Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual
Framework Prevailing over the First
Decade of the Twenty-First Century
Alfabetización científica: el marco
conceptual que prevalece en la primera
década del siglo xxi
Literacia científica: enquadramento conceptual
que prevalece na primeira década do século xxi
orcid.org/0000-0003-3316-5605
António Manuel Costa*
Maria Eduarda Ferreira**
orcid.org/0000-0003-1010-4404
orcid.org/0000-0003-1010-4404
Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro***
Para citar este artículo: Costa, A., Ferreira, M. y da Silva, M. (2021). Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual
Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century. Revista Colombiana de Educación,
1(81), 195-228. https://doi.org/10.17227/rce.num81-10293
*
Doutorado em Educacion. Escola Regional Dr. José Dinis da Fonseca, Portugal, Research Unit for Inland
Development, Polytechnic Institute of Guarda, Portugal. Correo: antoniocosta@ipg.pt
**
Doutorado em Biologia, Agregação em Educação. Escola Superior de Educação, Comunicação e Desporto,
CI&DEI, Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, Portugal. Correo: eroque@ipg.pt
*** Doutorado em Psicologia com Agregação em Psicologia. Professor do Departamento de Psicologia e
Educação da Universidade da Beira Interior (Covilhã, Portugal)͕ 5HVHDUFK &HQWHU LQ 6SRUWV 6FLHQFHV
+HDOWK6FLHQFHVDQG+XPDQ'HYHORSPHQW &,'(6' Correo: loureiro@ubi.pt
pp. 195-228
Recibido: 16/07/2019
Evaluado: 11/05/2020
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Abstract
The term scientific literacy arises due to the need of the scientific community to
see that the population validated its scientific and technological production. The
construct Scientific literacy has been subject to diverse conceptual considerations
over the years, arising from the scientific, technological, social and political changes that marked contemporary society characteristics. In this study, we sought to
assess the evolution of the scientific literacy construct over the first decade of the
twenty-first century, through qualitative research, using a bibliographic study. For
the operationalization of this analysis, different dimensions for scientific literacy
were defined. The results suggest that scientific literacy embodies a construct that
is deictic in nature, shaped by the social, political, cultural and scientific contexts
prevailing in the society it belongs to. The conclusion is that all of this conceptual
matrix suggests a change in the relatively passive form in which science is appreciated of and the way this operates in society towards a commitment to personal
involvement with science and towards the valuation of the importance of scientific
knowledge throughout life.
Keywords
scientific literacy; bibliographic
study; science and society;
qualitative research; social
environment
Resumen
Palabras clave
alfabetización científica;
estudio bibliográfico; ciencia
y sociedad; investigación
cualitativa; entorno social
El término alfabetización científica surge como consecuencia de la necesidad de
la comunidad científica de ver validada, por parte de la población, la producción
científica y tecnológica. El constructo alfabetización científica fue objeto de varias
actualizaciones conceptuales a lo largo de los años como resultado de los cambios científicos, tecnológicos y sociales de la sociedad contemporánea. En esta
investigación se realiza una revisión sistemática en la cual se analiza la evolución
de la alfabetización científica en la primera década de este siglo. Buscamos evaluar
la evolución del constructo alfabetización científica durante la primera década del
siglo XXI, a través de una investigación cualitativa, realizando un estudio bibliográfico. Para la operacionalización de este análisis, se definieron diferentes dimensiones de la alfabetización científica. Los resultados indican que es un constructo de
naturaleza deíctica, que conforma su contenido a los entornos social, político, cultural y científico en que se inserta. La conclusión es que toda esta matriz conceptual
sugiere un cambio en la forma relativamente pasiva como se aprecia la ciencia y
como esta funciona en la sociedad hacia un compromiso de implicación personal
con la ciencia y hacia la valoración de la utilidad del conocimiento científico a lo
largo de la vida.
Resumo
O termo literacia científica surge em consequência da necessidade da comunidade
científica ver validada, por parte da população, a produção científica e tecnológica
da época. Literacia científica representa um construto sujeito a diversas representações conceituais ao longo dos anos decorrentes das modificações científicas,
tecnológicas, sociais e políticas características da sociedade contemporânea. Neste
estudo, procurou-se aferir a evolução do construto literacia científica ao longo da
primeira década do século xxi, através da análise qualitativa, com recurso à revisão
da literatura. Para a operacionalização desta análise foram definidas diferentes
dimensões para a literacia científica. Os resultados obtidos mostram como a literacia científica incorpora um constructo de caráter dêitico que molda o conteúdo ao
contexto social, político, cultural e científico que prevalece na respectiva sociedade.
Conclui-se que toda essa matriz conceitual sugere uma mudança na forma relativamente passiva de valorização da ciência e no modo como esta opera na sociedade em direção ao compromisso com o envolvimento pessoal com a ciência e à
valorização da utilidade do conhecimento científico ao longo da vida.
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Palavras-chave
literacia científica; revisão da
literatura; ciência e sociedade,
investigação qualitativa;
enquadramento social
Introduction
The presence of science on school curriculums dates back to the
nineteenth century, due, among other reasons, to the pressures applied
by scientists of this period, including Thomas Huxley, Herbert Spencer,
Charles Lyell and Michael Faraday, concerning the need for the teaching of science (Deboer, 1991). At that time, this advocacy of science
teaching in schools encountered strong opposition from people in the
Humanities field. Hence, each scientist had to take a proactive attitude
in arguing for the utility of science and dispelling the vision of science
as a materialistic activity lacking any virtue (Deboer, 2000). The promotion of science teaching in schools grew alongside the need to endow
citizens with independent scientific thinking as a means of broadening
and deepening the efficient participation of citizens in their societies.
This need to produce independent thinking is one of the objectives of
education, for if a student does not put into practice the acquired skills
or does not use them for productive purposes, then education has failed
to reach its primary objective (Deboer, 2000).
While still displaying some concerns about the high level of relevance
that school curricula attributed to the role of science, very often forgetting that the fundamental purpose of science is knowledge about the
pp. 195-228
Historical evolution
Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
This research started from these two attributes—intellectual and
social— and the analyses ot the evolution of the sl construct over the last
decade of the twentieth century. Then, we undertook a systematic review
of the literature on the sl construct over the temporal frame set by the first
decade of this century.
António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
Each generation, in their own respective timeframe, endows a different
form on the aspirations that shape their society with that identifying those
of the current generation involving the renovation of generalised concerns
over the social, political and cultural quality of life of populations. In
order to achieve this goal, each generation draws upon science and
technology (s&t) as an instrument for fostering social justice. To obtain
the desired goals, there is a need to provide citizens with the tools to
develop their s&t competences and knowledge. These tools need to be
designed, implemented and developed within the field of Science
Education (se) and seek to develop individual Scientific Literacy (sl) not
only as an intellectual capacity but also as the attitudinal, social and
interdisciplinary attributes (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009) that enable
socially active beings.
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natural world and its impact on the personal and social lives of citizens.
This concern prevailed during the inter-war period (Choi et al., 2011; Murcia,
2009; Roth & Lee, 2001; van Eijck & Roth, 2010).
In the period following World War Two, the role of science and
technology grew exponentially in society stemming from the increase
in citizen’s participation in scientific and technological issues (Irwin &
Michael, 2003). This involvement evolved in very differentiated ways
according to the time frameworks, which has led to many authors framing the impact of science on diverse dimensions of society into three distinct periods: a) between the end of World War Two and the late 1950s;
b) the beginning of the 1960s; c) the beginning of the 1980s (Miller &
Pardo, 2003).
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Deepening this perspective, Miller & Pardo (2003) state that following
the conclusion of World War Two, the work undertaken by engineers and
scientists gained recognition and value due to the rise in the standard of
living. Thus, the diverse practical applications, including highlights such
as the production of new medications, new planes emerging in the
aeronautics, the pesticides and the progress in communications, ended
up reaching an increasing number of individuals, which brought about
the greater valuation of scientific and technological knowledge (Bauer
et al., 2003).
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Advancing with this historical outline, the second phase began in the
1960s with the publication of a series of books defending the participation
of society in decision-making around s&t related issues. These publications
advocated the need to reduce the gap between citizens and scientists, so
that individuals become socially participative (Deboer, 2000). This idea of
greater civic participation derived primarily from the utilisation of different
technological applications, which later proved harmful to society, especially to nature. This raised doubts about the positive influence of science
and technology in the vanguard of social development and wellbeing, and
regarding the role each citizen should play in the definition of the borders
to that same s&t (Deboer, 2000; Miller, 2004). Despite this desire for civic
participation, various governments, scientific and technological organisations and the scientific community as a whole failed to duly recognise the
scientific and technological competences of citizens for the definition of
lines of research. Only at the beginning of the 1980s, as Miller & Pardo
(2003) identify, and coinciding with the third stage, there was some recognition by a significant proportion of the political and scientific community
about the fact that citizens might be able to veto scientific projects. This
third stage displays a greater level of scientific information among citizens
due to the exponential increase in scientific-based communication, which
reflected in consequences such as the rise in the speed and quantity of
public debates on s&t-related issues. In the same direction, various authors
defend that the exponential growth in the number of debates on scientific
and technological issues, as well as their visibility, implies a higher level
of sl among citizens (Irwin & Michael, 2003; Miller, 2004; Miller & Pardo,
2003; Murcia, 2009; Norris & Phillips, 2003).
Nature of the concept
pp. 195-228
In addition to this interpretation, Hurd (1998) added other dimensions
to the definition of sl to establish a denser construct in which the interactions between the triade science-technology-society emerges as the core
and unavoidable marker of the definition of sl (Figure 1).
Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
The information reaching the individuals, in different ways and across
different communication platforms, should be processed and assimilated
so that it may be applied subsequently in active participation in society
(Choi et al., 2011; Hofstein et al., 2011; van Eijck & Roth, 2010). This idea
involved developing a collective cognitive potential, enabling a citizen to
grasp reality, endowing this with a valid meaning for life and thus become
more effective in terms of material actions on society (Caraça, 2001).
As such, individual civic participation in the social collective should
be leveraged by a socio-scientific matrix (Hofstein et al., 2011) so that,
more than simply possessing a basic set of scientific knowledge, citizens
should also have a clear vision as to how such knowledge interrelates
with other events in society, the reasons why they are important and
what vision of the world we may gain from them (Osborne, 2007). This
formulation falls within the scope of the feasible dimensions that the
literature defends for scientifically literate citizens (Bybee et al., 2009;
Hofstein et al., 2011; Osborne, 2007). At the end of the last century some
authors approached sl as holding four dimensions (Boujaoude, 2002;
Hurd, 1998; Miller, 1998): (a) scientific knowledge; (b) research on the
nature of science; (c) science as a form of thinking; (d) interactions with
science, technology and society.
António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
The term scientific literacy has appeared in the literature over the last
four decades (Deboer, 2000; Hurd, 1998), even if very often with varying
interpretations and meanings (Deboer, 2000; Miller & Pardo, 2003;
Murcia, 2009; Osborne, 2007). This myriad of concepts, definitions and
paths produced under the auspices of defining sl reflects in the growing
importance of the s&t knowledge that a citizen should possessto have
an active involvement in markedly scientific societies (Yuenyong &
Narjaikaew, 2009).
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Understanding
the nature
of scientific
knowledge
Interactions with
the values guiding
science
Understanding
and appreciating
S&T, and its
interrelationship
with society
Promoting
science
education
throughout life
Scientific
Literacy
Using the
scientific process
in the resolution of
problems, decisionmaking and building
an understanding of
the universe
Development
of multiple
S&T- associated
competences
Application of
scientific concepts,
theories and laws in
interactions with the
universe
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Figure 1. Dimensions of scientific literacy. Adapted from Hurd (1998).
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Even while sl is essential to participating in society, it does not emerge
spontaneously in citizens, and there is a need for a continuum of understanding about the nature and the construction of the world. Bybee defines
the acquisition of knowledge by levels beginning with a scientifically illiterate
citizen, passing through nominal, functional, conceptual, processual and
finally multidimensional literacy (Bybee, 1997). Furthermore, Bybee defends
the existence of a minimum level of sl that runs across the population
and accompanying citizens during their lifetime (Table 1). This level of
literacy may experience alterations depending on the context or the theme
in which the citizen is called upon to participate (Bybee, 1997; Laugksch,
2000; Osborne et al., 2003).
Defining the minimum level in which a citizen might be considered
scientifically literate spans three dimensions: knowledge about science, the
nature of science, and the interactions between science and society. Even
after having defined these dimensions, this process did not gain any consensus. Therefore, to ensure greater clarity, the dimensions were expanded and
indicators were established (Table 1). Analysis of Table 1 shows how we may
approach sl as a sequential and hierarchical model that begins with ideas
about science, moves on through knowledge about the nature of science,
and ends with the interactions between s&t and society.
Table 1.
Levels of Scientific Literacy
Level
Indicator of dimension
At this level, the citizen does not have the
scientific capacity to understand science
questions or to ask a question within a
specific scientific field. (Bybee, 1997).
identifies the terms and
questions as scientific.
demonstrates alternative
conceptions.
presents minimalist
knowledge.
expresses naive
explanations.
The person…
uses scientific terminology.
defines the terms correctly.
memorises specific
concepts.
understands only an
activity or specific need.
The third level, conceptual and procedural
sl, describes people who understand the
way conceptual parts of a discipline relate
to the whole and how scientific disciplines
Conceptual
relate to each other. They possess procedural
and Processual
knowledge and skills (e.g. scientific inquiry
Scientific Literacy skills, technological skills, ability to make
and Technology
observations and hypotheses, developing
new knowledge using evidence, logic and
creativity). It can be described as the level
of scientific ability which allows for solving
practical problems. (Wolfensberger et al., 2010).
These people
The highest level, multi-dimensional sl,
illustrates whose understanding of science
extends beyond the concepts of scientific
disciplines and procedures of scientific
investigation. More specifically, such
Multidimensional subjects are able to make connections within
Scientific Literacy scientific disciplines, and among science,
and Technology
technology, and the larger issues challenging
society. In other words, science education
has promoted a broader view of science,
while simultaneously helping foster an
appreciation for science and its usefulness
to society. (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009).
These people
Source: Own elaboration.
Understand the conceptual
scheme of science.
understand science-based
competences.
understands the
relationship between the
parts and the whole of
science.
understand the processes
and principles of science.
understand the role of
science in the relationship
with other fields of
knowledge.
knows about the history of
science.
knows about the nature of
science.
understands the
interactions between
science and society.
pp. 195-228
At this level a person is able to use scientific
and technological vocabulary in a particular
Functional
activity when needed (e.g. defining terms in
Scientific Literacy a test, reading a newspaper, or listening to a
and Technology
television program), but it is generally out of
context and lacks the conceptual elaboration
of disciplines. (Osborne & Dillon, 2008).
The individual…
Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
This level, which Bybee called nominal sl,
is illustrated by a person who recognizes
when a term, question or topic is scientific
in its nature, but, even so, demonstrates
clear misunderstanding. The individual
Nominal
understands the theme, the question or
Scientific Literacy topic as scientific, but exhibits an erroneous
and Technology
knowledge about the scientific field. The
citizen may express naive explanations
about such phenomena. An individual’s
understanding is minimal when compared to
the accepted scientific understanding for the
individual’s age and situation. (Bybee, 1997).
António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
No Scientific
Literacy and
Technology
Description
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In Table 1, Functional Scientific Literacy and Technology places the
focus on isolated scientific knowledge/ideas. Reaching that level involves
establishing connections within such knowledge and understanding its
production processes.
The highest level of sl requires an understanding of the interactions
between science and society. It includes the history, objectives and general
limitations of science. In this line of thought, sl enables the creative use
of sound scientific knowledge in everyday life or in a career, to solve
problems, make decisions and hence improve quality of life (Holbrook
& Rannikmae, 2009). In this view, sl is important for both personal and
professional life. It also highlights that, besides developing problem solving
skills, enhancing sl also helps subjects improve their lives. In other words, it
is associated with the capability to transfer knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values to unknow situations such as showing initiative, thinking critically
or reasoning onseself in a collaborative working situation.
Stemming from the establishment of these levels, in the early twenty-first century the interpretation of the definition of sl was characterised by
the following set of factors (Figure 2): sl interest groups; different purposes
for advocating the promotion of sl; different conceptual definitions of the
term; different means of measurement; the relative or absolute nature of
literacy (Laugksch, 2000; Miller, 1998).
Interest group
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Purposes of promotion
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Means of measurement
Conceptual definitions
Nature of concept
Figure 2. Conceptual vision of sl in the early 21st century. Adapted from Laugksch (2000)
Objectives and research questions
The work of science is complex: it is a process, a product, and a institution.
As a result, to engage in science–whether using knowledge or creating
it— some familiarity with the enterprise and practice of science is needed.
Knowledge of basic science facts is but one small part of the constellation
of features that can constitute sl.
All the dimensions and/or levels mentioned suggest that a scientifically
literate individual needs not only to display an intellectual capacity, but
also other attributes —attitudinal; social and interdisciplinary— in order
to grasp and actively intervene in his or her own surroundings (Holbrook
& Rannikmae, 2009).
This research starts with these two attributes —intellectual and
social—. The objective is to analyse the evaluation of the sl construct
over the first decade of the twenty-first century. For that purpose, we tried
to answer the following three research questions:
What paradigm defined the sl existing in the early twenty-first century?
–How did this construct evolve over the course of the first decade of
the twenty-first century?
What model of
society?
sl
characterises the relationship between science and
This research methodology was applied across three distinct levels,
seeking to reduce the corpus of analysis to 250 articles (Figure 3). The first
level involved the selection of the articles applying the sl construct. At
the second level, we codified the entries that fell within the scope of the
pp. 195-228
In order to answerthese questions, we carried out a systematic review of
the literature on the sl construct, taking as the time frame the first decade
in the twenty-first century. The remarkable and rapid advances in science,
technology, and engineering during that period have brought about
unexampled changes in the quality of human life. These breakthroughs
have united the world in unique ways and have dealt with the economic,
societal, and political development (Friedman, 2007). The advances in
science, technology, and engineering gave rise to a myriad of ethical,
moral, and global issues that threaten human dignity and survival. To
respond to these new challenges, society needs to prepare citizens who
are able to understand scientific ideas, intellectual skills, creativity, and
reasoning, as well as to raise in citizens awareness and respect for the
issues and problems of the world. Thus, understanding the concept of sl
in its different dimensions will allow us to discover which lines of thought
prevailed during the beginning of the century and the extent to which
they have allowed citizens to develop a scientific approach literacy that
empowers them to make important decisions about the environment,
health, and social policy for themselves, and the global community.
Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
Theoretical approach
António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
Methodology
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different definitions associated with the concept of sl. This codification
involved the use of NVivo® software. Finally, during the third level we
caried out a sociological analysis of the articles.
Adopting the Web of Knowledge® and the whole range of articles
published on this topic, we selected a sample of the 250 most cited articles
during the research period. The article selection process encompassed all
of the databases included in the Web of Science® collection. We entered
the sl construct and restricted the time frame to between 2000 and 2010.
This search produced a total of 3,013 entries.
Research of the Scientific
literacy construct
Database: Web of Science®
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We tried to figure out whether the definition of scientific literacy accompanied the transition to a new millennium, to technology society , to a new
world characterized by big social changes. We tried to understand if, during
this transition, the definition of sl followed all these social changes. For the
selection of the sample we performed a non-probabilistic sampling with
the technique of sampling by rational choice, where individual elements are
selected according to the typical characteristics (Freixo, 2010). Out of the
universe of 3,013 entries, we calculated the sample (n = 250) using a margin
of error of –5.0 %; and a confidence level of - 90 %. For this research, we
only took into account documents dealing with empirical studies, and did
not consider any documents refering to local, regional or international public
policies for the review, analysis or promotion of sl. The definition of the state
of art of any construct seeks to portray the lines of thinking that the scientific
community most commonly applies to its characterisation. Additionally, we
analysed the trends in ideas, thinking and the definitions that accompany
the construct. To this end, the selection of the most cited articles about a
particular construct generates a perception and analysis of the path that the
scientific community is setting out for the construct being under analysis.
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Timeframe:
2000-2010
Scientific Literacy
time frame 2000-2010
no. = 3,013
Sample:
margin of error -5.0 %;
confidence level –90 %
Scientific Literacy
sample calculation
no. = 250
Articles with the highest
number of citations
Scientific Literacy
sample selection
no. = 250
Figure 3. Article selection stages.
Source: Own elaboration.
Codification of the different definitions
of scientific literacy
Sociological analysis
Although only 134 sources have been found with references to the dimensions encoded, we carried out a sociological analysis of the total sample
(no. = 250). The analysis criteria were: (a) article language; (b) number of
authors per article, (c) affiliation(s) of the article author(s), (d) journal
publishing the article, and (e) the country of journal publication. The results
and their own analysis are presented in the following section.
pp. 195-228
The articles were read for each dimension of the scientific literature
and taken as a framework of ideas and critical references (Table 2). The
search for authors’ guidelines and purposes is the best way to develop sl in
this time frame.
Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
The authors coded automatically each of the six dimensions, and
counted the number of sources and the number of references (Table 1).
After the codification of the different expressions, only 134 sources out
of the initial 250 were identified, 53.6 % of the initial articles. This difference can be explained because the initial research has only the sl
construct that can be applied in different situations. When the search
is refined, looking for the different dimensions of the concept itself, the
specificity of the document increases and, consequently, the number of
sources decreases.
António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
After the selection of the samples, we did a systematic review of the literature for the sl construct. The objective was to analyse all articles (n = 250)
looking for lines of thought that accommodated answers for the research
questions. To carry out this review, by using Nvivo® software, we identified
the following six dimensions used to characterise the concept of sl in the
early twenty-first century: (a) capacity to distinguish between science and
non-science; (b) understanding science and its applications; (c) capacity
to apply scientific knowledge for problem solving; (d) understanding the
nature of science, including its relationship with culture; (e) Appreciation
and comfort with Science, including admiration and curiosity; (f) understanding and appreciating s&t and its interrelationship with society (Hurd,
1998; Laugksch, 2000; Norris & Phillips, 2003).
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Results
Sociological analysis
Author affiliations
150
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Analysis of these articles account for 97 % (no. = 243) written in English,
contrasting with only 3 % (no. = 7) in other languages, such as Portuguese
and Spanish. These results are in keeping with the predominance of
the English language in scientific outputs published worldwide. Even while
writing in English appears universal, these studies’ authors came mostly from
the northern hemisphere and from countries with high levels of development
(Figure 4). Data highlight North America as the global region which produces
the most of cited works, with 47 % (n = 114) of the authors associated to
works on sl. At the opposite end, Africa shows the lowest number of cited
works < 0.01 % (no. = 2). This low result does not come as a surprise. The
Academic Ranking of World Universities classifies the world’s universities on
the grounds of six objective indicators, which include the number of alumni
and staff winning Nobel prizes and Fields medals, number of highly-cited
researchers selected by Clarivate Analytics, number of articles published in
Nature and Science journals, number of articles included in the Science
Citation Index- Expanded and the Social Sciences Citation Index, and per
capita performance of a university. Looking at this ranking since 2004 —the
year in which data for regions of the globe began—, and 2010, you can
see that only an average of four African universities out of the first 500
worldwide were in this ranking. This fact clearly illustrates the scarce
scientific production carried out in this continent, as reflected in the low
affiliation of researchers to universities in the African continent.
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144
100
68
50
30
30
30
Asia
Oceania
South America
2
0
North America
Europe
Africa
Graph 1. Affiliations of article authors.
Source: Own elaboration
According to the results, the number of South American authors is
almost half of European authors. This total stems primarily from Brazil’s
strong contribution. On the other hand, in terms of author affiliations, 9.6 %
(no. = 24) of the articles published are the result of international partnerships that feature collaborations between highly developed countries, such
as Australia and Germany; the United States and Canada; the United States
and Israel, and the United States, Canada and Australia.
94
76
80
54
40
13
0
1
2
3
4
7
5
4
6
0
0
2
7
8
9
Graph 2. Number of authors per article.
Source: Own elaboration
Scientific journal host country
As regards the journals publishing these works. The results of publications
by country follow the authors’ affiliation. The regions with the most cited
authors are practically the same where the scientific journals with the highest
pp. 195-228
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Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
Most papers are collaborations among partners from the same country,
with a particular emphasis on those from the United States. Although the
most common number of authors per article is 1 (mode = 1), accounting
for 37.6 % (no. = 94) out of the total, we also observe a significant number
of articles written by pairs of authors, adding a total of 30.4 % (no. = 76),
or with three colleagues, 21.6 % (no. = 54) (Figure 5). However, there is
but a small and practically residual number of articles by five authors, just
4.5 % (no. = 13). The prevalence of smaller research groups may stem from
problems related to communications and decision-making. During the
stages of ideas exchange, definition of research lines and decision-making,
a larger number of researchers may lead to unnecessary noise and hinder
the work in progress. Likewise, smaller groups make communications more
free-flowing and, consequently, result in more fruitful working processes.
António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
Number of authors per article
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number of citations are published. These regions include the most developed
countries. The United States is in the first place, with 48 % (no. = 120),
followed by the United Kingdom with 30.1% (no. = 77) and Netherlands,
with 8.8 % (no. = 22) (figure 6). It is noteworthy that two per cent (no. = 5)
out of the 250 articles analysed were published in online journals, which
prevents the identification of the country of publication. Despite modern
society displaying a digital matrix, education publications still follow
traditional paths, with the most cited articles emerging from paper-based
journals. While Turkey remains an emerging country, it hosts a surprising
number of publications (no. = 12), much higher than other countries further
up in the development index, such as Australia (no. = 4) or Spain (no. = 4).
150
120
120
77
90
60
30
1
12
22
4
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
4
ic
Tu
r
N
ke
et
y
he
rla
nd
s
Sp
So
ai
n
ut
h
Ko
re
a
Ca
na
Sw
da
itz
er
la
nd
Sl
ov
ak
ia
A
us
tra
lia
Co
st
a
Ri
In
ca
te
rn
at
Br
io
na azil
lJ
ou
m
al
K
bl
U
Cz
ec
h
Re
pu
U
SA
0
Graph 3. Journal host countries.
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Source: Own elaboration
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As for the year of publication of the article (graph 4), we may note
the exponential growth in the last three years of the decade. In the first
years, there was a period of stagnation before entering into a rise over the
2003-2005period. This difference might be explained for the two different
periods in the definition of sl. At the turn of the century, sl gained new
definitions, as evidenced in the works produced by authors such as Laugksch
(2000), Miller (1998), Norris & Phillips (2003), Rowan et al. (2002). This
period of high intellectual production was followed by a calm time, during
which some ideas were put into practice. Other constructs emerged in the
following years, such as public awareness of science and, later on, public
engagement with science, which came into more common usage at the
expense of the concept of Scientific literacy (Davies et al., 2008; Einsiedel,
2007; Kerr et al., 2007). As the end of the decade drew in closer, the concept
of sl was subject to evaluation and hence we may observe the corresponding
rise in the number of articles published and, afterwrads, cited.
90
60
30
0
2000 2001
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
2010
Graph 4. Year of article publication.
Source: Own elaboration
120
80
40
0
A
B
C
Number of sources
D
E
Number of references
F
A – Capacity to distinguish
between Science and non-Science;
B – Understanding of Science and
its applications;
C – Understanding the nature of
Science, including its relationship
with Culture;
D – Appreciation and comfort with
Science with Science, including
admiration and curiosity;
E – The skill to use scientific
knowledge for problem solving;
F – Understanding and valuing of
S&T and its interrelationship with
society.
Graph 5. Dimensions of scientific literacy.
Source: Own elaboration
The lack of criteria to distinguish between science and non-science
or pseudo-science is central to the philosophy of science (Dupré, 1993;
Laudan, 1996). The delimitation of these concepts is one of the dimensions
that characterized the definition of science in the late twentieth century
(Phillips & Norris, 2002). It is also a feature of the public engagement with
pp. 195-228
160
Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
A qualitative analysis of the results obtained (Table 2) suggest the prevalence of some dimensions over others (Graph 5), with a particular emphasis
on “Understanding the nature of science including the relationship with
Culture”, with 45 % (no. = 150) of references, in comparison with “Appreciation and comfort with Science, including admiration and curiosity” with
16 % (no. = 54) and “Capacity to use scientific knowledge for problem
solving” with 15 % (no. = 52).
António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
Dimensions of scientific literacy
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science approach, which keeps science and non-science distinct and extend
the attempts to explore the interpenetration of science and society. During
the transition to the new millennium there is an attempt to abandon this
dichotomy between science and non-science advocating for an approximation between the two categories, which considers scientific knowledge and
non-scientific knowledge as thoroughly interwoven, and these straddle the
lines between pseudoscience and science (Levitt, 2002; Michael, 2002).
On the other hand, the boundary between these two categories “has
been losing visibility in the philosophic circles even while science and
technology have gained an unparalleled authority and the creationists and
various groups of post-modernists have challenged this authority” (van Dijk,
2011). Towards the end of the decade, the approximation between science
and non-science lost ground when various researchers came out in favour
of the need for schools to teach the distinction between them(Akerson et
al., 2010; Avraamidou & Zembal-Saul, 2010). This need is a consequence
of seeing sl as multidimensional and a composite of science concepts and
ideas, the nature of science, and the interaction of science and society. These
three dimensions are the highest level of SL and empower the citizens to
think critically about the role of science in society (Murcia, 2009). Thus,
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Revista Colombiana de Educación N. 81
[...] science education should have the aspiration to include scientific
literate competences that students need, to be able to live and participate with reasonable comfort, confidence, and responsibility in a
society that is deeply influenced and shaped by the applications, ideas
and values of science [...] (Klop et al., 2010).
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These ideas are related to the dimension “science and its applications”, according to which sl commonly consists of the following scientific
concepts and their applications in real-life contexts. That approach was
controversial at the beginning of the century, when “[...] school science
is almost exclusively concerned with basic or fundamental science [...]
without thought of possible applications [...]” (Jenkins, 2002). As a result,
“[...] many students are unable to participate in societal discussions about
science and its related technological applications[...]” (Hofstein et al.,
2011). During the decade, “the data suggest a shift from a relatively passive
appreciation of science and the way it operates in society towards a concern
for commitment to personal action as a critical feature of sl[...]” (Symington
& Tyler, 2007). Following this shift, technological applications of science
were promoted as goals of the science curriculum, and the term sl was
used to describe a broader study of science, especially in relation to its
everyday applications (Bybee et al., 2009; Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009).
According to this, “[...] scientifically literate individuals were able to effectively apply scientific knowledge and reasoning skills for problem-solving
and decision-making in their personal, civic and professional lives [...]”
(Murcia, 2008). In other words, they used science for learning, informing
pp. 195-228
The data collected reflect that the literature conceptualised three different—even if not mutually exclusive—categories for sl: practical, civic
and cultural (Shen, 1975). Practical literacy is defined as the capacity to
hold scientific knowledge that may be deployed in the resolution of practical problems (Dillon, 2009; She, 1975). At the turn of the century, new
challenges emerged in societies that called upon citizens to participate in
decision-making, rendering the development of critical thinking about the
role of science in society as a fundamental goal (Murcia, 2009). Science
is being challenged to provide the knowledge to counter the devastating
environmental problems that have been by-products of a century of war and
economic conflict (Munby & Shen, 2002). Out of this fact, arose the need
to approximate the dialogue among individuals or groups of individuals
and scientists (Levinson, 2010), as well as the idea that scientifically literate
citizens can apply scientific knowledge and develop the scientific thinking
necessary to resolve problems and make decisions in their personal, civic
and professional lives (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Holbrook & Rannikmae,
2009; Murcia, 2009). Literature defines a scientifically literate citizen as
a person who has “[...] (an) understanding of the (a) basic concepts in
science; (b) nature of science; (c) ethics that control scientists’ work; (d)
interrelationships of science and society; (e) interrelationships of science
and the humanities and (f) differences between science and technology
[...]” (Murcia, 2009), including the capacity to apply scientific knowledge
Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
Modern society, with the new world order, very much based on global
economy, needs its citizens to attain competences that enable them to rapidly
summarise and evaluate new information, thinking critically and solving
problems (Christensen, 2009; Fredricks et al., 2009; Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009; Sadler et al., 2006; Sülün et al., 2009). To achieve this goal,
“[...] quantitative, communication, manual, and critical-response skills
are essential for problem solving, but they are also part of what constitutes
science literacy more generally [...]” (Spektor-Levy et al., 2009). Therefore,
this intelligence, which deploys the intellectual tools of science, philosophy
and the arts for the resolution of shared problems and the adoption of new
solutions, becomes a competence to be developed by citizens which involves
the logical and rational mechanisms inherent to problem-solving, as well as
intuition, emotion and passion (Dani, 2009; Levinson, 2010; Witz & Lee,
2009). This reflection does not only result in an intrinsic cognitive capacity,
but also in the external conjuncture surrounding the individual (Klein &
Kirkpatrick, 2010). The association of sl with the resolution of problems has
been present throughout the last four decades, not as a specific category but
rather included in the practical literacy category.
António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
or contributing to problem-solving. Consequently, the “Capacity to apply
scientific knowledge for problem solving” dimension gained importance
at the end of the 1990s and its influence extended through the 2010s.
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Revista Colombiana de Educación N. 81
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to problem-solving. This group includes those authors who associate sl with
the “capacity to identify just which scientific knowledge is best applied to
resolve problems” (Miller, 1998), to “usage of the process of science in the
resolution of problems, decision making and promoting an understanding
of the universe” (Sülün et al., 2009; Yuenyong & Narjaikaew, 2009), and
the “individuals who use knowledge for the taking of daily decisions,
resolving problems, improving the quality of life and measuring the impact
of science on themes such as morality or ethics” (Boujaude, 2002; Dani,
2009b; Hurd,1998; Holbrook & Rannikmae, 1997). According to the data
collected, this dimension of sl establishes a significant presence in the literature published throughout the first decade of this century. Accompanying
this category, the focus turns to the role of education in the development
of scientific thinking through science teaching. Schools should nurture the
development of science-based competences and knowledge, those holding
particular relevance at the social and professional levels, which enable the
citizen to face personal challenges and take responsible socio-scientific
decisions (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009; Jimoyiannis, 2010). According to
this, “[...] science educators have been encouraged to involve their students
in ways that allow them to develop a keen appreciation of the places where
science and technology articulate smoothly with one’s experience of life
[...]” (Roth & Lee, 2003). Levinson goes substantially further to defend that
“[...] if the teaching of the sciences serves democracy and is a source of
democratic values, there should then emerge an interdisciplinary curriculum based on the resolution of problems that reflect the vast social and
global themes [...]” (Levinson, 2010, p. ). This approach should promote
the scientific proficiency to supply a shared laboratory of language, logic
and competences for the resolution of problems in the classroom (Liu,
2009). This scientific proficiency can be translated into citizen participation
in “socio-scientific issues that often involve complex problems,subject to
scientific data or ethical considerations” (Dani, 2009). In addition to this
perspective, there emerged a similar trend that seeks to involve students in
the classroom in “debates that result in a better understanding of the vital
role that science may perform in the resolution of important problems,
without ever forgetting its limitations and uncertainties” (Christensen,
2009; Witz & Lee, 2009). This idea correspondingly places the emphasis
on “community participation” and the “collective praxis” in the taking of
decisions on socio-scientific issues (McDonald & Songer, 2008; Roth &
Lee, 2004b; Songer et al., 2003; Witz & Lee, 2009).
Throughout this first decade, we find a very close relationship between
science and society with a particular emphasis on the applications available
to society. At this point, the highest level of sl requires an understanding of
the interactions of science with society in which scientifically literate citizens
will have the ability to think about the role science plays in society (Mur-
Indeed, sl is placed on an appreciation of the nature of science, the
development of personal attributes and the acquisition of socioscientific
skills and values (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009). It is generally agreed that
pp. 195-228
Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
Alongside this bidirectional relationship between science and society,
another relationship began to take clear shape interconnecting sl with the
nature of science when affirming that an understanding of nature played
an important role in the development of the sl of citizens (Holbrook &
Rannikmae, 2009). Typically, the nature of science is defined as the way
in which scientists attain knowledge (Schroeder et al., 2009). Literature
include a category for the nature of science in their definitions of sl (Kim &
Roth, 2008; Laugksch, 2000; Wolff-Michael Roth, 2007; van Eijck & Roth,
2010), given that it is not limited to holding scientific knowledge, but also
implies knowledge about the nature of science (Baker et al., 2009; Murcia,
2009; Wolfensberger et al., 2010). As the nature of science represents a
process involving different people (Baker et al., 2009), it is important that
the understanding of science includes the understanding of the values and
assumptions underlying scientific knowledge (Murcia, 2009) as well as the
epistemology of science (Gyllenpalm et al., 2010; Holbrook & Rannikmae,
2007). This may be expressed either through the nature of scientific knowledge
or scientific endeavors (Baker et al., 2009; van Dijk & Kattmann, 2007; Yore et
al., 2007). Hence, different authors sustain that sl depends, at least in part,
on the public understanding of the nature of science in the belief that it
facilitates learning about scientific questions and their respective content
(Dijk, 2011). In this context, knowledge about the nature of science proves
essential to making informed decisions on socio-scientific issues and, in this
way, becoming scientifically literate (Hand et al., 2010; Yore et al., 2003).
António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
cia, 2009). This relationship of proximity brought about the proposal of two
complementary categories: “Understanding science and its applications” and
“Understanding and appreciating s&t and its interrelationship with society”.
The complementarity between these two dimensions requires closer scrutiny
of science in terms of its production, interpretation, communication, and
negotiation of scientific knowledge as a way of measuring the impact of
science on society (Wolfensberger et al., 2010). Thus, there is an essential
relationship between science and its technological application and society. It
is necessary to implement science curricula that, in an initial phase, focus on
knowledge about advanced scientific themes, and in a second phase, moves
onto the applications of science (Marks & Eilks, 2009; Rudolph, 2005; Wei,
2009). This assumption enables scientifically literate citizens to look more
critically at the role of science in society (Murcia, 2009). In these terms,
scientific education should hold the aspiration of developing the competencies enabling citizens to participate with reasonable comfort, trust and
responsibility in a society profoundly shaped by scientific and technological
applications (Fensham, 2009; Klop et al., 2010; Witz & Lee, 2009).
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[…] a science-literate individual possesses a basic vocabulary of scientific concepts and terms, knowledge of the processes of science
utilized to test our models for making sense of the world, and an
appreciation of the effect of science and technology on society, to a
degree sufficient to participate in dealing with the increasingly large
number of science—and technology—laden public policy questions
we face. (Roth & Lee, 2009).
This framework for sl stems from the assumption that science serves as
a driving force for democratic values and solidarity and that an awareness
of science and the methods of science will lead to an appreciation of
science among citizens (Deboer, 2000; Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009a).
Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Colombia
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Revista Colombiana de Educación N. 81
Correspondingly, the literature puts forward a dimension to sl characterised by its “Appreciation and comfort with science, including admiration
and curiosity” and based upon a change in behaviour towards science that
embodies a transition from a passive attitude to a proactive involvement
in the appreciation of scientific knowledge (Plakitsi, 2010; Symington &
Tytler, 2004). To put this attitudinal change into practice requires strategies
to nurture creativity and motivation towards scientific themes, so as to attribute greater significance to the role played by s&t in our culture (Osborne,
2007; Pedretti & Nazir, 2010; Roth et al., 2009). In this sense, science and
technology are the most significant determinants in our culture. “In order
to decode our culture and enrich our participation—this includes protest
and rejection— an appreciation/understanding of science is desirable”
(Osborne et al., 2010). Coupled with this idea, “scientific literacy is placed
on an appreciation of the nature of science, the development of personal
attributes and the acquisition of socioscientific skills and values” (Holbrook
& Rannikmae, 2009).
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The sl represented through these dimensions describes a matrix in
which this construct is clearly identified as knowledge, but also coupled
with thinking and acting (Bybee et al., 2009; Ford, 2006). Hence, this
conceptual matrix gets deeply influenced by the trust and confidence and/
or the willingness of citizens to get involved with science-based contexts
(Reveles et al., Rudolph, 2004). A scientifically literate citizen needs the
capacity to use science as a tool for inquiring and discovering; apply
science as a means of learning, getting informed and contributing to the
resolution of problems; and critically reflecting on the usage and the role
that science performs in society (Witz & Lee, 2009). Optimising this assimilation, in turn, requires the development of these dimensions that occur
in a sequential form, beginning with knowledge about science, advancing
towards an understanding of the nature of science, which leads to an
understanding of the relationship between science and society (Bybee &
McCrae, 2011; Ford, 2006; Murcia, 2009; Sülün et al., 2009).
Table 2.
Scientific literacy dimensions
Dimension
Capacity to
distinguish
between
science and
non-science
Number of Number of
sources
references
Key Ideas
The need to establish
the difference between
science and non-science
to explore the interpenetration of science into
society.
13
15
The approximation
between science and
non-science lost strength
when diverse researchers
began defending the need
for schools to teach the
distinction between these
two categories.
References
“Knowledge of the substantive content of science and the ability to distinguish science from nonscience.” (Phillips & Norris,
2003, p. 225).
“I differ from the ways in which positivist pus, by and large, keeps science and nonscience distinct and extend the attempts
to explore the interpenetration of science and society that we find in recent interpretationist versions of pus [...]” (Michael,
2002, pp. 359).
“[...] she believed the researchers wanted to see her teach the distinction between science and nonscience to her own
students. [...]”. (Akerson et al., 2010, p. 225.
“[...] the problem of demarcation has lost visibility in philosophical circles even as science and technology have gained
unparalleled authority and even though creationists and various postmodernist groups now increasingly challenge that
authority, not to mention the legal and political difficulties in identifying ‘sound science’ [...]”. (Van Dijk, 2011, p. 1094).
“[...] Among its recommendations to reverse these trends was that science education must re-engage with technology as
applications of science in society [...] (Fensham, 2009, p. 885).
Understanding
science and its
applications
20
33
Scientific education
should hold the aspiration
of developing those
competences enabling
citizens to participate
with a reasonable level
of ease, confidence and
responsibility in a society
profoundly shaped by scientific and technological
applications.
[...] Inappropriate applications of science as technologies have undoubtedly contributed to some of these problems, but
science and its applications as technologies, remain essential components for their solution [...] (Fensham, 2009, pp. 885).
[...] This emphasis often results in science curricula characterized by isolated facts detached from their scientific origins and
with little orientation toward relevant applications to students’ life and the society [...] (Hofstein et al., 2010, p. 1460).
[...] Those responsible for school programs interpret scientific literacy as foundationalist and primarily emphasize facts,
information, and knowledge of the science disciplines and only secondarily emphasize how science applications are related
to citizens’ daily life situations. [...] (Hofstein et al. (2010, p. 1474).
[...] That science education should have the aspiration to include scientific literate competences that students need, to be
able to live and participate with reasonable comfort, confidence, and responsibility in a society that is deeply influenced and
shaped by the applications, ideas and values of science. [...] (Klop, Severiens, Knippels, van Mil, & Ten Dam, 2010, p. 1128).
“[...] The trend indicates a movement that gives less attention to scientific literacy being viewed as the possession of
conceptual understanding of pure science abstract ideas and emphasises more the ability to make decisions related to
the technological applications of scientific ideas or socioscientific issues facing society, these being recognised as crucial
learning components [...]” (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009a, p. 279).
215
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António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
pp. 195-228
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Dimension
Revista Colombiana de Educación N. 81
ISSN 0120-3916 · Primer cuatrimestre de 2021
Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, Colombia
Number of Number of
sources
references
Key Ideas
A scientifically literate
citizen requires scientific
knowledge as well as
familiarity with the
methods, procedures and
applications of science in
society.
Understanding
science and its
applications
20
33
The relationship between
science and its technological applications and
society should be present
in school science curricula. In an initial phase, it
should focus on knowledge about advanced
scientific themes before
turning to the applications
of science.
References
“[...] Scientific literacy commonly consist of the following Scientific concepts and their applications in real-life contexts [...]”Bybee et al., 2009, p. 866
[...] Scientific literacy as an understanding of science and its applications to social experience [...] – (Bybee et al., 2009, p. 866).
“[...] a scientifically literate person would know some science as well as something about methods and procedures, applications of science and role in society [...]” )Levinson, 2010, p. 80).
“[...] making science accessible through the use ofeveryday experiences and applications [...]” (Liu et al., 2010, p. 810).
“[...] on the assumption that pure science has as its cognitive goal the pursuit of fundamental understandings that possess
some inherent value apart from any practical applications they might have.” – (Rudolph, 2005, p. 811).
“[...] science is to play the key role that it should in capacity building for graduates’ professional workforce futures, then the
current pedagogy of induction into core disciplinary content needs radical reworking and extending into a pedagogy in
which teachers and students work as co-creators and co-assemblers (and dis-assemblers) of trans-disciplinary knowledge
applications for technologically evolving work futures.” (McWilliam, Poronnik, & Taylor, 2009, p. 233).
“In our opinion, one promising way to help students close the gap between school science, applications of science and
technology and their critical evaluation can be brought about by designing chemistry lessons to include societal issues and
discussions involving science and technology.” (Marks & Eilks, 2009, p. 232).
“To enable students to know the human, natural environments in which the human lives, and the relation between humans
and nature; to understand basic concepts, theories, and principles, and know their applications in reality.” –(Wei, 2009, p. 268).
“[...] element of scientific literacy is an understanding of nature of science. Typically the nature of science is referred to as
how scientists come to know scientific knowledge [...]”. (Schroeder et al., 2009b, p. 233).
Understanding
the nature
of science,
including its
relationship
with culture
44
150
The nature of science
is defined as the way
in which scientists
attain knowledge. Hence,
scientific literacy goes
beyond holding scientific
knowledge; italso implies
knowledge about the
nature of science.
“The majority of the trade books in the current sample covered certain aspects of science literacy, such as the nature of
science [...]”. (Schroeder et al., 2009b, p. 245).
“Understanding the nature of science and scientific communication and using that understanding to help students craft
scientific arguments is an essential component of scientific literacy [...]” (Baker et al., 2009b, pp. 269).
“[...] it attempts to broaden teachers’ understanding of the nature of science, beyond the need for evidence to support
claims, to include how arguments using evidence and claims are constructed [...]” (Baker et al., 2009b, p. 269).
“[...] with an understanding of the nature of science which includes understanding the values and assumptions inherent in
the development of scientific knowledge [...]” (Murcia, 2009b, p. 218).
“It was evident that scientific literacy could be viewed as multidimensional and a composite, in some way, of science concepts and ideas, the nature of science and the interaction of science and society [...]” (Murcia, 2009b, pp. 218).
Dimension
Understanding
the nature
of science,
including its
relationship
with culture
Appreciation
and comfort
with science,
including
admiration and
curiosity
Number of Number of
sources
references
Key Ideas
Knowledge about the nature of science is essential
to informed decision-making on socio-scientific
themes and, thereby,
becoming scientifically
literate.
44
“Scientific literacy as an instructional goal typically includes students’ understanding of the nature of science and scientific
reasoning [...]” (Lawson, 2010, p. 337)
“Indeed, the development of an understanding of the nature of science is generally assumed to be an important aspect of
science communication with respect to the enhancement of scientific literacy [...]” (Van Dijk, 2011, pp. 1086-1087).
“[...] a socioscientific issues movement has been advanced as a way to integrate the nature of science, argumentation,
values, and moral judgements [...]” (Lee, 2009, p. 1928).
“[...] the development of scientific literacy was the result of increased intertwining of knowledge and understandings in the
three dimensions, which are key science ideas, the nature of science and the interaction of science with society [...]” (Murcia,
2009, p. 226).
150
As the nature of science
involves a process with
various phases (Baker et
al., 2009), it is important
that the understanding
of science includes the
values and assumptions
of scientific knowledge as
well as the epistemology
of science.
Scientific literacy enables
citizens to develop
competences and values
based upon a democratic
matrix of progress and
personal fulfilment.
28
References
54
Scientific literacy is based
on the assumption that
science is a driver of
democratic values and
solidarity and that an
awareness about science
and its methods lead to
an appreciation of science
among citizens.
“Nature of science generally refers to the epistemology of science and science as a way of knowing [...]” (Gyllenpalm et al.,
2010b, p. 1153)
“An understanding of the Nature of Science plays an important role in the development of scientific literacy [...]”. (Holbrook &
Rannikmae, 2009a, p. 281).
“[...] the nature of science is to interact with other areas such as economics, environmental, social, politics and certain moral
and ethical aspects [...]” (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009a, p. 282).
“ They define the nature of science as concerned only with the epistemological assumptions underlying scientific processes, i.e., activities in the context of empirical research. This conception of the nature of science is thus based on a distinction
between the nature of science on the one hand and the processes of science on the other hand [...]” (Van Dijk, 2011, p. 1090).
“Although meeting the demands of a technically trained workforce was important, it was also important for all students to
continue to develop an appreciation for science as a cultural force.” (Deboer, 2000, p. 586-587).
“Science is described as an activity “driven by the desire to understand the natural world” with the direction of inquiry guided by the curiosity of the scientific mind and only rarely influenced by societal concerns.2 (Rudolph, 2005, p-803-804).
It is generally agreed that a science-literate individual possesses a basic vocabulary of scientific concepts and terms, knowledge of the processes of science utilized to test our models for making sense of the world, and an appreciation of the effect
of science and technology on society, to a degree sufficient to participate in dealing with the increasingly large number of
science—and technology—laden public policy questions we face [...]”– (Roth & Lee, 2004, p. 266).
“Science and technology are the most significant determinants in our culture. In order to decode our culture and enrich our
participation—this includes protest and rejection—an appreciation/understanding of science is desirable.”– (Osborne et al.,
2010, p.1053).
“Scientific literacy is placed on an appreciation of the nature of science, the development of personal attributes and the
acquisition of socioscientific skills and values [...]” (Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009a, p. 275).
“Retaining the use of scientific literacy is still appropriate, but it is necessary to relate scientific literacy to an appreciation
of the nature of science, personal learning attributes including attitudes and also to the development of social values [...]
(Holbrook & Rannikmae, 2009a, p. 276).
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Dimension
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Number of Number of
sources
references
Key Ideas
References
“The data suggest a shift from a relatively passive appreciation of science and the way it operates in society towards a
concern for commitment to personal action as a critical feature of scientific literacy [...]” (Symington & Tytler, 2004, p. 1410).
Transition from a passive
attitude to a proactive involvement in appreciation
for scientific knowledge.
“For us who are science educators it is important not only to focus on concepts, skills and attitudes in a linear way but also
on the main principles of the nature of scientific knowledge, which is dominated by the unexpected, the uncertainty, the
curiosity and creative thinking [...]” (Plakitsi, 2010, p. 585).
“The best way to increase students’ interests in science-related subjects is by using teaching methods that appeal to the
curiosity and creativity that characterize all children”. –(Plakitsi, 2010, p. 579).
“Current thinking about the desired outcomes of science education emphasises scientific knowledge and an appreciation
of science’s contribution to society.” (Klop et al., 2009, pp. 1128).
Appreciation
and comfort
with science,
including
admiration and
curiosity
28
54
Science and technology
are the most significant
determinants of our
culture. Consequently,
decoding this same
culture and enriching
our participation requires
either an appreciation for
or an understanding of
science.
Achieving this objective
requires the application of
strategies that facilitate to
foster creativity and motivation towards scientific
themes.
“To better understand science content, students must gain an appreciation for how scientific knowledge is produced and
accepted within scientific communities [...]” (Ford, 2006, p. 215).
“Science is described as an activity ‘driven by the desire to understand the natural world’ with the direction of inquiry guided
by the curiosity of the scientific mind and only rarely influenced by societal concerns [...]” (Rudolph, 2005, p. 807).
“The purpose of science in the compulsory years of schooling is to ensure that all members of society develop a critical
appreciation of science as a major aspect of contemporary culture [...] – (Symington & Tytler, 2004, p. 1410).
“Strategies are designed to evoke students’ emotions and creativity, in a bid to motivate an intrinsic appreciation for the
scientific enterprise [...]” –(Pedretti & Nazir, 2011, p. 610).
“Science educators have been encouraged to involve their students in ways that allow them to develop a keen appreciation
of the places where science and technology articulate smoothly with one’s experience of life [...] – (Roth & Lee, 2003, p.
272).
“The departmental definition of scientific literacy encompasses the prevailing international definitions including the development and use of science process skills in a variety of settings, the development and application of scientific knowledge and
understanding, and the appreciation of the relationships and responsibilities between science, society and the environment
[...]” (Webb, 2010, p. 315).
Dimension
Capacity to
apply scientific
knowledge to
the resolution
of problems
Number of Number of
sources
references
Key Ideas
The nurturing of intelligent
reflection, as one of the intellectual tools of science,
philosophy and the arts,
represents an attempt to
resolve shared problems
and seeks to adapt new
solutions. This reflection
does not only result from
an intrinsic cognitive
capacity, but also from the
external circumstances
surrounding the individual.
24
52
Literacy in practice is
defined as the capacity to
hold scientific knowledge
that may be utilised in
the resolution of practical
problems.
True learning depends
upon the capacity to
organise and evaluate
information for utilisation
in the development of
means of problem solving
involving the creative
utilisation of scientific
knowledge.
References
“[… ] reflective action is also a process that involves more than logical and rational problem-solving processes. Reflection involves intuition, emotion, and passion and is not something that can be neatly packaged as a set of techniques for teachers
to use [...]” (Wolfensberger et al., 2010, p. 715).
“The scientific attitude as it appears in the science education literature embodies the adoption of a particular approach to
solving problems, to assessing ideas and information or to making decisions [...]” (Spektor-Levy et al., 2009, p. 876).
“A parallel point is made in contemporary research on distributed cognition, which proposes that problem solving does not
occur solely ‘in the head,’ but rather in conjunction with external representations [...] (Klein & Kirkpatrick, 2010, p. 88).
“The deployment of intelligent reflection, the intellectual tools of science, philosophy and the arts in trying to resolve common problems, adapt to new solutions, where ‘changing one’s values is not only a legitimate way of solving a problem, but
frequently the only way of solving a problem’.” (Levinson, 2010, p. 74).
“[...] scientifically literate individuals were able to effectively apply scientific knowledge and reasoning skills for problem
solving and decision-making in their personal, civic and professional lives.” (Murcia, 2008, p. 216).
“Practical scientific literacy is the possession of the kind of scientific knowledge that can be used to help solve practical
problems [...]” (Dillon, 2009, p. 210).
“An information-literate individual is someone who has learnt how to learn as s/he knows how information is organized and
used. S/he also has the ability of life-long learning since s/he can always find the information that s/he will need in doing a
job, solving a problem s/he meets or making a decision [...]” (Witz & Lee, 2009, p. 410).
“Students’ ability to resolve problems and make informed decision about Social Scientific Issues, which involves the reconciliation of multiple viewpoints [...]” (Lee, 2009, p. 1928).
“True learning requires being able to use new technologies, not simply to enhance the ability to memorize and repeat facts,
but to gather, organize and evaluate information to solve problems and innovate practical ideas in real-world settings [...]”
(Jimoyiannis, 2010, p. 1259).
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Dimension
Understanding
and appreciating s&T and
its interrelationship with
society
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Number of Number of
sources
references
Key Ideas
The highest level of
Scientific Literacy requires
an understanding of the
interactions between
science and society. At
this level, Scientific Literacy includes the history,
the objectives and key
limitations of Science.
5
Source: Own elaboration.
References
“Scientifically literate citizens would be empowered to think critically about the role of science in society [...]” (Murcia, 2008,
p. 215).
“Science-Technology-Society approach mediates the impact of modern science on society, i.e. acting as a connector
between science and society [...]”. (Lee, 2009, p. 1493).
“ The highest multidimensional level of scientific literacy was distinguishable by knowledge about the nature of science and
the interaction of science with society [...]” (Murcia, 2008, p. 220).
“The development of scientific literacy was the result of increased intertwining of knowledge and understandings in the
three dimensions, which are key science ideas, the nature of science and the interaction of science with society.”– (Murcia,
2008, pp. 225-226).
32
This relationship with society also requires a perspective on science as the
focus for the production,
interpretation, communication and negotiation
of scientific knowledge
as well as the impact of
Science on Society and
the Environment.
By critically exploring socio-scientific issues in argumen-tative classroom discussions, students will gain insights into processes of knowledge production, the nature of science and the discussion of the role of science in society [...]” (p. 715).
“That is, it also requires one to look at science in the light of the production, interpretation, communication and negotiation
of scientific knowledge as well as the impact of science on society and the environment [...]” (Wolfensberger et al., 2010b,
p. 715).
“The way we have been trying to define it, a higher vision of science should be, to some degree, related to existing, at least
moderately active more general experience of ethics or spirituality [...]” (Witz & Lee, 2009, p. 423).
Conclusion
The literature review made it possible to observe a mutation in the definition of literacy throughout the first decade of the twenty-first century. This
mutation in the scientific literacy construct accompanied all economic,
social and cultural transformations that characterized the transition to
the new millennium. Thus, rather than remaining static, scientific literacy
acquired a deictic nature, as a construct that quickly changes its meaning
when the context in which it operates changes.
Regarding the research questions, the authors drew the following
conclusions.
This polymorphic conception of sl stems from the bifurcation in a
construct understood as fundamental, which enables citizens to understand
the essential ideas of science and the relationships they maintain with the
scientific method and the nature of science – and a construct perceived
as a consequence that emphasizes the cognitive capacities and critical
thinking as an instrument through which it becomes possible to inform
other citizens and to participate in the public debate about science and
technology more fully.
What model of sl characterises the relationship between science and
society?
The interaction science-society, in what refers to the application of
science on a daily basis, its implementation and its effects in social and
natural environments, is one of the most evident mutations in the categorization of scientific literacy. There is a shift from the idea of learning of
scientific contents to their application in society.
This new conceptual matrix suggests a change in the relatively passive
form of appreciation of science and the way it operates in society towards
a commitment to personal involvement with science. This change occurs
pp. 195-228
How did this construct evolve over the course of the first decade of
the twenty-first century?
Scientific Literacy: The Conceptual Framework Prevailing over the First Decade of the Twenty-First Century
sl was clearly defined as a multidimensional construct, characterised
by a composite of concepts and ideas about science, the nature of science
and the integration of science into society. This conceptual framework that
structures the new paradigm of sl arises from the interaction between the
four following dimensions: concepts and ideas about science, the nature
of science, interactions of science with society and the valuation and
appreciation of science.
António Manuel Costa / Maria Eduarda Ferreira / |Manuel Joaquim da Silva Loureiro
What paradigm defined the sl existing in the early twenty-first century?
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in the way of understanding the nature of science, in the idea of analyzing
how science behaves in society, in the way to interact with the scientific
society, and in the utility of scientific knowledge throughout life.
The construction of the normative clarification in the context of sl led
to upgrade research lines in science education inherent to this construct.
In this context, stands out the idea of sl as a socio-scientific construct
encompassed in a technical and scientific society where citizens are asked
to be active and responsible members (Hofstein et al., 2010). This view
emphasizes the contextualization of scientific themes combined with other
dimensions—such as critical thinking, education for citizenship, and
personal and collective responsibility of students—in order to provide
them with sociocentric skills that enable them to be socially active citizens
in the future (Wolfensberger et al., 2010).
A scientifically literate citizen recognises the accumulative, provisional
and sceptical nature of science, the limitations to scientific inquiry, the need
for the presence of sufficient evidence and consolidated knowledge for
supporting or rejecting propositions, the impact of science and technology on
the political, social and economic environment and as well as the influence
of society on science and technology. This posits a challenge for the research
lines in science education in favour of this scientific literacy construct.
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Future research
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Since scientific literacy is an emerging construct, a universal and unambiguous definition is a complicated task. There is a constant risk of being
outdated as a result of the circumstances surrounding it. In this sense, and
as future research, we will try to verify if this conceptual matrix has been
transposed into education policies. For this purpose, we suggest to analyse
public policy documents produced by different local, regional, national
or transnational authorities.
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