Statistics of Photospheric Supergranular
Cells Observed by SDO/HMI
arXiv:1807.07479v1 [astro-ph.SR] 19 Jul 2018
Majedeh Noori1 , Mohsen Javaherian2 , Hossein Safari1∗ , Hamid Nadjari1
1 Department of
Physics, University of Zanjan,
University Blvd., Zanjan, IRAN, P. O. Box: 45371-38791.
2 Research Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics of Maragha (RIAAM),
Maragha, IRAN, P. O. Box: 55134-441.
∗ Hossein
Safari; E-mail: safari@znu.ac.ir
July 20, 2018
Abstract
Aims: The statistics of the photospheric granulation pattern are investigated using continuum images
observed by Solar Dynamic Observatory (SDO)/Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) taken at 6713 Å.
Methods: The supergranular boundaries can be extracted by tracking photospheric velocity plasma flows.
The local ball-tracking method is employed to apply on the HMI data gathered over the years 2011-2015
to estimate the boundaries of the cells. The edge sharpening techniques are exerted on the output of balltracking to precisely identify the cells borders. To study the fractal dimensionality (FD) of supergranulation,
the box counting method is used.
Results: We found that both the size and eccentricity follow the log-normal distributions with peak values
about 330 Mm2 and 0.85, respectively. The five-year mean value of the cells number appeared in half-hour
sequences is obtained to be about 60 ± 6 within an area of 350′′ × 350′′ . The cells orientation distribution
presents the power-law behavior.
Conclusions: The orientation of supergranular cells (O) and their size (S ) follows a power-law function
as |O| ∝ S 9.5 . We found that the non-roundish cells with smaller and larger sizes than 600 Mm2 are aligned
and perpendicular with the solar rotational velocity on the photosphere, respectively. The FD analysis shows
that the supergranular cells form the self-similar patterns.
Sun: photosphere - Sun: granulation - Methods: data analysis - Techniques: image processing
I.
and splitting old ones (Javaherian et al.,
2014). The size of supergranules covers
the extended range of scales, with a typical diameters of 20-70 Mm (Priest, 2014;
Ryutova , 2015). The horizontal velocity
of the plasma flows from the cell centers toward the edges are estimated to be 0.2 − 0.5
km s−1 (Simon & Weiss, 1968; Ryutova ,
2015).
Granulation process is linked to the magnetic flux distributed ubiquitously through-
Introduction
The solar granulation is the upper side of
convective cells produced based on traveling hot plasma currents from the solar interior (convective zone) to the photosphere
(Priest, 2014). Hot plasma rises up to the
surface and transfers energy. Then, cold
plasma returns to the interior within the
dark boundaries. The granulation is a turbulent process done by merging new grains
1
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
out the solar surface. It has been shown
that the emergence of magnetic flux is related to the cells where the plasma flows
positively diverge (Stangalini, 2013). The
large-scale type of granulation occurs in
supergranular cells which is one of the
characteristics of the quiet Sun (Priest,
2014). Studying the statistics of the surface
magneto-convective features lead to better
understanding of their evolution.
Photospheric convective pattern highlights the evolution of other phenomena,
such as coronal bright points, magnetic
cancelation, nanoflares and network
flares in different layers (Ryutova et al.,
2003;
Tajfirouze & Safari ,
2012;
Yousefzadeh et al., 2016).
Tian et al.
(2010) used data in various passbands
to find out a correlation between the
horizontal velocities of plasma in both
photospheric and chromospheric supergranulation. In one of the statistical works,
the average diameter and lifetime of supergranular cells were found to be 25 Mm
and 1.5 days, respectively (Roudier et al.,
2014). The relation between the cell size
and the magnetic field is unclear; but, in
recent works done based on local correlation tracking (LCT), the cell size and
velocity are linked to the intensity map of
both supergranular vertical and horizontal
flows (Rincon et al., 2017). This indirect
relation between the cell size and magnetic
flux inside the cells leads to anti-correlated
dependence, so the large cells can be
emerged where the local magnetic field is
weak.
The relation between supergranular attributes and the solar cycle, specially, the
cell size and intensity variation have been
studied by Meunier et al. (2008). They
2
used Michelson Doppler Imager (MDI:
Scherrer et al., 1995) onboard on Solar
and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO), to
show that the size of supergranules are
smaller at the maximum of solar activity. The intensity variation of supergranular cells from center to boundary is comparable with that of obtained for granules
(Del Moro et al., 2007).
Meunier et al. (2007) have presented results about cell-size distribution and found
a correlation between horizontal velocity of plasma and supergranular radius
extracted from MDI/SOHO. In recent
decades, by increasing received data taken
from ground-based and space telescopes,
the automatic detection methods are intensively expanded to analyze data and extract statistics with higher accuracy (e.g.,
see Aschwanden, 2010; Alipour & Safari,
2015; Arish et al., 2016; Javaherian et al.,
2017), and also, reducing costs of data classification. So, the numerous methods are
progressed to extract supergranular cells
from intensity continuum images. One of
the important approaches, known as local
correlation tracking (LCT), is employed
to recognize the boundaries based on flux
current in data (Papadimitriou et al., 2006).
The velocity of pixels of interests are computed by capturing the transform motion of
pixels in two consecutive frames. A twodimensional (2-D) flow field can represent
the boundaries of cells as the output of the
method. Fisher & Welsch (2008) extended
the LCT method with application of the
fourier transform named fourier local correlation tracking (FLCT).
One of the promising algorithms for determining the supergranular boundaries is
ball-tracking method. This method consid-
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
ers imaginary balls on the gridded surface
independently moving with plasma flows
(Potts et al., 2004). According to the intensities, the balls move in directions to
settle in local minima where the boundaries are elongated. Using balls tracking, the locations of some coronal smallscale features (bright points, mini-coronal
mass ejections, etc.) were carried out
by Innes et al. (2009), Yousefzadeh et al.
(2016), and Honarbakhsh et al. (2016).
We investigate the supergranules morphological parameters and velocities during a five-year period of the solar activity. So, the statistical parameters of supergranular cells, such as size−frequency
distribution, fractal dimension (FD), orientation, and their eccentricities are studied.
Moreover, the correlations between quantified parameters and the solar activity are
computed. We used data recorded by Solar
Dynamic Observatory (SDO)/ Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI) taken at
6173 Å.
The layout of this article is as follows:
the description of data sets is given in Sect.
II. The brief review of the methods are prepared in Sect. III. The results are presented
in Sect. IV. Concluding remarks are explained in Sect. V.
II.
Description of Datasets
Solar Dynamic Observatory (SDO) utilized one of the three instruments named
Helioseismic and Magnetic Imager (HMI:
Schou et al., 2012) to investigate the photospheric oscillations and magnetic fields
(Wachter et al., 2012).
So, to study
the supergranular cells using photospheric
continuum images, we employed the
high-spatial and temporal resolution data
recorded by HMI. The HMI provides different level of full-disk images in the Fe I
absorption line at 6173 Å with a resolution
of 0.50 ± 0.01 arcsec and cadence of 45 seconds. Some corrections, such as exposure
time, dark current, flat field, and cosmicray hits, are done in level-1 data.
For our purpose, we used 30-minute consecutive continuum HMI data with a time
lag of 45 seconds in every two days from
the year 2011 to 2015. Since the measurement of morphological parameters of the
supergranules, such as size and orientation,
and also, velocity on the surface very sensitive to the projection effect, variation of the
solar radial over time, and the B0 angle evolution effect (Roudier et al., 2013), the partial area with a size of 350′′ × 350′′ at the
solar disk center (a region centered with
longitudes ±11◦ around the central meridian, and latitudes limited in ±11◦ around
the equator) (Fig. 1, red box) was selected
to focus on photospheric flows. To coalign
the sequential data to a reference one, all
images are derotated using drot− map.pro
available in the SSW/IDL package.
III.
Methods
The ball-tracking method, edge sharpening
technique, and box-counting algorithm are
explained briefly as follows.
Ball-tracking One of the applicable
methods developed for computing velocity
fields is ball-tracking method (Potts et al.,
2004). The ball-tracking method is applied on continuum HMI images to track
velocity fields. Using fast fourier transform
which is a part of the ball-tracking code,
photospheric p-mode oscillations are attenuated to remove features moving faster
than 7 km s−1 . In the code, the constructed
3
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
(a)
b
(b)
b
Figure 1: The continuum SDO/HMI full-disk image of the Sun recorded on 30 December 2015 (00:00-00:30 UT) taken
at 6173 Å (left panel). The red rectangle is selected with area of 350′′ × 350′′ (region centered with longitudes
±11◦ around the central meridian, and the latitudes limited in ±11◦ around the equator). The output of the
ball-tracking method is shown with green face (right panel). The blue edges are the cells border obtained by
the morphological filters (see text).
data cube with two spatial and one temporal dimension is converted to a cube in feature space of wave vector (k) and frequency
(ω) by Fourier transform. As photosheric
4
oscillations (υcut−off = ω/k) indicates a
cone lateral surface in k − ω space, we
are able to discard components covering
motions greater than υcut−off = 7 km s−1
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
(Tian et al., 1989; Roudier et al., 2013).
Ball-tracking method delineates velocity
fields in a fraction of time by moving spherical balls as float tracers on a surface. In
this method, the granulation pattern is considered as a criterion for 3-D tracers on surface. Small floating balls move on the solar photosphere based on bouncy laws. In
other words, merging and splitting of granules reveal bumps on surface wherever the
time-evolving granulation form ripples on
the surface. These movements are very
similar to a ball moving on fluid surface.
This ball has a given mass and momentum. If granular cells push the ball, the
sphere will continue traveling based on incoming force. So, the path and direction
of ball are estimated as a function of time
(Potts & Diver, 2008). Both the diameter
of balls and average surface penetration depend on the resolution of the image. The radius of ball is chosen to match the typical
size of granular cells. The smaller the radius, the cell borders are found with more
sensitivity to short wavelength noise. Typical value for the radius is half of center-tocenter granular distance. For high resolution HMI data, the ball diameter is around
two pixels. Time range of 30 minutes is
selected to prepare images as a datacube.
Figure 1 (right panel) exhibits the balltracking output extracted from HMI data
displayed as regions with green face.
Edge Detection To sharpen the edges,
the binary format of images underwent
the bridge algorithm that fill the blank
space appeared between unclosed boundaries (Gonzalez et al., 2008). In the next
step, to fill remained gaps in boundaries, a
decomposition algorithm is used to structuralize edges (if it exists) by image dila-
tion. To speed up performing the binary
dilation, erosion procedure is applied on
output image and the lanes were nearly
closed (Boomgaard & Balen, 1992). To
find perimeter of structures in 2-D images,
the algorithm uses connectivities to specify
the edges with more width. The output image including boundaries is presented with
solid blue lines in Fig. 1 (right panel).
Box-counting Fractals have geometric repetitive patterns in different scales
wherein the whole of structure can be generated by small parts in non-integer dimensions (Aschwanden, 2011). One of the
methods that estimates the fractal dimension of 2-D data is box-counting (Molteno,
1993). This method is applied on image
to breaks it into smaller parts with different resolutions step-by-step. In different
resolutions, the code considers the boxes
consisting of image components. In each
step, the size of box (ǫ) and the number of
boxes (N(ǫ)) is computed. Thus, the image
dimension (D) is defined as
log N (ǫ )
.
ǫ→0 log(ǫ −1 )
D = lim
IV.
(1)
Results
To determine the boundaries, an automatic recognition method is applied to
HMI intensity-continuum data recorded at
6173 Å. We focused on rectangular area
of 350′′ × 350′′ to extract statistical properties of supergranular cells (Fig. 1, left
panel). For our purpose, 40 images (halfhour data) for every two days were gathered with a time lag of 45 seconds during
the years 2011 to 2015.
The log-normal function is fitted to
5
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
the size-frequency distribution of supergranules, (Fig. 2, upper panel). The
log-normally distributed function is given
by (Newman, 2006; Bazargan et al., 2008;
Aschwanden, 2015),
Number (× 103)
The peak value of the eccentricity distribution of supergranular cells is 0.8. The
skewness takes a positive value and kurtosis is 1.8 for overall five years. The
skewness and kurtosis of eccentricity distributions are approximately constant during
!
2
five years (Fig. 2, lower panel).
(ln( x) − µ)
1
f ( x, µ, σ) =
,
(2)
√ exp −
The cell orientation between the major
2σ2
σx 2π
and horizontal axis (west-east latitude on
where µ is the mean value, and σ is
the solar disk) and an estimation of the
the standard deviation. The fit parameerror value of the orientation angles are
ters µ and σ for overall five-year sizespecified for each region (see Appendix A).
frequency are obtained to be 5.208 ± 0.038
The orientation distribution of cells follows
and 0.757 ± 0.031, respectively, with the
a power-law fit as y ∝ x−α , wherein α
peak value of 330 Mm2. The variation of
is the power exponent. Using the meththese values is approximately constant durods introduced in Aschwanden (2015) and
ing five years (Fig. 2, upper panel).
Farhang et al. (2018), the power-law expo3
nents were obtained. In Fig. 3, the fitted
2011 with µ ≈ 5.21 and σ ≈ 0.76
2012 with µ ≈ 5.19 and σ ≈ 0.76
2
2013 with µ ≈ 5.30 and σ ≈ 0.73
power-law function is shown with the ex2014 with µ ≈ 5.28 and σ ≈ 0.74
1
2015 with µ ≈ 5.19 and σ ≈ 0.77
ponent α = 0.1613 ± 0.0416 which seems
0
to be constant over the period. The errors
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
Size (Mm2)
for the orientations of the cells were in the
2011 with kurtosis ≈1.79 and skewness ≈5×10
2012 with kurtosis ≈1.79 and skewness ≈5×10
2
range of 0.0001◦ to 1.7321◦ with mean val2013 with kurtosis ≈1.79 and skewness ≈4×10
2014 with kurtosis ≈1.79 and skewness ≈6×10
ues of 0.0584◦.
2015 with kurtosis ≈1.79 and skewness ≈3×10
Number (× 103)
-16
-16
-16
-16
-16
1
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
Eccentricity
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 2: The histograms of cells size (top) and cells
eccentricity (bottom) for each year. The lognormal function (Eq. 2) is fitted to the size distributions.
Each segmented region can be surrounded by an ellipse that can be attained by morphological moments of
a shape (Emre Celebi & Alp Aslandogan ,
2005). Thus, the major and minor axis of
contained area is computed to obtain the eccentricity. All cells eccentricities take values ranged from 0 and 1. The value 0 represents the shape as a circle, and 1 returns
a segmented shape as line.
6
In Fig. 4, the log-normal function is fitted on the photospheric horizontal velocities of plasma for each year (Fig. 4). The
overall five-year parameters µ and σ are
equal to 4.634 ± 0.039 and 0.556 ± 0.031,
respectively. The time series of daily (blue)
and monthly (red) number of cells for five
years are shown in Fig. 5. The mean value
is equal to 59.6 ± 5.62 cells ranged from
43 to 77 in each frame.
As we see in Fig. 6, the time series
of the plasma velocity and the number of
sunspots are presented. To test Pearson
correlation between time series, we employed the box-Cox transformation to convert the distributions of time series with
positive values (number of cells, number
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
104
104
(a)
power index, α ≈ - 0.188 ± 0.086
Distribution of orientations
103
(b)
103
Data point
Power-law fit
102
102
104
4
10
(c)
103
102
104
power index, α ≈ - 0.2096 ± 0.0541
Data point
Power-law fit
(d)
103
Data point
Power-law fit
Power index, α ≈ - 0.1091 ± -0.0282
power index, α ≈ - 0.1355 ± 0.0350
Data point
Power-law fit
102
(e)
104
power index, α ≈ - 0.1357 ± 0.0350
(f)
103
103
Data point
Power-law fit
102
100
101
Orientation (degree)
102
102
100
Data point
Power-law fit
power index, α ≈ - 0.1613 ± 0.0416
101
Orientation (degree)
102
Figure 3: The orientation distribution of supergranules for the years of 2011 − 2015 (a: 2011, b: 2012, c: 2013, d:
2014, e: 2015, f: 2011-2015). The minimum and maximum of orientation errors computed for regions are
about 0.0001◦ and 1.7321◦ , respectively. The maximum error values belong to the cells orientated in ±45◦ .
3.5
× 106
2011 with µ
2012 with µ
2013 with µ
2014 with µ
2015 with µ
Velocity frequency
3
2.5
≈
≈
≈
≈
≈
4.66 and σ
4.70 and σ
4.66 and σ
4.68 and σ
4.65 and σ
≈
≈
≈
≈
≈
0.55
0.53
0.54
0.53
0.54
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Velocity (m/s)
Figure 4: The histograms of horizontal velocities for
each year during the years 2011 to 2015. The
log-normal function (Eq. 2) is fitted to the distributions.
of sunspots, etc.) to normal distributions.
This transformation considers a range for
exponents (λ) defined in following equation
λ
y −1
,
Y (λ ) =
λ
log(y),
if λ , 0,
if λ = 0,
where λ usually varies from -5 to 5. The optimal value of λ is obtained as the best approximation fitted on the normal distribution curve (Everitt, 2002). To do this, first,
kurtosis for each transformed time series
with value about three are chosen for the
best λ. Then, the correlation coefficients
are computed for time series (Press et al.,
2007).
To validate the values attained by Pearson correlation, a hypothetical test called
p-value (probability value) is exploited. It
specifies that whether there is a meaningful
relation between time series or computed
correlation has been occurred by accident.
The p-value smaller than 0.05 shows the
higher validity of the correlation (Everitt,
7
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
80
Number of cells
Maximum of the solar cycle
70
60
50
Towards the solar minimum
40
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Time (daily)
Figure 5: Time series of daily (blue) and monthly smoothed (red) number of cells during the years 2011 to 2015.
2002).
As seen in Table 1, the correlations
between the cells size and orientations,
sunspots number and velocities, and also,
sunspots number and cells number are
about 0.3, 0.2, and 0.3, respectively.
There is an anti-correlated behavior between eccentricities and cells size, and also,
sunspots number and cells size with about
- 0.1 and -0.4, respectively.
As shown in Fig. 7 (upper panel), for
eccentricities smaller than 0.2, the sizes
are more fluctuated. As we see in Fig. 7
(lower panel, blue line), by increasing the
size, the orientation rises. The small cells
with eccentricities around 0.55 have orientations close to 0◦ , and with increasing
eccentricity, the orientation rises and approaches to 0.8 (Fig. 7, red line in lower
panel). The size (S ) and the orientation
(O) are related by |O| ∝ S 9.509±0.865 . Relationships between the size of cells, orientation, and eccentricity show that the large
cells are commonly included orientations
around 45◦ − 90◦ with shapes similar to
ellipse, and the smaller ones are in the
8
range of 0◦ − 45◦ with mostly non-roundish
shapes (Fig. 7). In Fig. 8, the direction
of cells (orientations) and surrounded ellipses are displayed by black lines and red
ellipses, respectively.
V.
Conclusions
We used the ball-tracking method, edge
sharpening technique, and box-counting algorithm to study the morphological parameters of photospheric supergranular cells.
The code identified the number of 53651
individual cells from 900 data cubes including SDO/HMI continuum images during
the years 2011 to 2015. To avoid the projection effect (sphere to plan projection), B0
angle evolution effect, variation of the solar radius during time, a box with the size
of 350′′ × 350′′ around the central equatorial region (Fig. 1, red box) were studied. Since the fractal dimensions fluctuation is around 1.8 in each frame, it implies that the supergranulation pattern occur with self-similarities.
Size-frequency distribution of super-
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
2500
200
2000
150
1500
100
1000
50
500
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
Sunspot number
Velocity (m/s)
Velocity
Sunspot number
0
Time (daily)
Figure 6: Time series of both smoothed monthly number of sunspots (red) and surface velocities (blue).
Table 1: Pearson correlations between statistical parameters.
Orientations and cells size
Eccentricities and cells size
Sunspots number and velocities
Sunspots number and cells size
Sunspots number and cells number
granules follows the log-normal function
similar to that of obtained for granules (Berrilli et al., 2002; Javaherian et al.,
2014). The eccentricity distributions of
the cells possibly did not undergo the
changes affected by high-activity or lowactivity years. The power exponent of orientation distributions and the parameters
of velocity-distributions don’t vary significantly during the years 2011 to 2015. The
orientation distribution of cells indicates
the power-law behavior. Cells with smaller
sizes (< 600 Mm2 ) have small angle of the
orientations from 0◦ to 5◦ on the solar surface (Fig. 7, lower panel). The cells eccentricities fluctuate approximately around
0.66 (Fig. 7, upper panel). The power-
λ
Correlation
P-value
-0.700
5.000
2.400
0.300
0.300
0.296
-0.121
0.244
-0.410
0.320
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
0.001
law relation between size (S ) and orientation (O) of the cells can be expressed by
|O| ∝ S 9.5 . The results show that most
of the small cells have small values of orientations (Fig. 7), and their average eccentricities are larger than 0.55 supporting
non-roundish shapes. We concluded that
the small cells align with the solar rotational velocity, while the larger ones are
mostly orientated towards to the rotational
axis. It seems that the solar rotation has
not enough force to rotate the large cells
along its rotational velocity. More quantitative studies are needed to investigate the
influence of both differential rotation and
photospheric magnetic field on cells orientations.
9
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
950
Size (Mm2)
900
850
800
750
700
650
600
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Eccentricity
900
0.7
0.65
700
Power-law fit
Power-law fit
Size
Eccentricity
600
500
-100
0.6
power-law index
α ≈ 9.51 ± 0.86
-50
0
50
Orientation (degree)
100
Figure 7: Relationship between the size of cells (Mm2 )
and their eccentricity (upper panel). The mean
values for each bin (0 âĂŞ 0.02, 0.02 âĂŞ 0.04,
etc.) for cells have been displayed. The relationship between the size of cells (Mm2 ) and
the orientation (degree) as mean values for
each bin (0 âĂŞ 5, 5 âĂŞ 10, etc.) shows that
the smaller sizes have no preference direction
on the Sun (lower panel, blue line). The relationship between the eccentricity of cells and
their orientation (degree) for mean values of
each bin as mentioned are shown (lower panel,
red line).
Appendix A: Angle measurements and
error analysis
For a binary image f ( x, y), the area of an
object A = Σ x Σy f ( x, y) is a summation of
10
Figure 8: The fitted ellipses to the cells and their major
axis. The orientations of the cells − the angle between the major axis of the ellipse and
the Sun-X (west-east direction) are ranged between -90◦ to +90◦ .
Eccentricity
2
Size (Mm )
800
pixels labeled one. So, we can introduce
the centroid of object by following equations
1
1
Σ x Σy x f ( x, y), yCI = Σ x Σy y f ( x, y),
A
A
(4)
where xCI and yCI are the coordinates of
the intensity-weighted centroid. For an image, the central moments µ pq is expressed
as
(Emre Celebi & Alp Aslandogan ,
2005)
xCI =
µ pq = Σ x Σy ( x − xCI ) p (y − yCI )q f ( x, y).
(5)
The angle φ between the major axis of an
object and horizontal axis (positive x-axis)
is given as (e.g., Stojmenovic & Nayak ,
2007)
!
1
2µ11
φ = arctan
.
2
µ20 − µ02
(6)
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
∆µ11 ( x, y) = ±
q
(ΣY Y 2 f 2 ( x, y)) + (ΣX X 2 f 2 ( x, y)) ,
q
∆µ20 ( x, y) = ± ΣX 4X 2 f 2 ( x, y),
q
∆µ02 ( x, y) = ± ΣY 4Y 2 f 2 ( x, y),
error of orientation angle (Fig. 9). Using above-mentioned equations, the angle
φ and the error value are obtained to be
31.6231 ± 0.0032 degrees.
40
30
y
The error of the angle φ as a function of
the moments can be obtained by the error
propagation method (e.g., Hughes & Hase,
2010; Mumford, 2017) defined as follows
s
!
!
∂µ pq 2
∂µ pq 2
∆µ pq ( x, y) = ± ∆x
+ ∆y
,
∂x
∂y
(7)
where ∆x and ∆y are spatial resolution in
x and y direction, respectively. Since in
our analysis, ∆x = ∆y, and are equal to
one (pixel), the error of moments of interest takes the following form
20
10
10
20
x
30
40
50
Figure 9: An artificial binary image with 54 × 40 pixels including an object described by a function f ( x, y). The red point is representative of
the intensity-weighted centroid. The angle between the major axis of the object and the eastwest direction is 31.6231 ± 0.0032 degrees.
where X = ( x − xCI ) and Y = (y − yCI ).
So, the error of angle is obtained as follows
s
∆φ(µ11 , µ20 , µ02 ) = ±
!
!
!
∂φ 2
∂φ 2
∂φ 2
+ ∆µ20
+ ∆µ02
,
∆µ11
∂µ11
∂µ20
∂µ02
where the partial derivative are expanded
as
∂φ
µ20 − µ02
=
,
∂µ11
(µ20 − µ02 )2 + 4µ211
−µ11
∂φ
=
,
∂µ20
(µ20 − µ02 )2 + 4µ211
µ11
∂φ
=
.
∂µ02
(µ20 − µ02 )2 + 4µ211
As an example, we created 2-D binary
form of artificial image (mimicking data:
Javaherian et al., 2014) to test the validity
of computing moments and estimate the
11
Running title • May 2016 • Vol. XXI, No. 1
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