CHAPTER 30
Molecular Genetic Perspective of Indian Populations:
A Y-Chromosome Scenario
S. Krithika, Suvendu Maji and T.S. Vasulu
INTRODUCTION
The intriguing aspect of the Indian populations is the immense cultural and biological
diversity of the various castes, tribes and other
ethnic groups (e.g. religious communities).
Comprehending the possible reasons for this
extensive diversity and tracing the history of the
populations, viz., the origin, migration and
settlement, has been the focus of study for
archeologists, historians, linguists, anthropologists and of late for molecular geneticists. In
this regard, various competing hypotheses have
been put forward to explain the evolutionary
history of the Indian tribes as well as castes.
In case of the tribal populations, the protoAustraloid tribes belonging to the Austric
linguistic groups are believed to be the basic
element in the Indian population (Thapar, 1966).
Many other anthropologists, historians and
linguists (Pattanayak, 1998; Rapson, 1955; Rishley,
1915) have also supported the view that the AustroAsiatic (a subfamily of the Austric language family)
speaking tribes to be the original inhabi-tants of
India. Some other scholars (Buxton, 1925; Sarkar,
1958) have proposed that the Dravidians are the
original inhabitants, and that the Austro-Asiatics
are later immigrants. The Tibeto-Burman speaking
tribals, primarily inhabiting northeastern regions
of India, are thought to be the latest immigrants
among the tribals to India from Tibet and Myanmar
(Guha, 1935).
With regard to the caste populations, linguists
of the 19th and 20th centuries proposed that the
extant castes are descendants of primarily West
Eurasians who migrated from Northwest about
3000–8000 years ago (Poliakov, 1974; Renfrew,
1989). These nomadic migrants may have
purportedly admixed with or displaced the
indigenous Dravidic-speaking proto-Asian
populations and subsequently established the
Hindu caste hierarchy (Poliakov, 1974; CavalliSforza et al., 1994) and placed themselves in
predominantly castes of higher rank. However,
this was hardly supported by the archaeological
evidence (Shaffer, 1982).
Anthropologists also attempted to understand the structure of Indian populations and its
vast diversity, by employing certain anthropological variables as well as classical genetic
markers. Dendrograms constructed on the basis
of these biological traits depicted clear differentiation of Indian populations, based on different
geographical regions, ethnicity and linguistic
families. Tribal populations differed significantly
from castes, and within castes the lower ranks
behaved differently from that of the higher ranks.
Among tribal populations, the southern groups
were quite different from the central and northern
groups. Geographic proximity was found to play
a key role in determining the genetic affinities
among the Indian populations (Bhasin and
Walter, 2001; Malhotra and Vasulu, 1993). However, another study by Majumder and Mukherjee
(1993) on Indian populations based on classical
genetic traits yielded contrasting results; genetic
variation was not found to correlate well with the
social rank among the caste populations. Also,
geographical proximity was not found to always
correlate well with genetic affinity among the
populations. There was no clear pattern of genetic
variation and affinities in Indian populations that
can be assigned to any particular factor. These
contradictory inferences drawn about Indian
populations from different studies based on
classical genetic traits can possibly be addressed
and substantiated by using high-resolution
molecular genetic markers.
This task has recently been undertaken by
molecular geneticists to investigate these complex
issues pertaining to Indian populations, by
employing markers like autosomal STR’s, coding
and non-coding regions of the mitochondrial
DNA and the non recombining portions of the Ychromosome. The studies based on these markers
have tried to address questions related to the
peopling of India by different tribal communities,
establishment of caste system in India, gene flow
across ethnic groups etc. In this regard, we
present a comprehensive review of the studies
conducted on Indian populations using different
S. KRITHIKA, SUVENDU MAJI AND T.S. VASULU
386
set of Y-chromosomal markers and also discuss
about the issues addressed in relation to the
peopling of India by different population groups.
The details of the populations studied by various
authors and their geographical affiliation are
summarized in Table 1 and Figure 1.
Table 1: Number of populations studied, for Y-chromosomal polymorphisms, in different geographical
regions of India
GeographicRegion
North
Jammu & Kashmir
Himachal Pradesh
Uttranchal
Punjab
Uttar Pradesh
No. of
populations
studied
4
1
3
4
17
Arunachal Pradesh
3
Assam
Manipur
1
5
Mizoram
Tripura
Meghalaya
Sikkim
East
West Bengal
Bihar
Orissa
Jharkhand
West
Gujarat
5
6
5
3
17
7
12
8
Kashyap et al. 2006
Kashyap et al. 2006; Sahoo et al. 2006
Kashyap et al. 2006
Kivisild et al. 1999; Basu et al. 2003;
Kivisild et al. 2003; Cordaux et al. 2004a
Bhattacharya et al. 1999; Kivisild et al. 1999;
Basu et al. 2003; Kivisild et al. 2003;
Kashyap et al. 2006; Sahoo et al. 2006;
Sengupta et al. 2006; Zerjal et al. 2006
Cordaux et al. 2004b; Sahoo et al. 2006;
Kashyap et al. 2006
Cordaux et al. 2004b
Basu et al. 2003; Sahoo et al. 2006;
Kashyap et al. 2006
Kashyap et al. 2006; Sahoo et al. 2006
Basu et al. 2003; Sengupta et al. 2006
Kumar et al. 2006
Kashyap et al. 2006; Sahoo et al. 2006
Bhattacharya et al. 1999; Basu et al. 2003;
Kivisild et al. 2003; Cordaux et al. 2004a;
Kashyap et al. 2006; Sahoo et al. 2006;
Sengupta et al. 2006
Sahoo et al. 2006; Kashyap et al. 2006
Bhattacharya et al. 1999; Basu et al. 2003;
Kashyap et al. 2006; Kumar et al. 2006;
Sahoo et al. 2006; Sengupta et al. 2006
Basu et al. 2003; Kashyap et al. 2006;
Kumar et al. 2006; Sahoo et al. 2006;
Denotation in
Figure 1
1-4
5
6-8
9 - 12
13 - 29
30 - 32
33
34
39
44
50
55
-
38
43
49
54
57
58 - 74
75 - 81
82 - 93
94 - 101
9
Kivisild et al. 2003; Cordaux et al. 2004a;
Kashyap et al. 2006; Sahoo et al. 2006
Basu et al. 2003; Kivisild et al. 2003;
Cordaux et al. 2004a; Kashyap et al. 2006;
Sahoo et al. 2006; Sengupta et al. 2006
Central
Madhya Pradesh
Chattishgarh
3
6
Basu et al. 2003; Sengupta et al. 2006
Basu et al. 2003; Kashyap et al. 2006
112-114
115-120
South
Kerala
Karnataka
4
9
Cordaux et al. 2004a; Kashyap et al. 2006
Cordaux et al. 2004a; Kashyap et al. 2006;
Sahoo et al. 2006
Basu et al. 2003; Cordaux et al. 2004a;
Kashyap et al. 2006; Sahoo et al. 2006;
Sengupta et al. 2006
Bamshad et al. 2001; Ramana et al. 2001;
Kivisild et al. 2003; Cordaux et al. 2004a;
Kashyap et al. 2006; Sahoo et al. 2006;
Sengupta et al. 2006; Thanseem et al. 2006
121-124
125-133
Thangaraj et al. 2002; Kashyap et al. 2006
185-189
Maharashtra
1
References
Tamil Nadu
18
Andhra Pradesh
34
Andaman &
Nickbar Islands
5
102
103 - 111
134-150
151-184
Y-CHROMOSOME VARIATION IN INDIA
387
Fig. 1. Map of India showing the location of the populations studied till date
for Y-chromosomal polymorphism
1. Balti, 2. Argon, 3. Drokpa, 4. Buddhist, 5. HP Rajput, 6. Tharu, 7. aunsari, 8. Bhoksha, 9. Lobanas, 10. Punjab
Brahmins, 11. Punjab Scheduled castes, 12. Jat Sikhs, 13. UP Brahmins, 14. Kanyakubj Brahmin, 15. Jaunpur
Brahmin, 16. Chamar, 17. UP Rajput, 18. Chaturvedi, 19. Khatri, 20. Kurmi, 21. Thakur, 22. UP Jat, 23. UP
Kshatriya, 24. UP Vaishya, 25. UP Sudra, 26. UP Panchama, 27. Tharu, 28. Bhoksha, 29. UP Muslims, 30. Adi /
Adi Pasi, 31. Nishi, 32. Apatani, 33. Naga, 34. Manipuri Muslims, 35. Meitei, 36. Garo, 37. Naga, 38. Hmar, 39.
Mara, 40. Hmar, 41. Lai, 42. Lusei, 43. Kuki, 44. Chakma, 45. Jamatia, 46. Mog, 47. Mizo, 48. Tripuri, 49. Riang,
50. Maram, 51. Bhoi, 52. Pnar, 53. Khynriam, 54. WarKhasi, 55. Nepali, 56. Bhutia, 57. Lepcha, 58. Santal, 59.
Lodha, 60. Karmali, 61. Maheli, 62. Kora, 63. Rajbhansi, 64. Bagdi, 65. WB Brahmins, 66. WB Kshatriya, 67.
Gaud, 68. Bauri, 69. Mahishya, 70. Namasudra, 71. WB Kayasth, 72. Tanti, 73. Agharia, 74. Toto, 75. Bihar
Brahmin, 76. Bihar Kayasth, 77. Kurmi, 78. Bihar Rajput, 79. Bihar Yadav, 80. Bhumihar, 81. Baniya, 82. Gope,
83. Karan, 84. Khandayat, 85. Oriya Brahmin, 86. Juang, 87. Saora, 88. Paroja, 89. Kharia, 90. Munda, 91. Santal,
92. Agharia, 93. Tanti, 94. Bhumij, 95. Birhor, 96. Ho, 97. Kharia, 98. Munda, 99. Santal, 100. Oraon, 101- Asur,
102. Gujarat Patel, 103. Chitpavan / Konkanastha Brahmin, 104. Desasth Brahmin, 105. Dhangar, 106. Maratha,
107. Katkari, 108. Mahadeo Koli, 109. Pawara, 110. Madia Gond, 111. Naba-Baudh, 112. Halba, 113. Kamar,
114. Muria, 115. Dheria Gond, 116. Satnami, 117. Teli, 118. Agharia, 119. Oraon, 120. Brahmin / Saryupari
Brahmin, 121. Kuruchian, 122. Mullakurunan, 123. Paniyan, 124. Nair, 125. Bhovi, 126. Karnataka Christian,
127. Lingayat, 128. Gowda, 129. Iyengar, 130. Kuruva, 131. Koraga, 132. Yerava, 133. Karnataka Muslims, 134.
Kota, 135. Kurumba, 136. Irula, 137. Betta Kurumba, 138. Mullu Kurumba, 139. Jenu Kurumba, 140. Toda, 141.
Chakkiliar, 142. Gounder, 143. Kallar, 144. Pallar, 145. Vanniyar, 146. Ambalakarer, 147. Pallan, 148. Iyengar,
149. Iyer, 150. Vellalar, 151. Chenchu, 152. Koya, 153. Naikpod Gond, 154. Andh, 155. Bagata, 156. Lambadi,
157. Valmiki, 158. Poroja, 159. Siddis, 160. Kattunaikan, 161. Koya Dora, 162. Konda Reddy, 163. Yerukula, 164.
AP Brahmin, 165. Kamma / Kamma Chaudhary, 166. Kapu / Kappu Naidu, 167. Komati, 168. Raju, 169. Reddy,
170. AP Kshatriya, 171. AP Vaishya, 172. AP Yadav, 173. Relli, 174. Madiga, 175. Mala, 176. Vizag Brahmin,
177. Peruru Brahmin, 178. Golla, 179. Pardhan, 180. Akutota, 181. Panta, 182. Pokanati, 183. Vanne, 184.
Sakunupaksollu, 185. Great Andamanese, 186. Onge, 187. Jarwa, 188. Nicobarese, 189. Shompen
S. KRITHIKA, SUVENDU MAJI AND T.S. VASULU
388
Y- CHROMOSOME VARIATION
The unique properties of uniparental inheritance (paternal), small effective population size,
high polymorphism and absence of recombination
of Y-chromosome has permitted the employment
of this informative locus by researchers worldwide
for investigating the genetic structure and the
demographic paternal history of human populations. In recent years, certain major issues pertaining to tribes and castes of India have been
addressed by hierarchical typing of the slowly
evolving Y-chromosome binary polymorphisms
(Y-SNP) in congruence with the rapidly evolving
Y-chromosome short tandem repeat (Y-STR) loci.
One of the earlier Y-chromosome studies was
conducted by Bhattacharyya et al. (1999) on 125
samples from 10 ethnic groups - 8 castes (Brahmins
from north, Brahmins from east, Chamar, Bagdi,
Mahishya, Agharia, Rajput and Tanti) and 2 tribes
(Lodha and Santal) - inhabiting the eastern (West
Bengal and Orissa) and northern (Uttar Pradesh)
regions of India. The haplotype distribution among
the groups showed that different ethnic groups
harbor nearly disjoint sets of haplotypes which
indicates that there has been virtually no male
gene flow among ethnic groups. AMOVA results
revealed that there was significant haplotypic
variation between castes and tribes, but nonsignificant variation among ranked caste clusters.
Haplotypic variation attributable to differences
in geographical regions of habitat was also found
to be nonsignificant. In a Y-SNP study on 204
individuals by Ramana et al. (2001) based on three
caste groups (Vizag Brahmins, Peruru Brahmins,
Kammas), three tribes (Bagata, Poroja, Valmiki)
and an additional group (the Siddis) of Andhra
Pradesh of South India, evidence of haplotype
sharing across caste-tribe boundaries was
observed thereby suggesting the possibility of a
recent gene flow between the studied castes and
tribes in contrast to the negligible gene flow
among ethnic groups reported by Bhattacharyya
et al. (1999). Another molecular genetic study,
involving autosomal loci, mitochondrial DNA and
Y-chromosome, by Bamshad et al. (2001) based
on 265 samples from eight different caste populations (Upper castes - Niyogi and Vydiki Brahmin,
Kshatriya, Vysya; middle castes - Telega and
Turpu Kapu, Yadava; lower castes - Relli, Madiga,
Mala) from Andhra Pradesh inferred that the upper
castes were more similar to Europeans than to
Asians, middle castes were equidistant from the
two groups, and lower castes were most similar
to Asians. Also, it was observed that the genetic
distance between caste populations and Africans
was progressively larger moving from lower to
middle to upper caste groups. The study concluded that Indian castes are most likely to be of
proto-Asian origin with West Eurasian admixture
resulting in rank-related and sex-specific differences in the genetic affinities of castes to Asians
and Europeans.
In continuation with the above studies,
Kivisild et al. (2003), using mtDNA and Y-chromosome markers, conducted a study on the Chenchu
and Koya tribes of Andhra Pradesh and compared
the obtained results with six caste groups from
different parts of India, as well as with western
and central Asians. The study supported the
concept that India played a crucial role in the late
Pleistocene differentiation of the western and
eastern Eurasian gene pools. There was no
distinction, in the presence or absence of major
clades, between tribal and caste groups. Indians
showed the presence of diverse lineages of three
major Eurasian Y-chromosomal haplo-groups, C,
F and K and the exclusive presence of several
subclusters of F and K (H, L, R2 and F*) in the
Indian subcontinent (especially H, L and R2) was
consistent with the scenario that the southern
route migration from Africa carried the ancestral
Eurasian lineages to the Indian subcontinent.
Westward migration to western Asia and Europe
resulted in reduction of four Y- chromosomal
founders (C, D, F and K) to two founders (F and
K). After the initial settlement, each continental
region developed its region-specific branches of
these founders, some of which (eg. HV and TJ
lineages) have reached back to India. High
frequencies of haplogroup R1a together with
higher R1a-associated STR diversity was reported
(in Punjab and Chenchu tribe) thereby suggesting
a southern and western Asian source for this
haplogroup. The major east Asian clade O was
virtually absent in tribal and caste populations of
India with the exception of the subclade defined
by M95 whose frequency is highest among the
Austro-Asiatic speakers. Overall the results
obtained concluded that Indian tribal and caste
populations share considerable Pleistocene
heritage, with limited recent gene flow between
them. This view was however refuted by Cordaux
et al. (2004) who proposed indepen-dent origins
for the Indian caste and tribal paternal lineages
based on 931 Y-chromosomes from 15 tribal
Y-CHROMOSOME VARIATION IN INDIA
groups sampled from southern India and 12 caste
groups from all over India. The study reported
significant difference in haplogroup frequency
distributions in caste and tribal groups with caste
groups being more homogenous for Ychromosome variation and more closely related
to each other and to central Asian groups than to
tribal groups of India or any other Eurasian
groups. H-M52 and F-M89 were the most frequent
haplogroups in tribal groups, which were significantly rare in caste groups, whereas haplogroups R-M17, J-M172, R-M124 and L-M20 were
prevalent among caste groups and less frequent
among tribal groups. As opposed to that proposed by Kivisild et al. (2003), Cordaux et al. (2004)
proposed a central Asian origin of R-M17 given
its high frequency in central Asia (~20%-40%),
its rarity in west Asia and its absence in East
Asia. Also, a central Asian rather than a west
Asian origin was suggested for Indian J-M172
chromosomes. In sum, haplogroups that are likely
to be of indigenous origin are at higher frequency
in tribal groups and haplogroups likely of non
indigenous origin exhibit higher frequency in caste
groups. Hence it was concluded that paternal
lineages of the caste populations are primarily
descended from Indo-European speakers who
migrated from central Asia ~3,500 years ago, while
that of the tribal groups are predominantly of
indigenous origin. Also, evidences for a
bidirectional male gene flow between caste and
tribal groups were provided.
A recent study by Sengupta et al. (2006)
however argued against any major influence of
central Asia on the pre-existing Indian gene pool.
The study employed 69 informative Y-chromosome binary markers and 10 microsatellite markers
on a large set of geographically, socially, and
linguistically representative groups of South Asia
and the Y-chromosome binary haplogroup
composition was assessed in 728 samples from
36 populations that included 17 tribal populations
from six geographic regions and 18 caste
populations and a religious group. The study
supported the independent origin model put forth
by Cordaux et al. (2004) and suggested a partition
between (i) Tibeto-Burman speakers and (ii)
Austro-Asiatic and Dravidian speakers based on
a median-joining network analysis of O2a-M95
microsatellite haplotypes in Indians. Their data
also provided overwhelming support for an Indian
origin of Dravidian speakers in contrast to the
proto-Elamite hypothesis of their origin suggested
389
by Quintana-Murci et al. (2004) based on
mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms. The clear
predominance of haplogroup L1-M76 and the
greater microsatellite variance within L1 in
Dravidian speakers led them to propose an
indigenous origin for the Indian Dravidian speakers.
The Y-chromosomal data of 38 Y-SNP’s, on
936 Y-chromosomes representing 32 tribal and 45
caste groups, from another recent study by Sahoo
et al. (2006) also suggested a largely South Asian
origin of Indian caste communities and argued
against any major influx, from north and west of
India, of people associated with the spread of
agriculture. Their findings do support a local
origin of haplogroups F* and H and a west Asian
rather than a central Asian origin of haplogroup
J2. The claims for the association of haplogroups
J2, L, R1a and R2 with the origin of majority of the
caste’s paternal lineage from outside India, was
rejected. In general, the haplogroup frequency
distribution (except for haplogroup O and its
subclades) across the country was found to be
predominantly driven by geographical, rather than
cultural determinants. The data also provided a
clear evidence for both large-scale immigration
of Tibeto-Burman speakers (bearing O3e
chromosomes) and language change of former
Austro-Asiatic speakers (of O2a lineage) in
northeast Indian region. To understand the
genetic affinities among the lower castes and
tribal groups of India, Thanseem et al. (2006)
recently analyzed the Y-chromosome and
mitochondrial DNA of 250 males from three tribal
populations (Pardhan, Andh and Naikpod) of
southern India and compared the obtained results
with the available data from the Indian subcontinent. The most frequent haplogroups among the
Indian upper castes belonged to R subclades (R*,
R1 and R2) and that among the lower castes and
tribal populations to haplogroup H and the
distribution pattern of the major Y-lineages was
observed to be similar in tribal and lower caste
populations, and distinct from the upper castes
thereby suggesting a tribal origin for the Indian
lower castes, unaffected by geography. Both the
tribes and the lower castes harbor indigenous
F*-M89, H-M52, and O-M95 as their major Ylineages that also supports the genetic closeness
of lower castes with the tribal groups. The
presence of west / central Asian lineages (J2, R1
and R2) and its higher STR diversity in most of
the tribes suggested its presence in India much
before the arrival of Indo-European pastoralists
S. KRITHIKA, SUVENDU MAJI AND T.S. VASULU
390
and the impact of their arrival in the sub-continent
was interpreted to be social and political rather
than genetic.
LIMITATIONS OF THE ABOVE STUDIES
The earlier studies that dealt with the issue of
caste-tribe gene flow, Bhattacharyya et al. (1999)
and Ramana et al. (2001), were not extensive
enough to draw any strong conclusions about
the male gene flow among the Indian ethnic
groups, as the former study was restricted to few
representative populations of eastern and northern Indian region and the latter was confined to
only some populations from Andhra Pradesh of
South India. Indeed, the sampling strategy was
the major limitation in most of the Y-chromosome
studies conducted so far. These studies lacked
systematic sampling of populations and involved
only few samples from some populations confined
to specific geographic regions. In fact, Kivisild et
al. (2003), Cordaux et al. (2004) and many others
addressed potent issues on a whole Indian
scenario based on few representative populations
restricted to a definite region. Albeit recent studies
(Sengupta et al., 2006; Sahoo et al., 2006) were
based on populations from different linguistic
groups inhabiting diverse geographical regions
of the Indian subcontinent, the sample size of
some studied populations was considerably low,
for example, in Chakma, Mog (Sengupta et al.,
2006), Mara, Bhutia (Sahoo et al., 2006) less than
10 individuals were only studied. So, in order to
get a better insight into the peopling of India by
the tribal and caste communities of different ethnic
status and varied linguistic families, further
studies involving greater number of samples from
diverse populations inhabiting vast geographical
regions are required. Also, increased number of
Y-SNP and Y-STR markers should be typed for a
detailed resolution and this would permit
identification of some region-specific subsets of
lineages as well.
FUTURE PERSPECTIVES
At this juncture what is interesting to know is
what the molecular genetic studies have revealed,
whether these results support the earlier findings
and in what way these studies provide better
clarity about the peopling of Indian subcontinent? Were these results able to address the basic
concerns of the Indian population structure; the
dichotomy between the castes and tribes; their
antiquity and possible origin affinity and diversity
within and between these populations? Overall,
the Y-chromosome studies attempted on about
200 populations sampled from different geographic regions support the findings of the classical genetic and anthropological studies that there
exist wide genetic differences between tribes and
upper castes and insignificant differences between the lower castes and tribes and between
closely ranked castes. Studies, in general, are in
agree-ment with the independent origin model put
forward by Cordaux et al. (2004) which suggests
that caste and tribes have independent origins.
Current distribution of Y-chromosomal haplogroups
in India was primarily associated with geographic
rather than linguistic or cultural determinants. Ychromosome data analysis suggests a Southeast
Asian homeland for the Austro-Asiatic speakers
(Mundari group) of India (based on distribution
of haplogroup O) and an indigenous Indian origin
for the Dravidian speakers (based on the
haplogroup L1 frequency and associated microsatellite variance). An East/Southeast Asian
origin for the Tibeto-Burman speakers of India
was suggested based on the (I) presence of
haplogroup O3e which is typically found in East/
Southeast Asia at frequencies up to 25% to 35%
and is absent from India and elsewhere and (II)
extensive Y-STR haplotype sharing between
northeast India and East/Southeast Asia. With
regard to the caste populations, a South Asian
origin for the Indian caste communities with
minimal Central Asian influence was proposed
based on the absence of certain haplogroups in
Indian samples (C3, DE, J*, I, G, N and O) which
covers almost half of the Central Asian Ychromosomes and the presence of some haplogroups in Indian Y-chromosomes (C*, F*, H, L
and R2) that is poor in Central Asia.
Thus, as evident from the above findings, we
now possess a better insight into the peopling of
India by population groups of different ethnic
status and linguistic families. However, a far better
and vivid picture is expected to emerge in future
by a stratified sampling strategy so as to represent
large set of well-defined ethnic groups from wider
geographical regions. Increased molecular resolution by employment of large set of markers and
application of appropriate statistical tools for
analysis of the results would assist in resolving
the persisting enigma regarding Indian populations. In addition, the population based molecular
Y-CHROMOSOME VARIATION IN INDIA
genetic studies will also enhance our understanding of the health and disease aspect of tribes
and castes in India, leading to the effective control
of region and population specific diseases.
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KEYWORDS Y-Chromosome. Indian Populations. Tribes. Castes. Genetic Diversity. Gene Flow. Origin and Antiquity.
ABSTRACT An overall view of the results and findings of the recent Y-chromosome studies among 200 populations,
representing castes and tribes inhabiting different geographical regions, have been highlighted. While these studies
392
S. KRITHIKA, SUVENDU MAJI AND T.S. VASULU
support the earlier findings based on anthropological and classical genetic markers about the biological implications
of castes and tribes; it further gives some clarity about their antiquity and possible origin. However a better understanding
of the antiquity of the Indian populations and affinity between castes and tribes is expected to emerge from the future
studies with better sampling strategy and representation of more ethnic groups. The molecular genetic studies have
the potential to reveal the variation with regard to health and disease aspects among the regional populations.
Authors’ Address: S. Krithika, Suvendu Maji, T.S. Vasulu, Biological Anthropology Unit, Indian
Statistical Institute, Kolkata 700 108, West Bengal, India.
Corresponding author: Dr. T. S. Vasulu, Biological Anthropology Unit, Indian Statistical Institute,
203 BT Road, Kolkata 700108, West Bengal, India.
Telephone: 91 33 25753215, E-mail: vasulu@isical.ac.in, vasulu@gmail.com
© Kamla-Raj Enterprises 2007
Anthropologist Special Volume No. 3: 385-392 (2007)
Anthropology Today: Trends, Scope and Applications
Veena Bhasin & M.K. Bhasin, Guest Editors