Journal of Poultry Research 14(1): 20-27, 2017
Print ISSN:1302-3209 - Online ISSN:2147-9003
www.turkishpoultryscience.com
Research Article
Evaluation of Processing Methods of Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) Seed
Meal for Use as a Feed Ingredient for Broiler Chickens
1
1
2
2
Paschal Chukwudi Aguihe , Abiodun Solomon Kehinde , Camilo Ivan Ospina-Rojas , Alice Eiko Murakami .
ABSTRACT: A 42-d study was conducted to determine the effect of different processing methods of rubber seed
meal (RSM) which include soaking, cooking, toasting and fermentation as substitute for soybean meal on performance,
apparent nutrient digestibility, relative organ weight and carcass qualities of broiler chickens. Three hundred, 1-day old
Arbor acre broiler chicks were randomly allotted to five dietary treatments containing the four different processed RSM
(soaked, cooked, toasted and fermented RSM) and control diet without RSM, with five replications of twelve birds each in
a completely randomized design. Proximate composition revealed that the fermented RSM had higher crude protein
content, and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) concentration recorded lowest in the cooked RSM than other processed RSM.
Birds fed cooked and fermented RSM recorded higher weight gain and feed intake with better feed efficiency than those
on toasted and soaked RSM group compared to the control group. The cost/kg weight gain of birds fed cooked and
fermented RSM diets was lower than those fed control, soaked and toasted RSM diets. With the exception of crude
protein digestibility which was lower in the group fed SRSM, apparent nutrient digestibility variables were similar among
the control and other processed RSM diets. Carcass and organ variables were better compared among the control,
cooked and fermented RSM groups. Conclusively, cooking and fermentation tend to improve the nutritive potentials of
rubber seed than soaking and toasting. Birds fed cooked and fermented RSM maintained superior performance and
better carcass qualities at higher savings in terms of cost/kg gain.
Keywords: Broilers, carcass, nutrient digestibility, performance, processing, rubber seed
Received: 18.01.2018
Accepted: 05.05.2017
Kauçuk Tohumu Küspesi (Hevea brasiliensis)’nin Etlik Piliçler için Yem
Maddesi Olarak Kullanımında Üretim Yöntemlerinin Değerlendirilmesi
ÖZ: Etlik piliçlerde soya küspesi yerine ikame olarak, ıslatma, pişirme, ezme ve fermantasyon gibi farklı üretim
yöntemleri kullanılarak üretilen kauçuk tohumu küspesinin (KTK) performans, zahiri besin madde sindirilebilirliği, nispi
organ ağırlıkları ve karkas kalitesi üzerine etkilerini saptamak için 42 günlük bir çalışma yürütülmüştür. Araştırmada 1
günlük yaşta 300 adet Arbor acre broyler civcivler, 4 farklı metotla (ıslatma, pişirme, ezme ve fermente) üretilen KTK
içeren ve KTK içermeyen kontrol grubu olmak üzere, her birinde 12 civciv bulunan 5 tekerrürlü, 5 deneme grubuna
rastgele yerleştirilmiştir. Diğer işleme metotları ile karşılaştırıldığında Weende analizleri açısından yalnızca ham protein
düzeyi fermente KTK’da daha yüksek iken, hidrojen siyanid düzeyi pişmiş KTK’da en düşük bulunmuştur. Kontrol grubu
ile karşılaştırıldığında pişmiş ve fermente KTK ile beslenen piliçlerde canlı ağırlık ve yem tüketimi daha yüksek
bulunmuştur. Ayrıca kontrol, ezilmiş KTK ve ıslatılmış KTK gruplarından daha iyi yemden yararlanma oranı elde
edilmiştir. Pişmiş ve fermente KTK ile beslenen piliçlerde maliyet/kg canlı ağırlık artışı kontrol grubu, ıslatılmış KTK ve
ezilmiş KTK ile beslenen gruplardan daha düşük olmuştur. Islatılmış KTK ile beslenen grupta daha düşük olan ham
protein sindirilebilirliği dışında, zahiri besin madde sindirilebilirliği değerleri kontrol ve diğer işlenmiş KTK grupları
arasında benzer bulunmuştur. Karkas ve organ parametreleri kontrol, pişmiş ve fermente KTK gruplarında daha iyiydi.
Sonuç olarak, pişirme ve fermantasyon kauçuk tohumunun besin değerlerini ıslatma ve ezmeye göre iyileştirmiştir.
Pişmiş ve fermente KTK ile beslenen piliçler daha iyi performans ve maliyet/kg ağırlık kazancı ile birlikte daha iyi karkas
kalitesi göstermişler.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Etlik piliç, karkas, besin madde sindirilebilirliği, performans, işleme, kauçuk tohumu
INTRODUCTION
The importance of increased livestock production in
developing countries cannot be overemphasized. The
populace need for foods with high biological values such
as meat and eggs has become inevitable (1). Animal
breeders, nutritionists and poultry producers have roles to
play in order to ensure that affordable protein is produced
for the ever growing population of the developing
countries. However, the escalating cost of production
involved as a result of high cost and competition with man
and industry for conventional ingredients has not made
this possible (2, 3). Recently, animal production is focused
at minimizing cost of production and increasing profit
1
without adverse effect or setback on the product produced
for the consumer or the public (4, 5). The rising price of
livestock feeds and the scarcity of conventional proteins
and energy concentrates for the formulation of feeds have
forced the animal nutritionists in developing countries to
search for attractive, cheaper and readily available protein
and energy sources (6, 7). One agro-product of interest is
the rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) seeds which are very
abundant in the Nigeria, where rubber is produced for
domestic purposes and for export; thus, the seeds are
usually discarded causing environmental hazards (8, 9).
The seed meal has been reported to have higher contents
Department of Animal Production and Technology, Federal College of Wildlife Management, P.M.B 268, New bussa, Nigeria.
Departamento de Zootecnia, Universidade Estadual de Maringá, Avenida Colombo, 5790, 87020-900, Maringá, Paraná, Brazil.
*Corresponding Author: Paschal Chukwudi Aguihe, e-mail: aguihepc@gmail.com
2
Aguihe et al / Journal of Poultry Research 14(1): 20-27, 2017
of digestible nutrients than some conventional seed meals
and is highly promising as further protein supplements in
livestock and animal diets (9, 10, 11). Previous authors
(12, 13) reported on the amino acid composition of rubber
seed meal (RSM) showing high contents of arginine,
valine and leucine and moderate contents of
phenylalanine, threonine and lysine and low content of
histidine. Despite its potential as a protein source, the
presence of a toxic factor, cyangenic glucoside in seed
has been an obstacle to its utilization as a feedstuff (14,
15). This is because the enzymatic hydrolysis of the
glycosides by endogenous enzymes occur when the plant
tissues is damaged either mechanically or otherwise,
thereby liberating hydrocyanic acid (HCN) which is a
deadly poison (1, 16). In order for the seed to have a wider
acceptability in poultry production, scientists have
recommended different methods of processing to reduce
the toxic glycoside such as soaking, fermentation and heat
treatment (17, 18). However, the information regarding the
effect of utilization of the processed RSM in poultry diets is
limited. Therefore, this present study was undertaken with
the aim to evaluate the effect of differently processing
methods of the rubber seed on performance, nutrient
digestibility, carcass quality and relative organ weights of
broiler chickens.
21
Experimental Birds and Management
Use and care of birds and procedures adopted on this
study were approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of
the Federal College of Wildlife Management, New bussa
before the commencement of the experiment. Three
hundred (300) 1-day old Arbor acre broiler chicks were
used for the experiment. The birds were weighed and
randomly allotted to each of the five dietary treatments
consisting of five replicates with twelve birds each in a
completely randomized design. The experiment lasted for
42 days. Each experimental group was offered its
corresponding diet ad-libitum and they were given free
access to clean water. The birds were raised in a deep
litter system using wood shavings as litter material in an
open sided poultry facility.
Data Collection
A weighed quantity of feed was supplied weekly and
left-over was weighed. Feed intake was determined by
difference between feed served and the left over. Birds
were weighed weekly and weight gain calculated by
difference between two consecutive weighing. Feed
conversion ratio (FCR) was calculated as the ratio of the
feed consumed to the weight gain. The prevailing market
prices of feed ingredients at the time of the present study
were used to calculate the cost of feed per kilogram.
MATERIALS and METHOD
Study Area
The experiment was performed at the Poultry Unit of
the Teaching and Research Farm of the Department of
Animal Production Technology, Federal College of Wildlife
Management, New-bussa, Niger State, Nigeria.
Source and Processing of Rubber Seed
The experimental rubber seeds were procured from a
rubber plantation in Ovia South-West Local Government
Area of Edo state, Nigeria. All the raw seeds were
collected fresh and divided equally into 4 batches and
processed differently. First batch were soaked in cold
water inside a closed metal drum for 72 hours followed by
draining of the water and sun-drying for 5 days; second
o
batch were cooked in water at temperature of 100 C for 45
minutes, drained of the water and sun-dried for 5 days.
Third batch were toasted using a metallic frying pan for 45
minutes and the fourth batch were subjected to anaerobic
fermentation for 72 hours. All the processed rubber seeds
were separately hammer-milled prior to experimental diet
formulation to produce the respective meals as soaked
RSM (SRSM), cooked RSM (CSRM), toasted RSM
(TRSM) and fermented RSM (FRSM).
Experimental Diets
Four experimental diets both for starter (0-21 days)
and grower (22-42 days) phases were formulated with the
different processed RSM. Diet 1 was purely corn-soybean
based (control diet) while the different processed RSM
(SRSM, CRSM, TRSM and FRSM) quantitatively replaced
soybean meal in the control at 30% dietary level as diet 2,
3, 4 and 5 respectively at both starter and grower stages.
The ingredient composition of the experimental starter and
grower basal diets is shown in Table 1 and 2 respectively.
Metabolic Cage Trial
At the end of the feeding trial, two broilers from each
replicate pen were selected randomly for metabolic cage
evaluation. The birds were acclimatized for two days
before collection of excreta in the cages. Excreta
collection was taken daily for a period of five days. Total
collection per replicate were pooled, weighed, dried,
ground, and representative samples were taken to
determine their nutrient compositions. The result was used
to calculate the apparent nutrient digestibility coefficient.
Carcass and Organ Evaluation
Three birds were randomly selected from each
replicates. Live weight and carcass weight were taken
immediately after slaughter. Defeathering follows after
dipping in hot water at 70°C for 10 minutes. The cut-parts
and visceral organs were manually removed and their
weights were taken using electronic sensitive balance and
expressed as percentage of the dressed weight.
Chemical Analysis
The differently processed RSM and excreta samples
were analyzed for proximate composition according the
procedure of AOAC (19). The cyanide contents of the
different processed RSM were also analyzed according to
alkaline titration method of AOAC (19).
Statistical Analysis
All the data collected was subjected of one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the GLM procedure of
SAS (20) for windows software. Tukey test was applied to
compare means at P<0.05 level of significance.
Aguihe et al / Journal of Poultry Research 14(1): 20-27, 2017
22
Table 1 Ingredients and nutrient composition of experimental diets for starters birds (1-21d)
Feed ingredients
Control
SRSM
CRSM
Maize
58.50
57.50
57.50
Soybean meal
33.00
23.05
23.05
Rubber seed meal (RSM)
0.00
9.90
9.90
Fish meal
4.00
5.00
5.00
Di Calcium Phosphate
2.50
2.50
2.50
Limestone
1.00
1.00
1.00
Salt
0.25
0.25
0.25
Vitamin-Premix1
0.25
0.25
0.25
DL-Methionine 99%
0.25
0.30
0.30
L-lysine HCL 78.9%
0.25
0.25
0.25
Total
100
100
100
Nutrient composition
ME (Kcal/kg)
3171.60
3140.80
3163.70
Crude Protein (%)
23.75
22.86
22.36
Crude fat (%)
5.34
6.12
6.23
Crude fiber (%)
4.67
4.43
4.78
TRSM
57.50
23.05
9.90
5.00
2.50
1.00
0.25
0.25
0.30
0.25
100
FRSM
57.50
23.05
9.90
5.00
2.50
1.00
0.25
0.25
0.30
0.25
100
3112.50
22.45
6.17
4.85
3180.60
23.26
6.08
4.13
SRSM: Soaked rubber seed meal, CRSM: Cooked rubber seed meal, TRSM: T oasted rubber seed meal, FRSM: Fermented rubber
1
seed meal. Vitamin mineral premix provided (per kg of diet): Vitamin A, 5000 I.U., Vitamin D 3 1000,000 I.U., Vitamin E 15,000 mg;
Vitamin K3, 100 mg; Vitamin B1, 1,200 mg; Vitamin B2, 2,400 mg Biotin, 32 mg; Vitamin B12, 10 mg; Folic acid, 400 mg; Choline chloride,
120,000 mg; Manganese, 40,000 mg; Iron, 20,000 mg; Zinc 18,000 mg; Copper, 800 mg; Iodine, 620 mg; Cobalt, 100 mg; Selenium 40
mg.
Table 2 Ingredient composition of experimental
Feed ingredients
Maize
Soybean meal
Rubber seed meal (RSM)
Fish meal
Di Calcium Phosphorus
Limestone
Salt
1
Premix
DL-Methionine 99%
L-lysine HCL 78.5%
Total
Nutrient composition
ME (Kcal/kg)
Crude Protein (%)
Crude fat %
Crude fiber %
diets for grower birds (22-42d)
Control
SRSM
65.50
64.50
26.00
18.15
0.00
7.80
4.00
5.00
2.50
2.50
1.00
1.00
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.30
0.30
0.25
0.25
100.00
100.00
CRSM
64.50
18.15
7.80
5.00
2.50
1.00
0.25
0.25
0.30
0.25
100.00
TRSM
64.50
18.15
7.80
5.00
2.50
1.00
0.25
0.25
0.30
0.25
100.00
FRSM
64.50
18.15
7.80
5.00
2.50
1.00
0.25
0.25
0.30
0.25
100.00
3278.76
20.38
6.03
5.77
3288.76
19.24
6.83
5.45
3211.96
19.37`
6.09
5.33
3240.80
20.15
6.43
5.77
3281.96
19.71`
6.39
5.33
SRSM: Soaked rubber seed meal, CRSM: Cooked rubber seed meal, TRSM: Toasted rubber seed meal, FRSM: Fermented rubber
1
seed meal, Vitamin mineral premix provided (per kg of diet): Vitamin A, 5000 I.U., Vitamin D 3 1000,000 I.U., Vitamin E 15,000 mg;
Vitamin K3, 100 mg; Vitamin B1, 1,200 mg; Vitamin B2, 2,400 mg Biotin, 32 mg; Vitamin B12, 10 mg; Folic acid, 400 mg; Choline chloride,
120,000 mg; Manganese, 40,000 mg; Iron, 20,000 mg; Zinc 18,000 mg; Copper, 800 mg; Iodine, 620 mg; Cobalt, 100 mg; Selenium 40
mg.
RESULTS and DISCUSSION
Proximate Composition of Fresh and Processed
Rubber Seed Meal
The result of proximate composition analysis of fresh
and differently processed RSM is presented in Table 3.
The moisture content of the raw RSM (4.60%) after
undergone the different processing methods was
observed to be within the range of values (3.8 – 9.2%)
reported by earlier researchers (14, 21, 22). This implies
that the moisture content of processed RSM were low
enough to be less susceptible to microbial attacks and
also will exhibit longer shelf-life characteristic. The CP
value of the fresh RSM (33.25%) obtained in this present
study was within the range (26 – 34% CP) as reported in
literature (9, 21, 23). After processing the seeds, cooking,
soaking and toasting reduced the crude protein content of
the RSM while fermentation method enhanced its value.
The higher CP value of the fermented RSM is in
accordance with the result of Ukpebor et al. (14) who
reported that increase in protein level is attributable to the
utilization of lipid and carbohydrate components of the
RSM as carbon sources. However, the marginal drop in
CP level observed in both cooked and soaked RSM may
be probably due to the fact that cooking and soaking
enhances degradation which is associated with
solubilization and leaching of some nitrogenous
compounds into the processing water (24, 25). The
amount of crude fiber was lower in fermented RSM than
the values obtained in soaked, cooked and toasted RSM.
Values for ether extract and ash were lower in the
processed seed meals than the fresh seed indicating that
some of these nutrient elements may have been lost
Aguihe et al / Journal of Poultry Research 14(1): 20-27, 2017
during processing of the seeds. Consequently, The energy
content of the fresh RSM (4149.14 kcal ME/kg)which falls
within the range of values (3850.84 – 4402.73 kcal ME/kg)
reported by previous authors (13, 21, 23) was slightly
higher in both fermented and cooked RSM than soaked
and toasted RSM.
Hydrogen Cyanide Composition of the Fresh and
Processed Rubber Seed Meal
Table 4 shows the composition and percentage
reduction of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in the different
processed rubber seeds. The result showed that the HCN
content of the fresh RSM (315 mg/kg) was lower than the
values reported by Okafor and Anyawu (1) and Sharma et
al. (22) as 391.60 and 415.10mg/kg respectively but
higher than the values as reported by Batel et al. (26) and
Eka et al. (15) as 263 and 186 mg/kg respectively.
According to previous authors (27, 28), cyanogenic
glycoside concentrations can vary widely as a result of
genetic and environmental factors, location, season and
soil factors. Moreover, reduction in the level of hydrogen
cyanide (HCN) was effective with the adopted processing
methods and this revealed that cyanide level in the fresh
seed decreased by 49.99%, 65.63%, 80.27% and 85.69%
for soaking, toasting, fermentation and cooking
respectively. The higher level of cyanide reduction
obtained in the boiled and fermented processed rubber
seeds was in agreement with the reports of earlier
researchers (14, 17, 22) who confirmed that heat
treatments and fermentation tends to reduce the
concentration of HCN in RSM and makes them
nutritionally less active.
Performance Characteristics and Cost Implications
The results of the average final weight, average feed
intake, average weight gain, feed conversion ratio (FCR)
and feed cost per kg gain are presented in Table 5. The
average initial weight ranged between 43.79 – 44.82g and
did not differ significantly (P>0.05) across the treatment
groups. There was a significant difference (P<0.05) in
average final weight and daily average weight gain across
the treatments. Birds fed cooked RSM and fermented
RSM diets recorded similar (P>0.05) body weight gain
with those on the control diets but higher (P<0.05) than
those fed soaked and toasted RSM diets. The depression
in weight gain was most severe in the birds fed soaked
RSM than the toasted RSM group. Average feed intake of
the birds among the dietary treatments differed
significantly (P<0.05) with birds on soaked RSM diet
having the lowest feed consumption followed by those on
toasted RSM group, whereas both cooked and fermented
RSM have comparable (P>0.05) intake with those on the
control group. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was
significantly (P<0.05) influenced by the dietary treatments.
FCR was higher (P<0.05) in the birds fed soaked and
23
toasted than those that received control, cooked RSM and
fermented RSM diets. CRSM and FRSM diets compared
favorably with the control group and were lower (P<0.05)
than birds fed TRSM and SRSM diets. The poor feed
efficiency of birds on soaked and toasted RSM diet is
reflected by their low feed consumption and weight gain in
this group. The marked reduction in performance of the
birds observed with soaked and toasted RSM based diet
could be a reflection of the stringent requirement of
essential nutrient due to limitation imposed on them by the
presence of residual hydrocyanic acid (HCN) as a result of
incomplete detoxification. Cyanogenic glycoside on
hydrolysis yield toxic hydrocyanic acid (HCN) and cyanide
ions inhibit several enzyme systems, reduce growth
through interference with certain essential amino acid and
thus depressed the utilization of protein (29). It is
noteworthy that deleterious factors such as cyanogens
when present in animal feed could lead to growth
depression as a result of depletion of amino acids of the
body when ingested (30, 15). This could be explained due
to sulfur-containing amino acids are needed for cyanide
detoxification resulting in a condition akin to amino acid
imbalance and hence reduced protein synthesis (1, 14).
Poor feed efficiency of birds in soaked RSM diet group
may be due to the reduced intestinal absorption of amino
acids which might be caused by the interference from the
residual effect of HCN, consequently leading to reduced
protein utilization (22). Nevertheless, cooked RSM were
better detoxified followed by fermented RSM relative to
other processing methods, which perhaps explains the
significant (p<0.05) improvement in growth rate and feed
efficiency similar to the maize-soybean control diet. These
improvements could be attributed to better protein
absorption, higher palatability and availability of the amino
acids in the diets due to inactivation of the residual antinutritional factors especially HCN (31). The feed cost per
kilogram was highest for birds fed control diet (93.43₦/kg)
but reduced among the processed RSM diets having the
same value as 73.56₦/kg, because of the equal
percentage inclusion level of RSM in the experimental
diets. Feed cost per kilogram of the dietary treatments
decreased with the inclusion of processed RSM due to the
higher margin between the market prices and demand of
soybean meal compared to RSM. This cumulatively made
the cost per kilogram weight gain produced in the control
group to be higher (P<0.05) than the processed RSM. The
result obtained in this present study is in agreement with
the reports of earlier authors who reported that
unconventional potential plant protein sources such as
RSM will reduce cost of production with better returns (32,
21). Moreover, birds on cooked and fermented RSM
produced lower (P<0.05) cost of feed per kilogram weight
gain relative to other dietary treatments due to moderate
feed cost, favorably weight gain and improved feed
efficiency.
Table 3 Proximate composition of raw and different processed Rubber Seed Meal (RSM)
Parameters
Fresh RSM
SRSM
CRSM
TRSM
Moisture (%)
4.80
5.01
5.17
4.60
Crude protein (%)
33.25
30.68
30.37
32.65
Ether extract (%)
22.27
20.14
20.52
20.77
Crude fiber (%)
5.61
4.54
4.04
5.25
Ash (%)
5.34
4.51
5.08
5.17
NFE (%)
33.53
40.13
40.09
36.16
ME kcal/kg
4226.66
4193.13
4207.36
4176.18
FRSM
5.60
34.48
20.35
3.81
5.12
36.24
4212.67
Aguihe et al / Journal of Poultry Research 14(1): 20-27, 2017
24
Table 4 Effect of processing techniques on reduction of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) level in rubber seed
Processing methods
mg/kg HCN
% reduction of HCN
Raw
315.89
Soaking
167.45
46.99
Cooking
45.21
85.69
Toasting
108.56
65.63
Fermentation
62.34
80.27
Table 5 Growth performance and cost implications of broilers fed differently processed rubber seed meal (RSM) based
diets.
Parameters
Control
SRSM
CRSM
TRSM
FRSM
SEM
Initial weight g/bird
43.82
44.72
44.82
43.61
43.79
0.92
Final weight g/bird
2291.76a
1795.65d
2203.11ab
2005.34c
2166.23b
44.06
Daily weight gain g/bird
53.52a
41.69c
51.39a
46.71b
50.53a
1.61
a
c
a
b
ab
Daily feed intake g/bird
76.07
70.28
74.49
72.89
73.93
1.10
c
a
bc
b
bc
FCR
1.42
1.69
1.45
1.56
1.46
0.06
Feed cost/kg (₦*)
98.43
73.56
73.56
73.56
73.56
Feed cost/kg gain (₦*)
139.90a
124.01b
106.63c
114.80c
107.62c
4.10
a, b, c
*
Mean values on the row with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05). Naira (N) to US Dollars is 254:1.
Table 6 Nutrient digestibility coefficients of broiler chickens fed different processed rubber seed meal (RSM)
Parameters
Control
SRSM
CRSM
TRSM
FRSM
Dry matter (%)
71.76
70.55
71.45
72.96
72.76
Crude protein (%)
74.65a
55.86c
72.54a
67.54b
70.07ab
Crude fiber (%)
43.97
40.08
43.47
42.17
44.20
Ether extracts (%)
75.86
71.07
76.56
74.07
74.87
NFE (%)
64.78
62.90
64.55
63.91
66.02
a, b, c
SEM
1.87
2.12
2.10
7.14
1.80
Mean values on the same row with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05)
Table 7 Carcass traits and prime cut parts of broiler chickens fed differently processed rubber seed meal (RSM) based
diets
Parameters
Control
SRSM
CRSM
TRSM
FRSM
SEM
a
c
ab
b
a
Live weight g/bird
2211.39
1879.45
2162.18
1989.63
2159.86
28.02
Dressing weight g/bird
1651.50a
1300.63c
1619.20a
1409.13b
1629.06a
17.98
a
b
a
b
Dressing %
74.68
69.20
74.89
70.85
75.46a
0.86
a
c
a
b
a
Breast cut %
12.04
8.98
11.97
10.07
11.46
0.56
a
c
a
b
a
Thigh cut %
10.47
6.13
10.20
7.38
9.40
0.54
a
c
ab
c
b
Drumstick cut %
14.50
9.86
13.93
10.91
12.89
0.31
Wing cut %
7.58
6.19
7.38
6.42
6.98
0.70
Back cut %
7.56
6.97
7.51
7.15
7.41
0.30
Abdominal fat %
1.60
1.88
1.75
1.91
1.77
0.16
abc
Means within the same row with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05).
Table 8 Organ weights (g) expressed as a percentage dressed
in broilers diet (0 – 42 days)
Parameters
Control
SRSM
Liver
2.22b
3.34a
Gizzard
4.54
5.01
Heart
0.91
0.79
b
a
Kidney
0.86
1.59
Proventiculus
0.69
0.74
Intestine
3.28
3.15
Spleen
0.16
0.12
ab
weight of differently processed rubber seed meal (RSM)
BRSM
2.27b
4.26
0.86
b
0.91
0.76
4.09
0.18
TRSM
3.14a
4.16
0.83
a
1.43
0.81
3.68
0.11
FRSM
2.12b
5.05
0.85
b
0.96
0.78
3.47
0.15
SEM
0.41
0.46
0.08
0.22
0.07
0.51
0.04
Means within the same row with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05).
Nutrient Digestibility
The result of apparent nutrient digestibility of birds fed
different processed rubber seed meal is shown in Table 6.
Statistical analysis showed that except for crude protein
(CP), other nutrient variables did not differ significantly
(P>0.05) among the control and different processed RSM
diets. CP digestibility was lower (P<0.05) in birds fed
soaked RSM (55.86%) diet while birds fed diets containing
cooked RSM (72.54%) and fermented RSM (70.07%)
were similar (P>0.05) with those on control diet (74.65%).
The lower CP retention of birds fed soaked RSM diet
could be attributed to the presence of residual HCN due to
ineffectiveness of soaking to completely inactivate the
effect of this anti-nutrient in the seeds. This observation is
accordance with the report of Amaefule and Nwagbara
(33) that soaking of legume seeds is less efficient in the
Aguihe et al / Journal of Poultry Research 14(1): 20-27, 2017
removal of anti-nutritional substances. Residual cyanide
has been reported to depress protein digestibility because
dietary methionine could be mobilized via the rhodanese
pathway for cyanide detoxification to the innocuous
thiocyanate (34). In such circumstances, dietary protein
quality is compromised, resulting in poor protein
digestibility hence poor protein utilization (35). The
improved protein digestibility of the birds in cooked and
fermented RSM groups may be associated with the
beneficial effect of cooking and fermentation, which
enhanced the nutritional value of rubber seeds (36).
Carcass Qualities
Table 7 shows the carcass traits of broiler chicken fed
various processed RSM based diets. The carcass
characteristics of the birds were significantly (P<0.05)
affected by the dietary treatments. The birds on the control
group have the highest (P<0.05) live body weight and
dressed weight which was similar to those on cooked and
fermented RSM group. Lower (P<0.05) live body and
dress weight was recorded in the group fed soaked RSM
diet followed by the toasted RSM group. Dressing
percentage was within the range of 75.46% to 69.20%,
where the birds on fermented RSM group had the highest
(P<0.05) mean value and those on soaked RSM diet gave
the lowest value. The lower (P<0.05) dress weight of
broilers fed the soaked RSM diets followed by those on
toasted RSM diet resulted from their smaller live weight,
since the surface area and the weight determine the
amount of feathers and visceral organs required
respectively (37). The inferior carcass growth response
observed in birds fed soaked RSM diet could be attributed
to inhibitory activity of the residual toxic factors on nutrient
utilization which were unable to be inactivated by soaking
(38, 39). The percent weight of drumstick, thigh and breast
were comparable (P>0.05) among the control, cooked
RSM and fermented RSM group and this may be an
indication that boiling and fermentation of the rubber
seeds have a positive influence on the carcass yield of the
broiler chickens as reflected by their higher dressed
percentage, indicating better edible portion of live weight
contrary to inedible offals (40). Besides, the reduction in
cyanide concentration by cooking and fermentation is an
indication of enhanced efficiency of protein utilization in
the birds, which can be assessed by its availability for
tissue disposition (22). Since improved carcass yield is an
indication of the quality and utilization of the ration (41), it
would seem that birds on cooked and fermented RSM
diets efficiently utilized their feed as evidenced by their
higher (P<0.05) dressed weight, breast, thigh and drum
stick cuts weight comparable to the control group.
However, the poorer carcass yield shown by soaked RSM
group could be due to impairment in utilization of nutrients
attributed to residual cyanide activity (35).
Relative Organ Weights
The relative organ weights expressed as percentage
dressed weight of broilers chickens fed different
processed RSM are shown in Table 8. The results showed
that with the exception of liver and kidney, all other
parameters evaluated were not significantly (P>0.05)
affected by the different processing methods. The control
group has a comparable liver weight with both cooked and
fermented RSM groups and were lower (P<0.05)
compared to the toasted and soaked RSM group. Liver
size is known to increase in response to several factors,
25
especially deficiencies of protein and amino acids,
associated with residual ANFs which have the ability to
interfere with normal production of liver protein, impairing
liver function and generating hypertrophic effect, resulting
in an increase in liver weight (31, 34). The mean values
obtained for weight of kidney were higher (P<0.05) in birds
fed soaked and toasted RSM diets than in other dietary
treatments. The increase in kidney weight is in agreement
with the findings of Ologhobo et al, (42) who attributed the
observation to the fact that the key enzyme in cyanide
detoxification (Rhodenase) is located mainly in the kidney
and therefore, the increase in the enzyme activity might
have led to an increase in the weight of the kidney. Liver
and kidney are known to be the major detoxification
organs and an increase in activities of these organs due to
detoxification of residual anti-nutrients, hence will lead to
an enlargement in the weights of these organs (43). Thus,
lower (P<0.05) relative liver and kidney weights of birds
fed diets containing cooked and fermented RSM than
those on soaked and toasted RSM diets is in confirmation
to the effect of the degree of percentage reduction of HCN
by the adopted processing methods.
CONCLUSION
The results of this study revealed that cooking and
fermentation were effective in improving the nutritive value
of rubber seed meal, hence caused substantial reduction
in the level of anti-nutritional factors especially hydrogen
cyanide contained in the seeds followed by toasting while
soaking was observed to be less effective. Therefore,
birds fed cooked and fermented RSM diets showed
improvement in feed intake, weight gain, feed conversion
ratio, crude protein digestibility and carcass qualities at
higher saving in terms of cost per weight gain.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Okafor, P.N., Anyanwu, N.O., 2006. Enzymatic and
oven-drying method of processing rubber seeds for
animal feed and the evaluation of the toxicity of such
feed in rats. Journal of Animal and Veterinary
Advances, 5(1): 45-48.
Taiwo, A. A., Adejuyigbe, A. D., Adebowale, E. A.,
Oshotan, J. S., David, O. O., 2005. Performance and
nutrient digestibility of weaned rabbits fed forages
supplemented with concentrate. Nigerian Journal of
Animal Production, 32 (1-2): 74-78.
Annongu, A.A., Ogundun, N.J., Joseph, K.J.,
Awopetu, V., 2006. Changes in chemical composition
and bioassay assessment of nutritional potentials of
almond fruit waste as an alternative feedstuff for
livestock. Biokemistri, 18(1):25-30
Aderemi, F.A., Lawal, T.E., Iyayi, E.A., 2006.
Nutritional value of cassava root sieviate and its
utilization by layers, The Journal of Food Technology
in Africa, 4 (3): 216-220.
Ahaotu, E.O., 2011. Effects of dietary substitution of
rubber seed cake for groundnut cake on the gross
morphology and body conformations of broiler birds.
Animal Production Research Advances, 7: 69-73.
Akinmutimi, A.H., Okwu, N.D., 2006. Effect of
quantitative substitution of cooked mucuna utilis seed
meal for soybean meal in broiler finisher diet.
International Journal of Poultry Science, 5(5): 477481.
Aguihe et al / Journal of Poultry Research 14(1): 20-27, 2017
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Onu, P.N., Madubuike, F.N., Ekenyem, B.U.,
Ahaotu,
E.O.,
2010.
Effect
of
enzyme
supplementation of heat treated sheep manure diets
on nutrient digestibility of finisher broilers.
Proceedings of the 15th Annual Conference of the
Animal Science Association of Nigeria (ASAN), Uyo,
Nigeria, 14-16.
Oluyemi, J.A., Fetuga, B.L., Endely, H.N., 1975.
The metabolisable energy value of some feed
ingredients in young chicks. Poultry Science Journal,
53: 611-618.
Mmereole, F.U.C., 2008. Effects of replacing
groundnut cake with rubber seed meal on the
haematological and serological indices of broilers.
International Journal of Poultry Science 7: 622-62.
Babatunde, G.M., Pond, W.P., Peo, E.R., 1990.
Nutritine value of rubber seed (Hevea brasiliensis)
meal: Utilization by growing pigs of semi-purified diets
in which rubber seed meal partially replaced soybean
meal. Journal of Animal Science, 68:392–397.
Stosic, D.D., Kaykay, J.M., 1991. Rubber seeds as
animal feed in Liberia. World Animal Review,
39(3):29-39.
Orok, E.J., Bowland, J.P., 1974. Nigerian pararubber seed meal as an energy and protein source for
rats fed soybean meal or peanut meal supplemented
diets. Canadian Journal of Animal Science, 54:239246
Oyewusi, P. A., Akintayo, E. T., Olaofe, O., 2007.
The proximate and amino acid composition of
defatted rubber seed meal. International Journal of
Food, Agriculture and Environment, 5 (3-4): 115-118.
Ukpebor, J.E., Akpaja, E.O., Ukpebor, E.E.,
Egharevba, O., Efedue, E., 2007. Effect of the edible
mushroom, Pleurotus tuberregium on the cyanide
level and nutritional contents of rubber seed cake.
Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 6: 534-537.
Eka, H.D., Tajul Aris, Y., Wan Nadiah, W.A., 2010.
Potential use of Malaysian rubber (Hevea brasiliensis)
seed as food, feed and biofuel. International Food
Resource Journal, 17, 527-534.
Ahaotu, E.O., Ekenyem, B.U., Agiang, E.A.,
Balakrishnan, A., Madubuike, F.N., (2010). Effects
of dietary substitution of rubber seed cake for
groundnut cake on the body conformations of finisher
broilers. Animal Production Research Advances, 6:
44-47.
Offiong, S.A., Olumu, J.M., 1990. Effect of feeding
raw, toasted, cooked or autoclaved full fat soybean on
the growth of broiler chicken. Tropical Agriculture
Trinidad, 3:297-302.
Syahruddin, E., Herawaty, R., Ningrat, R.W.S.,
2014. Effect of substitution of leaves and seeds of
rubber (Hevea Brasilliensis) fermentation with
soybean meal on the performance of broilers.
Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 13(7): 422-426.
Association of Official Analytical Chemists
(AOAC)., 2006. Official Methods of Analysis of the
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC)
Horwitiz, W. (Editor), 18th edition, Washington DC,
USA, 24-59.
Statistical Analysis System (SAS)., 2006. Statistical
Analysis System, Users Guide. Statistical Analysis
Institute Inc. Cary, North Carolina.
26
21. Madubuike, F.N., Ekenyem, B.U., Tobih, K.O.,
2006. Performance and cost evaluation of substituting
rubber seed cake for groundnut cake in diets of
growing pigs. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 5(1):5961.
22. Sharma, B.B., Saha, R.K., Sala, H., 2014. Effects of
feeding detoxified rubber seed meal on growth
performance and haematological indices of Labeo
rohita (Hamilton) fingerlings. Animal Feed Science
and Technology, 193: 84-92
23. Khatun, M.J., Karim, M.Z., Das, G.B., Khan, M.K.I.,
2015. Effect of the replacement of soybean meal by
rubber seed meal on growth, Economics and carcass
characterisitics of broilers. Iranian Journal of Applied
Animal Science, 5(4): 919-925.
24. Udedibe, A.B.I., Carlini, C.R., 2000. Relative effects
of dry and most heat treatment on hemagglutinating
and antitryptic activities of selected legumes grains.
Nigerian Poultry Science Journal, 1:81-87.
25. Onu, P.N., Okongwu, S.N., 2006. Performance
characteristics and nutrient utilization of starter
broilers fed raw and processed pigeon pea (Cajanu
scajan) seed meal. International Journal of Poultry
Science, 5: 693-697.
26. Batel, E., Geraf, M., Meyer, G.T., Moller, R.,
Schoedder, G., Cher, L., 2008. Chemical
composition and fatty acid profile of the lipid fractions
of selected Nigerian indigenous oilseeds. International
Journal of Food Properties, 11:273-281.
27. Ermans, A.M., Mbulamoko, N.M., Delange, F.,
Ahluwalia, R., 1980. Role of Cassava in the Etiology
of Endemic Goitre and Cretinism. International
Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada.
28. Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee Report on
Food
Additive
(JECFA).,
1993. Cyanogenic
glycosides. In: Toxicological Evaluation of Certain
Food Additives and Naturally Occurring Toxicants,
39th Meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert
Committee on Food Additives (WHO Food Additive
Series
30).
World
Health
Organization, Geneva. http://www.inchem.org/docum
ents/jecfa/jecmono/v30je18.htm.
29. Soetan, K.O., Oyewole, O.E., 2009. The need for
adequate processing to reduce the anti-nutritional
factors in plants used as human foods and animal
feeds: A Review. African Journal of Food Science,
3(9): 223-232.
30. Vitharauge Mallika, G., Jansz, M.P., Nirmala, M.P.,
Abeyoskara, A.M., 1991. Some studies on controlling
the action of lipase linamarase during rubber seed
kernel processing. Journal of National Science Srilanka, 19: 143-150.
31. Tuleun, C.D., Igba, F., 2008. Growth and carcass
characteristics of broiler chickens fed water soaked
and cooked velvet bean (Mucuna utilis) meal. African
Journal of Biotechnology, 7 (15): 2676-2681.
32. Ojewola, G.S., Okoye, F.C., Ukoha, O.A., 2005.
Comparative utilization of three animal protein
sources by broiler chickens. International Journal of
Poultry Science, 4: 462- 467.
33. Amaefule, K.U., Nwagbara, N.N., 2004. The effect of
processing on nutrient utilization of pigeon pea
(Cajanus cajan) seed meal and pigeon pea seed meal
based diets by pullets. International Journal of Poultry
Science, 3(8): 543-546.
Aguihe et al / Journal of Poultry Research 14(1): 20-27, 2017
34. Akinmutimi, A.H., Ojewola, G.S., Abasiekong, S.F.
Onwudike, O.C., 2008. Evaluation of toasted, cooked
and Akanwu-cooked sword bean meal in place of
soya bean in broiler starter diets. International Journal
of Poultry Science, 7(5): 480-486.
35. Ologun, A.G., Onifade, A., Aning, K.G., Onibi, G.E.,
Ajo, A.M., Aletor, J.A., 1998. Effects of long term
feeding of sorghum rootlets on growth performance
and nitrogen utilization. Proceedings of Nigerian
Society of Animal Production (NSAP), Abeokuta, 159160.
36. Ologhobo A.D., Adejumo, I.O., 2011. Effects of
differently processed taro (Colocasia esculenta [(L.)
Schott]) on growth performance and carcass
characteristics of broiler finishers. International
Journal of Agricultural Science, 1 (4): 244-248.
37. Broadbent, L.A., Wilson, B.J., Fisher, C., 1981. The
composition of broiler chicken at 56 days of age:
Output components and chemical composition. British
Poultry Science, 22: 4-10.
38. Emenalom, O.O., Okoli, I.C., Udedibe, A.B.I., 2004.
Observations on the Pathophysiology of Weaner Pigs
Fed Raw and Preheated Nigerian Mucuna pruriens
(Velvet Bean) seeds. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition,
3(2):112-117.
27
39. Tuleun, C.D., Adenkola, A.Y., Oluremi, O.I.A., 2007.
Performance characteristics and haematological
variables of broiler feed diet containing mucuna
(Mucuna utilis) seed meal. Tropical Veterinary, 25: 74
- 81.
40. Oluyemi, J.A, Roberts, F.A., 2000. Poultry
production in warm wet climates. Macmillan Press
Ltd, London, pp. 195-199.
41. Bamgbose A M., Niba, A. T., 1998. Performance of
broiler chickens fed cotton seed cake in starter and
finisher rations. In: Ologhobo A D and Iyayi E A
(editors); The Nigerian livestock in the 21st century,
Proceedings of 3rd annual conference of Animal
Science Association of Nigeria, Lagos, September 2224, Pp 84-87.
42. Ologhobo, A.D., Apata, D.F., Oyejide, A., Akinpelu,
R.O., 1993. Toxicity of raw lima beans (Phaseolus
lunatus) and Lima bean fractions for growing chicks.
British Poultry Science, 34: 505-522.
43. Ologhobo, A.I., Jimoh, O.A., Orscar, T.J.,
Mosenthin, R., 1999. Evaluation of detoxified
Jackbean (Canavalia ensiformis) in broiler starter
rations with amino acid supplements. Tropical
Journal of Animal Science, 1: 117-126.