Journal of Medical Microbiology (2007), 56, 1356–1362
DOI 10.1099/jmm.0.47265-0
Simplified detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis
in sputum using smear microscopy and PCR with
molecular beacons
Sagarika Haldar,1 Soumitesh Chakravorty,13 Manpreet Bhalla,2
Shyamasree De Majumdar1 and Jaya Sivaswami Tyagi1
Correspondence
1
Jaya Sivaswami Tyagi
jstyagi@aiims.ac.in
2
Received 2 March 2007
Accepted 21 June 2007
Department of Biotechnology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Ansari Nagar, New Delhi
110029, India
Lala Ram Sarup Institute of TB and Respiratory Diseases, New Delhi 110030, India
The prompt diagnosis of smear-negative cases is a prerequisite to controlling tuberculosis (TB).
Several new laboratory approaches, including nucleic acid amplification (NAA), are being
evaluated in various disease settings to meet this challenge. However, NAA needs simplification
before it is widely accepted. Furthermore, a supporting smear result improves confidence in and
reliability of PCR. In this context, an asymmetric devR PCR assay using two molecular beacon
probes for visual or fluorimetric end-point detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis was
developed. The assays reproducibly detected 25 fg M. tuberculosis DNA versus 100 fg by
conventional gel electrophoresis (henceforth referred to as gel assay). The devR and IS6110 PCR
assays were blindly evaluated on sputum specimens obtained from a directly observed-treatment
short-course centre. Universal sample processing (USP) smear microscopy and culture were
used as a supportive test and the ‘gold’ standard, respectively. Among the 148 specimens
analysed, 120 were M. tuberculosis culture-positive. Amongst the 122 direct smear-negative
samples, 96 were culture-positive, of which 61 were detected by USP smear microscopy. All 35
USP smear-negative samples were positive by three or more PCR methods. devR PCR had a
sensitivity of 92.5 % in the fluorimetric assay versus 86.7 % by visual inspection and 90.8 % by the
gel method. IS6110 PCR performed at almost equivalent levels. devR visual and fluorimetric
assays considered together yielded an increased sensitivity of 95 % without compromising on a
specificity of 92.9 %. The results suggest that the USP smear test is useful for diagnosing direct
smear-negative TB and judiciously restricting PCR testing to only smear-negative samples.
When used together, these tests can provide rapid diagnosis of smear-negative TB in a costeffective manner.
INTRODUCTION
Tuberculosis (TB) continues to be a leading cause of death
with ~2 million casualties annually worldwide (WHO,
2005). Conventional approaches adopted for the diagnosis
of TB include medical history, tuberculin skin test, chest
X-rays and bacteriological examination. The poor sensitivity of conventional smear microscopy and the delay in
obtaining culture results prevent the early diagnosis of
TB. We demonstrated the improved detection of direct
3Present address: Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of
Medicine and the Ruy V. Lourenço Center for the Study of Emerging
and Reemerging Pathogens, New Jersey Medical School, University of
Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
Abbreviations: FAM, 6-carboxyfluorescein; ISBCN, IS6110 beacon;
TB, tuberculosis; TO, target oligonucleotide; USP, universal sample
processing.
1356
smear-negative cases by universal sample processing
(USP) smear microscopy (Chakravorty & Tyagi, 2005;
Chakravorty et al., 2005a). However, a more sensitive test is
required to detect samples with a low bacterial load. Since
the advent of PCR, there has been an explosion in its use
for TB diagnosis owing to its speed and sensitivity
(Eisenach, 1998). However, these advantages are partially
offset by economic and technical factors and simplification
is required before PCR can be widely employed. In
addition, PCR is often associated with some degree of
false positivity (Beige et al., 1995). However, a positive
smear result enhances the diagnostic accuracy of a positive
PCR in the absence of culture (Haldar et al., 2005).
PCR products are most frequently detected by electrophoresis, which is cumbersome, time-consuming and
carries a risk of cross-contamination. Alternatively, PCR
products can be detected by molecular beacons that
47265 G 2007 SGM Printed in Great Britain
M. tuberculosis detection in sputum
fluoresce upon hybridization to complementary target DNA
thereby enabling rapid detection of pathogens. However,
they have been mostly used in real-time formats (Tyagi &
Kramer, 1996; Tsourkas & Bao, 2003). We have previously
used devR PCR in gel assays for diagnosing pulmonary and
extra-pulmonary TB (Singh et al., 1999, 2000; Chakravorty
et al., 2005b, 2006). Against this background, we developed
an asymmetric devR PCR assay and used two 6-carboxyfluorescein (FAM)-labelled molecular beacons for end-point
detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis DNA in sputum.
The devR assay was compared with the molecular-beaconbased IS6110 PCR described previously (Piatek et al., 1998).
USP smear microscopy and PCR results were analysed using
culture as the ‘gold’ standard. The tests were found to be
robust and the judicious use of PCR along with USP smears
should find use in the rapid detection of smear-negative
samples in high-TB-incidence settings.
METHODS
Clinical specimens. Sputum samples (n5148) were collected from
subjects attending the directly-observed-treatment short-course
(DOTS) centre at the Lala Ram Sarup Institute of TB and
Respiratory Diseases (LRS) and included 120 M. tuberculosis
culture-positive and 28 culture-negative samples (retrospectively
determined). Under the DOTS strategy, only subjects who are
classified positive by direct smear test are given anti-tubercular
therapy. Consequently, smear-negative TB cases are not treated. In
this study, an effort was made to collect samples that were either
direct smear-negative or with a low bacterial load. In this way, we
could assess the role of USP smear microscopy and PCR in rapidly
detecting direct-smear-negative TB in samples whose culture status
was established only 2–4 weeks thereafter. Sputum portions remaining after routine smear microscopy testing were collected before antitubercular treatment was initiated at the DOTS centre. All samples
were stored at 4 uC within 5–6 h of collection and processed within
the next 6–36 h.
Specimen processing. Aliquots of USP-processed samples were
analysed by smear microscopy, culture and PCR as described
previously (Chakravorty & Tyagi, 2005; Chakravorty et al., 2005a).
Briefly, 1.5–2 vols USP solution [6 M guanidinium hydrochloride,
50 mM Tris/Cl (pH 7.5), 25 mM EDTA, 0.5 % Sarcosyl, 0.1 M bmercaptoethanol (all from Sigma)] was added to each sputum sample.
After incubation for 5–10 min at room temperature (or 15 min at
37 uC if the sample was extremely viscous), 10–15 ml sterile water was
added and the sample was centrifuged at 5000–6000 g for 15–20 min
at room temperature. The supernatant was discarded carefully and the
sediment was washed once more with 2 ml USP solution and
recentrifuged as before. The pellet was washed thoroughly with 10 ml
water, resuspended in 500 ml 0.05 % Tween 80 and used for smear
microscopy (20 %), culture (40 %) and DNA isolation and PCR
(40 %).
The slides were subjected to Ziehl–Neelsen staining and graded by two
independent readers as described previously (Akhtar et al., 2000). USPprocessed deposits were inoculated in 7H9 liquid media containing
albumin dextrose complex and PANTA (polymyxin B, amphotericin B,
nalidixic acid, trimethoprim and azlocillin) supplement (Becton
Dickinson) to maximize the isolation of bacteria from smear-negative
samples. The tubes were incubated at 37 uC for up to 4 weeks. USP has
been shown previously to be compatible with solid and liquid culture
media and was no more toxic than N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NALC)–NaOH
(Chakravorty & Tyagi, 2005). The cultures were confirmed by M.
tuberculosis complex-specific devR PCR (Chakravorty et al., 2006). A
definite TB diagnosis was made with a positive culture from sputum.
DNA was isolated from the remaining 200 ml portion of the sample as
described previously (Chakravorty & Tyagi, 2005). Briefly, 120 ml lysis
solution containing 10 % Chelex-100 (Bio-Rad Laboratories), 0.3 %
Tween 20 and 0.03 % Triton X-100 (both from Sigma) was added to
the processed sediment, mixed well and incubated at 90 uC for 40 min.
The lysate was centrifuged briefly at 12 000 r.p.m. for 10 min and used
in PCR.
Design and characterization of the molecular beacons. MB 1
and MB 2 molecular beacon oligonucleotide probes (Metabion)
mapped within the M. tuberculosis devR gene (Table 1). The annealing
temperature for PCR was determined from the denaturation profiles
of the molecular beacons as described by Tyagi & Kramer (1996).
Table 1. Sequences of the primers and molecular beacon probes used in the study
Primer/molecular
beacon
devRf4*
devRr3*
ISBCNF
ISBCNR
MB 1D
MB 2d
TO 1
TO 2
ISBCN
IS6110 TO
Sequence (5§–3§)
CCGATCTGCGCTGTCTGATC
GTCCAGCGCCCACATCTTT
CTAACCGGCTGTGGGTAG
GTCTTTCAGGTCGAGTAC
FAM-GGCCGTAAAGACATCAAGGGAATGGAACGGCC-DABCYL
FAM-GGCCGTTCACGTCCTACACCTCTACGGCC-DABCYL
TCCATTCCCTTGATGTCTTT
AGAGGTGTAGGACGTGA
FAM-GCACCGAGGTGGCCATCGTGGAAGCGGGTGC-DABCYL
GCTTCCACGATGGCCACCT
Target gene, detection format
Size of PCR product
Reference
devR, fluorescence-based, gel-based
144 bp
This study
IS6110, fluorescence-based, gel-based
200 bp
Piatek et al. (1998)
devR, fluorescence-based
–
This study
devR, fluorescence-based
–
This study
devR, fluorescence-based
IS6110, fluorescence-based
–
–
–
This study
This study
Piatek et al. (1998)
IS6110, fluorescence-based
–
This study
*devRf4 and devRr3 amplified a region mapping between M. tuberculosis genome coordinates 3 499 551 and 3 499 694.
DMB 1, M. tuberculosis genome coordinates 3 499 586–3 499 605.
dMB 2, M. tuberculosis genome coordinates 3 499 657–3 499 673.
http://jmm.sgmjournals.org
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S. Haldar and others
Briefly, the change in fluorescence of MB 1, MB 2 or the IS6110
beacon (ISBCN) either present alone or with the corresponding
complementary target oligonucleotide (TO) over a temperature range
was measured in the I-Cycler (Bio-Rad). For this, two tubes
containing 0.3 mM each of MB 1 and MB 2 or ISBCN in 50 ml buffer
(3.5 mM MgCl2 and 10 mM Tris/HCl, pH 8.0) and 0.3 mM each of
MB 1 and MB 2 plus 0.6 mM devR TO 1 and TO 2 or IS6110 TO were
subjected to a decrease in temperature from 96 uC to 41 uC in 1 uC
steps and fluorescence was measured during a 30 s hold at each
temperature. The melting curve of the molecular beacons was
obtained from a 2dF/dT plot. The signal to noise ratio of MB 1,
MB 2 and MB 1+MB 2 was determined by measuring the
fluorescence intensity of the molecular beacon in the presence or
absence of a twofold excess of its corresponding TO at 43 uC (Fig. 1).
PCR assays. Six PCR assays were performed on each sputum
sample. The devR-specific primers were designed to amplify a short
segment of DNA (144 bp) for efficient annealing with the molecular
beacons. The details of primers and the sizes of the PCR amplification
products are given in Table 1. Three detection formats were
employed: molecular-beacon-based end-point detection using fluorimetric and visual methods (methods 1 and 2, respectively) and gel
detection using ethidium bromide (method 3).
For devR assays (methods 1 and 2), the reactions contained 0.1 mM
devRf4 primer, 0.5 mM devRr3 primer (Microsynth), 16 PCR buffer
(100 mM Tris/HCl, pH 8.8, 500 mM KCl, 0.8 % Nonidet P40),
4 mM MgCl2, 0.25 mM dNTPs, 2.5 U Taq DNA polymerase
(GeneTaq; MBI Fermentas), 10 ml specimen DNA and 0.3 mM and
0.6 mM each of MB 1 and MB 2 for methods 1 and 2, respectively. For
the devR assay (method 3), reactions contained 0.5 mM each of
primers devRf4 and devRr3, 16 PCR buffer, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 0.2 mM
dNTPs, 1 U Taq DNA polymerase and 10 ml specimen DNA. The
thermal cycling parameters were 10 min at 94 uC, 45 cycles each of
1 min at 94 uC, 1 min at 43 uC and 30 s at 72 uC and a final
extension of 7 min at 72 uC. For methods 1 and 2, this was followed
by a final denaturation (94 uC for 5 min) and annealing (43 uC for
10 min).
For IS6110 assays (methods 1 and 2), the reactions contained 0.1 mM
IS6110 forward primer, 0.5 mM IS6110 reverse primer (herein referred
to as ISBCNF and ISBCNR primers), 16 PCR buffer, 4 mM MgCl2,
0.25 mM dNTPs, 2.5 U Taq DNA polymerase, 10 ml specimen DNA
and 0.3 mM and 0.6 mM ISBCN for methods 1 and 2, respectively.
IS6110 assay (method 3) reactions contained 0.5 mM each of primers
ISBCNF and ISBCNR (Piatek et al., 1998), 16 PCR buffer, 1.5 mM
MgCl2, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 1 U Taq DNA polymerase and 10 ml
specimen DNA. The thermal cycling parameters were 10 min at
94 uC, 45 cycles each of 1 min at 94 uC, 1 min at 60 uC and 30 s at
72 uC, and a final extension of 7 min at 72 uC. For methods 1 and 2,
this was followed by a final denaturation (94 uC for 5 min) and
annealing (60 uC for 10 min).
Detection of amplified products. In method 1 (fluorimetric
format), the reaction contents were transferred into wells of a 96well plate containing 150 ml 20 mM Tris/Cl (pH 8.0) and 1 mM
MgCl2 and the fluorescence was measured using 491 nm excitation
and 515 nm emission in a spectrofluorimeter (Spectra MAX Gemini
XS; Molecular Devices) at 43 uC. In method 2 (visual format), the
tubes were placed over a blue light source (Dark Reader; Clare
Chemical Research) for detection of fluorescence by visual inspection
by two persons. In method 3 (gel format), the PCR products were
detected by ethidium bromide staining after electrophoresis on a
2.3 % agarose gel and illumination with UV light.
Performance of the devR PCR assay. The limit of detection was
evaluated on serial dilutions of purified M. tuberculosis DNA. PCR
assays were set up as described above in fluorimetric, visual and gel
formats. The specificity of the devR PCR assay was assessed using
DNA in crude lysates prepared from scrapings of mycobacterial
cultures grown on Löwenstein–Jensen slants by heating in 0.1 %
Triton X-100 for 40 min at 90 uC.
Statistical analysis. The diagnostic performance of PCR was
evaluated using culture as the ‘gold’ standard. Test results were
classified as true positives (Tp), true negatives (Tn), false positives
(Fp) and false negatives (Fn). Sensitivity was calculated as [Tp/(Tp
+Fn)]6100 and specificity as [Tn/(Tn+Fp)]6100. The efficiency
was calculated as [Tp+Tn/N]6100, where N5148. The statistical
parameter Z factor was used to evaluate the quality of the fluorimetric
assay (Zhang et al., 1999). The significance of the difference between
direct and USP smear results was calculated using McNemar’s test
(Altman, 1991). The performance of various detection techniques was
assessed for agreement between them by calculating the kappa
agreement value (Altman, 1991).
Fig. 1. Signal to noise ratio of molecular beacons. The signal to
noise ratio of MB 1, MB 2 and MB 1+ MB 2 was determined by
measuring the beacon fluorescence intensity in the presence of a
twofold excess of its corresponding TO at 43 6C. (a) Tubes: 1, MB
1; 2, MB 1+TO 1; 3, MB 2; 4, MB 2+TO 2; 5, MB 1+ MB 2;
6, MB 1+MB 2+TO 1+TO 2. (b) Relative fluorescence (RFU)
of reactions containing the molecular beacons indicated in the
presence of their corresponding TOs.
1358
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This study was designed to assess a sensitive smear
microscopy technique and simplified PCR test for
diagnosing smear-negative TB. USP methodology was used
to process samples (n5148) since portions of the same
Journal of Medical Microbiology 56
M. tuberculosis detection in sputum
processed sediment could be used for smear microscopy,
culture and PCR. USP smear microscopy was performed as
it is highly sensitive and can support PCR findings
(Chakravorty et al., 2005a; Haldar et al., 2005). Culture
was used as the ‘gold’ standard to evaluate USP smear
microscopy and PCR performance.
Improved detection by USP smear microscopy
A sensitive smear test is an extremely handy and low-cost
tool for diagnosing TB in endemic disease settings. The
USP smear technique was expected to detect additional
positive samples over and above those detected by direct
smear examination. One hundred and twenty of 148
samples were positive by liquid culture. Eighty-five of 120
culture-positive samples were USP smear-positive in
contrast to only 24 that were positive by direct smear
examination, and not a single direct smear-positive sample
was missed. USP smears could detect 61 more samples as
positive than the direct smear technique. Thus direct smear
microscopy had a sensitivity of only 20 % versus USP
smear, which had a sensitivity of ~71 % (Table 2; P
,0.0001). These samples were predominantly of scanty
grade and their detection is consistent with the enhanced
performance of USP smear microscopy (Chakravorty et al.,
2005a). We cannot explain why two USP smear-positive
samples failed to grow in culture and yet were positive
according to all six PCR assays.
Evaluation of PCR assays and molecular beacons
From the thermal denaturation profiles of MB 1 and MB 2,
43 uC was determined to be the optimum annealing
temperature for PCR (not shown). The use of asymmetric
PCR and two molecular beacons (vs one molecular beacon)
improved the signal intensity by over twofold both visually
and fluorimetrically (Fig. 1). This was attributed to the
preferential accumulation of the target DNA strand during
asymmetric amplification.
Performance of PCR assays
The devR PCR assay was judged to be quite specific for M.
tuberculosis complex organisms. DNA from both M.
tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis was detected and in
silico analysis indicated that devR is completely conserved in
Mycobacterium africanum and Mycobacterium microti (http://
www.sanger.ac.uk/sequencing/Mycobacterium/africanum/;
http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects/M_microti/). The assay
could not distinguish between the M. tuberculosis complex
and Mycobacterium kansasii DNA (not shown). However,
M. tuberculosis can be readily verified by IS6110 PCR, which
does not detect M. kansasii (Hellyer et al., 1996). It should
be mentioned that M. tuberculosis lacking IS6110 and M.
kansasii cannot be discriminated by these two assays since
they are both positive for the devR assay and negative for
IS6110 PCR. However, the detection of M. kansasii by the
devR assay was not considered to be a serious concern as the
Table 2. Results of smear and PCR tests on sputum
Test
Result
Culture
Sensitivity
(%)
Specificity
(%)
Efficiency
(%)
Positive Negative
Direct smear
USP smear
devR PCR
Fluorimetric assay
Visual assay
Gel assay
IS6110 PCR
Fluorimetric assay
Visual assay
Gel assay
Combined assay*
Total (n5148)
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
24
96
85
35
2
26
2
26
20.0
92.9
33.8
70.8
92.9
75.0
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
111
9
104
16
109
11
2
26
2
26
5
23
92.5
92.9
92.6
86.7
92.9
87.8
90.8
82.1
89.2
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
Positive
Negative
110
10
106
14
102
18
114
6
120
4
24
5
23
3
25
2
26
28
91.7
85.7
90.5
88.3
82.1
87.1
85.0
89.3
85.8
95.0
92.9
94.6
*A sample was considered to be positive when it was positive by both devR beacon-based assays.
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1359
S. Haldar and others
yield of mycobacteria other than tubercle (MOTT) bacilli
from clinically suspected cases is negligible in India
(Katoch, 2004). In our own experience too, MOTT bacilli
were not isolated while handling over 2000 cultures.
To determine the limit of detection of M. tuberculosis
DNA, serial DNA dilutions ranging from 500 ng to 10 fg
were added to devR PCR reactions. By the gel assay, up to
100 fg DNA was detected. The fluorimetric and the visual
methods were somewhat more sensitive and could detect
25 fg DNA (Fig. 2). When MB 1 and MB 2 were used
together, the devR assay was as sensitive as the multicopy
IS6110 assay (Fig. 2a). The Z factor was used to evaluate the
fluorimetric assays (Zhang et al., 1999); values of 0.65 and
0.7 were obtained for devR and IS6110 assays, respectively,
indicating that these assays were of good quality.
Evaluation of molecular beacons for TB detection
In the fluorimetric assays, a PCR test was considered to be
positive when the relative fluorescence units obtained with
a test sample were more than the mean relative
fluorescence units of the DNA-negative controls+3 SD.
In the visual assays, a PCR was scored as positive when the
end-point fluorescence intensity appeared to be more than
that of control tubes lacking DNA (Fig. 2b). In this study,
although USP smears had a definite utility, in that they
were positive in 85 culture-positive samples versus 24 that
were positive by direct smear examination, 35 culturepositive samples were still missed by the USP smear test
(Table 2). All these 35 samples were detected by at least
three PCR assays, indicating that PCR has a role in the
rapid diagnosis of smear-negative TB.
Using culture as the ‘gold’ standard, devR assay sensitivity
was 92.5 %, 86.7 % and 90.8 % for the fluorimetric, visual
and gel detection formats, respectively. The cutoff was
apparently set higher for a positive for the fluorimetric
assay than for the visual assay, yet the specificities of the
devR fluorimetric and visual assays were equal (92.9 %).
Perhaps this highlights that the very small numbers of
false-positive PCR results did not permit a significant
comparison of the specificities of these two assays. The
sensitivity of the IS6110 assay, in particular that of the
fluorescence-based formats, was comparable at 91.7 %,
88.3 % and 85 % for the fluorimetric, visual and gel
detection formats, respectively. The efficiency of all the
assays ranged between 85.8 % and 92.6 % (Table 2).
The various detection formats were compared using the
kappa agreement test whereby values between 0.6 and 0.8
indicate good agreement between any two tests (Altman,
1991). The devR visual and fluorimetric assays had kappa
values of 0.72 and 0.75, respectively, in comparison to the
gel assay. Likewise, the IS6110 visual and fluorimetric
assays had kappa values of 0.79 and 0.74 respectively, in
comparison to the gel assay. The fluorescence-based assays
also had good agreement amongst themselves: a value of
0.77 for both devR and IS6110 assays. On the basis of the
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Fig. 2. Limit of detection by devR and IS6110 PCR assays for the
three detection formats (a, fluorimetric; b, visual; c, gel). Serial
dilutions of M. tuberculosis DNA were added as listed below. (a, b)
Columns/tubes: 1, 250 ng; 2, 25 ng; 3, 2.5 ng; 4, 250 pg; 5,
25 pg; 6, 2.5 pg; 7, 250 fg; 8, 25 fg; 9, DNA negative control. (c)
Lanes: M, 100 bp DNA ladder; 1, 250 ng; 2, 25 ng; 3, 2.5 ng; 4,
250 pg; 5, 25 pg; 6, 2.5 pg; 7, 250 fg; 8, 100 fg; 9, 25 fg; 10,
10 fg; 11, DNA negative control.
kappa agreement test results (P ,0.0001), we conclude that
end-point detection with fluorescent probes performed
well in comparison to the conventional gel assay; in
fact the fluorimetric format surpassed the gel assay in its
performance.
Among the 120 culture-positive samples that were
analysed, 35 samples were missed by one or more PCR
assays (false-negative). Of these, 29 samples were either
negative or had low bacterial loads as determined by USP
smears. PCR false-negative samples included five cases that
were missed by all six PCR assays. Regarding false-positive
PCR results (7 %), two samples were positive in all six PCR
Journal of Medical Microbiology 56
M. tuberculosis detection in sputum
assays, one sample was positive in all three IS6110 assays
and the devR gel assay, two samples were positive in the
devR gel assay and IS6110 visual assay and one sample was
positive in only the IS6110 fluorimetric assay. One culturepositive sample was negative by IS6110 PCR but detected by
devR PCR. The absence of IS6110 sequences in this
particular M. tuberculosis isolate was established by PCR.
The isolation of M. tuberculosis strains from India that lack
IS6110 has been reported (Narayanan et al., 2001;
Radhakrishnan et al., 2001) and our findings underline
the utility of devR PCR in detecting IS6110-negative
organisms.
Amongst the beacon-based assays, devR PCR was as
sensitive as the multicopy target IS6110 PCR without
compromising on specificity. This is ascribed to the use of
two beacons in the devR asymmetric assay versus one
beacon in the IS6110 assay. Molecular beacons have been
used for determining drug resistance among cultured M.
tuberculosis isolates (Piatek et al., 1998) and also for M.
tuberculosis detection in sputum (Li et al., 2000). The
majority of assays for pathogen detection use molecular
beacons in automated real-time formats. These technologies would be out of reach in settings where they are most
required. In this study, DNA amplification was conveniently carried out in a regular thermal cycler and the
products were detected at the end point using molecular
beacons in either the visual or fluorimetric formats. The
advantages of the closed-tube visual assay are quite
obvious as it avoids handling of tubes after PCR and
thus minimizes cross-contamination between samples.
However, the efficiency of the visual assays was somewhat
lower than that of the fluorimetric assays.
The importance of detecting smear-negative TB cannot be
overemphasized; up to half of the new TB cases are
reportedly smear-negative (Bennedsen et al., 1996), which
leads to delays in the institution of therapy, increased
transmission from undetected infectious cases and associated increased medical costs. In this study, USP smear
microscopy detected an additional ~51 % of the culturepositive samples compared to direct smear (Table 2). PCR
was able to detect all culture-positive samples that were
missed by the USP smear. The results of various
combinations of PCR assays were analysed and the highest
efficiency (94.6 %) was noted when the devR visual and
fluorimetric assays were considered together (Table 2).
In conclusion, we have demonstrated the feasibility of
using molecular beacons in simplified formats for TB
diagnosis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first
report that uses two molecular beacons in combination
with asymmetric PCR to increase the sensitivity of the endpoint fluorescence assay. We believe that the assay
performance can be further improved by use of dUTP
and uracil glycosylase, the use of molecular beacons with a
higher fluorescence ratio in the presence of the target
sequence and by digital capture of the fluorescence. When
used in conjunction with the low-cost USP smear test, the
http://jmm.sgmjournals.org
beacon-based assays promise to accurately and rapidly
diagnose smear-negative TB. However, with a specificity of
93 % and a false-positive rate of 7 %, PCR results should be
interpreted in the context of clinical presentation, especially in low-incidence areas.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
S. H. thanks the Department of Biotechnology, Government of India
(DBT), for a stipend during her Masters in Biotechnology and for a
JRF during her doctoral studies, S. C. thanks the DBT for a Senior
Research Fellowship, M. B. thanks the World Health Organization for
a fellowship, and S. D. M. thanks the CSIR for a Junior Research
Fellowship. Project funding to J. S. T. from the DBT is acknowledged.
Dr M. Kumar, MD is sincerely acknowledged for reading and grading
the smear slides. Technical assistance from Mr Sanjay Kumar and Ms
Alka Pawar and expert assistance with the statistical analysis from Ms
M. Kalaivani are duly acknowledged.
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