The Levites, *ra-wo, λᾶός / λαοί – A new proposal for lexical and historical relationship

Ancient Israel's priestly functionaries have always occupied a paramount position in the study of the Hebrew Bible, both in antiquity and in modern scholarship. Already in Julius Wellhausen's groundbreaking study of Israelite religion, attention was drawn to the central position of Aaronides, Zadokites, and Levites in the formation of the biblical corpus and the historical development of Israelite religious ideology and identity, 1 and countless important studies have followed in Wellhausen's wake. Th e antiquity and authenticity of the textual sources concerned with priests and Levites have time and time again been subjected to detailed scrutiny, the relationship between the various priestly houses serves as a point of departure for reconstructed histories of Israel's monarchic politics, and the distinctions between ranks and gradations of priests in a variety of compositions has fueled intense speculation regarding the various iterations of sacral activity as Israelite communities formed, dissolved, and reformed over time. 2 In recent decades, the study of Priestly language and ideology have further clarifi ed the nuanced distinctions between diff erent schools of Priestly thought; 3 these forays not only have provided important entrees into the understanding of ritual and concepts of holiness in Israelite religion but have contributed to new ways of understanding the growth of the biblical literature more broadly. Th ey have also more clearly delineated the role of Priestly ideology in the shaping of 1. Julius Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel (trans.

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, 2018

2022

The Aramaic Levi Document (henceforth ALD) is an Early Jewish composition describing the life and priestly initiation of–not surprisingly–the patriarch Levi. Fragments of ALD were preserved in several manuscripts in Qumran, in a single medieval manuscript from the Cairo genizah, and in a Greek translation. The reconstruction of the early form(s) of ALD is a formidable task, both due to the fragmentary state of the textual witnesses and because they exhibit various textual discrepancies. While many of these discrepancies most likely reflect corrupt textual transmission, they might also attest to ALD’s varying textual forms already in Antiquity. In this paper I offer new textual and lexical interpretations of a couple of passages from the priestly instructions in ALD. On the basis of a fresh examination of the fragmentary manuscripts and a new collation of all the textual evidence I point to hitherto unnoticed lexical and terminological correlations between ALD, Christian Palestinian Aramaic, and Rabbinic Hebrew. These interpretations, if correct, contribute new lexemes to the Aramaic lexicon, while the terminological correlations between ALD—in its various versions—and the Rabbinic sources point to the antiquity of certain Rabbinic cultic terms and help affirm the historical-cultic reality behind both the literary fiction of ALD and the exegetical innovations of the Rabbis.

2016

The present study is based on the onomastics of the Land of Canaan during the second millennium BC. The results from onomastics are compared with the corresponding archaeological data and with parallel literary sources. The aim of the research has been to distinguish the different linguistic groups, especially the Canaanites and the Amorites, and to determine their principal areas of settlement. In accordance with the basic archaeological results, the toponyms show a dramatic change that took place in the Land of Canaan in the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age II (approximately 2000 BC). In the Land of Canaan there appeared toponymic types originating from the area of Phoenicia and spreading to the coastal area of modern Israel. Slightly later another kind of toponymic types appeared in the Galilee, the Judean Hill Country and in the Middle Zone of the Transjordan, the origin of which is to be found in Syro-Mesopotamia. It is remarkable that none of these particular types are foun...

This is the first half of the article forthcoming in Les écrits mystiques des Hekhalot et la ‘sacerdotalisation’ dans le judaïsme ancient, Colloque international à l’Université de Lausanne du 26 au 28 octobre 2015, Eds. D. Hamidovic, S. C. Mimouni, and L. Painchaud, Collection « Judaïsme antique et origines du christianisme » (Turnhout: Brepols). Significantly revised edition based on the "Christ or King" paper.

Journal of Biblical Literature 118 (1999) 49–72

Religious Studies Review, 2013

Meals in the Ugaritic literature establish social relationships and facilitate social change, but sometimes they fail to achieve those goals. The utensils, the quality of the provisions, and the concern for proper order at Baal's feasts reinforce his ties with deities supporting his kingship, while demonstrating his power and authority and therefore worthiness to those not yet convinced. However, excluding Mot betrays Baal's lack of control over him and leads to conflict between them. In contrast, El is the perfect host, providing lavish feasts and maintaining control when Yamm's messengers intrude rudely and Baal reacts violently. By providing a feast for Baal, Kirta establishes his authority among his people and creates a bond with the divine realm through Baal's patronage, while Danil uses meals to secure divine provision of an heir and a bow for his son Aqhat. On the other hand, Hurray's feast mourning Kirta's demise and Yassub's royal ascension is improper since Kirta recovers, Aqhat ensures Anat's enmity by rebuffing her request for his bow, and Pughat reverses a meal's intent by cursing Yatipan, her brother's killer. Both positive and negative depictions of meal-events demonstrate their intent, if not the result, namely the establishment of harmonious relationships among humans, and between them and the divine realm. Belnap's clear treatment provides significant insights into the content and purpose of the texts in question. This book is recommended for scholars and graduate students.

The Biblical texts are replete with references to priests and Levites in ancient Israel and Judah, and are portrayed as playing a crucial and central role in these societies. While it is quite clear that priests and Levites did exist in Iron Age Israel and Judah, and have been extensively discussed in biblical research, insufficient attention has been placed on possible archaeological evidence of these groups. In this paper, I attempt to collect and assess archaeological evidence for priests and Levites in Iron Age Israel and Judah, and how this interface interplays with the textual evidence.