salento, Dipartimento di Scienza dei Materiali, via per Monteroni, 73100, Lecce, Italy. (giovanni.buccolieri@unisalento.it) (alessandro.
buccolieri@unisalento.it) (carnevale.federica@alice.it) (gianfranco.palama@unisalento.it) (alfredo.castellano@unisalento.it)
** C.N.R. – I.C.V.B.C., via Madonna del Piano, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, Firenze, Italy. (s.bracci@icvbc.cnr.it)
*** Struttura Dipartimentale di Matematica e Fisica, via Vienna n. 2, 7100, Sassari, Italy. (cesareo@uniss.it)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 405-408
406
thickness of the layer in which the element is situated, and
on the composition and thickness of the superimposed layer
(or layers). Multilayered samples are common in archaeometry, for example in the case of pigment layers in paintings
or of gilded alloys.
In the present paper, experimental results of an ED-XRF
analysis carried out on the panel “Annunciation with Saints
Catherine of Alexandria, Anthony Abbot, Proculus and
Francis” (Fig. 1) by the Florentine painter Lorenzo Monaco
(born Piero di Giovanni, c. 1370-1425) are reported.
Lorenzo Monaco (Tartuferi and Parenti, 2006) was an artist whose work bridged the 14th and 15th centuries, between
the Trecento art of Duccio and Giotto and the Quattrocento
painting of Masaccio and Fra Angelico. His art is considered
a synthesis of the Sienese and Florentine Trecento styles and
was also one of the most important examples of international Gothic in Italy. In 1391, Lorenzo Monaco took his
vows as a monk of the Camaldolese monastery of Santa
Maria degli Angeli. He rose to the rank of deacon, but in
1402 he was enrolled in the painters’ guild with the name
of Piero di Giovanni (Lorenzo Monaco means ‘Lorenzo the
Monk’) and was living outside the monastery. he mon-
Giovanni BUCCOLIERI et al.
astery was renowned for its illuminated manuscripts, and
several book miniatures, now in the Laurentian Library in
Florence, are attributed to him. However, the artist was primarily a painter of altarpieces, examples of which are in the
National Gallery in London and at the Uizi in Florence.
His main works in fresco are the scenes of the Life of Mary
in the Bartolini Chapel of Sta Trinità, Florence. His style
is characterized by a luminous beauty of colouring, and a
graceful, rhythmic low of the line, and is in complete contrast to his great contemporary Masaccio, representing the
highest achievement of the last lowering of Gothic art in
Florence.
Energy dispersive X-ray luorescence (ED-XRF) analysis is
a common non-destructive method employed in archaeometry for quantitative analysis and for the determination of
the thickness of coatings (Nygard et al., 2004; Roldán et al.,
2006). ED-XRF analysis generally involves an area of a few
mm2 and a thickness between microns and fractions of mm.
herefore, the analysis is supericial and dependent on surface
conditions (Cesareo et al., 2004). In the case of multiple layer
samples, it is not possible to rely on the use of standards, and
therefore one has to resort to theoretical estimates of the XRF
Figure 1: (See colour
plate) Annunciation
with Saints Catherine
of Alexandria, Anthony
Abbot, Proculus and
Francis (ca. 1410-1415).
Panel 210 x 229 cm
by Lorenzo Monaco.
Galleria dell’Accademia,
Florence, Italy. he
points on the painting
shows the regions analyzed.
Figure 1 : (Voir planche
couleur) Annonciation
avec Saints Catherine
d’Alexandrie, Anthony
Abbot, Proculus et
Francis (ca. 14101415). Panel de 210 x
229 cm par le peintre
Lorenzo Monaco.
Galleria dell’Accademia, Florence, Italie.
Les points sur le tableau
correspondent aux régions
analysées.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 405-408
407
Gold leafs in 14th century lorentine painting
intensity. he accuracy of the method can be estimated by
using carefully characterized calibration samples.
he aim of the present study is the evaluation of the chemical composition and thickness of gold leafs by using a
portable ED-XRF device in order to obtain important information permitting a better understanding of the technology
of that epoch.
2. EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP
he analysis was performed using a portable energy dispersive X-ray luorescence (ED-XRF) instrument designed and
built at the University of Salento (Cesareo et al., 1999). It is
composed of an X-ray tube (produced by MOXTEK), with
a Pd-anode operating at 15 kV voltage and 3 μA current, a
Si-PIN detector, thermoelectrically cooled, with a Be window
of 25 µm, a resolution of 190 eV at 5.9 keV and a pocket
multi-channel analyzer (both produced by AMPTEK).
A stratigraphic study could be carried out following one
hypothesis, where the gold thickness could be approximately
evaluated by determining the ratio Fe-Kα/Fe-Kβ, because
these lines are diferently absorbed by gold. In fact, the
Fe-Kα X-rays (with an energy of 6.4 keV) are more absorbed
than the Fe-Kβ X-rays (7.0 keV), since the mass attenuation coeicients are μα = 380 cm2·g-1 and μβ = 316 cm2·g-1,
respectively.
In Figure 3, the symbol x (g cm-2) indicates the radiation
paths of Fe-Kα and Fe-Kβ into gold, and the symbols I0 and
I indicate the intensity of the radiation before and after the
layer of gold, respectively.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
ED-XRF spectra of the analyzed paintings show the presence of gold, iron and calcium in the entire painting, while
silver, generally present in the composition of gold leafs, was
not detected. he presence of iron is due to the use of bolus
(iron silicate hydroxide), employed by the artist as a glue
to superimpose the gold leafs (Baldinucci, 1681; Cennini,
1971). Calcium is probably used by the artist as priming,
as in the case of ‘bianco San Giovanni’. Figure 2 shows the
ED-XRF spectra of regions 1, 2 and 3.
Fe-Kα
3250
3000
2750
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
2500
Figure 3: Simulation for determining the thickness of the coating
of gold on iron.
Figure 3 : Simulation pour l’évaluation de l’épaisseur de la couche
d’or sur le fer.
2250
Au-M
1000
750
Au-Lβ
Fe-Kβ
1250
Au-Lα
1500
500
250
Au-Lγ
1750
Ca-Kα
Counts
2000
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Energy (keV)
Figure 2: ED-XRF spectra of regions 1, 2 and 3.
Figure 2 : Spectres ED-FX des régions 1, 2 et 3.
12
13
14
15
In region 3 (Fig. 2), there is a single leaf (of thickness x),
while in the near region 2 there are two leafs (of thickness
2x). herefore, by using equation 1 on these areas, the ratio
(Iα/Iβ)0 was calculated for iron. his value is equal to 7.42
and it has been used for the determination of the gold
thickness in diferent regions of the painting; the values
obtained are reported in Table 1. he gilding technique
employing gold leafs uses the superposition of several layers
of gold leafs, particularly in areas where covering with one
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 405-408
408
Giovanni BUCCOLIERI et al.
Region
Total thickness
(μm)
No. of layers
hickness
(mm)
1
3.5
4
0.9
4
3.1
3
1.0
5
2.3
2
1.2
6
1.6
2
0.8
7
2.0
2
1.0
8
1.1
1
1.1
9
0.9
1
0.9
10
2.8
3
0.9
11
1.1
1
1.1
Table 1: Determination of gold thickness.
Tableau 1 : Détermination de l’épaisseur des feuilles d’or.
single layer is diicult to carry out. he gold leafs were glued
on the substrate with bolus, a compound containing iron
(Cennini, 1971).
Experimental data obtained by ED-XRF measurements
on a single layer showed that the thickness of the gold leafs
used by the artist is between 0.9 and 1.1 μm. Measurements
carried out on apparently thicker areas led us to hypothesize that these areas are made by superimposing several
layers of equal thickness. he thicknesses analyzed show
the remarkable technological capacity of the artists of the
time (batiloro). As shown above, it was possible to obtain
gold leaf thicknesses of about one micrometer from a gold
coin. Assuming that the batiloro used an Italian lorin coin
(3.54 g), from one such coin it was possible to obtain gold
leafs with an area between 1500 and 2000 cm2.
4. CONCLUSION
Experimental results show the presence of gold, iron and
calcium all over the surface of the painting. he presence
of iron may be due to the use of a layer that contained a
pigment of iron under the gold leaf, while calcium was probably used by the artist as priming. Moreover, the reported
data show that the thickness of a surface gold leaf may be
determined by a diferential absorption of deeper elements.
hus, energy dispersive X-ray luorescence appears as a
powerful, fast, inexpensive, non-destructive and portable
method of analysis that can be used successfully in archaeometry in order to determine the chemical composition and
the thickness of gold leafs on paintings or other objects of
historical and artistic interest.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 405-408
References
BALDINUCCI, F., 1681. Vocabolario Toscano dell’arte del disegno.
Firenze: Santi Franchi.
CENNINI, C., 1971. Il libro dell’arte. Vicenza, Neri Pozza.
CESAREO, R., CASTELLANO, A., BUCCOLIERI, G. and MARABELLI,
M., 1999. A portable apparatus for energy-dispersive X-ray
luorescence analysis of sulfur and chlorine in frescoes and
stone monuments. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics
Research Section B: Beam Interactions with Materials and Atoms
155: 326-330.
CESAREO, R., CASTELLANO, A., BUCCOLIERI, G., QUARTA, S.,
MARABELLI, M., SANTOPADRE, P., LEOLE, M. and BRUNETTI,
A., 2004. Portable equipment for energy dispersive X-ray
luorescence analysis of Giotto’s frescoes in the Chapel of the
Scrovegni. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research
Section B, 213: 703-706.
DURAN, A., PEREZ-RODRÍGUEZ, J.L., JIMENEZ DE HARO, M.C.,
HERRERA, L.K. and JUSTO, A., 2008. Degradation of gold
and false golds used as gildings in the cultural heritage of
Andalusia, Spain. Journal of Cultural Heritage 9: 184-188.
NYGARD, K., HAMALAINEN, K., MANNINEN, S., JALAS, P. and
RUOTTINEN, J.P., 2004. Quantitative thickness determination
using x-ray luorescence: application to multiple layers. X-Ray
Spectrometry 33: 354-359.
ROLDÁN, C., COLL, J. and FERRERO, J., 2006. EDXRF analysis of
blue pigments used in Valencian ceramics from the 14th century to modern times. Journal of Cultural Heritage 7: 134-138.
SCOTT, D.A. and DODD, L.S., 2002. Examination, conservation
and analysis of a gilded Egyptian bronze Osiris. Journal of
Cultural Heritage 3: 333-345.
TARTUFERI, A. and PARENTI, D. (eds.), 2006. Lorenzo Monaco – A
bridge from Giotto’s heritage to the Renaissance. Florence, Giunti.
Gilding on wall paintings from a period
between the 14th-16th centuries AD
in the Lombard lake region
La dorure sur peintures murales entre le XIVe et le XVIe siècles
dans la région des lacs lombards
Giovanni Cavallo* and Marcel Verda**
Abstract: he use of gildings on wall paintings enjoyed its largest development in Italy between the 13th and 14th centuries AD. his work covers
a few important artefacts from the Lombard lake region, dating from a period between 1360 and 1520, and painted by the Seregnesi, Da Tradate
and De Passeri studios. Its purpose is to understand the gilding techniques by means of scientiic examinations (OM, SEM/EDS, FTIR), integrated with information from ancient treatises.
Two main gilding techniques have been used in this context: the composite foil (tin and gold), and the single gold foil, in both cases ixed on the
wall by a type of oil-based adhesive with the addition of inorganic pigments, mostly lead white and ochres, called missione. he scientiic results
are in agreement with the recipes contained in the ancient treatises, particularly in the Libro dell’Arte by Cennino Cennini.
Extending the research to other case studies in Tessin and Italy, it is clear that the gilding technique was not inluenced by the geographical and
historical context, but by the inal appearance required by the decoration on the wall surface. he use of tin in the composite foil permitted the
gold foil to be burnished and engraved.
Résumé : L’emploi de la dorure sur des peintures murales en Italie a eu son apogée entre le XIIIe et le XIVe siècle. Ce travail traite les objets peints dans la
région des lacs lombards, entre 1360 et 1520, réalisés dans les ateliers des Seregnesi, des Da Tradate et d’Andrea de Passeri, en vue d’une compréhension
de la technique de la dorure au moyen de techniques scientiiques (MO, MEB/EDX, FTIR) et des informations obtenues par étude des traités anciens.
Deux techniques sont principalement utilisées: la feuille composée (étain et or) et la simple feuille d’or ; dans les deux cas les feuilles sont ixées à la surface
avec un adhésif huileux auquel sont ajoutés des pigments inorganiques, le plus souvent du blanc de plomb et des ocres, appelé missione (mixtion).
Les résultats scientiiques trouvent une bonne correspondance avec les recettes mentionnées dans les traités anciens, en particulier dans le Libro dell’Arte
de Cennino Cennini.
En étendant les recherches à d’autres exemples dans le Tessin et en Italie, il paraît évident que la technique n’a pas été inluencée par le contexte historique
ou géographique, mais par l’aspect inal de la surface murale employée. L’utilisation de l’étain dans la feuille composée permettait de brunir et graver la
surface.
Keywords: gilding, gold, missione, Tessin, tin, wall paintings.
Mots-clés : dorure, or, missione (mixtion), Tessin, étain, peinture murale.
* University of Applied Sciences of Southern Switzerland, Dept. Environment, Constructions and Design, Institute of Materials and Constructions
Trevano – P.O. Box 12 CH-6952 Canobbio (Tessin). (giovanni.cavallo@supsi.ch)
** Architect and Conservator – Via San Nicolao 3 CH-6816 Bissone (Tessin).
rec. Aug. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 409-415
Giovanni CAVALLO, Marcel VERDA
410
1. INTRODUCTION
he present research was initiated during the conservation project of the wall painting representing the Cruciixion
scene painted by Andrea De Passeri in 1513 in the St.
Alessandro Church in Lasnigo (Lombardy, Northern Italy).
Traces of the original gold foil, in the form of irregular and
fragile lakes, were found on the halos of the Virgin and the
adoring angels (Bonizzoni et al., 2007).
Further in-depth studies (Cavallo and Verda, 2008) revealed in detail the technique that was adopted: a composite
metal foil – gold and tin, probably ixed with glue – was
adhered to the surface of the wall painting by means of a
type of adhesive called missione. his adhesive was a mixture
of linseed oil with the addition of pigments with drying
capacity, such as lead white and white bones; yellow ochres
were used in small amounts.
he research was extended to the period between 1360 and
1520 in the Lombard lake region, corresponding in the past to
the present day Tessin (Southern Switzerland) and Lombardy
(NW Italy), when the city of Milan played a crucial historical role and became one of the most important centres of
European culture. In the fourteenth century – Trecento – many
famous artists, such as Giovanni di Benedetto from Como,
Giovannino de’ Grassi, and Balbello from Pavia, worked for
religious and aristocratic clients, also supported by the miniaturists and goldsmiths gathered under the Scuola of St. Eligio.
he peak of this political and cultural life took place during
the government of Gian Galeazzo Visconti, who extended the
control in the North-eastern and Central Italy. After his death
in 1402, a period of political instability forced many artists to
move principally towards Eastern Italy. he stagnant artistic
situation received a renewed impulse during the reign of the
Sforza dynasty in the second half of the 15th century, and
particularly under Ludovico il Moro and his wife, Beatrice
d’Este, when Milan attracted important literates and artists,
such as Bramante and Leonardo da Vinci. he decline of the
visconteo-sforzesco government took place in 1500, when the
French occupied Milan (Gregori, 1997; 1998).
Returning to our research on gildings, the examined
artworks are part of the aforementioned political and cultural
panorama. he attention was focused on the lunette (Fig. 1)
attributed to Giovanni da Milano (1360) preserved in the
Santa Maria delle Grazie Oratory at Mendrisio (Tessin), and
to the cycle of wall paintings in the church of St. Carlo at
Prugiasco-Negrentino (Tessin), dating from the last decade
of the 15th century, where the Antonio Da Tradate and
Seregnesi studios painted the apses. he Cruciixion scene
painted by Andrea De Passeri at Lasnigo (1513) is also part
of this work.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 409-415
Figure 1: (See colour plate) he Oratory of Santa Maria delle
Grazie (Mendrisio, Southern Switzerland). Detail of the lunette
attributed to Giovanni da Milano (1360).
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Oratoire de Santa Maria delle
Grazie (Mendrisio, Tessin). Détail de la lunette attribuée à Giovanni
da Milano (1360).
he main goals of the research addressed the following
questions: did the geographic and temporal contexts
inluence the gilding technique? Was the gilding technique
inluenced by other important studios in Italy, operating
mainly in Tuscany? What kind of diferences and similarities
was it possible to establish with the main studios in Italy?
Are there correspondences between the analytical results and
the ancient recipe books? Was the identiication of the original technique possible in the cases of overlapping layers,
due to past restoration works?
2. METHODS
Two approaches have been adopted in studying the gilding
techniques and materials. he irst entails a critical reading
of the ancient recipe books and the second the scientiic
investigation of selected samples.
Gilding on wall paintings from a period between the 14th-16th centuries AD in the Lombard lake region
411
Ancient recipe books
Samples Location and description
Ancient manuscripts report the materials and methods
used for gilding. In the De Coloribus et artibus Romanorum,
par. XLV (Alexander, 1967), Heraclius refers to the method
used for gilding upon tin. In the Libro dell’Arte, par. XCVII
(Brunello, 1971), Cennino Cennini mentions how to cut
the gilt tin. De Diversis artibus by heophilus, par. XXI
(Cafaro, 2000), the Libro dell’Arte by Cennini, par. XCI and
XCII (Brunello, 1971), and the Esperimenta de Coloribus
by Jehan Le Begue, par. 105 (Alexander, 1967) all report
indications of the methods used in attaching the metal foils
(composite foil). Finally, the De Coloribus faciendis by Petrus
De S. Audemar, par. 190 (Alexander, 1967) refers to the
technique employed for laying the gold foil on a wall.
he interpretation of the manuscripts is diicult; the linguistic style, useful for the comprehension of the Medieval
and Late Medieval outlook, is also a cause of terminological
ambiguity, compromising the real interpretation of the text.
An additional issue is the discontinuity of the information:
some recipes are described carefully, as in the Libro dell’Arte
by Cennini, others supericially.
GM1
Mendrisio, lunette attributed to G. da Milano. Gilding
fragment from the halo of St. Caterina.
GM3b
Mendrisio, lunette attributed to G. da Milano. Gilding
fragment from the halo of the Virgin.
NE1
Prugiasco-Negrentino, Seregnesi’s studio. Gilding
fragment from the halo of the Apostle.
NE3
Prugiasco-Negrentino, Da Tradate’s studio. Gilding
fragment from the halo of the Virgin Mary.
CR9
Lasnigo, Andrea De Passeri. Gilding fragment from the
halo of the Virgin Mary.
CR10
Lasnigo, Andrea De Passeri. Gilding fragment from St.
Alessandro’s sword.
Scientific investigations
Scientiic investigations have been carried out on selected
samples collected in Switzerland (Mendrisio and PrugiascoNegrentino) and Italy (Lasnigo). Optical microscopy (OM)
of cross-sections in relected light (Plester, 1956) has been
used to identify the stratigraphy, and for a preliminary characterization of each layer. Scanning Electron Microscopy
(SEM) coupled with an EDS detector (Vega Tescan electron microscope) has been used for the determination of
the elemental composition of each layer detected under
the optical microscope. he instrumental setup was 20 kV,
vacuum mode HV, working distance 9 mm. Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) has been used for determining the organic (and inorganic) fraction of the samples; a Perkin Elmer
Spectrum One BM working in the range 4000-600 cm-1
has been used. Table 1 reports the description of the studied
samples.
3. RESULTS
Optical microscopy (OM)
Table 2 reports the cross-section stratigraphy (optical
microscopy in incident light).
Table 1: Samples, location and description.
Tableau 1 : Échantillons, localisation et description.
he data show two types of gildings; the use of composite and single foil. It should be taken into account that
the samples collected at Mendriso and Negrentino come
from restored gildings, while the one in Lasnigo is the original gilding. However, the stratigraphy corresponding to
the sample NE1 (Fig. 2) contains information both on the
original technique and the restored one.
Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
Infrared Spectroscopy has been used for understanding
the composition of the adhesive applied to attach the metal
foil or the composite foil on the wall. All the examined samples show the presence of C-H absorption bands at 2918,
2845, 1736, 1460 and 1402 cm-1, C-O at 1243 and 1100
cm-1, and C-C at 723 cm-1, characteristic of linseed oil.
Calcium carbonates show the characteristic bands at 1410,
873 and 712 cm-1; the presence of white lead is conirmed
by the absorption bands at 3533, 1046, 681 cm-1. Traces of
calcium oxalates (samples CRs) are marked by the characteristic absorption at 1320 cm-1.
he reported data are in accordance with the use of missione, a type of adhesive made with linseed oil and pigments
with drying capacity. Ca-oxalates could be referred to the
mineralization of the animal glue used to attach the two
metal foils.
Microanalysis (SEM/EDS)
Microanalysis has been carried out on each layer detected by OM, with the exclusion of the support layer (plaster, labelled 0); the results are reported in Table 3. he
microanalysis clearly shows the presence of diferent techArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 409-415
Giovanni CAVALLO, Marcel VERDA
412
Sample
GM1
GM3b
NE1
NE3
CR9
CR10
Layers
Description
0
Lime-based plaster
1
Brown layer, thickness 100 µm.
2
Bright metal foil.
0
Lime-based plaster
1
Brown layer, thickness 100 µm.
2
Bright metal foil.
0
Lime-based plaster.
1
Brown layer, thickness 20-50 µm.
2
Non continuous grey-black layer, thickness
20 µm.
3
Red layer, thickness 30 µm.
4
Bright metal foil.
5
Red layer, thickness 30 µm.
0
Lime-based plaster.
1
Yellow to brownish layer, thickness 100 µm.
2
Bright metal foil.
1
Brownish layer, thickness 100 µm.
2
Grey-black layer, thickness 20 µm.
3
Irregular traces of a bright metal foil.
0
Lime-based plaster.
1
Brownish layer, thickness 100 µm.
2
Grey-black layer, thickness 20 µm.
3
Irregular traces of a bright metal foil.
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Sample NE1: cross-section.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Échantillon NE1: coupe transversale.
Table 2: Optical microscopy in incident light.
Tableau 2 : Microscopie optique sous lumière incidente.
nologies for gilding adopted by the artists working in the
Lombard lake region. he presence of the composite foil
(Sn plus Au) on the original gilding decorating the halos
at Lasnigo (samples CRs) applied on a layer containing
Pb-based pigments was determined. Here, the presence
of P and Ca is associated with bones white. Tin thickness
ranges from 12 to 23 µm; the metal shows longitudinal and
transversal micro-cracks due to processing. Gold thickness
ranges from 1.50 to 3.00 µm; the metal exhibits an irregular
surface and is locally detached from the tin metal foil.
Samples collected at Mendrisio (Fig. 3) show the application of the gold foil directly on the oil-based adhesive.
Gold foil thickness is around 1.20 µm; the spatial continuity is well preserved. Samples from Negrentino (NEs)
show two distinct technologies; the use of the gold foil
(thickness around 1.20-1.50 µm) on the murals painted by
the Antonio da Tradate studio (Fig. 4) and tin metal foil
(thickness ranging from 10.5 to 20.5 µm), attesting the use
of the composite foil in the original gilding on the surface
painted by the Seregnesi studio. his gilding was restored
twice, with a notable change of the technology. A brass foil
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 409-415
Figure 3: Sample GM3b: BSE picture with indication of the investigated areas.
Figure 3 : Échantillon GM3b : image BSE avec indication de la
surface étudiée.
(Cu+Zn+Fe), with thickness ranging from 1.0 to 4.5 µm,
was applied on the bole (aluminium silicate). A later restoration work shows the use of gold with a thickness around
1.30 µm on a new layer of bole.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
he analytical data, integrated with information from the
ancient manuscripts and other case studies referred in the
Gilding on wall paintings from a period between the 14th-16th centuries AD in the Lombard lake region
Sample
GM1
GM3b
NE1
NE3
CR9
CR10
Layer
Chemical elemental composition
Ca
Mg
Al
Si
Pb
Fe
Cu
Au
Ag
Sn
Zn
P
tr
tr
tr
+
+++
tr
tr
-
-
-
-
-
2
-
tr
tr
-
-
tr
tr
+++
tr
-
-
-
1
+
tr
tr
+
+++
+
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
tr
tr
tr
tr
-
tr
tr
+++
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+++
-
-
3
+
-
+
+++
-
tr
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
tr
+++
-
-
-
++
-
5
+
-
+
+++
-
tr
-
-
-
-
-
-
6
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+++
-
-
-
-
1
+++
-
-
tr
+++
tr
-
-
-
-
-
-
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+++
-
-
-
-
1
++
tr
-
tr
+++
+
-
-
-
-
-
++
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+++
-
-
1
413
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+++
-
-
-
-
1
++
tr
-
tr
+++
+
-
-
-
-
-
++
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+++
-
-
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+++
-
-
-
-
Figure 4: Sample NE3: BSE picture with indication of the investigated areas.
Figure 4 : Échantillon NE3 : image BSE avec indication de la surface
étudiée.
specialist literature, allow us to deine the gilding techniques
in the period under consideration, between the irst half of
the 14th century and the beginning of the 16th century.
Composite foil has been used in the Cruciixion scene
painted by Andrea De Passeri in Lasnigo (1513). Indications
on the use of the composite foil have also been detected
Table 3: Qualitative
chemical elemental
composition of the gildings layers (+ + + high;
+ + medium; + low; tr
traces).
Tableau 3 : Composition
chimique élémentaire
qualitative des couches des
dorures (+ + + fort ; + +
moyen ; + bas ; tr traces).
in the stratigraphy of the wall paintings executed by the
Seregnesi in Negrentino (last decade of the 15th century),
where the tin foil is applied on the oil-based missione. We
may suggest that the gold, or another precious metal such
as silver, fell down because of the loss in binding power of
the animal glue between the gold and the tin; according
to Matteini and Moles (1990), the thickness of the animal glue was of the order of a few microns. Other famous
cases in the same area are the Teodolinda Chapel in the St.
Giovanni Battista Cathedral in Monza – Tales of the Queen
Teodolinda painted by Franceschino, Gregorio and Giovanni
Zavattari in 1444 (Cassanelli and Conti, 1991) – and the
Baptist Tales in the Castiglione Olona Baptistery painted by
Masolino da Panicale in 1435 (Marani, 1997). he use of
tin is also mentioned on the Tabernacolo in via del Leone
in Florence, painted in 1356 by Tommaso di Stefano, called
Giottino (Matteini and Moles, 1982), the Trinità painted by
Masaccio in Santa Maria Novella in Florence between 1425
and 1427, and the St. Giovanni Baptistery in Siena between
1447 and 1489.
he technological process of the composite foil applied
on the wall by means of an oil-based missione is recommended by Cennino Cennini (Brunello, 1971). he use of
a double metal foil is required for gold burnishing: a strong
burnishing (Alexander, 1967) could produce abrasions of
the gold foil, as suggested by St. Audemar; therefore, the
tin foil was used to attenuate this inconvenience. According
to Heraclius (Alexander, 1967), the process employed to ix
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 409-415
Giovanni CAVALLO, Marcel VERDA
414
the gold with tin was carried out on a desk, using a suitable
wooden board.
he use of the single foil applied on an oil-based missione layer has been detected at Negrentino (on the works
of Da Tradate’s studio and on the lunette attributed to
Giovanni da Milano, 1360, at Mendrisio). We should take
into consideration that at these two sites, restoration works
have been carried out during the middle of the 20th century.
Considering the thickness of the gold foil, its recent use
appears clear; the thickness ranges between 1.20 and 1.50
µm, lower than that of the gold foil in the Lasnigo church,
where the metal has a thickness up to 3.00 µm.
Other examples of gildings with a single foil are the
Passion of Christ on the chancel arch in Santa Maria delle
Grazie Bellinzona, Tessin (end of the 15th century), attributed to Foppa’s studio (Moles, 1998), and in the Cathedral
of Monza (Matteini and Moles, 1991).
he presence of wax mixed with resin as an adhesive for
the composite foil has been detected only on the wall painting representing the Last Supper (uncertain attribution),
painted around 1520 in the St. Ambrogio Church at Ponte
Capriasca (Gilardi, 1993).
During the period towards the end of the 14th century,
and particularly during the 15th century, the interest of the
aristocracy was oriented towards a court sensibility; this new
attitude will condition the choices of many Lombard artists
invited to recreate on the walls the magical atmosphere of
the illuminated manuscripts. he artists were asked to use
the gold on wall paintings; they were aware of the great technical problems linked with the use of metal foils on the wall.
he recipe books could play an important role for solving
such problems. he actual distribution of these books is an
open issue; the costs for copying were high, and sometimes
the contents, moving between diferent ields, such as medical science and alchemy to artistic practice, coupled with the
diferent idioms being used, and the limitations deriving
from the translations, limited their accessibility to the artists.
It is more probable that oral tradition was the main vehicle
employed to hand down past practices, also supported by
the skill achieved during training in other studios.
In conclusion, the microanalysis of selected cross-sections was very useful for the identiication of the gilding
technique, especially when integrated with infrared spectroscopy carried out on the adhesive layers. his qualitative
information is per se suicient for understanding the gilding
technique; a quantitative approach is very important when
provenance studies of the raw materials, characterizations of
the compositional homogeneity versus heterogeneity of the
metals, or their typological classiication are fundamental
issues for the research.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 409-415
he authenticity of the adopted techniques is very clear for
some of the investigated artefacts; the thickness of the gold
foil represents a key factor for distinguishing between original and renewed gildings. he use of non-invasive analytical
methods such as portable µ-XRF represents a practical way
for determining the thickness of the gold foil.
Furthermore, restored gildings sometimes reveal the marker of the original technique, as conirmed by the use of tin
metal; in these cases, a cautious approach should be adopted
during the interpretation of the analytical data.
Finally, it seems that the use of a gilding technique rather
than another is not inluenced either by chronology or by
the regional context: the choice was depending on the inal
appearance of the gilding on the wall painting and the
options available for processing.
References
ALEXANDER, M. (ed.), 1967. Original treatises on the arts of painting. New York, Dover Publications.
BONIZZONI, L., BRUNI, S., GARGANO, M., GUGLIELMI, V., LUDWIG,
N., MONETA, A. and MILAZZO, M., 2007. Indagini sugli afreschi della chiesa di S. Alessandro a Lasnigo (CO). Atti del 4.
Congresso Nazionale di Archeometria, Bologna, Patron Ed.,
115-127.
BRUNELLO, F. (ed.), 1971. Il libro dell’arte di Cennino Cennini.
Vicenza: Ed Neri Pozza.
CAFFARO, A. (ed.), 2000. Teoilo Monaco. De diversis artibus.
Salerno, Ed. Palladio.
CASSANELLI R. and CONTI, R., 1991. Monza, La cappella di
Teodelinda nel Duomo. Milano, Ed. Electa.
CAVALLO, G. and VERDA, M., 2008. Historical, microanalytical
evidences and limits of non-invasive technologies in studying
gildings on 16th century wall paintings, in CD Proceedings of
the IX International Conference ART2008, Jerusalem.
GREGORI, M., 1997. Pittura a Milano dall’Alto Medioevo al
Tardogotico. Milano, Ed. Cassa di Risparmio delle Provincie
Lombarde.
GREGORI, M., 1998. Pittura a Milano, Rinascimento e Manierismo.
Milano, Ed. Cassa di Risparmio delle Provincie Lombarde.
GILARDI, A., 1993. Ponte Capriasca. Il Cenacolo restaurato. Lugano,
Ed. Fondazione H. Dietler-Kottmann.
MARANI, P. C., 1997. Conservazione e valorizzazione degli afreschi nella Provincia di Varese, in Proceedings of the conference
held in Varese in 1995, Provincia di Varese.
MATTEINI, M. and MOLES, A., 1982. Tommaso di Stefano detto
Giottino, Madonna col Bambino in U. Baldini (ed.), Metodo
e scienza, Firenze, Ed. Sansoni.
Gilding on wall paintings from a period between the 14th-16th centuries AD in the Lombard lake region
MATTEINI, M. and MOLES, A., 1990. Le tecniche di doratura nella
pittura murale, in C. Danti C., M. Matteini, A. Moles (eds.),
Le pitture murali: tecniche, problemi, conservazione. Firenze, Ed.
Centro Di, 121-126.
MATTEINI, M. and MOLES, A., 1991. Le “Storie” di Teodelinda nel
ciclo degli Zavattari: alcune indagini preliminari sulla natura
dei materiali pittorici e sulla loro collocazione stratigraica, in
415
R. Cassanelli, R. Conti, Monza, La cappella di Teodelinda nel
Duomo. Milano, Ed. Electa, 164-171.
MOLES, A., 1998. Analisi chimiche e strumentali preliminari
alle prove di pulitura. 1st Report. Bellinzona, Uicio Beni
Culturali.
PLESTER, J., 1956. Cross-section and chemical analyses of paint
samples, Studies in Conservation 2: 110-157.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 409-415
Gold leaf analysis of three baroque altarpieces
from Porto
Analyse de feuilles d’or de trois retables baroques de la ville de Porto
Ana Bidarra*, João Coroado** and Fernando Rocha*
Abstract: During the second half of the 17th century and the irst half of the 18th century, Portugal experienced a rising altarpiece production and
an increased taste for gold application in church decoration. Some examples of this tendency can be found in the northwest of Portugal, particularly in the baroque altarpiece productions of Porto, Braga, Vila Real and Viana do Castelo. Porto was the irst area studied and three gilded
wood-carved altarpieces from diferent churches were selected: São Bento da Vitória (SB), Santa Clara (SC) and São Francisco (SF). Qualitative
and semi-quantitative analyses of the samples were performed by optical microscopy (OM) of the cross-section using relected and polarised light,
and by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in combination with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). he main advantages and disadvantages
of the use of SEM-EDS were discussed and the results regarding the presence of major and trace elements compared.
Résumé : Pendant la deuxième moitié du XVIIe siècle et la première moitié du XVIIIe siècle, au Portugal, est observée une production croissante de retables
ainsi qu’une préférence pour l’application d’or dans la décoration des églises. Quelques exemples de cette tendance peuvent être observés dans le NordOuest du Portugal, en particulier dans le cas des retables produits à Porto, Braga, Vila Real et Viana do Castelo. Porto a été la première région étudiée et
trois retables en bois doré provenant de diférentes églises ont été sélectionnés : São Bento da Vitória (SB), Santa Clara (SC) et São Francisco (SF). Des
analyses qualitatives et semi-quantitatives de prélèvements ont été réalisées par microscopie optique (MO) de sections, en lumière réléchie et polarisée, et
par microscopie électronique à balayage (MEB) combinée à un système de spectroscopie en énergie dispersive (EDS). Les avantages et inconvénients de
l’utilisation du MEB-EDS sont discutées et les résultats concernant la présence d’éléments majeurs et traces comparés.
Keywords: Gold leaf, baroque altarpieces, major and minor elements, SEM-EDS.
Mots-clés : feuille d’or, retables baroques, éléments majeurs, éléments traces, MEB-EDS.
1. INTRODUCTION
Baroque art was one of the most convincing ways used by
the church to defend and impose its faith. It was an example
of scenic art, where light, movement and sound have key
roles, appealing to the senses (Ferreira-Alves, 1989). One
of the most magniicent art forms took the shape of gilded
wood-carved altarpieces covering partially or totally the interior of churches, in complex and structured architectures,
working alone or in association with ceramic tiles (azulejos)
or paintings. he craftsmen involved in the process were
masters of this art. he carvers, sculptors, painters or gilders
were well organised, and diferent workshops competed with
each other to produce the best works.
* Departamento de Geociências and GeoBioTec Research Centre – Universidade de Aveiro, Campus Universitário de Santiago, PT, 3810-193 Aveiro,
Portugal. (anabidarra@portugalmail.com), (frocha@geo.ua.pt)
** Departamento de Arte, Conservação e Restauro and GeoBioTec Research Centre – Instituto Politécnico de Tomar, Quinta do Contador, Estrada da
Serra, PT, 2300-313 Tomar, Portugal. (jcoroado@ipt.pt)
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 417-421
418
The city of Porto was one of the most important
Portuguese production centres and had a great inluence in
the surrounding regions. According to Robert C. Smith’s
chronology, the Portuguese baroque wood working can be
divided in two major periods: barroco nacional (c. 16801729) and barroco joanino (c. 1729-1750) (Smith, 1962).
An example from the irst period is the altarpiece from São
Bento da Vitória, while examples of works from the second
period are the São Francisco and Santa Clara altarpieces.
Although there are several studies on Portuguese altarpieces from this period, addressing national or regional productions, these researches are focused on the typological,
social, economic and religious aspects of these works. In
terms of the study of the materials and techniques applied,
the approach used to date is mainly based on the analysis of
documents, such as treatises and orders from the manufacturing period, with references to the materials (wood, gold,
pigments, varnishes) and to where and how they should be
applied (Ferreira-Alves, 1989; 2004). However, there is a gap
related to a direct study, focused exclusively on the gold leaf
and its origin and characterisation.
he present work aims to provide a new approach to
Portuguese baroque altarpieces, by focusing on the study
of the gold leaf and its elemental analysis, and identifying a
distinct ingerprint. his will be accomplished by the determination of the concentration of speciic minor and trace
elements, which should be characteristic of the metal and
its provenance: platinum and palladium contents in South
American gold ores (Colombian and Brazilian - Peruvian
gold with lower contents); platinum contents in contemporary Eastern European gold; palladium, tin and antimony
in other Latin American gold ores; and trace elements typical of telluride in gold from India after the 16th century
(Guerra and Calligaro, 2004). Due to the fact that most of
the gold sources from the past are geo-chemically unknown,
the accurate identiication of the characteristic elements is a
diicult task (Guerra, 2004). he evolution of gold processing is another obstacle, since the addition of other metals
to improve the workability of the material, to reduce costs,
or even to change colour, might contribute to the loss of
information provided by trace elements.
2. METHODS
he samples were selected from discrete but representative areas in the main altarpieces, such as the back of the
columns or the steps of the throne. he collected samples
came from high and hidden places, diicult to reach, where
contamination should be at the minimum. For cross-secArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 417-421
Ana BIDARRA, João COROADO, Fernando ROCHA
tion analysis, the samples were mounted in polyester resin
(BYLAPOX 3085 A and B (2:1)) and were polished using
a Struers Planopol-V device. he observation and photography of the samples (100x magniication) were obtained
using optical microscopy (OM), with polarised and transmitted light (Zeiss Stemi, 2000-C), with an external artiicial light system Zeiss KL 1500 LCD, image acquisition
with digital camera AxioCam MRcS, and an Axio Vs 40
V4.4 Carl Zeiss Vision GmbH acquisition and treatment
software. he mounting and observation of the samples followed the procedures applied to the analysis of easel paintings or polychrome sculptures (Khandekar, 2003). he
study of the cross-sections allows determining the number,
thickness, adhesion and cohesion of layers, the shape and
size of the particles (Calvo, 2003), and the presence of more
than one gilding; it also allows comparing the ground layer
and the bole layer.
For the scanning electron microscopy (SEM), a Hitachi
SU-70 equipped with a Bruker AXS energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) with a Quantax 400 EDS system with
liquid nitrogen free and XFlash Silicon Drift Detector
(SDD) was used. he semi-quantitative results were based
on a peak-to-background ZAF evaluation method (P/BZAF), ZAF representing a matrix correction, mainly based
on analytical expressions for atomic number (Z), dependent
X-ray yield, self-absorption (A), and secondary luorescence
enhancement (F), provided by the Esprit software. A 15KV
acceleration voltage and a current intensity of 32 mA were
applied. he samples were coated with carbon. he use of
SEM in combination with EDS increases sensitivity for lighter elements, and the spatial resolution for spot analysis is
higher. Additionally, it allows the examination of the microstructure with line scans or two-dimensional mappings of
element concentrations (Hein and Degrigny, 2008; Guerra,
2004). he mapping acquisition was carried out under the
same conditions as the EDS spectrum, with no background
elimination.
Two sets of samples were analysed in terms of the study
of the cross-sections and the surface. In the irst case, the
study was focused on the bole and ground layers (elemental results not presented), and in the second case the study
was focused on the gold and its physical and chemical
aspects, such as homogeneity, abrasion, voids and elemental distribution. he areas were selected in terms of their
homogeneity and lack of voids; a 300x400 µm area was
scanned using a 300x magniication, and the elemental and
semi-quantitative results were obtained after three measurements. he semi-quantitative results were normalised to
100%.
Gold leaf analysis of three baroque altarpieces from Porto
3. RESULTS
he OM and SEM analyses revealed that the gold leaf
from the SB, SC and SF altarpieces share important features, such as surface morphology, as well as extreme thinness
and uniformity. he presence of ground and bole layers was
visible, typical of traditional gilding (Martínez, 1997; SerckDewaide et al., 2004), with good adhesion and cohesion
between them (Fig. 1). he analysis of SC samples raised
several diiculties, due to the considerable presence of wax
over the gold layer. he main diferences were obtained in
the EDS analysis; for the determination of the gold/silver/
copper alloy composition, the results were normalised to
100%, revealing the use of a very pure gold (between 22
and 23K). he most signiicant diferences were identiied
in the relative silver percentage, varying between 4.4% (SF)
and 0.9% (SC) (Table 1).
he major elements were common to all samples (Fig. 2);
aluminum and silicon were components of the bole layer,
a clay layer rich in aluminum-silicates and iron. he results
obtained from the study of minor elements should be carefully analysed, as due to the lower concentrations, the readings could lead to error. For instance, when studying Table
2, the sample SB revealed the presence of platinum; however, the high concentration of gold and the proximity of Lα1
lines (9.711 KeV of Au and 9.441 KeV of Pt) and all other
lines of both elements could be responsible for the overlap
of the platinum peacks. he same thing happened when
analysing SB silver and palladium (2.984 KeV and 2.838
KeV, respectively, for Lα1 lines), as both picks were practically overlapping. he same interpretation was given for the
relatively high percentage of mercury in the SC sample: the
mercury peaks were near the gold peaks (9.987 KeV and
419
9.711 KeV, for Lα1 lines of Hg and Au, respectively), and
the automatic values were generated by the software deconvolution of the results (Goldstein, 1975).
By analysing the EDS data, it was possible to characterise
the gold from SB as a 22K gold and to identify the presence of palladium and tellurium; SC had the highest carat,
almost 23, with the presence of palladium and titanium
and SF samples is a 22K gold with the presence of minor
elements such as tin, tellurium and zinc. he mapping of
the surface provided the topographic distribution of selected elements in a sample, with brighter areas where the element concentration is higher and faded areas for the lower
concentrations. For SB samples, the gold, silver and copper
distribution was clear (Fig. 3). When mapping SC for gold,
silver and palladium, the distribution showed a clear distribution of gold and silver, and a palladium distribution with
background interference.
4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
he major elements of gold alloys – gold, silver and copper – can be determined using the SEM-EDS technique.
However, the interpretation of trace elements such as palladium, platinum, tellurium, tin, antimony or zinc raises
several doubts concerning the certainty of their presence.
his uncertainty is due not only to the very low concentration of these elements, but also to the interpretation of the
spectrum peaks, where some elements such as platinum or
tellurium have very close peaks to gold and calcium, making
an accurate interpretation of the results very diicult. Other
elements, such as ruthenium, rhodium, chromium or lead,
were not detected. he presence of silicon, aluminum, iron,
Figure 1: SEM image (2000 x). Crosssection of samples from SB (a), SC
(b), and SF (c). 1 – Gold leaf; 2 – Bole
layer; 3 – Ground layer.
Figure 1: Image MEB (x2000). Section
de prélèvements de SB (a), SC (b), et SF
(c). 1– feuille d’or ; 2 – bol ; 3 – souscouche
Table 1: Concentration of the alloy composition and gold carat in
relative percentages (SB – São Bento; SC – Santa Clara; SF – São
Francisco).
Tableau 1 : Composition des alliages et teneurs en or en pourcentages
relatifs (SB – São Bento ; SC – Santa Clara ; SF – São Francisco).
Sample
Au %
Ag %
Cu %
Carat
SB
91.99
2.9
5.11
22.08
SC
94.91
0.91
4.18
22.78
SF
91.65
4.41
3.94
22
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 417-421
Ana BIDARRA, João COROADO, Fernando ROCHA
420
Figure 2: (See colour plate) EDS spectrum of major elements.
Figure 2: (Voir planche couleur) Spectre EDS des éléments
majeurs
Figure 3: (See colour plate) São Bento (SB): SEM image (a) and EDS mapping of the surface – Au (b), Ag (c), and Cu (d) (300x).
Figure 3: (Voir planche couleur) São Bento (SB) : Image MEB (a) et cartographie EDS de la surface – Au (b), Ag (c) et Cu (d) (300x).
Sample
Hg wt% Error % Pd wt% Error %
Pt wt%
Error % Sn wt% Error %
Te wt%
Error %
Ti wt%
Error % Zn wt% Error %
SB
nd
—
0.96
0.6
4.96
0.9
nd
—
1.23
0.2
nd
—
nd
SC
3.17
0.8
1.02
0.7
nd
—
nd
—
nd
—
1.31
0.1
nd
—
—
SF
nd
—
nd
—
nd
—
2.91
0.6
1.45
0.2
nd
—
2.10
0.2
Table 2: Weight percentage of minor elements – comparison between relative percentages (SB – São Bento; CS – Santa Clara; SF – São
Francisco).
Tableau 2 : Concentrations en pourcent des éléments mineurs – comparaison entre les pourcentages relatifs (SB – São Bento; SC – Santa Clara;
SF – São Francisco).
calcium and potassium were mainly contributions from the
bole and ground layers. A spot analysis reduces the percentage of these elements, but not in a signiicant way. Since the
results concerning the study of trace elements are not satisfactory, other procedures are now in order, such as inductiArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 417-421
vely coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and the
use of synchrotron radiation (SR).
Overall, this study is part of a larger project that aims to
study the compositional characterisation of the gold leaf,
the typiication of its aging, and to establish provenance
Gold leaf analysis of three baroque altarpieces from Porto
relations, allowing a better approach to the conservation
and restoration of these coatings. hrough this study, it will
be possible to complement the information concerning the
three selected altarpieces, and also to compare them with
other altarpieces where the same masters have worked.
Acknowledgements
Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) for
PhD grant FRH/BD/38593/2007.
GeoBioTec Research Centre – Aveiro.
Technological Centre of Ceramic and Glass (CTCV) –
Coimbra.
References
CALVO, A., 2003. Conservación y Restauración - Materiales técnicas
y procedimientos – De la A a la Z. Tercera edición. Barcelona,
Ediciones del Serbal.
FERREIRA-ALVES, N.M., 1989. A Arte da Talha no Porto na Época
Barroca. Artistas e clientela. Materiais e técnica. Vol.I e II. Porto,
Arquivo Histórico, Câmara Municipal do Porto.
FERREIRA-ALVES, N.M., 2004. O douramento e a policromia no
Norte de Portugal à luz da documentação dos séculos XVII e
XVII. Policromia – A escultura policromada religiosa dos séculos
XVII e XVIII. Estudo comparativo das técnicas, alterações e conservação em Portugal, Espanha e Bélgica. Actas do Congresso
Internacional, Lisboa 29, 30 e 31 de Outubro de 2002. Lisboa,
Instituto Português de Conservação e Restauro, 17-22.
GOLDSTEIN, J.I., 1975. Electron beam – specimen interaction, in
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beams of diferent energies, Nuclear Instruments and Methods
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GUERRA, M.F. and CALLIGARO, T., 2004. Gold traces to trace gold,
Journal of Archaeological Science 31: 1199-1208.
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Mediterranean, Protecting, Preserving and Interpreting. Athens,
he PROMET Consortium, 125-140.
KHANDEKAR, N., 2003. Preparation of cross sections from easel
paintings, Reviews in Conservation 4: 52-64.
MARTÍNEZ, E., 1997. Tratado del dorado, plateado y su policromia.
Tecnología, conservación y restauración. Valencia, Departamento
de Conservación y Restauración de Bienes Culturales,
Universidad Politécnica Valência.
SERCK-DEWAIDE, M., RABELO, E., SANYOVA, J., RIBEIRO, I.,
BARREIRO, A., ROMÃO, P., LE GAC, A., NARANJO, M.C.,
GONZALEZ, M.J., LOPEZ, A.C., ARCAUTE, E.R., RAMOS, R.G.,
OLANO, M.B., SALVARREDI, I.B., IBARRARAN, E.M., 2004. Les
techniques utilisées dans l’art baroque religioux des xviie et
xviiie siècles au Portugal, en Espagne et en Belgique, in A.I.
Seruya (ed.), Policromia – A escultura policromada religiosa dos
séculos XVII e XVIII. Estudo comparativo das técnicas, alterações e
conservação em Portugal, Espanha e Bélgica. Actas do Congresso
Internacional, Lisboa 29, 30 e 31 de Outubro de 2002. Lisboa,
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SMITH, R., 1962. A talha em Portugal. Lisboa, Livros Horizonte.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 417-421
he main altarpiece of the Old Cathedral
of Coimbra (Portugal): characterization
of gold alloys used for gilding from 1500 to 1900
Le retable majeur de l’ancienne cathédrale de Coimbra (Portugal):
caractérisation des alliages d’or employés dans la dorure de 1500 à 1900
Agnès Le Gac*, Ana Isabel Seruya*, Michel Lefftz** and Adília Alarcão***
Abstract: his paper surveys gilding methods and materials found in the original polychromy and three subsequent coatings applied to the main
altarpiece of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra, between 1502 and 1900. Twenty samples from gilded surfaces were examined with optical and
scanning electron microscopy for leaf thickness, and analyzed with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy for alloy composition (semi-quantitative
evaluation). By crosschecking the documentary data (archives and technical sources) with the analytical data, the results point out several aspects:
1) two recurrent techniques can be distinguished: water-based burnished gilding on bole, and oil-based matte gilding on mordant; 2) gold leaf
thickness is clearly below one micron over time; 3) in 1502, 1583 and 1685, the hand-beaten gold corresponds to the highest grade of the metal
(up to 23 carat gold). his degree of ineness corresponds to the required purity and its transcendental meaning in the religious context in which the
precious metal was used. In 1900, the ternary alloy found, equivalent to 20 carat gold, is more pertinent with the restoration then carried out and
perhaps with the need to save money. Research on the concentrations of characteristic trace elements present in the gold alloys is being pursued.
Résumé : Le retable majeur de la Sé Velha de Coimbra a fait l’objet de quatre revêtements polychromes, parfaitement datés, de 1502 à 1900. Les dorures
qui les caractérisent ont été étudiées à partir de vingt prélèvements, pour évaluer l’épaisseur des feuilles d’or (microscopie optique et électronique à balayage),
la nature et la composition des alliages d’or (spectroscopie de rayons X à dispersion d’énergie). En croisant l’ensemble des données historiques, techniques
et analytiques, il est possible de tirer plusieurs conclusions : 1) deux techniques de dorure sont récurrentes : la dorure brunie, à l’eau et appliquée sur bol,
et la dorure mate, à l’huile et appliquée sur « or de couleur » ; 2) l’épaisseur des feuilles d’or est nettement inférieure au micron quelle que soit l’époque
considérée ; 3) en 1502, 1583 et 1685, l’or battu est in, supérieur à un or 23 carats. Ce titre est parfaitement en accord avec la pureté que l’on attendait
alors du précieux métal et l’expression de transcendance dont celui-ci était le symbole. En 1900, l’alliage ternaire employé, à peu près équivalent à un or
20 carats, répond davantage aux besoins de la restauration entreprise à cette date et, peut-être, à un souci d’économie. Une recherche sur la concentration
des éléments traces, caractéristiques de l’or suivant sa provenance, est en cours.
Keywords: Altarpiece, analysis, gilding, gold alloys, manufacturing technologies, polychromy.
Mots-clés : Alliages d’or, analyses, dorure, polychromie, retable, techniques anciennes.
* Departamento de Conservação e Restauro, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa – Campus da Caparica, 2829-516
Caparica, Portugal. (alg@fct.unl.pt)
** Facultés Universitaires Notre-Dame-de-la-Paix – Rue de Bruxelles 61, B-5000 Namur, Belgique.
*** Museu Nacional Machado de Castro – Av. António José de Almeida, 208-RC-Esq., Coimbra, Portugal.
rec. Sept. 2009 ; acc. Nov. 2009
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 423-432
424
Agnès LE GAC et al.
1. INTRODUCTION
One of the most prestigious creations of its time, the main
altarpiece of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra (Portugal) was
commissioned in 1499 by Bishop D. Jorge de Almeida. he
work was carried out by two migrant masters who came
from Southern Netherlands, but worked in the Iberian
Peninsula: Olivier de Gand (sculptor) and Jean d’Ypres
(painter-gilder) (Fig. 1). his imposing Portuguese-Flemish
altarpiece (thirteen meters high) still exhibits the colour
scheme of the 16th century, which used abundant gold and
blue, typical of lamboyant Gothic. In fact, it was totally
or partially coated four times over the ive hundred years
of its existence. Research into the historical records allows
us to date each campaign very precisely: in 1502 (gothic
and original polychromy) (Garcia, 1923), in 1583 (refurbishment restricted to a few parts) (Garcia, 1923), in 1685
(new baroque polychromy) (Louro, 1983; Le Gac, 2004a)
and in 1900 (complete restoration) (Vasconcelos, 1930).
Gold coatings were applied systematically during these four
periods and, in all cases, in the form of gold leaf. he use
of very thin hand-beaten gold leaf 1 was already established
on wooden sculptures in Northern Europe during the 11th
century (Serck-Dewaide, 1991).
Numerous publications concerning sacred polychrome
artworks contain reports of the use of metallic leaves applied
on wooden substrates. he collective work entitled Gilded
Wood (Bigelow et al., 1991) remains the seminal publication
in this ield. However, studies focussing on the quality of the
alloys, on the beating process, and on the thickness remain
rather scarce, despite the pioneering work undertaken in
Portugal by Natalia Alves 2 (1989), Maria Teresa Marques 3
(1998) and Isabel Ribeiro (Moura et al., 2004).
he main altarpiece of Coimbra provides us with an excellent opportunity to examine the trade practices of gilders
in Portugal between 1500 and 1900, and more speciically:
1) To study the diferent techniques applied for gilding
the altarpiece.
1. Several specialists who talk about hand-beaten gold (Bigelow et al.,
1991) point out two terms in English: ‘foil’, to refer to thin metal that can
support itself, holds its shape when bent, and may be attached mechanically; and ‘leaf ’, to refer to even thinner limp metal that requires some
adhesive to be laid on a substrate.
2. Natália Alves compiled many deeds executed by notaries related to
the gilding of altarpieces in the North of Portugal in the 17 th and 18th
centuries, and found several technical aspects by crosschecking the data
with goldbeaters’ practices. his documentary investigation should be confronted with the tangible aspects of the altarpieces in question.
3. his research, dealing with the qualitative and quantitative analysis
by TEM-EDS of the gold alloys used in Portugal on several baroque altarpieces, has unfortunately not been published.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 423-432
Figure 1: (See colour plate) Main altarpiece of the Old Cathedral
of Coimbra (1502).
Figure 1 : (Voir planche couleur) Retable majeur de la Sé Velha de
Coimbra (1502) © J. Pessoa.
he main altarpiece of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra (Portugal)…
2) To verify if the sets of technical particulars from each
coating are pertinent to the written historical records and
sources on gilding. In addition to medieval and Renaissance
treatises, consulted for Western European practices, priority
was given to ordinances and contracts written in Portugal
from the 16th to the 19th century.
3) To search for information on the gold products, as well
as on their speciic output.
4) To study the caratage (ct) and thickness of the gold leaf
wherever possible, taking into account the fact that only
traces of the original polychromy and its refurbishment of
1583 remain today, as they were almost completely stripped
of in 1685. he baroque re-polychromy, which is the stage
most visible today, together with the restoration carried out
in 1900 are therefore the two interventions which best allow
systematic research.
2. METHODS
Twenty samples were taken from the gilded parts of the
altarpiece (architectural structure, several statuettes, and statues from the irst and third tiers). hey were mounted in
synthetic resin and prepared as cross-sections. All layers were
irst examined by optical microscopy and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) for high magniication images. he composition of the gold alloys was ascertained using energydispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), which permits major
element point analysis and semi-quantitative evaluations.
Because the samples were very small (0.5-1 mm3) and the
layers so well adhered to one another, the gold leaf could not
be separated 4 from the surrounding materials, either below
(such as bole) or above (such as paint: lead white, verdigris,
vermilion). We therefore tried to ascertain the compounds
of these surrounding layers by X-ray difraction (XRD) and
by SEM-EDX, and to consider how their elemental composition (Ca, Fe, Pb, Hg, Cu, Sb, Ti, etc.) might interfere
with that of the gold leaf and with the level of impurities
found within the gold.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Techniques
Depending on the type of surface to be covered (architectural structure or statuary of the altarpiece), the means
4. By washing, as M.T. Marques (1998) did when studying by TEMEDS gold leafs sampled from baroque altarpieces.
425
employed, and the inal efect required, two recurrent gilding techniques can be distinguished:
l) Water gilding, on bole or ‘assiette à dorer’, composed of
ochre and/or clays bound in a proteinaceous medium (usually an animal glue or egg white), whose presence is meant
to allow the gold leaf to be ixed by moistening the bole.
Once dry, the gilded part can be polished with an animal
tooth or an agate stone to obtain a brilliant and shiny inish,
hence its name of ‘burnished gilding’. For this method, the
wooden substrate has to be properly primed with a thick
white ground, which ofers better compressive strength during the burnishing. In Southern Europe, such a whiting consists of calcium sulphate in its anhydrite form (gesso) and/
or bihydrite form (gypsum), applied with a proteinaceous
binder.
2) Oil gilding, over mordant or ‘or de couleur’, composed
of a fat layer made of a drying-oil containing pigments rich
in metallic oxides. he gold leaf was laid on when this layer
was nearly dry. It cannot be polished, hence its generally
accepted name of ‘matte gilding’ 5. his technique requires
less care in preparation and execution.
In both cases, there will be an inluence on the tone of the
gold from the coloured underlayers.
In 1502 we observe: 1) water gilding on the structure of
the altarpiece, where the gold leaf is applied to an extremely
ine bole of a very pale orange colour (Fig. 2); 2) oil gilding
on tin leaf in the production of ‘appliqué relief brocades’ 6
which still exist in the niches in the irst, third and fourth
tier, and that perhaps once also covered the rich garments
of the igures. Here, the gold leaf is laid on a translucent
and reddish oil layer containing lead-based pigments. While
a translucent red glaze, essentially organic, brings out the
contrast of the brocade pattern in the irst tier, we found
evidence of a translucent greenish copper glaze in one crosssection from the third tier.
In 1583, we observe only oil gilding, applied on the architectural structure without prior whiting, to refresh some
parts. he topography of the gold leaf is very irregular. It has
been attached to a thick dark red layer containing coarsely
ground lead-based pigments, clays and iron-oxides (Fig. 2).
5. Even though the surface of a non-burnished water gilding could
achieve a poor relective efect as well, leaving a low gloss surface, sometimes quite dull, without any brilliancy.
6. ‘Appliqué relief brocade’ refers to both the imitation of sumptuous
brocades and the technique itself, by reproducing the relief design and
gluing it to wooden and gessoed panels or sculptures. Following a certain
pattern unit, motifs ranging from 4 cm to 20 cm high were engraved in
wood or metal, allowing a production of a great number of gilded tin
leaves. he richly woven texture of fabrics embroidered in gold thread
was imitated by placing the leaves side by side. For further information,
see Serck-Dewaide (1991).
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 423-432
426
he entire process clearly indicates that Fernão da Costa,
who carried out the work in only eight days, did not have
enough time to execute the gilding more carefully by applying water gilding and covering larger areas.
In 1685, as stipulated in the contract of 1684, all the
carved elements of the structure and the statuary were treated
with burnished gilding (with the exception of lesh tone,
hair, and beard), which was laid on an orange bole (Fig. 2).
Water gilding was all the more imperative for the clothing
once the technique of sgraito (‘estofado’ in Portuguese) was
also required by the commissioner. his other technique,
closely connected with gilding (described in detail by Nunes
[1615] and Pacheco [1649]), reproduced the brocade fabrics
still in fashion. It involved painting a colour in egg tempera
over burnished gilding and stripping of the paint selectively
in diferent design patterns to expose the shiny gold beneath
(Serck-Dewaide, 1991). A small raised hand moulded texture, meant to imitate to perfection the weft looped weave
of Italian or Spanish brocades, was applied to complete the
surfaces of the clothing (Le Gac, 2004b). Such inal decorations are made in wax, hence water repellent; therefore, they
are the only ones covered with oil gilding (not mentioned in
the contract). Between the wax and the gold leaf, we found a
very ine ‘or de couleur’, whose complex elemental composition led us to believe that palette scrapings could have been
boiled with oil.
In 1900, during the restoration, 1) three movable groups
of the predella were completely or partially replaced with
new elements and then water gilded. he gold leaf was laid
on a pinkish bole and carefully polished. 2) Matte gilding
was used on the damaged elements of the architectural structure (moulding, stars glued on the lat areas, or small ixed
igures). his matte gilding is applied on a thick oily layer
of a light yellow colour 7, rich in lead, barite, cadmium and
chrome compounds, which reveal the wide range of pigments available. In places, there are indications of a hurried
application and lack of care: pigmented oil splashes over the
blue background, and wrinkles on the gold leaf (it appears to
have been laid on too soon, before the ground had dried out
suiciently). In contrast, the water gilding has been applied
with a high degree of craftsmanship. Whether this indicates
two separate gilders, or is a factor of viewing distance (the
oil gilding is much further away), it is not clear.
7. We verify thus that gilders continued to use an ‘or de couleur’,
whereas, at the end of the 18th century, they were inclined to use ‘mixtion’, an oil-based substance leaving an extremely thin layer when dry. In
Portugal, at the very beginning of the 20th century, Castro da Silva (1900)
reiterates both uses of ‘or-couleur’ and ‘mordente’.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 423-432
Agnès LE GAC et al.
Figure 2: (See colour plate) Cross-section of the gilding (R-O1).
Optical microscope, magniication 100x.
Figure 2 : (Voir planche couleur) Coupe transversale d’échantillon
(R-O1) comportant trois dorures successives (MO 100x).
Gold-beating process and raw material
Up until the 18th century, gold leaf came from mint gold
coins rather than from raw gold, described as ‘or vierge’.
Sources, either concerning Portugal or other countries in
Europe, refer to the use of “ducados” (Cennini, ca. 1400),
“scudi” (Vasari, 1550), “cruzados” (Livro dos Regimentos
1572), “piastres” or “anciennes monnaies d’Espagne” (Diderot
and d’Alembert, 1752), or very simply to “moedas de ouro”
(Brandão, 1985). While some coins were undoubtedly pure
gold, others would have been alloys. his suggests that goldbeaters must have known how to reine debased coin species by cupellation and quarting (Guerra and Gondonneau,
1998).
hickness of the gold leaf and its performance
Early sources indicate that the thickness of the metal leaves
was of great importance because: 1) it afects the spreading
capacity and performance of the leaf; 2) a very thin leaf
creates an illusion at a lower cost, since it can be applied to
materials of inferior quality, giving the impression that they
are made out of solid gold or silver; 3) while thicker leaves
are well adapted to lat surfaces, thinner leaves are more
suitable for carved elements.
Gold and silver, in thinly beaten leaves, will cover larger
areas with a much reduced weight of metal. Table 1 summarizes the documents where we found one or more references to the type of gold used (mint gold coins or raw
he main altarpiece of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra (Portugal)…
427
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 423-432
Table 1 : Weight* of gold used for the beating process and output by square meters obtained with the beaten gold leaves, according to several documentary sources.
Tableau 1 : Poids* d’or utilisé pour la batte, et « rendement supericiel » des feuilles battues à partir de quelques sources anciennes.
428
gold), the weight of gold required for the beating process,
the number of leaves obtained and/or their dimensions. he
number of leaves obtained from an approximate weight of
28 g increases signiicantly over time. he number of leaves
rises from 500-700 in the 1st century (Plinius) to 1190 in
the 14th century (Cennini), to 1366 in 1550 (Vasari), to
1600-2000 in 1690 (Furetière), until 2407-2880 in 1750
(Savary des Bruslons). he increase of the area covered is
also signiicant, successively from 726-931 m2 in the 16th
century (Vasari, 1550), to 1114 m2 during the 17th century
(Furetière, 1690), and 1587-1899 m2 in the 18th century
(Savary des Bruslons, 1750).
he observation of all the gold leaves of the main altarpiece of Coimbra with SEM (magniication up to 5000x)
reveals thicknesses clearly below 1 µm, varying between 0.24
and 0.45 µm. hese dimensions are not absolute, since there
are other parameters to consider: 1) gold, even burnished,
presents an irregular surface on a micrometric scale; 2) if
laking of, the gold leaf seems to be thicker than in reality; 3) overlaps can falsify the indings as well; 4) if sample
cross-sections are not precisely positioned, any slight deviation can be suicient to modify the apparent thickness of
all the layers.
Although Cennini (ca. 1400) recommended “the use of
thicker gold on panels and thinner gold on mouldings and
leaves”, we have not studied this aspect. In the altarpiece,
the lat surfaces are reserved for the application of the colour
blue. he other parts of the architectural structure and the
statuary are all carved in the round, resulting in more or less
complex volumes and an unclear demarcation between lat
and rounded areas.
Caratage (ct) and gold leaf quality
On the entire set of results obtained by SEM-EDX, Au
is present in the highest quantity. Its purity is such that,
between 1502 and 1685, gold appears to have been the sole
metal acceptable. he elemental composition of the gold
shows very minor amounts of Cu and sometimes, but rarely,
Ag. Most of the time, the readings for Cu and Ag fall below
the margin of error. Nevertheless, every time a peak for Cu
or Ag appeared in the spectra, even if very weak, those elements were taken into account, in case they were present as
traces. he original gilding (1502) has a high Au content
(wt%), more than 99%; the one from 1583 shows a little Cu
(one analysis, among the four we carried out, indicated that
it contains 1.6% Cu); and Cu was found as well in 1685,
from circa 0.5% to 4.5%, according to the speciic decorative surfaces (water or oil gilded). hese results indicate that
either high purity native gold alloys were used for making
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 423-432
Agnès LE GAC et al.
the gold leaf, when Cu reaches a concentration of ca. 1%
(Guerra and Calligaro, 2003), or that Cu was intentionally
introduced in the fabrication of the very thin leaf to modify
its hardness 8, and, perhaps, colour. he last, 1900 gold leaf
is of lower quality. It clearly corresponds to an Au-Ag-Cu
alloy – the so-called ‘ternary alloy’ obtained when the three
metals are intentionally mixed together – in which Au is
nearing 83%, and which is approximately equivalent to a
20 ct gold alloy.
In interpreting the results from the perspective of the
History of Art in general and of the history of the altarpiece
in particular, it is useful to consider the following aspects:
At the end of the 15th century, and according to guild
regulations, for Brussels in 1454 and Antwerp in 1470
(Pagès-Camagna, 2002) for example, only ine gold could
be used by the painter-gilders on altarpieces. Jean d’Ypres
would not only have been fully aware of such restrictions,
but would have also imported this practice with him (as he
did for many other techniques applied by the workshops
of Brabant that we found on the altarpiece of Coimbra).
In Portugal, however, the control over materials was the
privilege of the commissioner. Taking into account the aweinspiring spectacle Bishop D. Jorge de Almeida sought to
produce with his imposing project (Vasconcelos, 1930), he
had no reason not to impose the greatest reinement, and
therefore the use of a very pure gold 9. his aspect has been
veriied by the present study.
In 1583, the amounts of money assigned to the purchase
of materials and the manpower necessary for refurbishing
the altarpiece were limited. Only 1100 real were allocated
for the gold leaf. At that time, a “milheiro” (a “thousand”,
i.e. ten booklets of a hundred gold leaves each) cost between
3000 and 5000 real, depending on where it was obtained
(Lisbon or Oporto), but perhaps also on how the gold was
produced, its thickness and ineness. As the analyses show,
very pure gold has been utilized, indicating that Fernão da
8. Fully aware that “Gold in its perfect pure form is soft” and that “the
more metals are hard, the more they can have a beautiful polish” (Diderot and
d’Alembert, 1765), we wonder if the presence of copper in gold leaves was
meant to make the alloys slightly harder and turn the gilded surfaces more
brilliant when burnished. In any case, it appeared that the intentional
addition of copper did not hinder beating the gold to obtain leaves of an
extreme thinness.
9. Diferent types of gold leaf were fabricated at that time and are specially mentioned to be used for artistic purposes in contracts written in
Portugal in the 15th and 16th centuries (Garcia, 1923). he ‘ouro meão’
or ‘ouro meado’ – the so-called ‘Zwischengold’ in German, ‘oro di metà’
in Italian and ‘party gold’ in English – made up part of the set. he ‘ouro
meão’ corresponds to a gold leaf and a silver leaf beaten together, equal in
strength to a single metal leaf, whose gold side is used as the outer surface.
Considering its deceptive appearance and low cost, associated with its
poor aging, its use for artworks was proscribed in Lisbon in 1539, and
again in 1572.
he main altarpiece of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra (Portugal)…
Costa did not compromise by using a low-grade and cheaper
alloy; he rather respected the transcendental meaning of the
most precious metal above all others in the religious context
in which it had to be used.
At the end of the 17th century, the gilding of the altarpiece was a matter of priority for Bishop D. João de Mello,
and while the changes represented the cutting edge of the
new baroque polychromy, the dichromatic (gold and blue)
character of the gothic coating was preserved. he contract
signed in 1684 insisted on the gold being “subido”, i.e. of a
very high grade, “bem corado”, colourful, and “brunido”, burnished on all the parts to be gilded (carved elements of the
structure and statuary). hese adjectives, used to characterize
“the gold” 10 occur in a great number of Portuguese contracts
of the 17th and 18th centuries (Brandão, 1984-1985; Alves,
1989; Le Gac in Serck-Dewaide et al., 2004). he contract
is very explicit: Manuel da Costa Pereira, the painter-gilder
who was in charge, had to use ine gold, of a saturated yellow, and obtain a brilliant inish using the water-gilding
technique. he mention of the colour is signiicant because,
up to the 18th century, the quality of gold or silver was very
often evaluated based on their visual aspect 11. Any reference
to colour would also be intended to diferentiate ‘ine gold’
(24 ct gold) from ‘common gold’ (23.25 ct gold, redder,
containing up to 12 grains of silver [2.08%] and 6 grains
of copper [1.04%]), and from ‘pale gold or green gold’
(16 ct gold, a lot less yellow, containing up to a third of
silver). hese three types of beaten gold leaf were oicially
recognised at the beginning of the 18th century (Savary des
Bruslons, 1723; Diderot and d’Alembert, 1752). It should
be pointed out again that the gold caratage is not speciied in
the altarpiece contract. he mention of the gold caratage is
practically – not to say totally – omitted in the contracts of
this period 12; hence the importance of inding a deed signed
by the same artist in 1686 for the gilding of another altar10. In French, as well as in Portuguese, the word ‘gold’ (‘or’ / ‘ouro’) in
use at this time means ‘gilding’ (‘dorure’ / ‘douramento’), the latter being
rather reserved to textile art (gold or silver wire, in lamella and ilé).
11. Until the 18th century, the sworn assayers from he Royal Mint
used the touchstone (a small tablet of dark stone) to assay precious metal
alloys. On one hand, they left on the touchstone a visible trace of each
reference gold alloy, fabricated as a little stick and whose caratage was well
known (known as ‘toucheaux’ in French); and on the other hand, they did
the same with the metal alloy they had to control. “According to the degree
of conformity they found between the color of this latter metal and the color of
a determined reference alloy, they were able to decide on its purity” (Diderot
and d’Alembert, 1765). We thus understand better why commissioners
accorded such extreme importance to the colour of the gold alloy.
12. Among hundreds of contracts they red, Natália Alves found only
three (dated 1712 and 1737) that refer to the gold alloy caratage, more
speciically to a “23.5 carat gold” (Alves, 1989) and Fausto Sanchez Martins
(1994) found one contract (dated 1710), that stipulates the use of a
“twenty-three and two thirds carat gold”.
429
piece, in which it was stipulated “to use a pure twenty fourcarat gold similar to the one employed on the main altarpiece of
the Cathedral [of Coimbra]” (Garcia, 1923). his demand is
all the more exceptional because it refers to a perfectly pure
gold. According to Furetière (1690) and Savary des Bruslons
(1723), this was extremely diicult to obtain: “gold can never
be reined up to this [level] – 24 carats – there are always some
small fractions missing”. Diderot and d’Alembert (1768) add:
“it is enough that the test tube reports 23 carats to the gold leaf
be reputed ine, as the missing weight cannot be prejudicial to
the highest-grade gold”.
We therefore conclude, considering the results we obtained
by SEM-EDX, that Manuel da Costa Pereira respected the
terms of the contract. Taking into account the enormous
amount of gold present, the gilding shows great consistency,
both in quality and execution, despite the participation of
many individuals organised in a workshop, as was usual at
this period for large-scale operations. Such homogeneity
is dependent irst on the goldbeater, in Portugal, who had
to produce all the “milheiros” necessary for the gilding of
a single artwork (Brandão, 1985; Alves, 1989). It seems,
however, that the diferences observed in the gold caratage
between water gilding and oil gilding were likely due to the
painter-gilder himself or one of his craftsmen. he results for
oil gilding clearly show that it was a deliberate choice to use
a low-grade gold on statuettes, where gilding was required
on the small wax ornaments (which had been irst applied
to the garments of the small igures). We were not able to
establish if the use of ca. 21.5 ct gold leaf was a matter of
economy – a low-grade gold cannot be noticed on very small
objects – or if it was rather an aesthetic concern, that of differentiating burnished gold from matte gold.
he caratage of the gilding used in the 1900 restoration
does not comply with the purest commercial grade accessible
at the time (a 23 ct gold), that was especially manufactured,
among other gold alloys for indoor exposure, in Lisbon, by
A Favrel Lisbonense (Varella, 1901) (Table 2). Both caratages
identiied by SEM-EDX (20 ct and c. 19.5 ct) correspond
to Varella’s yellow greenish gold alloys: either “cidrão claro”
(“light citron” – 20 ct gold) or “verde 1ª” (“extra ine green”
– 19 ct gold) 13. Once again, was the quality of the gold leaf
chosen for an economic reason or an aesthetic one? he gold
alloy used in the gilded surfaces would have resulted in an
obvious change of hue, from an original warmer tone to a
pale one, reinforced by the very light yellow ground over
which the gold leaf was laid. While the restoration appears
13. he list of colours available in England in 1929, published by
Andrew Lins (1991), shows that the designation of gold leaves according
to their alloy quality varies from one country to another, and from date to
date. he one that we are considering is not standardised.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 423-432
430
Agnès LE GAC et al.
well blended nowadays, we wondered whether, at the time
of application, there had been an attempt to visually ‘integrate’ the new gilding. In the samples of the most recent
oil gilding, we did not ind any tinted layer above it which
would have provided a certain patina.
Further investigation: Origin of the gold supply
hese preliminary results, compared with the precisely dated documents to which we had access, and with
published studies on the circulation of gold in the past
(Godinho, 1971; Guerra and Calligaro, 2003), led us to
formulate some theories about the provenance of this metal:
for the irst metal leaf (1502), it is possible that the gold
came from Northern Africa, for the second (1583) from
Western Africa, for the third (1685) via the Spanish from
the mines of Colombia, and for the fourth (1900) from
Brazilian ores. It proved diicult to conirm the provenance
of the gold in this study for various reasons: the very thin
layers of gold (0.24-0.45 µm) available for study, and their
location, surrounded by materials whose elemental composition could compromise the characterisation of trace elements in the gold. Indicators, such as the presence of Pt in
the gold leaf from 1685, or Pd in the leaf from 1900 (Guerra
and Calligaro, 2003), could provide a certain provenance.
However, attempts to identify them using particle induced
X-ray emission (PIXE) or synchrotron radiation X-ray luorescence spectroscopy (SR-XRF) did not yet provide satisfactory results. his study is currently being pursued.
On the main altarpiece of the cathedral of Coimbra, different gilders applied the procedures of their time while perpetuating an age-old craft tradition that changed little since
the one described by Cennini (ca. 1400). his study has
revealed new information, but in order to understand how
widespread these practices were, we must rely on further
research. We look forward to further information on three
Oporto gilded altarpieces provided in the study of Bidarra
et al. (2009) in order to broaden our understanding of the
gilding techniques used in Portugal, particularly during the
baroque period.
Acknowledgments
Table 2: Gold alloys for indoor exposure, available at A Favrel
Lisbonense in 1901.
Tableau 2 : Alliage d’or en feuilles pour dorure d’intérieur, disponibles
chez A Favrel Lisbonense en 1901.
ArcheoSciences, revue d’archéométrie, 33, 2009, p. 423-432
he authors are extremely grateful to Isabel Nogueira, of
the Instituto Superior Técnico / Instituto de Ciência e
Engenharia de Materiais e Superfícies (Lisbon), for providing
the analytical data by SEM-EDX, to Maria José Vinagre, of
the Departamento de Estudo dos Materiais / Instituto dos
Museus e da Conservação (Lisbon), for providing the analytical
data by XRD, and to Maria Filomena Guerra, of the Centre
he main altarpiece of the Old Cathedral of Coimbra (Portugal)…
de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France, for
accepting the challenge to try to measure the concentration of
characteristic trace elements in the gold leaf (by PIXE, with the
AGLAE accelerator). hey especially thank Marie-Louise Hugon
and Josephine de Linde for translating this paper from French
into English, and Leslie Carlyle for technical content editing.
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