Using the experiential approach in marketing
and management: A systematic literature review
Fabio Forlani *, Tonino Pencarelli **
Abstract
The experiential perspective has become the primary lens adopted in the current
economic and managerial literature. In recent years, the marketing literature has recognized the importance of the contributions of consultancy work on the Experience
Economy, Experiential Marketing, and Customer Experience Management.
This work defines the experiential approach as the managerial tool that puts the
customer experience (CE) at the center of a company’s decision-making processes.
It also recognizes that experiential management studies constitute a rich and important research field, but one that has not yet been clearly defined or characterized.
Moreover, this paper describes the evolution of the state of the art of the experiential
approach and outlines possible future developments.
To this end, a systematic review of the literature is offered in order to make the
review process both transparent and reproducible. It is built on the articles published
in the SciVerse Scopus database up until December 2018. To answer the research
questions, a bibliometric analysis of the citations in the database itself is conducted
and an inductive content analysis undertaken, by studying the database in the keywords sections through T-Lab software. Using keywords to identify the subject of
published articles, a content analysis (co-word analysis) serves to determine the main
experiential approach adopted as well as the principal sectors (e.g. food, tourism,
events, etc.) in which the various experiential approaches have been applied.
This study is a first attempt at quantitative measurement of the diffusion of experiential marketing and management concepts in academic literature. While acknowledging the need for further qualitative studies, the analysis provides insight on
the main experiential approaches adopted and points to the need for a theoretical
framework able to coherently synthesize them.
*
Assistant professor in Tourism Marketing and Management, Department of Economics,
University of Perugia (Italy). E-mail: fabio.forlani@unipg.it.
** Full Professor of Economics and Management of the Firms, Department of Economics,
Society, Politics, University of Urbino Carlo Bo. E-mail: tonino.pencarelli@uniurb.it.
Mercati & Competitività (ISSN 1826-7386, eISSN 1972-4861), 2019, 3
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Keyword: Customer experience, experience economy, experiential marketing, experience marketing, systematic literature review, experiential approach.
First submission: 31/01/2019, accepted: 20/06/2019
Introduction
Nearly forty years after the first conceptualization of customer experience
(CE) by Holbrook and Hirschman (1982), it has acquired increasing importance in the academic debate on marketing and management (Bueno et
al., 2019; Kranzbühler et al., 2018; Chaney et al., 2018; Jain et al., 2017;
Lemon and Verhoef, 2016; Adhikari and Bhattacharya, 2016; Homburg et
al., 2015; Helkkula, 2011; Palmer, 2010; Tynan and McKechnie, 2009; Gentile et al., 2007). Moreover, the experiential approach has become a topical
issue in the managerial literature, as evidenced by recent reviews
(Kranzbühler et al. 2018; Chaney et al., 2018; Forlani et al., 2018; Lemon
and Verhoef, 2016; Adhikari and Bhattacharya, 2016; Du Plessis and De
Vries 2016; Homburg et al. 2015). Over the last two decades the marketing
literature has also acknowledged the important contribution of works published by consultants and practitioners: Experience Economy (Pine and Gilmore, 1998, 1999), Experiential Marketing (Schmitt, 1999a; 1999b), Customer Experience Management (Schmitt, 2003).
This work frames the experience approach as a managerial methodology
that places the customer experience (CE) at the center of a company’s decision-making processes (Pencarelli and Forlani, 2018). The authors recognize
that customer experience management (CEM) constitutes a rich and important research field, but one that has not yet been clearly defined (Homburg
et al., 2015, Du Plessis and De Vries, 2016, Palmer, 2010, Tynan and
McKechnie, 2009) and characterized (Kranzbühler et al., 2018). In addition,
this work provides a quantitative measure of the state of the art in experiential
perspective (ExP) and experiential approach (ExA) studies in the marketing
and managerial literature.
Starting from the best-known experiential concepts (Pencarelli and Forlani, 2018) such as “customer experience”, “customer experience management”, “customer journey”, “experience economy”, “experiential marketing”, “experience marketing”, “co-creation experience”, “brand experience”,
“customer experience quality”, “customer experience design”, “customer experience innovation”, “measuring customer experience”, and “online customer experience”, the authors of this paper provide a structured overview
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Using the experiential approach in marketing and management
of the research lines, the authors of reference, and the fields of the application
of studies that use the experiential approach.
To this end, we aim to answer the following research questions:
RQ1: Is the literature on Experiential Studies in marketing and management
(ExP and ExA) growing from a quantitative and qualitative point of
view?
RQ2: What are the reference articles, authors and journals for ExP and
ExA?
RQ3: What are the main ExP and ExA research lines?
RQ4: What is the field of application (zones of interest or sectors) in which
the concept has been most often applied?
To achieve this goal we use a systematic literature review (Galvagno,
2017; Galvagno and Dalli, 2014; Briner and Denyer, 2012; Transfield et al.,
2003) to make the review process both transparent and reproducible.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows: Section 1 discusses
the meaning of customer experience and experiential approach; Section 2
presents the methodology, the core set selection, and the analysis; Section 3
presents the findings, while Section 4 (conclusions) discusses the study’s
main contributions and points out the implications for the field, proposing
further applications and extensions.
1. Definition and domain
In managerial literature the first work to use the experiential perspective
of consumption analysis is that of Holbrook and Hirschman (1982): “The
Experiential Aspects of Consumption: Consumer Fantasies, Feelings, and
Fun”. In the marketing literature, in particular, the “new experiential approach offered an original view of consumer behavior” (Gentile et al., 2007,
p. 396). This approach claims that “Customers are rational and emotional
animals” (Schmitt, 1999, p. 29) and consumption experiences are often “directed toward the pursuit of fantasies, feeling, and fun” (Holbrook and
Hirschman, 1982, p. 132).
From the literature (Forlani et al., 2018) it has also emerged that the association of the term “experience” with “management” and “marketing” began in the late 1990s with publications by “Marketing practitioners and consulting gurus” (Tynan and McKechnie, 2009, p. 503), such as: Carbone and
Haeckel (1994); Pine and Gilmore (1998, 1999); Schmitt (1999a, 1999b). In
this way, the experiential approach began to be utilized not only in the customer perspective, but also in the supply side perspective.
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Fabio Forlani, Tonino Pencarelli
Carbone and Haeckel (1994) had already introduced the concept of “engineering customer experiences”:
Engineering an experience begins with the deliberate setting of a targeted
customer perception and results in the successful registration of that perception
in the customer’s mind. Systematically designing and orchestrating the signals
generated by products, services, and the environment is the means to that end.
Creating customer experiences is not new. Occasional purposeful design of
these experiences by intuitive individuals also is not new. But rendering the design and execution of experiences as a management discipline with principles,
tools, and techniques is new.
This first concept was then further developed by Schmitt (1999, p. 53),
who defined “experiential marketing” as follows:
I contrast traditional marketing with a new approach to marketing called Experiential Marketing and provide a strategic framework for Experiential Marketing. Traditional marketing views consumers as rational decision makers who care
about functional features and benefits. In contrast, experiential marketers view
consumers as rational and emotional human beings who are concerned with
achieving pleasurable experiences.
Pine and Gilmore (1998) also coined the concept of “experience economy”, considering the experiences of the clients as real products per se, as
different from services as services are from goods (p. 97):
Economists have typically lumped experiences in with services, but experiences are a distinct economic offering, as different from services as services are
from goods. Today we can identify and describe this fourth economic offering
because consumers unquestionably desire experiences, and more and more businesses are responding by explicitly designing and promoting them. As services,
like goods before them, increasingly become commoditized – think of long-distance telephone services sold solely on price – experiences have emerged as the
next step in what we call the progression of economic value.
From these early contributions, the evolution of the literature has brought
forth other facets of experiential concepts, linked with different types of analyses and sectors of study: customer experience management (Schmitt, 1999a,
1999b, 2003, 2010; Gentile et al., 2007), brand experience (Brakus et al.,
2009), service experience (Berry et al., 2006; Klaus and Maklan, 2012), experience marketing (Tynan and Mckechnie, 2009; Same and Larino, 2012), customer experience quality (Lemke et al., 2011), online customer experience
(Novak et al., 2000), tourism experience (Binkhort and Dekker, 2009; Walls
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et al., 2011), retail customer experience (Grewal et al., 2009), measuring customer experience (Maklan and Klaus, 2011), customer experience creation
(Verhoef et al., 2009), and customer journey (Lemon and Verhoef, 2016).
Tynan and Mckechnie (2009) also speak of the experience as “the result
of a scripted interaction between customer and employee (Grove and Fisk,
1997)”, and think of these notions as “new ideas of Service-Dominant logic”
(Vargo and Lusch, 2004), highlighting the contribution of the co-creation
experiences to the management discussion: “Co-creation experiences as the
basis for value creation”.
In the last few years, this academic interest has been bolstered by attempts
to scientifically define the notion of customer experience (Bueno et al., 2019;
Kranzbühler et al., 2018; Chaney et al., 2018; Jain et al., 2017; Lemon and
Verhoef, 2016; Du Plessis and De Vries, 2016; Homburg et al., 2015; Walls
et al., 2011; Palmer, 2010; Verhoef et al., 2009; Gentile et al., 2007). The
objective of these scholars was to overcome the methodological and conceptual limitations of the experiential approach proposed by consultants and professionals (Tynan and McKechnie, 2009; Carù and Cova, 2007).
In just ten years we have moved from this picture painted by Tynan and
McKechnie (2009, p. 503):
There is a fairly extensive but fragmented literature on experience marketing.
However, much of the work published by consultants, practitioners and self-help
gurus is of limited worth. […] It could be argued that the books are published to
support the credibility of the author in the tough marketplace of the consultant
and to sell consultancy services rather than to promote dissemination of any
deeper understanding of experiential approaches.
To this one by Kranzbühler et al., 2018:
In seeking to explain emerging sources of competitive advantage, customer
experience (CE) has been identified as a compelling antecedent. Increasingly,
scholars argue that firms’ differential advantage is derived from CE (Pine and
Gilmore, 1998; Verhoef et al., 2009). Both practitioners and scholars agree that
a favorable CE positively affects marketing-relevant outcomes such as customer
satisfaction, loyalty and word-of-mouth behavior (e.g. Mascarenhas et al., 2006;
Pullman and Gross, 2004). Despite this consensus, the CE phenomenon is limited
by a lack of conceptual clarity, explained by a diverse set of theories, and founded
upon divergent empirical conclusions.
In other words, while the importance of the field of study has been recognized in many studies, there is still no convergence of opinion on the basic
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definitions and boundaries of experiential studies. In recent years, as highlighted by Jain et al. (2017), Adhikari and Bhattacharya (2016) and Lemon and
Verhoef (2016), several definitions of customer experience and customer experience management have been proposed. These definitions are free of the
constraints of the consultancy approach and offer a better understanding and a
better framing of the research field associated with the experiential view.
Among these definitions, that of Gentile et al. (2007, p. 397) is to be noted
for its thoroughness and accuracy:
The Customer Experience originates from a set of interactions between a customer and a product, a company, or part of its organization, which provoke a
reaction (LaSalle and Britton, 2003; Shaw and Ivens, 2005). This experience is
strictly personal and implies the customer’s involvement at different levels (rational, emotional, sensorial, physical, and spiritual) (LaSalle and Britton, 2003;
Schmitt, 1999b). Its evaluation depends on the comparison between a customer’s
expectations and the stimuli coming from the interaction with the company and
its offering in correspondence of the different moments of contact or touch point
(LaSalle and Britton, 2003; Shaw and Ivens, 2005).
While emphasizing the advances of the sectorial literature, Kranzbühler
et al. (2018, p. 14) underline that this is only the beginning:
Building on a systematic in-depth analysis of the literature, we identify a high
level of heterogeneity in the scope and conceptualization of the CE construct.
Specifically, we argue that CE has developed into a broad umbrella construct
(Hirsch and Levin, 1999). While some studies call for an even broader conceptualization of CE (Verhoef et al., 2009), research on CE has become fragmented
and often takes place in isolation.
In a purely managerial context, these studies have resulted in the creation
of a subsector, customer experience management (CEM), defined as follows
by Schmitt (2003, pp. 17-18):
Customer experience management (CEM) is the process of strategically managing a customer’s entire experience with a product or a company … CEM is a
truly customer-focused management concept (not a “marketing” concept). It is a
process-oriented satisfaction idea (not an outcome-oriented one). In addition,
CEM goes far beyond CRM by moving from recording transactions to building
rich relations with customers.
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Indubitably, CEM has had great success among professionals, as highlighted by Homburg et al. (2015, p. 377), who, fifteen years after its conceptualization, collected the opinions of 52 managers from different sectors.
They summarized it thusly:
We introduced CEM as a higher-order resource that entails cultural mindsets
toward CEs, strategic directions for designing CEs, and firm capabilities for continually renewing CEs, with the goals of achieving and sustaining long-term customer loyalty.
At the same time, they also reminded us that:
In research, however, the notion of CEM is not well understood, is fragmented across a variety of contexts, and is insufficiently demarcated from other
marketing management concepts.
In addition to Schmitt’s writing, the pioneer work “Welcome to the Experience Economy” (Pine and Gilmore, 1998), has doubtlessly given a fundamental impulse to the discussion of the very concept of experience in management (Ferreira and Teixera, 2013). More recently, Pine and Gilmore
(2017, p. 61) expound:
To see how the Experience Economy is playing out in the world of business,
we examined the state of experiences in popular business literature and across
myriad enterprises to see how businesses are incorporating experiences into their
operations. We determined that there are five arenas in which enterprises were
using the term and concept of experiences.
Table 1 – Experience Arenas
EXPERIENCE ARENA
DESCRIPTION
In-Name-Only Experiences
Establishments named “Experience” that are anything but
User Experience
Experience of using human-computer interfaces, and increasingly, any physical offering
Experiential Marketing
Marketing messages, positionings, materials, and events designed to engage
potential customers experientially
Customer Experience
Sum total of customer interactions with a brand or offering, generally designed to be nice, easy, and convenient
Experiences as Distinct Economic Memorable events that engage each individual in an inherently personal way;
Offerings
the fourth level in the Progression of Economic Value after commodities,
goods, and services
Source: Pine and Gilmore, 2017, p. 61
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Ultimately, as underscored by Homburg et al. (2015, p. 398):
Practitioners have begun appraising CEM as one of the most promising marketing approaches to address the challenges of today’s and tomorrow’s consumer
markets. However, research lacks a clear understanding, generalization, and demarcation of this concept.
In sum, researchers have traditionally addressed CE and utilized the experiential approach from different points of view. In particular, Kranzbühler
et al. (2018, p. 2) highlight two main perspectives: the organization’s and the
consumer’s.
Research within the organizational view focuses on the creation of customer experiences (“Customer Experience Management”, Schmitt, 2003), in
order to plan, create, communicate, and deliver the customer value proposition. In contrast, research from the perspective of consumers addresses their
perceptions of those experiences (“Experiential Aspects of Consumption”,
Holbrook and Hirschman, 1982; “Customer Experience Research”, Lemon
and Verhoef, 2016).
With reference to the first orientation, Adhikari and Bhattacharya (2016)
and Pencarelli and Forlani (2018) point out that the management approaches
can be divided into two sub-categories: experience as either a product attribute (experiential marketing) or a complete product (experience economy and
experience marketing).
With reference to the second orientation Kranzbühler et al. (2018, p. 14)
“recommend that the literature conceive CE on differing levels and analyze
two sub-concepts: static and dynamic CE”. For Lemon and Verhoef (2016,
p. 71) CE is a dynamic process which:
[…] consists of individual contacts between the firm and the customer at distinct points in the experience, called touch points (Homburg et al., 2015; Schmitt,
2003). An experience is also built up through a collection of these touch points
in multiple phases of a customer’s decision process or purchase journey (Pucinelli et al., 2009; Verhoef et al., 2009). Overall, we thus conclude that customer
experience is a multidimensional construct focusing on a customer’s cognitive,
emotional, behavioral, sensorial, and social responses to a firm’s offerings during
the customer’s entire purchase journey.
In this perspective, the customer experience process (Lemon and
Verhoef, 2016, p. 76):
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[…] flows from pre-purchase (including search) to purchase, to post-purchase; it is iterative and dynamic. This process incorporates past experiences (including previous purchases) as well as external factors. In each stage, customers
experience touch points, only some of which are under the firm’s control.
Adhikari and Bhattacharya (2016, p. 6) classify the perception of experiences according to the type of touch points with which the customer interacts
(store environment, online environment, company personnel) and the type of
perspective – prospective or reflective – taken.
Thus, two different streams of research emerge from our analysis of the
extent experiential literature. The first recognizes the importance of the experiential and emotional dimensions of the consumer in the processes of purchasing and consuming (humans are rational and emotional decision makers). For this reason, the scholars who adopt this view delve deeply into the
notion of customer experience and, based on an understanding of what the
consumer absorbs (i.e., the ‘experience’), they assess the efficaciousness and
effectiveness of the various company policies that refer to it. In other words,
scholars who subscribe to this stream start from an analysis of the customer
experience and the experience of consuming to then suggest an Experiential
Perspective (ExP) for management.
The second assumes that the customer experience is either a fundamental
component of the product or is the product itself. Scholars who adopt this
second viewpoint recommend not only a change in observation perspective,
but a revision of company policies and techniques for managing and offering
experiences. These authors, by adopting the firm’s perspective in different
facets, recommend going from a managerial goods/services-driven logic to
experience logic. In other words, not only does the observation perspective
change, but also and above all, the managerial approach changes to become
Experiential Approach (ExA).
Considering that CE is a rich and important research field, albeit not yet
clearly defined (Jain et al., 2017; Homburg et al., 2015, Du Plessis and De
Vries, 2016; Palmer, 2010; Tynan and McKechnie, 2009) and characterized
(Kranzbühler et al., 2018; Lemon and Verhoef, 2016), this work defines the
field in its extended acceptation of the experiential approach and experiential
perspective (experiential studies).
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2. Literature review method
To achieve the research goals, a systematic literature review (Galvagno,
2017; Briner and Denyer, 2012; Denyer and Tranfield, 2009; Transfield et
al., 2003) method was adopted so as to make the review process transparent,
inclusive, explanatory, and heuristic (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009). Systematic reviews use an explicit algorithm to perform a search and make a critical
appraisal of the literature, thus improving the quality of both the review process and the outcome by employing a transparent and reproducible procedure
(Tranfield et al., 2003). Furthermore, a systematic review allows scholars to
build a database of publications that can be used for various types of metaanalysis or “analysis of analyses” (Silchenko, 2018). In other words, once
the database has been created, different analysis techniques can be applied to
answer specific research questions. An analytical review scheme is required
for the systematic evaluation of the contributions of a given body of literature
(Crossan and Apaydin, 2010). Systematic reviews are conventionally understood to have specific characteristics which entail an explicit study protocol
to address one or more pre-specified, highly focused questions; explicit
search methods; an appraisal of studies to determine their scientific quality;
explicit methods, including (Silchenko, 2018) a descriptive summary, statistical meta-analysis or non-statistical meta-analysis (when appropriate), to
combine the findings across a range of studies.
Although this methodology is not without challenges, e.g. the synthetization of data from various disciplines, insufficient representation of books,
and large amounts of material to review (Pittaway et al., 2004), the authors
of the present paper felt it was important to have a methodology that would
allow the review to be solidly conducted. We integrated the methods adopted
by Denyer and Tranfield (2009) with those of Galvagno (2017) to create the
following five-step procedure:
1) research design;
2) extraction of required data, study selection and evaluation;
3) data analysis;
4) data synthesis and visualization;
5) interpretation, conclusion and reporting.
During the first stage (research design), we: a) discerned the objectives of
the research; b) defined the research question(s); c) chose the method for data
analysis for each research question; and d) identified the key data source (research terms).
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Our research objectives are to provide a structured overview of the main
studies that use the experiential approach. To this end, we have aimed to
answer the following research questions:
RQ1: Is the literature on Experiential Studies in marketing and management
(ExP and ExA) growing from a quantitative and qualitative point of
view?
RQ2: What are the reference articles, authors and journals for ExP and
ExA?
RQ3: What are the main ExP and ExA research lines?
RQ4: What is the field of application (zones of interest or sectors) in which
the concept has been most often applied?
Different techniques of data analysis have been used to answer the four
research questions.
Our first two research questions call for a bibliometric analysis (Galvagno, 2017) of citations in the database itself. The hypothesis being that the
number of citations indicates the level of recognition and the quality of the
paper (Kraus et al., 2012; Bornmann and Daniel, 2008; Baumgartner and
Pieters, 2003; Garfield, 1979). Citation analyses are based on the theory that
citations represent a valid and reliable indication of the quality and scientific
value of the publication and its authors (Garfield, 1979). Although important
limitations are recognized (Bornmann and Daniel, 2008), citation measures
appear less prone to systemic prejudice than subjective measures and are
more readily available. Hence, they are becoming a measure of the influence
held by journals and authors in many disciplines, including marketing and
management (Baumgartner and Pieters, 2003). We have used citation analysis to help determine which cited sources are the most influential among
those publications used in the analysis. As Kraus et al. (2012: 8) state:
This is an influence that is based on the fact that the most-cited sources provide essential findings, which are in turn influential for the scientific works of
other authors. A citation is literature mentioned in the bibliography of a publication and/or used as a source for another written work. It is an acknowledgement
of a published statement’s level of significance, regardless of whether the citing
author is in agreement or disagreement with it.
To answer the third and fourth research questions, an inductive content
analysis (Vaismoradi et al., 2013) was undertaken by studying the database in
the keywords sections through T-Lab software. By identifying the subject of
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the article via keywords, content analysis (co-word analysis) helped to determine the principal experiential themes and the sectors (e.g. food, tourism,
events, etc.) in which various experiential approaches have been applied.
In order to identify and define the reference universe of this research, a
preliminary analysis of the literature was carried out (see §1), on the basis of
the terminology used in the classic literature on experiential management. After discarding sectoral keywords (e.g. service, tourism, retail, etc.), this preliminary research identified the following keywords: “customer experience”,
“customer journey”, “co-creation experience”, “online customer experience”
for ExP; “customer experience management”; “experience economy”; “experiential marketing”; “experience marketing”; “brand experience”; “customer
experience quality”; “customer experience design”; “customer experience innovation”; “measur* customer experience” or “customer experience measur*”
for ExA. Although the authors are aware that the classification proposed by
the keywords ExP and ExA is not without some degree of ambiguity, it is believed to be an acceptable proxy, for the purposes of this study.
During the second stage, we selected the database and exported the data.
While fully cognizant of its limitations (Mingers and Leydesdorff, 2015;
Bakkalbasi et al., 2006), we chose to use SciVerse Scopus because it contains
a wide and acknowledged database of business and management journals
(Tuan et al., 2019; Mingers, and Yang, 2017; Mingers, and Leydesdorff,
2015; Dalli and Galvagno, 2014).
In the selection and evaluation phase of the study, in order to increase the
relevance and quality of the findings, we limited our selection to peer-reviewed, academic journals in English, with no limitations whatsoever regarding research areas. The analysis did not have a specific start date, but the end
date was 31 December 2018.
Subsequently, papers were extracted for each of the 13 strings of research
(keywords), allowing the works to be divided into groups relative to each
single theme. The extraction results are shown in Table 2, below.
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Using the experiential approach in marketing and management
Table 2 – The identified papers
Keywords
Acronym Extracted
Discarded
Selected
%
Multi
Extracted
%
“customer experience”
CE
1467
173
1294
57%
210
16%
“customer experience
management”
CEM
72
0
72
3%
72
100%
“customer journey”
CJ
93
15
78
3%
31
40%
“experience economy”
EE
263
19
244
11%
27
11%
“experiential marketing”
ElM
186
8
178
8%
54
30%
“experience marketing”
EM
62
12
50
2%
21
42%
“co-creation experience”
C-CE
40
2
38
2%
7
18%
“brand experience”
BE
292
22
270
12%
35
13%
“customer experience quality”
CEQ
17
1
16
1%
16
100%
“customer experience design”
CED
5
3
2
0%
2
100%
“customer experience
innovation”
CEI
3
1
2
0%
2
100%
“measur* customer
experience” or “customer
experience measur*”
MCE
20
4
16
1%
16
100%
“online customer experience”
OCE
23
100%
Total selected articles
23
0
23
1%
2543
260
2283
100% 516
Duplicate items deleted
22%
273
Total final database
2010
Source: our processing
As seen in Table 2, 2,543 papers were extracted through the research software supplied by Scopus. The abstracts of all the papers were read by all of
the authors of this study, so as to verify their pertinence for this research. In
this process, 260 publications were rejected either because they did not exhibit the search strings (they were extracted by mistake by the software because of a misreading of the markings) or because they use the terms and
search strings in a sense that is not coherent with the concept being studied.
Subsequently, 2,283 papers selected were cross-referenced to detect any
overlapping areas between the issues and 273 duplications were eliminated;
the final database consisted of 2,010 publications. This initial set was then
fixed as the basis for all future analyses.
29
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3. Data analysis and results
The 2,010-article database was analyzed (third stage) following the different techniques illustrated above to answer the four research questions. In
this section, to allow a concise visualization (fourth stage) of the main evidence found, the data is already presented in the display mode provided by
the software used (Excel and T-Lab) and commented briefly.
First of all, we analyzed the literature from a quantitative point of view to
evaluate its trends. The result, easily readable in Figure 1, highlights a significant growth in the number of studies on “customer experience” or studies
that use experiential concepts to manage the consumer experience.
Figure 1 – Papers extracted by keywords and years of publication
Source: our processing
Up until 2003, the attractiveness of this topic remained relatively low, as
the subject of fewer than twenty publications per year. Between 2004 and
2009 interest grew and the number of annual contributions rose from ‘a few’
to around 100. In the three years that followed there was both a consolidation
of the number of publications and a qualitative improvement. Fourteen of the
thirty most-cited publications were in fact written between 2009 and 2012
(see Table 4). The success of the works of those years probably accounts, at
least in part, for the noticeable increase in the level of interest in the experiential approach in the years that followed. In fact, the number of publications
30
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on the subject rose to 162 (in 2013) to arrive at the current level of 293 (in
2018).
Figure 2 – Focus on other keywords by years of publication
Source: our processing
As shown in Table 2, there are several overlapping areas between the sets
of articles created from the different extractions. Focusing on keywords other
than Customer Experience we note that the most used ones are Brand Experience, Experience Economy, Experiential Marketing. Figure 2 also shows
that the use of these three keywords has grown the most in the last five years.
Finally, Figure 2 shows a recent interest in the keyword Customer Journey.
Table 3 shows the research fields in which the topic of customer experience has expanded and developed. The result indicates clearly how pertinent
CE is to researchers in the fields of business and management. More than
73% of the papers studied (1,481 out of 2,010) were indeed published in
business, management and accounting journals. The field of social science
follows, with 21% (425/2,010), and then computer science (300/2,010), engineering (241/2,010) and economics, econometrics, and finance
(199/2,010).
31
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Table 3 – The subject area of the journals
N°
Subject area
n°
%
1
Business Management and Accounting
1,481
73.68%
2
Social Sciences
425
21.14%
3
Computer Science
300
14.92%
4
Engineering
241
11.99%
5
Economics, Econometrics, and Finance
199
9.90%
6
Decision Sciences
132
6.57%
7
Arts and Humanities
88
4.38%
8
Environmental Science
79
3.93%
9
Psychology
70
3.48%
10
Medicine
60
2.98%
Total articles
2,010
Source: our processing
From Table 4 it can be noted that the quality of the journals that have
published the most articles are in the areas of business, management, and
accounting. Moreover, through Scopus’ bibliometric percentile evaluation,
it is possible to estimate their (good) quality for which the average percentile
ranking is 77.45%.
Table 4 – The journals that published the most articles (subject area and bibliometric quality)
Journal
Pap. Subject Area
Perc.
1
Journal of Business Research
46
88%
2
Int. Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Manage- 42
ment
Tourism, Leisure and Hospitality Manage- 89%
ment
3
Journal of Services Marketing
36
Marketing
4
International Journal of Hospitality Management
27
Tourism, Leisure and Hospitality Manage- 97%
ment
5
Journal of Marketing Management
26
Strategy and Management
82%
6
Journal of Brand Management
26
Strategy and Management
73%
7
Journal of Service Management
26
Business, Management and Accounting
99%
8
Int. Journal of Retail and Distribution Management
25
Business and International Management
86%
9
Journal of Service Research
25
Organizational Behavior and HR Manage- 99%
ment
Marketing
80%
32
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Using the experiential approach in marketing and management
10 Journal of Product and Brand Management
23
Marketing
80%
11 Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services
23
Marketing
91%
12 Strategy & Leadership
23
Strategy and Management
40%
13 Journal of Retailing
22
Marketing
97%
14 Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing
21
Tourism, Leisure and Hospitality Manage- 75%
ment
15 International Journal of Bank Marketing
18
Marketing
79%
16 Journal of Direct, Data and Digital Marketing
Practice
18
Business and International Management
33%
17 European Journal of Marketing
16
Marketing
69%
18 Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management 16
Tourism, Leisure and Hospitality Manage- 79%
ment
19 Marketing Intelligence and Planning
15
Marketing
64%
20 Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes
15
Development
45%
Average percentile
77%
Source: our processing
Table 5 – Authors and number of articles published
N° Author
Articles
N°
Author
Articles
1
Edvardsson B.
13
16
Carlson J.
6
2
Klaus P.
13
17
Fisk R.P.
6
3
Rahman Z.
13
18
Gilmore J.H.
6
4
McColl-Kennedy J.R.
11
19
Gustafsson A.
6
5
Schmitt B.H.
11
20
Brakus J.J.
6
6
Fiore A.M.
9
21
Maklan S.
6
7
Khan I.
9
22
Rahman M.S.
6
8
Rowley J.
9
23
Ramaswamy V.
6
9
Gupta S.
8
24
Sundbo J.
6
10 Bilgihan A.
7
25
20 authors
5
11 Lee S.
7
26
35 authors
4
12 Patrício L.
7
27
92 authors
3
13 Pine B.J.
7
28
369 authors
2
14 Stone M.
7
30
3547 authors
1
15 Zarantonello L.
7
Tot
4087 authors
Source: our processing
33
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Fabio Forlani, Tonino Pencarelli
Table 6 shows the papers that have been cited at least 200 times in contributions found in the Scopus database by the end of December 2018. They
are ordered by decreasing number of citations.
Table 6 – The most cited papers (200 or more citations) up to 2018.
N° Year Document Title
Authors
Journal
Cit.
Keywords extracted
1
2004 Co-creation experiences: The next
practice in value creation
Prahalad C.K.,
Ramaswamy V.
Journal of Interactive
Marketing
1761
C-CE
2
1998 Welcome to the Experience Economy
Pine B.J., Gilmore J.H.
Harvard business review
1462
EE
3
2000 Measuring the customer experience
in online environments: A structural
modeling approach
Novak T.P., Hoffman D.L.,
Yung Y.-F.
Marketing Science
1395
CE
4
2002 Building brand community
McAlexander J.H., Schouten J.W., Koenig H.F.
Journal of Marketing
1130
CE
5
2000 E-satisfaction: An initial examination
Szymanski D.M., Hise R.T. Journal of Retailing
913
CE
6
2009 Brand Experience: What Is It? How
Is It Measured? Does It Affect Loyalty?
Brakus J.J., Schmitt B.H.,
Zarantonello L.
868
CE; CEM;
EM; BE
7
2009 Customer Experience Creation: Determinants, Dynamics and Management Strategies
Verhoef P.C., Lemon K.N., Journal of Retailing
Parasuraman A., Roggeveen A., Tsiros M., Schlesinger L.A.
681
CE; CEM
8
2011 Customer engagement: Conceptual
domain, fundamental propositions,
and implications for research
Brodie R.J., Hollebeek
L.D., Jurić B., Ilić A.
Journal of Service
Research
633
CE
9
2004 Co-creating unique value with customers
Prahalad C.K.,
Ramaswamy V.
Strategy & Leadership
599
C-CE
Berry L.L., Carbone L.P.,
Haeckel S.H.
MIT Sloan Management Review
423
CE
11 2007 How to Sustain the Customer Experi- Gentile C., Spiller N., Noci
ence: An Overview of Experience
G.
Components that Co-create Value
With the Customer
European Management Journal
420
CE
12 2007 Understanding customer experience Meyer C., Schwager A.
Harvard Business
Review
384
CE; CEM
13 2008 Service blueprinting: A practical tech- Bitner M.J., Ostrom A.L.,
nique for service innovation
Morgan F.N.
California Management Review
381
CE
14 2007 Measuring experience economy
concepts: Tourism applications
Oh H., Fiore A.M., Jeoung
M.
Journal of Travel Re- 347
search
EE
15 2009 Creative cities, creative spaces and
urban policy
Evans G.
Urban Studies
EE
10 2002 Managing the total customer experience
Journal of Marketing
333
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Using the experiential approach in marketing and management
16 2009 Customer Experience Management
in Retailing: Understanding the Buying Process
Puccinelli N.M., Goodstein
R.C., Grewal D., Price R.,
Raghubir P., Stewart D.
17 2004 Revisiting consumption experience: Carù A., Cova B.
A more humble but complete view of
the concept
18 2009 Customer Experience Management
in Retailing: An Organizing Framework
Journal of Retailing
304
CE; CEM
Marketing Theory
296
ElM
295
CE;CEM
Grewal D., Levy M., Kumar Journal of Retailing
V.
19 2010 Service design for experience-centric Zomerdijk L.G., Voss C.A.
services
Journal of Service
Research
293
CE;CJ
20 2004 Ability of experience design elements Pullman M.E., Gross M.A
to elicit emotions and loyalty behaviors
Decision Sciences
279
CE
21 2009 Co-creating brands: Diagnosing and Payne A., Storbacka K.,
designing the relationship experience Frow P., Knox S.
Journal of Business
Research
255
CE
22 2010 A customer-dominant logic of service Heinonen K., Strandvik T.,
Mickelsson K.-J., Edvardsson B., Sundström E., Andersson P.
Journal of Service
Management
244
CE
23 1996 The role of personalization in service Mittal B., Lassar W.M.
encounters
Journal of Retailing
232
CE
24 2011 Customer experience quality: An ex- Lemke F., Clark M., Wilson Journal of the Acad- 228
ploration in business and consumer H.
emy of Marketing Scicontexts using repertory grid techence
nique
CE;CEQ
25 2011 From social media to social customer relationship management
Baird C.H., Parasnis G.
Strategy and Leader- 222
ship
CE
26 2012 Online Customer Experience in eRetailing: An empirical model of Antecedents and Outcomes
Rose S., Clark M.,
Samouel P., Hair N.
Journal of Retailing
217
CE; OCE
27 2009 A model of customer-based brand
equity and its application to multiple
destinations
Boo S., Busser J., Baloglu
S.
Tourism Management
214
CE
28 2009 Consumer empowerment through in- Fuller J., Muhlbacher H.,
ternet-based co-creation
Matzler K., Jawecki G.
Journal of Management Information
Systems
210
BE
29 2016 Understanding customer experience Lemon K.N., Verhoef P.C.
throughout the customer journey
Journal of Marketing
208
CE; CJ;
CEM
30 2002 Themed flagship brand stores in the
new millennium: Theory, practice,
prospects
Journal of Retailing
205
EE
Kozinets R.V., Sherry J.F.,
DeBerry-Spence B.,
Duhachek A., Nuttavuthisit
K., Storm D.
Source: our processing
35
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Fabio Forlani, Tonino Pencarelli
The table above also shows that “Co-creation experiences: The next practice in value creation”by Prahalad and Ramaswamy (2004), with 1,761 citations, is the article that has most attracted the attention of the scientific world,
followed by “Welcome to the experience economy” by Pine and Gilmore
(1998) with 1,462 citations and “Measuring the customer experience in
online environments: A structural modeling approach” by Novak, Hoffman,
and Yung (2000), with 1,395 citations.
An analysis of the journals that have published the 30 most-cited articles
reveals that seven of them appeared in Journal of Retailing, six in Journal of
Service Research, three in Journal of Marketing and Journal of Business Research, followed by two articles in Journal of Interactive Marketing, Harvard
Business Review, Journal of Travel Research, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Marketing Science, Industrial Marketing Management.
After the first phase of quantitative analysis, in order to refine the investigation of the experiential approaches (RQ3) and the fields or sectors in
which these various approaches have been principally applied (RQ4), it was
decided to limit the analysis of the most important works in the sector.
Table 7 shows the number of influential papers for each of the keywords
identified throughout the observed period. To determine the relevance of the
article we followed the criterion used in previous studies (Galvagno and
Dalli, 2014, Di Stefano et al., 2012), by including only articles with a number
of citations higher than the average of the reference universe (all the articles
that make up the database). Starting from the 2,010 selected articles, we calculated 41,625 total citations received as of 8 January 2018 with an average
of 20.71 citations per paper.
Considering that the number of average Scopus citations is 14.5 (Galvagno and Dalli, 2014), our set of articles studied is therefore above average.
Table 7 – Influential papers for each of the keywords
Total
CE
CEM
CJ
EE
EIM
EM
C-CE BE
CEQ
CED
CEI
MCE
OCE
1294
72
78
244
178
50
38
270
16
2
2
16
23
Influential 249
papers
15
8
45
34
18
12
67
5
0
0
3
9
%
20%
10%
18%
19%
36%
31%
24%
31%
0%
0%
19%
39%
19%
Source: our processing
Table 7 highlights the fact that all the fields of study, except Customer
Experience Design (CED) and Customer Experience Innovation (CEI), are
36
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Using the experiential approach in marketing and management
characterized by influential articles (number of citations above the average
of the studied whole).
Table 8 – The most influential authors (with 2 or more articles and 200 or more citations)
grouped by co-authorship
N° Authors
Articles Influential Cit.
articles
Keywords
1
Ramaswamy V.; Prahalad C.K.; Ozcan K.
6
4
2493 C-CE; CE;
BE
2
Pine B.J.; Gilmore J.H.
7
3
1586 EE; ElM
3
Schmitt B.H.; Brakus J.J.; Zarantonello L.; Esch F.R. Möll T.; Elger C.E.; Neuhaus C.; Weber B.; Jedidi K.; Dennis C.; Gupta S.;
Alamanos E.
11
7
1257 CE; CEM;
EM; BE;
ElM
4
Verhoef P.C.; Lemon K.N.; Parasuraman A.; Roggeveen A.; Tsiros M.; Schlesinger L.A.
4
2
889
CE; CEM;
CJ
5
Grewal D.; Puccinelli N.M.; Goodstein R.C.; Price R.; Raghubir
5
P.; Stewart D.; Roggeveen A.L.; Spence C.; Zhu Z.; Nakata C.;
Sivakumar K.; Levy M.; Kumar V.; Bhaskaran V.; Mirchandani R.;
Shah M.
4
733
CE; CEM
6
Brodie R.J.; Hollebeek L.D.; Jurić B. Ilić A.;
3
2
684
CE
7
Berry L.L., Carbone L.P., Haeckel S.H.; Seltman K.D.
3
3
537
CE
8
Clark M.; Lemke F.; Wilson H.; Rose S.; Samouel P.; Hair N.
3
3
526
CE; CEQ;
OCE
9
Edvardsson B.; Heinonen K.; Strandvik T.; Mickelsson K.-J.
Sundström E.; Andersson P.; Walter U.; Öström Å.; Ng G.; Min
C.Z.; Firth R.; Yi D., Pareigis J. Echeverri P.; Enquist B.; Tronvoll
B.; Höykinpuro R.
13
7
524
CE
10 Voss C.A.; Zomerdijk L.G.; Sousa R.
3
3
506
CE; CJ;
BE
11 Fiore A.M.; Oh H.; Jeoung M.; Kim H.; Niehm L.S.; Quadri-Felitti
D.L.
9
4
476
EE; ElM
12 Patrício L.; Fisk R.P.; Cunha J.F.; Constantine L.; Falcão E Cunha J.; Teixeira J.; Nunes N.J.; Nóbrega L.; Carreira R.; Jorge
R.N.; Magee C.L.
7
4
448
CE
13 Füller J.; Mühlbacher H.; Matzler K.; Jawecki G.; Hutter K.; Faullant R.; Gebauer J.; Pezzei R.; Kohler T.; Fueller J.; Stieger D.
5
3
434
C-CE
14 Klaus P.; Maklan S.; McColl-Kennedy J.R.; Gustafsson A.; Jaakkola E. Radnor; Z.J.; Perks H.; Nguyen B.; Gorgoglione M.; Buonamassa D.; Panniello U.; Bennett R.; Härtel C.E.J.; Barker S.
13
8
425
CE; CEM;
ElM; BE;
OCE;
CEQ;
MCE
15 Rowley J.; Hanna S.; Kupiec-Teahan B.; Leeming E.; Slack F.;
Dawes J.
9
7
418
CE; BE
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16 Payne A.; Storbacka K.; Frow P.; Knox S.
2
2
409
CE
17 Tynan C.; McKechnie S.; Chhuon C.
3
3
338
CE; EM;
BE
18 Williams A.; Atwal G.
4
2
329
ElM;
19 Woodside A.G.; Wu P.L.; Yeh S.S.; Huan T.C.; Cruickshank B.F.; 5
Dehuang N.; Walser M.G.; Megehee C.M.; Rageh A., Melewar
T.C.
4
298
CE; BE
20 Okumus F.; Walls A.R.; Wang Y.R.; Kwun D.J.W.; Bilgihan A.;
Nusair K.; Cobanoglu C.; Bujisic M.
5
4
283
CE; ElM;
EM; OCE
21 Stokburger-Sauer N.; Ratneshwar S.; Sen S.
2
2
259
CE; BE
22 Luo X.
3
2
240
CE
23 Palmer A.; Koenig-Lewis N.
3
2
223
CE; CEM
Table 8 shows groups of co-authors (the first name listed has the most
citations) who have published at least two articles; it serves to identify the
main academics who have worked in a constant manner on the topic we have
explored. As can be clearly seen in this table, the groups that have published
at least four works and that have also acquired a notable influence (at least
two hundred citations) are relatively rare (14 out of 23); of these, only six
co-authorships have been cited more than 500 times.
Cross-referencing Table 8 with Tables 5 and 6 shows that the core authors
of the field are, in first place: Ramaswamy V. and Prahalad C.K.; Füller J. et
al.; (CE, C-CE); in second place: Pine B.J. and Gilmore J.H.(EE, ElM); and
in third place, in descending order: Schmitt B.H., Brakus J.J., Zarantonello
L. et al. (CEM, ElM, EM, BE); Verhoef P.C., Lemon K.N. et al.; (CE, CEM,
CJ); Grewal D., Kumar V. et al. (CE, CEM); Edvardsson B., Heinonen K. et
al. (CE); Fiore et al. (EE, ElM); Patrício L., Fisk R.P. et al. (CE); Klaus P.,
Maklan S., McColl-Kennedy J.R. et al. (CE; CEM; ElM; BE; OCE; CEQ);
Rowley J. et al. (CE, BE).; Woodside A.G. et al. (CE; BE); Okumus F., Walls
A.R. et al. (CE; ElM; EM; OCE).
To understand the main research lines and the fields of application and
subsequently, to see how this data intersects the aforementioned groups of
authors, we proceeded with the word and co-word analysis of the keywords
using T-lab software. The keyword frequency was calculated first, followed
by the co-occurrence of keywords within the same article.
From the analysis of the keywords and their frequencies, as seen in Table
9, we determined: a proxy of the most popular experiential research lines (E),
the most common managerial issues involved (A), and the fields in which
these studies have become the most widespread (F).
38
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Table 9 – Keyword frequency in the top 396 most influential articles
Keyword
n° E
customer/consumer_experience
51 X
customer_satisfaction
36
experience
25 X
consumer_behavior
23
experiential_marketing
A
F
Keyword
n° E
A
e-commerce
6
X
emotion
6
X
service
6
word-of-mouth
6
X
23 X
service_innovation
5
X
co-creation / value_co-creation
21 X
structural_equation_modeling
5
X
brand
20
service_design
5
X
experience_economy
20 X
service encounter
5
X
brand_experience
19 X
hospitality_management
5
customer_loyalty
16
information_tecnology
5
X
experience_marketing
14 X
marketing strategy
5
X
service_quality
14
X
loyalty
5
X
marketing
12
X
online_customer_experience
5
satisfaction
12
X
customer_service_management
5
social_media
12
X
customer_relations
5
X
customer/consumer
12
X
advertise
5
X
innovation
11
X
behavioral_intention
4
X
service-dominant_logic
10 X
brand_management
4
X
tourism
9
consumption
4
X
quality
9
X
brand_image
4
X
brand_equity
9
X
electronic_commerce
4
X
customer_service_quality
8
X
e-services
4
X
customer_experience_management
8
involvement
4
X
service_experience
8
service_failure
4
X
internet
8
X
perception
4
X
services_marketing
8
X
social_networks
4
X
retail
7
service_recovery
4
X
scale_development
7
X
tourist_experience
4
customer_engagement
6
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
F
X
X
X
X
X
Key: E (Experiential research line); A (Managerial area); F (Field of application)
Source: our processing
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From the results of the content analysis it therefore emerges that the main
experiential research lines are: Customer Experience (51); Experience (25);
Experiential Marketing (23); Co-Creation and Value Co-Creation (21); Experience Economy (20); Brand Experience (19); Experience Marketing (14);
Service-Dominant Logic (10); and Customer Experience Management (8).
These findings are summarized in Table 9 which also shows the application
field. In the latter, contributions to Service (8), Tourism (8), Retail (7), Hospitality (5) and E-commerce and electronic commerce (11) are significant.
Finally, management issues were also analyzed. The study underscores
the centrality of the following themes: Customer satisfaction (36); Consumer
behavior (23); Brand (20); Customer loyalty (16); Service quality (14); Social media and digital communication (16); Marketing (12).
From the co-occurrence matrix, the software mapped the relationships
between words within the keywords (Fig. 3). In this way, it was possible to
explore how concepts and experiential themes connect with one another.
Figure 3 – Co-word analysis of the keywords
Source: our processing
The following clusters emerge from the co-word analysis of the keywords: 1) Service Experience (Pink); 2) Brand Experience (Orange); 3) Experiential and Experience Marketing (light blue); 4) Experience Economy
(Green); 5) Co-Creation Experience and service-dominant logic (Light
green).
40
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In addition to identifying these groups, the map also shows the connections they have with the main managerial topics covered and the fields of
application.
The first group (service experience) has the highest frequency of occurrence and is the closest to the concept of Customer Experience. For the authors in this group the analysis of the customer experience focuses primarily
on aspects such as satisfaction, loyalty, and quality which relate to the area
of company services as the field of application.
The second group (brand experience) consists of papers that explore the
experiential dimensions linked to the brand. These dimensions relate to management first of all, followed by design, relationship, engagement, and equity. The main fields of application are those of tourism and hospitality.
The third group (experiential and experience marketing) is mainly focused on aspects of consumer behavior. Hotels are the field of application.
The fourth group (experience economy) includes papers that deal primarily with tourism, with special emphasis on destination management.
Lastly, the fifth group (co-creation experience and service-dominant
logic) which centers on all aspects related to the co-creation of the experience. These studies analyze consumer behavior with particular reference to
online contexts such as the internet, social media, and virtual communities.
On the basis of the data presented above, the research questions can now
be answered.
(RQ1) From the descriptive analysis of the selected papers and the citation analysis, it has emerged that:
• There is growing interest in experiential studies, as the number of publications and citations linked to this topic confirm (Figures 1 and 2). The
analysis of the percentages of journals that have dedicated the most space
to these articles confirms, moreover, the excellent quality of the papers
submitted (Table 4).
• With reference to the two lines of research identified (Experiential Perspective and Experiential Approach), there is a predominance of papers
in the literature that generically use the experiential perspective, which
would indicate the need to evaluate the customer and the consumer experience (Fig.1). However, these works do not refer specifically to any of
the main experiential approaches known in the literature or to a characterizing managerial theme (brand, quality, design, innovation, measure,
online).
• With regard to Experiential Approaches, identified by keywords, we can
affirm: 1) the consolidation of Brand Experience, Experience Economy,
41
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Experiential Marketing approaches; 2) the modest growth of Customer Experiential Management; 3) the non-relevance of the themes of innovation
and design; 4) the relevance of the theme of the quality of the experience
and of the modalities of its measurement; 5) the growing importance of
experiential use of digital platforms, the online environment, and multichannel strategies.
(RQ2) Experiential studies indubitably belong to the business, management, and accounting field, given that 73.68% of the papers studied were
published in journals listed in this category by Scopus. Inside the business
and management macro-area, the sub-areas of marketing, tourism, leisure
and hospitality management and strategy and management emerge. Among
the rest of the journals that have made space for ExP, we noted that within
the social science macro-area the subcategories urban studies and geography,
planning and development suggest there is a use of the experiential concepts
in city planning and territorial management. Some contributions have been
linked to other research areas, but these have not proven to be particularly
interesting either from the quantitative point of view (number of publications) or qualitative (number of extracted citations).
The most important works in the experiential field are “Co-creation experiences: the next practice in value creation” by Prahalad and Ramaswamy
(2004). With 1,761 citations, this is the article that has attracted the most
attention in the scientific world, followed by “Welcome to the experience
economy” by Pine and Gilmore (1998) with 1,462 citations and “Measuring
the customer experience in online environments: A structural modeling approach” by Novak, Hoffman, and Yung (2000), with 1,395 citations.
The core authors of the field are: 1) Ramaswamy V. and Prahalad C.K.;
Füller J. et al. (CE, C-CE); 2) Pine B.J. and Gilmore J.H.(EE, ElM); 3) Schmitt
B.H., Brakus J.J., Zarantonello L. et al. (CEM, ElM, EM, BE); Verhoef P.C.,
Lemon K.N. et al.; (CE, CEM, CJ); Grewal D., Kumar V. et al. (CE, CEM);
Edvardsson B., Heinonen K. et al. (CE); Fiore et al. (EE, ElM); Patrício L.,
Fisk R.P. et al. (CE); Klaus P., Maklan S., McColl-Kennedy J.R. et al. (CE;
CEM; ElM; BE; OCE; CEQ); Rowley J. et al. (CE, BE).; Woodside A.G. et
al. (CE; BE); Okumus F., Walls A.R. et al. (CE; ElM; EM; OCE).
The journals that have most consistently published contributions in this
field are the following: Journal of Business Research (46); International
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management (42); Journal of Services
Marketing (36); International Journal of Hospitality Management (27); Journal of Marketing Management (26); Journal of Brand Management (26);
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Journal of Service Management (25); International Journal of Retail and Distribution Management (25); Journal of Service Management (25); Journal of
Product and Brand Management (23).
(RQ3) The citation data makes clear the fact that, to date, the research
field lacks cohesion in terms of key reference authors and a common thread.
This points to a significant fragmentation of the literature, along various
lines of research, as already noted by Kranzbühler et al. (2018, p. 14) in relation to the customer experience construct and by Homburg et al. (2015) in
relation to customer experience management. The analysis of the keywords
used by the most influential works highlighted the existence of five clusters
(Brand Experience; Experiential and Experience Marketing; Experience
Economy; Service Experience and Co-Create Experience. While the first
three groups (ExA, numerical minority) tend to see the experiential logic as
different from the service logic, the fourth and fifth group (ExP, numerical
majority) tends to integrate the experiential perspective into the previous
managerial logic of service (Pencarelli and Forlani, 2018).
(RQ4): Finally, the study highlights that even the areas of application
have yet to be identified completely. From the analysis of the journals, as
well as the keywords, it was found that the articles are mainly concentrated
in the areas of services (Service Experience), retail (Brand Experience and
Experiential Marketing), tourism and leisure (Experience Economy and Experience Marketing), e-commerce, electronic, and multi-channel commerce
(Co-Create Experience).
From the methodology point of view, this work presents the following
limitations: a) the research focuses on articles published in journals, excluding the contributions published in books; b) the analysis of the experiential
research lines was carried out by associating groups of authors who wrote at
least one article together and the experiential concepts obtained by the inductive content analysis of the keywords. However, this type of analysis did
not enable the association of these research lines with the related basic literature. A rerun of the research using a co-citation analysis or a bibliographic
coupling analysis would thus be beneficial.
Conclusion
This study is a first attempt at quantitative measurement of the diffusion
of experiential marketing and management concepts in academic literature.
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The results of the study and the data presented above enable us to confirm a
rapidly growing trend that sees studies using the experiential perspective within
the business and management sector, both in quantitative (number of publications) and qualitative terms (quality of journals of publication). As for the interpretative point of view, it was in the period 1998-2004 that the reference works
of various experiential approaches were written: “Welcome to the experience
economy” (Pine and Gilmore, 1998); “Measuring the customer experience in
online environments: A structural modeling approach” (Novak et al., 2000);
“Managing the total customer experience” (Berry et al., 2002); “Co-creation experiences: The next practice in value creation” (Prahalad and Ramaswamy,
2004). The next five-year period between 2006 and 2009 was the “breakpoint”,
the period of affirmation of the experiential concepts within the managerial literature. Indeed, the phenomenon made a strong entrance within the scientific
business and managerial literature. This is clearly illustrated by the quantitative
growth of the contributions published, by the number of times these contributions were cited, and by the quality of the journals that published them. Finally,
the 2015-2018 years saw significant quantitative growth.
This data shows us that the “customer experience” has become part of business and management scholarship (of marketing, in particular). Having found
that the experiential perspective (ExP) of observing consumption phenomena is
now widespread does not mean that a new managerial approach has been established. From this point of view, the situation remains, indeed, quite uncertain.
While there are, in fact, different managerial and marketing approaches that refer
to experiential concepts; these approaches are in competition with one other and
the contributions that espouse them represent, in terms of weight, only a minority
of the total number of experiential studies in management.
Considering that the results of the present study describe the important
quantitative and qualitative growth in research linked to the experiential perspective (ExP) and the experiential approach (ExA), the involvement of authors from all over the world and the concurrence of various working prospects, it is possible to conclude that the field of experiential studies is in the
“excitement phase” (Hirsch and Levin, 1999; Kranzbühler et al., 2018) or, in
other terms, in its pre-paradigmatic phase (Khun, 1970). Given the typical
problems of the pre-paradigmatic research phases (Khun, 1970) which, by
definition, are “revolutionary”, it is necessary to find approaches that unite
rather than divide. In this way it is possible to grow this economic-managerial approach that focuses on the economic analysis of life experience
(whether that of the client or supplier, tourist, or area resident) in its holistic
dimension (emotional and rational at the same time).
44
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To this end, having described and measured the phenomenon under study
and fully aware that the keywords are only a proxy for the experiential approaches adopted by many authors cited, we argue that it is useful to classify
the various contributions in groups and to work on the convergences found
in cross-referencing the data from Table 8 (groups of co-authors) and that
from Figure 3 (groups of keyword themes).
By using keywords as the links, it is possible to assign each of the five
themes groups its reference authors, as follows:
• Brand Experience: Schmitt B.H., Brakus J.J., Zarantonello L. et al.;
Klaus P., Maklan S., McColl-Kennedy J.R. et al.; Rowley J. et al.;
Woodside A.G. et al.;
• Experiential and Experience Marketing: Pine B.J. and Gilmore J.H.;
Schmitt B.H., Brakus J.J., Zarantonello L. et al.; Fiore et al.; Klaus P.,
Maklan S., McColl-Kennedy J.R. et al.; Okumus F., Walls A.R. et al.;
• Experience Economy: Pine B.J. and Gilmore J.H.; Fiore et al.;
• Service Experience: Verhoef P.C., Lemon K.N. et al.; Grewal D., Kumar V. et al.; Edvardsson B., Heinonen K. et al.; Patrício L., Fisk R.P.
et al.; Rowley J. et al.; Woodside A.G. et al.;
• Co-Create Experience: Ramaswamy V. and Prahalad C.K.; Füller J. et
al.
Finally, from an interpretative perspective, utilizing the distinction between ExP and ExA, it is also possible to further group the articles by joining
together those that, while analyzing the consumption experience (ExP), use
a service logic (service logic and service-dominant logic) and those that, recognizing the centrality of the consumption experience, they support the need
for a transition from the logic of goods and/or services to that of experience
(Pine and Gilmore, 1998). The theme groups Service Experience and CoCreate Experience can be traced back to the first category. Experiential-Experience Marketing and Experience Economy refer to the second, while
Brand Experience straddles the two. In our opinion, the classification cannot
be simplified any further.
In conclusion, based on the quantitative framework presented in this
study, there remains further qualitative work to be done in order to understand whether it is possible to achieve a conceptual grounding that can integrate the numerous and varied contributions to the body of literature. A unified framework that contains, on the one hand, methodologies for the study
of the customer’s experience (ExP) and, on the other hand, techniques for
the design, creation, management, sale, and measurement of that experience
(ExA) would, indeed, be desirable. Nevertheless, from the current review of
45
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Fabio Forlani, Tonino Pencarelli
the international business and management literature there have emerged no
works leaning in that direction.
For additional elements that could add to the debate, we point out a preliminary attempt made by the authors (Pencarelli, 2017), published in this journal,
and subsequent work (Pencarelli and Forlani, 2018) which underscores how
the transition from ExP to ExA entails not only gaining a deep understanding
of the strategic and operational differences in order to qualify the experience
as a product per se and to grasp its specific role in the customer’s value chain,
but also adopting an experiential logic in managerial processes.
In thus-defined experience logic the experience-product is at the core of
the processes of imagining, designing, communicating, and delivering the
value proposition to the customer and with the customer (in value co-creation
processes), which differs from those contributions in which the concept of
experience is basically used to differentiate between offers of goods or services. In our opinion, it is from the very awareness of the specificity of the
value proposition that stems from experience logic compared to good logic
or service logic that new research frontier open up for experiential studies.
The managerial implications that derive from them will affect customer segmentation processes, how various materials and service components are put
together to create the concept of experiential packages to be offered, how
these products are produced, and how the pricing policies are determined. As
evidenced in the present review, these last aspects remain, as yet, on the sidelines of academic literature.
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