The Italian Renaissance Nude (main text)

Jill Burke

THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE JILL BURKE Yale University Press, New Haven and London First published by Yale University Press 2018 302 Temple Street, P. O. Box 209040, New Haven CT 06520-9040 ࣁࣄȲȬɅʁʟȬ̍ʹȉʟȲू^ʁɷȬʁɷÂࢾࣀ$ yalebooks.com | yalebooks.co.uk Copyright © 2018 Jill Burke ɫɫʟɔɆɏʰʦʟȲʦȲʟˑȲȬेΤɔʦȥʁʁɦɴȉ˘ɷʁʰȥȲʟȲʜʟʁȬʹȦȲȬʁʟʰʟȉɷʦɴɔʰʰȲȬ in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and retrieval system (beyond that copying permitted by Sections 107 and 108 of the US Copyright Law and except by reviewers for the public press), without prior permission in writing from the publisher. ISBN 978-0-300-201567 HB Library of Congress Control Number: 2017954635 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 $ȲʦɔɆɷȲȬȥ˘gɔʰȦɏȲɫɫsɷʹʁʟȉɏ Printed in China Cover image: Titian (Vecellio, Tiziano 1488–1576), ̨ǱÃǱȶɸɥɀȄ«ɞǤȓȶɀ, ࢾࣂࣀࣅे<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲू=ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉȬȲɆɫɔ©ΪˢɔेsɔɫʁɷȦȉɷˑȉʦूࢾࢾࣆ× 165 cm. © 2017. ɏʁʰʁȦȉɫȉू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲॹȦʁʹʟʰȲʦ˘ʁɅʰɏȲgɔɷɔʦʰȲʟʁȲɷɔȲʰʰेʹɫʰʹʟȉɫɔ e del Turismo. >ɀɞiɸȳǈȶǫ&ǈǫʑȓɯȎȪɀʐǱǈȶǫɯȎǈȶȥɥ 7 25 introduction chapter one Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 67 chapter two Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 93 chapter three ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ुgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷɔʰ˘ू ʟȲȉʰɔˑɔʰ˘ू$ɔˑɔɷɔʰ˘ूȉɷȬʰɏȲjʹȬȲ 125 chapter four gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 159 chapter five g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬ sʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 185 afterword 189 acknowledgments 191 notes 210 bibliography 226 index 240 credits introduction ΤȲʜȉʦʰɔʦȉɅʁʟȲɔɆɷȦʁʹɷʰʟ˘ुʰɏȲ˘ȬʁʰɏɔɷɆʦȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɫ˘ʰɏȲʟȲे L. P. Hartley, ̨Ǳ?ɀՒǱɯʑǱǱȶ, 1953 ÂɏʁȦȉʟȲʦȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲJʰȉɫɔȉɷȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲैʦʹȥɣȲȦʰɴʁʟȲʟȲȬʁɫȲɷʰ ʁɅȉɷʁɫȬॼɅȉʦɏɔʁɷȲȬʰ˘ʜȲʁɅȉʟʰɏɔʦʰʁʟ˘˒ʁʹɫȬȥȲɏȉʟȬʰʁεɷȬे<ʁʟɴȉɷ˘ people it may bring to mind those artworks that are so well known they ɏȉˑȲɫʁɷɆȥȲȲɷʰɏȲʁȥɣȲȦʰʁɅʜȉʟʁȬ˘ॹgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦ&ǈʐȓǫ२εɆेࢿेࣁ३ूɏɔʦ ɞǱǈɯȓɀȶɀȄǫǈȳʁɷʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆ२εɆेࣀेࢾࣆ३ूʁʟʜȲʟɏȉʜʦʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦ ȓɞɯȎɀȄÃǱȶɸɥ२εɆेࣀेࢾࣂ३ेJɷɆȲɷȲʟȉɫʰʟȲȉʰɴȲɷʰʦʁ̎ÂȲʦʰȲʟɷȉʟʰॹȥȲʰɏȲ˘ television programs, websites, or art historical survey books – the Renaissance nude is typically lauded as an illustration of the triumph ʁɅʰɏȲʟȲˑɔˑȲȬȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷेJʰȉɫ˘ȉʰʰɏȲȥȲɆɔɷɷɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏ century forms a starting point for a familiar story of artistic progress.1 ÂɔʰɏɔʰʦȲɴʜɏȉʦɔʦʁɷȉɷȉɫ˘ʰɔȦȉɫʁȥʦȲʟˑȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷȥʁȬ˘ूʰɏȲ ȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲʦȲȲɴʦȦʁɴɅʁʟʰɔɷɆɫ˘ɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟʰʁʰɏȲɴʁȬȲʟɷÂȲʦʰȲʟɷ ˑɔȲ˒ȲʟूȉʜȉȲȉɷʰʁʰɏȲȦɔˑɔɫɔˢȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲÂȲʦʰȲʟɷ˒ʁʟɫȬूȉɷȬूʁδȲɷूȉ ʦɔɆɷɔεȲʟʁɅȉʟȲεɷȲȬȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʰȉʦʰȲुȲȬʹȦȉʰȲȬˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦʦȲȲʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰʟ˘ɔɷ these images rather than their (potentially embarrassing) corporality. So in an era where many scholars are seeking to dismantle grand narratives ʁ̎ÂȲʦʰȲʟɷȦʹɫʰʹʟȉɫȉȦɏɔȲˑȲɴȲɷʰʦू˒ɏ˘˒ʟɔʰȲȉȥʁʁɦʁɷʰɏȲɷʹȬȲैΤȲ εʟʦʰʟȲȉʦʁɷɔʦʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȉɫेJɷȲȲȬȲȬʰʁʦȲʰȉȥʁʁɦʁɷʰɏȲȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲ ȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲɅʁʟȉȦɫȉʦʦJ˒ȉʦʰȲȉȦɏɔɷɆूʁɷɫ˘ʰʁεɷȬʰɏȉʰɷʁʰɏɔɷɆɫɔɦȲ ʰɏȲɦɔɷȬʁɅȥʁʁɦJ˒ȉʦȉδȲʟȲ˗ɔʦʰȲȬेʹʟʜʟɔʦɔɷɆɫ˘ूȬȲʦʜɔʰȲɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰʟȲȦȲɷʰ ʦʰʹȬɔȲʦʁɷȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ȉɷȬȲʟʁʰɔȦȉʟʰूʰɏȲʟȲȉʟȲɷʁɴȉɣʁʟʦʰʹȬɔȲʦ focusing on the Italian Renaissance nude per se available in English.2 I ȬȲȦɔȬȲȬʰʁ˒ʟɔʰȲʰɏȲȥʁʁɦɴ˘ʦȲɫɅेJʰɏȉʦȥȲȲɷȉɫʁɷɆɣʁʹʟɷȲ˘Ʌʟʁɴʰɏȉʰ ɔɷɔʰɔȉɫ˒ɏɔɴʰʁεɷɔʦɏɔɷɆʰɏɔʦʦʰʹȬ˘ेÂɏȉʰ˒ȉʦʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫɫ˘ɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬȉʦȉ 7 ʦʹɴɴȉʟ˘ʁɅȲ˗ɔʦʰɔɷɆɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲʦʁʁɷɆʟȲ˒ɔɷʰʁȉɴȉʦʦʁɅ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷʦʰɏȉʰ ȦɫȲȉʟɫ˘ʟȲ̍ʹɔʟȲȬɅʹʟʰɏȲʟʜʟɔɴȉʟ˘ʟȲʦȲȉʟȦɏेΤȲʦȲȬɔȬɷʁʰʦȲȲɴʰʁɴȲʰʁ ȥȲɴɔɷʁʟ̍ʹȲʟɔȲʦूȥʹʰɅʹɷȬȉɴȲɷʰȉɫेEʁ˒ʁδȲɷȬɔȬȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʜȲʁʜɫȲ ʦȲȲȲȉȦɏʁʰɏȲʟɷȉɦȲȬैÂɏȲɷȉɷȬ˒ɏ˘ȬɔȬʰɏȲɷʹȬȲȥȲȦʁɴȲʦʹȦɏȉɷ ɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɅʁʟɴै२ΤȲʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷȉɫȉɷʦ˒ȲʟʦআȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲই ȉɷȬআȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʜȲʁʜɫȲɫɔɦȲȬȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲই˒ȲʟȲɏȉʟȬɫ˘ʦʹΪȦɔȲɷʰे३ ÂɏȉʰȬɔȬȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦʰɏɔɷɦȉȥʁʹʰȉɫɫʰɏȲʦȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦʰɏȉʰ ʦʹȬȬȲɷɫ˘ȉʜʜȲȉʟȲȬȲˑȲʟ˘˒ɏȲʟȲैÂɏȲɷूȉɷȬ˒ɏ˘ूȬɔȬȉʟʰɔʦʰʦʦʰȉʟʰʰʁʹʦȲ ɷȉɦȲȬɴʁȬȲɫʦैEʁ˒˒ȲʟȲʰɏȲʦȲȥʁȬɔȲʦʰʟȉɷʦɅʁʟɴȲȬɔɷʰʁʰɏȲɔȬȲȉɫɔˢȲȬɅʁʟɴ ˒Ȳɦɷʁ˒ȉʦʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɷʹȬȲैÂȲʟȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦȲɴȥȉʟʟȉʦʦȲȬʁʟ ȉʦɏȉɴȲȬ˒ɏȲɷʰɏȲ˘ɫʁʁɦȲȬȉʰɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦɔɷʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲȉɷȬʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆै ÂɏȉʰʦȲȲɴȲȬȦȲʟʰȉɔɷ˒ȉʦʰɏȉʰʦʁɴȲʰɏɔɷɆʟȲˑʁɫʹʰɔʁɷȉʟ˘ɏȉʜʜȲɷȲȬʰʁ ˑɔȲ˒ɔɷɆɔɷʰɏȲɏʹɷȬʟȲȬʁʟʦʁ˘ȲȉʟʦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬʰɏȲ early sixteenth centuries in Italy to allow the nude to hold a central place ɔɷȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦȲɷȬȲȉˑʁʟूȥʹʰɣʹʦʰ˒ɏȉʰʰɏɔʦʟȲˑʁɫʹʰɔʁɷȉʟ˘ʰɏɔɷɆʑǈɥ had never been satisfactorily resolved. ΤȲʦȲȦʁɷȬʟȲȉʦʁɷ˒ȉʦɔɷʰȲɫɫȲȦʰʹȉɫेΤȲɷȲ˒ॹȉɷȬȉȥʦʁɫʹʰȲɫ˘ȦʁʟʟȲȦʰ – understanding of the European visual tradition as one of many, as opposed to a norm, has toppled the Italian Renaissance from its central ʜɫȉȦȲɔɷȉʟʰɏɔʦʰʁʟ˘ʰȲȉȦɏɔɷɆेΤȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲूʦʹȦɏȉɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟʜȉʟʰ of art history curricula, has to be seen again in an era with an increasingly multicultural student body, many of whom have frames of reference outside the European tradition. Stories about the censorship of artistic nudes appear regularly in the press in areas as diverse as the London Underground and French textbooks for children in Kuwait.3ΤɔʦʦȲɷʦȲ ʰɏȉʰɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦɴȉȬȲɏʹɷȬʟȲȬʦʁɅ˘ȲȉʟʦȉɆʁʦʰɔɫɫɏȉˑȲʰɏȲ ʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫʰʁʁΦȲɷȬɏȉʦʰɏȲɏȉʜʜ˘ȥ˘ॼʜʟʁȬʹȦʰʁɅȉɫɫʁ˒ɔɷɆʹʦʰʁʦȲȲʰɏȲʦȲ images anew, and to understand them as products of a very particular set of cultural circumstances. Jʰɔʦɴ˘ȉɔɴɔɷʰɏɔʦȥʁʁɦʰʁɴȉɦȲʰɏȲɷʹȬȲɫȲʦʦɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟूʰʁ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷ the cozy relationship between the advent of this new artistic form ȉɷȬɷʁʰɔʁɷʦʁɅʰɏȲȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷूÂȲʦʰȲʟɷʜʟʁɆʟȲʦʦूȉɷȬȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦ creativity.4 I argue that the creation of the nude has its dark side: it was ʹʦȲȬȉʦȉʰʁʁɫʁɅȦʁɫʁɷɔȉɫɔʦɴȉɷȬȦʁɷ̍ʹȲʦʰूȉʦȉɴȲȉɷʦʁɅȉʦʦȲʟʰɔɷɆʰɏȲ ʦʹʜȲʟɔʁʟɔʰ˘ʁɅɴȲɷʰʁ˒ʁɴȲɷूʁɅʦȲʜȉʟȉʰɔɷɆȬɔΦȲʟɔɷɆʰ˘ʜȲʦʁɅʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫɔʰ˘ ɔɷʰʁʰɏȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰʁʟʰɏȲȬȲɅʁʟɴȲȬूɷȉʰʹʟȉɫɔˢɔɷɆʜʁ˒ȲʟȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɔȉɫʦȥ˘ entrenching them in a set of ideas about the body and its representation. In sum, I argue that the widespread adoption of the nude in art was ȥȲȦȉʹʦȲɔʰʦȲʟˑȲȬʰɏȲʜʹʟʜʁʦȲʦʁɅ*ʹʟʁʜȲȉɷȲɫɔʰȲʦɔɷȉʦʜȲȦɔεȦʦȲʰʁɅ cultural circumstances. 8 Fig. 0.1. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूNightूࢾࣂࢿࣃॹࣀࢾेgȉʟȥɫȲे New Sacristy, San Lorenzo, Florence. to the naked human form. In Chinese art of the pre-modern period, for example, the naked human body was barely represented at all.5 In Japanese and Persian early modern art the naked body was linked wholly with carnality and thus was inevitably understood as sexual – and, in addition, ˒ȉʦʁδȲɷʦȲȲɷȉʦȉȥʁʟʟʁ˒ɔɷɆʁɅ*ʹʟʁʜȲȉɷȉʟʰे6Τɔʦɔʦ˒ʁʟʰɏ˒ɏɔɫȲ remembering, because a distinctive feature of the theory of the nude form is that it claims a kind of cultural featurelessness, an ability to represent all humanity, incorporating in the representation of a naked body all ʰɔɴȲʦूȉɫɫʜɫȉȦȲʦूȉɷȬȉɫɫʜȲʁʜɫȲʦेΤɔʦȲɫȲɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲ recognized as a hugely successful piece of cultural rhetoric that was born in Renaissance Italy. What’s Wrong with Night?: Talking about Nudes ΤȲʟȲɔʦɷʁʰɏɔɷɆɷȉʰʹʟȉɫʁʟɔɷȲˑɔʰȉȥɫȲȉȥʁʹʰʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰɔɷɆʰɏȲɷʹȬȲȥʁȬ˘ɔɷ ȉʟʰेjʁɷॼÂȲʦʰȲʟɷˑɔʦʹȉɫʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷʦȬʁɷʁʰɆȲɷȲʟȉɫɫ˘ȉ˒ȉʟȬȉȦȲɷʰʟȉɫʜɫȉȦȲ It is worth paying attention to the words used to describe nudes, ʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦूȉʦʰɏȲ˘ʁδȲɷȥȲʰʟȉ˘ȬȲȲʜॼʦȲȉʰȲȬȉʦʦʹɴʜʰɔʁɷʦ about real bodies.7gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦlȓȅȎɯ२εɆेࢽेࢾ३˒ȉʦɴȉȬȲȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣂࢿࣃ ɅʁʟʰɏȲʰʁɴȥʁɅ=ɔʹɫɔȉɷʁȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔɔɷʰɏȲjȲ˒ȉȦʟɔʦʰ˘ɔɷʰɏȲȦɏʹʟȦɏ of San Lorenzo in Florence.8 Scholarly responses to this sculpture make THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE INTRODUCTION 9 Fig. 0.3. Kleomenes, Venus Pudica of the Cnidian Type २আÁȲɷʹʦȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔই३ू εʟʦʰȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘*२ʁɴȉɷȦʁʜ˘ʁɅ a Praxitelean type of fourth century *३ेgȉʟȥɫȲे=ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉȬȲɆɫɔ©Ϊˢɔू Florence. Fig. 0.2. Unknown sculptor, Apollo Belvedere, 120–140 CE (Roman copy of a Greek original of cेࣀࣂࢽॹࣀࢿࣂ*३ेgȉʟȥɫȲे ʁɴȲूÁȉʰɔȦȉɷgʹʦȲʹɴʦे 10 আʰɔʟȲȬूইȉɷȬআʦʜȲɷʰूইʰɏȲ˘আɏȉɷɆɫɔɦȲʦȉȦʦɅʟʁɴɏȲʟȥʁȉʟȬॼζȉʰʦʰȲʟɷʹɴই˒ɔʰɏ আȬɔʦʰȲɷȬȲȬɷɔʜʜɫȲʦ०ʰɏȉʰ१ɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷʦʹȦɦȲȬʦʁȬȲȲʜɫ˘ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ɏȉˑȲȥȲɆʹɷʰʁ ȬȲζȉʰȲूȉʦɏȉʦɏȲʟ˒ɔɫɫेই11 In sum, her body – as Frederick Hartt explains – ɏȉʦȥȲȲɷআȬɔʦʰʁʟʰȲȬȥ˘ȦɏɔɫȬȥɔʟʰɏॼॼȉɷȬɫȉȦʰȉʰɔʁɷेই12 it clear that talking about nakedness can be prone to pitfalls – and that ȉʟʰɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȉɷʦूȉʦɴʹȦɏȉʦȉɷ˘ȥʁȬ˘ȲɫʦȲूɴȉɦȲ२ʁδȲɷʹɷȦʁɷʦȦɔʁʹʦ३ˑȉɫʹȲ ɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰʦȉȥʁʹʰȥʁȬɔȲʦȉɷȬɏʁ˒ʰɏȲ˘ʦɏʁʹɫȬȉʜʜȲȉʟेlȓȅȎɯ has not always ɅȉʟȲȬ˒ȲɫɫȉʰʰɏȲɏȉɷȬʁɅʦȦɏʁɫȉʟʦेΤȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲɔʦআȬɔʦʰʹʟȥɔɷɆɫ˘ইʁʟ আȥʟʹʰȉɫɫ˘ইɴȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲे9EȲʟʦʰʁɴȉȦɏॹআ˒ʟɔɷɦɫȲȬूইআȬɔʦʰȲɷȬȲȬूইআˑȉʦʰȉɷȬ ζȉȦȦɔȬूইআʦɫȉȦɦूইȉɷȬআɫʁʁʦȲॼɴʹʦȦɫȲȬই२ʁʟूɅʁʟʦʁɴȲूȦʁɷˑȲʟʦȲɫ˘আ˒ȉʦɏȥʁȉʟȬॼ ɴʹʦȦɫȲȬইȉɷȬআȬɔʦʰɔɷȦʰɫ˘ɴȉɫȲই३ॹɔʦʦɔɴʜɫ˘আȉʦɏȉʜȲɫȲʦʦʰʟʹɷɦȦʹʰȉȦʟʁʦʦ ˒ɔʰɏɅʁʹʟɏʁʟɔˢʁɷʰȉɫɅʹʟʟʁ˒ʦेই10EȲʟȥʟȲȉʦʰʦȉʟȲআʜȲɷȬʹɫʁʹʦूইআʦȉηɔɷɆूই ÂɏȉʰȬʁ˒ȲȲ˗ʜȲȦʰ˒ɏȲɷ˒ȲɫʁʁɦȉʰȉȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲैÂɏȉʰɔʦ˒ʟʁɷɆ with lȓȅȎɯै<ʁʟɴȉɷ˘ˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦूɔʰʦȲȲɴʦूʰɏɔʦʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲȬʁȲʦɷʁʰʜʁʦʦȲʦʦ the timelessness associated with the nude form. Critical words are used THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE INTRODUCTION 11 to worry away at the process of aging shown in this sculpture. Similarly, ʰɏȲȉɷȬʟʁɆ˘ɷ˘ʰɏȉʰɔʦȉɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟɅȲȉʰʹʟȲʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅ women (and discussed in more detail in Chapter Four) is problematic for some. lȓȅȎɯʰȉɦȲʦɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟɔȬȲȉʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɷʹȬȲʦʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ॹʰɏȲ˒ɏɔʰȲ marble, the musculature, the reclining River God pose – but uses them ɔɷʹɷȲ˗ʜȲȦʰȲȬ˒ȉ˘ʦʰɏȉʰʦʁɴȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦȦɫȲȉʟɫ˘εɷȬȬɔʦʰʹʟȥɔɷɆूʁʟɔʟɦʦʁɴȲे ΤȲȦɫȉʦʦɔȦɔˢɔɷɆȲɫȲɴȲɷʰʦʦɏʁʹɫȬʦʹηȲʦʰȉȥʁȬ˘ʰɏȉʰȲ˗ɔʦʰʦʁʹʰʦɔȬȲʁɅʰɔɴȲू ȉȥʁȬ˘ʰɏȉʰूɔɷʰȲʟɴʦȥʁʟʟʁ˒ȲȬɅʟʁɴgɔɦɏȉɔɫȉɦɏʰɔɷूɔʦআȦɫʁʦȲȬूই˒ɏɔȦɏ ɏɔȬȲʦɔʰʦআȲˑȲʟʹɷεɷɔʦɏȲȬɷȉʰʹʟȲूইȉʦʁʜʜʁʦȲȬʰʁʰɏȲআɆʟʁʰȲʦ̍ʹȲইȥʁȬ˘ʰɏȉʰ আɔʦʹɷεɷɔʦɏȲȬूʁʹʰɆʟʁ˒ʦɔʰʦȲɫɅूʰʟȉɷʦɆʟȲʦʦȲʦɔʰʦʁ˒ɷɫɔɴɔʰʦूইʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ʁɅ conception, birth, and dying.13 One of the chief aims of the Renaissance nude, as this book investigates, was its presentation of a perfected, timeless nakedness against which real and always changing human bodies would inevitably be found lacking. lȓȅȎɯʟȲɅʹʦȲʦʰʁεʰɷȲȉʰɫ˘ɔɷȲɔʰɏȲʟȦȉʰȲɆʁʟ˘ʁɅআȦɫʁʦȲȬইʁʟআɆʟʁʰȲʦ̍ʹȲই ȥʁȬ˘ेΤȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʜɫȉ˘ʦ˒ɔʰɏɆȲɷȬȲʟȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɔȉʰɔʁɷूȲɴʜɫʁ˘ʦȉ seemingly heroic mode (the marble, classicizing pose), yet makes explicit the association between the female body, birth, and death. lȓȅȎɯ breaks expected boundaries; despite her seemingly heroic muscled form, her belly ʟȲɴɔɷȬʦʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʁɅʰɏȲȲΦȲȦʰʦʁɅʰɔɴȲʁɷʟȲȉɫȥʁȬɔȲʦूȉɷȬʰɏȲʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟউʦ own inevitable death. Julia Kristeva has noted the visceral reaction to আʰɏȲɔɷॼȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷूʰɏȲȉɴȥɔɆʹʁʹʦूʰɏȲȦʁɴʜʁʦɔʰȲইʰɏȉʰȬʟȉ˒ʦȉʰʰȲɷʰɔʁɷʰʁ the fragility of the boundaries of our bodies, a reaction she refers to as আȉȥɣȲȦʰɔʁɷेই14 Could this go some way to explain why reactions to lȓȅȎɯ ʁδȲɷʦȲȲɴʦʁȉɆɔʰȉʰȲȬूʦʁȲɴʁʰɔʁɷȉɫै ɫɫʟȲȉɫȥʁȬɔȲʦȉʟȲȦɏȉɷɆɔɷɆȉɷȬʁʜȲɷʰʁʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɫȬूȥʹʰ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦॹ ȉɷȬȲʦʜȲȦɔȉɫɫ˘ʜʟȲɆɷȉɷʰ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦॹȉʟȲʰɏȲɴʁʦʰʁȥˑɔʁʹʦȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲ ʁɅȉɷʁʜȲɷʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫɔʰ˘ेJɷJʟɔʦÈʁʹɷɆউʦ˒ʁʟȬʦूআJɷʜʟȲɆɷȉɷȦ˘ूJɫʁʦȲʰɏȲ ʦȲɷʦȲʁɅ˒ɏȲʟȲɴ˘ȥʁȬ˘ȲɷȬʦȉɷȬʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɫȬȥȲɆɔɷʦेই15 It is impossible to enforce binary forms on the pregnant body – the pregnant woman ɔʦूʁɅȦʁʹʟʦȲूɅȲɴȉɫȲूȥʹʰɏȲʟɅȲʰʹʦȦʁʹɫȬȥȲȲɔʰɏȲʟʦȲ˗ेΤȲɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲ ʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷȥʁȬɔȲʦȉɷȬʦȲɫΰʁʁȬूʰʁʁूɔʦʜʟʁȥɫȲɴȉʰɔȦ˒ɏȲɷȉ woman carries within her body a being that is not her self.16 In sum, ʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟʦউȬɔʦȦʁɴɅʁʟʰ˒ɔʰɏlȓȅȎɯ is not because of an innate lack of beauty, ʁʟʜʁʁʟȦʟȉδʦɴȉɷʦɏɔʜूȥʹʰȥȲȦȉʹʦȲɔʰȥʟȲȉɦʦ२ʜȲʟɏȉʜʦʹɷȉȦɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲȬ३ expectations of what a nude sculpture – and, indeed, a naked woman – ʦɏʁʹɫȬɫʁʁɦɫɔɦȲेjʁʰʁɷɫ˘ȬʁȲʦɔʰɷʁʰεʰɔɷ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴ of, say, the ɛɀȪȪɀǱȪʐǱǫǱɞǱ२εɆेࢽेࢿ३ʁʟȉÃǱȶɸɥɛɸǫȓǥǈ२εɆेࢽेࣀ३ूȥʹʰȉɫʦʁ ʁʹʟʦʁȦɔȲʰ˘ɔʦʹɷʹʦȲȬʰʁʰɏȲʦɔɆɏʰʁɅʁɫȬȲʟ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦॹ˒ȲȉʟȲɴʁʟȲ accustomed to the female body on display being seen as younger and ʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɫ˘ȉɫɫʹʟɔɷɆेΤɔʦɔʦʜȉʟʰɫ˘ɔʰʦȲɫɅȉɫȲɆȉȦ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɔɷˑȲɷʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲ Renaissance female nude, which I explore in Chapter Four. 12 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE For Renaissance onlookers, lȓȅȎɯ˒ȉʦȉʜȉʟȉȬɔɆɴʁɅʰɏȲআʦʜȲȉɦɔɷɆ ʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूইȉȦʟȉδȲȬʁȥɣȲȦʰʦʁʟȲȉɫɔʦʰɔȦʰɏȉʰɔʰʦȲȲɴȲȬȉȥʁʹʰʰʁʰȉɫɦे17gʁʦʰ likely understood in the context of other sleeping female nudes, sometimes ɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȲȬȉʦɴȉɷɔɅȲʦʰȉʰɔʁɷʦʁɅʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦȬʟȲȉɴॼɫɔɦȲɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔˑȲ powers, lȓȅȎɯwas hugely praised by contemporaries.18 Accounts by ˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦȉȦɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲȬʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲউʦʟʁɫȲɔɷȉɅʹɷȲʟȉʟ˘ȦɏȉʜȲɫȉɷȬʦȉ˒ ˒ɏȉʰɴʁȬȲʟɷˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦɏȉˑȲɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȲȬȉʦɅȉʹɫʰʦȉʦ̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦɔɷȬɔȦȉʰɔɷɆ gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦʦʰȉʰʹʟȲȉʦȉʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟेΤʹʦ=ɔʁʟɆɔʁÁȉʦȉʟɔɔɷɏɔʦࢾࣂࣂࢽ`ȓȄǱɀȄ iȓǥȎǱȪǈȶȅǱȪɀȬȲȦɫȉʟȲȬुআÂɏʁɏȉʦʦȲȲɷɔɷȉɷ˘ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉɴʁȬȲʟɷʁʟȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲ ʦʰȉʰʹȲʦʁ˒ȲɫɫɴȉȬȲैZɷʁ˒ɔɷɆɷʁʰʁɷɫ˘ʰɏȲ̍ʹɔȲʰʁɅʦɫȲȲʜूȥʹʰʰɏȲʜȉɔɷ ȉɷȬɴȲɫȉɷȦɏʁɫ˘ʁɅʦʁɴȲʁɷȲ˒ɏʁɫʁʦȲʦʦʁɴȲʰɏɔɷɆɏʁɷʁʟȉȥɫȲȉɷȬɆʟȲȉʰेই19 He follows by reprinting now famous epigrams about the sculpture by ɆʁʦʰɔɷʁʰʟʁˢˢɔȉɷȬgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɏɔɴʦȲɫɅूʜɫȉ˘ɔɷɆʁɷʰɏȲɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅʦɫȲȲʜ and waking.20 Ascanio Condivi, in his `ȓȄǱ of the artist of 1553, says that lȓȅȎɯूআȉ˒ʁɴȉɷʁɅɴȉʟˑȲɫɫʁʹʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ूই˒ȉʦɴȲȉɷʰʰʁʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰ¢ɔɴȲे ɷȲˑȲʟॼȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲȬɴʁʹʦȲ˒ȉʦʰʁɔɷȬɔȦȉʰȲʰɏȉʰআʰɏɔʦɫɔʰʰɫȲȦʟȲȉʰʹʟȲɔʦ Ȧʁɷʰɔɷʹȉɫɫ˘Ɇɷȉ˒ɔɷɆȉɷȬȦʁɷʦʹɴɔɷɆूɣʹʦʰȉʦʰɔɴȲɔʦȦʁɷʰɔɷʹȉɫɫ˘ȬȲˑʁʹʟɔɷɆ ȲˑȲʟ˘ʰɏɔɷɆेই21gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɏɔɴʦȲɫɅ˒ʟʁʰȲʁɷȉʜʟȲʜȉʟȉʰʁʟ˘Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆɅʁʟʰɏȲ sculpture ȓȪɯǱȳɛɀǥȎǱǥɀȶɥɸȳǈɯɸɯɯɀ (time, which consumes everything).22 If, as Jonathan Nelson and James Stark have argued, lȓȅȎɯউʦɫȲδȥʟȲȉʦʰɔʦ cancerous, this adds to the sense of age, dying, and time passing, clearly shown in other facets of this work.23 ΤȲȲ˗ɔʦʰȲɷȦȲʁɅlȓȅȎɯȉɷȬȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ʟȲȉȦʰɔʁɷʦʰʁɔʰʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰ Renaissance attitudes towards the representation of the naked body were more complicated and nuanced than modern viewers sometimes allow. ΤȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲɔʦɷʁʰȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦআɔȬȲȉɫूইɷʁʰȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦআʰʟɔʹɴʜɏȉɷʰूইȥʹʰ ȦʁʹɫȬȥȲ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷɔɷɆूȉɷ˗ɔʁʹʦूȉɷȬȉɴȥɔɆʹʁʹʦे24ΤȲʰɔɴȲʜȲʟɔʁȬʹɷȬȲʟ consideration here (ǥ.1400–1530) is one of intense artistic experimentation. For many reasons, the visual arts had become a matter of keen interest for Italian elites, and this was above all a time of talking and theorizing about art, albeit before the swathes of art historical treatises of the 1540s and beyond started to make ideas about decorum and rules about expression ɴʁʟȲε˗ȲȬȉɷȬȦʁɷȦʟȲʰȲे25 The Inevitable Nude ΤȲɅȉȦʰʰɏȉʰʹɷʰɔɫˑȲʟ˘ʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ɅȲ˒ʦʰʹȬɔȲʦɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷȬȲȬɔȦȉʰȲȬʰʁʰɏȲ ȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴɔʦʰȲɫɫɔɷɆेΤʁʦȲʰɏȉʰȬʁ Ȳ˗ɔʦʰʰȲɷȬʰʁȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟʰɏȲʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ॹʰɏȲʜȲʟɔʁȬȉδȲʟɴʁʦʰʁɅ the innovations regarding the nude had already happened – or, like Leo ʰȲɔɷȥȲʟɆউʦ̨ǱǱʖɸǈȪȓɯʗɀȄ ȎɞȓɥɯूɫʁʁɦȉʰȉʦʜȲȦɔεȦȉʦʜȲȦʰʁɅʰɏɔʦʦʹȥɣȲȦʰे26 gȉɷ˘ʁɅʰɏȲȥʁʁɦʦʰɏȉʰɴȲɷʰɔʁɷʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲȬʁʦʁȥʟɔȲζ˘ूȉʦ INTRODUCTION 13 ȉʦʰȉʟʰɔɷɆʜʁɔɷʰʁɅȉɫʁɷɆʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷॹʰɏȲ˘ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦআʰɏȲjʹȬȲইɔɷÂȲʦʰȲʟɷ ȦɔˑɔɫɔˢȉʰɔʁɷআɅʟʁɴʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʰʁʰɏȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰेই27ΤȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ plays its brief role as a conceptual anchor for an artistic approach, and then is broadly ignored.28ΤȲʰʟȲɷȬ˒ȉʦʦʰȉʟʰȲȬȥ˘ZȲɷɷȲʰɏɫȉʟɦউʦࢾࣆࣂࣃ book ̨ǱlɸǫǱԦɯɸǫʗɀȄLǫǱǈȪɞɯ, where the artistic nude is held up as a ʰɔɴȲɫȲʦʦʜȉȲȉɷʰʁɴȉɷɦɔɷȬউʦȦʟȲȉʰɔˑɔʰ˘ूȉɅʁʟɴʁɅȉʟʰɴʁʟȲȬɔʦȦʁˑȲʟȲȬʰɏȉɷ invented. Commentators on Clark from at least the 1970s onwards have ɏȉȬɴʹȦɏʰʁʦȉ˘ȉȥʁʹʰɏɔʦȥʁʁɦউʦʹɷȬȲʟɫ˘ɔɷɆȲɫɔʰɔʦɴूʦȲ˗ɔʦɴूȉɷȬʟȉȦɔʦɴे Eʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूʰɏȲʦȲȦʟɔʰɔȦɔʦɴʦȉʟȲʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦʁδȲɷʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȲȬȉʦʜȉʟʰʁɅȉ ɴʁɷʁɆʟȉʜɏʁɷআʰɏȲɷʹȬȲूইȉɅʁʟɴȉʰʰɏȉʰɔɴʜɫɔȦɔʰɫ˘ʜʹʰʦɅʁʟ˒ȉʟȬʰɏȲɔȬȲȉ that the representation of the naked body has a timeless and monolithic ɷȉʰʹʟȲɔɷÂȲʦʰȲʟɷȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʰɏȉʰɏȉʦɫȉʦʰȲȬʁˑȲʟεˑȲɏʹɷȬʟȲȬ˘Ȳȉʟʦे ^˘ɷȬȉjȲȉȬউʦ̨Ǳ>ǱȳǈȪǱlɸǫǱूgȉʟɆȉʟȲʰÂȉɫʰȲʟʦউ̨ǱlɸǫǱiǈȪǱ, Nikolaus EɔɴɴȲɫɴȉɷɷউʦLǫǱǈȪǱlǈǥȥɯȎǱȓɯ (LǫǱǈȪlɸǫȓɯʗ३ूȉɷȬɷʁ˒ɔȦɏȉʟȬ^ȲʜʜȲʟʰউʦ ̨ǱlɸǫǱȉʟȲȦȉʦȲʦɔɷʜʁɔɷʰेÂɏȉʰȲˑȲʟʰɏȲȉʟɆʹɴȲɷʰʦɔɷʰɏȲʦȲȥʁʁɦʦूʰɏȲ ɅȉȦʰʁɅʰɏȲɔʟȲ˗ɔʦʰȲɷȦȲʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȲ˘ȉʟȲȬȲȉɫɔɷɆ˒ɔʰɏȉʰʟȉɷʦɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȦȉɫ phenomenon whose many iterations can be tied up in the space of one monograph written by one person.29 ΤȲɷʹȬȲɔʦȉɷɔȬȲȉूɔʰɔʦɔɴʜɫɔȲȬूʰɏȉʰɔʦȦʹɫʰʹʟȉɫɫ˘ʰʟȉɷʦȦȲɷȬȲɷʰ because it is an ideal image of a human being and because the biology of the normative body – or so the argument implies – is not culturally ȬȲʰȲʟɴɔɷȲȬेΤȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɔʦɷʁʰȲȬȉʦʰɏȲʜȲʟɔʁȬ˒ɏȲɷʰɏȲɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴ ˒ȉʦʟȲˑɔˑȲȬȉδȲʟʰɏȲ२ʹɷɅʁʟʰʹɷȉʰȲ३ɆȉʜʁɅʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲɆȲʦूȥʹʰʰɏȲɷʁʰɔʁɷ of what revival meant to this culture, or what constitutes a revival, is ʟȉʟȲɫ˘ȉʦɦȲȬेÂɔʰɏȉɏȉɷȬɅʹɫʁɅȲ˗ȦȲʜʰɔʁɷʦूʰɏȲʟȲɏȉʦȥȲȲɷɫɔʰʰɫȲɔɷʰȲʟȲʦʰ ɔɷȬɔʦȦʁˑȲʟɔɷɆ˒ɏȉʰɏȉʜʜȲɷȲȬɔɷʰɏȲɫȉʰȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏ ȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦʰʁɴȉɦȲɷʹȬȲʦȉɷȲʦʦȲɷʰɔȉɫʜȉʟʰʁɅʰɏȲȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁ̎ÂȲʦʰȲʟɷ art.30 In fact there have been more scholarly studies of nudity in art in ʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲɆȲʦʰɏȉɷɔɷʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲूȬȲʦʜɔʰȲʰɏȲʦʰɔɫɫȉʦʦȲʟʰȲȬȥʹʰ erroneous idea that nakedness did not feature in the visual arts in the ʜȲʟɔʁȬȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲɅȉɫɫʁɅʰɏȲʁɴȉɷȲɴʜɔʟȲȉɷȬʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏ century. Indeed, as several scholars have pointed out, it is the context of ɔɷȦȉʟɷȉʰɔʁɷȉɫʰɏȲʁɫʁɆ˘ूʟȉʰɏȲʟʰɏȉɷȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʟȲˑɔˑȉɫूʰɏȉʰεʟʦʰʜʟʁɴʜʰȲȬ artistic interest in presenting the naked body of Christ.31 ZȲɷɷȲʰɏɫȉʟɦȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ȬɔȬɷʁʰɏȲɫʜʁʜȲɷʹʜʰɏɔʦȬȲȥȉʰȲुআɏʁ˒ʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲ ɔɷʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷȥʁȬ˘ȥȲȦȉɴȲȉʜȲʟɴɔʦʦɔȥɫȲʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʁɅȉʟʰɔʦʰɏȲʹɷȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬ ɴɔʟȉȦɫȲʁɅʰɏȲJʰȉɫɔȉɷȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲेই32 Perhaps, then, there is no need for explanation: some art historians, even recently, have assumed that the nude ȲɷʰȲʟȲȬȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʹɷɷʁʰɔȦȲȬेȉʰʟɔȦɔȉ*ɴɔʦʁɷʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰɔʰ ˒ȉʦʁɷɫ˘ɔɷʰɏȲɷɔɷȲʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʰɏȉʰȉɷ˘ʁɷȲȲ˗ʜʟȲʦʦȲȬআ̍ʹȉɫɴʦইȉȥʁʹʰ ʰɏȲɷʹȬȲौgȉʟɔɫ˘ɷ^ȉˑɔɷȉˑȲʟʦʰɏȉʰআɷʁʁɷȲ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷȲȬʰɏȲɏȲʟʁɔȦɷʹȬɔʰ˘ই ʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦεɆʹʟȲʦौ^ʹȥȉ<ʟȲȲȬɴȉɷȉʟɆʹȲʦʰɏȉʰȉʜȉʟʰɅʟʁɴʁɷȲ 14 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ʰʟȲȉʰɔʦȲ˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷɔɷࢾࣂࣂࣃूআɷʁʁʰɏȲʟȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲȉʹʰɏʁʟेेेȲˑȲʟʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʁˑȲʟই ˒ɏ˘ȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʦ˒ȲʟȲɷʹȬȲौআʰɏȲɔʦʦʹȲ˒ȉʦʁɷɫ˘ʰʁȥȲʟȉɔʦȲȬȉɆȉɔɷ ࢿࢽࢽ˘ȲȉʟʦɫȉʰȲʟȥ˘ÂɔɷȦɦȲɫɴȉɷɷȉɷȬɏɔʦɅʁɫɫʁ˒Ȳʟʦेই33ΤȲʁȦȦʹʟʟȲɷȦȲʁɅ misunderstanding of this level among respected scholars is emblematic of a ɫȉȦɦʁɅɴʹȦɏʜʟȲˑɔʁʹʦʦȦɏʁɫȉʟɫ˘ɔɷʰȲʟȲʦʰɔɷʰɏȲɷʹȬȲʟȉʰɏȲʟʰɏȉɷʟȲζȲȦʰɔˑȲʁɅ a lack of primary source material – much of which is brought together here. JʰɔʦȉʦɔɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲ˒ȉʦʦɴʹηɫȲȬɔɷूʹɷɷʁʰɔȦȲȬूȉʦʜȉʟʰʁɅʰɏȲʟȲˑɔˑȲȬ interest in the culture of ancient Greece and Rome. Renaissance admiration for classical art is, of course, an important factor in the history ʁɅʰɏȲɅʁʟɴेɷʰɔ̍ʹȲɷʹȬȲʦूɏȉɔɫɔɷɆʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫɫ˘Ʌʟʁɴ=ʟȲȲȦȲ२ʰɏʁʹɆɏɴʁʦʰɫ˘ seen in Renaissance Italy in Roman copies), were the most important ˑɔʦʹȉɫɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲɅʁʟεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȉɷȬʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉʟʰɔʦʰʦɔɷJʰȉɫ˘ȉɷȬ elsewhere.34ΤȲʦȲȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʜʟȲȦȲȬȲɷʰʦɆȉˑȲɅʁʟɴʰʁʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲू ȥʹʰɷʁʰʰɏȲɔȬȲȉेÂȲɷʁ˒ɦɷʁ˒ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɔɷȦȲʜʰɔʁɷʁɅɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬ men in Greek culture was closely related to social practices – men were naked in the gymnasium and also at symposia; the pride in the naked body separated the elites from the commoners, men from women, and Greeks from foreigners. In short, nudity in real life was an important focus for elite male Greek identity.35ΤɔʦȲɫȲɴȲɷʰʁɅ=ʟȲȲɦȦʹɫʰʹʟȲ˒ȉʦ not understood in the Renaissance. Indeed, the largely negative view that Christianity put forward about the body led to an association of real-life nakedness with shame. ʦJȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔɷɏȉʜʰȲʟ¢˒ʁूɔɷʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʜȲʁʜɫȲʜʹˢˢɫȲȬ ȉʦʰʁ˒ɏ˘ʰɏȲȉʟʰʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ɅʁȦʹʦȲȬʦʁɴʹȦɏʁɷʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲूȉɷȬ ȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȉʟɆʹɴȲɷʰʦ˒ȲʟȲʜʹʰɅʁʟ˒ȉʟȬेΤȲȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ ɷʹȬȲɔɷˑʁɫˑȲȬȦɫʁʦȲɫʁʁɦɔɷɆूɆȉˢɔɷɆूȉʰɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦूεʟʦʰȥ˘ʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰʦ and then by the viewer. Scopophilia (gaining sexual pleasure from looking) ɔʦɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬɔɷȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʦʁʹʟȦȲʦȉɷȬʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁʦȲȲɔɷɆʜȲʁʜɫȲ naked, with both men and women understood as desirous viewers. Unlike ɔɷ=ʟȲȲɦȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ूɅʁʟʰɏȲɷʹȬȲʰʁȥȲȉɷȉȦȦȲʜʰȉȥɫȲˑɔʦʹȉɫɅʁʟɴɔɷʰɏȲ Renaissance, new theoretical frameworks for understanding the body and its representation had to be created. Broadly there are three main cultural ʦɏɔδʦʰɏȉʰ˒ȲʟȲȥʁʹɷȬʹʜ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲु 1. A revived understanding of the human body as the handiwork of God, something that therefore should be admired. 2. ΤȲɔɷˑȲɷʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰू˒ɏʁȦʁʹɫȬȲ˗ʜʟȲʦʦȬɔˑɔɷȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɔʁɷ through a representation of the nude without recourse to the gross materiality of the real body. 3. ΤȲɆʟʁ˒ʰɏʁɅʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʁɅআȉʟʰইȉʦȉȦȉʰȲɆʁʟ˘ʰʁȥȲȲɷɣʁ˘ȲȬɅʁʟ ɔʰʦȲɫɅूɅʁʟʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦʦɦɔɫɫȉɷȬȉʦȉɴȲȉɷʦʁɅʜʟʁɴʁʰɔɷɆʰɏʁʹɆɏʰȉɷȬ INTRODUCTION 15 discussion in the viewer(s) rather than, say, promoting religious devotion or education. A strong cultural link between appreciating beauty in art, and appreciating the beauty of naked female bodies, made the latter allowable for certain sections of the population. The Nude Without the Naked Instead of spending time looking at primary sources to consider the ʦʜȲȦɔεȦȦʹɫʰʹʟȉɫȦɔʟȦʹɴʦʰȉɷȦȲʦʰɏȉʰɫȲȬʰʁʰɏȲȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲ ʜʁʦʰȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫɷʹȬȲूȉɏʹɆȲȉɴʁʹɷʰʁɅȉʰʰȲɷʰɔʁɷɏȉʦȥȲȲɷɆɔˑȲɷʰʁȬȲεɷɔɷɆ ʰȲʟɴʦेɫȉʟɦɅȉɴʁʹʦɫ˘ɴȉȬȲȉȬɔʦʰɔɷȦʰɔʁɷȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲআɷȉɦȲȬইȉɷȬʰɏȲ আɷʹȬȲेইΤȲআɷȉɦȲȬইεɆʹʟȲूɏȲʦȉ˘ʦɔʦআɏʹȬȬɫȲȬȉɷȬȬȲɅȲɷȦȲɫȲʦʦই˒ɏȲʟȲȉʦ ʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɷʹȬȲɔʦআȥȉɫȉɷȦȲȬूʜʟʁʦʜȲʟʁʹʦȉɷȬȦʁɷεȬȲɷʰेইJʰȦȉʟʟɔȲʦআɔɷ ȲȬʹȦȉʰȲȬʹʦȉɆȲूɷʁʹɷȦʁɴɅʁʟʰȉȥɫȲʁˑȲʟʰʁɷȲेই36 Although it is a widespread assumption that Clark came up with this important distinction, this is ɷʁʰʰʟʹȲॹɔʰɔʦȉɴʹȦɏʁɫȬȲʟɔȬȲȉेΤȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟÂȉɫʰȲʟɔȦɦȲʟʰɴȉȬȲʰɏȲ distinction between nude and naked in an article of 1910, for example, and it is clear that this was common usage in the art world before this point: আɷɔɷȦʁɷʦɔʦʰȲɷʰȉɷȬʜʟʹʟɔȲɷʰʜʹʟɔʰȉɷɔʦɴɏȉʦʦʹȦȦȲȲȬȲȬɔɷȲˑʁɫˑɔɷɆȉɷ ideal which it seeks to dignify by calling it the Nude . . . and placing it in ʁʜʜʁʦɔʰɔʁɷʰʁʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬेই37 Sickert decries the hackneyed formulations of ʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦू˒ɏɔȦɏȥ˘ʰɏɔʦʜʁɔɷʰɏȉȬȥȲȦʁɴȲȉȦɫɔȦɏȳȬʜȉʟʰʁɅȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦ training, ripe for revision.38 16 In Christian terms this means that artists can mimic God, who created ʰɏȲεʟʦʰȬɔˑɔɷȲɫ˘ʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȥʁȬ˘२Ȭȉɴ३ɔɷɏɔʦʁ˒ɷɔɴȉɆȲेΤȲȲɔɆɏʰȲȲɷʰɏॼ ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉʟʰɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȉɷXʁɏȉɷɷXʁȉȦɏɔɴÂɔɷȦɦȲɫɴȉɷɷȲ˗ʜʟȲʦʦȲȬȲ˗ȉȦʰɫ˘ ʰɏɔʦɔȬȲȉɔɷɏɔʦȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲɷʹȬȲʦुআΤȲȦʁɷȦȲʜʰʁɅȥȲȉʹʰ˘ ɔʦɫɔɦȲȉʦʜɔʟɔʰʦȲʜȉʟȉʰȲȬɅʟʁɴɴȉʰʰȲʟȥ˘εʟȲʰɏȉʰʦȲȲɦʦʰʁȦʟȲȉʰȲȉȥȲɔɷɆ ȦʁɷɅʁʟɴɔɷɆʰʁʰɏȲȲ˗ȉȦʰɔɴȉɆȲʁɅʰɏȲεʟʦʰɔɷʰȲɫɫɔɆȲɷʰȦʟȲȉʰʹʟȲʦɦȲʰȦɏȲȬɔɷ ʰɏȲɴɔɷȬʁɅ=ʁȬेই40ΤȲɔȬȲȉɫɷʹȬȲɔɷʰɏȲÂȲʦʰȲʟɷȦȉɷʁɷɔʦɔɷʰʟɔɷʦɔȦȉɫɫ˘ linked to divine creation and to the higher abilities of the male mind to procreate form as opposed to the messy feminine procreation of matter. ɫȲ˗ʁʰʰʦউʦȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷʁ̎ÂɔɷȦɦȲɫɴȉɷɷȦʁʹɫȬȉɫʦʁʦʰȉɷȬɅʁʟȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ ȉʟʰुʰɏȲɷʹȬȲɔʦআȉɷɔȬȲȉɫεɆʹʟȲेेेʜʹʟɆȲȬʁɅȉɫɫɴȉʟɦʦʁɅʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫȉɷȬ ȦʹɫʰʹʟȉɫȬɔΦȲʟȲɷȦȲूইɔɅʰɏɔʦʜʹʟɆɔɷɆʟȲζȲȦʰʦʰɏȲʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅȉɷȲɫɔʰȲू early modern, white European man.41Jʦɏʁ˒ɔɷɏȉʜʰȲʟΤʟȲȲɏʁ˒ʰɏɔʦ ȉȥʦʰʟȉȦʰɔʁɷ˒ȉʦʰȉɦȲɷʹʜɔɷȉʟʰʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲʰɏʟʁʹɆɏɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʰȲȦɏɷɔ̍ʹȲʦ and is inextricably linked to the birth of the artist-genius, such a distinctive development of the Renaissance. ΤȲɔȬȲȉɫɷʹȬȲूɅʁʟȥʁʰɏÂɔɷȦɦȲɫɴȉɷɷȉɷȬʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘Jʰȉɫɔȉɷ viewer, was male. I discuss why this was in more detail in the pages ʰɏȉʰɅʁɫɫʁ˒ॹʦʹΪȦȲʰʁʦȉ˘ɏȲʟȲʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦɔʦɅʁʹɷȬȲȬʁɷȉɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷ framework where the original human created by God was male – with ɏɔʦɅȲɴȉɫȲȦʁʹɷʰȲʟʜȉʟʰू*ˑȲूȦʟȲȉʰȲȬɅʟʁɴȬȉɴউʦʟɔȥेgʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूʰɏȲ dominant medical understandings of the body at this time saw women as intellectually and physiologically inferior to men. Not surprisingly, in the representation of their bodies, too, women were understood as the second sex. Broadly speaking, with some exceptions largely connected ʰʁʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɦʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬɔɷɏȉʜʰȲʟ<ʁʹʟूɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦ ɔɷʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ˒ȲʟȲʜɫȉȦȲȬɔɷȉȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȦʁɆɷɔʰɔˑȲɅʟȉɴȲ˒ʁʟɦɅʟʁɴ that of their male counterparts, and like female naked bodies in life, were ineluctably associated with beauty and erotic desire. As opposed to the আʦʜɔʟɔʰʦȲʜȉʟȉʰȲȬɅʟʁɴɴȉʰʰȲʟইȥ˘ʰɏȲεʟȲʁɅʰɏȲɔɷʰȲɫɫȲȦʰʰɏȉʰȦɏȉʟȉȦʰȲʟɔˢȲʦ the male nude, many female nudes of the Renaissance period play with notions of individual identity, sometimes skirting very close to portraiture, as I argue in Chapter Four. ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲȬȲȲʜȲʟʟʁʁʰʦʦʰɔɫɫूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟेΤȲʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲ˒ʁʟȬ আɷʹȬȲইȉɷȬȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷ˒ȉʦȦʹʟʟȲɷʰʦɔɷȦȲȉʰɫȲȉʦʰʰɏȲɫȉʰȲʟ ʦȲˑȲɷʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ॹɔɷÂɔɫɫɔȉɴɆɫɔʁɷȥ˘উʦࢾࣃࣅࣂʰʟȉɷʦɫȉʰɔʁɷʁ̎Áȉʦȉʟɔউʦ `ȓʐǱɥूɏȲȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʦʰɏȉʰȉআjʹȬɔʰ˘ইআɔɆɷɔεȲʦʜʟʁʜȲʟɫ˘ȉɷ˘jȉɦȲȬ<ɔɆʹʟȲʁɅ gȉɷʁʟÂʁɴȉɷȥʹʰɴʁʦʰȦʁɴɴʁɷɫ˘ʁ̎Âʁɴȉɷेই39ΤɔʦȉɫɴʁʦʰȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ came from French usage, and was most likely associated with the Italian and then French concentration on the nude in the visual arts. It is a distinction only really possible in English, as Clark himself notes, because we have two handy terms surrounding the notion of unclothedness, unlike most other European languages. I would like to make a plea here, however, to stop thinking of naked and nude as a binary opposition. Nakedness and nudity are general words relating to some sort of undress, ȉɷȬȉʟȲʹʦȲȬɴʁʟȲʁʟɫȲʦʦɔɷʰȲʟȦɏȉɷɆȲȉȥɫ˘ɔɷȲˑȲʟ˘Ȭȉ˘ɫɔɅȲेΤȲɦȲ˘ɔʦ not in the words themselves, but in grammatical form, moving from ȉȬɣȲȦʰɔˑȲʰʁɷʁʹɷेgȉɦɔɷɆɯȎǱor ǈnude into a noun (as opposed to the ɷʁɷॼȲ˗ɔʦʰȲɷʰআȉɷȉɦȲȬই३ɔɷȬɔȦȉʰȲʦȉʦɏɔδɔɷʰɏɔɷɦɔɷɆȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲʦʰȉʰȲʁɅ undress away from being merely descriptive. Rather ɯȎǱnude is not a mimetic representation of any old unclothed body, but a manifestation of a cultural idea, of the ideal form as encapsulated in the mind of an artist. ^ɔɦȲɴȉɷ˘ȉʟʰɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȉɷʦʁɅɴ˘ɆȲɷȲʟȉʰɔʁɷूJʟȲȉȬgɔȦɏȉȲɫȉ˗ȉɷȬȉɫɫউʦ ǈȓȶɯȓȶȅǈȶǫ,ʖɛǱɞȓǱȶǥǱȓȶ>ȓ̼ǱǱȶɯȎՒ ǱȶɯɸɞʗLʧǈȪʗ२εʟʦʰʜʹȥɫɔʦɏȲȬɔɷࢾࣆࣄࢿ३ ȉʰȉɅʁʟɴȉʰɔˑȲʰɔɴȲेÂɏȲɷJ˒ȉʦȉEɔʦʰʁʟ˘ʹɷȬȲʟɆʟȉȬʹȉʰȲɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ 1990s, already hugely inspired by anthropological approaches to the early modern period, microhistory, and the Annales school, Baxandall opened up the visual world of the Renaissance in a way that made sense THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE INTRODUCTION Approaching the Nude 17 to me. He demonstrated a way of looking at Renaissance painting that ɅʁȦʹʦȲȬʁɷʟȲȦȲʜʰɔʁɷूȥʟʁȉȬɫ˘ȬȲεɷȲȬूȉɷȬȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȲȬɏʁ˒ˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦȦʁʹɫȬ ȥȲʜʟɔɴȲȬȥ˘ʦʁȦɔȉɫȲ˗ʜȲʟɔȲɷȦȲʦʰɏȉʰʦʹʜȲʟεȦɔȉɫɫ˘ɏȉȬɫɔʰʰɫȲʰʁȬʁ˒ɔʰɏ ȉʟʰे¢ȉɦȲɷʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟूʰɏȲʦȲȲ˗ʜȲʟɔȲɷȦȲʦȦʟȲȉʰȲȬ˒ɏȉʰɏȲȦȉɫɫȲȬʰɏȲআʜȲʟɔʁȬ Ȳ˘Ȳेইʦȉʟʰɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȉɷʦू˒ȲȦȉɷʦȲȲɦʰʁɆɔˑȲɔɷʦɔɆɏʰʦɔɷʰʁʰɏɔʦˑɔʦʹȉɫ˒ʁʟɫȬ by building up likely patterns of viewing. It is an approach indebted to microhistory, which considers the relationship between individual or ʦɴȉɫɫɆʟʁʹʜʦʹȥɣȲȦʰɔˑɔʰ˘ȉɷȬʰɏȲ˒ɔȬȲʟ˒ʁʟɫȬूȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟɔɷɆɏʁ˒ɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫ ʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅʁȥɣȲȦʰʦूʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦूʰȲ˗ʰʦूȉɷȬʦʁʁɷूɔʦȬȲʟɔˑȲȬɅʟʁɴ ȥʟʁȉȬȲʟʦʁȦɔȉɫʦʰʟʹȦʰʹʟȲʦʰɏȉʰȉʟȲʁδȲɷʹɷȦʁɷʦȦɔʁʹʦɫ˘ɔɴȥɔȥȲȬे 18 ʰɏɔʦɅʁʟɴेΤɔʦȬʁȲʦɷʁʰɴȲȉɷूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूʰɏȉʰɔʰ˒ȉʦɷʁʰȦɫʁʦȲɫ˘ɫɔɷɦȲȬʰʁʰɏȲ operation of power and the reinforcement of repressive dominant ideologies ʁɅȦɫȉʦʦूɆȲɷȬȲʟूȉɷȬʟȉȦȲेΤȲɅȉȦʰʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦɔʦɷʁʰȉʜʜȉʟȲɷʰʰʁʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟ is very much part of why it was (and, indeed, is) such a successful piece of ɔȬȲʁɫʁɆ˘ॹʰɏɔʦȉʟʰʜʟȲʦȲɷʰʦɔʰʦȲɫɅȉʦʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰɔɷɆʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ɔɷȉআɷȉʰʹʟȉɫইʁʟ আʜȲʟɅȲȦʰইʦʰȉʰȲौʰɏȲȉȬɴɔʟȉʰɔʁɷɅȲɫʰȥ˘ˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟʦʁɷɫ˘ɔɷȦʟȲȉʦȲʦɔʰʦʜʁʰȲɷȦ˘े Baxandall was clear that his main focus was educated male members of the merchant classes, so not surprisingly in more recent years there ɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷȉʰʰȲɴʜʰʦʰʁȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟʰɏȲɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅȉআɆȲɷȬȲʟȲȬইʜȲʟɔʁȬȲ˘Ȳे42 ΤɔʦȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏɔʦȉʹʦȲɅʹɫʁɷȲɔɷʰɏȉʰɔʰȲ˗ʜʁʦȲʦʰɏȲʜʁ˒ȲʟɏɔȲʟȉʟȦɏɔȲʦ ɔɷɏȲʟȲɷʰɔɷȉɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅȬȲʦȦʟɔȥɔɷɆȉʜȲʟɔʁȬউʦ˒ȉ˘ʁɅɫʁʁɦɔɷɆॹȥʹʰɔʰɔʦ problematic too, because it fails to acknowledge that gender is both in itself constructed and a malleable concept, and that subordinate groups in ʦʁȦɔȲʰ˘२ɏȲʟȲ˒ʁɴȲɷ३ʁδȲɷȉʦʦɔɴɔɫȉʰȲȬʁɴɔɷȉɷʰɴʁȬȲʦʁɅɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȉʰɔʁɷौ ʰɏɔʦɔʦʜʟȲȦɔʦȲɫ˘˒ɏȉʰɔʦɴȲȉɷʰȥ˘আȬʁɴɔɷȉɷȦȲेই43 ȦʁɷʦȲ̍ʹȲɷȦȲʁɅȉʦɦɔɷɆʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲʁɅ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷ˒ȉʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȦʁʜȲʁɅ potential source material was very large indeed. No primary material that ȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȲȬ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷʦʁɅɷʹȬɔʰ˘˒ȉʦʁΦɫɔɴɔʰʦेΤȲʟȲʦȲȉʟȦɏɅʁʟʰɏɔʦȥʁʁɦ ʦʰȉʟʰȲȬɅʟʁɴεʟʦʰʜʟɔɷȦɔʜɫȲʦेg˘ɴȲʰɏʁȬʁɫʁɆ˘ȉʰʰɏȲȥȲɆɔɷɷɔɷɆɔɷˑʁɫˑȲȬ ɆȉʰɏȲʟɔɷɆʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟȉʦɴȉɷ˘ʜɔȦʰʹʟȲʦʁɅʹɷȦɫʁʰɏȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦȉʦJȦʁʹɫȬεɷȬȉɷȬ ʦȲȲɔɷɆ˒ɏȉʰʰʟȲɷȬʦJȦʁʹɫȬʦʜʁʰेΤɔʦ˒ȉʦɏȲɫʜȲȬɏʹɆȲɫ˘ȥ˘ɔɴȉɆȲȬȉʰȉȥȉʦȲʦ ʦʹȦɏȉʦʟʰʰʁʟȉɷȬʰɏȲʁɷɫɔɷȲȬȉʰȉȥȉʦȲʦʁɅɴȉɣʁʟɔɷʦʰɔʰʹʰɔʁɷʦʦʹȦɏȉʦʰɏȲ ʟɔʰɔʦɏ^ɔȥʟȉʟ˘ूjȉʰɔʁɷȉɫ=ȉɫɫȲʟ˘ʁɅʟʰूÂȉʦɏɔɷɆʰʁɷू$ूȉɷȬ©ΪˢɔȉɴʁɷɆ others, as well as more traditional sources of information such as Bernard ȲʟȲɷʦʁɷউʦǈȓȶɯǱɞɥɀȄɯȎǱǱȶǈȓɥɥǈȶǥǱʦȲʟɔȲʦूʜʟɔɷʰȲȬȦȉʰȉɫʁɆʹȲʦूȉɷȬȉʟʰɔʦʰʦউ monographs. I attempted to be inclusive, considering all types of image, whatever the materials or methods used to make them, if they were made on the Italian peninsula between 1400 and 1530. ΤȲɔɷɏȲʟȲɷʰʜʁ˒ȲʟȉʦʦʹɴʜʰɔʁɷʦʁɅʰɏȲআʜȲʟɔʁȬȲ˘ȲইȦȉɷȥȲȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʰȲȬ more clearly when compared with another classic phrase of visual studies. ΤȲɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲআɴȉɫȲɆȉˢȲইεʟʦʰȥȲȦȉɴȲ˒ɔȬȲɫ˘ʹʦȲȬɔɷεɫɴʰɏȲʁʟ˘ ȉδȲʟ^ȉʹʟȉgʹɫˑȲ˘উʦࢾࣆࣄࣀȲʦʦȉ˘আÁɔʦʹȉɫɫȲȉʦʹʟȲȉɷȬjȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲɔɷȲɴȉूই and similar ideas were explored in relation to early modern paintings ɔɷXʁɏɷȲʟɆȲʟউʦÄǈʗɥɀȄǱǱȓȶȅ of the previous year.44ʁʰɏgʹɫˑȲ˘ȉɷȬ ȲʟɆȲʟɫɔɷɦȲȬʜʟʁȦȲʦʦȲʦʁɅɫʁʁɦɔɷɆʰʁʜʁ˒ȲʟȉɷȬɆȲɷȬȲʟɔɷȲ̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦू ʦʹηȲʦʰɔɷɆʰɏȉʰεɫɴȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟˑɔʦʹȉɫȉʟʰɔʦȲʦʦȲɷʰɔȉɫɫ˘ȦʟȲȉʰȲȬȥ˘ɴȲɷɅʁʟʰɏȲ pleasure of the male viewer, demanding that audience members take on a heterosexual male point of view.45ɫʰɏʁʹɆɏʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʁɅʜʁ˒ȲʟȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɔȉɫʦ ȥȲɔɷɆȲɴȥȲȬȬȲȬɔɷ˒ȉ˘ʦʁɅʦȲȲɔɷɆɔʦɷʁ˒̍ʹɔʰȲʁɫȬूɔʰʟȲɴȉɔɷʦʹʦȲɅʹɫेΤȲ ɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷȦȲʁɅʰɏȲɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲআɆȉˢȲইɔʦɷʁʰʦɔɴʜɫ˘ɔɷɆȲɷȬȲʟɏɔȲʟȉʟȦɏɔȲʦू however, but speaks to an entire structure of looking and being looked ȉʰेɴȉɣʁʟ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏɔʦˑʁɫʹɴȲɔʦǥɸȓǤɀȶɀ – who stood to gain from ʰɏɔʦɴȉɣʁʟʦɏɔδɔɷȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦȦʹɫʰʹʟȲैEʁ˒ȬʁȲʦʰɏȲȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲ ɴȉɔɷʰȉɔɷʁʟʜʟʁɴʁʰȲʜʁ˒ȲʟʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜʦैgɔȦɏȲɫ<ʁʹȦȉʹɫʰউʦʁȥʦȲʟˑȉʰɔʁɷʦ about the functioning of power in society have been useful here. He observes ʰɏȉʰʜʁ˒ȲʟɔʦɷʁʰɴȲʟȲɫ˘ॹʁʟɴȉɔɷɫ˘ॹȲ˗ȲʟȦɔʦȲȬʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʟȲʜʟȲʦʦɔʁɷुআÂɏȉʰ makes power hold good, what makes it accepted, is simply the fact that ɔʰȬʁȲʦɷউʰʁɷɫ˘˒ȲɔɆɏʁɷʹʦȉʦȉɅʁʟȦȲʰɏȉʰʦȉ˘ʦɷʁूȥʹʰʰɏȉʰɔʰʰʟȉˑȲʟʦȲʦ and produces things, it induces pleasure, forms knowledge, produces ȬɔʦȦʁʹʟʦȲेই46ΤȲȉʟʰʁɅʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲȉʦʦȲȲɷɔɷআʦʹʜȲʟʦʰȉʟইȉʟʰɔʦʰʦ ɫɔɦȲ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁȬȉÁɔɷȦɔूgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूȉɷȬ¢ɔʰɔȉɷɔʦूʹɷȬʁʹȥʰȲȬɫ˘ूɅʁʹɷȬ pleasurable by many, and we admire the skill of the artists who pioneered ʰʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʰɔɴȲूJʟȲȉȬȉʦɴȉɷ˘ʜʟɔɴȉʟ˘ʦʁʹʟȦȲʦȉʦJȦʁʹɫȬεɷȬʰʁ understand attitudes to nakedness in both life and cultural representation. No methodologies are perfect. Five hundred years of distance means ʟȲȦʁʟȬʦȉʟȲɔɷȲˑɔʰȉȥɫ˘ɅȉʟɅʟʁɴȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲेÂɔʰɏɔɷʰɏȲʦȲȦʁɷʦʰʟȉɔɷʰʦू however, it seemed a useful idea to get back to the visual and verbal ʜʟɔɴȉʟ˘ʦʁʹʟȦȲʦʰʁʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬʰɏȲȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲूʟȉʰɏȲʟ ʰɏȉɷʰʁʟȲɫ˘ʁɷʰɏȲʦȲȦʁɷȬȉʟ˘ɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲेΤȲȥʁʁɦʰɏȉʰɅʁɫɫʁ˒ʦɔʦȥȉʦȲȬʁɷ the patterns I discerned in this material. As I discuss in the chapters that Ʌʁɫɫʁ˒ूʰɏȲʟȲʦȲȲɴʰʁȥȲʰʹʟɷɔɷɆʜʁɔɷʰʦȉδȲʟ˒ɏɔȦɏʰɏȲʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅ the nude becomes much more prevalent – around 1470 for the male nude ȉɷȬȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣂࢽࢽɅʁʟʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲेΤȲȬȉʰȲʦʁɅࢾࣁࢽࢽॹࢾࣂࣀࢽʰɏȉʰɅʁʟɴ the chronological brackets of this study were chosen as it is a time of rapid ȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰɔɷʰɏȲɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴूȉʜʁɔɷʰ˒ɏȲʟȲʰɏȲɷʹȬȲ˒ȉʦɣʹʦʰȥȲɆɔɷɷɔɷɆ to be part of art theory but before academic discussions of nudity and decorum became embedded in artistic discourse, as they did from around the 1540s. By around the 1470s, depicting a perfected male nude started to become a central part of artistic training in central Italy. By 1530, this was normalized across the Italian peninsula, and artists were also expected to be ȉȥɫȲʰʁȬȲʜɔȦʰȉȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲेΤȲɅʁȦʹʦɏȲʟȲɔʦȲɷʰɔʟȲɫ˘ʁɷJʰȉɫɔȉɷ sources, but it is important to acknowledge that the Italian nude was part of a broader phenomenon. In other parts of Europe – notably France, the southern Netherlands, and German city-states – there was a parallel ɔɷʰȲʟȲʦʰɔɷȬȲʜɔȦʰɔɷɆʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ूȉɷȬʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȉʦɴʹʰʹȉɫɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲȉɷȬ exchange of artistic ideas between these diverse areas. Indeed, an artistic THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE INTRODUCTION 19 fascination with the female nude started markedly earlier in northern Europe than in Italy.47 As a corollary to this artistic change, I was interested in how people in ȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲJʰȉɫ˘ʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦेEʁ˒ʰɏȲ˘ȬɔȬȬȲεɷȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦै Eʁ˒ʁδȲɷȬɔȬʰɏȲ˘ʦȲȲʜȲʁʜɫȲɷȉɦȲȬूȥʁʰɏɔɷʜʹȥɫɔȦȉɷȬɔɷʜʟɔˑȉʰȲै$ɔȬ attitudes to the nude body change over time, and how did that intersect ˒ɔʰɏʁʰɏȲʟʦʁȦɔȉɫɴʁʟȲʦै¢ʁεɷȬȉɷʦ˒ȲʟʦɔɷˑʁɫˑȲȬʦʁɴȲʰʟȉ˒ɫɔɷɆʰɏʟʁʹɆɏ primary written sources, which was greatly aided by the excellent literature on the body and sexuality that has enriched Renaissance studies over the ʜȉʦʰ̍ʹȉʟʰȲʟȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘े48 ɏȉʜʰȲʟsɷȲʦɏʁ˒ʦɏʁ˒ɔȬȲȉʦȉȥʁʹʰʟȲȉɫॼɫɔɅȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦȉΦȲȦʰȲȬʰɏȲ way nude bodies were represented in art. Attitudes to the naked body ʦʰȉʟʰȲȬʰʁȥȲȦʁɴȲɴʁʟȲʜʁʦɔʰɔˑȲɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɴɔȬॼεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉʦ humanists increasingly gave credence to the works of the early Christian writer Lactantius, who argued that the naked human body was the most ʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʁɅ=ʁȬউʦ˒ʁʟɦɴȉɷʦɏɔʜेΤʟʁʹɆɏȉȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲ changing iconography of Adam and Eve, I show how nakedness started to ȥȲȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏɏʹɴȉɷɔɷɆȲɷʹɔʰ˘ȉɷȬʰɏȲȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁɴȉɦȲȦɫʁʰɏȲʦेΤȲ ζɔʜʦɔȬȲʁɅʰɏɔʦ˒ȉʦʰɏȉʰɏʹɴȉɷʦ˒ɏʁȦɏʁʦȲʰʁȥȲɷȉɦȲȬȦʁʹɫȬȥȲʦȲȲɷȉʦ ȉɷɔɴȉɫɔʦʰɔȦȉɷȬȥȉʟȥȉʟʁʹʦे<ʁȦʹʦɔɷɆʁɷɷʰʁɷɔʁȬȲɫʁɫɫȉɔʹʁɫʁউʦɔɷζʹȲɷʰɔȉɫ engraving Battle of the Naked Men (cेࢾࣁࣄࢽॹࣆࢽ३ूJȉʟɆʹȲʰɏȉʰɴȉɷ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏॼ ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅεɆɏʰɔɷɆɷʹȬȲʦ˒ȲʟȲȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏআʜʟɔɴɔʰɔˑȲʦȉˑȉɆȲʦই that European explorers were encountering in sub-Saharan Africa and the jȲ˒ÂʁʟɫȬेJɷȉʦʁȦɔȲʰ˘˒ɏȲʟȲȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆ˒ȉʦɏɔɆɏɫ˘ȦʁȬɔεȲȬʰʁȬȲɫɔɷȲȉʰȲ age, gender, and social status, adult nakedness could have hugely negative connotations. Poverty was another frame through which nakedness was understood, and this could be both negative and positive – the latter as it was associated with a deliberate renunciation of worldly goods in a Christian framework. Images of Christ were an important locus for early depictions of the naked body, though this caused controversy, especially if the genitalia were revealed. If male nakedness could be connected with virtuous poverty, the ʹɷȦɫʁʰɏȲȬɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘˒ȉʦȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦɫɔɷɦȲȬʰʁʦȲ˗ʹȉɫʦɏȉɴȲेÂʁɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲ urged to keep their bodies covered, so dangerously desirable was female ζȲʦɏɅʁʟȥʁʰɏɴȉɫȲȉɷȬɅȲɴȉɫȲȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲʦेJȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɏʁ˒ɦȲȲʜɔɷɆʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲ body covered, even during sex, made it a focus of burning desire for many commentators. 20 ȦȉɷȥȲʦɔɴʜɫɔεȲȬʁɷȦȲ˒ȲʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟɔȲʦʦȉ˒ʰɏɔʦʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲ as representing not an adolescent, but an innocent boy for whom erotic desire was entirely socially taboo. ɏȉʜʰȲʟ¢˒ʁɅʁȦʹʦȲʦʁɷɏʁ˒ʰɏȲȥɔʟʰɏʁɅȉʟʰʰɏȲʁʟ˘ɔɷʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏ ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘˒ȉʦȥʁʹɷȬʹʜ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦɔɷȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲȉʟʰ˒ȲʟȲ explained by Renaissance onlookers. Increasingly, rather than seeking ȉɫɫȲɆʁʟɔȦȉɫɴȲȉɷɔɷɆʦɔɷʰɏȲɷʹȬȲूȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲʦʦʰȉʟʰȲȬʦȲȲɔɷɆʰɏȲʦȲεɆʹʟȲʦȉʦ representations of artistic skill in their own right. Using a famous classical sculpture, the Spinario, as a case study, I trace how artists such as Perugino, ɔɆɷʁʟȲɫɫɔूȉɷȬgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁʹʦȲȬʰɏɔʦɴʁʰɔɅेsʟɔɆɔɷȉɫɫ˘ȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏ baptism, the SpinarioεɆʹʟȲɫʁʦȲʦɔʰʦɴȲȉɷɔɷɆȉʦʰɔɴȲɆʁȲʦʁɷूʹɷʰɔɫɔɷʰɏȲ εʟʦʰȬȲȦȉȬȲʁɅʰɏȲʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɔʰʦɴȉɔɷɅʹɷȦʰɔʁɷɔʦʰʁɔɷȬɔȦȉʰȲʰɏȲ ȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦʦɦɔɫɫɔɷʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ɔɷɆʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ेΤȲɔɷˑȲɷʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲȉɷȬ the invention of art as a distinct cultural category go hand in hand. Eʁ˒ȬɔȬȉʟʰɔʦʰʦɅʁʟɴʹɫȉʰȲʰɏȲɷʹȬȲȥʁȬ˘ैɏȉʜʰȲʟΤʟȲȲɅʁȦʹʦȲʦʁɷ ȉȦʰʦʁɅɴȉɦɔɷɆेʰȉʟʰɔɷɆ˒ɔʰɏȉȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦʦʰʹȬ˘Ʌʁʟ Haman on the Sistine ceiling, I consider the beginnings of a theory of life Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆɔɷɫȉʰȲεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜʦूȉʰɏȲʁʟ˘ʦʰȲȲʜȲȬ in fashionable ideas about Neoplatonism, desire, and ideal beauty. One ȥȲɷȲεȦɔȉʟ˘ʁɅʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜʦ˘ʦʰȲɴ˒ȉʦ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁȬȉÁɔɷȦɔ and, focusing on his Vitruvian Man, I consider how male artistic creativity was closely linked to ideas of sexuality and procreation, men able to create ʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɅʁʟɴʦɔɷʰɏȲɔʟɴɔɷȬʦूʦȲʜȉʟȉʰȲɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɫʹɴʜȲɷɷȉʰʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲζȲʦɏ˘ ȥʁȬ˘ȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏɅȲɴɔɷɔɷɔʰ˘ेgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦɔʦʰɔɷȲɏȉʜȲɫȦȲɔɫɔɷɆɔʦ virtually a manifesto for this new approach. Using a previously unstudied ʦȲʟɴʁɷɆɔˑȲɷɔɷʰɏȲȦɏȉʜȲɫȉɅȲ˒ɴʁɷʰɏʦȉδȲʟʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆ˒ȉʦʟȲˑȲȉɫȲȬू JȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟɏʁ˒ʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦεɆʹʟȲʦȲˑʁɦȲʦ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷʦ about the true nature of humanity, and links together ideas of divine and artistic creativity. Chapter Four argues that the development of the female nude should be put in the broader context of a new discourse about the beauty of ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦȉʦȲ˗ʜʟȲʦʦȲȬɔɷʰɏȲɝɸǱɞǱȪȪǱɥǫǱɥȄǱȳȳǱɥ literature of the Ȳȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘े<ʁȦʹʦɔɷɆʁɷ˒ɏȉʰJȦȉɫɫʰɏȲআÒȲʹ˗ɔȉɷɆȉˢȲूইJʦɏʁ˒ ɏʁ˒ɣʹȬɆɔɷɆ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔɫ˘ȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏȉɅʁȦʹʦʁɷɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫȥʁȬ˘ ʜȉʟʰʦॹȉɷȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏȬȲʟɔˑȲȬɅʟʁɴεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉʟʰʰɏȲʁʟ˘ॹȥȲȦȉɴȲ a standard way of discussing female corporality. In a multiplicity of texts, male viewers were taught how to become connoisseurs, armed with the ȦʟɔʰȲʟɔȉʰʁɣʹȬɆȲ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦूȥʁʰɏȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬȉɷȬʟȲȉɫे Finally, I consider how nakedness was licit for prepubescent children and ɔɷɅȉɷʰʦूȉɷȬʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦɔʦ˒ɏ˘ɴȉɷ˘Ȳȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɔɴȉɆȲʦ ʰɏȉʰȬʟȉ˒ʁɷȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫɷʹȬȲʦɅʁȦʹʦʁɷʰɏɔʦȉɆȲɆʟʁʹʜेΤȲȦɏȉʜʰȲʟȲɷȬʦ˒ɔʰɏ ȉɷȉɷȉɫ˘ʦɔʦʁɅ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦȥʟʁɷˢȲDavidूʦʹηȲʦʰɔɷɆʰɏȉʰȦʁɴʜɫȲ˗ʟȲȉȬɔɷɆʦ ɦȲ˘ȬȲȥȉʰȲɔɷʰɏȲʦȦɏʁɫȉʟɫ˘ɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲɏȉʦȦȲɷʰȲʟȲȬʁɷʰɏȲɔȬȲɷʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷ ʁɅɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦȉʦʟȲζȲȦʰɔɷɆʟȲȉɫɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫʦूʁʟȉʟȦɏȲʰ˘ʜȲʦेΤʟʁʹɆɏ discussion of images of female nudes by Titian, Raphael, Bellini, and THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE INTRODUCTION 21 others, I argue that this confusion over identity closely relates to the artistic theory behind the female nude, which was linked to the male ȉʟʰɔʦʰআɔɴʜʟʁˑɔɷɆইʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅʟȲȉɫ˒ʁɴȲɷूȉʦɔɷʰɏȲʁδȲɷʟȲʜȲȉʰȲȬ story of the ancient Greek painter Apelles and the beautiful courtesan ȉɴʜȉʦʜȲेΤȲȉɴȥɔɆʹʁʹʦ̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦɔɷʰɏȲʦȲɔɴȉɆȲʦूɴʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूʟȲζȲȦʰȲȬ ʜʟȲʦʦʹʟȲʁɷʟȲȉɫ˒ʁɴȲɷʰʁʜɫȉ˘ʟʁɫȲʦʰʁʜɫȲȉʦȲɴȲɷेÂʁɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲȥʁʰɏ expected to shape themselves to meet male desires through the use of cosmetics, but also castigated for being untrue to their God-given nature – as is seen most clearly in the advent of courtesan culture, which ȬȲˑȲɫʁʜȲȬɔɷʜȉʟȉɫɫȲɫ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɆʟʁ˒ʰɏʁɅʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲेΤȲɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴ ˒ȉʦʰʁɏȉˑȲʜʟʁɅʁʹɷȬȲΦȲȦʰʦʁɷȦʁɷʦʰʟʹȦʰɔʁɷʦʁɅɅȲɴɔɷɔɷɔʰ˘ʁˑȲʟʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ modern period. played a role in the formation of elite courtly masculinity. Above all, I have sought to think politically about the history of the nude, to consider ˒ɏȉʰȉɷȬ˒ɏʁɴʰɏɔʦɷȲ˒ȉʟʰɅʁʟɴʦȲʟˑȲȬेΤȲ˒ɔȬȲʦʜʟȲȉȬȉȬʁʜʰɔʁɷʁɅ ʰɏɔʦȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɅʁʟɴȬɔȬɷʁʰɴȲʟȲɫ˘ʟȲζȲȦʰʰɏȲʜȲʟɔʁȬȲ˘ȲȥʹʰȉɫʦʁɔɷɅʁʟɴȲȬ ɔʰॹɔɷʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ʜȲʁʜɫȲʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬʰɏȲɔʟʁ˒ɷȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟʦউȥʁȬɔȲʦूȉɷȬɔɷʰɏȲ ɔɷˑȲɷʰɔʁɷʁɅˑɔʦʹȉɫআȉʟʰইȉʦȉɷȲ˒ɅʟȉɴȲ˒ʁʟɦɅʁʟɴȉɦɔɷɆȉɷȬȥȲɏʁɫȬɔɷɆे Finally, Chapter Five considers how paintings of nudes in pastoral or mythological settings started to be widely commissioned by the Italian ȲɫɔʰȲʦɅʟʁɴȉʟʁʹɷȬʰɏȲࢾࣂࢾࢽʦूɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆ˒ʁʟɦʦʦʹȦɏȉʦ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦPastoral ConcertूʰɏȲȉʜɏȉȲɫ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜউʦ`ɀ̽ȓǈɀȄɥʗǥȎǱ, and the paintings ɅʁʟɫɅʁɷʦʁȬউ*ʦʰȲউʦCamerino d’alabastro in Ferrara. Coinciding with tumultuous political upheavals, the use of nudes in these contexts was connected with ideas of virtuous leisure, an escape from everyday concerns. I investigate how talking about and appreciating art became a hallmark of elite male sociability at this time. Emerging at the same time as a fashion for fervent declarations of love for a mistress and the widespread adoption of the codpiece, the ability to appreciate a nude properly allowed these men to perform a lusty masculinity that ɷȲˑȲʟʰɏȲɫȲʦʦ˒ȉʦȬȲɴʁɷʦʰʟȉʰȲȬʰʁȥȲɦȲʜʰʹɷȬȲʟʰɔɆɏʰȦʁɷʰʟʁɫेΤȲ˘ʰɏʹʦ showed their masculine virtù and proved their worthiness to be members ʁɅʰɏȲȲɫɔʰȲेJɷʰɏȲȲɷȬʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲȥȲȦȉɴȲ˒ɔȬȲɫ˘ȉȬʁʜʰȲȬʜʟȲȦɔʦȲɫ˘ because it was potentially dangerous to the onlooker. It was only those who were educated and virtuous enough to appreciate nudes who deserved to own them; the artistic nude was proof of superior social status. * ΤɔʦȥʁʁɦɔʦɷʁʰɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬʰʁȥȲȉɆʟȉɷȬʦʹʟˑȲ˘ʁɅʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ ȉȦɏɔȲˑȲɴȲɷʰɔɷʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ɔɷɆʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲूȉʟȲʜɫȉȦȲɴȲɷʰʁɅʁɷȲ triumphalist hegemonic narrative with another.49 It is important ʰɏȉʰɴʹɫʰɔʜɫȲɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȲʦȲɴȲʟɆȲȉȥʁʹʰȉʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʰɏȉʰɔʦʦʁɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰूʦʁ ˒ɔȬȲʦʜʟȲȉȬूȉɷȬʦʁʦʰʟȉɷɆȲɫ˘ɔɆɷʁʟȲȬʹɷʰɔɫʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ेg˘ɅʁȦʹʦɏȲʟȲɔʦʁɷʰɏȲ relationship between the understanding of bodies, the creation of art, and ʰɏȲɔȬȲʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫʜʁʦʰʹʟɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲȲɫɔʰȲेΤȲȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɷʹȬȲ˒ȉʦȉȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ ɔɷˑȲɷʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰɏȉȬɅȉʟॼʟȲȉȦɏɔɷɆȲΦȲȦʰʦʁɷʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ʜȲʁʜɫȲʦȉ˒ʰɏȲɔʟʁ˒ɷ ȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟʦউʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫɔʰɔȲʦेJʰɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲȬʰɏȲʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲআɔȬȲȉɫইȉɷȬ ʰɏȲআɷʁʟɴूইȥʁʰɏȦɫʁʦȲɫ˘ʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁʰɏȲȥʹʟɆȲʁɷɔɷɆȬɔʦȦɔʜɫɔɷȲʁɅȉɷȉʰʁɴ˘ौ it provided new ways of assessing the beauty of the female body; and it 22 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE INTRODUCTION 23 chapter one Nakedness in Renaissance Italy As nakedness is nothing other than a lack of clothes, and clothes have many meanings . . . we can distinguish many types of nakedness. Pierre Bersuire, Dictionary or Moral Directory, c.1355 To understand why the nude became such a privileged form in the visual arts from the Renaissance onwards, it is necessary to explore what contemporary people understood by nakedness. As we shall see in the ȦɏȉʜʰȲʟʦʰɏȉʰɅʁɫɫʁ˒ूʰɏȲɔɷˑȲɷʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲআɷʹȬȲইȉʦȉʦ˘ɴȥʁɫʁɅȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦ creativity was necessary precisely because of the particular meanings ȉʦȦʟɔȥȲȬʰʁʰɏȲʹɷȦɫʁʰɏȲȬȥʁȬ˘ɔɷȲȉʟɫ˘ɴʁȬȲʟɷ*ʹʟʁʜȲेΤȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲूȉʦʰɏȲ theologian Pierre Bersuire (also known as Petrus Berchorius, ǥ.1290–1362) noted in his &ȓǥɯȓɀȶǈɞʗɀɞiɀɞǈȪ&ȓɞǱǥɯɀɞʗ,আɴȉɷ˘ʰ˘ʜȲʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦेই1 In some contexts, the unclothed body stands for anonymity, anarchy, and ɫȉȦɦʁɅɔȬȲɷʰɔʰ˘ेJɷʁʰɏȲʟʦɔʰȦʁʹɫȬʦʹηȲʦʰɔɆɷʁɴɔɷ˘ȉɷȬʦɏȉɴȲूʰʟʹʰɏू innocence or, conversely, dangerous sexuality. Nakedness in early modern society, as today, was a complex and contested idea that was puzzled over, ˒ʁʟʟɔȲȬȉȥʁʹʰूʜʟȉɔʦȲȬूȉɷȬɅʁʹɷȬʦɏʁȦɦɔɷɆेΤɔʦȦɏȉʜʰȲʟȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟʦʰɏȲ ȦʹɫʰʹʟȉɫআɅʟȉɴȲʦইʰɏʟʁʹɆɏ˒ɏɔȦɏɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ˒ȉʦʜȲʟȦȲɔˑȲȬॹɔʰʦʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜ with civilization, or the lack thereof; contexts where nakedness was acceptable, and where it was taboo; and its relationship to race, social status, gender, and age – and ultimately the very nature of humanity.2 Nakedness and the Nature of Humanity Bersuire argues that there are four main types of nakedness – natural, temporary, virtuous, and sinful.3EɔʦεʟʦʰȬȲεɷɔʰɔʁɷूআɷȉʰʹʟȉɫইɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦू 25 argues that humans were the only type of animal born naked, a trope of ɴȲȬɔȲˑȉɫȉɷȬȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʰɏʁʹɆɏʰुআ¢ʟȲȲʦȉʟȲȥʁʟɷ˒ɔʰɏȥȉʟɦूȉɷɔɴȉɫʦ ȉʟȲȥʁʟɷ˒ɔʰɏɅʹʟूεʦɏ˒ɔʰɏʦȦȉɫȲʦूȥɔʟȬʦ˒ɔʰɏɅȲȉʰɏȲʟʦूɏʹɴȉɷʦȉɫʁɷȲȉʟȲ ȥʁʟɷɷȉɦȲȬȉɷȬ˒ȲȉɦʦʁȉʦʰʁȥȲȦʁɴʜȲɫɫȲȬʰʁɏȉˑȲʟȲȦʁʹʟʦȲʰʁ=ʁȬेই4 Nakedness became an important part of the debate about the essence of humanity that attracted attention from scholars from the beginning of the εδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ूȥȲɔɷɆȉɷȲɫȲɴȲɷʰʰɏȉʰʦȲʜȉʟȉʰȲȬɏʹɴȉɷʦɅʟʁɴȉɷɔɴȉɫʦे ȲʟʦʹɔʟȲʦȲȲʦʰɏɔʦȉʦȉআȦȉʹʦȲʁɅɆʟȲȉʰɏʹɴɔɫɔʰ˘ूȥȲȦȉʹʦȲɔɷʰɏɔʦɅȉȦʰɏʹɴȉɷʦ ȉʟȲɴʁʟȲˑɔɫȲȉɷȬɔɷɅȲʟɔʁʟʰɏȉɷȉɫɫʰɏȲʰɏɔɷɆʦʁɅʰɏȲȲȉʟʰɏेই5 Pope Innocent JJJȲȦɏʁȲȬʰɏɔʦʦȲɷʰɔɴȲɷʰɔɷɏɔʦɫȉʰȲʰ˒ȲɫδɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʰʟȲȉʰɔʦȲuȶɯȎǱiȓɥǱɞʗ ɀȄɯȎǱGɸȳǈȶ ɀȶǫȓɯȓɀȶ, where he sees nakedness at birth as an indication ʁɅʜʁˑȲʟʰ˘ेʁʰɏJɷɷʁȦȲɷʰȉɷȬȲʟʦʹɔʟȲȦɔʰȲXʁȥࢾेࢿࢾुআjȉɦȲȬȦȉɴȲJʁʹʰʁɅ ɴ˘ɴʁʰɏȲʟউʦ˒ʁɴȥूȉɷȬɷȉɦȲȬʦɏȉɫɫJʟȲʰʹʟɷेই6 26 ΤȲʦȲɔȬȲȉʦ˒ȲʟȲȬȲʟɔˑȲȬɴʁʟȲʁʟɫȲʦʦȬɔʟȲȦʰɫ˘Ʌʟʁɴʰ˒ʁȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʰȲ˗ʰʦ २ȥʁʰɏʁɅ˒ɏɔȦɏgȉɷȲʰʰɔ̍ʹʁʰȲʦɅʟʁɴȲ˗ʰȲɷʦɔˑȲɫ˘३ुɔȦȲʟʁউʦuȶɯȎǱlǈɯɸɞǱɀȄ ?ɀǫɥȉɷȬʰɏȲɅʁʹʟʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȦɏʹʟȦɏɅȉʰɏȲʟ^ȉȦʰȉɷʰɔʹʦউʦuȶɯȎǱÄɀɞȥȳǈȶɥȎȓɛ ɀȄ?ɀǫे^ȉȦʰȉɷʰɔʹʦɔɷʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟ˒ȉʦɏʹɆȲɫ˘ɔɷζʹȲɷʰɔȉɫɔɷȉʟȲȦʁɷεɆʹʟɔɷɆ ʁɅʰɏȲʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ȉɷȬɔʰʦɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏ century.13Eɔʦ˒ʁʟɦ˒ȉʦɦɷʁ˒ɷʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʁʹʰʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲɆȲʦूȉ˒ɏʁɫȲʦȦȉɫȲ revival started in the fourteenth century, and the discovery of an early medieval manuscript of his collected work in Florence in 1426 led to a re-editing of corrupted medieval texts attributed to him.14 Almost 220 ɴȉɷʹʦȦʟɔʜʰʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɅʁʹʟʰȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬȲʦʜȲȦɔȉɫɫ˘ʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦ survive. An edition of his &ȓʐȓȶǱLȶɥɯȓɯɸɯǱɥ˒ȉʦʁɷȲʁɅʰɏȲεʟʦʰȥʁʁɦʦʰʁ ȥȲʜʟɔɷʰȲȬɔɷJʰȉɫ˘२ࢾࣁࣃࣂ३ेΤȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲȉɅʹʟʰɏȲʟࢾࣂȲȬɔʰɔʁɷʦʁɅɏɔʦ˒ʁʟɦʦ before 1500, and another 36 in the following century.15 Lactantius lost his popularity in the eighteenth century, and the relative scholarly neglect of his work (compared to, say, Augustine) has meant he has been largely ignored in modern Renaissance scholarship. However, the popularity of Lactantius was a key factor in promoting changing attitudes towards the human body. ΤɔʦˑɔȲ˒ʁɅɷȉʰʹʟȉɫɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦȉʦȉɷɔɷȬɔȦȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɏʹɴȉɷʜʁˑȲʟʰ˘ȥȲɅʁʟȲ =ʁȬूʜʟȲˑȉɫȲɷʰȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲɆȲʦू˒ȉʦɅʹɷȬȉɴȲɷʰȉɫɫ˘ȦɏȉɫɫȲɷɆȲȬ ȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेJɷȦʟȲȉʦɔɷɆɫ˘ूʰɏȲɷʹȬɔʰ˘ʁɅɏʹɴȉɷʦ˒ȉʦʰȉɦȲɷ ȉʦȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲʁɅ=ʁȬউʦʦʜȲȦɔȉɫȦȉʟȲɅʁʟʰɏʁʦȲɴȉȬȲআɔɷɏɔʦʁ˒ɷɔɴȉɆȲȉɷȬ ɫɔɦȲɷȲʦʦूইʰʁ̍ʹʁʰȲ=ȲɷȲʦɔʦࢾुࢿࣄे7ΤȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬɔʰʦʰʟʹȲ ȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʰʁȥȲʦȲȲɷूȉɷȬȉɫʦʁɆȉˑȲɏʹɴȉɷʦʰɏȲʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫʰʁȉȬȉʜʰζȲ˗ɔȥɫ˘ ȉɷȬɔɷɆȲɷɔʁʹʦɫ˘ʰʁȉɷ˘ʦɔʰʹȉʰɔʁɷेΤȲʦȲɷʁʰɔʁɷʦȉʟȲȲ˗ʜʟȲʦʦȲȬʟȲʜȲȉʰȲȬɫ˘ ɔɷεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȉɷȬʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰʰȲ˗ʰʦे<ʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूɔɷȉ ȬɔʟȲȦʰȉɷʦ˒ȲʟʰʁJɷɷʁȦȲɷʰJJJউʦʰʟȲȉʰɔʦȲूʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰ=ɔȉɷɷʁˢˢʁgȉɷȲʰʰɔ (1396–1459) argued in his uȶɯȎǱ&ȓȅȶȓɯʗǈȶǫ,ʖǥǱȪȪǱȶǥǱɀȄiǈȶȥȓȶǫ of 1452 ʰɏȉʰʜȲʁʜɫȲ˒ȲʟȲȥʁʟɷɷȉɦȲȬআȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʁɅʁʹʟȬɔɆɷɔʰ˘ȉɷȬȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेेेɷȉʰʹʟȲ would never have hidden the human body, her most beautiful and most marvelously shaped work, under a foreign garment lest she cover its ȥȲȉʹʰɔȲʦ˒ɔʰɏʹɷʦʹɔʰȉȥɫȲȉɷȬʹɷ˒ʁʟʰɏ˘ˑȲɔɫʦेই8gȉʟʦɔɫɔʁ<ɔȦɔɷʁ२ࢾࣁࣀࣀॹࢾࣁࣆࣆ३ took up this idea in a confraternal sermon of the 1470s, arguing that ɏʹɴȉɷʦȬɔΦȲʟɅʟʁɴʁʰɏȲʟȉɷɔɴȉɫʦȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏȲ˘ȦȉɷȉȬȉʜʰʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦʰʁ a variety of arts, while animals (such as spiders weaving webs or birds building nests) are restricted to one kind.9ȲɷȲȬȲʰʰʁgʁʟȉɷȬɔ२Ȭेࢾࣁࣄࣅ३ in his treatise uȶGɸȳǈȶGǈɛɛȓȶǱɥɥ similarly argued that the clothing of ɷȉʰʹʟȲ२ɅʹʟूʦȦȉɫȲʦूȉɷȬ̍ʹɔɫɫʦ३আȦʁɷȦȲȬȲȬʰʁʰɏȲȥʟʹʰȲʦইȥ˘=ʁȬ˒ȉʦআɴʁʦʰ ʦʁʟȬɔȬȉɷȬȉȥɣȲȦʰইौɏʹɴȉɷʦȉʟȲȉȥɫȲʰʁɴȉɦȲȥȲʰʰȲʟȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɔʟ আɆȲɷɔʹʦȉɷȬʟȲȉʦʁɷेই10ΤɔʦɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ˒ȉʦʜʟʁʁɅʁɅɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘উʦ superiority to animals remained commonplace throughout the sixteenth ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेΤʹʦɔɷ=ɔʁˑȉɷȉʰʰɔʦʰȉ=Ȳɫɫɔউʦ ȓɞǥǱ of 1549, humans explain to ȉɷɔɴȉɫʦुআ˒ɏȉʰȬʁȲʦɔʰɴȉʰʰȲʟʰɏȉʰɷȉʰʹʟȲɏȉʦɴȉȬȲʹʦɷȉɦȲȬूȉʦʦɏȲɏȉʦ given us so much knowledge and strength that we can cover ourselves with ˘ʁʹʟȦɫʁʰɏȲʦैই11=ɔʟʁɫȉɴʁ=ȉʟɔɴȥȲʟʰʁউʦlǈɯɸɞǈȪǈȶǫiɀɞǈȪɞɀǤȪǱȳɥ(1550) gives exactly the same reason for nakedness – so that humans can use their artfulness to clothe themselves.12 ^ȉȦʰȉɷʰɔʹʦεȲʟȦȲɫ˘ȬȲɅȲɷȬȲȬɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷɔʰ˘ȉɆȉɔɷʦʰʜȉɆȉɷɔʦɴूȉɷȬȬɔȬ ʦʁʹʦɔɷɆȉɷȲɫʁ̍ʹȲɷʰ^ȉʰɔɷȬȲʟɔˑȲȬɅʟʁɴɔȦȲʟʁॹ˒ɏɔȦɏɴȉȬȲɏɔɴȉ ʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ȉʰʰʟȉȦʰɔˑȲɴʁȬȲɫɅʁʟεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰʦे<ʁʟʁʹʟ purposes, his importance is that he saw the human body in its entirety as ʹʦȲɅʹɫȉɷȬȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫूȦʟȉδȲȬȥ˘=ʁȬूȉɷȬʰʁȥȲʹʦȲȬɔɷʰɏȲʦȲʟˑɔȦȲʁɅʰɏȲ divine.16 His attitude to nakedness, far from being steeped in the language of sin expressed by thinkers such as Bersuire, was positive. Lactantius ȲɴʜɏȉʦɔˢȲȬʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ȉʦȉʦɔɆɷʁɅ=ʁȬউʦ˒ʁʟɦɴȉɷʦɏɔʜॹʰɏȲʁˑȲʟȉʟȦɏɔɷɆ ɴȲʰȉʜɏʁʟɔʦʁɅ=ʁȬȉʦȉȬɔˑɔɷȲȦʟȉδʦɴȉɷूʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷȥʁȬ˘ɏɔʦɆʟȲȉʰȲʦʰ masterpiece. He explains in his &ȓʐȓȶǱLȶɥɯȓɯɸɯǱɥʰɏȉʰআ=ʁȬɴȉȬȲɴȉɷ naked and weaponless in order to protect him with a cloak of wisdom; ɴȉɷউʦȉʟɴʁʹʟɅʁʟʦȲɫɅॼȬȲɅȲɷȦȲ˒ȉʦʜʹʰ˒ɔʰɏɔɷूɷʁʰ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰौɷʁʰʁˑȲʟɏɔʦ ȥʁȬ˘ȥʹʰɔɷɏɔʦɏȲȉʟʰेই17gʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूȉʦɏȲȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬɔɷɏɔʦÄɀɞȥȳǈȶɥȎȓɛɀȄ ?ɀǫ – a work largely concerned with minutely describing the wonders of ʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷȥʁȬ˘ॹʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɅʁʟɴɔʦȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫुআɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦेेेʁɷʰɏȲʜȉʟʰ ʁɅɴȉɷʰȲɷȬʦɔɷȉ˒ʁɷȬȲʟɅʹɫɴȉɷɷȲʟʰʁȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेই18 Nakedness in Lactantius ɔʦɷʁʰˑɔɫȲूʜʁʁʟूʁʟȉɷɔɷȬɔȦȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɏʹɴȉɷɏʹɴɔɫɔʰ˘ɔɷʰɏȲɅȉȦȲʁɅ=ʁȬউʦ ȬɔˑɔɷȲȬɔʦʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲूȥʹʰȉɷɔɷȬɔȦȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɏɔʦʦʹʜʟȲɴȲʦɦɔɫɫȉʦȉɷȉʟʰɔεȦȲʟȉɷȬ ʜʟʁʁɅʁɅɴȉɷɦɔɷȬউʦʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫूʁɅɔɷɷȲʟʦʰʟȲɷɆʰɏȉɷȬʁʹʰȲʟȥȲȉʹʰ˘े THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy ΤȲʦȲɷȲ˒ɫ˘ʟȲȬɔʦȦʁˑȲʟȲȬɔȬȲȉʦɅʟʁɴȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʰȲ˗ʰʦʟȲȦʁɷεɆʹʟȲȬʰɏȲ parameters of how human nakedness was understood. Changes in how the εʟʦʰɏʹɴȉɷʦूȬȉɴȉɷȬ*ˑȲू˒ȲʟȲʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȲȬʁˑȲʟʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ are telling: the couple became increasingly naked at all points in their story.19 To recap the well-known story from Genesis 3.7–11: when God ɴȉȬȲȬȉɴȉɷȬ*ˑȲআʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲȥʁʰɏɷȉɦȲȬूʰɏȲɴȉɷȉɷȬɏɔʦ˒ɔɅȲूȉɷȬ 27 Fig. 1.1. Unknown artists, ̨Ǳ ȪɀɯȎȓȶȅɀȄ Adam and Eve (detail), thirteenth ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेgʁʦȉɔȦेʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʹʜʁɫȉू ȉʦɔɫɔȦȉʁɅȉɷgȉʟȦʁूÁȲɷɔȦȲे ˒ȲʟȲɷʁʰȉʦɏȉɴȲȬेইΤȲʦȲʟʜȲɷʰʜȲʟʦʹȉȬȲʦ*ˑȲʰʁɆȲʰɅʟʹɔʰɅʟʁɴʰɏȲʰʟȲȲʁɅ ɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲȉɷȬɆɔˑȲɔʰʰʁȬȉɴʰʁȲȉʰूআȉɷȬʰɏȲȲ˘ȲʦʁɅȥʁʰɏʁɅʰɏȲɴ˒ȲʟȲ ʁʜȲɷȲȬूȉɷȬʰɏȲ˘ɦɷȲ˒ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲɷȉɦȲȬौȉɷȬʰɏȲ˘ʦȲ˒ȲȬεɆɫȲȉˑȲʦ ʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟȉɷȬɴȉȬȲʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦȉʜʟʁɷʦेই=ʁȬɷʁʰɔȦȲʦूȦʹʟʦȲʦʰɏȲɴूȉɷȬ banishes them from the garden – but before doing so, makes them coats of ʦɦɔɷʦȉɷȬআȦɫʁʰɏȲʦʰɏȲɴेইΤɔʦʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆɔʦʦɏʁ˒ɷɔɷʦȲˑȲʟȉɫ medieval representations of this story, for example in the Genesis mosaics ȉʰȉɷgȉʟȦʁɔɷÁȲɷɔȦȲ२εɆेࢾेࢾ३े20ΤȲʦʰȉʰȲʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦȉɷȬȬʟȲʦʦȉʟȲ fundamental to the meaning of the Biblical account. Clothes indicate a postlapsarian, sinful state. Accordingly, while Adam and Eve are always shown completely naked before eating from the tree of knowledge, they should be shown simply clothed, or at least with genital coverings, at their expulsion. Not surprisingly, this is the case in Italian representations of ȬȉɴȉɷȬ*ˑȲʹʜʰʁʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘े21 ΤȲʜʁʦʰॼ<ȉɫɫȦʁʹʜɫȲʦʰȉʟʰʦʰʁȥȲȲɷʰɔʟȲɫ˘ȬɔˑȲʦʰȲȬʁɅȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆɔɷʰɏȲ Ȳȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेʜɔʁɷȲȲʟʁɅʰɏɔʦɔȦʁɷʁɆʟȉʜɏ˘ɔʦgȉʦȉȦȦɔʁू˒ɏʁ portrayed ̨Ǳ ,ʖɛɸȪɥȓɀȶȄɞɀȳɯȎǱ?ǈɞǫǱȶɀȄ,ǫǱȶ in the Brancacci chapel ɅʟȲʦȦʁʦɔɷʰɏȲȦɏʹʟȦɏʁɅȉɷʰȉgȉʟɔȉȬȲɫȉʟɴɔɷȲɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲɅʟʁɴࢾࣁࢿࣃॹࣅ २εɆेࢾेࢿ३े22 Here, as commentators have noted, both protagonists are Ȳ˗ʜȲɫɫȲȬȲɷʰɔʟȲɫ˘ɷȉɦȲȬेΤɔʦ˒ȉʦʹɷʹʦʹȉɫɅʁʟʰɏɔʦʜȲʟɔʁȬȉɷȬɴȉ˘ȲˑȲɷ ɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷ̍ʹɔʰȲʦɏʁȦɦɔɷɆूʜȲʟɏȉʜʦȬȲɫɔȥȲʟȉʰȲɫ˘ʦʁूȉʦgȉʦȉȦȦɔʁɏɔɆɏɫɔɆɏʰʦ ȬȉɴউʦɆȲɷɔʰȉɫɔȉȉɷȬɆɔˑȲʦ*ˑȲʰɏȲÃǱȶɸɥɛɸǫȓǥǈ gesture (compare with εɆेࢽेࣀ३ेΤɔʦɔʦɷʁʰɣʹʦʰȉɷȲɴʜʰ˘ȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲूȥʹʰȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬʰɏȲ εɆʹʟȲʦʰʁȬȲɴʁɷʦʰʟȉʰȲʰɏȲɅʹɫɫ˒ȲɔɆɏʰʁɅʦɏȉɴȲʁɅʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬʦʰȉʰȲूȉɦɔɷ to the miscreants who were shamed through ritualistic public displays ʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ२ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬȥȲɫʁ˒३ेΤȲ˘ɅʁʟɴȉʦʰȉʟɦȦʁɷʰʟȉʦʰʰʁgȉʦʁɫɔɷʁউʦ unashamed, prelapsarian pair who stand, unaware of their nakedness, at ʰɏȲʁʰɏȲʟʦɔȬȲʁɅʰɏȲȉʟȦɏʁɅʰɏȲȦɏȉʜȲɫ२εɆेࢾेࣀ३े 28 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 1.2. gȉʦȉȦȦɔʁू̨Ǳ,ʖɛɸȪɥȓɀȶȄɞɀȳɯȎǱ?ǈɞǫǱȶ of Eden, 1426. Fresco. Brancacci Chapel, ȉɷʰȉgȉʟɔȉȬȲɫȉʟɴɔɷȲू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲे Fig. 1.3. gȉʦʁɫɔɷʁूAdam and Eve, 1426. Fresco. Brancacci Chapel, Santa gȉʟɔȉȬȲɫȉʟɴɔɷȲू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲे Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 29 God had created him . . . later generations surely took their example from ʰɏȲɆȉʟɴȲɷʰʦȬȉɴɴȉȬȲेই25*̍ʹȉɫɫ˘ूɔɷɏɔʦɀɀȥɀȄɯȎǱ ɞǈ̼ɥȳǈȶ (ǥ.1400), ȲɷɷɔɷʁȲɷɷɔɷɔʦʰȉʟʰʦȥ˘Ȳ˗ʜɫȉɔɷɔɷɆɏʁ˒Ȭȉɴ˒ȉʦʰɏȲεʟʦʰʜȲʟʦʁɷʰʁ ɔɷˑȲɷʰȦʟȉδʦɫɔɦȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆे26 As Brian Copenhaver has noted, the emphasis ʁɷʰȲȦɏɷʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫȉȦɏɔȲˑȲɴȲɷʰȉʰʰɏȲȲɷȬʁɅʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘˒ȉʦɫɔɷɦȲȬ closely to the need to show how humankind had been raised from a bestial condition.27ɔȦʁȬȲɫɫȉgɔʟȉɷȬʁɫȉউʦuɞǈɯȓɀȶɀȶɯȎǱ&ȓȅȶȓɯʗɀȄiǈȶȥȓȶǫ of 1486 Ʌȉɴʁʹʦɫ˘ʜʟʁȦɫȉɔɴȲȬुআÂȲɏȉˑȲɆɔˑȲɷ˘ʁʹूȬȉɴूɷʁε˗ȲȬʦȲȉʰʁʟɅʁʟɴʁɅ your own. . . . It will be in your power to degenerate into the lower forms of life, which are brutish. Alternatively you shall have the power . . . to be ʟȲȥʁʟɷɔɷʰʁʰɏȲɏɔɆɏȲʟʁʟȬȲʟʦूʰɏʁʦȲʰɏȉʰȉʟȲȬɔˑɔɷȲेই28 Nakedness gave humans the chance to shape themselves using skill and intellect. <ɔɆेࢾेࣁे२ɫȲδ३ Andrea Pisano, ̨Ǳ`ǈǤɀɞɥɀȄǫǈȳ and Eve, cेࢾࣀࣀࣃेgȉʟȥɫȲेgʹʦȲʁȬȲɫ sʜȲʟȉȬȲɫ$ʹʁɴʁू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲे Fig. 1.5. (right) Cristoforo Robetta, Adam and Eve with Children, c.1495– ࢾࣂࢽࢽे*ɷɆʟȉˑɔɷɆेʟɔʰɔʦɏgʹʦȲʹɴू London. ^ȉʰȲʟɔɷʰɏȲûʹȉʰʰʟʁȦȲɷʰʁूʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʁɅȬȉɴȉɷȬ*ˑȲʦʰȉʟʰʦʰʁ ȥȲȲ̍ʹȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʜʁʦɔʰɔˑȲɔȬȲȉʦेΤȲɔʟʦʰʁʟ˘ɔɷ=ȲɷȲʦɔʦȲɷȬʦ˒ɔʰɏ=ʁȬ ȦʁɴɴȉɷȬɔɷɆȬȉɴʰʁআ˒ʁʟɦʰɏȲɆʟʁʹɷȬूইȉɷȬʰɏȲɔȦʁɷʁɆʟȉʜɏ˘ʁɅȬȉɴ ȉɷȬ*ˑȲɫȉȥʁʟɔɷɆॹȬȉɴʰɔɫɫɔɷɆʰɏȲεȲɫȬʦ˒ɔʰɏȉɴȉʰʰʁȦɦʁʟɏʁȲȉɷȬ*ˑȲ ɴȉɦɔɷɆ˘ȉʟɷ˒ɔʰɏȉʦʜɔɷȬɫȲʁʟȬɔʦʰȉΦॹ˒ȉʦʁδȲɷʹʦȲȬʰʁȬȲɴʁɷʦʰʟȉʰȲ ɏʹɴȉɷȦʟȉδʦɴȉɷʦɏɔʜूȉʦɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣀࣀࢽʦʟȲɫɔȲɅʦȉʰʰʟɔȥʹʰȲȬʰʁɷȬʟȲȉɔʦȉɷʁʁɷ ʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲȉɴʜȉɷɔɫȲ२εɆेࢾेࣁ३े23 Around the 1430s – exactly the time when the works of Lactantius and Cicero were being enthusiastically read by humanists investigating the nature of mankind – the couple starts to ȥȲʦɏʁ˒ɷɫȉȥʁʟɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬेȬȉɴȉɷȬ*ˑȲȉʟȲεʟʦʰʦɏʁ˒ɷ˒ʁʟɦɔɷɆ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰ ȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆȉʰʰɏȲȥȲɆɔɷɷɔɷɆʁɅআ<ȉɴʁʹʦȲʁʜɫȲইȦ˘ȦɫȲʦूȉʟʰ˒ʁʟɦʦʰɏȉʰʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫɫ˘ show the history of humanity from the beginnings to the present through ʰɏȲȬȲʜɔȦʰɔʁɷʁɅȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦे24ΤȲɔȦʁɷʁɆʟȉʜɏ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬȬȉɴ ȉɷȬ*ˑȲʟȲʦʰɔɷɆȉδȲʟʰɏȲɔʟɫȉȥʁʟʦूɏʁɫȬɔɷɆʰɏȲʰʁʁɫʦʁɅʰɏȲɔʟʟȲʦʜȲȦʰɔˑȲ tasks, became increasingly popular over the century, including at least three ȲɷɆʟȉˑɔɷɆʦʁɅȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣂࢽࢽȥ˘ʟɔʦʰʁɅʁʟʁʁȥȲʰʰȉ२εɆेࢾेࣂɔʦʁɷȲȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲ३े JɷȉʦʁȦɔȲʰ˘˒ɏʁʦȲʁʟȬȲʟɔʦȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʰȲȬʰɏʟʁʹɆɏ˒ʁʟɦȲʟʦউɆʹɔɫȬʁʟɆȉɷɔˢȉʰɔʁɷʦू the nakedness of Adam and Eve is therefore shown as a precursor to ʦʁȦɔȉɫʁʟȬȲʟूȦʁɷεʟɴȲȬʰɏʟʁʹɆɏ˒ʁʟɦेɫʰɏʁʹɆɏȬȉɴȉɷȬ*ˑȲɏȉˑȲȉʦ ˘ȲʰɷʁȦɫʁʰɏȲʦʰʁȦʁɷεʟɴʰɏȲɔʟʟʁɫȲʦɔɷʦʁȦɔȲʰ˘ूʰɏȲ˘ʦɏʁ˒ʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘Ʌʁʟ future generations by inventing the means to create clothing. In his uȶ &ȓɥǥɀʐǱɞʗʁɅࢾࣁࣆࣆूʁɫ˘ȬʁʟȲÁȲʟɆɔɫȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲεʟʦʰʜȲʟʦʁɷʰʁɔɷˑȲɷʰ ȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆ˒ȉʦȬȉɴूআʦɔɷȦȲȬȉɴɴȉȬȲɏɔɴʦȲɫɅȉɆȉʟɴȲɷʰʁɅʦɦɔɷʦȉδȲʟ 30 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ूʰɏȲɷू˒ɔʰɷȲʦʦȲȬȉʦɏɔδɔɷʰɏȲʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅ the nakedness of Adam and Eve from representing merely the shame of ʰɏȲȲ˗ʜʹɫʦɔʁɷɅʟʁɴȉʟȉȬɔʦȲʰʁȉɫʦʁɔɷȬɔȦȉʰɔɷɆɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘উʦʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫɅʁʟ ˒ʁʟɦȉɷȬʦʁȦɔȉɫʁʟɆȉɷɔˢȉʰɔʁɷेΤɔʦɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȉʰɔˑȲɅʟȉɴȲ˒ʁʟɦɴȉ˘ɏȉˑȲ been strengthened by newly discovered (or recently popularized) classical ʰȲ˗ʰʦʰɏȉʰȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬʰɏȲȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁɅȲȉʟɫ˘ɏʹɴȉɷʦेgʁʦʰɷʁʰȉȥɫȲȉʟȲ ÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦউʦuȶɞǥȎȓɯǱǥɯɸɞǱूɦɷʁ˒ɷʦɔɷȦȲȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ȥʹʰɷȲ˒ɫ˘ɅȉʦɏɔʁɷȉȥɫȲɔɷ ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ौ$ɔʁȬʁʟʹʦɔȦʹɫʹʦউʦ`ȓǤɞǈɞʗɀȄGȓɥɯɀɞʗ, translated ɔɷʰʁ^ȉʰɔɷɔɷࢾࣁࣂࢽौȉɷȬ^ʹȦʟȲʰɔʹʦউʦuȶɯȎǱlǈɯɸɞǱɀĘ̏ȓȶȅɥ, rediscovered by ʰɏȲʟȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰʁηɔʁʟȉȦȦɔʁɫɔɷɔɔɷࢾࣁࢾࣄे29 Fig. 1.6. Buonaccorso Ghiberti, attr., Early ManूεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेȲɷȉɷȬ ink. Banco Rari, 228, 5r, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Florence. Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 31 Fig. 1.7. Cesare Cesariano, Early Mankind, 1521. Engraving. From Di Lucio Vitruvio Pollione de architectura libri dece traducti de latino in vulgare ǈ̲ȅɸɞǈɯi, Como, book 2, 31v. ΤȲʦȲʰȲ˗ʰʦȬɔΦȲʟɔɷɴȉɷ˘ȉʦʜȲȦʰʦूȥʹʰʰɏȲ˘ȉɆʟȲȲʰɏȉʰɴȉɷɦɔɷȬউʦʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫ state was basically animal-like, with no clothing, proper language, or ability ʰʁɴȉɦȲʜȲʟɴȉɷȲɷʰȬ˒ȲɫɫɔɷɆʦेʁɅʁʟ$ɔʁȬʁʟʹʦूʰɏȲεʟʦʰʜȲʁʜɫȲআɫȲȬȉ ˒ʟȲʰȦɏȲȬȲ˗ɔʦʰȲɷȦȲूɏȉˑɔɷɆɷʁȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆʰʁȦʁˑȲʟʰɏȲɴेই<ʁʟÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦूɏʹɴȉɷʦ ʹʦȲȬʰʁɫɔˑȲআɫɔɦȲ˒ɔɫȬȉɷɔɴȉɫʦɔɷʰɏȲɅʁʟȲʦʰʦूȦȉˑȲʦȉɷȬ˒ʁʁȬʦेই<ʁʟ^ʹȦʟȲʰɔʹʦू আɅʁʟɴȉɷ˘ȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦɴȲɷɫȲȬʰɏȲɔʟɫɔˑȲʦ्^ɔɦȲʟʁˑɔɷɆȉɷɔɴȉɫʦेेे०ʰɏȲ˘ȬɔȬɷʁʰ ɦɷʁ˒१ɏʁ˒ʰʁ˒ʁʟɦ˒ɔʰɏεʟȲ०ʁʟ१ʰʁʹʦȲʰɏȲʦɦɔɷʦʁɅȉɷɔɴȉɫʦɅʁʟȦɫʁʰɏȲʦेই30 Humanists such as Bartolomeo Scala echoed this opinion of early humanity. In his &ȓǈȪɀȅɸǱɀȄ ɀȶɥɀȪǈɯȓɀȶʁɅࢾࣁࣃࣀूɏȲʦȉɔȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲεʟʦʰɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲআʟʁʹɆɏ ȉɷȬʹɷȦʁʹʰɏेेे˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȦʹɫʰʹʟȲू˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰʦɏʟɔɷȲʦू˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȉʦȲʰʰɫȲȬɏʁɴȲইौ ʰɏȲʦȲআɷȉɦȲȬȉɷȬʦɏȉη˘ȦʟȲȉʰʹʟȲʦইʹʦȲȬʰʟȲȲʰʟʹɷɦʦɅʁʟʦɏȲɫʰȲʟे31 Fig. 1.8. Filarete (Antonio Averlino), Adam, 1465. Pen and ink. Fondo Principale, II.I.140, 4v, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, Florence. gʁʦʰʁɅʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷʦ˒ȲɏȉˑȲʁɅȲȉʟɫ˘ɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘ȥȲʦɔȬȲʦ ȬȉɴȉɷȬ*ˑȲȉʟȲɅʟʁɴȲȬɔʰɔʁɷʦʁ̎ÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦेΤȲ˘ȲɴʜɏȉʦɔˢȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ ȉʦʰɏȲʜʟɔɴȉɫʦʰȉʰȲेʹʁɷȉȦȦʁʟʦʁ=ɏɔȥȲʟʰɔউʦɫȉʰȲεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ translation of the text includes a drawing of a naked man sitting in a tree २εɆेࢾेࣃ३ौ32 Cesare Cesariano illustrates a group of naked men and women ȬɔʦȦʁˑȲʟɔɷɆεʟȲʰʁȉȦȦʁɴʜȉɷ˘ɏɔʦࢾࣂࢿࢾʜʟɔɷʰȲȬʰʟȉɷʦɫȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲʰȲ˗ʰ२εɆे 1.7).33Jɷ<ɔɫȉʟȲʰȲউʦȉʟȦɏɔʰȲȦʰʹʟȉɫʰʟȲȉʰɔʦȲʁɅȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣁࣃࣁɏȲȦʁɴȥɔɷȲʦʰɏȲ biblical with the classical accounts by arguing that Adam must have been ʰɏȲεʟʦʰȥʹɔɫȬȲʟेÂɏȲɷɔʰʟȉɔɷȲȬूɏȲʜʹʰɏɔʦɏȉɷȬʦʁˑȲʟɏɔʦɏȲȉȬूȉɷȬʰɏȲɷ went on to build a roof out of branches, or perhaps entered a cave in order to protect himself from the elements.34 In the 1465 manuscript in the Biblioteca Nazionale in Florence, this part of the text is illustrated by a ȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲɫ˘ɷȉɦȲȬȬȉɴ२εɆेࢾेࣅ३ूʦɏȲɫʰȲʟɔɷɆɏɔɴʦȲɫɅɅʟʁɴʰɏȲȲɫȲɴȲɷʰʦे35 In this way, making Adam and Eve naked beyond the Fall emphasizes their role as the source of human history, as opposed to existing within a temporally static sacred narrative of sin and redemption. Nakedness relates to an early state of humanity that continued beyond Eden, and refers to ʰɏȲʹɷɔ̍ʹȲʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫʁɅɏʹɴȉɷʦʰʁȦɫʁʰɏȲʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦेjȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦȉɷȬʰɏȲ ȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁȦʁˑȲʟɔʰ˒ɔʰɏȦɫʁʰɏȲʦ˒ȉʦȉʦɔɆɷʁɅʰɏȲȬɔΦȲʟȲɷȦȲȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷɏʹɴȉɷʦ and animals. Nudity, Clothing, and Social Order ʟʁʹɷȬʰɏȲʰʹʟɷʁɅʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ू=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔȲʟȦȉɴȥɔ˒ʟʁʰȲȉ comic tale about a man called Ganfo, a furrier from Lucca, who goes to ȉɷȲȉʟȥ˘ʦʜȉʰʁȦʁɴȥȉʰɏɔʦɔɫɫɏȲȉɫʰɏेআEȲɆʁʰʰʁʰɏȲȥȉʰɏʦȉɷȬʦȲȲɔɷɆʰɏȲ people bathing there, looked around the hundreds of naked men, and ʦȉɔȬʰʁɏɔɴʦȲɫɅঈEʁ˒ȉɴJɆʁɔɷɆʰʁɦɷʁ˒ɴ˘ʦȲɫɅȉɴʁɷɆʦʰȉɫɫʁɅʰɏȲɴै JউɴʦʹʟȲʰʁɫʁʦȲɴ˘ʦȲɫɅȉɴʁɷɆʦʰʰɏȲɴɔɅJȬʁɷউʰɴȉʟɦɴ˘ʦȲɫɅ˒ɔʰɏʦʁɴȲ ɦɔɷȬʁɅʦɔɆɷউेই36 Ganfo puts a reed cross on his right shoulder, which, of ȦʁʹʟʦȲूɅȉɫɫʦʁΦȉʦʦʁʁɷȉʦɏȲɆȲʰʦɔɷʰɏȲ˒ȉʰȲʟेJʰʦȲʰʰɫȲʦʁɷȉɷʁʰɏȲʟɴȉɷউʦ 32 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 33 shoulder, and this plunges Ganfo into an identity crisis: who is he without ɏɔʦɔȬȲɷʰɔɅ˘ɔɷɆʟȲȲȬैআJȉɴ˘ʁʹȉɷȬ˘ʁʹȉʟȲɴȲॄইɏȲȬȲȦɫȉʟȲʦɔɷɏɔʦȦʁɷɅʹʦȲȬ ʦʰȉʰȲʰʁʰɏȲȥȲɴʹʦȲȬɴȉɷे¢ȲʟʟɔεȲȬू=ȉɷɅʁɫȲȉˑȲʦʰɏȲȥȉʰɏʦȉɷȬʟʹɷʦȥȉȦɦ to Lucca proclaiming that he has died. =ȉɷɅʁউʦȬɔʦʁʟɔȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷ˒ɏȲɷʦʹʟʟʁʹɷȬȲȬȥ˘ɷȉɦȲȬɴȲɷɴȉȬȲʦȲɷʦȲɔɷ a society with very close links between clothing and social identity. Nakedness, rather than whether the body was actually covered or not, was inextricably tied up with a lack of the personal and social markers that clothing provided. In the Italian peninsula – as elsewhere in early ɴʁȬȲʟɷ*ʹʟʁʜȲॹȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰʰ˘ʜȲʦʁɅȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆ˒ȲɷʰɏȉɷȬɔɷɏȉɷȬ˒ɔʰɏ ʦʁȦɔȉɫʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆूɆȲɷȬȲʟूȉɷȬȥȲɫʁɷɆɔɷɆʰʁȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰʁȦȦʹʜȉʰɔʁɷȉɫɆʟʁʹʜʦे ΤɔʦɔʦʁɅȦʁʹʟʦȲʰʟʹȲɔɷɴȉɷ˘ʦʁȦɔȲʰɔȲʦूȥʹʰʟȲȦȲɷʰ˒ʁʟɦʁɷʰɏȲȦʹɫʰʹʟȲ of Renaissance clothing has shown it was particularly highly marked ȉɷȬȦʁȬɔεȲȬɔɷɫȉʰȲɴȲȬɔȲˑȉɫȉɷȬȲȉʟɫ˘ɴʁȬȲʟɷ*ʹʟʁʜȲे37 Sumptuary legislation and local traditions lay down who was allowed to wear what. $ɔΦȲʟȲɷʰʟȲɫɔɆɔʁʹʦʁʟȬȲʟʦɏȉȬʰɏȲɔʟɏȉȥɔʰʦौɫȉ˘ʟȲɫɔɆɔʁʹʦȦʁɷɅʟȉʰȲʟɷɔʰɔȲʦ their robes; patrician servants their livery; and well-to-do families would display the family colors on feast days. Occupational clothing, depending on need, and ceremonial dress as part of a guild or other group, was also ȦʁɴɴʁɷʜɫȉȦȲेΤʹʦूʰɏʁʹɆɏʰȉɦɔɷɆɔʰʰʁɔʰʦɔɫɫʁɆɔȦȉɫȲ˗ʰʟȲɴȲू=ȉɷɅʁউʦɅȲȉʟ of losing his identity along with his clothes was understandable. Niccolò gȉȦɏɔȉˑȲɫɫɔूʰʁʁूʦʜʁɦȲʰʁʰɏȲʦʁȦɔȉɫʟʁɫȲʁɅȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆɔɷɏɔʦFlorentine Histories२ࢾࣂࢿࣃ३˒ɏȲɷɏȲɏȉȬʁɷȲ˒ʁʁɫ˒ʁʟɦȲʟʟȉɫɫ˘ɏɔʦȦʁɴʟȉȬȲʦुআʰʟɔʜ us all naked and you will see that we are alike; dress us in their clothes and them in ours, and without a doubt we shall appear noble and they ɔɆɷʁȥɫȲूɅʁʟʁɷɫ˘ʜʁˑȲʟʰ˘ȉɷȬʟɔȦɏȲʦɴȉɦȲʹʦʹɷȲ̍ʹȉɫेই38 Proper clothing guaranteed social order, everyone knowing his or her place. It was socially acceptable for men to show more of their bodies in public (and private) than it was for women, but early modern Italy was a place where the post-adolescent body was almost entirely covered most of the time, with only the face and hands routinely being publicly shown. gʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूȲˑȲɷʰɏȲɅȉȦȲȉɷȬɏȉɷȬʦ˒ȲʟȲʁδȲɷȦʁˑȲʟȲȬॹʦʹɴʜʰʹȉʟ˘ɫȉ˒ʦ demanded that women at certain life stages (especially pre-marriage) wore face veils in this period, and both men and women normally wore gloves.39 34 Fig. 1.9. Unknown illustrator, Columbus’s First Voyage to the New WorldूࢾࣁࣆࣀेÂʁʁȬȦʹʰे Frontispiece, La Lettera dellisole che ha trouato nuouamente Il Re dispagna. . . . Tracte ǫɸȶǈɛȓɥɯɀȪǈǫȓʖɛɀʦǈȶɀ ɀȪɕǤɀ‫ײ‬ȳǱɥɥǱɞ ?ȓɸȪȓǈȶɀ&ǈɯȓ. British Library, London. ΤȲεʟʦʰʰʟȉˑȲɫȉɷʰɏʁɫʁɆ˘ʰʁȥȲʜʟɔɷʰȲȬ˒ȉʦ<ʟȉɷȦȉɷˢɔʁȬȉgʁɷʰȉɫȥʁȬȬʁউʦ lǱʑȪʗ>ɀɸȶǫ`ǈȶǫɥʁɅࢾࣂࢽࣄेEȲʟȲgʁɷʰȉɫȥʁȬȬʁʜʹʰʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟεˑȲȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʦ of travel to Africa, India, and America, four of which were written by Italian navigators.42 ɫʰɏʁʹɆɏʦʁɴȲআɷȲ˒ɫ˘ɅʁʹɷȬইʜȲʁʜɫȲʦ˒ȲʟȲȉȦɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲȬʰʁɏȉˑȲȦʁɴʜɫȲ˗ ȦɔˑɔɫɔˢȉʰɔʁɷʦȉɷȬ˒ȲȉʟȦɫʁʰɏȲʦूȉɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰʰʟʁʜȲɔɷʰɏȲʦȲȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʦɔʦʰɏȉʰ ɴȉɷ˘ɅʁʟȲɔɆɷȲʟʦɫɔˑȲɔɷȉʦʰȉʰȲʁɅȥȲʦʰɔȉɫȉɷȬ्ʁʟɔɷɷʁȦȲɷʰɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦु আȲˑȲʟ˘ʁɷȲɆʁȲʦȉʟʁʹɷȬɷȉɦȲȬूইȦɫȉɔɴȲȬɴȲʟɔɆʁÁȲʦʜʹȦȦɔɔɷɏɔʦ>ȓɞɥɯ`ǱɯɯǱɞ ȄɞɀȳɯȎǱLɥȪǈȶǫɥ (cेࢾࣂࢽࣀ३ौআʰɏȲ˘ȉʟȲɷʁʰȉʦɏȉɴȲȬʁɅʰɏȲɔʟʦɏȉɴȲɅʹɫʜȉʟʰʦेই43 ΤɔʦɔʦʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔˑȲʁɅɴȉɷ˘ʦʹȦɏȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʦʁɅʰɏȲʦȲɷȉɦȲȬʦȉˑȉɆȲʦूɆȉˢȲȬ upon by European explorers.44ΤȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʁɅʰɏȲʦȲɅʁʟȲɔɆɷȲʟʦɔʦȉɫʦʁ emphasized in early printed representations, such as the frontispiece of ʰɏȲJʰȉɫɔȉɷˑȲʟʦȲʰʟȉɷʦɫȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɏʟɔʦʰʁʜɏȲʟʁɫʹɴȥʹʦউʦεʟʦʰɫȲʰʰȲʟɅʟʁɴ ʰɏȲɔʦɫȉɷȬʦ२εɆेࢾेࣆ३ूȉɷȬEȉɷʦʹʟɆɦɴȉɔʟউʦɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȉɅȉɴɔɫ˘Ʌʟʁɴ আ=ʹɔɷȲȉইɔɷɏɔʦKing of Cochin frieze, which illustrates representative ʜȲʁʜɫȲʦɅʟʁɴȉʟʁʹɷȬʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɫȬ२εɆेࢾेࢾࢽ३े ΤɔʦȲɴʜɏȉʦɔʦʁɷȦɫʁʰɏȲʦȉʦȉɴȉʟɦȲʟʁɅʦʁȦɔȉɫȬɔʦʰɔɷȦʰɔʁɷɴȲȉɷʰʰɏȉʰ˒ɏȲɷ *ʹʟʁʜȲȉɷʦȲɷȦʁʹɷʰȲʟȲȬʁʰɏȲʟȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʦ˒ɔʰɏȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʦʰʁȦʁˑȲʟɔɷɆ ʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ʰɏȲ˘ʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬʰɏȲʦȲʜȲʁʜɫȲʦȉʦআɷȉɦȲȬইॹ˒ɔʰɏȉɫɫɔʰʦʦʁȦɔȉɫȉɷȬ cultural implications.40ΤȲআˑʁ˘ȉɆȲʦʁɅȬɔʦȦʁˑȲʟ˘ूইɅʹɷȬȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲʜȉɷɔʦɏ ȉɷȬʁʟʰʹɆʹȲʦȲɴʁɷȉʟȦɏ˘ȥʹʰʁδȲɷɫȲȬȥ˘JʰȉɫɔȉɷɷȉˑɔɆȉʰʁʟʦूʦʰȉʟʰȲȬɔɷ earnest in the 1440s. Travel accounts of explorations of sub-Saharan Africa, the Caribbean, and the American mainland were read voraciously in Italy and communicated to non-readers by town criers and street singers.41 gȉɷ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʦȲɅʁʟȲɔɆɷȲʟʦȉȦʰʹȉɫɫ˘ȬɔȬ˒ȲȉʟʦʁȦɔȉɫɫ˘ȬɔʦʰɔɷȦʰɔˑȲȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆॹ ɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲɆȲɷɔʰȉɫȦʁˑȲʟɔɷɆʦूʦɦɔʟʰʦूɏȲȉȬ˒ȲȉʟूȉɷȬɣȲ˒Ȳɫʟ˘ॹȥʹʰʰɏȲ˘ ˒ȲʟȲʦʰɔɫɫȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲȬȉʦআɷȉɦȲȬेই*ʹʟʁʜȲȉɷȲ˗ʜɫʁʟȲʟʦȉɷȬʰɏȲȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲȉʰ home were simply unable to recognize what these people were wearing ȉʦȦɫʁʰɏȲʦȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏȲ˘ȦʁʹɫȬɷʁʰআʟȲȉȬইʰɏȲʦȲɆȉʟɴȲɷʰʦɔɷʰȲʟɴʦʁɅ ʰɏȲʦʁȦɔȉɫʁʟȬȲʟʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟʰʁʰɏȲɴेΤȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʁɅʰɏȲʦȲɷȲ˒ peoples stood as a symbol for a lack of civilization, and ultimately a lack THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 35 ʁɅɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘ेΤȲʦȲʜȲʁʜɫȲʦ˒ȲʟȲɴʁʟȲȉɷɔɴȉɫʰɏȉɷɏʹɴȉɷूȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁ ɴȉɷ˘ȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʰʁʟʦॹʦʹȥॼȉɏȉʟȉɷɅʟɔȦȉɷʦআɫɔˑȲȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲɫ˘˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰɫȉ˒ʦू ɫɔɦȲȥȲȉʦʰʦʁȥȲ˘ɔɷɆɷȉʰʹʟȲूইȦɫȉɔɴȲȬʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲȦɏȉɷȦȲɫɫʁʟȉʟʰʁɫʁɴȲʁ Scala in 1483.45 Fig. 1.10. EȉɷʦʹʟɆɦɴȉɔʟूȉδȲʟूNatives of ?ɸȓȶǱǈूࢾࣂࢽࣅॹࣄࢽेÂʁʁȬȦʹʰेʟɔʰɔʦɏ gʹʦȲʹɴू^ʁɷȬʁɷे ΤȲȲɫɔʦɔʁɷʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ˒ɔʰɏʦȉˑȉɆȲʟ˘˒ȉʦȦʁɴɴʁɷɔɷʰɏȲˑɔʦʹȉɫȦʹɫʰʹʟȲ ʁɅʰɏȲɫȉʰȲʟεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेɷʰʁɷɔʁȬȲɫʁɫɫȉɔʹʁɫʁউʦǈɯɯȪǱɀȄlǈȥǱǫiǱȶ २εɆेࢾेࢾࢾ३˒ȉʦȲɷɆʟȉˑȲȬɔɷʰɏȲɫȉʰȲࢾࣁࣃࢽʦʁʟȲȉʟɫ˘ࢾࣁࣄࢽʦेJʰ˒ȉʦȉɏʹɆȲɫ˘ ɔɷζʹȲɷʰɔȉɫʜʟɔɷʰॹȉɦɔɷȬʁɅɴȉɷɔɅȲʦʰʁɅʁʟʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰɔɷɆʰɏȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲɔɷ action – and was the inspiration for many prints, paintings, and other artworks of this period that focused on the battling nude.46 It shows a ɆʟʁʹʜʁɅɴȲɷूȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲɫ˘ɷȉɦȲȬȲ˗ȦȲʜʰɅʁʟʟɔȥȥʁɷʦɔɷʰɏȲɔʟɏȉɔʟूεɆɏʰɔɷɆ ɔɷʜȉɔʟʦेʁɴȲɏȉˑȲȦʹʟˑȲȬʦ˒ʁʟȬʦूʦʁɴȲʜʁɔɷʰȲȬȬȉηȲʟʦूʰ˒ʁɏȉˑȲȉɷȉ˗Ȳू and to the rear of the painting one man has a bow and arrow. Circular shields lie discarded on the ground: the blood lust of these men seems to ʁˑȲʟȦʁɴȲȉɷ˘ʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʦʁɅʜȲʟʦʁɷȉɫʜʟʁʰȲȦʰɔʁɷेΤȲȥȉȦɦɆʟʁʹɷȬɔʦɅʹɫɫʁɅ ɫʹʦɏˑȲɆȲʰȉʰɔʁɷू˒ɔʰɏˑɔɷȲʦʰʁʰɏȲʟɔɆɏʰȉɷȬɫȲδȉɷȬʦʁʟɆɏʹɴɔɷʰɏȲȦȲɷʰȲʟे Fig. 1.11. Antonio del Pollaiuolo, Battle of Naked Men, c.1470s. Engraving. ɫȲˑȲɫȉɷȬgʹʦȲʹɴʁɅʟʰे As I have discussed in detail elsewhere, the approach to nakedness here ʟȲζȲȦʰʦʰɏȉʰʁɅȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ʰʟȉˑȲɫȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʦʰɏȉʰȬɔʦȦʹʦʦʰɏȲʦȉˑȉɆȲʟ˘ʁɅ ɷȉɦȲȬʦʹȥॼȉɏȉʟȉɷɅʟɔȦȉɷʦेΤȲʟȲȉʟȲʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟʜȉʟȉɫɫȲɫʦ˒ɔʰɏɫˑɔʦȲ ȉȬȉɴʁʦʰʁউʦɣʁʹʟɷȲ˘ʰʁআɫʁ˒Ȳʟ*ʰɏɔʁʜɔȉইʰɏȉʰʰʁʁɦʜɫȉȦȲɔɷࢾࣁࣂࣂॹࣃॹȉɷ account that Pollaiuolo and his audiences would most likely have known, ɆɔˑȲɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲɴȲʟȦɏȉɷʰʦউȦɫʁʦȲɫɔɷɦʦʰʁʰɏȲʁʟʰʹɆʹȲʦȲʰʟȉȬȲʁɅɆʁʁȬʦ and slaves in sub-Saharan Africa. Cadamosto noted that the men living ʦʁʹʰɏʁɅʰɏȲȲɷȲɆȉɫʟɔˑȲʟ˒ȲʟȲআȥɫȉȦɦʰȉɫɫȉɷȬȥɔɆूʰɏȲɔʟȥʁȬɔȲʦ˒Ȳɫɫ ɅʁʟɴȲȬইȉɷȬॹȉʦɔʦʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫɔɷʰɏȲʦȲȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʦॹɴȉɔɷɫ˘˒ȲɷʰȉʟʁʹɷȬɷȉɦȲȬे ΤȲ˘আʁδȲɷɆʁʰʁ˒ȉʟूইȉɷȬεɆɏʰ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȉʟɴʁʟȥʹʰ˒ɔʰɏʟʁʹɷȬʦɏɔȲɫȬʦू ʦʜȲȉʟʦूȉɷȬȦʹʟˑȲȬʦ˒ʁʟȬʦेআΤȲ˘ȉʟȲˑȲʟ˘ȬȉʟɔɷɆȉɷȬȥȲʦʰɔȉɫेेेȉɷȬʰɏȲ˘ ȬʁɷʁʰɅȲȉʟȬȲȉʰɏȉʰȉɫɫेই47 ΤȉʰʁɫɫȉɔʹʁɫʁউʦɔɴȉɆȲ˒ȉʦʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲȬȉʦʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬɅʟɔȦȉɷʦȥ˘ ȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟɔȲʦɔʦʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬȥ˘ȉɷȉʜʜʟʁʜʟɔȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʦʁɴȲʁɅʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦʁɷ the engraving for a large silver gilt cup of the mid-1520s, made in Antwerp ȉɷȬɷʁ˒ɔɷgʹɷɔȦɏेΤȲεɆɏʰȲʟʦʰʁʰɏȲɫȲδʁɅʰɏȲʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫʜʟɔɷʰȉʟȲȦʁʜɔȲȬ ʁɷʰɏȲȥȉʦȲʁɅʰɏȲȦʹʜॹʦʁɴȲɆɔˑȲɷȉɷɔɴȉɫউʦɏȲȉȬʦ२εɆेࢾेࢾࢿ३े*ɫʦȲ˒ɏȲʟȲʰɏɔʦ cup is decorated with scenes of African animals and people with feathered headdresses and stereotypical African physiognomies.48ÂȲȦȉɷʦȲȲɔɷ 36 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 37 Fig. 1.12. ©ɷɦɷʁ˒ɷɷʰ˒ȲʟʜȦʟȉδʦɴȉɷू ʧǈȶǫȓȶȅ ɸɛʑȓɯȎȳǱɞȓǥǈȶɥǈȶǫ Africans (detail of base), c.1530. ɔɫˑȲʟɆɔɫʰेȲʦɔȬȲɷˢgʾɷȦɏȲɷू ȦɏȉʰˢɦȉɴɴȲʟेgʹɷɔȦɏू ȲʦgʾȦɏࣀࣄे *ʹʟʁʜȲȉɷȦʁʹɷʰʟɔȲʦूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूȉʦʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲ<ʟȲɷȦɏ spa of Plombières in a Venetian book of 1553, On Baths (De Balneis३२εɆेࢾेࢾࣀ३े ΤȲɔȬȲȉʁɅɴɔ˗ȲȬȥȉʰɏɔɷɆ˒ȉʦʰɔʰɔɫɫȉʰɔɷɆʰʁʦʁɴȲेÂɏȲɷʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ ɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰʁηɔʁʟȉȦȦɔʁɫɔɷɔˑɔʦɔʰȲȬȥȉʰɏʦɔɷȉȬȲɷ२ɷȲȉʟȦɏȉΩȉʹʦȲɷɔɷ Switzerland) in 1416, he wrote to his friend Niccolò Niccoli expressing his ʦʹʟʜʟɔʦȲȉʰʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ȥʁʰɏʦȲ˗ȲʦȦʁʹɫȬʦȲȲȲȉȦɏʁʰɏȲʟউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦुআJʰɔʦȦʁɴɔȦȉɫ to see decrepit old women as well as younger ones, going naked into the water before the eyes of men, and displaying their private parts and their ȥʹʰʰʁȦɦʦʰʁʰɏȲ०ɴȉɫȲ१ʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟʦेই52Eʁ˒ȲˑȲʟू˒ɏȉʰɏȲȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲʦȉʦআɷȉɦȲȬই in his account once again does not mean entirely without clothes. He goes ʁɷʰʁȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷुআΤȲɴȲɷ˒ȲȉʟɷʁʰɏɔɷɆȥʹʰȉɫȲȉʰɏȲʟȉʜʟʁɷूȉɷȬʰɏȲ˒ʁɴȲɷ put on linen shirts down to their knees, so cut on either side that they leave ʹɷȦʁˑȲʟȲȬɷȲȦɦूȥʁʦʁɴूȉʟɴʦȉɷȬʦɏʁʹɫȬȲʟʦेই53 ʁɫɫȉɔʹʁɫʁউʦɔɴȉɆȲूȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟʦȦʁɷɷȲȦʰȲȬʰʁɔʰूʰɏȲȲ̍ʹȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ ˒ɔʰɏȉɫȉȦɦʁɅȦɔˑɔɫɔˢȉʰɔʁɷȉɷȬʰɏʹʦȲΦȲȦʰɔˑȲɫ˘ȉɣʹʦʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷɅʁʟ*ʹʟʁʜȲȉɷʦ ʰʁআȦɫʁʰɏȲইʰɏȲʦȲɷȲ˒ɫ˘ȬɔʦȦʁˑȲʟȲȬʜȲʁʜɫȲɴȲʰȉʜɏʁʟɔȦȉɫɫ˘ȉɷȬɫɔʰȲʟȉɫɫ˘ू ʁδȲɷȲɷʦɫȉˑɔɷɆʰɏȲɴɔɷʰɏȲʜʟʁȦȲʦʦे Naked Men, Poverty, and Renunciation ΤȲʟȲ˒ȉʦʁɷɫ˘ʁɷȲʜɫȉȦȲɔɷ*ʹʟʁʜȲȉɷȦɔʰɔȲʦ˒ɏȲʟȲɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦȦʁʹɫȬ be seen licitly on a regular basis, and this was the bathhouse. In 1508–09 ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁȬȉÁɔɷȦɔɣʁʰʰȲȬȉʟȲɴɔɷȬȲʟʰʁɏɔɴʦȲɫɅʰʁআ=ʁʰʁʰɏȲȥȉʰɏʦ ȲˑȲʟ˘ȉʰʹʟȬȉ˘ʰʁʦȲȲɷȉɦȲȬʜȲʁʜɫȲेই49 Leonardo, as I discuss in Chapter ΤʟȲȲूʜȉɔȬɴʁȬȲɫʦʰʁʜʁʦȲɷȉɦȲȬɅʁʟɏɔɴूʦʁɔʰɔʦʹɷɫɔɦȲɫ˘ʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦ˒ȉʦ an exercise in life drawing but more, perhaps, the chance to see a great range of bodies at the same time. No wonder in a society where the body was normally covered from head to toe, the bathhouse – where one could routinely see others naked or near-naked – was a place of fascination, ɷʁʰɣʹʦʰɅʁʟʜʟʹʟɔȲɷʰˑɔȲ˒ɔɷɆ२ʰɏʁʹɆɏʰɏɔʦȬɔȬεɆʹʟȲʜʟʁɴɔɷȲɷʰɫ˘३ȥʹʰ also – as in the case of Ganfo – for the potential to break down social ȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɔȉʰɔʁɷेȉʰɏʦȉɷȬʦʜȉʦȦʁʹɫȬȥȲʹʦȲȬȥʁʰɏɅʁʟȦɫȲȉɷɔɷɆȉɷȬɅʁʟ therapeutic reasons, something that became increasingly popular over the ɅʁʹʟʰȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦे50 38 ɫʰɏʁʹɆɏˑɔʦʹȉɫȉȦȦȲʦʦʰʁ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦ˒ȉʦʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ɷʁʰȲȉʦ˘ɔɷʰɏȲ Italian bathhouse, the bath was an important source of ideas about the ʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲʦȉɷȬʜȲʟɔɫʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦूȉʦʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬȥ˘ȉɫȲʰʰȲʟʁɅࢾࣁࣆࣁɅʟʁɴȉ ʁɫʁɆɷȲʦȲȦȉɷʁɷɫȉ˒ʜʟʁɅȲʦʦʁʟू<ɫʁʟɔȉɷʁ$ʁɫɅʁूʰʁʰɏȲgȉʟ̍ʹɔʦʁɅgȉɷʰʹȉू <ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁJJ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉेʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ȉʜȉʟʁȬ˘ʁɅʟȉȦȦɔʁɫɔɷɔউʦɫȲʰʰȲʟू$ʁɫɅʁ starts by comparing the baths at Porretta (between Bologna and Florence) ʰʁʰɏȉʰআʦȉȦʟɔεȦɔȉɫʜʁɷȬȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲȬȥ˘ʰXʁɏɷɔɷɏɔʦɆʁʦʜȲɫইʦʹηȲʦʰɔɷɆʰɏȉʰ ʰɏȲȥȉʰɏʦȉʟȲȉʜɫȉȦȲ˒ɏȲʟȲɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷʦআɴȉɔɷʰȉɔɷʰʟʹȲɫɔȥȲʟʰ˘ूʰɏȉʰʰʁɴȲ ʟȲʦȲɴȥɫȲʦʰɏȉʰεʟʦʰɆʁɫȬȲɷȉɆȲेेेेEȲʟȲ˒ʁɴȲɷूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟɷʁȥɫȲȉɷȬɆȲɷʰɫȲू ȉʟȲɷʁʰȬɔʦʰɔɷɆʹɔʦɏȉȥɫȲɅʟʁɴʜɫȲȥʦेेेȲˑȲʟ˘ɴȉɷɔʦȲ̍ʹȉɫेই54ΤɔʦɏɔɆɏॼ ȥɫʁ˒ɷȥȲɆɔɷɷɔɷɆʁɷɫ˘ʦȲʟˑȲʦʰʁɏɔɆɏɫɔɆɏʰʰɏȲȉȦʰʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲȥȉʰɏʦुআɫɫ reverence and shame is alien to the bathers, who are not ashamed to fart, ʦɏɔʰूȥʹʟʜȉɷȬʜɔʦʦɔɷʜʹȥɫɔȦूˑȲʟ˘ʁδȲɷʦɏʁ˒ɔɷɆʰɏȲɔʟȉʦʦȲʦूȦʁȦɦʦȉɷȬʰɔʰʦ without blushes . . . men and women go to the bath and enter the water naked, and here with hands and feet and loving sweet nothings they take ˑȲʟ˘ɆʟȲȉʰʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲɔɷȲȉȦɏʁʰɏȲʟेই55ΤȲʰɏȲɴȲʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɔɷɷʁȦȲɷȦȲʦʜɔɫɫɔɷɆ over into depravity due to the sinful nature of humanity is one that is ʟȲʜȲȉʰȲȬʁδȲɷɔɷȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲे Generally in Italy, visitors to spas tended to bathe partially clothed, and men ȉɷȬ˒ʁɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲʦȲʜȉʟȉʰȲȬॹʰɏɔʦ˒ȉʦʟȲζȲȦʰȲȬɔɷʰɏȲȉʟȦɏɔʰȲȦʰʹʟȲʁɅɴȉɷ˘ ʦʜȉʦू˒ɔʰɏʦȲʜȉʟȉʰȲɴȲɷউʦȉɷȬ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦʜʁʁɫʦे51Τɔʦ˒ȉʦɷʁʰʰɏȲȦȉʦȲɔɷʁʰɏȲʟ ÂɏɔɫȲʰɏȲʟȉʜȲʹʰɔȦȥȉʰɏɔɷɆɔɷʦʜȉʰʁ˒ɷʦʟȲɴȉɔɷȲȬʜʁʜʹɫȉʟूʰɏȲʹʦȲʁɅ water to clean the body in urban bathhouses fell out of favor over the course of the sixteenth century. Public bathhouses became increasingly rare, and frowned upon over the course of the Renaissance as they became associated with infectious disease and immoral behavior.56 According to the Florentine apothecary Luca Landucci, in November 1506 an image of ʰɏȲÁɔʟɆɔɷgȉʟ˘ʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦɫʁȦȉʰȲȬʁɷʰɏȲȦɏʹʟȦɏʁʜʜʁʦɔʰȲʰɏȲȲ˗ɔʰʁɅʁɷȲ ʁɅʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲʜʹȥɫɔȦȥȉʰɏʦȦɫʁʦȲȬɏȲʟȲ˘ȲʦȥȲȦȉʹʦȲআʦɏȲȬɔȬɷʁʰ˒ȉɷʰ ʰʁʦȲȲʰɏȲʦɔɷʦʰɏȉʰȉʟȲȦʁɴɴɔʰʰȲȬʰɏȲʟȲेই57ΤȲʦɔɷʦ˒ȲʟȲȉɫɴʁʦʰȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ connected with male sodomy – Landucci notes that women feared going near the bathhouse because of its reputation, and it was on one of the network of streets and small piazzas around the center of Florence that THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 39 Fig. 1.13. Balneum Plummer (̨ǱǈɯȎɥ at Plombières), 1553. From De Balneis. Venice: Giunta, p. 299r. ʦȉ˒আȉɫɫʟʁȥȥȲȬȉɷȬɷȉɦȲȬইζȲȲɔɷɆɅʟʁɴjȉʜɫȲʦɔɷࢾࣁࣆࣁूʦʁȦʁɫȬʰɏȲ˘ʰɏʟȲ˒ themselves on dung heaps to warm up.60 Nakedness became a shorthand way of representing poverty and need, linked to the Christian tradition ʁɅআȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬूইʁɷȲʁɅʰɏȲʦȲˑȲɷȉȦʰʦʁɅɴȲʟȦ˘ूȉʦɔɷ$ʁɴȲɷɔȦʁ =ɏɔʟɫȉɷȬȉɔʁউʦ̨Ǳ ȪɀɯȎȓȶȅɀȄɯȎǱlǈȥǱǫɅʟȲʦȦʁɔɷʰɏȲʁʟȉʰʁʟ˘ʁɅȉɷgȉʟʰɔɷʁ ȬȲɔʹʁɷʁɴɔɷɔɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲ२εɆेࢾेࢾࣁ३ेJʰȬɔȬɷʁʰɷȲȦȲʦʦȉʟɔɫ˘ɔɷȬɔȦȉʰȲȉȥʁȬ˘ totally divested of clothes. Fig. 1.14. $ʁɴȲɷɔȦʁ=ɏɔʟɫȉɷȬȉɔʁू˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜू ̨Ǳ ȪɀɯȎȓȶȅɀȄɯȎǱlǈȥǱǫ, 1478–9. <ʟȲʦȦʁेsʟȉʰʁʟ˘ʁɅȉɷgȉʟʰɔɷʁȬȲɔ Buonomini, Florence. In the case of men, poverty could lead to socially censured genital display. gȉɫȲʹɷȬȲʟ˒ȲȉʟɆȲɷȲʟȉɫɫ˘ȦʁɷʦɔʦʰȲȬʁɅȉɫɔɷȲɷʹɷȬȲʟʦɏɔʟʰ२camicia), which could be thigh or waist length, and linen underpants. Underpants with a ʦɔȬȲʰɔȲȉʟȲʁδȲɷʦȲȲɷʁɷɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆɴʁȬȲɫʦ२ʦȲȲɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲεɆʦࣀेࢿूࣀेࣀू ࣀेࣂ३ेΤȲʦȲʹɷȬȲʟɆȉʟɴȲɷʰʦ˒ȲʟȲʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫɫ˘ȦʁˑȲʟȲȬ˒ɔʰɏȉȬʁʹȥɫȲʰॹȉȦɫʁʦȲॼ εʰʰɔɷɆɣȉȦɦȲʰूʁδȲɷʜȉȬȬȲȬू˒ɏɔȦɏʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦ˒ȲɷʰȬʁ˒ɷʰʁʰɏȲʰɏɔɆɏȥʹʰ were associated with sexual crime.58ΤȲɅȉȦʰʰɏȉʰʰɏȲÁɔʟɆɔɷȦɫʁʦȲȬɏȲʟ Ȳ˘ȲʦɔʦʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰॹʰɏȲʦɔɆɏʰʁɅɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦɔɷȉʦʁȦɔȲʰ˘˒ɏȲʟȲʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ was normally fully covered could be highly sexually charged. Beyond the walls of the bathhouse, male nakedness was largely connected with poverty. Not surprisingly in a society where clothing could be very Ȳ˗ʜȲɷʦɔˑȲȉɷȬɴȉʟɦȲȬʁɷȲউʦʦʁȦɔȉɫʟʁɫȲूʰɏȲ˒ʁʟȬnudo२ɷȉɦȲȬ३˒ȉʦʁδȲɷ ʹʦȲȬʰʁȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲʰɏȲʜʁʁʟूȬɔʦʜʁʦʦȲʦʦȲȬूʁʟʁʰɏȲʟ˒ɔʦȲʁʹʰȦȉʦʰेXʁɏɷ<ɫʁʟɔʁউʦ ࢾࣃࢾࢾ*ɷɆɫɔʦɏ्JʰȉɫɔȉɷȬɔȦʰɔʁɷȉʟ˘ȬȲεɷɔʰɔʁɷʁɅnudoɔʦআjʹȬȲूɷȉɦȲȬूȥȉʟȲू ȬɔʦȦʁˑȲʟȲȬेɫʦʁʜʁʁʟȲूȥȲηȉʟɫ˘ȉɷȬȬȲʜʟɔˑȲȬʁɅूইȉɷȬʰɏȲʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜ between nudity and poverty was a commonplace in pre-modern Europe.59 ʁʁʟʜȲʁʜɫȲʁδȲɷȦʁʹɫȬɷʁʰȉΦʁʟȬɴȉɷ˘ȦɫʁʰɏȲʦूȉɷȬʰɏȲȦɫʁʰɏȲʦʰɏȲ˘ ɏȉȬȦʁʹɫȬȥȲ˒ʁʟɷȉɷȬʰȉʰʰȲʟȲȬेsδȲɷȬȲʦʰɔʰʹʰȲʜȲʁʜɫȲ˒ȲʟȲȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲȬ ɔɷʦʁʹʟȦȲʦȉʦআɷȉɦȲȬই˒ɏȲɷʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲूɔɷɅȉȦʰूȉʰɫȲȉʦʰʜȉʟʰɔȉɫɫ˘ȬʟȲʦʦȲȬॹ ʦʹȦɏȉʦʰɏȲআȥȉʟȲɅʁʁʰȉɷȬɷȉɦȲȬইʟȲɅʹɆȲȲʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲ^ʁɴȥȉʟȬ˒ȉʟʦʰɏȉʰ Landucci saw coming into Florence in 1483, or the French troops that he 40 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 41 got increasingly short over the period. Sleeves were generally matching but were detachable and could be alternated. Gowns or robes could be worn ʁˑȲʟʰɏȲʰʁʜʁɅʰɏȲȬʁʹȥɫȲʰूʁδȲɷʦɫȲȲˑȲɫȲʦʦ२ȉʦʦɏʁ˒ɷȥ˘ʰɏȲʦȲȉʰȲȬȥɫȉȦɦॼ ʟʁȥȲȬɷʁʰȉʟ˘ʰʁʰɏȲɫȲδʁɅʰɏȲʦȦȲɷȲɔɷεɆेࢾेࢾࣁ३ेsɷʰɏȲɔʟɫʁ˒ȲʟɏȉɫɅूɴȲɷ ˒ʁʟȲʰɔɆɏʰॼεʰʰɔɷɆɏʁʦȲेJɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ʜȉʟʰʁɅʰɏȲʜȲʟɔʁȬʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȉʦʁɷȲɏʁʦȲ for each leg, rather like a woolen or linen stocking, and they were kept up by being tied to the doublet, usually at the waistband – as can be seen ʁɷʰɏȲȉȬʁɫȲʦȦȲɷʰȥʁ˘ʦȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬʁɷȉɴɔȬॼεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ birth tray playing a game called civettino२εɆेࢾेࣀࣀ३े=Ȳɷɔʰȉɫʦ˒ȲʟȲȦʁˑȲʟȲȬ ˒ɔʰɏȉζȉʜʁʟɆʹʦʦȲʰू˒ɏɔȦɏȬȲˑȲɫʁʜȲȬɔɷʰʁʰɏȲʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦˑȲʟ˘ʜʟʁɴɔɷȲɷʰ codpieces in fashion from the mid-sixteenth century as doublets and shirts became shorter.61 ΤȲ˒ȉ˘ʰɏȉʰɏʁʦȲɣʁɔɷȲȬʁɷʰʁʹɷȬȲʟ˒ȲȉʟूȦʁʹʜɫȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɅȉʦɏɔʁɷɅʁʟ increasingly high-cut doublets or tunics, could lead to accidental genital Fig. 1.15. Piero della Francesca, Burial of the Wood (detail), 1452–66. Fresco. Church of San Francesco, Arezzo. Fig. 1.16. Francesco del Cossa, Allegory of March (detail), before 1470. Fresco. ȉɫʁɷȲȬȲɔgȲʦɔूȉɫȉˢˢʁȦɏɔɅȉɷʁɔȉू Ferrara. display for men. To counter this, several Italian states passed sumptuary ɫȉ˒ʦʦʜȲȦɔεȦȉɫɫ˘Ȭɔʦȉɫɫʁ˒ɔɷɆʰɏȲʜʹȥɫɔȦȬɔʦʜɫȉ˘ʁɅɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦेΤʹʦɔɷࢾࣀࣄࣂ ɔɷ̍ʹɔɫȉʦɏʁʟʰȬʁʹȥɫȲʰʦ˒ȲʟȲȥȉɷɷȲȬȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏȲ˘ȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬʰɏȲɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦ to remain uncovered, and a similar law was made in 1491 in Bergamo.62 Τɔʦɔʦʦɏʁ˒ɷɔɷʦʁɴȲεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦॹʦʹȦɏȉʦɔȲʟʁȬȲɫɫȉ <ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦȉউʦBurial of the Wood ɔɷʟȲˢˢʁू˒ɏȲʟȲʰɏȲʜʁʁʟɴȉɷɫɔδɔɷɆʹʜ ʰɏȲȦʟʁʦʦʦɏʁ˒ʦɏɔʦɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦʰɏʟʁʹɆɏɏɔʦʹɷȬȲʟ˒Ȳȉʟ२εɆेࢾेࢾࣂ३ौʰɏȲȬȉʟɦॼ ʦɦɔɷɷȲȬʜȉʹʜȲʟɔɷʰȉʰʰȲʟȲȬȦɫʁʰɏȲʦȉȦʰɔɷɆȉʦʰɏȲʜʟʁʰȲȦʰʁʟʁɅʰɏȲÒʁȬɔȉȦ ʦɔɆɷʁɅʟɔȲʦɔɷ<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁȬȲɫʁʦʦȉউʦɅʟȲʦȦʁɔɷʰɏȲȉɫʁɷȲȬȲɔgȲʦɔɔɷʰɏȲ ȉɫȉˢˢʁȦɏɔɅȉɷʁɔȉɔɷ<Ȳʟʟȉʟȉ२εɆेࢾेࢾࣃ३ौʁʟʰɏȲʜʁʁʟɴȉɷʟȲȦȲɔˑɔɷɆȦɫʁʰɏȲʦ ɔɷ=ɏɔʟɫȉɷȬȉɔʁউʦ̨Ǳ ȪɀɯȎȓȶȅɀȄɯȎǱlǈȥǱǫɅʟȲʦȦʁ२εɆेࢾेࢾࣁ३ेJɷʰɏȲɫȉʰʰȲʟȦȉʦȲू the man is most probably a formerly wealthy person fallen on hard times – his upper body is covered by a smart yellow doublet, but his modesty is protected only by his long undershirt that would otherwise normally be ʰʹȦɦȲȬɔɷʰʁɏɔʦɏʁʦȲेΤȲɫɔʰʰɫȲȦɏɔɫȬɔɷɅʟʁɷʰʁɅɏɔɴɔʦȬʟȲʦʦȲȬʁɷɫ˘ɔɷȉ ʦɫȲȲˑȲɫȲʦʦȥȲɫʰȲȬʦɏɔδे63 Alongside the destitute, there were some occupations for men where nakedness was socially licit, as long as the genitalia remained covered. Laborers, for example, seem to have worn only their underpants at times ɔɷʰɏȲʦʹɴɴȲʟूȉʦʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬȥ˘ʰ˒ʁȬȲʰȉɔɫʦʁɅɴȲɷɔɷʰɏȲɔʟʹɷȬȲʟ˒Ȳȉʟɔɷ ʰɏȲȥȉȦɦɆʟʁʹɷȬʁɅɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲȦ˘ȦɫȲʦȥ˘$ʁɴȲɷɔȦʁ=ɏɔʟɫȉɷȬȉɔʁȉɷȬÁɔʰʰʁʟȲ ȉʟʜȉȦȦɔʁूɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲȉɷȬÁȲɷɔȦȲʟȲʦʜȲȦʰɔˑȲɫ˘२εɆʦेࢾेࢾࣄȉɷȬࢾेࢾࣅ३ेsʰɏȲʟ occupations, such as dyeing and curing leather, involved workers standing naked in vats of urine as part of the process – as on a painting representing ʰɏȲ¢ȉɷɷȲʟউʦ=ʹɔɫȬɷʁ˒ɅʁʹɷȬɔɷʰɏȲgʹʦȲʁʁʟʟȲʟɔɷÁȲɷɔȦȲ२εɆेࢾेࢾࣆ३े EʹɴȉɷȉɷȬȉɷɔɴȉɫʹʟɔɷȲ˒ȲʟȲʹʦȲȬȲ˗ʰȲɷʦɔˑȲɫ˘ȉʦȉε˗ȉʰɔˑȲɅʁʟȬ˘ȲʦȉɷȬȉʦ ȉʦʁδȲɷȲʟɅʁʟȉɷɔɴȉɫʦɦɔɷʦɔɷȉˑȉʟɔȲʰ˘ʁɅʰʟȉȬȲʦे64 In an age where clothing was relatively expensive and washing was time-consuming, it would be foolish to risk dousing a set of clothes in wet and smelly substances. ˒ɔɴɴɔɷɆȉɷȬεʦɏɔɷɆ˒ȲʟȲȉɫʦʁȉȦʰɔˑɔʰɔȲʦʰɏȉʰ˒ȲʟȲȬʁɷȲɷȉɦȲȬʁʟɷȲȉʟ ɷȉɦȲȬुআ˒ɏʁȲˑȲʟ˒ȉɷʰʦʰʁɫȲȉʟɷʰɏɔʦʦɦɔɫɫʜʟʁʜȲʟɫ˘ूইȬȲȦɫȉʟȲȬȉ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ <ɔɆेࢾेࢾࣄे२ɫȲδ३ $ʁɴȲɷɔȦʁ=ɏɔʟɫȉɷȬȉɔʁूResurrection ɀȄɯȎǱɀʗɀȶȓǈʡʡǈǈȶʧǈ¤ɞȓȶȓʧǈ (detail), 1483–5. Fresco. Sassetti Chapel, Santa Trinita, Florence. Fig. 1.18. (right) Vittore Carpaccio, Meeting of the Betrothed Couple and the Departure of the Pilgrims, 1495. Oil on canvas. =ȉɫɫȲʟɔȲȬȲɫɫউȦȦȉȬȲɴɔȉूÁȲɷɔȦȲे 42 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 43 Fig. 1.19. Unknown Venetian, ̨Ǳ¤ǈȶȶǱɞɥ ?ɸȓȪǫ, c.late sixteenth century. Oil on ʜȉɷȲɫेgʹʦȲʁʁʟʟȲʟूÁȲɷɔȦȲे ȦȉʟɷɔˑȉɫʜʁȲɴूআɏȉʦʰʁʦʹɔʰȥȲɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬेই65ΤȲʟȲ˒ȉʦȦʁɴɔȦɔɷʰȲɷʰȥȲɏɔɷȬ the poem, but visual sources support the idea that young men did, indeed, swim near-naked in rivers and lakes – and humanist educational texts ʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬʦ˒ɔɴɴɔɷɆȉʦȉɆʁʁȬȲ˗ȲʟȦɔʦȲɅʁʟ˘ʁʹɷɆɴȲɷे66 Naked swimmers ȉɷȬεʦɏȲʟɴȲɷȦȉɷȥȲʦȲȲɷɔɷɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅʰɏȲʜȲʟɔʁȬॹʦʹȦɏȉʦʰɏȲεʦɏȲʟɴȲɷ in the Arno on the cेࢾࣂࢽࢽȲɷɆʟȉˑɔɷɆʁɅ<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁʁʦʦȲɫɫɔউʦ̨Ǳ Ȏǈȓȶiǈɛ २εɆेࢾेࢿࢽ३ूʁʟʰɏȲȦɏȉʟɴɔɷɆɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅEȲʟʁȉɷȬ^ȲȉɷȬȲʟɔɷ ȉɫȉʰȲεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘jȲȉʜʁɫɔʰȉɷɴȉɷʹʦȦʟɔʜʰɔɷʰɏȲEȉʟˑȉʟȬ©ɷɔˑȲʟʦɔʰ˘ collection, which shows Leander swimming across the Hellespont to his ɫʁˑȲʟूȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲɫ˘ȬɔˑȲʦʰȲȬʁɅȦɫʁʰɏȲʦ२εɆेࢾेࢿࢾ३े ʦʜɔʟɔʰʹȉɫɔʰ˘ɅʟʁɴʰɏȲʰ˒ȲɫδɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʁɷ˒ȉʟȬʦे67 Recently, the popularity of images of Christ with his body bared has been linked to the emergence of the sensual artistic nude in European visual culture; the relationship between Christian ideas of the body and the formulation of the nude will ȥȲʟȲˑɔʦɔʰȲȬɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ɔɷʰɏɔʦȥʁʁɦे68 Fig. 1.21. ʟɔʦʰʁɅʁʟʁgȉɣʁʟȉɷȉूLeander Swimming Across the Hellespont, cेࢾࣁࣅࣂॹࢾࣂࢽࢽेȉʟȦɏɴȲɷʰूg¢˘ʜ 0008, f. 82v. Houghton Library, Harvard University. ΤȲȲ̍ʹȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɴȉɫȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ˒ɔʰɏʜʁˑȲʟʰ˘ȉɷȬȉɫȉȦɦʁɅʦʁȦɔȉɫ distinction allied it with Christian abstinence from worldly vices. A ȬȲɫɔȥȲʟȉʰȲȦȉʦʰɔɷɆʁΦʁɅȦɫʁʰɏȲʦȦʁʹɫȬȥȲȉɴȲʰȉʜɏʁʟɅʁʟȲʦȦɏȲ˒ɔɷɆʰɏȲ ʰɏɔɷɆʦʁɅʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɫȬɅʁʟȉɏɔɆɏȲʟूʦʜɔʟɔʰʹȉɫȲ˗ɔʦʰȲɷȦȲेΤȲ˒ʁʟȬʦɆȲɷȲʟȉɫɫ˘ ȉʰʰʟɔȥʹʰȲȬʰʁʰेXȲʟʁɴȲूআsɷȲʦɏʁʹɫȬɅʁɫɫʁ˒ɷȉɦȲȬʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɏʟɔʦʰूই were associated with the increased focus on the body of Christ in medieval Fig. 1.20. ^ʹȦȉɷʰʁɷɔʁȬȲɆɫɔ©ȥȲʟʰɔ् Francesco Rosselli, attr., ̨Ǳ Ȏǈȓȶ Map (detail), c.1500. Engraving. Kupferstichkabinett, Berlin. 44 ΤȲɔɷȦʟȲȉʦɔɷɆɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷȦȲʁɅɔȬȲɷʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲʦʹΦȲʟɔɷɆʁɅɏʟɔʦʰউʦ body in religious practice is particularly linked to the growth of the Franciscan order. Franciscans, including the young San Bernardino of Siena, proclaimed the value of spiritual nudity in remembrance of their ɅʁʹɷȬȲʟȦȉʦʰɔɷɆʁΦɏɔʦȦɫʁʰɏȲʦʰʁȲɴȥʟȉȦȲȉʦʜɔʟɔʰʹȉɫʜȉʰɏूȉʦʦɏʁ˒ɷɔɷ $ʁɴȲɷɔȦʁ=ɏɔʟɫȉɷȬȉɔʁউʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʁɅʰɏɔʦʦʹȥɣȲȦʰɔɷʰɏȲȉʦʦȲʰʰɔɏȉʜȲɫɔɷ ȉɷʰȉ¢ʟɔɷɔʰȉɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲ२εɆेࢾेࢿࢿ३े69 Francis himself embraced nudity as ȉɴȲȉɷʦʁɅȲɴʜȉʰɏɔˢɔɷɆ˒ɔʰɏɏʟɔʦʰউʦεɷȉɫɏʹɴɔɫɔȉʰɔʁɷȉʦɏȲȬɔȲȬूɷȉɦȲȬू ʁɷʰɏȲȦʟʁʦʦे<ʟȉɷȦʁgʁʟɴȉɷȬʁɏȉʦȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬʰɏȲ<ʟȉɷȦɔʦȦȉɷʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲʁɅ parading naked through Italian towns, citing a case of a small band of Franciscan friars who were arrested in Venice in 1420 as the last known ɔɷʦʰȉɷȦȲेEȲʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲȬȲȦɫɔɷȲȬɔɷʰɏȲɫɔɆɏʰʁɅɔɷȦʟȲȉʦȲȬ paranoia about sodomy.70=ɔˑȲɷʰɏȲʹʦȲʁɅʰɏȲ˒ʁʟȬআɷȉɦȲȬইȉʦɴȲȉɷɔɷɆ both completely and partially undressed, it is hard to know exactly what is meant in the sources – but there are a handful of examples of seemingly similar processions later in the century. For example, in Rome in 1448 ˘ʁʹɷɆɴȲɷʜʟʁȦȲʦʦȲȬɷȉɦȲȬȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲȦɏʹʟȦɏȲʦʁɅȉɷʰȉgȉʟɔȉɔɷ ʟȉȦʁȲɫɔȉɷȬȉɷʰȉgȉʟɔȉgȉηɔʁʟȲूȦʟ˘ɔɷɆআgȲʟȦ˘ইʰʁʦȉˑȲʰɏȲȦɔʰ˘Ʌʟʁɴ the plague.71^ȉʰȲʟू=ȲʟɴȉɷȲɅʁʟɴɔʦʰʦʦʹȦɏȉʦʰɏȲɷȉȥȉʜʰɔʦʰʦɔɷgʾɷʦʰȲʟ also used nakedness to proclaim their renunciation of worldly concerns.72 Although the custom of naked penitential marches may have been dying out, nevertheless the relationship between penitence and nakedness remained strong in visual culture during the Renaissance period. JɷȦʁɷɣʹɷȦʰɔʁɷ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲʦʰʟʁɷɆɫɔɷɦʦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷɴȉɫȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦȉɷȬ humility, late medieval spiritual practice also saw a new emphasis on the Fig. 1.22. $ʁɴȲɷɔȦʁ=ɏɔʟɫȉɷȬȉɔʁू̨Ǳ ǱȶɸȶǥȓǈɯȓɀȶɀȄÄɀɞȪǫȪʗ?ɀɀǫɥ (detail), 1483–5. Fresco. Sassetti Chapel, Santa Trinita, Florence. THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 45 Fig. 1.23. Rosso Fiorentino, Dead Christ with AngelsूࢾࣂࢿࢿेsɔɫʁɷʜȉɷȲɫेgʹʦȲʹɴʁɅ Fine Arts, Boston, Charles Potter Kling Fund. JɴȉɆȲʦʁɅʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɏʟɔʦʰȦʁʹɫȬȥȲȦʁɷʰʟʁˑȲʟʦɔȉɫेΤȲʟȲ˒ȉʦȬȲɫɔȦȉʰȲ ȥȉɫȉɷȦȲʰʁȥȲɴȉɔɷʰȉɔɷȲȬȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷˑȲʟȉȦɔʰ˘ॹʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟউʦȬʹʰ˘ʰʁʰȲɫɫʰɏȲ ɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷʦʰʁʟ˘ȉȦȦʹʟȉʰȲɫ˘ॹȉɷȬʜʟʁʜʟɔȲʰ˘ेΤȲʜʟʁȥɫȲɴ˒ȉʦʰɏȉʰɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟ ˒ȲɫɫɴȲȉɷɔɷɆʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲॼɴȉɦȲʟूʁɷȲȦʁʹɫȬɷʁʰȦʁɷʰʟʁɫʰɏȲȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲউʦ ʟȲʦʜʁɷʦȲेΤʹʦʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰXȉɦʁȥÂɔɴʜɅȲɫɔɷɆȉˑȲʟʟȲȬʰɏȉʰɏʟɔʦʰʦɏʁʹɫȬ ɷʁʰȥȲʦɏʁ˒ɷআɷȉɦȲȬȉɫɫʁˑȲʟ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȉȦʁˑȲʟɔɷɆ०ʰʁ१Ȳ˗ʜʁʦȲʰɏȲɴʁʦʰ ȉȥʦʰʟʹʦȲȉɷȬʦȲȦʟȲʰʜȉʟʰʦʁɅɏɔʦȥʁȬ˘ইʰʁȉˑʁɔȬʦʰɔɴʹɫȉʰɔɷɆɔɷȉʜʜʟʁʜʟɔȉʰȲ sexual feelings.74 Similarly, in his treatise On Inspiration Bernardino of Siena ȦɫȉɔɴȲȬʰɏȉʰɏȲɦɷȲ˒আȉʜȲʟʦʁɷ˒ɏʁू˒ɏɔɫȲȦʁɷʰȲɴʜɫȉʰɔɷɆʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘ of Christ suspended on the cross . . . sensually and repulsively polluted ȉɷȬȬȲεɫȲȬɏɔɴʦȲɫɅेই75$ȲʦʜɔʰȲ२ʁʟȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʁ̎३ʰɏȲȉɷ˗ɔȲʰɔȲʦʁɅȦɏʹʟȦɏɴȲɷू there are very few images of the adult Christ entirely naked from Italy in ʰɏȲʜȲʟɔʁȬࢾࣁࢽࢽॹࢾࣂࣀࢽेΤȲʰ˒ʁɴʁʦʰɷʁʰȉȥɫȲȲ˗ȦȲʜʰɔʁɷʦȉʟȲȥʁʰɏɏɔɆɏɫ˘ ɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲȬȥ˘ȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫɴʁȬȲɫʦूȉɷȬ˒ȲʟȲȥʁʰɏɴȉȬȲɔɷʰɏȲʦȉɴȲȬȲȦȉȬȲȥ˘ <ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲȉʟʰɔʦʰʦɔɷʁɴȲुʁʦʦʁ<ɔʁʟȲɷʰɔɷʁউʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲDead Christ with Angels२εɆेࢾेࢿࣀ३ʁɅcेࢾࣂࢿࣁॹࣄू˒ɏɔȦɏʜɫȉȦȲʦɏʟɔʦʰউʦʰɏɔɆɏʦɔɷʦʹȦɏȉ˒ȉ˘ ʰɏȉʰɏɔʦɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦȦȉɷɷʁʰȥȲʦȲȲɷौȉɷȬgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲRisen ChristȉʰȉɷʰȉgȉʟɔȉʦʁʜʟȉgɔɷȲʟˑȉ२εɆेࢾेࢿࣁ३ूɴȉȬȲȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷࢾࣂࢾࣁȉɷȬࢾࣂࢿࢽे JɷȥʁʰɏȦȉʦȲʦूɏʟɔʦʰɔʦʟȲʦʹʟʟȲȦʰȲȬूɏȉˑɔɷɆȦȉʦʰʁΦɏɔʦɅʹɷȲʟȉɫʦɏʟʁʹȬूʦʁ ʰɏȲʟȲȉʟȲɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲʟȲȉʦʁɷʦɅʁʟʰɏȲɫȉȦɦʁɅɆȲɷɔʰȉɫȦʁˑȲʟɔɷɆॹʰɏȲআȥʹʟɷɔʦɏȲȬू ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɏʟɔʦʰूইɔɷɫȲ˗ȉɷȬȲʟjȉɆȲɫউʦ˒ʁʟȬʦूআȉɫɫʹȬȲʦʰʁʰɏȲȦʁɴɔɷɆ THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy Incarnation, the Christian doctrine that through the conception of Christ ɔɷʰɏȲ˒ʁɴȥʁɅɏɔʦɴʁʰɏȲʟूʰɏȲÁɔʟɆɔɷgȉʟ˘ू=ʁȬȥȲȦȉɴȲζȲʦɏॹȥʁʰɏ ȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲɫ˘ȬɔˑɔɷȲȉɷȬȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲɫ˘ɏʹɴȉɷेΤɔʦɏȉʦȥȲȲɷȦʁɷˑɔɷȦɔɷɆɫ˘ ɫɔɷɦȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲȬȲʜɔȦʰɔʁɷʁɅɏʟɔʦʰউʦɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ɔɷʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆȉɷȬʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲ from around the 1280s onwards – generally with his genitals covered by ʜȉʟʰɔȉɫɫ˘ʰʟȉɷʦʜȉʟȲɷʰɫʁɔɷȦɫʁʰɏʦू˒ɏɔȦɏআȉʜʜʟʁ˗ɔɴȉʰȲɷʹȬɔʰ˘ȉʦȦɫʁʦȲɫ˘ ȉʦȬȲȦʁʟʹɴ˒ʁʹɫȬȉɫɫʁ˒ɔɷʰɏȲʰɏɔʟʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेই73ΤȲɴȲʰȉʜɏʁʟɔȦȉɫ ɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷȦȲʁɅɏʟɔʦʰউʦɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦɔʦȦɫȲȉʟूȲʦʜȲȦɔȉɫɫ˘ȬʹʟɔɷɆɏɔʦɏʹɴɔɫɔȉʰɔʁɷ ʁɷʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ʰʁȉɫˑȉʟ˘ȉɷȬʦʹȥʦȲ̍ʹȲɷʰȦʟʹȦɔε˗ɔʁɷेʁˑȲʟɔɷɆɏɔʦɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦ allows Christ to be functionally naked, while maintaining decorum. 46 Fig. 1.24. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूRisen Christ, 1520. gȉʟȥɫȲेȉɷʰȉgȉʟɔȉʦʁʜʟȉgɔɷȲʟˑȉू Rome. 47 76 ɆɫʁʟɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ेই ΤȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɏʟɔʦʰউʦȥʁȬ˘ɔɷʰɏɔʦ˒ȉ˘ is also a reference to the sacrament of the Eucharist – the transformation ʁɅʰɏȲȦʁɴɴʹɷɔʁɷ˒ȉɅȲʟɔɷʰʁɏʟɔʦʰউʦȥʁȬ˘ȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲɴȉʦʦे77$ȲʦʜɔʰȲʰɏɔʦ ʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫʰɏȲʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫɣʹʦʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷूɔʰʦȲȲɴʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ<ʟȉɷȦɔʦȦȉɷɅʟɔȉʟʦȉʰ ʰɏȲgɔɷȲʟˑȉȦʹʰʁΦɏʟɔʦʰউʦআˑɔʟɔɫȲɴȲɴȥȲʟইȉɅȲ˒˘ȲȉʟʦȉδȲʟʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲ ˒ȲɷʰʁɷȬɔʦʜɫȉ˘ेΤȲɆȲɷɔʰȉɫȉʟȲȉ˒ȉʦʦʁʁɷȦʁˑȲʟȲȬȉɷȬʟȲɴȉɔɷʦʦʁʰʁȬȉ˘े78 In art as in life, adult male nakedness was only acceptable as long as the ɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦूʰɏȲআʦɏȉɴȲɅʹɫʜȉʟʰʦूই˒ȲʟȲɷʁʰˑɔʦɔȥɫȲेΤȲʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫɅʁʟˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟʦʰʁ respond inappropriately was too dangerous to risk. Naked Women, Voyeurism, and Shame JɅɔʰ˒ȲʟȲʁδȲɷʜʁʦʦɔȥɫȲʰʁʦȲȲɴȲɷɔɷȉʦʰȉʰȲʁɅɷȲȉʟॼȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲʹɷȬʟȲʦʦ because of poverty or their profession, female nakedness was altogether more taboo – and, unlike male nakedness, was inextricably bound up with sexual temptation. Because of this it was believed by some that women ˒ȲʟȲআɷȉʰʹʟȉɫɫ˘ইɴʁʟȲɴʁȬȲʦʰʰɏȉɷɴȲɷȉɷȬʰɏʹʦɣȲȉɫʁʹʦɫ˘ɦȲʜʰʰɏȲɔʟ ɆȲɷɔʰȉɫɔȉȦʁˑȲʟȲȬॹȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁ<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁ^ʹɔɆɔɷɔू˒ʟɔʰɔɷɆɔɷࢾࣂࣂࣁूআȲɔʰɏȲʟ ȥȲȦȉʹʦȲ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦʜʟɔˑȉʰȲʜȉʟʰʦȉʟȲɴʁʟȲεɫʰɏ˘ʰɏȉɷɴȲɷউʦूʁʟȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏȲʟȲ ɔʦɴʁʟȲɏʁɷȲʦʰ˘ȉɷȬʦɏȉɴȲɔɷʰɏȲɔʟʦȲ˗ʰɏȉɷʁʹʟʦेই79 A woman willingly allowing herself to be seen naked was, therefore, unnatural for her sex. JɷʜʹȥɫɔȦɴʁʦʰ˒ʁɴȲɷȦʁˑȲʟȲȬʰɏȲɔʟȥʁȬɔȲʦɅʟʁɴɣʹʦʰȥȲɫʁ˒ʰɏȲȦʁɫɫȉʟȥʁɷȲ down to their ankles, and also always kept their arms covered. Sex workers ȦʁʹɫȬȥȲȉɷȲ˗ȦȲʜʰɔʁɷʰʁʰɏɔʦʟʹɫȲेȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁgɔȦɏȲɫȲȉˑʁɷȉʟʁɫȉूɔɷ Ferrara prostitutes kept their breasts partially or totally uncovered in order to tempt men from the sin of sodomy – the idea being that it was better that young men have sex with a female prostitute than with each other.80 In Florence, too, Antonio Beccadelli revealed that you could be greeted in ʰɏȲȦȲɷʰʟȉɫɴȉʟɦȲʰউʦȥʟʁʰɏȲɫȥ˘ȉʜʟʁʦʰɔʰʹʰȲ˒ɔʰɏȉȥʁʦʁɴȥʁʰɏȥȉʟȲȉɷȬ painted with cosmetics.81 In Venice, the Ponte delle Tette (the Bridge of Tits) is, allegedly, the bridge where prostitutes would stand showing their ȥʟȲȉʦʰʦॹʰɏʁʹɆɏʰɏɔʦɴȉ˘ɣʹʦʰȥȲȉɴʁȬȲʟɷɷȉɴȲɅʁʟʰɏȲȥʟɔȬɆȲʰɏȉʰʦʰʁʁȬ ɷȲȉʟʰɏȲȉউȉɴʜȉɷɔूʰɏȲʦʰȉʰȲॼʦʜʁɷʦʁʟȲȬȥʟʁʰɏȲɫे82JɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰȲȬʰʟȉˑȲɫɫȲʟʦউ ȥʁʁɦʦʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰɫȉʰȲʟɔɷʰɏȲʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȉʦȉɫʦʁȉɅȉʦɏɔʁɷ for young unmarried aristocratic women to bear their breasts, which seems ʰʁɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷȉʜȲȦʹɫɔȉʟɔʰ˘ʁ̎ÁȲɷɔȦȲे83 legislation was passed to punish female servants who broke sumptuary laws ˒ɔʰɏȥȲɔɷɆζʁηȲȬɷȉɦȲȬʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏȲʦʰʟȲȲʰʦूȲɷȬɔɷɆʹʜɔɷʰɏȲʜʁʜʹɫȉʰȲȬ marketplace.84 In 1342, a procuress was whipped naked through the streets of Bologna.85$ȲȉɷɷȉɏȲɴȲɦȉɫʦʁȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲʦȉʟɔʰʹȉɫɏʹɴɔɫɔȉʰɔʁɷ of adulterous women in Ferrara called the scopa where they were made to run naked through the city. A witness account of 1496 discusses how the unfaithful wife of a police captain was made to run through the streets and was then pelted with rotten vegetables.86 ΤȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲȉɫʦʁʟȉȦȲʦɔɷˑȉʟɔʁʹʦJʰȉɫɔȉɷȦɔʰɔȲʦ˒ɏȲʟȲʜʟʁʦʰɔʰʹʰȲʦ˒ʁʹɫȬʟʹɷ ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏȲȦɔʰ˘ɷȉɦȲȬʁʟʦȦȉɷʰɔɫ˘ȦɫȉȬूʁδȲɷʰȉɦɔɷɆʜɫȉȦȲʁɷɅȲȉʦʰȬȉ˘ʦʁʟ ȬʹʟɔɷɆȦȉʟɷɔˑȉɫूʰɏȲɅȲʦʰɔˑȲʦȲȉʦʁɷɔɷʰɏȲʟʹɷʹʜʰʁ^ȲɷʰेΤɔʦʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷʁɅ ʟȉȦȲʦɅʁʟʰɏȲআɔɷɅȉɴʁʹʦইʦʰȉʟʰȲȬɔɷʰɏȲɫȉʰȲʰɏɔʟʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɔɷ<ʟȉɷȦȲू Ʌʁɫɫʁ˒ȲȬȥ˘JʰȉɫɔȉɷȦɔʰɔȲʦɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ɅʁʹʟʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेΤȲʟȉȦȲʦ˒ȲʟȲ originally linked to military victories over rival powers and in some instances included prostitutes showing their genitals (with their clothes pulled up to the belt) – as in a 1335 celebration of the Florentine victory over Arezzo.87 ΤȲɴʁʦʰɅȉɴʁʹʦεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘Ȳ˗ȉɴʜɫȲɔʦʰɏȲȉɷɷʹȉɫʜʟʁʦʰɔʰʹʰȲʦউʟȉȦȲɔɷ Ferrara, which is depicted in a detail of the fresco of the month of April by <ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁȬȲɫʁʦʦȉȉʰȉɫȉˢˢʁȦɏɔɅȉɷʁɔȉɔɷ<Ȳʟʟȉʟȉ२εɆेࢾेࢿࣂ३े88 ΤȲʹʦȲʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦɔɷʦɏȉɴɔɷɆʟɔʰʹȉɫʦɅʁʟɴȲɷʦȲȲɴʦɫȉʟɆȲɫ˘ʰʁȥȲ ȦʁɷεɷȲȬʰʁʰɏʁʦȲ˒ɏʁ˒ȲʟȲȲɷȲɴɔȲʦʁɅʰɏȲʦʰȉʰȲौʰɏʁʦȲȦʁɷȬȲɴɷȲȬ˒ȲʟȲ shown naked and then executed. In Rome in 1490, an ill-fated spy called gȉȦʟɔɷʁ˒ȉʦʜʹɷɔʦɏȲȬɅʁʟȉɷȉȥʁʟʰȲȬʜɫȉɷʰʁʜʁɔʦʁɷʰɏȲʜʁʜȲউʦȬʟɔɷɦɔɷɆ ˒ȉʰȲʟȥ˘ȥȲɔɷɆȬʟȉηȲȬɷȉɦȲȬʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏȲʦʰʟȲȲʰʦʁɷʰɏȲȥȉȦɦʁɅȉȦȉʟʟɔȉɆȲ ȥȲɅʁʟȲȥȲɔɷɆȬʟȉ˒ɷȉɷȬ̍ʹȉʟʰȲʟȲȬे89ΤȲȉˢˢɔȦʁɷʦʜɔʟȉʰʁʟʦूʟȲʦʜʁɷʦɔȥɫȲɅʁʟ ɦɔɫɫɔɷɆ=ɔʹɫɔȉɷʁȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔɔɷʰɏȲ$ʹʁɴʁɔɷʜʟɔɫࢾࣁࣄࣅू˒ȲʟȲɏȉɷɆȲȬɷȉɦȲȬ from the Palazzo della Signoria in Florence in 1480.90EȲʟȲʰɏȲɴȲɷউʦȲˑɔɫ ΤȲʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦȉɷȬʦɏȉɴȲɅʹɫɅȲɴȉɫȲ sexuality was brought home through ritual punishment where women were made to parade around a city naked – likely harking from classical times ȉɷȬʹʦȲȬʟɔɆɏʰʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲɆȲʦेJɷࢾࣀࣂࣃɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲू 48 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 1.25. Francesco del Cossa, April (detail of theǈȪȓɀǫȓǈȶ?ȓɀɞȅȓɀ), 1467–9. <ʟȲʦȦʁेȉɫʁɷȲȬȲɔgȲʦɔूȉɫȉˢˢʁ Schifanoia, Ferrara. Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 49 deeds are literally uncovered, and they are stripped of their role in society ɔɷȬɔȦȉʰȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɔʟȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆेΤɔʦɔʦȉ̍ʹȉɫɔʰȉʰɔˑȲɫ˘ȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰʜʹɷɔʦɏɴȲɷʰʰɏȉɷ those for the relatively mundane sexual misdemeanors of women. Fig. 1.26. gȲɴɴʁȬɔ<ɔɫɔʜʜʹȦȦɔʁूiǈɞȓʧǈȪǱǫ, c.1300. Fresco. Palazzo del Podestà, San Gimignano. Sexually marginal women were, Shemek argues, held up as a mirror to their আʟȲʦʜȲȦʰȉȥɫȲইʦɔʦʰȲʟʦे91JɷȬȲȲȬूɣʹʦʰɏʁ˒ɴʹȦɏɷȉɦȲȬζȲʦɏআʟȲʦʜȲȦʰȉȥɫȲই women should be able to show in public was a constant preoccupation in ʦʹɴʜʰʹȉʟ˘ɫȲɆɔʦɫȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏɔʦʜȲʟɔʁȬेΤȲʦȲɫȉ˒ʦ˒ȲʟȲɆȲɷȲʟȉɫɫ˘ȦʁɷȦȲʟɷȲȬ ˒ɔʰɏ˒ʁɴȲɷʦɏʁ˒ɔɷɆʰɏȲɔʟȥʟȲȉʦʰʦȉɷȬʦɏʁʹɫȬȲʟʦेΤʹʦʟʹɫȲʦ˒ȲʟȲɴȉȬȲ ȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲȦʹʰʁɅʰɏȲɷȲȦɦɫɔɷȲʦʁɅȬʟȲʦʦȲʦॹʦʰɔʜʹɫȉʰɔɷɆɏʁ˒ɴȉɷ˘εɷɆȲʟʦউ widths below the collarbone were permitted, two or three being the norm. ΤȲεʟʦʰʦʰȉʰȲʰʁɫȲɆɔʦɫȉʰȲɔɷʰɏɔʦ˒ȉ˘˒ȉʦȲʟʹɆɔȉɔɷࢾࣀࣁࢿूȥʹʰɔʰȥȲȦȉɴȲ increasingly common in the next century: Florence in 1449, 1456, 1464; Perugia again in 1472, 1475, then 1485; Bergamo in 1491; Brescia in 1497; Genoa in 1488 and again in 1511–12; and Venice in 1562. In other cities, there was legislation against glimpsing the breasts through the laces of dresses.92 gʁʟȲʟȉʟȲɫ˘ूȦɔʰɔȲʦ˒ȲʟȲȦʁɷȦȲʟɷȲȬ˒ɔʰɏɏȲɴɫɔɷȲʦȉɷȬɫȲɆɔʦɫȉʰȲȬȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆɫ˘ – thus Genoa passed legislation lowering hemlines in 1506.93 Francesco Barbaro in his treatise On Wifely Duties (&ǱɞǱɸʖɀɞȓǈ) written for a ˘ʁʹɷɆgȲȬɔȦɔȥʟɔȬȲɔɷࢾࣁࢾࣃूʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰ˒ɔˑȲʦʦɏʁʹɫȬɷȲˑȲʟȥȲʦȲȲɷɷȉɦȲȬू ȉɷȬʦɏʁʹɫȬȉɫʦʁȥȲʦɔɫȲɷʰुআɷʁʰʁɷɫ˘ʰɏȲȉʟɴʦूȥʹʰɔɷȬȲȲȬȉɫʦʁʰɏȲʦʜȲȲȦɏʁɅ ˒ʁɴȲɷ०ʦɏʁʹɫȬ१ɷȲˑȲʟȥȲɴȉȬȲʜʹȥɫɔȦौɅʁʟʰɏȲʦʜȲȲȦɏʁɅȉɷʁȥɫȲ˒ʁɴȲɷȦȉɷ ȥȲɷʁɫȲʦʦȬȉɷɆȲʟʁʹʦʰɏȉɷʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʁɅɏȲʟɫɔɴȥʦेই99 Perhaps even more telling about the fear of gazing at the naked body are the words of Cherubino da Siena in his Rules for Married Life (1450–81): As with much sumptuary legislation, it seems likely that these rules were not followed very closely.94 However, they are indicative of what the ɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȉɷ$ɔȉɷȲs˒ȲɷEʹɆɏȲʦɏȉʦȦȉɫɫȲȬʰɏȲআɆʟʁ˒ɔɷɆȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰɔʁɷɔɷ Italian cities of ǫǲǥɀȪȪǱʧǈȅǱ˒ɔʰɏʦɏȉɴȲेই95ΤȲȦʁɷʰʟʁɫʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦɷʹȬɔʰ˘ ˒ȉʦȉȦɔˑɔȦȦʁɷȦȲʟɷॹɷʁʰɣʹʦʰȉȥʁʹʰʜʟʁʰȲȦʰɔɷɆɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫɴʁʟȉɫɔʰ˘ȥʹʰ about ensuring the virtue of the state itself through protecting its male ȦɔʰɔˢȲɷʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲʰȲɴʜʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥȉʟȲζȲʦɏेJʰȬɔȬɷʁʰȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦ२ʁʟ even normally) work, particularly in Venice, where some visitors seemed to Ȳɷɣʁ˘Ȳ˗ʜʟȲʦʦɔɷɆʰɏȲɔʟʜʟʹʟɔȲɷʰʁʹʰʟȉɆȲȉʰʰɏȲȉɴʁʹɷʰʁɅζȲʦɏʁɷʦɏʁ˒ेJɷ ࢾࣁࣆࣁʰɏȲgɔɫȉɷȲʦȲȦȉɷʁɷɔȲʰʟʁȉʦʁɫȉ˒ȉʦʦɏʁȦɦȲȬʰʁʦȲȲÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷ˒ʁɴȲɷ ʦɏʁ˒ɔɷɆʰɏȲɔʟȦɏȲʦʰʦुআJɴȲȉɷʰɏȲɔʟȥʟȲȉʦʰʦȉɷȬʰɏȲɔʟʦɏʁʹɫȬȲʟʦूɔɷʦʹȦɏȉ ˒ȉ˘ʰɏȉʰɔʰɔʦȉɴȉˢɔɷɆʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɔʟȦɫʁʰɏȲʦȬʁɷʁʰɅȉɫɫɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɔʟȥȉȦɦʦेই96 ÂʁɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ȉȬɴʁɷɔʦɏȲȬʰʁȉˑʁɔȬɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦɔɷʜʟɔˑȉʰȲȉʦ˒Ȳɫɫे gȉʟʟɔȲȬȦʁʹʜɫȲʦȉʟȲʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬɷȉɦȲȬɔɷȥȲȬूȉʦɔȬȲɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɔʟɏȲȉȬ ȦʁˑȲʟɔɷɆʦॹʦʹȦɏȉʦɔɷgȲɴɴʁȬɔ<ɔɫɔʜʜʹȦȦɔʁউʦȲȉʟɫ˘ɅʁʹʟʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ scene from married life on the walls of the Palazzo del Podestà in San =ɔɴɔɆɷȉɷʁ२εɆेࢾेࢿࣃ३े97 However, it does not necessarily follow that they would seeȲȉȦɏʁʰɏȲʟউʦɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦॹȉɷȬȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ȥ˘ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏ century this was a practice that was roundly condemned by churchmen. ȉɷȲʟɷȉʟȬɔɷʁʁɅɔȲɷȉʰɏʹɷȬȲʟȲȬɔɷȉʦȲʟɴʁɷʁɅࢾࣁࢿࣄআÂɏȉʰ˘ʁʹȉʟȲ ʜȲʟɴɔʰʰȲȬʰʁʰʁʹȦɏू˘ʁʹȉʟȲɷʁʰʜȲʟɴɔʰʰȲȬʰʁʦȲȲेेेेÂʁɴȉɷूɷȲˑȲʟȦʁɷʦȲɷʰ ʰʁʰɏɔʦेJʰɔʦȥȲʰʰȲʟʰʁȬɔȲʰɏȉɷɫȲʰ˘ʁʹʟʦȲɫɅȥȲʦȲȲɷ०ɷȉɦȲȬ१ेই98 Viewing ȉ˒ʁɴȉɷউʦɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘˒ȉʦʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʰʁȥȲʰʟȉɷʦɆʟȲʦʦɔˑȲȉɷȬʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫɫ˘ dangerous for the virtue of both men and women. Husbands and wives were ˒ȉʟɷȲȬȉɆȉɔɷʦʰʦȲȲɔɷɆȲȉȦɏʁʰɏȲʟʦউɆȲɷɔʰȉɫɔȉूȉʰɫȲȉʦʰɅʁʟʦȲ˗ʹȉɫȲɷɣʁ˘ɴȲɷʰे 50 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Ȳʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ू˒ɏȲɷȉ˒ɔɅȲɷȲȲȬʦʰʁʦȲȲɏȲʟɏʹʦȥȉɷȬউʦʦɏȉɴȲɅʹɫʜȉʟʰʦू for some illness or for another necessity, it is not a sin; in fact, it is a charity. But when they do it for brute delight, it is a sin; because . . . some things are permitted to do, but not permitted to see. You, woman, never agree to allow yourself to be seen naked by your husband; because he is sinning, and so are you.100 Fig. 1.27. Italian smock (camicia), late sixteenth century. Linen, silk, and metal thread. gȲʰʟʁʜʁɫɔʰȉɷgʹʦȲʹɴूjȲ˒Èʁʟɦू Rogers Fund, 1910. 10.124.1. Perhaps because of these pronouncements against female nudity, the camicia, ȉˑʁɫʹɴɔɷʁʹʦ˒ɏɔʰȲʹɷȬȲʟʦɏɔʟʰʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦɷʁʟɴȉɫɫ˘ȉ˒ʁɴȉɷউʦʁɷɫ˘ʹɷȬȲʟ˒Ȳȉʟू ˒ȉʦʟȉʟȲɫ˘ूɔʰʦȲȲɴʦूʰȉɦȲɷʁΦॹȲˑȲɷȬʹʟɔɷɆʦȲ˗ेȲˑȲʟȉɫȲ˗ʰȉɷʰcamicie survive २εɆेࢾेࢿࣄ३ȉɷȬʰɏȲʟȲɔʦȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲʰɏȉʰ˒ʁɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȲȬআɷȉɦȲȬইȲˑȲɷ ˒ɏȲɷ˒ȲȉʟɔɷɆʰɏɔʦɆȉʟɴȲɷʰॹʰɏȲɫɔʰȲʟȉʟ˘ʦȦɏʁɫȉʟʁɴȉɔɷȲÂʁɫɅॼʁɷˑɔɷ ɏȉʦȦȉɫɫȲȬɔʰȉɦɔɷȬʁɅআɴȉʦɦȲȬɷʹȬɔʰ˘ইɔɷɫȉʰȲɴȲȬɔȲˑȉɫɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲे101ΤȲʟȲ are several images of women having sex in their camicie, such as the unusual ʜʟɔɷʰɔɷɆʜɫȉʰȲɔɷʰɏȲjȉʰɔʁɷȉɫ=ȉɫɫȲʟ˘ʁɅʟʰɔɷÂȉʦɏɔɷɆʰʁɷू$ʁɅȉ ȦʁʹʜɫȲʁɷȉȥȲɷȦɏȥȲɔɷɆɫʁʁɦȲȬʁˑȲʟȥ˘ȉɷȲɷʁʟɴʁʹʦʜɏȉɫɫʹʦ२εɆेࢾेࢿࣅ३े102 ΤȲ˒ȲȉʟɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲcamicia in this case might indicate hasty or illicit sexual ʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲʦॹȦʁɴʜȉʟȲȬʰʁʰɏȲʟȲɫȉʰɔˑȲɫ˘ȬȲɴʹʟȲȦʁʹʜɫȲɔɷȥȲȬɔɷgȲɴɴʁȬɔ <ɔɫɔʜʜʹȦȦɔʁউʦɅʟȲʦȦʁॹȥʹʰɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ˒ȉʦɔɷɔʰʦȲɫɅʰʟȉɷʦɆʟȲʦʦɔˑȲूȉɷȬɫʁʁɦɔɷɆȉʰ a naked body fell into its own category of sexual titillation. Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 51 JɷɔȲʰʟʁʟȲʰɔɷʁউʦȲʟʁʰɔȦʰȉɫȲʰɏȲPleasant Discourse (c.1520), the heroine, =ɔʹɫɔȉूɏȉʦɔɫɫɔȦɔʰʰʟ˘ʦʰʦ˒ɔʰɏɏȲʟɫʁˑȲʟूʁȥȲʟʰʁूɔɷʰɏȲȬʁɷɦȲ˘উʦʦʰȉȥɫȲे Various sexual positions are described – standing up, sitting down, her on top, him on top, and so on before the climax, so to speak, of their sexual ʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜू˒ɏȲɷʁȥȲʟʰʁȉʦɦʦɏȲʟʰʁʰȉɦȲʁΦɏȲʟʹɷȬȲʟʦɏɔʟʰेআJȬɔȬɷউʰ ˒ȉɷʰʰʁȬʁɔʰूইʦɏȲʦȉ˘ʦूআɷʁ˒ȉ˘ूȥʹʰȉʰʰɏȲȲɷȬɏȲȥȲηȲȬɴȲȉɷȬJʰʁʁɦ ɔʰʁΦेʁʰɏʁɅʹʦʦʰʟɔʜʜȲȬɷȉɦȲȬू˒ȲɦɔʦʦȲȬȲȉȦɏʁʰɏȲʟȉɷȬɫʁʁɦȲȬȉʰȲȉȦɏ ʁʰɏȲʟȉɫɫʁˑȲʟेই103ΤȲɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰ=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔʁɷʰȉɷʁɔɷɏɔʦʰʟȲȉʰɔʦȲOn the Prince२ࢾࣁࣃࣅ३ɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰȲʦZɔɷɆ$ɔʁɷ˘ʦɔʹʦউʦʹɷʹʦʹȉɫȉɷ˗ɔȲʰ˘ȉȥʁʹʰȉʦʦȉʦʦɔɷȉʰɔʁɷ by explaining that he never had intercourse with either of his two wives আʹɷɫȲʦʦʰɏȲ˘ɏȉȬȥȲȲɷʦʰʟɔʜʜȲȬɷȉɦȲȬȥȲɅʁʟȲɏȉɷȬूইɔɷȬɔȦȉʰɔɷɆʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦ˒ȉʦ not normal practice.104JɷȉʦɔɴɔɫȉʟˑȲɔɷूɔɷ<ɔɫɔʜʜʁȲʟʁȉɫȬʁউʦȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʟ˘ ʁɅࢾࣂࢾࢿʁɷʰɏȲʜȉʦʦȉɆȲɔɷȥʁʁɦࢿʁɅʜʹɫȲɔʹʦউʦ?ɀȪǫǱȶɥɥ where the hero has a night of passion with a serving girl, Beroaldo glossed the original ^ȉʰɔɷআɫȉȦɔɷɔɔʦȦʹɷȦʰɔʦʦʹɔʦʟȲɷʹȬȉʰȉইʁʟআʦɏȲʦʰʟɔʜʜȲȬʁΦȉɫɫɏȲʟɆȉʟɴȲɷʰʦই ȉʦআȲɴʁˑɔɷɆȉɫɫɏȲʟȦɫʁʰɏȲʦेɏȲȲˑȲɷʦȲʰȉʦɔȬȲɏȲʟʹɷȬȲʟ˒Ȳȉʟूʁʟcamicia. ȲȦȉʹʦȲɔɷɫʁˑȲȲˑȲɷȉɷȉɦȲȬɆɔʟɫɔʦʦȦȉʟȦȲɫ˘ɷȉɦȲȬȲɷʁʹɆɏेই105 Having sex completely unclothed was clearly unusual and worthy of comment, as a woman in her undershirt was already deemed to be naked. Not surprisingly, for aristocratic women, being observed naked was ʦʁɴȲʰɏɔɷɆʰʁȥȲʦɏʹɷɷȲȬॹȲˑȲɷȉδȲʟȬȲȉʰɏेȉɫȬȉʦʦȉʟȲȉʦʰɔɆɫɔʁɷȲউʦCourtier ɔɷȦɫʹȬȲʦȉȦʁɴɴȲɷʰʁɷȉΦȲȦʰȲȬʟȲεɷȲɴȲɷʰȉȥʁʹʰȉɫȉȬ˘˒ɏʁআ˒ȉʦʰɏɔɷɦɔɷɆ ʁɅʦʁɴȲʰɏɔɷɆʰɏȉʰȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦɏʹɆȲɫ˘ȥʁʰɏȲʟʦɴȲूɷʁʟȦȉɷJɫɔδʰɏȲ˒ʁʟʟ˘Ʌʟʁɴ ɴ˘ɏȲȉʟʰूȉɷȬʰɏɔʦɔʦʰɏȉʰʁɷʰɏȲ$ȉ˘ʁɅXʹȬɆɴȲɷʰूȉɫɫʁʹʟȥʁȬɔȲʦȉʟȲʟȲˑɔˑȲȬ and appear naked before the tribunal of Christ, and I cannot stand the ˑȲ˗ȉʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰJɅȲȲɫूʰɏɔɷɦɔɷɆʰɏȉʰJ˒ɔɫɫȉɫʦʁɏȉˑȲʰʁȥȲʦȲȲɷɷȉɦȲȬेই106 On ȉɫȲʦʦȲɫȲˑȉʰȲȬɫȲˑȲɫूɔʰ˒ȉʦʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬȥ˘^ʁȬʁˑɔȦʁ$ʁɴȲɷɔȦɏɔɔɷࢾࣂࣁࣆʰɏȉʰ women could trick men into marriage by hiding their defects under clothes, ɫȲȉȬɔɷɆʁɷȲȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʰʁʟʰʁʦʹηȲʦʰूʰʁɷɆʹȲɔɷȦɏȲȲɦूʰɏȉʰ˒ʁɴȲɷʦɏʁʹɫȬ go around naked and be viewed as such by prospective husbands.107Τɔʦ was certainly light-hearted; less so was a diplomatic incident of 1463 when marriage negotiations between the aristocratic Gonzaga and Sforza families ʟȲȉȦɏȲȬȉɷɔɴʜȉʦʦȲेΤȲɅʁʟˢȉȬȲɴȉɷȬȲȬʰʁʰɏȲʦȲȲʰɏȲʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫȥʟɔȬȲॹ $ʁʟʁʰȲȉ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉॹɷȉɦȲȬूɔɷȦȉʦȲʦɏȲɏȉȬȉɏʹɷȦɏȥȉȦɦेΤȲ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉ ʟȲʦɔʦʰȲȬȉʦɔʰȬɔȬɷʁʰʦȲȲɴʰʁʰɏȲɴআɏʁɷȲʦʰইʰʁʦɏʁ˒ȉࢾࣁॼ˘ȲȉʟॼʁɫȬɆɔʟɫɷȉɦȲȬ to a man, even a doctor, but they would let her be examined with her dress ʁɷेΤȲɅʁʟˢȉȬʁȦʰʁʟʦɔɷʦɔʦʰȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ɷȲȲȬȲȬʰʁʦȲȲɏȲʟȥȉȦɦȥʁɷȲɷȉɦȲȬ ȉɷȬɏȲʟȦɏȲʦʰɔɷɅʟʁɷʰेΤȲɴȉʟʟɔȉɆȲ˒ȉʦȦȉɫɫȲȬʁΦॹʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ȉʦʰɏȲɅʁʟˢȉ ɏȉȬ˒ȉɷʰȲȬȉɫɫȉɫʁɷɆूȉʦɔʰɫȲδʰɏȲɴɅʟȲȲʰʁȉɫɫ˘ʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲ<ʟȲɷȦɏ monarchy.108 gȉɷ˘ʦʁʹʟȦȲʦɔɴʜɫ˘ʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦʟȲʦʰʟɔȦʰȲȬˑɔʦʹȉɫȉȦȦȲʦʦʰʁɅȲɴȉɫȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ ɏȲɔɆɏʰȲɷȲȬɔʰʦʦȲ˗ʹȉɫȦɏȉʟɆȲे$ʹʟɔɷɆʁηɔʁʟȉȦȦɔʁɫɔɷɔউʦˑɔʦɔʰʰʁʰɏȲȥȉʰɏʦ in Baden he took part in the local custom of staring at female bathers from a balcony and throwing down pennies for the prettier women to catch – আȉɷȬɔɷʰɏɔʦɆȉɴȲू०ʰɏȲ˘ʁʹɷɆ˒ʁɴȲɷ१ȲˑȲɷʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦʹɷȦʁˑȲʟ०ȲȬ१ɴʁʟȲ ɏɔȬȬȲɷʜȉʟʰʦʁɅʰɏȲɔʟȥʁȬɔȲʦेই109 He was clearly titillated by the ease with ˒ɏɔȦɏ˒ʁɴȲɷʦɏʁ˒ȲȬʁΦʰɏȲɔʟɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ʜȉʟʰʦɔɷʰɏȲʦȲɅʁʟȲɔɆɷȦɫɔɴȲʦे Not surprisingly, the sexually graphic literature of this time stresses the act of looking at a naked female body as a fetishistic and wayward act in ɔʰʦȲɫɅेʟȲʰɔɷʁউʦDialogues (early 1530s) relay the imagined conversations of a procuress, Nanna, training her daughter to be a courtesan. At one stage she ʟȲˑȲȉɫʦʰɏȲʜȲȦȦȉȬɔɫɫʁʦʁɅ˒Ȳȉɫʰɏ˘ȦɫɔȲɷʰʦेɏȲʦȉ˘ʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦআɆȲʰȉ huge mirror, undress us and make us go about in the most obscene postures ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɔʟɅȉɷʰȉʦ˘ȦȉɷȦʁɷȦʁȦʰेΤȲ˘ɆȉˢȲɫʁɷɆɔɷɆɫ˘ȉʰʁʹʟɅȉȦȲʦूȥʟȲȉʦʰʦू ɷɔʜʜɫȲʦूʦɏʁʹɫȬȲʟʦूȥʁȬɔȲʦू̍ʹɔɴʦूȉɷȬʰɏɔɆɏʦौJȦȉɷউʰʰȲɫɫ˘ʁʹɏʁ˒ɴʹȦɏʰɏȲ˘ ɆʁʟɆȲʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲʰɏȲ˘ɆȲʰɅʟʁɴʰɏɔʦेই110 Voyeurism – illicit peering, staring, gawking, and gazing – looms large in ȥʁʰɏJʰȉɫɔȉɷȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲȉɷȬȉʟʰʁɅʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏ centuries. Scopophilia – gaining sexual pleasure from looking – was a key element in the Renaissance encounter with the naked female body, both in art and real life. Although it might seem here that men are the active party and women the passive – the gazer and gazed at – the situation was probably more complicated. Certainly it was believed that there was a tendency ȉɴʁɷɆʦʰ˒ʁɴȲɷʰʁɔɷˑɔʰȲʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲʁɅɔɫɫɔȦɔʰɆȉˢȲेΤʹʦɔɷɫȲʦʦȉɷȬʟʁ ɔȦȦʁɫʁɴɔɷɔউʦǈ̩ǈǱȪȪǈूȉʦȉʰɔʟɔȦȉɫআȬɔȉɫʁɆʹȲȉȥʁʹʰɆʁʁȬɴȉɷɷȲʟʦɅʁʟɫȉȬɔȲʦই ʁɅࢾࣂࣀࣆूʰɏȲȲʜʁɷ˘ɴʁʹʦɏȲʟʁɔɷȲʰȲɫɫʦɏȲʟ˘ʁʹɷɆȦɏȉʟɆȲgȉʟɆȉʟɔʰȉȉȥʁʹʰɏʁ˒ ʦɏȲȦȉɷʦɏʁ˒ʁΦɏȲʟȥʁȬ˘ʰʁ˘ʁʹɷɆɴȲɷ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰɫʁʦɔɷɆɏȲʟɏʁɷʁʟु Fig. 1.28. Unknown Italian, Allegory on Copulation (verso), c.1475–1500. Engraved copper plate. National =ȉɫɫȲʟ˘ʁɅʟʰूÂȉʦɏɔɷɆʰʁɷू$ू Rosenwald Collection 1948.11.11.b. JɅʦɏȲɏȉʦȉɷɔȦȲȦɏȲʦʰेेेʦɏȲʦɏʁʹɫȬȬȲδɫ˘εɷȬʁʹʰɆʁʁȬ˒ȉ˘ʦɅʁʟ ɔʰʰʁȥȲʦȲȲɷूȉʦɴʹȦɏȉʦʦɏȲȦȉɷɅʁʟɏʁɷȲʦʰ˘উʦʦȉɦȲूȉɷȬʰʁʦɏʁ˒ that it is naturally beautiful, not through any art. . . . A beautiful 52 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 53 ɫȲɆȦȉɷȥȲʦɏʁ˒ɷɴʁʦʰʁδȲɷȉʰʰɏȲˑɔɫɫȉूɆʁɔɷɆʁʟɏʹɷʰɔɷɆȥɔʟȬʦू ʟɔȬɔɷɆूʁʟɆȲʰʰɔɷɆʁΦȉɏʁʟʦȲेेेेJɅɏȲʟ˒ɏʁɫȲȥʁȬ˘ɔʦɷɔȦȲूȉɷȬ well proportioned, sometimes at the baths, showing that she is not thinking about it, bathe at that time and that place where you can be seen by someone through some chinks.111 ΤɔʦʰȲ˗ʰ˒ȉʦɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬʰʁȥȲȉɴʹʦɔɷɆूʦʁʜʟȲʦʹɴȉȥɫ˘ʜɫȉ˘ȲȬʁɷȥȲɏȉˑɔʁʟ that it believed would be recognized by its audience. Indeed, it would be hardly surprising in a culture that prized female beauty that women should ʦȲȲɦʰʁʦɏʁ˒ʁΦʰɏȲɔʟȉʰʰʟȉȦʰɔˑȲɷȲʦʦʰʁɴȲɷूȬȲʦʜɔʰȲʰɏȲɴʁʟȉɫʰɔɆɏʰʟʁʜȲ that they had to negotiate to do so.112 ɔȦȦʁɫʁɴɔɷɔউʦ˒ʁʟȬʦȉʟȲȲȦɏʁȲȬȥ˘ɴȉɷ˘ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲεʟʦʰȬȲȦȉȬȲʦ of the sixteenth century, playing with the idea of surreptitious looking at women dressing, bathing, or sleeping naked. In this way the viewer can stare at a female nude without the woman being complicit in showing ʁΦɏȲʟɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦौʦɏȲɔʦʰɏʹʦɫȲʰʁΦʰɏȲɴʁʟȉɫɏʁʁɦेɷȲɷʰɔʟȲɆȲɷʟȲ of images plays on the voyeuristic theme of women getting dressed or undressed, generally wearing a revealing camiciaूȉʦɔɷ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦFlora२εɆे ࢾेࢿࣆ३ʁʟ=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔȲɫɫɔɷɔউʦWoman with a Mirror२εɆेࣁेࢾࣅ३े¢ʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷȉɫɫ˘ ȦȉɫɫȲȬআ^ȉȬɔȲʦȉʰʰɏȲɔʟ¢ʁɔɫȲʰूইʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫɫ˘ɔɷʰɏȲʦȲɔɴȉɆȲʦʰɏȲ˒ʁɴȲɷȉʟȲ ȬʟȲȉɴɔɫ˘ɫʁʁɦɔɷɆʁΦʰʁʰɏȲɴɔȬȬɫȲȬɔʦʰȉɷȦȲूʁʟʜȲȲʟɔɷɆȉʰʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦɔɷ ȉɴɔʟʟʁʟूʹɷȉ˒ȉʟȲʁɅʰɏȲʁȥʦȲʟˑȲʟউʦʜʟȲʦȲɷȦȲे113ΤȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʰɏʹʦɔʦʰȉɦɔɷɆ ʜȉʟʰɔɷȉʦʰʁɫȲɷˑʁ˘ȲʹʟɔʦʰɔȦɴʁɴȲɷʰε˗ȲȬɔɷʰɔɴȲूȥʹʰʰɏȲȉȬˑȉɷʰȉɆȲʁɅ painting is that instead of a glimpse of female nakedness the onlooker is ȉȥɫȲʰʁɫʹ˗ʹʟɔȉʰȲɔɷɆȉˢɔɷɆȉʰʰɏȲɔɫɫɔȦɔʰʦɔɆɏʰʁɅȉɷȉɦȲȬɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ेΤȲʦȲ glimpses of women in their chambers echo contemporary advice to men to see potential brides in the morning before they have put their make up on, আʦʁ˘ʁʹ˒ɔɫɫɦɷʁ˒ȉɫɫɏȲʟȬȲɅȲȦʰʦेই114 ÂʁɴȲɷȉʦ˒ȲɫɫȉʦɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲȲ˗ʜȲȦʰȲȬʰʁʟȲȉȦʰʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɫ˘ʰʁʰɏȲʦɔɆɏʰʁɅʰɏȲ ɷȉɦȲȬɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ेȲʟɷȉʟȬɔɷʁȬȉɔȲɷȉȬȲȦɫȉʟȲȬूɔɷȉʦȲʟɴʁɷʁɅࢾࣁࢿࣄूআJɅ one of you women here were to strip stark naked . . . how many men and ɏʁ˒ɴȉɷ˘˒ʁɴȲɷȬʁ˘ʁʹʰɏɔɷɦ˒ʁʹɫȬɅȉɫɫɔɷʰʁʰȲɴʜʰȉʰɔʁɷैJʦȉ˘ɴȉɷ˘ू ȉɷȬɴȉɷ˘ɣʹʦʰȥ˘ʦȲȲɔɷɆɏȲʟेই115ÂʁɴȲɷȥȲɔɷɆȉʟʁʹʦȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲʦɔɆɏʰʁɅ others is also a trope in erotic literature, with the heroine of the drama stimulated by watching couples having sex as well as individual women naked or masturbating.116 ΤɔʦʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷȦȲʁɅˑɔʦɔʁɷɅʁʟɴȉɫȲȉɷȬɅȲɴȉɫȲȲʟʁʰɔȦ arousal could explain the practice of commissioning erotic paintings to ȬȲȦʁʟȉʰȲȉɴȉʟɔʰȉɫȦɏȉɴȥȲʟूʁδȲɷȉʰʰɏȲʰɔɴȲʁɅʰɏȲ˒ȲȬȬɔɷɆेʁɴȲʁɅ the earliest painted female nudes in Italy seem to have been displayed on the underside of the lids of wedding chests (cassoni) made in Florence ɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣁࣂࢽʦूȉɷȬ˒ȲʟȲʦȲȲɴɔɷɆɫ˘ʁδȲɷʜȉɔʟȲȬ˒ɔʰɏɴȉɫȲȦʁʹɷʰȲʟʜȉʟʰʦे 54 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 1.29. Titian, Flora, c.1512. Oil on canvas. =ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉȬȲɆɫɔ©Ϊˢɔू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲे Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 55 Fig. 1.30. ^ʁȦɏȲηɔȉ२=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔȬɔȲʟ Giovanni), Marriage Chest with Female Nude, c.1421–86. Tempera on ʜȉɷȲɫेʰȉʰȲɷʦgʹʦȲʹɴɅʁʟZʹɷʦʰू Copenhagen. ΤȲʦȲȦɏȲʦʰʦ˒ȲʟȲȦʁɴɴɔʦʦɔʁɷȲȬʰʁȬȲȦʁʟȉʰȲʰɏȲɷȲ˒ɷʹʜʰɔȉɫȦɏȉɴȥȲʟू ɔɷɔʰɔȉɫɫ˘ȥ˘ʰɏȲȥʟɔȬȲউʦɅȉɴɔɫ˘ȉɷȬʰɏȲɷʰȉɦȲɷʁˑȲʟȥ˘ʰɏȲɆʟʁʁɴউʦʰʁ˒ȉʟȬʦ the end of the century.117ΤȲȥȲʦʰʦʹʟˑɔˑɔɷɆȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʁɅʰɏɔʦɔʦȉʜȉɔʟʁɅ ɴȉʟʟɔȉɆȲȦɏȲʦʰʦɔɷʁʜȲɷɏȉɆȲɷ२εɆेࢾेࣀࢽʦɏʁ˒ʦʰɏȲȦɏȲʦʰ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲ nude).118 Normally hidden, the paintings of naked men or women only ȦʁɴȲɔɷʰʁˑɔȲ˒˒ɏȲɷʰɏȲȦɏȲʦʰʦȉʟȲʁʜȲɷȲȬेΤʹʦʰɏȲ˘ȦʟȲȉʰȲȬȉɷȲʟʁʰɔȦ environment in the marital chamber that would be hidden from prying eyes.119ΤȲʟȲɔʦȉɦɔɷȬʁɅˑɔʦʹȉɫʜʹɷूʰɏȲʟȲɅʁʟȲूɔɷʰɏȲȉȦʰʁɅʟȲˑȲȉɫɔɷɆʰɏȲ painted image and the act of revealing the naked and illicit form. You can ʦȲȲʰɏȲɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲʁɅʰɏɔʦɔɴȉɆȲʁɷɫȉʰȲʟ˒ʁʟɦʦʦʹȦɏȉʦʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦVenus and Mars२εɆेࢾेࣀࢾ३ॹȉʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʰɏȉʰȦʁɴȥɔɷȲʦɔɷʰȲɫɫȲȦʰʹȉɫȉɴȥɔʰɔʁɷ˒ɔʰɏȲȉʟʰɏ˘ humor. Almost certainly made for a wedding of the Vespucci family, this ʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ʦȉȦɫʁʰɏȲȬÁȲɷʹʦʜʟȲʦɔȬɔɷɆʁˑȲʟȉʦɫȲȲʜɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬgȉʟʦू˒ɏɔɫȲɫɔʰʰɫȲ ʦȉʰ˘ʟʦʜɫȉ˘˒ɔʰɏɏɔʦɫȉɷȦȲूʜɫȉȦȲȬʦʹηȲʦʰɔˑȲɫ˘ɷȲȉʟʰɏȲʁʜȲɷɔɷɆʁɅȉȦʁɷȦɏ ʦɏȲɫɫॹȦɫȲȉʟɫ˘ʦ˘ɴȥʁɫʦʁɅʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ूȉʦɔʦʰɏȲʦ̍ʹɔʟʰɔɷɆȦʹȦʹɴȥȲʟɆʟȉʦʜȲȬɔɷ the hand of the puttoʦʹʜʜʁʟʰɔɷɆgȉʟʦউȲɫȥʁ˒े120 Fig. 1.32. Giorgione and Titian, Sleeping Venus, 1507. Oil on panel. Gemäldegalerie, $ʟȲʦȬȲɷे marriage paintings to contain only female nudes. One of the earliest, and ȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ʰɏȲɴʁʦʰɅȉɴʁʹʦूʁɅʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲɔʦ=ɔʁʟɆɔʁɷȲȉɷȬ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦSleeping Venus२εɆेࢾेࣀࢿ३ɴȉȬȲɅʁʟʰɏȲɴȉʟʟɔȉɆȲʁɅʰɏȲÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷʜȉʰʟɔȦɔȉɷ=ɔʟʁɫȉɴʁ gȉʟȦȲɫɫʁɔɷࢾࣂࢽࣄेΤɔʦɔʦȉɴʹɫʰɔˑȉɫȲɷʰȉɷȬȦʁɴʜɫȲ˗ɔɴȉɆȲूȉȦʰɔɷɆȥʁʰɏ as a commentary on artistic inspiration – the sleeping female nude has a long tradition as a source of intellectual generation (discussed further in Chapter Four) – and as an image that celebrates marriage.121ΤȲʦʹȥɣȲȦʰ may be derived from a tradition of marriage speeches known from classical literature. Venus lies sleeping, waiting to be roused by Cupid (later ʁˑȲʟʜȉɔɷʰȲȬɔɷ=ɔʁʟɆɔʁɷȲȉɷȬ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦʜȉɷȲɫ३ʰʁʁˑȲʟʦȲȲʰɏȲ˒ȲȬȬɔɷɆʁɅ Girolamo and his bride.122ΤȲɆȲʦʰʹʟȲʁ̎ÁȲɷʹʦউʦɫȲδɏȉɷȬɏȉʦȦȉʹʦȲȬʦʁɴȲ controversy. It is clearly a reference to the Venus pudica pose made famous ȥ˘ȦʁʜɔȲʦʁɅʟȉ˗ɔʰȲɫȲʦউʦVenus२εɆेࢽेࣀ३ूȥʹʰʜɫȉȦȲʦʰɏȲɏȉɷȬȬɔʟȲȦʰɫ˘ʁɷ ʰɏȲɆȲɷɔʰȉɫɔȉȉʦʁʜʜʁʦȲȬʰʁɏʁˑȲʟɔɷɆȉȥʁˑȲɔʰेʁɷȉ=ʁΦȲɷʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬʰɏȉʰ Venus is shown masturbating, doing so because it was believed that women had to reach orgasm (preferably simultaneously with their partner) to become pregnant.123 Although the role of women in conception remained contentious throughout the period, it was largely agreed that stimulation of the female genitals was desirable as a precursor to intercourse (or sometimes, before marriage, as a replacement).124Τʹʦ=ɔʁʟɆɔʁɷȲউʦVenus could have been intended both as a voyeuristic fantasy and a visual prompt ɅʁʟʰɏȲɷȲ˒ɫ˘ɴȉʟʟɔȲȬȦʁʹʜɫȲे^ɔɦȲʰɏȲʟȲȦɫɔɷɔɷɆεɆʹʟȲʦʁɷcassone lids, the ɆʁȬȬȲʦʦ˒ȉʦʜʟȲʦʹɴȉȥɫ˘ɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬʰʁȥȲȉɷʁȥɣȲȦʰȲˑʁȦȉʰɔˑȲʁɅȬȲʦɔʟȲɅʁʟ Venus and Mars and other paintings of this era allow the viewer to pay attention to a sleeping naked man, but it became increasingly common for Fig. 1.31. Botticelli, Venus and Mars, c.1484. Tempera on panel. National Gallery, London. 56 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 57 ȥʁʰɏɏʹʦȥȉɷȬȉɷȬ˒ɔɅȲेgȉʟʰȉɣɴȉʟɏȉʦʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ʜʁɔɷʰȲȬʁʹʰɔɷɏȲʟʦʰʹȬ˘ ʁɅȲʟʁʰɔȦȉɷȬʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔɴȉɆȲʟ˘ʁɷȬʁɴȲʦʰɔȦʁȥɣȲȦʰʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȉʦʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ ȉɴʁʟȲʁˑȲʟʰʦȲ˗ʹȉɫȦʹɫʰʹʟȲ˒ɔʰɏɔɷȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɴȉʟʟɔȉɆȲʰɏȉɷɔʦʁδȲɷ acknowledged.125 Fig. 1.33. ^ʁȦɏȲηɔȉू?ǈȳǱɀȄ ȓʐǱɯɯȓȶɀ (detail), c.1450. Tempera on panel. gʹʦȲʁȬɔȉɫȉˢˢʁ$ȉˑȉɷˢȉʰɔू Florence. It has been assumed that erotic paintings of naked women were produced ʦʁɫȲɫ˘ɅʁʟɴȉɫȲȲ˘ȲʦेgȲɷɴȉɦȲʹʜȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲूʜȉʰʟʁɷूȉɷȬȉʟʰɔʦʰॹʰɏȲ আɔȦʁɷɔȦȦɔʟȦʹɔʰूইʰʁȥʁʟʟʁ˒ȉʟɫʁ=ɔɷˢȥʹʟɆউʦʜɏʟȉʦȲूɔʦআȲ˗ȦɫʹʦɔˑȲɫ˘ ɴȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲेই126ʹʰɆɔˑȲɷʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȲɔɴȉɆȲʦ˒ȲʟȲɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ȦʁɴɴɔʦʦɔʁɷȲȬ to celebrate marriage and placed in nuptial chambers, this cannot always be the case. Paintings of naked women play a prominent role in sixteenthȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦউɔɷˑȲɷʰʁʟɔȲʦɔɷȥʁʰɏʁɴȲȉɷȬÁȲɷɔȦȲॹɴʁʟȲʦʁʰɏȉɷ in the inventories of other men and women.127ΤȲʦȲ˒ȲʟȲʜʟȲʦʹɴȉȥɫ˘ intended to create an erotic atmosphere for male admirers and may, ɔɷȬȲȲȬूɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷɆɔδʦɅʟʁɴɴȲɷेEʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɔʰʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲȉȦɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲȬ that women were also expected to respond sexually to these images. In a ȦʹɫʰʹʟȲ˒ɏɔȦɏɔʦȬʁɴɔɷȉʰȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦȥȲɔɷɆʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔˢȲȬ it is perhaps not surprising that women, too, should be participants in this way of looking – especially at a time when sexual identities were more ζʹɔȬȉɷȬɷʁʰʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬɔɷʰȲʟɴʦʁɅɏʁɴʁॼʁʟɏȲʰȲʟʁॼʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔʰ˘े128 २εɆेࢾेࣀࣀ३ूɔʦʁɷȲʁɅʦȲˑȲʟȉɫȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʦʰɏȉʰʦʹηȲʦʰʦɴȉɫɫȦɏɔɫȬʟȲɷȬɔȬɷʁʰ always wear hose or underwear.134 Nakedness, Childhood, and Puberty 58 As Ilaria Taddei and others have shown, age stages were delineated with ʜʟȲȦɔʦɔʁɷɔɷȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲJʰȉɫ˘ेJɷεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲूɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰʦ ȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʰʁʟʦʰʁʁɦʹʜ˒ɔʰɏȲɷʰɏʹʦɔȉʦɴʰɏȲȉɆȲȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɔȉʰɔʁɷ εʟʦʰɫȉɔȬȬʁ˒ɷȥ˘ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ɴȲȬɔȲˑȉɫʦȦɏʁɫȉʟȉɷȬȉʟȦɏȥɔʦɏʁʜJʦɔȬʁʟȲ of Seville (c.560–636). Isidore divided male lifespan into seven stages – infancy from birth until seven; boyhood from seven until 14; adolescence from 14 until 28; youth between 28 and 50; seniority from 50 to 60; and ʁɫȬȉɆȲɅʟʁɴࣃࢽʁɷ˒ȉʟȬʦेJɷεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘JʰȉɫɔȉɷȦʹɫʰʹʟȲूʰɏȲʹʦȲʁɅ the Latin word puerॹʁʟʰɏȲJʰȉɫɔȉɷȲ̍ʹɔˑȉɫȲɷʰूʦǈȶǥȓɸȪȪɀ – indicated the age between infancy and adolescence, and this distinction was marked socially and legally.135 Following Roman law, the age of 14 in most Italian states marked the passage into adulthood – when children were held fully responsible for their actions. Over the last half century there has been a great deal of research on the family, childhood, and age stages in the late medieval and early modern periods, though there has only very recently been an interest among art historians in the contemporary understanding of life stages in the Renaissance.129ΤɔʦɏȉȬɫȲȬʰʁɴɔʦʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʦʁɅ˒ɏȉʰʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ viewer may have perceived when they saw a representation of a naked child.130 Life stages are crucial to our understanding of nakedness: in ÂȲʦʰȲʟɷʦʁȦɔȲʰ˘ʰʁȬȉ˘ूȉȦɏɔɫȬȉɆȲȬʰ˒ʁʁʟʰɏʟȲȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूɴȉ˘˒ȉɷȬȲʟ happily naked around a beach, whereas a child of 14 or 15 would not do so.131 In Renaissance Italy, too, nakedness was inextricably connected with shame in some degree for adolescents and adults of both sexes but was ɴʹȦɏɫȲʦʦʜʟʁȥɫȲɴȉʰɔȦɅʁʟȦɏɔɫȬʟȲɷेʹɴʜʰʹȉʟ˘ɫȲɆɔʦɫȉʰɔʁɷȦȉɷʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȲ age beyond which bodily display became problematic. In Lucca in 1342 it was forbidden for boys over the age of 14 to be seen publicly with their genitals uncovered, whereas Sienese legislation allowed girls under 12 to wear garments deemed to be immodest for older girls and women.132 In <ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲूʰʁʁूȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰʦʹɴʜʰʹȉʟ˘ɫȲɆɔʦɫȉʰɔʁɷ˒ȉʦȉʜʜɫɔȲȬʰʁȥʁ˘ʦʁˑȲʟȉɷȬ ʹɷȬȲʟࢾࣁूʟȲζȲȦʰɔɷɆʰɏȲȉʦʦʹɴȲȬɔɷɷʁȦȲɷȦȲʁɅȦɏɔɫȬʟȲɷे133 Visual evidence, such as the two little boys in the foreground of the birth tray scene of adolescents playing the game of civettino, one of whom shows his genitalia Before adolescence, both infancy and boyhood marked what the Florentine ɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰgȉʰʰȲʁȉɫɴɔȲʟɔȦȉɫɫȲȬআʰɏȲȉɆȲʁɅɔɆɷʁʟȉɷȦȲইɔɷɏɔʦȥʁʁɦOn Civic Life dating from the late 1430s.136ΤȲʟȲ˒ȉʦȉɷɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰȉȦɏɔɫȬʹɷȬȲʟ seven years old was simply unable to do evil because of his or her lack of understanding. Young children had no reason and could not make choices ʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦूȉɷȬʰɏʹʦ˒ȲʟȲȥȲʦʰɫʁʁɦȲȬȉδȲʟȥ˘˒ʁɴȲɷॹ˒ɏʁूʰɏȲɔȬȲȉ went, also had the mixture of cold and wet humors coupled with small and weak brains that prevented them from behaving reasonably.137 Boys THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 59 $ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦɴʁʦʰȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूɏɔʦȥʟʁɷˢȲDavid२εɆʦेࢾेࣀࣂȉɷȬ ࢾेࣀࣃ३ूɔʦʁδȲɷɏȲʟȉɫȬȲȬȉʦʰɏȲεʟʦʰɅʟȲȲʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆɷʹȬȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲɴȉȬȲʦɔɷȦȲ ȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘े146Jʰɔʦȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦɏȉʟȬʰʁʜɔɷȬʁ˒ɷআεʟʦʰʦूইȲʦʜȲȦɔȉɫɫ˘˒ɏȲɷ˒Ȳ know so little about the original commission of the sculpture, but if, as seems most likely, the David can be dated to around 1440, it is undoubtedly ȉɫȉɷȬɴȉʟɦɔɷʰɏȲɏɔʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ȉɫʁɅʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲे147 between seven and 14 retained their innocence but started to develop faculties of reason. Notably it is around this age when boys (and the occasional girl) would start to receive education from men in the form of learning their letters and arithmetic.138 Palmieri was concerned that older adolescent peers might corrupt boys of this tender age, who should remain under the careful tutelage of their fathers or other virtuous male teachers. In particular, this life stage was associated with purity. Isidore of Seville argued that the word puer was derived from the Latin purus (pure) because ʜʹʟɔʰ˘˒ȉʦʰɏɔʦʜȲʟɔʁȬউʦʜʟɔɷȦɔʜȉɫȦɏȉʟȉȦʰȲʟɔʦʰɔȦे139 Perhaps it is not surprising, therefore, that the earliest widespread ȉȬȉʜʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȦɫȉʦʦɔȦɔˢɔɷɆɷʹȬȲʰ˘ʜȲʦɅʁȦʹʦȲȬʁɷɔɷɅȉɷʰʦेΤȲʟȲȉʟȲ ɷʹɴȲʟʁʹʦȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɔɷɅȉɷʰʦɔɷȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉʟʰूȉɷȬ even before this in the representation of the Christ Child. As Leo Steinberg showed convincingly, the Christ Child was depicted naked increasingly from the late thirteenth century onwards – and in many images attention is deliberately drawn to his genitals.140˘ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ूɔʰ is rare to see a Christ Child who is not largely naked in Italian painting. ʰȲɔɷȥȲʟɆউʦȉʟɆʹɴȲɷʰू˒ɏɔȦɏɏȉʦȥȲȲɷɫȉʟɆȲɫ˘ȉȦȦȲʜʰȲȬूɔʦʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲ is related to an increased emphasis on the idea of the Incarnation, as discussed above in relation to representations of the adult Christ.141 Ȳ˘ʁɷȬʰɏȲɏʟɔʦʰɏɔɫȬूʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦʁɅɴȉɫȲɔɷɅȉɷʰʦɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ ȬȲȦʁʟȉʰȲȬʁȥɣȲȦʰʦʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁȥɔʟʰɏȉɷȬȦɏɔɫȬʟȲȉʟɔɷɆɅʟʁɴʰɏȲࢾࣁࢿࢽʦे142ΤȲ Ȳȉʟɫ˘ûʹȉʰʰʟʁȦȲɷʰʁȉɫʦʁʦȉ˒ʰɏʁʦȲɷȉɦȲȬʁʟɷȲȉʟॼɷȉɦȲȬɔɷɅȉɷʰʦूɆȲɷȲʟȉɫɫ˘ now called putti but most commonly called spiritelli (little spirits) at the ʰɔɴȲूȥȲȦʁɴȲɷȲȉʟʹȥɔ̍ʹɔʰʁʹʦɔɷJʰȉɫɔȉɷȉʟʰे143ÂɏȲɷʰɏȲɔʟɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦȉʟȲ shown, they are generally male, but there are also some examples of female infant spiritelli (such as on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, for example).144 JʰɏȉʦɫʁɷɆȥȲȲɷʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲȬʰɏȉʰɔʰ˒ȉʦ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁ˒ɏʁʜɔʁɷȲȲʟȲȬʰɏȲ ȬȲʜɔȦʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲʦȲɫɔˑȲɫ˘ɔɷɅȉɷʰʦूʰɏȲεʟʦʰȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ȥȲɔɷɆʁɷʰɏȲ ʰȉȥȲʟɷȉȦɫȲʁɅʰɏȲȥȉʜʰɔʦɴȉɫɅʁɷʰɔɷɔȲɷȉȉʰɏȲȬʟȉɫेɏȉʟɫȲʦ$ȲɴʜʦȲ˘ɏȉʦ recently discussed how these young boys were understood as being able to express sensations and emotion in ways that would be indecorous for ȉɷȉȬʹɫʰे$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦWine Spirit२εɆेࢾेࣀࣁ३२ɦɷʁ˒ɷȉʦʰɏȲAmor-Atys from ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ʰ˒ȲɷʰɔȲʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘३ू˒ɔʰɏɏɔʦ˒ʁʟɦɴȉɷউʦȦɏȉʜʦूʦɷȉɦȲूȉɷȬʜʁʜʜ˘ on his forehead is an image of this type. Perhaps the genius loci of a rural villa, a representation of a fertile and pleasant landscape, the spirit of ȉȦȦɏɔȦȬʟʹɷɦȲɷɷȲʦʦȉɫʦʁɔɷɅʹʦȲʦʰɏɔʦεɆʹʟȲॹȉɷȬȬʁȲʦʦʁɔɷȉ˒ȉ˘ʰɏȉʰɔʦ humorous, and intended perhaps to be easier for the viewer to encounter ȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʁɅʰɏȲ˘ʁʹʰɏʁɅʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲȉɷȬɏɔʦɆʹɔɫȲɫȲʦʦɅȉȦȲे145ΤȲɅȉȦʰʰɏȉʰɏȲ is an innocent boy takes away the potential culpability of the onlooker in Ȳɷɣʁ˘ɔɷɆʰɏȲʦɔɆɏʰʁɅȉɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘े 60 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 1.34. $ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁूWine Spirit, c.1440. ʟʁɷˢȲेgʹʦȲʁȬȲɫȉʟɆȲɫɫʁू Florence. ΤȲDavidɔʦεʟʦʰȬʁȦʹɴȲɷʰȲȬɔɷȉʜʁȲɴȬȲȬɔȦȉʰȲȬʰʁɔȲʟʁȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔʁɅ 1466, and then described in 1469 as being placed on top of a column in the gȲȬɔȦɔʜȉɫȉȦȲȦʁʹʟʰ˘ȉʟȬɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲ२ȉɷȬɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ˑɔʦɔȥɫȲɅʟʁɴʰɏȲʦʰʟȲȲʰ outside).148ÂȲɔɆɏɔɷɆʹʜʰɏȲȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲू<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁȉɆɫɔʁʰɔɏȉʦȦʁɷˑɔɷȦɔɷɆɫ˘ ȉʟɆʹȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲ˒ȉʦɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ɴȉȬȲɅʁʟʁʦɔɴʁȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔ between 1435 and 1440 and placed on top of its column in the newly built gȲȬɔȦɔʜȉɫȉȦȲɔɷࢾࣁࣂࣆे149 At that time an inscription by the humanist =ȲɷʰɔɫȲȬȲউȲȦȦɏɔ˒ȉʦȉȬȬȲȬʰʁʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȉɫȲɷʦȲɴȥɫȲुআΤȲˑɔȦʰʁʟɔʦɏȲ ˒ɏʁȬȲɅȲɷȬʦʰɏȲɅȉʰɏȲʟɫȉɷȬे्=ʁȬȦʟʹʦɏȲȬʰɏȲ˒ʟȉʰɏʁɅȉɏʹɆȲȲɷȲɴ˘े् ȲɏʁɫȬȉȥʁ˘ɏȉʦȬȲɅȲȉʰȲȬȉɆʟȲȉʰʰ˘ʟȉɷʰे्ʁɷ̍ʹȲʟूʁɏȦɔʰɔˢȲɷʦॄই150 Since the early twentieth century, Anglophone art historical controversy has centered on the DavidউʦʜȲʟȦȲɔˑȲȬȲʟʁʰɔȦɔʦɴूʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ʰɏȲ ɴʁʰɔˑȉʰɔʁɷɅʁʟ=ʁɫɔȉʰɏউʦ˒ɔɷɆȲȬɏȲɫɴȲʰʦȲȲɴɔɷɆɫ˘ȦȉʟȲʦʦɔɷɆʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲউʦ ʰɏɔɆɏ२εɆेࢾेࣀࣃ३े151 Scholars are correct to point out that homoerotic desire was an important part of Renaissance visual culture; I discuss this in more ȬȲʰȉɔɫɔɷʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʰʁɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆɔɷɏȉʜʰȲʟΤʟȲȲेgɔȦɏȉȲɫʁȦɦȲɏȉʦ shown that sodomy between men was normative behavior in Renaissance Florence; he estimates that as much as two thirds of the Florentine male ʜʁʜʹɫȉʰɔʁɷɴȉ˘ɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷʁΪȦɔȉɫɫ˘ɔɴʜɫɔȦȉʰȲȬɅʁʟʦʁȬʁɴ˘ȥȲɅʁʟȲʰɏȲ ȉɆȲʁɅࣁࢽȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘े152 However, Rocke has also shown how closely sexual behavior was related to age stages. Passive partners ɔɷɴȉɫȲʦʁȬʁɴ˘˒ȲʟȲʁˑȲʟ˒ɏȲɫɴɔɷɆɫ˘ȉɆȲȬȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷࢾࣀȉɷȬࢾࣅौȉδȲʟʰɏȉʰ age young men would take the active role.153 Although there is evidence in criminal records about illegal sexual activity with pre-pubescent boys ȉɷȬɆɔʟɫʦूʰɏɔʦȥȲɏȉˑɔʁʟ˒ȉʦɷʁʰȲ˗ʜȲȦʰȲȬɔɷʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ʁʹɷɆȉȬʹɫʰ् adolescent pairing seems to have been.154 Indeed, punishment for boys involved in sodomy was much less harsh for those under 14 because of their perceived lack of sexual understanding; in Florentine law this age group was by nature innocent, and the active, older partner, was therefore for responsible for the infraction.155 Given what we know about the perception of age stages, therefore, the perceived age of the David should be a key feature in the way ȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟɔȲʦɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȲȬʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲȉɷȬूɔɷʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟूɔʰʦʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ ȉɷȬɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦेΤȲȬȲʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷʁɅ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦεɆʹʟȲȉʦআȉȬʁɫȲʦȦȲɷʰইɔʦ ɷȲȉʟʹȥɔ̍ʹɔʰʁʹʦɔɷȉʟʰɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȦȉɫɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲू˘ȲʰʰɏɔʦʰȲʟɴʰȲɷȬʦʰʁȥȲʹʦȲȬ Ȧȉʦʹȉɫɫ˘˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȉɷ˘ɣʹʦʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷʁʟʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʰʁȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ɷʁʰɔʁɷʦʁɅ Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 61 Fig. 1.37. Lorenzo Ghiberti, ̨Ǳǈǥɞȓ̇ǥǱ of IsaacूࢾࣁࢽࢾेʟʁɷˢȲेgʹʦȲʁȬȲɫ Bargello, Florence. ȉɆȲȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɔȉʰɔʁɷे156 In fact, one of the few things that we do know about ȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟɔȲʦউʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦDavid is his approximate age, ȉɷȬʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲɔʦɷȲˑȲʟȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲȬȉʦȬȲʜɔȦʰɔɷɆȉɷȉȬʁɫȲʦȦȲɷʰेΤȲȲȉʟɫ˘ sources – including the Latin inscription that contextualized the David to ˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦɅʁʟɴʹȦɏʁɅɔʰʦȲȉʟɫ˘ɏɔʦʰʁʟ˘ॹɔɷˑȉʟɔȉȥɫ˘ȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲɏɔɴȉʦআpuerूই or boy.157ΤɔʦɴȲȉɷʰʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲ˒ȉʦʜȲʟȦȲɔˑȲȬʰʁȥȲɔɷʰɏȲʦȲȦʁɷȬ ʦʰȉɆȲʁɅȦɏɔɫȬɏʁʁȬूȉδȲʟɔɷɅȉɷȦ˘ȥʹʰȥȲɅʁʟȲȉȬʁɫȲʦȦȲɷȦȲूʰɏȲȉɆȲȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲȬ ˒ɔʰɏʜʹʟɔʰ˘ेΤɔʦȉȦȦʁʟȬʦ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɔȥɫɔȦȉɫȉȦȦʁʹɷʰ˒ɏȲʟȲȉʹɫʰʟɔȲʦʰʁʦʰʁʜ $ȉˑɔȬεɆɏʰɔɷɆ=ʁɫɔȉʰɏʁɷȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʁɅɏɔʦ˘ʁʹʰɏुআquia puer esই२আȥȲȦȉʹʦȲ˘ʁʹ ȉʟȲȉȥʁ˘ইॹࢾȉɴʹȲɫࢾࣄेࣀࣀ३े Fig. 1.35. $ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁूDavid (from front), cेࢾࣁࣀࢽʦेʟʁɷˢȲेgʹʦȲʁȬȲɫȉʟɆȲɫɫʁू Florence. 62 Fig. 1.36. $ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁूDavid (from back), cेࢾࣁࣀࢽʦेʟʁɷˢȲेgʹʦȲʁȬȲɫȉʟɆȲɫɫʁू Florence. THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ɫʰɏʁʹɆɏʦʁɴȲʦȦɏʁɫȉʟʦɏȉˑȲ˒ʟʁɷɆɫ˘ɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȲȬʰɏɔʦεɆʹʟȲʰʁȥȲ ɅȲɴɔɷɔɷȲʁʟȉɷȬʟʁɆ˘ɷʁʹʦू$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁॹȉɷȉʟʰɔʦʰ˒ɏʁʦȲʜɫȉ˘Ʌʹɫspiritelli were ˑɔʟʰʹȉɫɫ˘ȉʰʟȉȬȲɴȉʟɦॹ˒ȉʦˑȲʟ˘ȦȉʟȲɅʹɫʰʁɆɔˑȲɏɔʦεɆʹʟȲȉȦɏɔɫȬɔʦɏȥʁȬ˘े EɔʦʟʁʹɷȬȲȬʦʰʁɴȉȦɏȉɷȬȥʹʰʰʁȦɦʦɔɷȬɔȦȉʰȲʰɏȉʰ$ȉˑɔȬɔʦȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬȉʰȉɷ age before the increased muscle mass of puberty, rather than relating to ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷʦʁˑȲʟɏɔʦɆȲɷȬȲʟʁʟʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ेJɷʰɏɔʦɏȲȲȦɏʁȲʦʰɏȲȦɫʁʦȲʦʰȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲ ʜʟȲȦȲȬȲɷʰɅʁʟ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦ˒ʁʟɦूʰɏȲȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬȥʟʁɷˢȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲ Spinario, the naked boy pulling a thorn out of his foot that in the 1430s was displayed on top of a column outside the church of San Giovanni Laterano ɔɷʁɴȲ२εɆेࢿेࢾࣀ३े^ɔɦȲʰɏȲDavid, the Spinario has no pubic hair, rangy ȉʟɴʦूȉɷȬȉʦʁδɫ˘ɴʁȬȲɫȲȬʰʁʟʦʁौȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟʦȉɫʦʁʟȲɅȲʟʟȲȬʰʁ this sculpture as a puer.158 Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 63 Fig. 1.38. $ʁɴȲɷɔȦʁÁȲɷȲˢɔȉɷʁूSaint John in the Desert, 1445–50. Tempera on panel. National Gallery of Art, ÂȉʦɏɔɷɆʰʁɷू$ूȉɴʹȲɫEेZʟȲʦʦ Collection, 1943.4.48. ΤȲɴʁʦʰʰȲɫɫɔɷɆɅȲȉʰʹʟȲूʜȲʟɏȉʜʦूȦʁɷεʟɴɔɷɆʰɏȉʰ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦDavid is a ȥʁ˘ʟȉʰɏȲʟʰɏȉɷȉɷȉȬʁɫȲʦȦȲɷʰूɔʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲɔʦʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰ ȉɷ˘ȥʁȬ˘ɏȉɔʟेȉɫɴɔȲʟɔɅʁɫɫʁ˒ȲȬʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷɔɷȉʟɆʹɔɷɆʰɏȉʰʰɏȲεʟʦʰʰ˒ʁ stages of life, infancy and childhood, lasted until the age of around 14. Bodily shame and bodily changes come along with incipient adulthood: আɔɷʁʟȬȲʟʰʁȦʁɷȦȲȉɫ०ʰɏȲɆȲɷɔʰȉɫɔȉ१ɴʁʟȲȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲɫ˘ूȥʁȬ˘ɏȉɔʟʦȉʟȲȉȬȬȲȬ ʰɏȲʟȲȉʰʰɏȲȉɆȲȉʰ˒ɏɔȦɏȬɔʦȦʟȲʰɔʁɷȉɷȬɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰȥȲɆɔɷʰʁȲ˗ʜȲʟɔȲɷȦȲ ȉɷȬʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʟȲɔʦʦʁɴȲʦɏȉɴȲɔɷʰɏȲʦȲʜȉʟʰʦʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ेই159 ΤȲɴʁʦʰȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬʜʹȥɫɔȦȬȲʜɔȦʰɔʁɷʦʁɅȲɷʰɔʟȲɫ˘ɷȉɦȲȬɴȉɫȲεɆʹʟȲʦ ɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ûʹȉʰʰʟʁȦȲɷʰʁɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲȉʟȲʁɅȥʁ˘ʦ˒ɏʁɏȉˑȲɷʁʜʹȥɔȦ ɏȉɔʟेΤɔʦɔɷȦɫʹȬȲʦूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʁɅJʦȉȉȦȥȲɔɷɆʦȉȦʟɔεȦȲȬȥ˘ ɏɔʦɅȉʰɏȲʟȥʟȉɏȉɴʁɷ^ʁʟȲɷˢʁ=ɏɔȥȲʟʰɔউʦȦʁɴʜȲʰɔʰɔʁɷʜȉɷȲɫɅʁʟʰɏȲ ȥȉʜʰɔʦʰȲʟ˘Ȭʁʁʟʦ२εɆेࢾेࣀࣄ३ूȉɷȬ$ʁɴȲɷɔȦʁÁȲɷȲˢɔȉɷʁউʦࢾࣁࣁࣂʜʟȲȬȲɫɫȉʁɅ ʰɏȲ˘ʁʹʰɏɅʹɫʰेXʁɏɷʰɏȲȉʜʰɔʦʰɔɷʰɏȲȬȲʦȲʟʰ२εɆेࢾेࣀࣅ३े160 In both cases, ʰɏȲȦɫȉʦʦɔȦɔˢɔɷɆʦʰȉɷȦȲʁɅʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲʦɔʦɴʁȬɔεȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲʦʁδɴʹʦȦʹɫȉʰʹʟȲ and lack of pubic hair that indicates a puer, boy.161 Pubic hair naturally indicated that the adult genitals were meant to be hidden, but boys did not need this concealment because of their sexual innocence. ʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲ˒ʁʹɫȬʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦDavid was not ʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬȉʦʜʟʁɴʁʰɔɷɆɫȉʦȦɔˑɔʁʹʦʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʦेΤȲʦʰʟɔȦʰɫ˘ʟȲɫɔɆɔʁʹʦ ȉˑʁɷȉʟʁɫȉɷʟȲɆɔɴȲʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦʟȲʦʜʁɷʦɔȥɫȲɅʁʟʰɏȲȥʹʟɷɔɷɆʁɅআˑȉɷɔʰɔȲʦইɔɷ the Piazza della Signoria in 1496 and 1497 – including nude statuary and drawing – relocated this sculpture to the courtyard of the Palazzo della Signoria, the seat of the newly reformed government, in 1495. Unlike gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦDavid, who had a garland of leaves made to cover his ɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲʜʹȥɫɔȦȲ˘ȲूʰɏȲʟȲɔʦɷʁʦʹηȲʦʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦεɆʹʟȲ was ever adorned with this kind of modesty device.162 64 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲʟȲȉʦʁɷʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦDavid could be publicly naked without fear of sinning ˒ȉʦȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʁɅɏɔʦȉɆȲेÂɔʰɏʰɏȲȬȲȦɔʦɔʁɷʰʁɴȉɦȲɏɔɴʦʁ˘ʁʹɷɆूɔʰ˒ȉʦ ʜʁʦʦɔȥɫȲɅʁʟ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁȉɷȬɏɔʦgȲȬɔȦɔʜȉʰʟʁɷʦʰʁȲȦɏʁʰɏȲȥʟʁɷˢȲɷʹȬȲʦ ʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰʁΦȲɷȬɔɷɆʜʟʁʜʟɔȲʰ˘ेʦȉpuerू$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦDavid is necessarily sexually innocent, whatever the lusty intentions of the fallen Goliath. Undoubtedly bold and beautiful in his nakedness, this is a work ʰɏȉʰʜʟʁˑʁɦȲȬȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲʦউȉȬɴɔʟȉʰɔʁɷɅʁʟʰɏȲȲ˗ʰʟȉʁʟȬɔɷȉʟ˘ȉȦɏɔȲˑȲɴȲɷʰ and ambition of the sculptor who created it.163 If interpreted in terms ʁɅȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʦʰʁʦʁȬʁɴ˘ȉʰȉɫɫूɔʰʹɷȲ̍ʹɔˑʁȦȉɫɫ˘ ȦʁɷȬȲɴɷʦʰɏȲআ˒ʟʁɷɆইɦɔɷȬʁɅȉʰʰʟȉȦʰɔʁɷʰʁʰɏɔʦ˘ʁʹɷɆȥʁ˘উʦȥʁȬ˘ेΤȲ ɔɷˑȉʦɔˑȲ˒ɔɷɆʁɅ=ʁɫɔȉʰɏউʦɏȲɫɴȲʰूʟȲȉȦɏɔɷɆʹʜɅʟʁɴɏɔʦʦȲˑȲʟȲȬɏȲȉȬू teaches the viewer the possible fate of those who stray down a path of luxury and lasciviousness; in its beauty, the David both attracts and warns. ΤɔʦʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूȉɫȉɷȬɴȉʟɦɔɷʰɏȲɏɔʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲूȉɫʦʁȲɷȦȉʜʦʹɫȉʰȲʦ many of the tensions of the form, treading an unstable path between intellectual virtues and bodily vices. * ΤȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲˑȉʟɔʁʹʦȦʁɷʰȲ˗ʰʦ˒ɏȲʟȲʰɏȲʹɷȦɫʁʰɏȲȬȥʁȬ˘˒ȉʦɫɔȦɔʰɔɷ Renaissance Italy. Children before puberty had the most license – their innocence protected them from any potential sin. Post-adolescent men could be seen naked if their occupations demanded it, so long as their genitals were covered. However, because of the key role of clothing as a guarantor of social order, nakedness was associated with disruption, a ɫȉȦɦʁɅɔȬȲɷʰɔʰ˘ूɷʁʰɦɷʁ˒ɔɷɆʁɷȲউʦʜɫȉȦȲेjȉɦȲȬɅʁʟȲɔɆɷȲʟʦ˒ȲʟȲȥȲʰʰȲʟʁΦ ȲɷʦɫȉˑȲȬȉɷȬɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷɔˢȲȬʰɏȉɷɫȲδɔɷʰɏȲɔʟȥȲʦʰɔȉɫʦʰȉʰȲे<ʁʟ˒ʁɴȲɷȉ state of undress – and this could include wearing a voluminous undershirt – was socially inappropriate, and complete nakedness frowned upon even ɔɷʰɏȲʜʟɔˑȉʰȲʦʜɏȲʟȲेÂʁɴȲɷউʦɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦ˒ȲʟȲȲ˗ʜȲȦʰȲȬʰʁȲ˗ȦɔʰȲȉ sexual response in the onlooker (of whatever gender) and thus had to be protected from prying eyes. ΤȲȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲɔɷJʰȉɫɔȉɷȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲȉʟʰȥʟʁȉȬɫ˘˒Ȳɷʰ down the path of least resistance. Infants and prepubescent children are ʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ȲȬɷȉɦȲȬɴʁʦʰȦʁɴɴʁɷɫ˘ɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ूɅʁɫɫʁ˒ȲȬȥ˘ men, largely with their genitals hidden. It was only in the 1470s that fully ɷȉɦȲȬɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȲȬɔɷʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰɷʹɴȥȲʟʦूȉɷȬɔɷɔʰɔȉɫɫ˘ʰɏɔʦ˒ȉʦ ʁδȲɷʰʁɔɷȬɔȦȉʰȲʰɏȲɔʟȥȉʟȥȉʟɔʰ˘े<ȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦʰʁʁɦɫʁɷɆȲʟूʁɷɫ˘ȥȲȦʁɴɔɷɆ ʟȲȉɫɫ˘ȬɔΦʹʦȲȬɔɷȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣂࢽࢽेEʁ˒ʰɏɔʦʜʟʁȦȲʦʦɏȉʜʜȲɷȲȬू ȬȲʦʜɔʰȲʰɏȲʦʁȦɔȉɫʦʰɔɆɴȉȉʰʰȉȦɏȲȬʰʁʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ूɅʁʟɴʦʰɏȲʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʁɅ the following chapters. Nakedness in Renaissance Italy 65 Chapter Two Nudity, Art, and the Viewer ɷȬʰɏɔʦɔʦɣʹʦʰʰʁʦɏʁ˒ʁΦʰɏȲȲ˗ȦȲɫɫȲɷȦȲʁɅɏɔʦȉʟʰे JʦȉȥȲɫɫȉȬউ*ʦʰȲʁɷȲʟʹɆɔɷʁউʦȬȲȦɔʦɔʁɷʰʁʜȉɔɷʰÁȲɷʹʦɷȉɦȲȬूࢾࣂࢽࣂ sɷgȉʟȦɏࢾࣂूࢾࣂࢿࣀʰɏȲÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰ=ɔʟʁɫȉɴʁjȲɆʟɔ˒ʟʁʰȲʰʁɏɔʦ ɅʟɔȲɷȬूʰɏȲȉʟʰȦʁɫɫȲȦʰʁʟȉɷȬ˒ʟɔʰȲʟgȉʟȦȉɷʰʁɷɔʁgɔȦɏɔȲɫूȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲˑɔʦɔʰ of the new Pope Adrian VI to the Belvedere gardens in Rome. Instead of marveling over the excellence of the collection, which included such ʜʟʁɴɔɷȲɷʰ˒ʁʟɦʦʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲȉʦʰɏȲLaocoön, the Belvedere Torso २εɆेࢿेࣂ३ȉɷȬʰɏȲ Apollo Belvedere२εɆेࢽेࢿ३ूʰɏȲʁʜȲʦȉɔȬुআΤȲ˘ȉʟȲʰɏȲɔȬʁɫʦ ʁɅʰɏȲȉɷȦɔȲɷʰʦेইআJɷʰɏɔʦ˒ȉ˘ूইjȲɆʟɔȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬूআɴȉɷ˘˒ʁʟʟ˘ʰɏȉʰʁɷȲȬȉ˘ he might do what they say St. Gregory did, and make of all these statues, living memory of Roman greatness and glory, into lime for the building ʁɅʰेȲʰȲʟউʦेই1ʁʰɏjȲɆʟɔȉɷȬɏɔʦȦʁʟʟȲʦʜʁɷȬȲɷʰgɔȦɏɔȲɫ˒ȲʟȲȬȲȲʜɫ˘ ɔɴȥʹȲȬ˒ɔʰɏȉɫʁˑȲȉɷȬʟȲʦʜȲȦʰɅʁʟȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ूȲɷʰɔʟȲɫ˘ʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫʁɅɴʁʦʰʁɅ the educated Italian elite of this time. Rather than seeing the pagan belief ɔɷʰɏȲʦȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʦूʰɏȲ˘ʦȉ˒ʰɏȲɴȉɦȲʟʦউʦɦɔɫɫेȬʟɔȉɷूȦʁɴɔɷɆɅʟʁɴȉ ̍ʹɔʰȲȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȦʹɫʰʹʟȉɫɴɔɫɔȲʹू˒ȉʦɏȉˑɔɷɆɷʁɷȲʁɅɔʰॹɏȲɏȉȬȉɫʦʁɣʹʦʰ ɴʁȦɦȲȬȉɷȲɫʁ̍ʹȲɷʰ^ȉʰɔɷɫȲʰʰȲʟूȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁjȲɆʟɔेΤȲȦɫȉʦɏʁɅȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʦ displayed here is illustrative of an intellectual and social discourse that had become increasingly accepted over the previous hundred years – but that remained contentious. ΤɔʦȦɏȉʜʰȲʟʰʟȉȦȲʦʰɏȲʦɏɔδʦɔɷʰɏȲʜʟȲˑȉɔɫɔɷɆȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʦʁɅJʰȉɫɔȉɷȲɫɔʰȲʦ ʰʁȬȲʜɔȦʰɔʁɷʦʁɅʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ʁˑȲʟʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏ ȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦेɷʰɔ̍ʹȲɷʹȬȲʦ˒ȲʟȲʁδȲɷȬɔʦɴɔʦʦȲȬȉʦʜȉɆȉɷɔȬʁɫʦɔɷʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲ Ages and early Renaissance, or conversely interpreted allegorically – their ɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʦɔɆɷɔεȲȬʁʜȲɷॼɏȉɷȬȲȬɫɔȥȲʟȉɫɔʰ˘ूʰɏȲʰʟȉɷʦʜȉʟȲɷȦ˘ʁɅɣʹʦʰɔȦȲू truth, or the spirit preparing for baptism. By the 1520s, most educated 67 Italians took it for granted that classical sculpture indicated the glories of a lost civilization that was worthy of revival and emulation, more than a decadent pagan world. By this time, audiences tended to stop looking for an allegorical or iconological meaning in nudity, instead asserting that nudes were symbolic of unchanging beauty and a proof of artistic creativity. Taking pleasure in appreciating art for its own sake has long ȥȲȲɷʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲȬȉʦȉɦȲ˘२ȉɷȬʟȲˑʁɫʹʰɔʁɷȉʟ˘३ʦɏɔδɔɷεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ modes of viewing, and, I argue here, this is intertwined with debates over ʰɏȲɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴेΤɔʦȦɏȉʜʰȲʟʰʟȉȦȲʦɏʁ˒ȉɷȲ˒ɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫ ɷʹȬȲʦॹȉɷȬɴʁȬȲʟɷɷʹȬȲʦɔɷʰɏȲȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲɴȉɷɷȲʟॹȦȉɴȲʰʁȬʁɴɔɷȉʰȲ discourse about the visual arts by the early sixteenth century, even if, as ʁʜȲȬʟɔȉɷÁJউʦʟȲɴȉʟɦʦɴȉɦȲȦɫȲȉʟूɷʹȬȲʦʰȉʰʹȉʟ˘ʟȲɴȉɔɷȲȬȉʜʁɔɷʰʁɅ contestation outside of this cultural bubble. Artistic Nudes: the Case Against ΤȲʟȲɏȉʦूʟɔɆɏʰɫ˘ूȥȲȲɷɴʹȦɏɔɷʰȲʟʟʁɆȉʰɔʁɷɔɷʟȲȦȲɷʰ˘ȲȉʟʦʁɅʰɏȲɷȉʰʹʟȲʁɅ আȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ইȉɷȬ˒ɏȉʰȦʁɷʦʰɔʰʹʰȲȬɔʰʦʟȲˑɔˑȉɫɔɷʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲे2ɷʰɔ̍ʹȲ nude sculpture had been publicly viewable in many cities in Italy from classical times onwards, and attitudes toward it were not necessarily (or ȲˑȲɷʜʟȲȬʁɴɔɷȉɷʰɫ˘३ɷȲɆȉʰɔˑȲȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲɆȲʦे3 As in Renaissance and early modern culture, positive views of pagan images of the naked body ȦʁȲ˗ɔʦʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏȦʟɔʰɔȦɔʦɴेgʹȦɏɴȲȬɔȲˑȉɫɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲॹɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆʰɏȉʰ of church fathers such as St. Jerome and St. Augustine, who were important ɅʁʟȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʰɏɔɷɦȲʟʦʰʁʁॹȲ̍ʹȉʰȲȬɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ˒ɔʰɏʜȉɆȉɷɔȬʁɫȉʰʟ˘े gʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूʰɏȲʦɔɆɏʰʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲȥʁȬ˘ȲˑʁɦȲȬʰɏȲʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫʦɔɷʁɅȬȉɴȉɷȬ Eve and led the onlooker, both male and female, into temptation.4 ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲɷʹɴȲʟʁʹʦɴȲȬɔȲˑȉɫȉɷȬȲȉʟɫ˘ɴʁȬȲʟɷȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʦʁɅˑȉɷȬȉɫɔʦɴ ȉɆȉɔɷʦʰɷȉɦȲȬɔɴȉɆȲʦूʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ʁɅʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʦʁ̎ÁȲɷʹʦू˒ɏʁ˒ȉʦɷȉɦȲȬू ȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁʰɏȲ^ȉʰɔɷʦȦɏʁɫȉʟ<ʹɫɆȲɷʰɔʹʦȉʟʁʹɷȬࣂࢽࢽूȥȲȦȉʹʦȲআʰɏȲʦɔɷʁɅ ɫʹʦʰɔʦɷȲˑȲʟȦɫʁȉɦȲȬूইʰɏʹʦȉʦʦʹɴɔɷɆʰɏȉʰɷʹȬɔʰ˘ȥʁʟȲȉɷɔȦʁɷʁɆʟȉʜɏɔȦȉɫ meaning – here, of sexual vice.5ΤȲɅȉɴȲȬɅʁʹʟʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰ ȉɷȬʜʁȲʰ=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔʁȦȦȉȦȦɔʁʟȲʜȲȉʰȲȬʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰÁȲɷʹʦউʦɷʹȬɔʰ˘ɴʹʦʰ ɏȉˑȲȉʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷȥȲ˘ʁɷȬʰɏȲȉȲʦʰɏȲʰɔȦɔɷʰɏȲɆɫʁʦʦʰʁɏɔʦȲʜɔȦʟʁɴȉɷȦȲू Teseida (c.1340–41). He explains that a sculpture of the nude reclining Venus (which he describes in lavish, if not lascivious, detail in the main text) ʦɔɆɷɔεȲʦআʰɏȲ०ʦʹʜȲʟεȦɔȉɫ१ȉʜʜȲȉʟȉɷȦȲʦʁɅʰɏɔɷɆʦू˒ɏɔȦɏȉʰʰʟȉȦʰʰɏȲɴɔɷȬʦ ʁɅʰɏʁʦȲ˒ɏʁʦȲʜʁ˒ȲʟʦʁɅʟȲȉʦʁɷɔɷɆȦȉɷɷʁʰɆʁȥȲ˘ʁɷȬɴȲʟȲȲ˗ɔʦʰȲɷȦȲेইΤȲ ʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲউʦɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦूȦʁˑȲʟȲȬȥ˘ȬʟȉʜȲʟ˘ʦʁʰɏɔɷʰɏȉʰɔʰɏȉʟȬɫ˘ɏɔȬȉɷ˘ʰɏɔɷɆू ɔɷȬɔȦȉʰȲআʰɏȲʁȥʦȦʹʟȲȬɣʹȬɆȲɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏʁʦȲɅʁʁɫȲȬȥ˘ȉʜʜȲȉʟȉɷȦȲʦेই6 Later, in his ?ǱȶǱǈȪɀ̾ɀȄɯȎǱǈȅǈȶ?ɀǫɥ, he echoes Fulgentius in claiming that ÁȲɷʹʦɔʦȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬɷʹȬȲআʰʁʦɏʁ˒ʰɏȉʰɅʁʟ˒ɏɔȦɏʦɏȲɔʦȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦʜʟȲʜȉʟȲȬ 68 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE . . . or because the crime of luxuriance . . . appears in public with all its ȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆʟȲɴʁˑȲȬेই7 ΤȲʟȲɔʦȉȬȉɷɆȲʟɔɷȬȲʜɔȦʰɔɷɆȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʦȉʦɴʁʟȲɏʁɴʁɆȲɷȲʁʹʦȉɷȬɫȲʦʦ complex than they actually were. In the entire period under discussion, there never seems to have been a point where the representation of nakedness was wholeheartedly accepted (or, indeed, wholeheartedly condemned). Even in the days before the debates engendered by the nudes ʁɷgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦLast Judgment (unveiled in 1541) there was a sense that the depiction of the nude in public or semi-public spaces needed to be ɣʹʦʰɔεȲȬे8ΤȲɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷȦȲʁɅȉʟʰɔʦʰʦɴȉɔɷʰȉɔɷɔɷɆȬȲȦʁʟʹɴɔʦȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬȲˑȲɷ ɔɷʰȲ˗ʰʦʦʹʜʜʁʟʰɔˑȲʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴ२ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬɔɷɴʁʟȲȬȲʰȉɔɫȥȲɫʁ˒३ेΤʹʦ ɔɷɷɆȲɫʁ$ȲȦȲɴȥʟɔʁউʦDe politia litteraria (On Literary Polish), composed ɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣁࣂࢽʦȉɷȬȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲȬȥ˘ࢾࣁࣃࢿूʰɏȲȦɏȉʟȉȦʰȲʟʁɅ^ȲʁɷȲɫɫʁȬউ*ʦʰȲ ʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰ˒ɏȲɷȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦूআΤȉʰ˒ɏɔȦɏɔʦ shameful to see is duly arranged with enough modesty and skill not to be ʹɷʦɔɆɏʰɫ˘ʁʟȥȲ˘ʁɷȬʰɏȲȥʁʹɷȬʦʁɅɷȉʰʹʟȉɫʜʟʁʜʟɔȲʰ˘ेই9 Genitals, in other words, are covered, or the body and limbs are arranged in such a way to ɏɔȬȲʰɏȲɴेΤɔʦɔɷʦɔʦʰȲɷȦȲʰɏȉʰȉʟʰɔʦʰʦʦɏʁʹɫȬʟȲʰȉɔɷʜʟʁʜʟɔȲʰ˘ɔɷʦɏɔȲɫȬɔɷɆ ʰɏȲȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲউʦȲ˘ȲʦɅʟʁɴɆȲɷɔʰȉɫɔȉ˒ȉʦɴȲɷʰɔʁɷȲȬȉɫʦʁɔɷ^Ȳʁɷȉʰʰɔʦʰȉ ɫȥȲʟʰɔউʦOn Painting (1435), where he recommended that painters should paint some nudes and some dressed people, but always with an eye to ʜʟʁʜȲʟআʦɏȉɴȲȉɷȬȬȲȦȲɷȦ˘ेই10 For some commentators, however, issues with the sinful nature of the nude and its implied paganism far outweighed the virtues of aesthetic ȉʜʜʟȲȦɔȉʰɔʁɷेÂȲʦȲȲɴȉɷ˘ʰɏʁʟʁʹɆɏɆʁɔɷɆʁȥɣȲȦʰɔʁɷʦʰʁɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬ men and women in the 1490s – a period when they were starting to ȥȲȦʁɴȲɔɷȦʟȲȉʦɔɷɆɫ˘ȦʁɴɴʁɷेΤʹʦɔɷ<Ȳȥʟʹȉʟ˘ࢾࣁࣆࣄɔɷÁȲɷɔȦȲूȉʰʟɔȉȦɏ ¢ʁɴɴȉʦʁ$ʁɷȚʦʁʹɆɏʰʰʁȥȉɷȉɷJʰȉɫɔȉɷˑȲʟɷȉȦʹɫȉʟȲȬɔʰɔʁɷʁɅsˑɔȬউʦ iǱʧǈȳɀɞɛȎɀɥǱɥ published by Giovanni Rubeo and Lucantonio Giunti that ȦʁɷʰȉɔɷȲȬআɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȲɷूʜʟɔȉʜʹʦȲʦȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟɔɷȬȲȦȲɷȦɔȲʦूইȉɷȬʁʟȬȲʟȲȬ more decent images to be used instead.11gʁʟȲɷʁʰʁʟɔʁʹʦȉʟȲʰɏȲআȥʁɷεʟȲʦ ʁɅʰɏȲˑȉɷɔʰɔȲʦইʰɏȉʰʰʁʁɦʜɫȉȦȲɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲɔɷʰɏȲȦȉʟɷɔˑȉɫʦʁɅࢾࣁࣆࣄȉɷȬ ࢾࣁࣆࣅूɫȲȬȥ˘<ʟȉ=ɔʟʁɫȉɴʁȉˑʁɷȉʟʁɫȉेȉˑʁɷȉʟʁɫȉ˒ȉʦȉ$ʁɴɔɷɔȦȉɷɅʟɔȉʟ who preached apocalypse and renewal in Florence in the later 1490s, and ȥȲȦȉɴȲȉɷɔɴɴȲɷʦȲɫ˘ʜʁ˒ȲʟɅʹɫεɆʹʟȲȉδȲʟʰɏȲȲ˗ʜʹɫʦɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲgȲȬɔȦɔ family from the city in 1494.12 He incited many Florentines to create ɫȉʟɆȲȥʁɷεʟȲʦʁɷʰɏȲɔȉˢˢȉȬȲɫɫȉɔɆɷʁʟɔȉू˒ɏȲʟȲআˑȉɷɔʰɔȲʦই˒ȲʟȲȥʹʟɷȲȬे ȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʦूʰɏȲʦȲɔɷȦɫʹȬȲȬȉˑȉʟɔȲʰ˘ʁɅʁȥɣȲȦʰʦ ȬȲȲɴȲȬʰʁɫȲȉȬʰɏȲɔʟʁ˒ɷȲʟʦɔɷʰʁʦɔɷॹ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦɏȉɔʟʜɔȲȦȲʦूɆȉɴȲʦूɴʹʦɔȦȉɫ ɔɷʦʰʟʹɴȲɷʰʦूɣȲ˒ȲɫɫȲʟ˘ूɫȉʦȦɔˑɔʁʹʦȥʁʁɦʦूȉɷȬȦȉʟɷɔˑȉɫɴȉʦɦʦȉʦ˒Ȳɫɫȉʦ ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦȉɷȬʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʦɴȉȬȲȥ˘আɆʟȲȉʰɴȉʦʰȲʟʦेই13 Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 69 Nakedness and Allegory Savonarola railed against what he saw as indecent images in his sermons. In <Ȳȥʟʹȉʟ˘ࢾࣁࣆࣃूɏȲʰɏʹɷȬȲʟȲȬআ˒ɏȉʰʦɏȉɫɫJʦȉ˘ȉȥʁʹʰ˘ʁʹɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷʜȉɔɷʰȲʟʦू ˒ɏʁʜȉɔɷʰʰɏʁʦȲεɆʹʟȲʦ˒ɔʰɏȥȉʟȲȥʟȲȉʦʰʦू˒ɏɔȦɏɔʦɷʁʰȉȦȦȲʜʰȉȥɫȲै$ʁɷউʰ ȬʁʰɏȲɴȉɷ˘ɴʁʟȲेÈʁʹ˒ɏʁȉʟȲȉΦȲȦʰȲȬȥ˘ʰɏɔʦʦɏʁʹɫȬɆȲʰʰɏȲʜȲʁʜɫȲʰʁ ˒ɏɔʰȲ˒ȉʦɏʰɏȲɴȉɷȬȬȲʦʰʟʁ˘ʰɏʁʦȲεɆʹʟȲʦʰɏȉʰ˘ʁʹɏȉˑȲɔɷ˘ʁʹʟɏʁʹʦȲʦɅʁʟ ʰɏȲ˘ȉʟȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦʰɏȉʰȥʟɔɷɆȬɔʦɏʁɷʁʟेই14ΤȲ˘ȲȉʟȉδȲʟूɔɷʰɏȲʟʹɷʹʜʰʁ ʰɏȲεʟʦʰȥʁɷεʟȲूɏȲȦɏȉʟɆȲȬ˒ʁɴȲɷɔɷʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟुআÈʁʹ˒ʁɴȲɷूʰȉɦȲʰɏʁʦȲ ˑȉɔɷʁȥɣȲȦʰʦूʰɏʁʦȲʹɆɫ˘ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦʰɏȉʰ˘ʁʹɏȉˑȲȉɷȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɫɔȦȲɷʦȲJɆɔˑȲ ˘ʁʹʁɷȥȲɏȉɫɅʁɅɏʟɔʦʰूʰɏʟʁ˒ʰɏȲɴɔɷʰɏȲεʟȲेÂɏȉʰȬʁ˘ʁʹ˒ȉɷʰʰʁȬʁ ˒ɔʰɏEȲʟȦʹɫȲʦȉɷȬɷʰȲʹʦैʹʰʰɏȲÁɔʟɆɔɷgȉʟ˘ूʰɏȲȦʟʁʦʦूʰɏȲʦȉɔɷʰʦȉɫɫ ȉȥʁʹʰʦʁʰɏȉʰ˘ʁʹʦȲȲɴɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷेই15 It was not, therefore, nudity in itself that was the problem, but the possibilities for these images to arouse lustful feelings in the viewer. In fact, nudity could be a sign of virtue if it were explained allegorically. It is common to see medieval commentators seeking for meaning in nudity ȉɷȬɔɷʰȲɫɫȲȦʰʹȉɫɫ˘আȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆইɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦȥ˘ȉʰʰʟɔȥʹʰɔɷɆʰʁʰɏȲɴɴʁʟȉɫ ̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦेJɷɏɔʦɴɔȬॼɅʁʹʟʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘Dictionary, Pierre Bersuire notes a ȦȉʰȲɆʁʟ˘ʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʰɏȉʰɏȲȦȉɫɫʦআˑɔʟʰʹʁʹʦɷʹȬɔʰ˘ইुʰɏȲɦɔɷȬʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ ˒ɏɔȦɏʟȲˑȲȉɫʦʰɏȲɫȉ˘ɔɷɆȥȉʟȲʁɅʰɏȲʦʁʹɫআȉʦȉɴȉɷɫȉ˘ʦȥȉʟȲɏɔʦȦʁɷʦȦɔȲɷȦȲʦ ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏȲʦʁʹɷȬȦʁɷɅȲʦʦɔʁɷʁɅȉʜʟɔȲʦʰইौʁʟȉʦȬȉɴȉɷȬ*ˑȲɫɔˑȲȬȥȲɅʁʟȲ ʦɔɷेΤɔʦɦɔɷȬʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʜʟʁˑȲȬʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟউʦʜʹʟɔʰ˘ुআʰɏʁʦȲʰɏȉʰʟȲɣȲȦʰ ɔɷɷʁȦȲɷȦȲूȥɫʹʦɏȉɷȬζȲȲɅʟʁɴʰɏɔʦɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦूȉɷȬʦʜʟȲȉȬʰɏȲȦɫʁȉɦʁɅ Ȳ˗ȦʹʦȲʦȉʦɴʹȦɏȉʦʰɏȲ˘ȦȉɷʰʁȦʁˑȲʟȉɷȬȦʁɷȦȲȉɫेই21 ɫʰɏʁʹɆɏȉˑʁɷȉʟʁɫȉউʦ˒ȲʟȲʰɏȲɴʁʦʰ˒Ȳɫɫɦɷʁ˒ɷʁɅʰɏȲʦȲȥʁɷεʟȲʦूʰɏȲ˘ ˒ȲʟȲɷʁʰȉɷȲ˒ʜɏȲɷʁɴȲɷʁɷेΤȲɅȉɴȲȬ<ʟȉɷȦɔʦȦȉɷʜʟȲȉȦɏȲʟȲʟɷȉʟȬɔɷʁ ʁɅɔȲɷȉɏȉȬȉʟʟȉɷɆȲȬȉȥʁɷεʟȲʁɅˑȉɷɔʰɔȲʦʁʹʰʦɔȬȲʰɏȲȦɏʹʟȦɏʁɅȉɷʰȉ Croce in Florence in 1424, for example.16 Another Franciscan and nearcontemporary of Savonarola, Bernardino da Feltre, was renowned for his ^ȲɷʰȲɷʦȲʟɴʁɷʦȦʹɫɴɔɷȉʰɔɷɆɔɷȉȥʁɷεʟȲुɔɷࢾࣁࣆࣀॹࣁɏȲɔɷʦʜɔʟȲȬȉʦȲʟɔȲʦʁɅ ȥʁɷεʟȲʦɔɷJʰȉɫɔȉɷȦɔʰɔȲʦɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆʟȲʦȦɔȉू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲूȉɷȬÁȲɷɔȦȲे17 ΤɔʦȦʁɷȬȲɴɷȉʰɔʁɷ˒ȉʦɴʁʟȲȦʁɴʜɫȲ˗ूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूʰɏȉɷɔʰεʟʦʰȉʜʜȲȉʟʦे Savonarola also praised naked images at times, as I discuss below – and depictions of Christ and some of the martyr saints, as noted in Chapter One, counted among some of the earliest representations of the naked or near-naked body.18 A leitmotif in the sources is the push-and-pull of ˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʟȲʦʜʁɷʦȲʰɏȉʰʜʟȉɔʦȲȬȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲɷʹȬȲʦɅʁʟʰɏȲɔʟȥȲȉʹʰ˘˒ɏɔɫȲȉʰʰɏȲ same time condemning the inappropriate desire they could provoke. ÂɏɔɫʦʰɫʹʦʰɔɷɆʁˑȲʟʰɏȲʟȲȉɫɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ʁɅȉ˒ʁɴȉɷɔʦȦɫȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔɷɅʹɫूɔʦɔʰ acceptable to admire a skillfully made imageʁɅȉɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȉɷै*ˑȲɷʰɏʁʦȲ ˒ɏʁʁȥɣȲȦʰȲȬʰʁɷʹȬȲʦȲɷɆȉɆȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʦɦɔɫɫȉɷȬʰɏȲ ȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁʜʟʁˑʁɦȲȬȲʦɔʟȲɅʁʟȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɔɷʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟ˒ȉʦʦȲʜȉʟȉʰȲʰʁʦʹȥɣȲȦʰ matter. Archbishop Antoninus of Florence, for example, explained in his ɸȳȳǈɞʗɀȄiɀɞǈǪ̈̄ǱɀȪɀ̾(written cेࢾࣁࣂࢽूʜʟɔɷʰȲȬࢾࣁࣄࣄ३ʰɏȉʰȉʟʰɔʦʰʦআȉʟȲ at fault when they create images that provoke lust, not because of beauty, ȥʹʰȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʁɅʰɏȲɔʟȬɔʦʜʁʦɔʰɔʁɷूʦʹȦɏȉʦɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȲɷȉɷȬʰɏȲɫɔɦȲेই19 ɔɴɔɫȉʟɫ˘ू=ɔȉɷɅʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁɔȦʁȬȲɫɫȉgɔʟȉɷȬʁɫȉूɔɷɏɔʦuȶɯȎǱ,ʖɛɸȪɥȓɀȶɀȄ Venus and Cupid of 1513, a poem condemning the honoring of ancient Greek statuary, is still able to understand the desire engendered by the artistic skill of a ÃǱȶɸɥȄǱȪȓʖʦʰȉʰʹȲɔɷʰɏȲȲɫˑȲȬȲʟȲȦʁʹʟʰ˘ȉʟȬुআ¢ʟʹɫ˘ɔɷʰɏɔʦʦʰȉʰʹȲ ɔʰ˒ȉʦʜʁʦʦɔȥɫȲʰʁʜȲʟȦȲɔˑȲʰɏȲɆɔδʦʁɅʰɏȲɴȉɦȲʟौȉɷȬȉʰʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʰɔɴȲʰʁ ʟȲζȲȦʰȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ɔɷ˒ɏɔȦɏʰɏȲȬȉʟɦɷȲʦʦʁɅɅȉɫʦȲʦʹʜȲʟʦʰɔʰɔʁɷ०˒ȉʦ१ʜʹʰ ʰʁζɔɆɏʰȥ˘ʰɏȲʰʟʹȲʟȲɫɔɆɔʁɷूʦʁʰɏȉʰɷʁʰȲˑȲɷʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅʰɏȲʦȲɆʁȬʦ ȦʁʹɫȬȥȲʦȲȲɷȲ˗ȦȲʜʰɔɷȥʟʁɦȲɷɅʟȉɆɴȲɷʰʦूȉɷȬȉɫɴʁʦʰ˒ɔʰɏȲʟȲȬȉ˒ȉ˘ेই20 EɔʦȉȬɴɔʟȉʰɔʁɷɏȲʟȲɔʦ̍ʹɔȦɦɫ˘ʰȲɴʜȲʟȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲȉʦʦȲʟʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦ˒ȉʦȉ fragment of a pagan civilization that had been irrevocably lost. 70 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE <ʁʟʰɏȲʦȲʟȲȉʦʁɷʦूɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ˒ȉʦʁδȲɷʰȉɦȲɷʰʁȥȲȉɷȉɫɫȲɆʁʟ˘ʁɅʰʟʹʰɏू ɣʹʦʰɔȦȲूʁʟȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲȬˑɔʟʰʹȲʦौʰɏɔʦɔʦʁδȲɷʰɏȲȦȉʦȲ˒ɏȲɷȦɫȉʦʦɔȦɔˢɔɷɆ ɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴʦȉʟȲʹʦȲȬȉʦɴʁȬȲɫʦɅʁʟεɆʹʟȲʦɔɷȉʟȲɫɔɆɔʁʹʦʁʟȦɔˑɔȦʦȲʰʰɔɷɆ ɔɷʰɏȲɅʁʹʟʰȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦेΤȲʟȲȉʟȲɴȉɷ˘Ȳ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʦʁɅ this in sculptures and paintings for churches and government buildings throughout Italy.22ɷȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲɔʦɴȥʟʁɆɔʁ^ʁʟȲɷˢȲʰʰɔউʦεɆʹʟȲʁɅȲȦʹʟɔʰ˘ on his ȪȪǱȅɀɞʗɀȄ?ɀɀǫǈȶǫǈǫ?ɀʐǱɞȶȳǱȶɯ fresco on the right wall of the Sala dei Nove in the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena (cेࢾࣀࣀࣅॹࣁࢽौεɆेࢿेࢾ३ेEȲʟȲ a naked woman, her genitals swathed in a semi-transparent cloth, carries ȉɏȉɷɆȲȬɴȉɷौɏȲʟɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰɔɅʰɏȲɆʁˑȲʟɷɴȲɷʰɔʦɆʁʁȬɔʰʦ ɣʹʦʰɔȦȲɔʦʰʟȉɷʦʜȉʟȲɷʰȉɷȬɷʁʦɔɷʦȦȉɷȥȲɏɔȬȬȲɷॹȲ̍ʹȉɫɫ˘ȲˑȲɷʰɏȲɴʁʦʰ vulnerable and naked are safe.23ɷʁʰɏȲʟ˒Ȳɫɫॼɦɷʁ˒ɷȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʁɅআˑɔʟʰʹʁʹʦ ɷʹȬɔʰ˘ইɔʦ=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔɔʦȉɷʁউʦTemperance२ʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦȦȉɫɫȲȬআʟʹȬȲɷȦȲই३ʁɅ ࢾࣀࢽࢾॹࢾࢽʁɷʰɏȲʜʹɫʜɔʰʁɅɔʦȉȉʰɏȲȬʟȉɫ२εɆेࢿेࢿ३ू˒ɏɔȦɏɔʦȥȉʦȲȬʁɷȉɷȉɦȲȬ Venus pudicaεɆʹʟȲ२εɆेࢽेࣀ३ेΤȲʹʦȲʁɅȉɷȉɦȲȬÁȲɷʹʦʦʰȉʰʹȲȉʦȉʦʁʹʟȦȲ ɏȲʟȲɔʦɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁΤʁɴȉʦ̍ʹɔɷȉʦউʦȉʰʰȲʦʰȉʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɔʦ the attribute of temperance.24 Fig. 2.1. Ambrogio LorenzetʰɔूআȲȦʹʟɔʰ˘ूই detail from ȪȪǱȅɀɞʗɀȄ?ɀɀǫǈȶǫǈǫ ?ɀʐǱɞȶȳǱȶɯ, c.1340. Fresco. Sala dei Nove, Palazzo Pubblico, Siena. Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 71 ΤȲˑɔʟʰʹȲʁɅɅʁʟʰɔʰʹȬȲूʰʁʁू˒ȉʦʁδȲɷȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬɷȉɦȲȬȉɷȬȥȉʦȲȬʁɷ classical depictions of Hercules – who was used as an example of virtue ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʁʹʰʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲɆȲʦेΤɔʦɔʦʰʟʹȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूʁɅjɔȦʁɫȉɔʦȉɷʁউʦ 1260 sculptures of the virtue on the pulpits in the Pisa baptistery and ȦȉʰɏȲȬʟȉɫʟȲʦʜȲȦʰɔˑȲɫ˘ेEȲʟȦʹɫȲʦউʦʰʟʁɷɆȦʁɷɷȲȦʰɔʁɷ˒ɔʰɏ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ ʟȲʜʹȥɫɔȦȉɷɔʦɴȉɫʦʁɴȲȉɷʰʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɆʁȬ˒ȉʦȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬʁɷʰɏȲȦɔʰ˘উʦʦȲȉɫौ ȥ˘ɷȬʟȲȉɔʦȉɷʁʁɷȉʟȲɫɔȲɅʁɷʰɏȲȦȉɴʜȉɷɔɫȲʁɅʰɏȲ$ʹʁɴʁɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲ (1337–40); and on another relief by an unknown sculptor on the Porta della gȉɷȬʁʟɫȉूʰɏȲɆʟȲȉʰȦȉʟˑȲȬʦɔȬȲȲɷʰʟȉɷȦȲʰʁʰɏȲ$ʹʁɴʁ२ࢾࣀࣆࢾॹࣄौεɆेࢿेࣀ३े25 Nikolaus Himmelmann has pointed out that this medieval interest in naked virtues was not a continuance of classical tradition, but uses classical forms to convey new meanings. Classical virtues were generally depicted ȦɫʁʰɏȲȬूȉɷȬʰɏȲEȲʟȦʹɫȲʦȉɷȬÁȲɷʹʦεɆʹʟȲʦʁɷ˒ɏɔȦɏʰɏȲʦȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʦȉʟȲ ȥȉʦȲȬ˒ȲʟȲʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫɫ˘ɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬʰʁɴȲȉɷʦʁɴȲʰɏɔɷɆ̍ʹɔʰȲȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰे26 Fig. 2.2. Giovanni Pisano, Temperance, ࢾࣀࢽࢾॹࢾࢽेgȉʟȥɫȲेȉʰɏȲȬʟȉɫʜʹɫʜɔʰू Pisa. 72 ΤȲȉɫɫȲɆʁʟɔˢɔɷɆʁɅɷʹȬɔʰ˘˒ɔʰɏɔȬȲȉʦʁɅʰʟʹʰɏȉɷȬɣʹʦʰɔȦȲʟȲɴȉɔɷȲȬ ȬɔΦʹʦȲȬɔɷȉˑȉʟɔȲʰ˘ʁɅʰȲ˗ʰʦूɴʁʟȉɫूʜʁɫɔʰɔȦȉɫूȉɷȬɫɔʰȲʟȉʟ˘ूʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʁʹʰ ʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʜȲʟɔʁȬेgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦDavid२ȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲȬࢾࣂࢽࣁौεɆेࢿेࣁ३ is an example of a nude sculpture where contemporary audiences would likely have understood its links with the medieval tradition of allegorized virtues.27JɷȬȲȲȬूɔʰʦˑɔʦʹȉɫʜʟʁ˗ɔɴɔʰ˘ʰʁȥʁʰɏjɔȦʁɫȉɔʦȉɷʁউʦFortitude and ʰɏȲEȲʟȦʹɫȲʦεɆʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲ$ʹʁɴʁʜʁʟʰȉɫ˒ʁʹɫȬɏȉˑȲȦȉʟʟɔȲȬʹɷɴɔʦʦȉȥɫȲ connotations for many Florentine viewers.28ʁɴʜȉʟȲȬʰʁ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦɫɔʰɏȲ boy David२εɆʦेࢾेࣀࣂȉɷȬࢾेࣀࣃ३ूgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲɔʦȉʜʁʦʰॼȉȬʁɫȲʦȦȲɷʰ ˘ʁʹɷɆɴȉɷूȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲ˒ɔʰɏʜʹȥɔȦɏȉɔʟे¢ʁʦȉˑȲʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟʦউˑɔʟʰʹȲूʰɏȲ ʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲউʦɆȲɷɔʰȉɫɔȉ˒ȲʟȲȦʁˑȲʟȲȬ˒ɔʰɏȉɆȉʟɫȉɷȬʁɅɫȲȉˑȲʦȥȲɅʁʟȲɔʰʦȬɔʦʜɫȉ˘ on the Piazza della Signoria in 1504.29 In some ways both strikingly modern and all’anticaूgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦ nude statue is also closely linked to its Christian context. For the many <ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲʦ˒ɏʁूɫɔɦȲgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूɏȉȬɫɔʦʰȲɷȲȬʰʁʁʟʟȲȉȬʰɏȲʦȲʟɴʁɷʦʁɅ ȉˑʁɷȉʟʁɫȉूʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʁɅʰɏȲ˘ʁʹʰɏɅʹɫ$ȉˑɔȬȥȲɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁʹɫȬȥȲɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟू ȉɷȬȲ̍ʹȉʰȲȬȉȥʁˑȲȉɫɫ˒ɔʰɏˑɔʟʰʹȲʦʁɅʰʟʹʰɏȉɷȬɣʹʦʰɔȦȲे30 Seemingly an unlikely supporter of the artistic nude, the case of Savonarola shows how important context and intention can be when interpreting ideas about ɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦेJɷɅȉȦʰूɔɷȉʦȲʟɴʁɷʁɅࢾࣁࣆࣄूȉˑʁɷȉʟʁɫȉȦɫȉɔɴȲȬʰɏȉʰআjȉɦȲȬ ʰʟʹʰɏɔʦɴʁʟȲʜɫȲȉʦɔɷɆूɣʹʦʰȉʦȉɷʹɷȬʟȲʦʦȲȬεɆʹʟȲू˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȉˑȲɔɫूɔʦɴʁʟȲ ʜɫȲȉʦɔɷɆʰɏȉɷʁɷȲʰɏȉʰɔʦȦʁˑȲʟȲȬेই31ɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰɫ˘ूɏȲȲ˗ʜɫɔȦɔʰɫ˘ȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲȬ $ȉˑɔȬȉʦȥȲɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬɔɷɏɔʦεɆɏʰȉɆȉɔɷʦʰ=ʁɫɔȉʰɏुআɦɷʁ˒ʰɏȉʰʰʟʹʰɏ˒ɔɫɫ Ȧʁɷ̍ʹȲʟȉɷȬूɔɷʰɏȲȲɷȬू˒ɔɫɫʜʟʁˑȲʰɏȲʦʰʟʁɷɆȲʟौʰʟʹʰɏȬʁȲʦɷʁʰʦȲȲɦʰʁ attach itself to another power; rather on its own, alone and naked, it wins ȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦे$ȉˑɔȬू˒ɏȲɷɏȲɏȉȬʰʁεɆɏʰू˒ȉɷʰȲȬɷʁȉʟɴʦूȥʹʰʰɏʟȲ˒ʰɏȲɴʰʁ ʰɏȲɆʟʁʹɷȬȉɷȬʦɔɴʜɫ˘˒ȲɷʰɔɷʰʁȥȉʰʰɫȲȉɷȬ˒ʁɷेই32 In the same series of ʦȲʟɴʁɷʦूʰɏȲɅʟɔȉʟȲ˗ʜɫɔȦɔʰɫ˘ȦʁɴʜȉʟȲȬ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲʰʁ$ȉˑɔȬ˒ȉɔʰɔɷɆʰʁɅȉȦȲ =ʁɫɔȉʰɏेʦ$ȉˑɔȬɅʁʹɆɏʰ=ʁɫɔȉʰɏ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȉʟɴʁʟूɷȉɦȲȬूʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲʦ THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 2.3. (above) Unknown sculptor, Hercules, c.1391–7. gȉʟȥɫȲेʁʟʰȉȬȲɫɫȉgȉɷȬʁʟɫȉू $ʹʁɴʁू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲे Fig. 2.4. (right) gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूDavidूࢾࣂࢽࣁेgȉʟȥɫȲे =ȉɫɫȲʟɔȲȬȲɫɫউȦȦȉȬȲɴɔȉू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲे Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 73 ʰʁʁ˒ʁʹɫȬεɆɏʰʰɏȲɔʟɅʁȲআɷʁʰ˒ɔʰɏʟɏȲʰʁʟɔȦȥʹʰ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬʰʟʹʰɏूই ɷʁʰɴʁʰɔˑȉʰȲȬȉʦ˒ȉʦʰɏȲɔʟȲɷȲɴ˘ूʰɏȲʁɴȉɷȦɏʹʟȦɏूȥ˘আɆʁɫȬूʦɔɫˑȲʟेेे Ɇɫʹʰʰʁɷ˘ूȉɴȥɔʰɔʁɷेই33ΤʹʦʜʁɴʜूȉʟɴʁʟूȲˑȲɷȦɫʁʰɏȲʦ˒ȲʟȲɷʁʰɷȲȦȲʦʦȉʟ˘ for the victory of the virtuous republic. Nakedness was a true sign of ʦʰʟȲɷɆʰɏȉɷȬ=ʁȬউʦɅȉˑʁʟॹʰɏȲɔɴʜɫɔȦȉʰɔʁɷʦɏȲʟȲɅʁʟʁʹʟʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅ gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦɷȉɦȲȬDavid are clear. Nakedness here is more than a classical ȉɫɫʹʦɔʁɷूȥʹʰȉʦɔɆɷʁɅʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲʟȲʜʹȥɫɔȦউʦʁʜȲɷॼɏȉɷȬȲȬȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏʰʁ ɣʹʦʰɔȦȲूɔʰʦʦȲȉʟȦɏɅʁʟʰʟʹʰɏʹɷȬȲʟɔʰʦɷȲ˒ɫɔɅȲʰɔɴȲɏȲȉȬूɔȲʟʁʁȬȲʟɔɷɔे34 gʁʦʰȲȉʟɫ˘ɔɷ̍ʹȲȦȲɷʰʁˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟʦ˒ʁʹɫȬȥʟɔɷɆʰʁʰɏɔʦȦʁɫʁʦʦȉɫɷʹȬȲʰɏȲ knowledge of earlier examples of naked virtues that it resembled so closely. How to Look at Nudes ΤȲʟȲɔʦȉʟȲˑȲȉɫɔɷɆʦʰʁʟ˘ȉȥʁʹʰȦʁɷζɔȦʰɔɷɆȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʦʰʁ˒ȉʟȬʰɏȲɷʹȬȲ εɆʹʟȲɔɷʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟ^ʁʟȲɷˢʁ=ɏɔȥȲʟʰɔউʦ ɀȳȳǱȶʧǈɞȓǱɥ २ࢾࣁࣁࣄ्ࣅॹࣂࣂ३. ɷȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲɔɴȉɆȲʁ̎ÁȲɷʹʦ˒ȉʦɅʁʹɷȬɔɷɔȲɷȉɔɷʰɏȲɴɔȬॼ ɅʁʹʟʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉɷȬʜɫȉȦȲȬʁɷʰɏȲɅʁʹɷʰȉɔɷɔɷʰɏȲȦɔʰ˘ʦ̍ʹȉʟȲेআɫɫʰɏʁʦȲ ˒ɏʁɦɷȲ˒ȉɷȬ˒ȲʟȲȲȬʹȦȉʰȲȬɔɷʰɏȲȉʟʰʁɅʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूɆʁɫȬʦɴɔʰɏʦউ˒ʁʟɦ ȉɷȬʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʟȉɷʰʁʦȲȲʰɏɔʦɴʁʦʰɴȉʟˑȲɫʁʹʦȉɷȬʦɦɔɫɫɅʹɫʦʰȉʰʹȲेই35 Soon ʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲʁȥɣȲȦʰɔʁɷʦूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूȉʦʰɏȲȦɔʰ˘ॼʦʰȉʰȲউʦ˒ȉʟ˒ɔʰɏɔʰʦɷȲɔɆɏȥʁʟू <ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲूʦʰȉʟʰȲȬʰʁɆʁȥȉȬɫ˘ॹʁɷȲʁɅʰɏȲȦɔʰɔˢȲɷʦʜʟʁȦɫȉɔɴȲȬʰɏȉʰআȉʦʦʁʁɷ as we found this statue, bad things have continually happened to us, and considering that idolatry is prohibited by our faith, we have to believe ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲȉȬˑȲʟʦɔʰ˘ʰɏȉʰ˒ȲɏȉˑȲ˒ȉʦʦȲɷʰȥ˘=ʁȬɅʁʟʁʹʟȲʟʟʁʟʦेই36 So the statue was broken into pieces and buried on Florentine territory to curse ɔȲɷȉউʦȲɷȲɴɔȲʦɔɷʰɏȲʦȉɴȲ˒ȉ˘े=ʁˑȲʟɷɴȲɷʰʟȲȦʁʟȬʦʁɅࢾࣀࣂࣄʦʹȥʦʰȉɷʰɔȉʰȲ =ɏɔȥȲʟʰɔউʦʦʰʁʟ˘े37EɔʦȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲʦȲʰ˒ʁˑȲʟ˘ȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʦ ʰʁ˒ȉʟȬȉȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫɷʹȬȲɔʦʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫʁɅʰɏȲʰȲɷʦɔʁɷʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦʁɅ ȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ʰȲɷȬȲȬʰʁȲˑʁɦȲɔɷʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟे ZȉʰɏɫȲȲɷÂʟȲɷɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷɏȉʦʦɏʁ˒ɷʰɏȉʰȬȲʦʜɔʰȲɫɔˑɔɷɆȦɏȲȲɦȥ˘ɣʁ˒ɫ˒ɔʰɏ ʰɏȲʟȲɴȉɔɷʦʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲεɆʹʟȉɫʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȉʦȉɴȉʟɦȲȬʜʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲɅʁʟ ȦʁɫɫȲȦʰɔʁɷʦʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲɔɷʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷʦɔɷʁɴȲȉɷȬȥȲ˘ʁɷȬɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ʜȉʟʰ ʁɅʰɏȲûʹȉʰʰʟʁȦȲɷʰʁेJʰ˒ȉʦʁɷɫ˘ɔɷʰɏȲɫȉʦʰ̍ʹȉʟʰȲʟʁɅʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ ʰɏȉʰ˒ɔȬȲʦʜʟȲȉȬȦʁɫɫȲȦʰɔɷɆʁɅɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȉɫʦʰȉʰʹȲʦȉɷȬɅʟȉɆɴȲɷʰʦȥȲȦȉɴȲ ȦʁɴɴʁɷʜɫȉȦȲौʰɏȲʜʟȲʜʁɷȬȲʟȉɷȦȲʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲɷʹȬȲʦɔɷʁɴȉɷʜȉɫȉȦȲʦȥ˘ ʰɏɔʦʜʁɔɷʰɔʦʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɔʟɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷȦ˘ɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣁࣆࣆȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲ collections in the city, the Prospectus of Roman Antiquities.38 At the vanguard of the new collecting culture was Cardinal Prospero Colonna (c.1410–1463), who owned the Belvedere Torso२εɆेࢿेࣂ३ȉɷȬʰɏȲʦʰȉʰʹȲʁɅʰɏȲ̨ɞǱǱ?ɞǈǥǱɥ २εɆेࢿेࣃ३ूɷʁ˒ɔɷɔȲɷȉेΤȲɫȉʰʰȲʟʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲȥȲȦȉɴȲʰɏȲεʟʦʰɷʹȬȲ˒ʁʟɦ ʰʁȥȲ˒ɔȬȲɫ˘ȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉɷȬ˒ȉʦȬʟȉ˒ɷȉδȲʟ several times.39ɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷʜʁɔɷʰʦʁʹʰʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ=ʟȉȦȲʦউɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦɏȉȬȥȲȲɷ 74 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE <ɔɆेࢿेࣂे२ɫȲδ३ Apollonios, Belvedere Torsoूεʟʦʰ century CE (copy of statue dating ɅʟʁɴʦȲȦʁɷȬȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘*३ेgȉʟȥɫȲे gʹʦȲʁɔʁɫȲɴȲɷʰɔɷʁूÁȉʰɔȦȉɷ gʹʦȲʹɴʦूʁɴȲे Fig. 2.6. (right) Unknown sculptor, ̨ɞǱǱ?ɞǈǥǱɥ (Roman copy of a Greek original). gȉʟȥɫȲेgʹʦȲʁȬȲɫɫউsʜȲʟȉ gȲʰʟʁʜʁɫɔʰȉɷȉूɔȲɷȉे glossed positively by a number of medieval writers, who interpreted the visibility of their bodies as an indication of purity and truthfulness. Τʹʦ<ʹɫɆȲɷʰɔʹʦू˒ɏʁɏȉȬʟȉɔɫȲȬȉɆȉɔɷʦʰʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬÁȲɷʹʦूȦɫȉɔɴȲȬআʰɏȲ =ʟȉȦȲʦȉʟȲɷʹȬȲूȥȲȦȉʹʦȲ=ʟȉȦȲɦɷʁ˒ʦɷʁεɷȲȲɴȥȲɫɫɔʦɏɴȲɷʰेই40ΤȲ =ʟȉȦȲʦউɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʰɏʹʦɅȲȬɔɷʰʁʰɏȲ˒Ȳɫɫॼ˒ʁʟɷtoposʁɅআˑɔʟʰʹʁʹʦɷʹȬɔʰ˘ूই as discussed above, and this may well be why they became celebrated ʟȲɫȉʰɔˑȲɫ˘Ȳȉʟɫ˘ʁɷेΤȲ˘ʦʰʁʁȬȉʦȉˑɔʦʹȉɫȉɷȉɫʁɆʹȲʰʁʟʁʦʜȲʟʁʁɫʁɷɷȉউʦ open-handed generosity, welcoming guests to his home. ΤȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲɴȉɷ˘Ȳ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʦʁɅɷʹȬȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʦʰɏȉʰɏȉȬȥȲȲɷ˒Ȳɫɫɦɷʁ˒ɷ and continually visible since classical times.41ΤȲȦʁɫʁʦʦȉɫHorse-Tamers, or Dioscuri२εɆेࢿेࣄ३ूʁɷʰɏȲûʹɔʟɔɷȉɫEɔɫɫɔɷʁɴȲɏȉˑȲʟȲɴȉɔɷȲȬʰɏȲʟȲʦɔɷȦȲ ȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ेΤȲɷʹȬɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲHorse-Tamers, like that of the ̨ɞǱǱ?ɞǈǥǱɥ, was interpreted allegorically by medieval commentators. In their original ʦȲʰʰɔɷɆʦूȉʦʦɏʁ˒ɷɔɷȉɷȲɷɆʟȉˑɔɷɆɔɷɷʰʁɷɔʁ^ȉɅʟȲʟɔউʦMirror of Roman iǈȅȶȓ̇ǥǱȶǥǱʁɅࢾࣂࣁࣃ२εɆेࢿेࣅ३ूʰɏȲɆʟʁʹʜʦ˒ȲʟȲɫȉȥȲɫȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɅʁʹʟʰɏॼ ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɔɷʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷʦআsʜʹʦ<ɔȬɔȉȲইȉɷȬআsʜʹʦʟȉ˗ɔʰȲɫɔʦইॹȉʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʰʁ the famous ancient Greek sculptors Phidias and Praxiteles who in fact probably lived something like 150 years apart.42ΤȲʰ˒ȲɫδɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘˒ʟɔʰȲʟ of the Marvels of the City of Rome did not recognize these names as those ʁɅʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟʦȥʹʰʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲʜɏɔɫʁʦʁʜɏȲʟʦ˒ɏʁ˒ȲɷʰȉʟʁʹɷȬ ɷȉɦȲȬूআȲȦȉʹʦȲȉɫɫʰɏɔɷɆʦȉʟȲɷȉɦȲȬȉɷȬʁʜȲɷʰʁʹʦȉɷȬ˒ȲɏʁɫȬʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɫȬ Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 75 ʁɅɷʁȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʰɏȲʟȲɅʁʟȲ˒ȲɆʁɷȉɦȲȬȉɷȬʜʁʦʦȲʦʦɷʁʰɏɔɷɆेই43 By the end of the fourteenth century, Petrarch had recognized the names to be those of classical sculptors, and saw the statues as an indication of rivalry between ʰɏȲʰ˒ʁȉʟʰɔʦʰʦेΤɔʦɔʦʜʁʦʦɔȥɫ˘ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫɔȲʦʰूʁʟȉʰɫȲȉʦʰȉˑȲʟ˘ʜʟȲȦʁȦɔʁʹʦू elision of the depiction of the nude with a sign of artistic skill. By the εδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɔʰ˒ȉʦɷʁʰʁɷɫ˘ʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɔɷʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷʦ˒ȲʟȲȉ ɫȉʰȲʟȉȬȬɔʰɔʁɷूȥʹʰȉɫʦʁȉʦʦʹɴȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɷʹȬɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦɷȲȲȬȲȬɷʁ ʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟȲ˗ʜɫȉɷȉʰɔʁɷेΤȲʟȲɅʁʟȲ<ɫȉˑɔʁɔʁɷȬʁɔɷɏɔʦRome Restored of ࢾࣁࣁࣁॹࣃȉʟɆʹȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɏʁʟʦȲʦ˒ȲʟȲɆɔδʦɅʟʁɴZɔɷɆ¢ɔʟɔȬȉʰȲʦʁɅʟɴȲɷɔȉ to the Emperor Nero, and the accompanying men were horse-tamers. ^ȉʰȲʟूȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣂࣂࢽूɔʟʟʁ^ɔɆʁʟɔʁȉɷȬsɷʁɅʟɔʁȉɷˑɔɷɔʁɔȬȲɷʰɔεȲȬȥʁʰɏ groups as Alexander the Great and his horse Bucephalus.44ΤȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ ʁɅʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦɔʦɷʁʰȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬɔɷȲɔʰɏȲʟȉȦȦʁʹɷʰॹɔʰɔʦʰȉɦȲɷȉʦȉɆɔˑȲɷ ȥ˘ʰɏɔʦʜʁɔɷʰʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɴȲɷȉʟȲɷʹȬȲȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏȉʰɔʦɏʁ˒ʰɏȲ˘ȉʟȲʁδȲɷ represented in classical sculpture. Fig. 2.7. Unknown sculptor, ̨ǱGɀɞɥǱՒ¤ǈȳǱɞɥ (Dioscuri), fourth century (Roman Ȧʁʜ˘ʁɅȉ=ʟȲȲɦʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫ३ेgȉʟȥɫȲे ûʹɔʟɔɷȉɫEɔɫɫूʁɴȲे gȉɷ˘ȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦȬɔȬɅȲȲɫʰɏȲɷȲȲȬʰʁȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʁʟȲ˗ȦʹʦȲʰɏȲ ʜʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲɅʁʟɷʹȬɔʰ˘ɔɷȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲेʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦूȉʦɔɷ=ɏɔȥȲʟʰɔউʦ case, it was assumed that only an educated audience who understood the ʦɦɔɫɫɔɷɏȲʟȲɷʰɔɷȉȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɷʹȬȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲ˒ȉʦεʰʰʁʦȲȲʰɏȲʦȲʁȥɣȲȦʰʦू ʜʟȲȦɔʦȲɫ˘ȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏȲɷȉʰʹʟȲʁɅɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘উʦȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʰʁɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦɏȉȬ changed since classical times. Sometimes it was argued that pagans were too innocent to see representations of naked people in a lascivious ˒ȉ˘ेΤʹʦ˒ɏȲɷɔȲʟʁÁȉɫȲʟɔȉɷʁȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬʰɏȲɴȲȉɷɔɷɆʦʁɅʰɏȲɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦ ɔɷȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ɔɷɏɔʦɴɔȬॼʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȬɔȦʰɔʁɷȉʟ˘ʁɅʦ˘ɴȥʁɫʦूʰɏȲ HieroglyphicaूɏȲɣʹʦʰɔεȲȬɏɔɴʦȲɫɅ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲȦɫȉɔɴʰɏȉʰআɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ूȥȲɔɷɆ less vice-ridden, philosophized more plainly and frankly about each and Perhaps the earliest debate that delineates the complex and sometimes ȦʁɷʰʟȉȬɔȦʰʁʟ˘ʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ȉɷȬȬȲȦʁʟʹɴɔʦʰɏȲȲʜɔʦʰʁɫȉʟ˘ Ȳ˗ȦɏȉɷɆȲʁˑȲʟɷʰʁɷɔʁȲȦȦȉȬȲɫɫɔউʦ̨ǱGǱɞȳǈɛȎɞɀǫȓɯǱ, a series of highly ʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔˢȲȬʜʁȲɴʦ˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣁࢿࢽʦȉɷȬȬȲȬɔȦȉʰȲȬʰʁʁʦɔɴʁȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔे ̨ǱGǱɞȳǈɛȎɞɀǫȓɯǱউʦȥȉ˒Ȭ˘ȉɷȬʜɫȉɔɷॼʦʜȲȉɦɔɷɆȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʰʁʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔʰ˘˒ȉʦ ɴȲʰȉʜɏʁʟɔȦȉɫɫ˘ʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȲȬȉʦʰɏȲȥʁʁɦȥȲɔɷɆআɷȉɦȲȬेই47ȲȦȦȉȬȲɫɫɔউʦȬȲɅȲɷʦȲ २ʰȉɦȲɷɅʟʁɴEʁʟȉȦȲ३ʰɏȉʰআʁȲʰʦȉɷȬʜȉɔɷʰȲʟʦेेेɏȉˑȲȲˑȲʟɏȉȬȲ̍ʹȉɫ ȉʹʰɏʁʟɔʰ˘ɅʁʟȉʰʰȲɴʜʰɔɷɆȉɷ˘ʰɏɔɷɆই˒ȉʦ̍ʹɔȦɦɫ˘ʦɫȉʜʜȲȬȬʁ˒ɷȥ˘ʁηɔʁ ʟȉȦȦɔʁɫɔɷɔɔɷȉɫȲʰʰȲʟʁɅࢾࣁࢿࣃुআ*ˑȲɷʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟʦेेेʰɏʁʹɆɏʰɏȲ˘ɴȉ˘ɏȉˑȲ painted a naked woman, yet they cover the private parts of the body with some sort of drapery, imitating their guide Nature, which has hidden ɅȉʟɅʟʁɴʦɔɆɏʰʰɏʁʦȲʜȉʟʰʦʰɏȉʰȉʟȲɔɷʦʁɴȲȬȲɆʟȲȲʦɏȉɴȲɅʹɫेই48 Guarino ʁ̎ÁȲʟʁɷȉ२ࢾࣀࣄࣁॹࢾࣁࣃࢽ३ʰʁʁɦʹʜȲȦȦȉȬȲɫɫɔউʦȦȉʹʦȲूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूʜʁɔɷʰɔɷɆʁʹʰ ʰɏȉʰȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȬɔȬɷʁʰɫȲȉˑȲʰɏʁʦȲআʦɏȉɴȲɅʹɫইʜȉʟʰʦɏɔȬȬȲɷुআɏȉɫɫ˒Ȳ praise Apelles or Fabius or any painter the less because they have painted naked and unconcealed those details of the body which nature prefers ɏɔȬȬȲɷैই49 Perhaps, however, the crux of the matter had already been noted ȥ˘ʁηɔʁॹআʰɏȲʦȉɴȲɫɔȦȲɷʦȲɔʦɷʁʰɆɔˑȲɷʰʁʹʦɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷʦȉʦ˒ȉʦɆɔˑȲɷʰʁ ʰɏȲʜʁȲʰʦʁɅʁɫȬू˒ɏʁȬɔȬɷʁʰɦɷʁ˒=ʁȬेই50 ʁηɔʁউʦȉʟɆʹɴȲɷʰूʰȉɦȲɷʰʁɔʰʦȦʁɷȦɫʹʦɔʁɷू˒ʁʹɫȬɴȲȉɷʰɏȉʰɔʰ˒ȉʦʦɔɴʜɫ˘ ɷʁʰɫɔȦɔʰɅʁʟɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦʰʁȉȬɴɔʟȲɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅɷʹȬȲʦेEʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɣʹʦʰ before the debate over ̨Ǳ Hermaphrodite took place, new theories of ˑɔȲ˒ɔɷɆ˒ȲʟȲȲɴȲʟɆɔɷɆʰɏȉʰ˒ȲʟȲʰʁȥȲȦʁɴȲɏʹɆȲɫ˘ɔɷζʹȲɷʰɔȉɫेΤȲɅȉɴʁʹʦ ˘ˢȉɷʰɔɷȲɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰgȉɷʹȲɫɏʟ˘ʦʁɫʁʟȉʦ२c.1355–1415) wrote three letters in 1411–13 that were to become very important for ideas about art among Italian humanist scholars.51 In one letter he describes how he walked ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʁɴȲूআʦ˒ɔˑȲɫɔɷɆɴ˘Ȳ˘Ȳʦʰɏɔʦ˒ȉ˘ȉɷȬʰɏȉʰɫɔɦȲʦʁɴȲȥʁʁʟɔʦɏ gallant, clambering up palace walls, even up to their windows, on the ȦɏȉɷȦȲʁɅʦȲȲɔɷɆʦʁɴȲʰɏɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰɔȲʦɔɷʦɔȬȲेই52 So far, so sinful, as he implies he is looking to catch a glimpse of an alluring woman. However, ɏȲɆʁȲʦʁɷूɏȲɔʦɫʁʁɦɔɷɆআɔɷʰɏȲɏʁʜȲʁɅεɷȬɔɷɆɔɷʰɏȲʦȲʜɫȉȦȲʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɷʁʰ ɔɷɫɔˑɔɷɆȥʁȬɔȲʦȥʹʰɔɷʦʰʁɷȲूɴȉʟȥɫȲʦȉɷȬɔɴȉɆȲʦेইʟȲȉɫɏʹɴȉɷʁʟȉɷɔɴȉɫ ॹȉȬʁɆʁʟȉɫɔʁɷूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲॹ˒ɔɫɫɷʁʰɷʁʟɴȉɫɫ˘εɫɫʹʦ˒ɔʰɏȉȬɴɔʟȉʰɔʁɷू ȥʹʰȉɷȲ˗ȦȲɫɫȲɷʰʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏɔɷɆʦȦȉɷȬʁʦʁुআʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰɔȲʦʁɅʦʰȉʰʹȲʦ and paintings are not an unworthy thing to behold; rather do they indicate a certain nobility in the intellect that admires them. It is looking at the Fig. 2.8. Unknown engraver, HorseTamers, 1546. Engraving. From ɷʰʁɷɔʁ^ȉɅʟȲʟɔউʦSpeculum romane ȳǈȅȶȓ̇ǥǱȶɯȓǈǱेʟɔʰɔʦɏgʹʦȲʹɴू London, 1947,0319.26.123. 76 every thing; nor was there at that time anything in the human body that ˒ȉʦȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȲȬȬɔʦɆʟȉȦȲɅʹɫȲɔʰɏȲʟȥ˘ʦɔɆɏʰʁʟɷȉɴȲेই45 Other commentators ʰʁʁɦʜʟȲȦɔʦȲɫ˘ʰɏȲʁʜʜʁʦɔʰȲˑɔȲ˒ुʦʁʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰȉΦȉȲɫʁgȉΦȲɔɔɷɏɔʦ «ɞǤǈȶ ɀȳȳǱȶʧǈɞȓǱɥof 1506 wrote that the Greeks had so many naked ʦʰȉʰʹȲʦȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏȲ˘˒ȉɷʰȲȬআʰʁʦɏʁ˒ʁΦʰɏȲɔʟȉʟʰȉɷȬȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʁɅʰɏȲɔʟ ɫɔȥɔȬɔɷʁʹʦɷȲʦʦेইJʰ˒ȉʦ̍ʹɔʰȲʹɷʦʹɔʰȉȥɫȲूɏȲȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬूɅʁʟɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷ˒ʁɴȲɷ ʰʁȥȲȦʁɷɅʟʁɷʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲʁɅʁȥɣȲȦʰे46 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 77 ȥȲȉʹʰɔȲʦʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷʰɏȉʰɔʦɫɔȦȲɷʰɔʁʹʦȉɷȬȥȉʦȲेेेेÂɏȉʰɔʦʰɏȲʟȲȉʦʁɷɅʁʟ ʰɏɔʦैJʰɔʦʰɏȉʰ˒ȲȉȬɴɔʟȲɷʁʰʦʁɴʹȦɏʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰɔȲʦʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬɔȲʦɔɷʦʰȉʰʹȲʦ ȉɷȬʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦȉʦʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɴɔɷȬʁɅʰɏȲɔʟɴȉɦȲʟेইΤɔʦʜȉʦʦȉɆȲ argues for the making of representations to be a mental as opposed to a ɴȉɷʹȉɫȉȦʰɔˑɔʰ˘ूȉɷȬɅʁʟʰɏȲȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʰʁʦȲȲȥȲ˘ʁɷȬʦʹȥɣȲȦʰ matter and discern beautiful concepts through skillful rendering of marble ʁʟʜȉɔɷʰेΤȲʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲ˒ȉʦʰʁȥȲȦʁɴȲʰɏȲɔȬȲȉɫʰȲʦʰ both of the artist and the beholder; for decorous viewing, it is essential to ʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬʰɏȲȬɔΦȲʟȲɷȦȲȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʟȲȉɫɔʰ˘ȉɷȬʰɏȲȦʁɷȦȲʜʰʦȥȲɏɔɷȬʦɦɔɫɫɅʹɫ representation. It is the potential danger of viewing the nude that provides one of the reasons for it becoming so central to artistic practice. sɷȲʁɅɏʟ˘ʦʁɫʁʟȉʦউʦʜʹʜɔɫʦ˒ȉʦ=ʹȉʟɔɷʁʁ̎ÁȲʟʁɷȉॹʰɏȲʦȉɴȲɴȉɷ˒ɏʁ ɏȉȬȬȲɅȲɷȬȲȬȲȦȦȉȬȲɫɫɔউʦ̨Ǳ Hermaphrodite. In 1436, he became a professor ʁɅ=ʟȲȲɦȉʰ<ȲʟʟȉʟȉʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏȲʜȉʰʟʁɷȉɆȲʁɅgȉʟ̍ʹɔʦ^ȲʁɷȲɫɫʁȬউ*ʦʰȲे53 jʁʰʦʹʟʜʟɔʦɔɷɆɫ˘ूʰɏȲʟȲɅʁʟȲूɔʰɔʦɔɷʰɏȲɴɔɫɔȲʹʁɅ^ȲʁɷȲɫɫʁউʦȦʁʹʟʰʰɏȉʰ˒Ȳ εɷȬ˒ɏȉʰɔʦʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ʰɏȲɴʁʦʰȲ˗ʰȲɷȬȲȬεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷ ʁɅɷʹȬɔʰ˘ɔɷʰɏȲˑɔʦʹȉɫȉʟʰʦʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ू$ȲȦȲɴȥʟɔʁউʦȉɅʁʟȲɴȲɷʰɔʁɷȲȬDe politia litterariaूȉȬɔȉɫʁɆʹȲɴȲɴʁʟɔȉɫɔˢɔɷɆʰɏȲȦʁʹʟʰʁɅ^ȲʁɷȲɫɫʁȬউ*ʦʰȲ in Ferrara.54 In Chapter 68, the character of Leonello asks his gathered ɆʹȲʦʰʦ˒ɏ˘ʰɏȲɆȲɴʦɔɷɏɔʦȦʁɫɫȲȦʰɔʁɷʁɷɫ˘ɏȉȬɏȲȉȬʦʁʟɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦʁɷ ʰɏȲɴेΤȲ˘ʁʹɷɆȲʟɴȲɴȥȲʟʦʁɅʰɏȲȦʁɴʜȉɷ˘ूȉȦʰɔɷɆȉʦȉɅʁɔɫʰʁʰɏȲɔʟ˒ɔʦȲʟ ʜȉʰʟʁɷूʦȉ˘ɔʰȦʁʹɫȬȥȲȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏȲɆȲɴʦȉʟȲʦʁʦɴȉɫɫȉɷȬɔʰ˒ȉʦȬɔΪȦʹɫʰʰʁ εʰȦɫʁʰɏȲʦʁɷʦʹȦɏʰɔɷ˘εɆʹʟȲʦे^ȲʁɷȲɫɫʁȦʁʟʟȲȦʰʦʰɏȲɴुআȲˑȲɷɔɷʰɏȲȦȉʦȲʁɅ ȦȉʦʰȉɷȬɴȉʟȥɫȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूʁɷȲεɷȬʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲȥȲʦʰʦʰȉʰʹȲʦȉʟȲȲɔʰɏȲʟ˒ɏʁɫɫ˘ ʁʟʜȉʟʰɫ˘ɷʹȬȲेইEȲɆʁȲʦʁɷʰʁȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷ˒ɏ˘ुআʰɏȲȲ˗ȦȲɫɫȲɷʰ˒ʁʟɦʦʁɅʰɏʁʦȲ ȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȉɷȬʁɅʰɏȉʰʰɔɴȲ˒ʁʹɫȬȥȲʦʰȥȲɣʹȬɆȲȬɔɷʰɏɔʦʦʰȉʰȲʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦे ेेे<ʁʟɔʰɔʦɷʁʰȲˑȲʟ˘ɅȉʦɏɔʁɷʁɅȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆʰɏȉʰʜɫȲȉʦȲʦȲˑȲʟ˘ʦʹȥʦȲ̍ʹȲɷʰ generation and race: some kinds of shoes and cloaks and belts and even ȉʟɴʁʹʟȥȲȦʁɴȲʟɔȬɔȦʹɫʁʹʦȲˑȲɷɔɷʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦेʹʰʰɏȲȉʟʰɔεȦȲʁɅɷȉʰʹʟȲɔʦ ʦʹʜʟȲɴȲूɷʁʜȲʟɔʁȬɅȉʦɏɔʁɷʦȦɏȉɷɆȲɔʰेই55 ΤɔʦȉʟɆʹɴȲɷʰू˒ɏɔȦɏȲ̍ʹȉʰȲʦʰɏȲȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁȬȲʜɔȦʰȉɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘˒ɔʰɏ ȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ȉɷȬȦʁɷɷʁɔʦʦȲʹʟɔȉɫɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰूɔʦɅʹɷȬȉɴȲɷʰȉɫʰʁʰɏȲʰɏȲʁʟ˘ of the artistic nude that became dominant over the course of the sixteenth ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘े^ɔɦȲgȉɷʹȲɫɏʟ˘ʦʁɫʁʟȉʦউʦȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷʁɅˑɔʟʰʹʁʹʦʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȉȥɫȲ viewing, it has at its foundation a sense of a dialogue between artist and viewer. At the base of the exponential growth in the depiction of the naked body was the notion of artistic competition. Unlike its clothed counterpart, the naked body was, as Leonello claimed, beyond time; ɴʁȬȲʟɷȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȦʁʹɫȬɔɷʰɏɔʦ˒ȉ˘ȥȲȦʁɴʜȉʟȲȬȬɔʟȲȦʰɫ˘˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɔʟȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲ ɅʁʟȲȥȲȉʟʦेʁɴʜʁʦɔʰɔʁɷʦɷȲȲȬʰʁȥȲɣʹȬɆȲȬौɷʹȬȲʦ˒ȲʟȲȉ˒ȉ˘ɅʁʟˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟʦ to demonstrate, perform even, their discernment and education. 78 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 2.9. Pisanello, iǱǫǈȪɀȄ ǱǥȓȪȓǈ?ɀȶʡǈȅǈ २ʟȲˑȲʟʦȲ३ूࢾࣁࣁࣄेʟʁɷˢȲेgʹʦȲʹɴ ʁɅ<ɔɷȲʟʰूʁʦʰʁɷुΤȲʁȬʁʟʁȉ Âɔɫȥʁʹʟ<ʹɷȬɔɷɴȲɴʁʟ˘ʁɅÒʁȼ Âɔɫȥʁʹʟे EɔɴɴȲɫɴȉɷɷʜʁɔɷʰʦʁʹʰʰɏȉʰȥ˘ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ʰʁɴɔȬॼεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ूɔʰ became popular to have nudes depicting virtues on the reverse of medals, ʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ɔɷɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰȦɔʟȦɫȲʦेΤɔʦ˒ȉʦɷʁʰȉʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲʦȲȲɷɔɷȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ ʁʟूɔɷȬȲȲȬूɔɷʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲɆȲʦूȥʹʰʜʁʦʦɔȥɫ˘ȉɷȲɴʹɫȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɴȲȬɔȲˑȉɫ ɷʹȬȲˑɔʟʰʹȲʦɔɷʰɏȲȥȲɫɔȲɅʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȲʟȲζȲȦʰȲȬȉʰ˘ʜȲʁɅˑɔʦʹȉɫɔȦʁɷʁɆʟȉʜɏ˘ Ʌʟʁɴȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘े56ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲʦȲˑȲʟȉɫȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʦʁɅʦʹȦɏɴȲȬȉɫʦɴȉȬȲȥ˘ Pisanello in the ambit of the Ferrarese court, such as the 1447 medal of Cecilia Gonzaga, which shows a semi-nude Innocence on the reverse ɏʁɫȬɔɷɆʰɏȲɏʁʟɷʁɅȉʹɷɔȦʁʟɷ२εɆेࢿेࣆ३ूʟȲζȲȦʰɔɷɆʰɏȲȦɏȉʦʰɔʰ˘ȉɷȬˑɔʟʰʹȲ of the sitter, who went into a convent rather than marry.57 Other medals showing nudes are rather harder to interpret, such as two depicting ^ȲʁɷȲɫɫʁȬউ*ʦʰȲ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʁɷʰɏȲʁȥˑȲʟʦȲȥʹʰȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰ images of allegorical nudes on the other side – one of a sail surrounded by two naked men, one young, one old; and the other with two naked men Ȧȉʟʟ˘ɔɷɆȥȉʦɦȲʰʦʁɅʁɫɔˑȲȥʟȉɷȦɏȲʦ२εɆेࢿेࢾࢽ३े58 Both date to around 1442, ȉɷȬȥʁʰɏ˒ȲʟȲʦɔɆɷȲȬ˒ɔʰɏɔʦȉɷȲɫɫʁউʦɷȉɴȲेΤȲɅȉȦʰʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȲȲȉʟɫ˘ɷʹȬȲʦ with ambiguous meaning derive from the Ferrarese court of Leonello Ȭউ*ʦʰȲɔʦʦʹηȲʦʰɔˑȲेJʰʦȲȲɴʦʰɏȉʰ$ȲȦȲɴȥʟɔʁউʦʟȲʜʁʟʰȲȬȦʁɷˑȲʟʦȉʰɔʁɷʦȬʁ ʟȲζȲȦʰूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟɫʁʁʦȲɫ˘ूȉȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦɔɷʰȲɷʰɫ˘ɔɷʰȲʟȲʦʰȲȬɔɷʰɏȲȉʟʰʁɅ ȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ȉɷȬʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦʰɏȉʰʦȲȲɴȲȬʰʁȦɏȉʟȉȦʰȲʟɔˢȲɔʰेΤȲɔʦȉɷȲɫɫʁ medals cross the bridge between the highly allegorized medieval virtuous ɷʹȬȲʦȉɷȬʰɏȲȬȲʜɔȦʰɔʁɷʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʰʁȬɔʦʜɫȉ˘ȉɷɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦʦɦɔɫɫ ɔɷȬɔʟȲȦʰȦʁɴʜȉʟɔʦʁɷ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲȉȦɏɔȲˑȲɴȲɷʰʦʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘े$ȲʦɔɆɷȲȬʰʁȥȲ handled and passed from person to person, these medals were conversation pieces that lent themselves to the elegant display of erudition on the part of the interlocutors. It is no coincidence that these early classicizing nudes appear in a format that lends itself to such active viewing. By the beginning of the sixteenth century the ability to depict a nude well had started to become a byword for artistic skill. So, for example, in a ˒Ȳɫɫॼɦɷʁ˒ɷɫȲʰʰȲʟʁɅࢾࣂࢽࣂूʰɏȲgȉʟȦɏɔʁɷȲʦʦʁɅgȉɷʰʹȉȉɷȬʟȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬȉʟʰ ʜȉʰʟʁɷJʦȉȥȲɫɫȉȬউ*ʦʰȲȦʁɴʜɫȉɔɷʦʰɏȉʰȲʟʹɆɔɷʁʜȉɔɷʰȲȬÁȲɷʹʦɷʹȬȲʟȉʰɏȲʟ than clothed on his Combat of Love and ChastityʜȉɷȲɫআɔɷʁʟȬȲʟʰʁȥȲʰʰȲʟ ȬȲɴʁɷʦʰʟȉʰȲʰɏȲȲ˗ȦȲɫɫȲɷȦȲʁɅɏɔʦȉʟʰेই59JʦȉȥȲɫɫȉউʦʁȥɣȲȦʰɔʁɷʦ˒ȲʟȲɴʁʟȲʰʁ do with the iconographical implications of the naked Venus than prudery, ȥʹʰɏȲʟȉʦʦʹɴʜʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰȲʟʹɆɔɷʁ˒ȉʦ˒ɔɫɫɔɷɆʰʁʦȉȦʟɔεȦȲʰɏȲɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲ ɴȲȉɷɔɷɆɫȉɔȬȬʁ˒ɷȥ˘ɏɔʦʜȉʰʟʁɷɅʁʟʰɏȲʦȉɦȲʁɅʦɏʁ˒ɔɷɆʁΦɏɔʦʦɦɔɫɫɔɷ ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆȉɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲɔʦ˒ɏȉʰɔʦʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰɏȲʟȲे60 Fig. 2.10. Pisanello, Medal of Leonello d’Este (reverse), c.1440–50. Bronze. British gʹʦȲʹɴू^ʁɷȬʁɷे In contrast to Isabella, Paolo Giovio, in his lɀʧǈǤȪǱiǱȶǈȶǫÄɀȳǱȶɀȄ Our TimeʁɅࢾࣂࢿࣄॹࣅू˒ʟʁʰȲʰɏȉʰȲʟʹɆɔɷʁউʦȬʁ˒ɷɅȉɫɫ˒ȉʦɏɔʦɔɷȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁ ʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ʰɏȲɷʹȬȲेÂɔʰɏʰɏȲȉȬˑȲɷʰʁɅȉʟʰɔʦʰʦʦʹȦɏȉʦgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁȉɷȬ Raphael, celebrated for their portrayal of nudes, Perugino, formerly one of the most celebrated painters in Italy, was unable to compete with their ʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅআɷȉɦȲȬɫɔɴȥʦʁɅɴȉɣȲʦʰɔȦεɆʹʟȲʦȉɷȬʰɏȲʦʰʟɔˑɔɷɆɅʁʟȦȲʦʁɅ Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 79 ɷȉʰʹʟȲू˒ɔʰɏʦʰʹʜȲɷȬʁʹʦˑȉʟɔȲʰ˘ूɔɷȲˑȲʟ˘ʰ˘ʜȲʁɅʦʹȥɣȲȦʰɴȉʰʰȲʟेই61 Lorenzo Costa, similarly, failed as an artist according to a letter Giovio wrote in 1522, solely because he was not able to represent nudes: Fig. 2.11. Girolamo Romanino, Phaeton `ɀ̽ȓǈूࢾࣂࣀࣆे<ʟȲʦȦʁेgȉɆɷʁȉɫȉˢˢʁू Castello del Buonconsiglio, Trento. ɷʁʁɷȲȦȉɷɴȉɦȲȬʟȲʦʦȲȬȉɷȬȉʟɴȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦɴʁʟȲʜɫȲȉʦȉɷʰɫ˘ʰɏȉɷɏɔɴौ but if expert critics ask him, as a greater test of his art, to portray ɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦȉʦ˒ȲɫɫȉʦɏȲȬʁȲʦȬʟȲʦʦȲȬʁɷȲʦूɏȲɔʦɷʁʰȉȥɫȲʰʁȬʁɔʰ easily, because, contenting himself with little preparation, he did not succeed in putting secure methods to the service of his painting.62 JʰɔʦɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰʰʁʦʰʟȲʦʦʰɏȲɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷȦȲʁɅ=ɔʁˑɔʁউʦȥʟɔȲɅȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷʦɅʁʟ ȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦȦɏȉɷɆȲʦɔɷʰɏȲɴȲɷʰɔʁɷʁɅআȲ˗ʜȲʟʰȦʟɔʰɔȦʦूইȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏɔʦɔʦʁɷȲʁɅ the most crucial aspects of the widespread adoption of the nude form in the early sixteenth century – the nude existed as a kind of blank form, a test case, through which expert onlookers could assess artistic skill and understand it in direct relation to both other contemporary artists ȉɷȬʰɏȲȉʟʰʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ेɷʁʰɏȲʟȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʦʁʹʟȦȲूʰɏȲ ÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷ˒ʟɔʰȲʟjɔȦȦʁɫʍ^ɔȥʹʟɷɔʁউʦLe Selvette of 1513, defends a painting २ʰɏȉʰʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ɷȲˑȲʟूɔɷɅȉȦʰूȲ˗ɔʦʰȲȬ३ȥ˘=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔȲɫɫɔɷɔʁɅɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦ because it allowed the artist to be directly compared to his classical predecessors Apelles, Praxiteles, and others and, therefore, because of the আɔɴɴʁʟʰȉɫɔʰ˘ইɏɔʦ˒ʁʟɦ˒ʁʹɫȬȥʟɔɷɆʰʁÁȲɷɔȦȲे63 ΤȲˑȉʟɔȲʰ˘ʁɅɅʁʟɴʦʰɏȉʰȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȦʁʹɫȬȦʟȲȉʰȲ˒ɔʰɏʁɷɫ˘ȉɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ became a testament to their skill. Patrons needed artists to depict nudes to demonstrate their discernment, to show their classical education, and ʰʁʰȲʦʰʰɏȲɔʟȲ˗ʜȲʟʰɔʦȲे˘ࢾࣂࢾࢽूʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʁɅɷʹȬȲɔɴȉɆȲʦ˒ȉʦʦʹΪȦɔȲɷʰɫ˘ ȦʁɴɴʁɷʜɫȉȦȲɅʁʟআɷʹȬȲʦȥ˘ɆʁʁȬɴȉʦʰȲʟʦইʰʁȥȲɴȉȬȲɅʟʁɴʦɷʁ˒ɔɷ Florence during the winter of that year, alongside lions, the campanile of ȉɷʰȉgȉʟɔȉ<ɔʁʟȲूȉɷȬɅʁʟʰʟȲʦʦȲʦȉɷȬɆȉɫɫȲ˘ʦे64 Given the civic importance of the other images made, these snow nudes were almost certainly a homage to gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦDavid, placed on the Piazza della Signoria six years previously, ȥʹʰʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲȉɫʦʁȉʰȲʦʰȉɴȲɷʰʰʁʰɏȲʦɦɔɫɫʁɅʰɏȲআɆʁʁȬɴȉʦʰȲʟʦই˒ɏʁȦʟȲȉʰȲȬ ʰɏȲɴȉɷȬʁɅʰɏȲȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲʰʁɣʹȬɆȲȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʦɦɔɫɫे ΤȲȦȉʦȲɅʁʟɷʹȬɔʰ˘ȥȲɔɷɆȉʰȲʦʰʁɅȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰ˒ȉʦȉɆȉɔɷɴȉȬȲ Ȳ˗ʜɫɔȦɔʰɫ˘ɔɷࢾࣂࣀࣆɔɷȉʦȲȦʰɔʁɷʁɅȉʜʁȲɴȥ˘ɔȲʰʟʁɷȬʟȲȉgȉʰʰɔʁɫɔȉȥʁʹʰ ʰɏȲgȉɆɷʁȉɫȉˢˢʁूȉɷȲ˗ʰȲɷʦɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȉʦʰȲɫɫʁȬȲɫʹʁɷȦʁɷʦɔɆɫɔʁɔɷ ¢ʟȲɷʰʁूʰɏȉʰɅʁȦʹʦȲʦʁɷȉɫʁηɔȉʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ɅʟȲʦȦʁȲȬȥ˘=ɔʟʁɫȉɴʁʁɴȉɷɔɷʁ २εɆेࢿेࢾࢾ३ेΤȲFall of Phaeton is depicted at the center of the vault, ʦʹʟʟʁʹɷȬȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲʦȲȉʦʁɷʦू˒ɏɔɫȲʰɏȲɫʹɷȲʰʰȲʦʁɅʰɏȲɫʁηɔȉȉʟȲȬȲȦʁʟȉʰȲȬ ˒ɔʰɏˑȉʟɔʁʹʦʰȉɫȲʦʁɅˑɔʟʰʹʁʹʦ˒ʁɴȲɷूɴʹʦɔȦɔȉɷʦूȉɷȬɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦे coherent iconography has never been agreed for this space, and according ʰʁΤʁɴȉʦ<ʟȉɷɆȲɷȥȲʟɆू˒ɏʁεʟʦʰȲ˗ʰȲɷʦɔˑȲɫ˘ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʦʰʁ 80 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɷʹȬȲʦɔɷgȉʰʰɔʁɫɔউʦʜʁȲɴूʰɏɔʦ˒ȉʦɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ɷȲˑȲʟɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬȥ˘ ʰɏȲʜȉʰʟʁɷूʰɏȲʜʟɔɷȦȲॼȥɔʦɏʁʜʁ̎¢ʟȲɷʰूȉʟȬɔɷȉɫȲʟɷȉʟȬʁɫȲʦे65ΤȲ nudes here, in their variety of form and twisting poses, are very much ɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲɏȉʜȲɫȦȲɔɫɔɷɆ२εɆेࣀेࢾࣄ३ȉɷȬȉʜɏȉȲɫউʦ`ɀ̽ȓǈɀȄ Psyche२εɆेࣂेࣅ३ूȥʹʰɔɷʦʁɴȲ˒ȉ˘ʦɆʁʁɷȲʦʰȲʜɅʹʟʰɏȲʟȉʦʰɏȲ˘ɔɷȦʟȲȉʦȲʰɏȲ ʟȉɷɆȲʁɅɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦʦɏʁ˒ɷूɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆɅȲɴȉɫȲεɆʹʟȲʦȉɷȬʁɫȬȲʟɴȲɷȉʦ ˒ȲɫɫȉʦʰɏȲʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫȲʦ̍ʹȲȥʹʟɫ˘˘ʁʹʰɏेɏʹɆȲɫ˘ʦȲɫɅॼȦʁɷʦȦɔʁʹʦ performance of artistic variety on the part of the painter, the nudes here ȉȦʰȉʦʰȲʦʰȉɴȲɷʰʰʁɏɔʦʦɦɔɫɫॹȉɷȬूȦʟʹȦɔȉɫɫ˘ूʰɏȲɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏɔʦʦɦɔɫɫʁɷ ʰɏȲʜȉʟʰʁɅʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟॹȉɷȬɔʰɔʦʰɏɔʦʰɏȉʰɔʦȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬȥ˘gȉʰʰɔʁɫɔु All around this noble space, the good painter has demonstrated his skill by depicting naked bodies in lively gestures. Some people say that they are not decent. One sees the worthy skill of a good painter in his knowing well how to form a nude body. One cannot have true faith in excellence when Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 81 ʁɅɏȲʟεȦʰɔˑȲʦʜȉȦȲɔɷʰʁʁʹʟʦɔɷȉʜʁʦȲʰɏȉʰɔɷˑʁɫˑȲʦɏȲʟɫȲɆʦȥȲɔɷɆʦʜɫȉ˘ȲȬ in a gesture that would certainly have been considered indecorous by many ȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦेΤȲʜʁȲɴʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰȉʟʰɔʦʰʟ˘ȬʁȲʦɷʁʰɷȲȦȲʦʦȉʟɔɫ˘ ȦɫʁȉɦʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦूȥʹʰɴȉɦȲʦʰɏȲɴȉʰʰȲʟʁɅȬȲȦʁʟʹɴʹɷɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰुɔʰ˒ȉʦʹʜʰʁ ʰɏȲȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲʰʁʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲʰɏȲআʰʟʹʰɏɔɷȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʦɦɔɫɫইʟȉʰɏȲʟʰɏȉɷʰȉɦȲʁΦȲɷȦȲे ʦʁɴȲεɆʹʟȲʦȉʟȲȬʟȲʦʦȲȬɔɷʦɦɔʟʰʦʁʟʦʁɴȲɔɷʦɏɔȲɫȬʦेjʁ˒ɔɅJȉɴ wrong-footing someone, he should be silent, so I can pin down the truth about artistic skill. It is easy to place some graceful head above a beautiful dress. If then the painting does not seem decent, as you might expect in this worthy place, the painter did it to demonstrate how well he knew how to imitate nature with his design. But because he cared about decency, he depicted everything with great ingenuity, and showed that with his divine brush he was also able to create and destroy.66 EȲʟȲʰɏȲʜʟʁȥɫȲɴʦɔɷɏȲʟȲɷʰɔɷɣʹȬɆɔɷɆʰɏȲʦɦɔɫɫʁɅȉɷȉʟʰɔʦʰȥ˘ʰɏȲ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅ his nude bodies are clear; the decency of these images is not really argued for, ɣʹʦʰʰɏȉʰȬȲȦȲɷȦ˘ɴȉʰʰȲʟʦɫȲʦʦʰɏȉɷʦɦɔɫɫेΤȲʟȲɔʦȲˑȲɷȉɦɷʁ˒ɔɷɆʜʹɷɔɷʰɏȲ words divin pennello२ȬɔˑɔɷȲȥʟʹʦɏ३ू˒ɏɔȦɏʟȲɅȲʟʦȥʁʰɏʰʁʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟউʦȥʟʹʦɏ and his penis, the organ of creation, the importance of which is discussed more ɔɷʰɏȲɷȲ˗ʰȦɏȉʜʰȲʟेΤȲʦȲɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦȉʟȲूɔɷȲΦȲȦʰूɫɔɦȲȦɏɔɫȬʟȲɷɆȲɷȲʟȉʰȲȬ ȥ˘ɴȉɫȲɆȲɷɔʹʦेΤȲ˘ȉʟȲȦɫʁȉɦȲȬɔɷȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʦɦɔɫɫȉɷȬɔʰɔʦʹʜʰʁʰɏȲɣʹȬɔȦɔʁʹʦ ʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟʰʁȬɔʦȦȲʟɷʰɏɔʦʟȉʰɏȲʟʰɏȉɷȥȲɔɷɆȬʟȉηȲȬɔɷʰʁȉɫȉʦȦɔˑɔʁʹʦɅʟȉɴȲ ʁɅɴɔɷȬेȲʰʰȲ¢ȉɫˑȉȦȦɏɔȉɏȉʦȉʟɆʹȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȲεɆʹʟȲʦআȲ˗ɏɔȥɔʰʰɏȲɔʟɷʹȬȲ ȥʁȬɔȲʦ˒ɔʰɏȬȲȦȲɷȦ˘ूইȦʁɷȦȲȉɫɔɷɆʰɏȲɔʟɆȲɷɔʰȉɫɔȉ˒ɔʰɏʰ˒ɔʦʰɔɷɆεɆʹʟȲʦूȥʹʰɫȉʰȲʟ generations did see them as potentially shameful, covering the problematic areas with drapery.67JɷȬȲȲȬूɔʰɔʦɏȉʟȬʰʁʦȲȲɴʹȦɏȬȲȦʁʟʹɴɔɷʁɴȉɷɔɷʁউʦ depiction of the ̨ɞǱǱ?ɞǈǥǱɥ२εɆेࢿेࢾࢿ३ूʰɏȲɅʟʁɷʰ=ʟȉȦȲউʦɫȲɆȥȲɷʰʁˑȲʟʁʹʰ Fig. 2.12. Girolamo Romanino, ̨ɞǱǱ?ɞǈǥǱɥ, ࢾࣂࣀࣆे<ʟȲʦȦʁे^ʁηɔȉʁɅgȉɆɷʁ Palazzo, Castello del Buonconsiglio, Trento. 82 The ɛȓȶǈɞȓɀ Losing Meaning Fig. 2.13. Greco-Roman, Spinario (̨ɀɞȶՒ Puller३ूεʟʦʰȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘*ेʟʁɷˢȲे gʹʦȲɔȉʜɔʰʁɫɔɷɔूʁɴȲे ΤȲɔɴʜȉȦʰʁɅʰɏɔʦɷȲ˒˒ȉ˘ʁɅʰɏɔɷɦɔɷɆȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲɔɷʰɏȲˑɔʦʹȉɫ arts can be traced in the responses of Renaissance artists to one particular ȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲेΤȲSpinario, or ̨ɀɞȶՒɸȪȪǱɞ२εɆेࢿेࢾࣀ३ूɔʦʦʰɔɫɫɴ˘ʦʰȲʟɔʁʹʦ in meaning for modern scholars.68JɷʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲɆȲʦɔʰ˒ȉʦɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȲȬ as a Priapus by one commentator due to his mistaken belief that the sculpture had enormous genitals, whereas others saw the image as a symbol ʁɅʰɏȲɴʁɷʰɏʁɅgȉʟȦɏे69 Leonard Barkan has argued that what he calls ʰɏȲআɆʟȉɷȬɔɷȬʹʦʰʟ˘ʁɅȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʜɔɷȉʟɔʁʦইॹȦʁɷʦɔʦʰɔɷɆʁɅɴʹɫʰɔʜɫȲ ʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȉɫȦʁʜɔȲʦूȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȉδȲʟʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूȉɷȬ̍ʹʁʰȉʰɔʁɷʦɔɷɔɴȉɆȲʦ ʦʹȦɏȉʦ<ɔɫɔʜʜʁʟʹɷȲɫɫȲʦȦɏɔউʦȦʁɴʜȲʰɔʰɔʁɷʜȉɷȲɫɅʁʟʰɏȲȉʜʰɔʦʰȲʟ˘Ȭʁʁʟʦू ˒ɏȲʟȲɏȲɔʦȦɫʁʰɏȲȬ२ࢾࣁࢽࢾूεɆेࢿेࢾࣁ३ॹ˒ȉʦʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲউʦʦȲɴɔʁʰɔȦ ȲɴʜʰɔɷȲʦʦूɔʰʦɫȉȦɦʁɅε˗ȲȬɴȲȉɷɔɷɆɅʁʟʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟे70ΤɔʦˑɔȲ˒ू ʰɏʁʹɆɏȉɫɫʹʟɔɷɆूɔʦʜʟʁȥɫȲɴȉʰɔȦेJʰʦȲȲɴʦʰɏȉʰȬʹʟɔɷɆɴʹȦɏʁɅʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏ century the SpinarioউʦɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ˒ȉʦʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁȥȉʜʰɔʦɴूȉʦȉʟʁɫ^Ȳ˒ɔɷȲ ɏȉʦȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬɔɷʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʰʁ^ʹȦȉɔɆɷʁʟȲɫɫɔউʦ`ǈɥɯ¤ǱɥʧǈȳǱȶɯɀȄiɀɥǱɥ fresco of 1481–2 in the last compartment on the south wall of the Sistine Chapel २εɆेࢿेࢾࣂ३े71 ¢ʁʰɏȲɫȲδʁɅȦȲɷʰȲʟʁɅʰɏɔʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆूʦʹʟʟʁʹɷȬȲȬȥ˘εɆʹʟȲʦɔɷ contemporary dress, sits a naked youth, a transparent scarf around his ɷȲȦɦȥʁʹɷȬ˒ɔʰɏȉɣȲ˒ȲɫȲȬȦɫȉʦʜूȉɷȬȉʟȲȬȦɫʁʰɏȲɴȥʟʁɔȬȲʟȲȬ˒ɔʰɏɆʁɫȬ ʰɏʟȲȉȬȬʟȉʜȲȬȉʟʁʹɷȬɏɔʦɫʁɔɷʦेEɔʦʟɔɆɏʰɅʁʁʰʁɷʰʁʜʁɅɏɔʦɫȲδɦɷȲȲू ʰɏɔʦεɆʹʟȲɔʦȉɷʹɷɴɔʦʰȉɦȉȥɫȲˑɔʦʹȉɫ̍ʹʁʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲSpinario. His pose ȲȦɏʁȲʦʰɏȉʰʁɅʰɏȲʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ȥȉʜʰɔˢȲȬɷȉɦȲȬɴȉɷ˒ɏʁʦɔʰʦɣʹʦʰʰʁʰɏȲʟɔɆɏʰ ʁɅXʁɏɷʰɏȲȉʜʰɔʦʰʁɷȲʟʹɆɔɷʁউʦɅʟȲʦȦʁʁɅʰɏȲBaptism of ChristɔɷʰɏȲεʟʦʰ ȦʁɴʜȉʟʰɴȲɷʰʁɷʰɏȲɷʁʟʰɏ२jȲ˒¢ȲʦʰȉɴȲɷʰ३˒ȉɫɫʁɅʰɏȲȦɏȉʜȲɫ२εɆेࢿेࢾࣃ३े Τɔʦ̍ʹʁʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȉɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʰɏʹʦɅʁʟɴȲȬȉȦɫȲȉʟɫɔɷɦ between the end of the Old and beginning of the New Testament cycles. Lewine argues convincingly that this is linked to the SpinarioউʦʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷȉɫ ɔȬȲɷʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷȉʦȉʜȲʟʦʁɷɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷʁɅgȉʟȦɏूȉɷȬʰɏȲʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʰɏȉʰ ɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ȦɏʹʟȦɏɷȲʁʜɏ˘ʰȲʦ˒ȲʟȲȥȉʜʰɔˢȲȬɷȉɦȲȬʁɷʰɏȲεʟʦʰȉʰʹʟȬȉ˘ ʁɅEʁɫ˘ÂȲȲɦू˒ɏɔȦɏɆȲɷȲʟȉɫɫ˘ɅȲɫɫɔɷʰɏɔʦɴʁɷʰɏेgȲȬɔȲˑȉɫ˒ʟɔʰȲʟʦ allegorized the thorn being removed from his foot as a symbol of original sin – the sin that was then removed through baptism.72 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 83 Fig. 2.15. (right) Luca Signorelli, `ǈɥɯ¤ǱɥʧǈȳǱȶɯɀȄ Moses (detail), 1481–2. Fresco. Sistine Chapel, Rome. Fig. 2.14. Filippo Brunelleschi, ǈǥɞȓ̇ǥǱɀȄLɥǈǈǥ, ࢾࣁࢽࢾेʟʁɷˢȲेgʹʦȲʁȬȲɫȉʟɆȲɫɫʁू Florence. Fig. 2.16. (far right) Pietro Perugino, Baptism of Christ (detail), 1481–2. Fresco. Sistine Chapel, Rome. of the church fathers and early Christian artworks such as the mosaics in the baptisteries at Ravenna.74 Baptismal nudity was related to a cluster ʁɅɴȲȉɷɔɷɆʦेJʰȲ˗ʜʟȲʦʦȲȬʰɏȲɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅʟȲɆȲɷȲʟȉʰɔʁɷूȦȉʦʰɔɷɆʁΦʁɷȲউʦ sinful clothes, leaving the temporal world and being born again – as one is naked at birth, but also as Adam was naked and without sin at creation. It ȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬʰɏȲʜȲʟʦʁɷȥȉʜʰɔˢȲȬʰʁɴɔɴɔȦɏʟɔʦʰউʦɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦȉʰʰɏȲȦʟʹȦɔε˗ɔʁɷ and to be humbled, like him.75 It was normal in later medieval and Renaissance Italy to baptize babies within a day or two of birth to avoid the specter of them dying unbaptized and being condemned to Limbo. Adult baptism was restricted to converts (presumably including slaves). However, it is likely that nakedness would ʁδȲɷɔɴʜɫ˘ȉʜʟȲॼɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷʦʰȉʰȲʰʁʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟूȉʦ˒ɔʰɏ ʁɫɫȉɔʹʁɫʁউʦBattle of Naked Men, amongst other images (see Chapter One). JɅʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʁɅʁɫɫȉɔʹʁɫʁউʦɴȲɷɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣁࣄࢽʦʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɔʟ violent lack of civilization would be redeemed by the vines of Christianity depicted in the background, we see Signorelli using the Spinario pose in the ࢾࣁࣅࢽʦȉɷȬࣆࢽʦʰʁȲˑʁɦȲʰɏȲɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅȥȉʜʰɔʦɴूʁʟɴʁʟȲȥʟʁȉȬɫ˘ʰʁʦʹηȲʦʰ ȉʜʟȲॼɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷʦʰȉʰȲेΤȲʦȲɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦȉʟȲʁδȲɷȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬȉɫʁɷɆʦɔȬȲȉ ʦʁʹʟȦȲʁɅ˒ȉʰȲʟेΤɔʦɔʦʰʟʹȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूɔɷʰɏȲSpinarioεɆʹʟȲʰɏȉʰȉʜʜȲȉʟʦ in the scene of men and women about to enter the water surrounding St. Christopher on the side panels of the Bichi Altarpiece, which was once in Siena and dates to around 1490.76 ΤɔʦˑɔʦʹȉɫʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʰʁȉɷʹȬȲȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲ˒ȉʦɷʁʰɴȲʟȲɫ˘ȉɷʁȬʰʁȉ ɅȉʦɏɔʁɷɅʁʟȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲɴʁʰɔɅʦूȥʹʰ˒ȉʦʰɔȲȬʰʁʦʜȲȦɔεȦɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷɔȦʁɷʁɆʟȉʜɏɔȦ meaning. Interestingly the baptism of Christ or the neophytes was a ʦʹȥɣȲȦʰɫȉʰȲʟɴȉʟɦȲȬʁʹʰȉʦʁɷȲʰɏȉʰȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰʰʁʦɏʁ˒ɏɔʦʦɦɔɫɫ ȉʰʰɏȲȬȲʜɔȦʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ेΤʹʦ=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔɷȬʟȲȉ=ɔɫɔʁूɔɷ ɏɔʦȬɔȉɫʁɆʹȲʁɅࢾࣂࣃࣁूʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬʰɏȲȥȉʜʰɔʦɴȉʦȉɷʁʜʜʁʟʰʹɷɔʰ˘˒ɏȲʟȲ ȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȦʁʹɫȬআʦɏʁ˒ʰɏȲɔʟ०ʦɦɔɫɫ१ȉʰȉɷȉʰʁɴ˘ȉɷȬȉɫɫʰɏȲʦȲȦʟȲʰʦʁɅȉʟʰूʰɏȲ perfection of their wits, their virtùȉɷȬʰɏȲʦʰʟȲɷɆʰɏʁɅȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेই73ΤȲʹʦȲ ʁɅʰɏɔʦɔɴɴȲȬɔȉʰȲɫ˘ɔȬȲɷʰɔεȉȥɫȲʜʁʦȲʰɏʹʦʦȲʟˑȲȬʰ˒ʁȲɷȬʦुɔʰɏȉȬ˒Ȳɫɫॼ ɦɷʁ˒ɷʰɏȲʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫȦʁɷɷʁʰȉʰɔʁɷʦȉɷȬɔʰȉɫʦʁȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬȉʟʰɔʦʰʦʰʁʦɏʁ˒ʁΦ ʰɏȲɔʟʦɦɔɫɫȥ˘Ȧʁɴʜȉʟɔʦʁɷ˒ɔʰɏȉɷȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʜʟʁʰʁʰ˘ʜȲेjʁʰʦʹʟʜʟɔʦɔɷɆɫ˘ूȉʦJ will discuss in the next chapter, the pose of the Spinario was also adopted in several early life drawings. ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲɴȉɷ˘ȥȉʜʰɔʦɴʦȦȲɷȲʦʰɏȉʰȉɫɫʁ˒ȉʟʰɔʦʰʦʰʁʦɏʁ˒ʁΦʰɏȲɔʟʦɦɔɫɫ at portraying classicizing nude men within a strictly Christian context ɅʟʁɴȉʰɫȲȉʦʰʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ûʹȉʰʰʟʁȦȲɷʰʁʁɷ˒ȉʟȬʦेΤȲʦȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦʟȲζȲȦʰȲȬ the practice in early Christianity to baptize adults naked and immersed in water, knowledge that had come to the Renaissance through the writing 84 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 2.17. Luca Signorelli, Figures in a Landscape: Two Nude Youths (wing of Bichi Altarpiece), c.1490. Oil on panel. Toledo gʹʦȲʹɴʁɅʟʰेʹʟȦɏȉʦȲȬ˒ɔʰɏɅʹɷȬʦ ɅʟʁɴʰɏȲ^ɔȥȥȲ˘*ɷȬʁ˒ɴȲɷʰू=ɔδʁɅ *Ȭ˒ȉʟȬ$ʟʹɴɴȉɷȬ^ɔȥȥȲ˘े sɷʰɏȲɫȲδॼɏȉɷȬʜȉɷȲɫ२εɆेࢿेࢾࣄ३ूȉɫʁɷɆʦɔȬȲʰɏȲSpinarioεɆʹʟȲूȉʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆ ɴȉɷʰȉɦȲʦʁΦɏɔʦʹɷȬȲʟʦɏɔʟʰूȉɴʁʰɔɅʰɏȉʰɴʹʦʰɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟʰʁ ɔɆɷʁʟȲɫɫɔȥʁʰɏɅʟʁɴgȉʦȉȦȦɔʁউʦʟȉɷȦȉȦȦɔȦɏȉʜȲɫBaptism of the Neophytes ȉɷȬɅʟʁɴɏɔʦɅʁʟɴȲʟɴȉʦʰȲʟɔȲʟʁȬȲɫɫȉ<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦȉউʦBaptism of Christ, now ɔɷʰɏȲjȉʰɔʁɷȉɫ=ȉɫɫȲʟ˘ɔɷ^ʁɷȬʁɷ२εɆेࢿेࢾࣅ३ेEʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɔɆɷʁʟȲɫɫɔȬɔΦȲʟʦ in his bravura decision to show the man from the back – a stylistic rather ʰɏȉɷɔȦʁɷʁɆʟȉʜɏɔȦȦɏʁɔȦȲʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲʁɫɫȉɔʹʁɫʁȥʟʁʰɏȲʟʦউ Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 85 Fig. 2.20. Luca Signorelli, Virgin and Child २আgȲȬɔȦɔgȉȬʁɷɷȉই३ूc.1485–90. sɔɫʁɷʜȉɷȲɫे=ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉȬȲɆɫɔ©Ϊˢɔू Florence. experimentation with viewing bodies from various angles.77ΤȲˑȲʟ˘ same SpinarioεɆʹʟȲʰʹʟɷʦʹʜɔɷʰɏȲȥȉȦɦɆʟʁʹɷȬʁɅȉʰʁɷȬʁʁɅʰɏȲVirgin and ChildɅʟʁɴȉɅȲ˒˘ȲȉʟʦɫȉʰȲʟूɷʁ˒ɔɷgʹɷɔȦɏȥʹʰʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘Ȳ˗ȲȦʹʰȲȬ Ʌʁʟȉ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲɅȉɴɔɫ˘२εɆेࢿेࢾࣆ३े78 Seated on a tree stump by a river, the ˘ʁʹɷɆɴȉɷɔʦʰȉɦɔɷɆʁΦɏɔʦʦȉɷȬȉɫʦेEȲȦʁʹɫȬȥȲɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬʰʁʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰ XʁɏɷʰɏȲȉʜʰɔʦʰू˒ɏʁɔʦʁδȲɷʦɏʁ˒ɷȉʦȉɷɔɷɅȉɷʰȉɫʁɷɆʦɔȬȲʰɏȲÁɔʟɆɔɷ ȉɷȬɏɔɫȬʁɷʰʁɷȬɔʁɅʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲूʁʟɔʰȦʁʹɫȬȥȲȉɴʁʟȲɆȲɷȲʟɔȦεɆʹʟȲȉȥʁʹʰ ʰʁȥȲʟȲȬȲȲɴȲȬʰɏʟʁʹɆɏȦȉʦʰɔɷɆʁΦɏɔʦȲˑȲʟ˘Ȭȉ˘ȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆȉɷȬʜɫʹɷɆɔɷɆ naked into the river behind him, ready to be born again metaphorically. By this point, then, in the work of Signorelli we can see a playing with the implications of the naked Spinario as opposed to a strict iconographical link to baptism. Fig. 2.18. Piero della Francesca, Baptism of Christ, 1448–50. Tempera on panel. National Gallery, London. Another tondo by Signorelli, much discussed in the art historical ɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲूɆʁȲʦʁɷȲʦʰȲʜɅʹʟʰɏȲʟेgȉȬȲूȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁÁȉʦȉʟɔूɅʁʟ^ʁʟȲɷˢʁ ȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔȉɷȬɴʁʦʰʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ȬȉʰȉȥɫȲʰʁࢾࣁࣅࣆॹࣆࢽूʰɏɔʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆ२εɆेࢿेࢿࢽ३ ʦɏʁ˒ʦʰɏȲÁɔʟɆɔɷʦȲȉʰȲȬɔɷȉζʁ˒ȲʟॼεɫɫȲȬɴȲȉȬʁ˒ʦʹʜʜʁʟʰɔɷɆʰɏȲʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆ naked Christ Child to her right.79 Behind them, set against a stone arch ȉɷȬȦʟʹɴȥɫɔɷɆȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫȲȬɔεȦȲूȉʟȲɅʁʹʟɷȉɦȲȬɴȲɷूȦɫʁʰɏȦʁˑȲʟɔɷɆʰɏȲɔʟ ɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦेΤȲʟʁʹɷȬʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆɔʦʦȲʰɔɷȉɅʟȉɴȲ˒ɔʰɏXʁɏɷʰɏȲȉʜʰɔʦʰɔɷȉ cornice at the center and prophets at either side. As Roberta Olson points ʁʹʰूʰɏȲʜʟȲʦȲɷȦȲʁɅ˒ȉʰȲʟɔɷʰɏɔʦɔɴȉɆȲɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬ men are somehow connected, once again, with baptism.80ΤȲȬȉʟɦʦɦɔɷ ȉɷȬȦʹʟɫ˘ɏȉɔʟʁɅʰɏȲɴȉɷʰʁʰɏȲɅȉʟɫȲδʁɅʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲȦʁʹɫȬȲˑȲɷूʜȲʟɏȉʜʦू be intended to represent an African neophyte. However, here there is no ̍ʹʁʰȉʰɔʁɷɅʟʁɴʰɏȲSpinario, which would have made the link to baptism more overt. Given that one of the men is playing a reed pipe, this image seems also to be connected with an Arcadian idyll, the kind of Golden ɆȲȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲȬȥ˘ÁɔʟɆɔɫʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦɔɷˑʁɆʹȲɔɷ^ʁʟȲɷˢʁউʦȦɔʟȦɫȲʦɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲ in the late 1480s and early 1490s. Represented here are perhaps both asyet unbaptized youths and also innocent pre-Christians living in a kind ʁɅʦɔɷɫȲʦʦʟȦȉȬɔȉेΤȲɫɔɷɦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲɅʁʟɴʁɅʰɏȲSpinario and a clear meaning – baptism – thus becomes increasingly tenuous. Fig. 2.19. Luca Signorelli, Virgin and Child, c.1495–8. Oil on panel. Alte ɔɷȉɦʁʰɏȲɦूgʹɷɔȦɏे 86 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɴʹʦʰɏȉˑȲʦȲȲɷʰɏɔʦʰʁɷȬʁɔɷɏɔʦ˘ʁʹʰɏ˒ɏȲɷɏȲʦʰȉ˘ȲȬɔɷʰɏȲ gȲȬɔȦɔʜȉɫȉȦȲूȉʦɔʰȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲʦɏɔʦʁ˒ɷˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʁɅȉʦɔɴɔɫȉʟʦʹȥɣȲȦʰु the Holy FamilyʰʁɷȬʁɏȲɴȉȬȲɅʁʟɆɷʁɫʁ$ʁɷɔɔɷࢾࣂࢽࣀॹࣃ२εɆेࢿेࢿࢾ३ेΤȲ ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦɏʁ˒ʦʰɏȲÁɔʟɆɔɷgȉʟ˘ʦȲȉʰȲȬɔɷȉɆʟȉʦʦ˘ɴȲȉȬʁ˒ȉʰʰɏȲȦȲɷʰȲʟू leaning back to touch the naked Christ Child who is being handed to her २ʁʟʜȲʟɏȉʜʦʟȲȦȲɔˑȲȬɅʟʁɴɏȲʟै३ȥ˘ȉȥȉɫȬɔɷɆXʁʦȲʜɏʦȲȉʰȲȬȉʰʰɏȲȥȉȦɦʁɅ this tight-knit group. Separated by a gray stone ledge, John the Baptist, represented as a curly-haired boy, stands on the right of the painting, staring ʹʜ˒ȉʟȬʦʰʁʰɏȲɫȲδेȲɏɔɷȬɏɔɴूʁɷȉʟʁȦɦ˘ʦɏȲɫɅूʦɔʰʰ˒ʁɆʟʁʹʜʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬ young men who can be glimpsed at either side of the Holy Family group. Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 87 that the early sixteenth-century viewer would see these nudes as the yet to be baptized. If, as Carol Richardson proposes, Joseph was understood by contemporaries to also represent St. Peter in many Holy Family scenes of ʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦूʰɏȲʟȲɫȲˑȉɷȦȲʁɅȥȉʜʰɔʦɴॹȉʦ a means of entering the Church – is clear.83©ʦɔɷɆʰɏɔʦȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲूʰɏȲ$ʁɷɔ ʰʁɷȬʁȦȉɷȥȲʟȲȉȬʰ˘ʜʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫɫ˘ुgȉʟ˘ʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰʦʰɏȲɏʹʟȦɏȉȦȦȲʜʰɔɷɆ ɏʟɔʦʰউʦʦȉȦʟɔεȦȲौXʁʦȲʜɏ्ȲʰȲʟʰɏȲʜȉʜȉɫʜʟʁʰȲȦʰʁʟʁɅʰɏȲɏʹʟȦɏौȉɷȬXʁɏɷ the Baptist the means through which the naked neophytes at the back can be received into the Christian fold.84 Fig. 2.22. Antico (Jacopo Alari Bonacolsi), Spinario, modeled by 1496, cast c.1501. Bronze, partially gilt and silvered. gȲʰʟʁʜʁɫɔʰȉɷgʹʦȲʹɴूjȲ˒Èʁʟɦे =ɔδʁɅgʟʦेɏȉʟɫȲʦÂʟɔɆɏʰʦɴȉɷू 2012. Eʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɔɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦʁɷʰɏȲ$ʁɷɔʰʁɷȬʁ२ȉɷȬूɔɷȬȲȲȬूɔɷʰɏȲ ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦɴȲɷʰɔʁɷȲȬȉȥʁˑȲ३ɏȉȬȥȉʜʰɔʦɴȉɫʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷȦȲʰʁɔʰʦˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟʦू ʰɏɔʦɔȬȲȉ˒ȉʦʦʁʁɷʁˑȲʟʰȉɦȲɷȥ˘ȉȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȦʁɷȦȲʟɷे^ȉʰȲʟʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼ ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʰʁʟʦʦȉ˒ʰɏȲɷʹȬȲʦউʜʹʟʜʁʦȲʦʁɫȲɫ˘ȉʦȉɴȲȉɷʦʰʁ Ȳ˗ʜʟȲʦʦȉʟʰɔʦʰʟ˘ेÁȉʦȉʟɔू˒ʟɔʰɔɷɆȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲ$ʁɷɔʰʁɷȬʁɔɷࢾࣂࣂࢽूɔʦ̍ʹɔʰȲ ȦɫȲȉʟʰɏȉʰgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ȲȬɷʹȬȲʦɔɷȉˑȉʟɔȲʰ˘ʁɅʜʁʦɔʰɔʁɷʦʦɔɴʜɫ˘ আʰʁȥȲʰʰȲʟʦɏʁ˒ɏʁ˒ɆʟȲȉʰ˒ȉʦɏɔʦȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʦɦɔɫɫेই85ÂɏȉʰȲˑȲʟʰɏȲɔʟʦʜȲȦɔεȦ iconographical meaning when they were created, it had been lost in the ࣁࢽʁʟʦʁ˘ȲȉʟʦȉδȲʟ˒ȉʟȬʦूȉɷȬÁȉʦȉʟɔউʦɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȉʰɔʁɷɔʦʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰे^ɔɦȲ ɔɆɷʁʟȲɫɫɔɔɷʰɏȲgȲȬɔȦɔʰʁɷȬʁूgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɏȉȬʜʟʁˑȲȬɏɔʦʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟ skill in portraying the naked body by this point in his career, with his sculptures of the ǈɯɯȪǱɀȄɯȎǱ Ǳȶʧǈɸɞɥ, the Bacchus, the David, and his drawings for the Battle of Cascina२ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬɔɷɴʁʟȲȬȲʰȉɔɫȥȲɫʁ˒३ेΤȲ ɷʹȬȲʦȉʟȲʰɏȲʟȲूɔɷʜȉʟʰूȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ʰɏȲɴ ȉɷȬɏɔʦʜȉʰʟʁɷʦউȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁȉʜʜʟȲȦɔȉʰȲʰɏȲɴेɷʁȥʦȲʦʦɔʁɷ˒ɔʰɏɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫ iconographical puzzles has perhaps prevented scholars from seeing a larger picture. Fig. 2.21. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूHoly Family २আ$ʁɷɔ ʰʁɷȬʁই३ू 1503–6. Oil on panel. =ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉȬȲɆɫɔ©Ϊˢɔू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲे ΤȲɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏɔʦ˒ʁʟɦॹȉɷȬʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ʰɏȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦॹ has caused much disagreement amongst art historians. For many, the nudes ȉʟȲɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬʰʁʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʜʟȲॼɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷʜȉʦʰॹȥȲɔʰআȉʰɏɫȲʰȲʦʁɅˑɔʟʰʹȲूই sons of Noah, or a more amorphous incarnation of the pagan world.81 gʁʦʰʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ʰɏȲ˘ɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȲȬȉʦʰɏȲʟȲʦʹʟʟȲȦʰȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦʁɅ babies who had died in Limbo, and been raised again at the age of 33.82 It is hard to see these youths as men in their early thirties, however. Given the ɔɴʜɫɔȦȉʰɔʁɷʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦȉʦȉʦɔɆɷɔεȲʟʁɅɷʁɷॼɏʟɔʦʰɔȉɷʦ२ʁʟूʟȉʰɏȲʟूɷʁʰॼ yet-Christians), as discussed above and in the previous chapter, it is likely ΤȲɔȬȲȉʁɅȉʜʜʟȲȦɔȉʰɔɷɆʁȥɣȲȦʰʦɅʁʟʰɏȲʦȉɦȲʁɅʰɏȲɔʟȉʟʰɔʦʰʟ˘ɔʦȉɫʦʁ ɔɷɏȲʟȲɷʰɔɷʰɏȲɷȲ˒ɅȉʦɏɔʁɷɅʁʟʦɴȉɫɫȥʟʁɷˢȲʦʰȉʰʹȲʰʰȲʦूʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫɫ˘ʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲ ʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʦूʰɏȉʰʦʜʟȉɷɆʹʜɔɷJʰȉɫɔȉɷȲɫɔʰȲȦɔʟȦɫȲʦɔɷʰɏȲɫȉʰȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬȲȉʟɫ˘ ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦेΤȲʦȲ˒ʁʟɦʦ˒ȲʟȲʁδȲɷɏʁʹʦȲȬɔɷʜʟɔˑȉʰȲʦʰʹȬɔȲʦʁʟ studioli – a space for individual contemplation or learned conversation.86 One of the most celebrated makers of these bronzes, Pier Jacopo Alari ʁɷȉȦʁɫʦɔूȦȉɫɫȲȬɏɔɴʦȲɫɅআɷʰɔȦʁইȬʹȲʰʁɏɔʦʦɦɔɫɫɔɷȲˑʁɦɔɷɆȉɷȦɔȲɷʰȉʟʰे ΤȲSpinario˒ȉʦʁɷȲʁɅʰɏȲȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰɔȲʦʰɏȉʰɏȲȦʁʜɔȲȬ२ʦȲȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲू εɆेࢿेࢿࢿ३ूɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆȉˑȲʟʦɔʁɷɅʁʟJʦȉȥȲɫɫȉȬউ*ʦʰȲू˒ɏɔȦɏȬȲɫɔɆɏʰȲȬɏȲʟʦʁ ɴʹȦɏʰɏȉʰʦɏȲɆȉˑȲʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦ˒ɔɅȲȉɆɔδʁɅʁɷȲʁɅɏȲʟআˑȲɫˑȲʰȥȉɷȬȲȬ ȬʟȲʦʦȲʦेই87ΤȲʁ˒ɷȲʟȦʁʹɫȬɏȉɷȬɫȲȉɷȬʰʹʟɷʰɏȲʦȲʁȥɣȲȦʰʦूɫʁʁɦȉʰʰɏȲɴ ɅʟʁɴȉɫɫȉɷɆɫȲʦूȲɷɣʁ˘ʰɏȲʦɴʁʁʰɏɅȲȲɫʁɅʰɏȲȥʟʁɷˢȲूʰɏȲ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲ material, see and feel the skill of the artist.88ΤȲʦȲʦɴȉɫɫȥʟʁɷˢȲʦȉʟȲूʜȉʟ Ȳ˗ȦȲɫɫȲɷȦȲूȉʟʰʁȥɣȲȦʰʦɅʁʟʰɏȲɔʟʁ˒ɷʦȉɦȲे*ɫȲɆȉɷʰȉɷȬȲ˗̍ʹɔʦɔʰȲɫ˘ʟȲɷȬȲʟȲȬ ˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦʁɅʟȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʦȬȲʦɔɆɷȲȬɅʁʟȬʁɴȲʦʰɔȦʦʜȉȦȲʦू ʰɏȲ˘ȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬʰɏȲɔʟʁ˒ɷȲʟʦʰʁʰʟȉɔɷʰɏȲɔʟˑɔʦʹȉɫɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰʰɏʟʁʹɆɏȉȬɴɔʟɔɷɆ ʦʁɴȲʁɅʰɏȲɴʁʦʰʟȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬ˒ʁʟɦʦʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ूȉɷȬȉʰʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʰɔɴȲ 88 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 89 Fig. 2.23. ʟɔʦʰʁʰɔɫȲȬȉȉɷɆȉɫɫʁूȉδȲʟ gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूBattle of Cascina, 1542. Oil on panel. Holkham Hall, Norfolk. ȲɫɫɔɷɔউʦȲˑʁȦȉʰɔˑȲɔɴȉɆȲॹআȉʦȦɏʁʁɫɅʁʟȉɫɫʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɫȬইȉʦȉʟʰɔʦʰʦɦȲȲɷɫ˘ ȬʟȲ˒ȉδȲʟʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦʰɏȲ˘ʦȉ˒े91Jʰ˒ȉʦूʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰɫ˘ूʁɷȲʁɅʰɏȲ εʟʦʰȉʟʰʁȥɣȲȦʰʦʰʁȥȲʟȲʜʟʁȬʹȦȲȬɔɷʜʟɔɷʰȉɷȬɔʰɔʦʰȲɫɫɔɷɆʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȲȲȉʟɫ˘ prints, dating from 1508 into the 1520s, always fragment the composition ȥ˘Ȳ˗ʰʟȉȦʰɔɷɆεɆʹʟȲʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲȉɷȬʟȲɫʁȦȉʰɔɷɆʰɏȲɴɔɷȉɫȉɷȬʦȦȉʜȲ background.92 appreciate the skill of those contemporary artists who revived ancient ɅʁʟɴʦȉɷȬʰȲȦɏɷɔ̍ʹȲʦेΤȲɅȉȦʰʰɏȉʰɴʁʦʰʁɅʰɏȲʦȲʦɴȉɫɫȥʟʁɷˢȲʦȉʟȲɷʹȬȲ ʦɔɆɷȉɫʦʰɏȲɔʟȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦʰȉʰʹʦȉɷȬʦȲɫɅॼȦʁɷʦȦɔʁʹʦɫ˘ȬȲȦɫȉʟȲʦʰɏȲɴʰʁȥȲআȉʟʰूই representation rather than reality; these bronzes exist for no other reason ʰɏȉɷʰɏȲȲ˗ȲʟȦɔʦȲʁɅʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȉȥɫȲɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰेʰȲʜɏȲɷXेȉɴʜȥȲɫɫɏȉʦ ʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦɅʟʁɴȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫɴ˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆ˘ʹʦȲȬʁɷȦɏʹʟȦɏɅȉȦȉȬȲʦ ȉɷȬɫɔɷʰȲɫʦɔɷʰɏȲɅʁʹʟʰȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉȦʰȲȬɫɔɦȲȉʰɏʟȲʦɏʁɫȬू ȉȥʁʟȬȲʟɫɔɷȲȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰʟʹʰɏȉɷȬεȦʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬɅʁʟʰɏȲȬȉɷɆȲʟʦʁɅ classical paganism to be enclosed within a notional – and sometimes ȉȦʰʹȉɫॹɅʟȉɴȲेΤȲȲɴʜɏȉʦɔʦʁɷʰɏȲɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟɔɷʁʟȬȲʟʰʁ assess artistic skill is the conceptual frame for the nude; the invention of art made the widespread adaption of the nude possible, and vice versa.89 ΤɔʦʦɏɔδɔɷʰɏȲʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲɔʦʦɏʁ˒ɷʦʰʟɔɦɔɷɆɫ˘ɔɷʁɷȲʁɅ gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦ˒ʁʟɦʦȦʁɴɴɔʦʦɔʁɷȲȬɣʹʦʰȥȲɅʁʟȲʰɏȲ$ʁɷɔʰʁɷȬʁूʰɏȲBattle of Cascina mural that he was commissioned to paint for the new Great Council Hall in Florence, which he worked on from 1504 to 1506.90 His painting was to appear in contrast to one by Leonardo da Vinci. Both men were to paint scenes relating to great Florentine victories: Leonardo ʰɏȉʰʁɅʰɏȲȉʰʰɫȲʁɅɷɆɏɔȉʟɔȉɷȬgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁȉʦʰʁʟ˘ʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁʰɏȲ Battle of Cascina, when Florentine soldiers were taken by surprise in an attack while they were bathing before the battle, clearly a pretext for gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁʰʁȬɔʦʜɫȉ˘ɏɔʦʦɦɔɫɫɔɷȬȲʜɔȦʰɔɷɆʰɏȲȦɫȉʦʦɔȦɔˢɔɷɆɷʹȬȲेsɷȲ ʁɅʰɏȲɏȲʟʁɔȦɅȉɔɫʹʟȲʦʁɅȉʟʰɏɔʦʰʁʟ˘ूɷȲɔʰɏȲʟɴʹʟȉɫ˒ȉʦȲˑȲʟεɷɔʦɏȲȬूȉɷȬ gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɷȲˑȲʟȲˑȲɷʦʰȉʟʰȲȬʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆɏɔʦȦʁɴʜʁʦɔʰɔʁɷेEȲȬɔȬȬʟȉ˒ȉ cartoon for the central section of the wall that was to become emblematic ʁɅȉɷȲ˒ʰ˘ʜȲʁɅȉʟʰȦʁɷȦȲɷʰʟȉʰɔɷɆʁɷʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ेΤȲȦȉʟʰʁʁɷ was destroyed around 1515 and our best indication of what it looked like is ɔɷȉɆʟɔʦȉɔɫɫȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʁɅࢾࣂࣁࢿȥ˘ʟɔʦʰʁʰɔɫȲȬȉȉɷɆȉɫɫʁ२εɆेࢿेࢿࣀ३ेEʁ˒ȲˑȲʟू ɔɷɔʰʦȥʟɔȲɅȲ˗ɔʦʰȲɷȦȲgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦȦȉʟʰʁʁɷȥȲȦȉɴȲॹɔɷȲɷˑȲɷʹʰʁ 90 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 2.24. gȉʟȦȉɷʰʁɷɔʁȉɔɴʁɷȬɔूȉδȲʟ gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूBather, c.1508. *ɷɆʟȉˑɔɷɆेʟɔʰɔʦɏgʹʦȲʹɴू^ʁɷȬʁɷे gȉʟȦȉɷʰʁɷɔʁȉɔɴʁɷȬɔউʦȲɷɆʟȉˑɔɷɆʁɅȉȥȉʰɏȲʟ२εɆेࢿेࢿࣁ३ʁɅȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣂࢽࣅ ɔʦȥʁʰɏʰɏȲȲȉʟɫɔȲʦʰȲ˗ɔʦʰɔɷɆʜʟɔɷʰȉδȲʟȉ˒ʁʟɦʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁȉɷȬʰɏȲ ȲȉʟɫɔȲʦʰʜʟɔɷʰȉδȲʟȉɷ˘ȉʟʰɔʦʰʰʁɷȉɴȲʰɏȲȦʟȲȉʰʁʟʁɅʰɏȲʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫू˒ɏɔȦɏ he does in an inscription on the rocky landscape to the right of the ɔɴȉɆȲूɔɷȉɷȉȥȥʟȲˑɔȉʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰɷʁ˒ʦȲȲɴʦʟȉʰɏȲʟɆɷʁɴɔȦुআJÁgJ= <^्g<ूইʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆɅʁʟআJɷˑȲɷɔʰgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷɔ्gȉʟȦȉɷʰʁɷɔʁ ɅȲȦɔʰই२JɷˑȲɷʰȲȬȥ˘gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ्gȉʟȦȉɷʰʁɷɔʁɴȉȬȲɔʰ३ू thus pointing up the individual ownership of designs and separating the conception of the motif from the hand of the maker.93 I will discuss the importance of the nude form for notions of individual artistic creativity ɔɷʰɏȲɷȲ˗ʰȦɏȉʜʰȲʟेEȲʟȲɔʰɔʦʦʹΪȦɔȲɷʰʰʁʜʁɔɷʰʁʹʰʰɏȉʰूɫɔʰȲʟȉɫɫ˘ divorced from their original context and meaning, these prints now acted ȉʦȲ˗Ȳɴʜɫȉʟ˘ɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦूȬȲɴʁɷʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷʦʰʁȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȉɷȬʜȉʰʟʁɷʦȉɫɔɦȲ of a new type of image-making that focused on the skill, invention, and ȦʟȲȉʰɔˑɔʰ˘ʁɅɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȉʦʁʜʜʁʦȲȬʰʁʰɏȲɴȲȉɷɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲʁȥɣȲȦʰʦ they represented. * ʦJȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔɷɏȉʜʰȲʟ<ɔˑȲूɔʰɔʦɣʹʦʰȉʰʰɏɔʦɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȦȉɫɴʁɴȲɷʰॹʰɏȲεʟʦʰ decade of the sixteenth century – that we start to get an increasing number ʁɅɷʹȬȲʦʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ȲȬ˒ɏʁʦȲɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲɴȲȉɷɔɷɆɔʦʁȥʦȦʹʟȲेΤɔʦɔʦʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ true of work by the Venetian painter Giorgione, whose monumental ȬȲʜɔȦʰɔʁɷʁɅɷʹȬȲȉɷȬʜȉʟʰɔȉɫɫ˘ȦɫʁʰɏȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦɔɷɅʟȲʦȦʁɅʁʟɴʁɷʰɏȲ <ʁɷȬȉȦʁȬȲɔ¢ȲȬȲʦȦɏɔूɷʁ˒ɴȉɔɷɫ˘ɫʁʦʰू˒ȉʦȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ʁʜȉ̍ʹȲʰʁɫȉʰȲʟ ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʰʁʟʦʦʹȦɏȉʦÁȉʦȉʟɔेEȲʟȲʜʁʟʰʦʰɏȉʰআ=ɔʁʟɆɔʁɷȲ ʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʁɅɷʁʰɏɔɷɆʁʰɏȲʟʰɏȉɷʰʁʜȉɔɷʰεɆʹʟȲʦȉδȲʟɏɔʦʁ˒ɷɅȉɷʰȉʦ˘ɔɷ order to demonstrate his talent . . . as for me, I have never understood his εɆʹʟȲʦूɷʁʟɏȉˑȲJȲˑȲʟू˒ɔʰɏɴ˘̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷɔɷɆूɅʁʹɷȬȉɷ˘ʁɷȲ˒ɏʁȬɔȬेই94 =ɔʁʟɆɔʁɷȲউʦʦɴȉɫɫȲʟॼʦȦȉɫȲ˒ʁʟɦʦूʰʁʁूɷʁʰȉȥɫ˘̨Ǳ¤ǱȳɛǱɥɯ२εɆेࣂेࣁ३ूȲ̍ʹȉɫɫ˘ ȦʁɷʰȉɔɷɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦʰɏȉʰȉʟȲʦʰɔɫɫʜʹˢˢɫɔɷɆʰʁˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟʦे95Τɔʦɔʦɷʁʰʰʁʦȉ˘ ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȲɔɴȉɆȲʦɏȲɫȬɷʁʦʜȲȦɔεȦʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷȦȲɅʁʟʰɏȲʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫʜȉʰʟʁɷʦ and artists, as there may well have been meanings that were lost, even by ÁȉʦȉʟɔউʦʰɔɴȲेʹʰ˒ɏȉʰɔʦʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰɔʦʰɏȉʰÁȉʦȉʟɔউʦȲ˗ʜɫȉɷȉʰɔʁɷɅʁʟεɆʹʟȲʦ ʁɅʁȥʦȦʹʟȲɔȦʁɷʁɆʟȉʜɏ˘ॹʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦআɅȉɷʰȉʦ˘ইʁʟআʰȉɫȲɷʰইॹɏȉȬȥȲȦʁɴȲʰɏȲ Ȭʁɴɔɷȉɷʰ˒ȉ˘ʁɅʦȲȲɔɷɆʰɏȲȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ȥ˘ʰɏȲɴɔȬॼɔɷ̍ʹȲȦȲɷʰʁु ʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȉʦɷʁɫʁɷɆȲʟȉɷ˘ɷȲȲȬʰʁεɷȬȉɴȲȉɷɔɷɆɅʁʟʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲे Nudity, Art, and the Viewer 91 Chapter THREE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ु gȉʦȦʹɫɔɷɔʰ˘ूʟȲȉʰɔˑɔʰ˘ू$ɔˑɔɷɔʰ˘ू and the Nude He who made everything, made every part and then from all chose the most beautiful. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁʹʁɷȉʟʁʰʰɔूʹɷεɷɔʦɏȲȬʦʁɷɷȲʰूࢾࣂࢾࢾ gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦʦʰʹȬ˘ɅʁʟʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʁɅHaman on the Sistine Chapel ceiling ɔʦʁɷȲʁɅʰɏȲɴʁʦʰȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦʁɅȉɷʹȬȲ२εɆेࣀेࢾ३े ΤɔʦɷȉɦȲȬɴȉɫȲεɆʹʟȲɏʹʟɫʦɏɔɴʦȲɫɅɅʁʟ˒ȉʟȬʦूɏɔʦ˒ȲɔɆɏʰʟȲʦʰɔɷɆʁɷɏɔʦ sketchily depicted right foot, his body twisting, his head back. His muscles are painstakingly rendered through stark contrasts of light and shade in this bravura exercise in red chalk drawing. It is assumed in the literature ʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦɔɴȉɆȲɔʦȉδȲʟȉɫɔˑȲɴʁȬȲɫूȥʹʰʰɏɔʦʟȉɔʦȲʦʦʁɴȲ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷʦे1 Âɏȉʰ˒ȉʦʰɏȲʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲȉʜʜȲȉʟȉɷȦȲʁɅʰɏɔʦɴʁȬȲɫȉɷȬʰɏȲ Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆ˒Ȳɷʁ˒ʦȲȲैEʁ˒ȬɔȬgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁεɷȬȉɴʁȬȲɫ˒ɏʁȦʁʹɫȬɏʁɫȬ ʰɏɔʦʜʁʦȲू˒ɏʁɏȉȬʰɏɔʦɴʹʦȦʹɫȉʰʹʟȲैÂɏ˘ȉʟȲʦʁɴȲʜȉʟʰʦʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ ɅʁȦʹʦȲȬʁɷू˒ɏɔɫȲʁʰɏȲʟʦȉʟȲȲɷʰɔʟȲɫ˘ɴɔʦʦɔɷɆॹʰɏȲɴʁȬȲɫউʦɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦूɏɔʦ ɏȲȉȬूɏɔʦȉʟɴʦूȉɷȬɏɔʦɫʁ˒ȲʟɫȲδɫȲɆैJɷʦɏʁʟʰूɏʁ˒ʰʁȉȦȦʁʹɷʰɅʁʟʰɏȲ transition between the moment of drawing, when a particular individual ʜʁʦȲȬɅʁʟgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁȉʰʦʁɴȲʜʁɔɷʰɔɷʰɏȲʦʹɴɴȲʟʁɅࢾࣂࢾࢾूȉɷȬʰɏȲ idealized form that was to end up on this sheet of paper, and eventually ʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆै 93 Fig. 3.1. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूStudies for Haman, 1511–12. Red chalk on paper. British gʹʦȲʹɴू^ʁɷȬʁɷे ΤȲɫȉʦʰȦɏȉʜʰȲʟʰʟȉȦȲȬȉʦɏɔδɔɷʰɏȲɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦʁˑȲʟʰɏȲ εδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦɅʟʁɴʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰɔɷɆȉɷɔȬȲȉॹʁδȲɷȉˑɔʟʰʹȲ such as prudence, or sometimes a vice such as lust – to representing skill and artistry alone. Here I consider why the depiction of the nude, more ʰɏȉɷȉɷ˘ʁʰɏȲʟʦʹȥɣȲȦʰूȬʟʁˑȲʰɏȲʦɏɔδɔɷʰɏȲʦʰȉʰʹʦʁɅȉʟʰȉɷȬʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰे Âɏ˘˒ȲʟȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦʰɏȲɴȉɔɷʜʟʁʁɅʁɅʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦʦɦɔɫɫȉɷȬȦʟȲȉʰɔˑȲ ʜʁ˒Ȳʟʦै^ʁʁɦɔɷɆεʟʦʰȉʰʰɏȲɴȲȦɏȉɷɔȦʦʁɅȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆȉδȲʟʰɏȲɷʹȬȲȉɷȬ˒ɏ˘ it came to dominate workshop practice, I then consider notions of genius, linking them to Renaissance ideas about conception and procreation. <ɔɷȉɫɫ˘JȥʟɔɷɆʰɏȲʦȲɔȬȲȉʦʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟʰʁȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦɅʟȲʦȦʁȦ˘ȦɫȲ on the Sistine Chapel ceiling as a showcase for a new type of art that focused on the naked body, and a new role for the artist as godlike progenitor. Life Drawing and Workshop Practice ΤȲʟȲɔʦȉɷɔɴɴȲȬɔȉȦ˘ʰʁȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦूȉʦȲɷʦȲʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ȉʟȲȉʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫʟȲȦʁʟȬ ʁɅȉɫʁʦʰɴʁɴȲɷʰɔɷʰɔɴȲेΤȲ˘ʁδȲɷȦʁɷˑȲ˘ʰʁʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰ with some careful close visual analysis, the instance of their creation can be re-enacted.2ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲɴȉɷ˘ʜʟʁȥɫȲɴʦूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟू˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɔʟʹʦȲ ȉʦȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲɅʁʟȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲे$ʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȉʟȲɅʟȉɆɔɫȲȉɷȬʜȉʜȲʟ˒ȉʦ Ȳ˗ʜȲɷʦɔˑȲॹȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦ˒ȲʟȲȦʹʰूʟȲʹʦȲȬȉʦʟȲȦȲɔʜʰʦूˑʹɫɷȲʟȉȥɫȲʰʁεʟȲȉɷȬ to damp, discarded to be recycled when no longer useful, or sometimes even deliberately destroyed by artists who wished to protect their later reputation.3ΤȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦʰɏȉʰȲ˗ɔʦʰʰʁȬȉ˘ʦʹʟˑɔˑȲʜȉʟʰɫ˘ ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏɫʹȦɦूȥʹʰɫȉʟɆȲɫ˘ȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʦʁɴȲʁɷȲɏȉʦɫʁʁɦȲȬȉδȲʟʰɏȲɴूʰʟȲȉʦʹʟȲȬ ʰɏȲɴूʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏȲɔʟεˑȲɏʹɷȬʟȲȬʁʟʦʁ˘ȲȉʟʦʁɅȲ˗ɔʦʰȲɷȦȲेΤɔʦɔʦʰʟʹȲʁɅ some areas and periods more than others: Florentine drawings, for example, ʦʹʟˑɔˑȲɔɷɴʹȦɏɆʟȲȉʰȲʟɷʹɴȥȲʟʦʰɏȉɷÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷʁɷȲʦेΤɔʦɔʦʜȲʟɏȉʜʦ because the importance of disegno in the Florentine tradition meant that emphasis was placed on repeated drawing exercises during artistic training, but also because drawings have been treasured by collectors in Florence since at least the early sixteenth century.4 For these reasons, the study of Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȉδȲʟʰɏȲɷʹȬȲȦȉɷɷʁʰʰȲɫɫʰɏȲ˒ɏʁɫȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜ between artist and model in the Renaissance; artists most probably used ɫɔɅȲɴʁȬȲɫʦ˒ɏȲʟȲɷʁȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦʦʹʟˑɔˑȲे*̍ʹȉɫɫ˘ूʰɏȲɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷȦ˘ʁɅȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆ ȉδȲʟȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूȦʁʹʜɫȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲʦȲȲɴɔɷɆɫ˘ȦʁɴɴʁɷʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲʁɅ asking models to take up the poses derived from sculptural prototypes, can ɴȉɦȲɔʰˑȲʟ˘ȬɔΪȦʹɫʰʰʁȉʦȦȲʟʰȉɔɷʰɏȲʦʰȉʰʹʦʁɅʦʁɴȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦॹȉʟȲʰɏȲ˘ ȉδȲʟɫɔɅȲʁʟȉɷɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔˑȲʟȲȦʁɷʦʰʟʹȦʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲै gȉɷ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʦʰʹȬɔȲʦʰɏȉʰɅʁȦʹʦʁɷȉʟʰɔʦʰʦউʹʦȲʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɴʁȬȲɫʦɏȉˑȲ concentrated on the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when ʦʰʹȬ˘ɔɷɆȉδȲʟʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲȥȲȦȉɴȲɔɷȦʟȲȉʦɔɷɆɫ˘˒ɔȬȲʦʜʟȲȉȬेjʁʰ 94 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 95 ʦʹʟʜʟɔʦɔɷɆɫ˘ूʰɏȲʦȲʦʰʹȬɔȲʦʁδȲɷɅʁȦʹʦʁɷɆȲɷȬȲʟʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜʦूȉɷȬ ʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ʰɏȲʰʟȉɷʦɅʁʟɴȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ॼȉʦॼʁȥɣȲȦʰȥ˘ʰɏȲɴȉɫȲ ȉʟʰɔʦʰॼȉʦॼʦʹȥɣȲȦʰेΤȲʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜɔʦʁδȲɷȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȲȬȉʦʁɷȲʁɅȬʁɴɔɷȉʰɔʁɷ and submission, the female model made passive and unindividualized ȥ˘ʰɏȲȦʁɷ̍ʹȲʟɔɷɆɆȉˢȲʁɅʰɏȲɴȉɫȲȉʟʰɔʦʰे5 I discuss this relationship in Chapter Four. Here it is important to note that the eroticization of the আʜȉʦʦɔˑȲইɴȉɫȲɴʁȬȲɫɔʦȉɷɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰʜȉʟʰʁɅʰɏȲȥȲɆɔɷɷɔɷɆʦʁɅɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆ ɔɷʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲौɔɷʰɏɔʦȦȉʦȲɆȲɷȬȲʟȬɔΦȲʟȲɷȦȲʦȉʟȲɷʁʰȉʦɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰ ȉʦʰɏȲʜʁ˒ȲʟʁɅʰɏȲȬȲʦɔʟʁʹʦɆȉˢȲेʰȉʟɔɷɆȉʰȉɷʁʰɏȲʟʜȲʟʦʁɷউʦɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ ɔɷʁʟȬȲʟʰʁɴȉɦȲȉɷȉʟʰ˒ʁʟɦɔɷˑʁɫˑȲʦȉʦɏɔδɔɷɷʁʟɴȉɫʦʁȦɔȉɫʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦू ʰɏȲɴʁȬȲɫȥȲȦʁɴɔɷɆʁˑȲʟʰɫ˘ʜȉʦʦɔˑȲȉɷȬʁȥɣȲȦʰɔεȲȬȉʦɏɔʦʁʟɏȲʟȥʁȬ˘ɔʦ scanned and examined by the person drawing, a process that has been ȦȉɫɫȲȬআȉȲʦʰɏȲʰɔȦȬɔʦʰȉɷȦɔɷɆेই6 Always a rather complex and potentially ɅʟȉʹɆɏʰʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜूʰɏɔʦআȬɔʦʰȉɷȦɔɷɆই˒ȉʦɷʁʰɷȲȦȲʦʦȉʟɔɫ˘ȉʦʦʹɴȲȬɔɷ ʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲेΤȲʁʰɏȲʟɦȲ˘ȬɔΦȲʟȲɷȦȲȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʰʁȬȉ˘ ȉɷȬʰɏȉʰʁɅʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ɴʁȬȲʟɷʜȲʟɔʁȬɔʦʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁʰɏȲɴʁȬȲɫউʦʜɏ˘ʦɔ̍ʹȲे ÂɏȲʟȲȉʦʰʁȬȉ˘ɴʁȬȲɫʦʁɅȉɫɫȥʁȬ˘ʰ˘ʜȲʦȦȉɷȥȲȉˑȉɫɔȬɅʁȦʹʦɅʁʟʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦ ȉʰʰȲɷʰɔʁɷूʰɏȲȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲJȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɏȲʟȲʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɴʁȬȲɫʦू both female and male, were chosen for their beauty and the proximity of their bodies to the ideal; the ability to provoke desire in the viewer was ʜʟʁʁɅʁɅʰɏɔʦ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘े ȉɔɷʰȲʟʦ˒ȲʟȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦɅʟʁɴȉʰɫȲȉʦʰʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏ ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘े^ȲʁɷȉʰʰɔʦʰȉɫȥȲʟʰɔউʦOn Painting of 1435 argues that painters, when depicting a nude, should build up the body from the bones upwards ॹɣʹʦʰɫɔɦȲूɏȲʦȉ˘ʦআ˒ɏȲɷ०ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆ१ȉȦɫʁʰɏȲȬʜȲʟʦʁɷɔʰɔʦɷȲȦȲʦʦȉʟ˘ʰʁ εʟʦʰȬʟȉ˒ʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲेই7ɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲȬʁȲʦɷʁʰɷȲȦȲʦʦȉʟɔɫ˘ʟȲ̍ʹɔʟȲ Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆɅʟʁɴɫɔɅȲॹɔʰɔʦ̍ʹɔʰȲʜʁʦʦɔȥɫȲʰʁȉʜʜʟʁ˗ɔɴȉʰȲȉɷȉɦȲȬɏʹɴȉɷ εɆʹʟȲɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔʁɷूʁʟʰʁȦʁʜ˘ʁɷȲɅʟʁɴȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲे Eʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɫȥȲʟʰɔȉɫʦʁʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰʜȉɔɷʰȲʟʦʦʰʹȬ˘আɷȉʰʹʟȲɏȲʟʦȲɫɅूই which indicates that looking at real bodies should be a starting point for the artist. It was probably necessary to stress this because drawing ɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦɅʟʁɴɫɔɅȲ˒ȉʦɷʁʰʰɏȲɷʁʟɴɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘े ɷʁʰɏȲʟʁδȲɷȦɔʰȲȬȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʦʁʹʟȦȲूȲɷɷɔɷʁȲɷɷɔɷɔউʦ̨Ǳ Crafstman’s Handbook, gives a list of proportions for drawing a naked male εɆʹʟȲूȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬɔɷɴʁʟȲȬȲʰȉɔɫȥȲɫʁ˒ेEȲɔɆɷʁʟȲʦ˒ʁɴȲɷूȉʦJȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔɷ ʰɏȲɷȲ˗ʰȦɏȉʜʰȲʟूȥȲȦȉʹʦȲআʰɏȲ˘ȬʁɷʁʰɏȉˑȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷʦेইɷɔɴȉɫʦू too, cannot be measured properly, and he advises drawing them from nature; the implication here is that drawing the male nude from life is not, in fact, necessary.8 96 ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲʦȲˑȲʟȉɫʦʰʹȬɔȲʦʁɅʰɏɔʦɦɔɷȬȉʰʰʟɔȥʹʰȲȬʰʁɔʦȉɷȲɫɫʁȉɷȬɏɔʦȦɔʟȦɫȲ in the 1430s and 40s.9 However, given his prodigious draughtsmanship, it ʦȲȲɴʦɅȉɔʟʰʁʦȉ˘ʰɏȉʰȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆȉδȲʟʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲ˒ȉʦɣʹʦʰʁɷȲʜȉʟʰʁɅȉ ˒ɔȬȲʟ˒ʁʟɦɔɷɆʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲʰɏȉʰɔɷˑʁɫˑȲȬȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆȉδȲʟɷȉʰʹʟȲɴʁʟȲɆȲɷȲʟȉɫɫ˘ू including the many studies of horses, birds, leopards, and other animals, ˒ɏɔȦɏɅȉʟʁʹʰɷʹɴȥȲʟʦʰʹȬɔȲʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬʜȲʁʜɫȲेΤɔʦɔʦʰʟʹȲʁɅʁʰɏȲʟʜȉɔɷʰȲʟʦ ȉɷȬʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟʦ˒ʁʟɦɔɷɆɔɷʰɏȲεʟʦʰɏȉɫɅʁɅʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘˒ɏʁʦȲ Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦʦʹʟˑɔˑȲौ˒ȲɏȉˑȲʁȦȦȉʦɔʁɷȉɫȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȉδȲʟʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲȥ˘ them, but nothing approaching a coherent and analytical approach to life drawing.10 For this we have to turn our attention to the Florentine workshops of the 1470s and beyond, when we see a sudden abundance of Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȉδȲʟʰɏȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲे ʟʁȉȬɫ˘ूʰɏȲʦȲʦʰʹȬɔȲʦȉʟȲʁɅʰ˒ʁʰ˘ʜȲʦेΤȲȲȉʟɫɔȲʦʰȦʁɴʜʟɔʦȲʜȲɷȉɷȬɔɷɦ Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦɫɔɷɦȲȬʰʁgȉʦʁ<ɔɷɔɆʹȲʟʟȉȉɷȬɏɔʦʁȦȦȉʦɔʁɷȉɫȥʹʦɔɷȲʦʦʜȉʟʰɷȲʟʦू ʰɏȲʁɫɫȉɔʹʁɫʁȥʟʁʰɏȲʟʦউ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜʦूɆȲɷȲʟȉɫɫ˘ȦɏȉʟȉȦʰȲʟɔˢȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɔʟ ȦʁɷεȬȲɷȦȲȉɷȬȲȦʁɷʁɴ˘ʁɅɫɔɷȲेΤȲʦȲ˒ȲʟȲɫȉʟɆȲɫ˘ʜʟʁȬʹȦȲȬȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲ ɫȉʰȲʟࢾࣁࣃࢽʦȉɷȬȲȉʟɫ˘ࢾࣁࣅࢽʦूȉɷȬȉʟȲɫɔɦȲɫ˘ɫɔɷɦȲȬʰʁɷʰʁɷɔʁȬȲɫʁɫɫȉɔʹʁɫʁউʦ ɅȉɴȲɅʁʟȬȲʜɔȦʰɔɷɆʰɏȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲɔɷȉȦʰɔʁɷूȲ˗ȲɴʜɫɔεȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲʜʁʜʹɫȉʟɔʰ˘ of his Battle of Naked Men engraving, which was discussed in Chapter One २εɆेࢾेࢾࢾ३े11ΤȲʦȲȦʁɷȬʰ˘ʜȲʁɅʦʰʹȬ˘ɔʦʦɔɫˑȲʟʜʁɔɷʰȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʁɷˑȉʟɔʁʹʦ ȦʁɫʁʟȲȬɆʟʁʹɷȬʦू˒ɏȲʟȲʰɏȲɴʹʦȦɫȲʦʁɅʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦȉʟȲʜɔȦɦȲȬʁʹʰɔɷ˒ɏɔʰȲ ɏȲɔɆɏʰȲɷɔɷɆेΤȲ˘ȉʟȲɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ʁɷʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʦɏȲȲʰȉʦʦʰʹȬɔȲʦȉδȲʟȉ clothed model and can mainly be linked to the circle of Botticelli and his most celebrated pupil, Filippino Lippi, though there are surviving works of this type by other Florentine-trained artists, such as Leonardo da Vinci and Lorenzo di Credi.12 ʹʟˑɔˑɔɷɆȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲȲȉʟɫɔȲʟûʹȉʰʰʟʁȦȲɷʰʁȉʰʰȲʦʰʰʁʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰ ʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲȬɔȬɷʁʰूȉʰʰɏȉʰʜʁɔɷʰूʁȦȦʹʜ˘ʰɏȲȦȲɷʰʟȉɫʜʁʦɔʰɔʁɷɔʰ˒ȉʦʰʁ ɏʁɫȬɔɷȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʰʟȉɔɷɔɷɆɫȉʰȲʟʁɷɔɷʰɏȲȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेΤɔʦɔʦɷʁʰʰʁʦȉ˘ूʁɅȦʁʹʟʦȲू ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʟȲȉʟȲɷʁȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦɅʟʁɴʰɏɔʦʜȲʟɔʁȬɴȉȬȲȉδȲʟɷȉɦȲȬɴʁȬȲɫʦे ΤȲʟȲɔʦȉɷɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰʦʰʹȬ˘ʁɅ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲɫȉʰȲεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦ ȉδȲʟɫɔˑɔɷɆɴʁȬȲɫʦ२ȥʁʰɏɷȉɦȲȬȉɷȬȬʟȲʦʦȲȬ३ȥ˘ȉʟɫʁȉηɏɔȉɷʰɔȉɷȬ =ɔɆȲʰʰȉ$ȉɫɫɔȲɆʁɫɔूȥʹʰʰɏȲʟȲɏȉʦɷʁʰȥȲȲɷȉɆʟȲȉʰȬȲȉɫʁɅȉʰʰȲɷʰɔʁɷʰʁ this group of images in the literature more broadly, possibly because most of these drawings are not securely attributed to any one maker.13Τɔʦ is despite the fact that this type of drawing exists in some abundance: there are at least 70 separate sheets containing nude studies according to my count.14 Given the generally poor survival rate of works on paper, ʰɏɔʦ˒ʁʹɫȬʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲʁɅʦʰʹȬ˘˒ȉʦȬʁɷȲˑȲʟ˘ɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ ɔɷȬȲȲȬे*ˑɔȬȲɷȦȲɅʟʁɴʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘$ʁɴɔɷɔȦȉɷʜȉɔɷʰȲʟ<ʟȉ ȉʟʰʁɫʁɴȲʁউʦɔɷˑȲɷʰʁʟ˘ʦʹʜʜʁʟʰʦʰɏȲˑɔʦʹȉɫȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲॹȬȲʦʜɔʰȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦ appearing in his paintings relatively rarely, his sheets of drawings included ࢾࢽࣆʦʰʹȬɔȲʦȉδȲʟʰɏȲɷʹȬȲे15ÂɏȲɷʦȲȲɷʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟूʰɏȲɫȉʰȲûʹȉʰʰʟʁȦȲɷʰʁ ɴȲʰȉɫʜʁɔɷʰȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦɏȉˑȲȉɷȉɫɴʁʦʰɣȲ˒ȲɫॼɫɔɦȲȲΦȲȦʰूȬʹȲȥʁʰɏʰʁʰɏȲ varied colors of the grounds and the use of white lead paint to highlight ʰɏȲȦʁɷʰʁʹʟʦʁɅʰɏȲɴʁȬȲɫউʦɴʹʦȦʹɫȉʰʹʟȲूɆɔˑɔɷɆʰɏȲɔɴʜʟȲʦʦɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ gleaming in a darkened space. THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 97 Fig. 3.2. Botticelli workshop, attr., ̨ɞǱǱ ɯɸǫȓǱɥǈ̼ǱɞǈlǱǈɞՒȶǈȥǱǫiɀǫǱȪ, cेࢾࣁࣅࢽʦेgȲʰȉɫʜʁɔɷʰȉɷȬ˒ɏɔʰȲ heightening on pink prepared paper. gʹʦȳȲȬȲʦȲȉʹ˗ʟʰʦूȉȥɔɷȲʰȬȲʦ $Ȳʦʦɔɷʦू^ɔɫɫȲूࣅࢾ्ࣅࢿˑे Fig. 3.3. Botticelli workshop, attr.,̨ɞǱǱ ɯɸǫȓǱɥǈ̼ǱɞǈlǱǈɞՒȶǈȥǱǫiɀǫǱȪ, cेࢾࣁࣅࢽʦेgȲʰȉɫʜʁɔɷʰȉɷȬ˒ɏɔʰȲ ɏȲɔɆɏʰȲɷɔɷɆʁɷȥʹΦʜʟȲʜȉʟȲȬʜȉʜȲʟे Gabinetto disegni e stampe 222E, =ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉȬȲɆɫɔ©Ϊˢɔू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲे २ȦʁɴʜȉʟȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूεɆेࣀेࣁ˒ɔʰɏεɆʦࢿेࢾࣀȉɷȬࢽेࢿ३े18ʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰ number appear to have their hands bound behind their back, either seated or standing up, as if representations of slaves or perhaps martyrs such ȉʦʰेȲȥȉʦʰɔȉɷ२εɆेࣀेࣂ३े19ʦȉηɏɔȉɷʰɔȉɷȬ$ȉɫɫɔȲɆʁɫɔʦʹηȲʦʰूʰɏȲʦȲ drawings were probably made to be kept in model books, intended to be seen as part of a group and to be kept as a repository of poses to act as inspiration for future works.20 Fig. 3.4. $ȉˑɔȬ=ɏɔʟɫȉɷȬȉɔʁ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜूTwo Male Nudes, One in Position of Spinario, c.1480s. gȲʰȉɫʜʁɔɷʰȉɷȬ˒ɏɔʰȲɏȲɔɆɏʰȲɷɔɷɆʁɷɫɔɆɏʰ ȥʟʁ˒ɷʜʟȲʜȉʟȲȬʜȉʜȲʟे=ȉȥɔɷȲʰʰʁ$ɔʦȲɆɷɔ ȲʰȉɴʜȲࣀࣆࣁ*ू=ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉȬȲɆɫɔ©Ϊˢɔू Florence. In terms of practicalities, it is likely that a number of workshop members ȉʰȬɔΦȲʟɔɷɆʦʰȉɆȲʦʁɅʰʟȉɔɷɔɷɆ˒ʁʹɫȬʦɔʰȉʟʁʹɷȬʰɏȲʦȉɴȲɴʁȬȲɫूȉʦɔʦ ʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬɔɷȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȥ˘ȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɏȉɷȬʦȉɷȬʁɅȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȉȥɔɫɔʰɔȲʦʰɏȉʰ ȬȲʜɔȦʰʰɏȲʦȉɴȲɴʁȬȲɫʦɔɷʦɔɴɔɫȉʟʜʁʦȲʦे$ʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȥ˘ɴȲɴȥȲʟʦʁɅʰɏȲ workshop of Botticelli show very diverse responses to what must have been ʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʦȲʦʦɔʁɷ˒ɔʰɏȉɴʁȬȲɫॹʦȲȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूεɆʦࣀेࢿȉɷȬࣀेࣀे21 Some drawings reveal workshop props such as stools, sticks, and ropes to hang ʁɷʰʁʰɏȉʰȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬʰɏȲʦɔʰʰȲʟʰʁɏʁɫȬʰɏȲɔʟʜʁʦɔʰɔʁɷ२εɆेࣀेࣃ३े22ΤȲɴʁȬȲɫʦ generally wear underwear, which perhaps served to make the practice rather less erotically or emotionally fraught, and would also presumably ȉɫɫʁ˒ɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʰʁɏȉʜʜȲɷɔɷʰɏȲʟȲɫȉʰɔˑȲɫ˘ʜʹȥɫɔȦʦʜȉȦȲʁɅʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟউʦ ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜू˒ɏɔȦɏ˒ȉʦʁδȲɷʁʜȲɷʰʁʰɏȲʦʰʟȲȲʰेEʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɔʰɔʦ̍ʹɔʰȲʜʁʦʦɔȥɫȲ ʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲʁɅȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲȦʁʹɫȬɏȉˑȲɏȉʜʜȲɷȲȬɔɷȉʟʰɔʦʰʦউɏʁɴȲʦॹ both Filippino and Botticelli practiced their trade from home for parts of their careers.23 ΤȲȥȲʦʰ˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲʜʟʁȦȲʦʦॹȉɷȬʜʹʟʜʁʦȲॹʁɅʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲ of life drawing in Florentine workshops comes from a passage in Leonardo ȬȉÁɔɷȦɔউʦɷʁʰȲȥʁʁɦʦू˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷȥȲɅʁʟȲXʹɫ˘ࢾࣁࣆࢿे24 Leonardo was working in Florence in the 1470s, and one of his drawings of a Model in the Pose of John the BaptistʁɷʜȉɫȲȥɫʹȲʜʟȲʜȉʟȲȬʜȉʜȲʟ२εɆेࣀेࣄ३ɔʦȉʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʁɅʰɏɔʦ early workshop practice.25 He explains: ÂȲȦȉɷɫȲȉʟɷȉɫʁʰȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲʁɅȲȉʟɫ˘ɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆɅʟʁɴʰɏȲʦȲ ɔɴȉɆȲʦेΤȲ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʦɏȲȲʰʦʰɏȉʰʦʹʟˑɔˑȲूɴȉɷ˘ʁɅ˒ɏɔȦɏɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷ ȉʰʰʟɔȥʹʰȲȬȬɔʟȲȦʰɫ˘ʰʁ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜɴȉʦʰȲʟʦू˒ʁʹɫȬʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰʦʰʹȬ˘ɔɷɆ naked, or near-naked, male models was something that continued ˒ȲɫɫȥȲ˘ʁɷȬʰʟȉɔɷɔɷɆेgʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूɴʁʦʰʁɅʰɏȲʦȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦɏȉˑȲɷʁʰȥȲȲɷ ȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏεɷɔʦɏȲȬ˒ʁʟɦʦौɔʰʦȲȲɴʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲɴȉɔɷɫ˘ȬʁɷȲɅʁʟ their own sake.16gȉɷ˘ʜʁʦȲʦȦʁɴȲʹʜʟȲʜȲȉʰȲȬɫ˘ेʁɴȲȉʜʜʟʁ˗ɔɴȉʰȲ ʰɏȲʦʰȉɷȦȲʁɅ$ʁɷȉʰȲɫɫʁউʦʁʟÁȲʟʟʁȦȦɏɔʁউʦȥʟʁɷˢȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʦʁɅDavidूɫȲδ ɏȉɷȬʁɷɏɔʜȉȥʁˑȲȉȥȲɷʰɫȲδɫȲɆौʁʰɏȲʟʦȲȦɏʁʰɏȲʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫʜʁʦȲʁɅXʁɏɷʰɏȲ Baptist, the right arm crossing the body and terminating in an upwardʜʁɔɷʰɔɷɆɏȉɷȬ२ȥʁʰɏʜʁʦɔʰɔʁɷʦȉʟȲʦɏʁ˒ɷʁɷεɆʦࣀेࢿȉɷȬࣀेࣀ३े17Τɔʦɔʦ perhaps an indication that these poses were considered the epitome of graceful beauty and were worthy of emulation. Several models also take up poses of classical sculpture – notably the Spinario and the Apollo Belvedere 98 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 3.5. Filippino Lippi workshopԧʧǈȶǫȓȶȅ Youth with Hands Behind his Back, and a Seated Youth Reading (detail), c.1480s–90s. gȲʰȉɫʜʁɔɷʰɏɔɆɏɫɔɆɏʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏ˒ɏɔʰȲɆʁʹȉȦɏȲ ʁɷʜɔɷɦʜʟȲʜȉʟȲȬʜȉʜȲʟेΤȲgȲʰʟʁʜʁɫɔʰȉɷ gʹʦȲʹɴʁɅʟʰूjȲ˒ÈʁʟɦूEȉʟʟɔʦʟɔʦȥȉɷȲ $ɔȦɦ<ʹɷȬूࢾࣆࣀࣃूࣀࣃेࢾࢽࢾेࢾे ÂɔɷʰȲʟȲˑȲɷɔɷɆʦʁʹɆɏʰʰʁȥȲʹʦȲȬȥ˘˘ʁʹʰɏʦɅʁʟʦʰʹȬ˘ɔɷɆʰɏɔɷɆʦ ȉʟʟȉɷɆȲȬȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲʦʹɴɴȲʟेΤȉʰɔʦूʰȉɦȲȉɫɫʰɏȲɷʹȬȲʦ˘ʁʹɏȉˑȲ done during the summer and reduce them together, making a selection of the best limbs and bodies from among those; then put ʰɏȲʦȲɔɷʰʁʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲȉɷȬ˒Ȳɫɫɔɷʰʁ˘ʁʹʟɴɔɷȬेेेेΤȲɷूʰɏȲɅʁɫɫʁ˒ɔɷɆ summer, choose someone in good condition physically and who was not brought up in doublets so that the person does not seem unnatural and have him make graceful and gallant gestures. And if he does not show his muscles well within the contours of his limbs, ʰɏɔʦȬʁȲʦɷʁʰɴȉʰʰȲʟȉʰȉɫɫौɫȲʰɔʰȥȲʦʹΪȦɔȲɷʰɅʁʟ˘ʁʹɣʹʦʰʰʁɆȲʰɆʁʁȬ attitudes from him, and you can correct the limbs later, using those that you studied during winter.26 ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 99 <ɔɆेࣀेࣃे२ɫȲδ३ Filippino Lippi workshop, attr., Study of Man with One Arm Raised, cेࢾࣁࣆࢽेgȲʰȉɫʜʁɔɷʰȉɷȬ˒ɏɔʰȲ ɏȲɔɆɏʰȲɷɔɷɆʁɷȥʹΦʜʟȲʜȉʟȲȬʜȉʜȲʟे ȉȥɔɷȲʰȬȲʦ$ȲʦʦɔɷʦूJࢿࣀࢽूgʹʦȳȲ des Beaux Arts, Lille. Fig. 3.7. (right) Leonardo da Vinci, Model in the Pose of John the Baptist, c.1485–90. gȲʰȉɫʜʁɔɷʰȉɷȬ˒ɏɔʰȲɏȲɔɆɏʰȲɷɔɷɆ on pale blue prepared paper. Royal Collection RCIN 912572, ÂɔɷȬʦʁʟȉʦʰɫȲे Fig. 3.8. Botticelli, Portrait of a Young Man, c.1480–85. Tempera and oil on wood. National Gallery, London. ΤȉʰɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʰʁʁɦʜɫȉȦȲɔɷʦʹɴɴȲʟɴȉɦȲʦȉɆʁʁȬȬȲȉɫʁɅʦȲɷʦȲे Presumably models could stand naked or near-naked with a greater degree of comfort in the warmer months, and this also allowed for more light indoors; at a time when glass was a rare extravagance in dwelling houses, the interior of workshops must have been very dark in winter when shutters were closed and candles provided the chief source of light for much of the day.27^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦʜȉʦʦȉɆȲɔʦȉɫʦʁʦʹηȲʦʰɔˑȲȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲɔȬȲɷʰɔʰ˘ ʁɅʰɏȲɴʁȬȲɫʦʹʦȲȬेJʰɔʦɷȲȉʟʹȥɔ̍ʹɔʰʁʹʦʰʁȦȉɫɫʰɏȲʦȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȉδȲʟʰɏȲ ɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲআgarzoneȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦूইʰɏȲȉʦʦʹɴʜʰɔʁɷȥȲɔɷɆʰɏȉʰȉ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜ apprentice (garzone) would be called upon to stand in as a model.28 It is true that workshop members seem to have sometimes drawn each other clothed.29 However, I have not found any written evidence at all to support the idea that nude models were normally members of the workshop, ȉɷȬʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰȉɷ˘˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜɴȲɴȥȲʟ˒ʁʹɫȬʦʹΪȦȲȉʦȉɴʁȬȲɫ misunderstands the purpose of these early life drawings. ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦʰȲ˗ʰ˒ʁʹɫȬʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰȉɷȉɦȲȬɴʁȬȲɫʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲȦȉʟȲɅʹɫɫ˘ chosen for the natural grace of his body. It seems unlikely that such models were chosen arbitrarily from the handful of apprentices who happened ʰʁȥȲɔɷʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜȉʰʰɏȲʰɔɴȲेΤɔʦɔʦȥʁʟɷȲʁʹʰȥ˘ʰɏȲȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲʁɅ the drawings themselves. As noted, some of the models seem to be used repeatedly, and some drawings seem to be of the same model in the ʦȉɴȲʜʁʦȲȥʹʰɅʟʁɴȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȉɷɆɫȲʦेΤɔʦ˒ʁʹɫȬʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʜȲʟʦʁɷ was used as a model on several occasions, as opposed to an allocation ʁɅʰɏɔʦȬʹʰ˘ȉɴʁɷɆʦʰȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɴȲɴȥȲʟʦʁɅʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜौʁɷȲʜȲʟʦʁɷ repeatedly modeling for his peers could hardly be considered a useful ȉʜʜʟȲɷʰɔȦȲʦɏɔʜेgʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूʰɏȲʟȲɔʦɷʁʰȉɏʹɆȲʟȉɷɆȲʁɅȥʁȬ˘ʦɏȉʜȲʦȉɷȬ types in evidence, but a clear preference for the lithe, muscular, youthful εɆʹʟȲʁɅȉɷȉȬʁɫȲʦȦȲɷʰेJɷʦʁɴȲȦȉʦȲʦʰɏȲɅȉȦɔȉɫʰ˘ʜȲʁɅʰɏȲʦȲɴʁȬȲɫʦʦȲȲɴʦ to correspond to portraits of young men associated with Botticelli – this is evident in a comparison of the face and hair of the central youth on ʰɏȲʦɏȲȲʰɔɷ^ɔɫɫȲ२εɆेࣀेࢿ३ȉɷȬʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦPortrait of a Young Man in the jȉʰɔʁɷȉɫ=ȉɫɫȲʟ˘ू^ʁɷȬʁɷ२εɆेࣀेࣅ३ेJɷʁʰɏȲʟ˒ʁʟȬʦूʰɏȲ˘ʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰ˘ʜȲʁɅ the beautiful youthful male. ΤȲɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰʦʜȲȦɔεȦɴʁȬȲɫʦ˒ȲʟȲȲɴʜɫʁ˘ȲȬȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʁɅʰɏȲɔʟʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫ characteristics is also supported by textual evidence. For example, Filippo Baldinucci recounted that the Florentine artist Franciabigio २ࢾࣁࣅࣁॹࢾࣂࢿࣂ३আȬɔȬɷʁʰɫȲʰȉȬȉ˘Ɇʁȥ˘ȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲʦʹɴɴȲʟ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆ ȉɷʹȬȲɅʟʁɴɫɔɅȲूɦȲȲʜɔɷɆʦȉɫȉʟɔȲȬɴȲɷɔɷɏɔʦʟʁʁɴʦɅʁʟʰɏȉʰʜʹʟʜʁʦȲेই30 ΤȲLibro di Antonio Billi and its derivative texts discuss how Gino di Lodovico Capponi, because of his great beauty, was taken as the model for ʁɫɫȉɔʹʁɫʁউʦ̨ǱiǈɞɯʗɞǫɀȳɀȄʧԬǱǤǈɥɯȓǈȶ (now in the National Gallery, London), whereas Benvenuto Cellini in his Diary reports that he used a ȦȲʟʰȉɔɷȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˘ʁʹʰɏȦȉɫɫȲȬ$ɔȲɆʁȉʦȉɴʁȬȲɫुআJɏȉȬȬʟȉ˒ɷɏɔɴˑȲʟ˘ 100 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 101 Fig. 3.9. *ȉȬ˒ȲȉʟȬgʹ˘ȥʟɔȬɆȲूPlate 99 from Animal Locomotion: An Electro-photographic Investigation of Consecutive Phases of Animal Movements. Photographic print, 1887. ʁδȲɷȉɷȬɏȲȥʟʁʹɆɏʰɴȲȉɆʟȲȉʰȬȲȉɫʁɅɏʁɷʁʟेই31 Titian reportedly would not leave Venice for Ferrara in 1522 on the pretext of having models there that suited his purpose well, whereas his compatriot Lorenzo Lotto paid male models to pose for him in 1542.32 Leonardo da Vinci himself also seems to have followed his own advice and hired people with the desired ʜɏ˘ʦɔ̍ʹȲʰʁɴʁȬȲɫɅʁʟɏɔɴेsɷȲʁɅɏɔʦɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦɏȲȲʰʦʁɅȉɴȉɷȬʟȉ˒ɷ ɅʟʁɴȥȲɏɔɷȬɔɷȦɫʹȬȲʦʰɏȲɷȉɴȲʁɅɏɔʦȦʹʟɫ˘ॼɏȉɔʟȲȬɴʁȬȲɫुআɫȲδॼɏȉɷȬȲȬ <ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁूʰɏȲɴʹʦɔȦɔȉɷेই33 ȥʁʟʟʁ˒ɏʟɔʦʰʁʜɏȲʟÂʁʁȬউʦȲˑʁȦȉʰɔˑȲ२ɔɅɴɔʦɫȲȉȬɔɷɆ३ʜɏʟȉʦȲे36^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦ ˒ʁʟȬʦʦɏʁ˒ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȬȲɫɔȥȲʟȉʰȲɫ˘আȦʁʟʟȲȦʰইʟȲȉɫɔʰ˘ेΤȲ˘ȉʟȲ ʟȲʰʹʟɷȲȬʰʁʟȲʜȲȉʰȲȬɫ˘ȉɷȬȉɴȲɷȬȲȬʰʁȥȲȦʁɴȲɴʁʟȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰेÂɏȉʰ˒Ȳ witness in these drawings is not a particular, individualized naked form recorded in a moment, but the willful transition from the momentary আȉȦȦɔȬȲɷʰʦইʁɅȉʜʜȲȉʟȉɷȦȲʰʁʰɏȲȲ˗ʜʟȲʦʦɔʁɷʁɅʹɷȦɏȉɷɆɔɷɆȥȲȉʹʰ˘े^ɔɅȲ drawing as a part of artistic training in Renaissance Italy should be seen ȉʦȬɔʦʰɔɷȦʰɅʟʁɴɣʹʦʰʦɦȲʰȦɏɔɷɆȉɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲेJʰʦʜʹʟʜʁʦȲ˒ȉʦɷʁʰɣʹʦʰʰʁ copy the appearance of an individual model at one moment in time, but to train the eye, mind, and hand in working together both to record what is ʦȲȲɷȉɷȬȉɫʦʁʰʁɆȉɔɷȉˑɔʦʹȉɫˑʁȦȉȥʹɫȉʟ˘ʁɅɅʁʟɴʦेΤɔʦ˒ȉʦȉ˒ȉ˘ʁɅȥʁʰɏ ɅʁʟɴʹɫȉʰɔɷɆʰɏɔʦɔȬȲȉɫεɆʹʟȲȉɷȬȉɫʦʁʁɅȦʁɴɴɔʰʰɔɷɆɔʰʰʁɴȲɴʁʟ˘ʹɷʰɔɫॹ ɔɷ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦ˒ʁʟȬʦॹʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰɏȉʦɴȉȬȲআȉʦȲɫȲȦʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȥȲʦʰɫɔɴȥʦȉɷȬ ȥʁȬɔȲʦইȥʁʰɏɔɷʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲȉɷȬআ˒Ȳɫɫɔɷʰʁ˘ʁʹʟɴɔɷȬेই37 As we shall see, this idea – that with practice and experience, the perfect naked body could be conceived in the mind of the artist – was fundamental to the art theory of the sixteenth century, and in particular to the notion of artistic genius. Desire, Neoplatonism, and the Perfect Nude ΤɔʦȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʰȲʟɴআgarzoneȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦইɔʦɴɔʦɫȲȉȬɔɷɆूɔɷ ʰɏȉʰɔʰʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȲˑɔʦʹȉɫʟȲȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʁɅȉɷȉʟȥɔʰʟȉʟ˘ȥʁȬ˘ूȉɷ˘ʁɫȬȥʁȬ˘ ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰʦɏʁʹɫȬȉʰʰȲɴʜʰʰʁআȬʟȉ˒ȉʦʟȲȉɫɔʦʰɔȦȉɫɫ˘ȉʦʜʁʦʦɔȥɫȲेই34 Perhaps our view of Renaissance life drawing has been skewed by habits of viewing built up over the twentieth century: our way of seeing is indelibly ɔɴʜʟȲʦʦȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲȦȉɴȲʟȉȉɷȬʰɏȲɅʟȲȲˢȲɅʟȉɴȲेʹʜȲʟεȦɔȉɫɫ˘ूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲू *ȉȬ˒ȲȉʟȬgʹ˘ȥʟɔȬɆȲউʦȲȉʟɫ˘εɫɴȲ˗ʜȲʟɔɴȲɷʰʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɴȲɷȉɷȬ˒ʁɴȲɷ ɔɷȉȦʰɔʁɷ२εɆेࣀेࣆ३ɴȉ˘ʦȲȲɴʦɔɴɔɫȉʟʰʁʰɏȲʦɏɔδɔɷɆʜʁʦȲʦʁɅ<ɔɫɔʜʜɔɷʁউʦ ɴʁȬȲɫʦ२εɆेࣀेࢾࢽ३े35 But the intended relationship of each of these images ʰʁʰɔɴȲɔʦɅʹɷȬȉɴȲɷʰȉɫɫ˘ȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰेΤȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȉδȲʟʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɴʁȬȲɫɔɷ ȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲȉʟȲȬȲȦɔȬȲȬɫ˘ɷʁʰʰɏȲআʟȲʦɔȬʹȲʁɅʜȲʟɅʁʟɴȉɷȦȲʦूইʰʁ Fig. 3.10. Filippino Lippi, attr., Studies ǈ̼ǱɞlǱǈɞՒȶǈȥǱǫiǱȶ, c.1480–85. gȲʰȉɫʜʁɔɷʰȉɷȬ˒ɏɔʰȲɏȲɔɆɏʰȲɷɔɷɆʁɷ lilac prepared paper. Christ Church ɔȦʰʹʟȲ=ȉɫɫȲʟ˘ूåࣀࣀˑूs˗ɅʁʟȬे ΤȲȥɔʟʰɏʁɅʰɏȲʰɏȲʁʟ˘ȉɷȬʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲʁɅɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆɔɷʰɏȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ Renaissance workshop occurred in an intellectual context that was ɷȲ˒ɫ˘ɔɷʦʜɔʟȲȬȥ˘ɫȉʰʁউʦɔȬȲȉʦȉȥʁʹʰȥȲȉʹʰ˘ȉɷȬȬȲʦɔʟȲेgȉʟʦɔɫɔʁ<ɔȦɔɷʁ (1433–1499), who translated the works of Plato from Greek into Latin ȉʰʰɏȲȥȲɏȲʦʰʁɅʁʦɔɴʁȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔूɔʦʰɏȲɴʁʦʰʟȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ commentator on Platonic thought.38 Several scholars have pointed out how ʦʁɴȲʁɅ<ɔȦɔɷʁউʦȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʟɔȲʦʁɷɫȉʰʁɏȉˑȲȉɏɔɆɏɫ˘ȦɏȉʟɆȲȬȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲ towards male erotic attraction.39 Although Christian Platonism portrays ʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ȉʦȲʦʦȲɷʰɔȉɫɫ˘ȲɷʦɫȉˑɔɷɆʰɏȲʦʜɔʟɔʰूȉȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȥʁȬ˘ȦȉɷȲ̍ʹȉɫɫ˘ ȉȦʰȉʦȉɴȲȉɷʦʰʁȉɔȬʰɏȲʦʁʹɫউʦȉʦȦȲɷʰʰʁ˒ȉʟȬʦȬɔˑɔɷɔʰ˘ेȲȉʹʰ˘ɔʦʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫɫ˘ derived from God, so contemplating beauty, and the love this invokes, ɫȲȉȬʦʰɏȲʦʁʹɫʹʜ˒ȉʟȬʰʁ˒ȉʟȬ=ʁȬʁɷȦȲȉɆȉɔɷे<ɔȦɔɷʁউʦOn the Nature of LoveूɏɔʦȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʟ˘ʁɷɫȉʰʁউʦSymposium, is particularly interesting in this regard. It was written in 1469 and translated into Italian sometime before 1474. It seems to have circulated widely in manuscript even before the Latin version was printed in 1484.40 In this work, Ficino explains how beauty reaches Earth from God: ʰɏȲʟȉ˘०ʁɅȥȲȉʹʰ˘१ेेेȬȲʦȦȲɷȬʦεʟʦʰɅʟʁɴ=ʁȬूȉɷȬʜȉʦʦȲʦʰɏʟʁʹɆɏ the Angel and the Soul . . . and from the Soul it easily emanates into ʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ʜʟȲʜȉʟȲȬʰʁʟȲȦȲɔˑȲɔʰेΤȲɷɅʟʁɴȉʦɏȉʜȲɫ˘ȥʁȬ˘ɔʰʦɏɔɷȲʦ ʁʹʰेेेɔɴɴȲȬɔȉʰȲɫ˘ζɔȲʦʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏȲȉɔʟूȉɷȬʜȲɷȲʰʟȉʰɔɷɆʰɏȲȲ˘Ȳʦ of an older man, pierces his soul, and kindles his appetite . . . then 102 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 103 leads the wounded soul and the kindled appetite to their healing and cooling, respectively, while it carries them with it to the same place Ʌʟʁɴ˒ɏɔȦɏɔʰɏȉȬɔʰʦȲɫɅȬȲʦȦȲɷȬȲȬूʦʰȲʜॼȥ˘ॼʦʰȲʜूɔɷȬȲȲȬूεʟʦʰʰʁʰɏȲ body of the beloved, second to the Soul, third, to the Angel, and εɷȉɫɫ˘ʰʁ=ʁȬूʰɏȲεʟʦʰʁʟɔɆɔɷʁɅʰɏɔʦʦʜɫȲɷȬʁʟे41 ΤɔʦɔȬȲȉʁɅɆȉˢɔɷɆȉʰȉȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȥʁȬ˘ȉʦȉʦʰȉʟʰɔɷɆʜʁɔɷʰɅʁʟʦʜɔʟɔʰʹȉɫ ʰʟȉɷʦȦȲɷȬȲɷȦȲ˒ȉʦȲȦɏʁȲȬȉɷȬȦʟɔʰɔ̍ʹȲȬɔɷʦʹȥʦȲ̍ʹȲɷʰʰȲ˗ʰʦे<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁ ȉʰʰȉɷɔȬȉ$ɔȉȦȦȲʰʁूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूɔɷɏɔʦǈȶǱ̾ɞȓǥɀȶ`ɀʐǱ (published in Italian in 1526) explains that divine splendor remains in only very few ʜȲʁʜɫȲूȥʹʰʁȦȦȉʦɔʁɷȉɫɫ˘ʁɷȲȦȉɷʦȲȲʰʟʹȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘আɔɷʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷȥʁȬ˘ूȉɷȬ ȲʦʜȲȦɔȉɫɫ˘ɔɷʰɏȲɅȉȦȲेेेȉʰεʟʦʰʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟʦȉʟȲʁˑȲʟʰȉɦȲɷȥ˘ȉɷʹɷʹʦʹȉɫ ˒ʁɷȬȲʟूɴɔ˗ȲȬʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟ˒ɔʰɏȉ˒ȲेेेʰɏȲ˘ʟȲȦȲɔˑȲȉɷɔɷζʹ˗ʁɅȥȲȉʹʰ˘ through their eyes, suddenly completely changed, they sweat and burn. From here there starts to burn a passion which excites them marvelously ȉɷȬʟȉɔʦȲʦʰɏȲɴेই42=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔɔȦʁȬȲɫɫȉgɔʟȉɷȬʁɫȉɔɷɏɔʦ ɀȳȳǱȶʧǈɞʗ ɀȶǈɀǱȳɀȄȪǈɯɀȶȓǥ`ɀʐǱ२ȉδȲʟࢾࣁࣅࣃ३ʦɔɴɔɫȉʟɫ˘Ȳ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲεʟʦʰʁɅ ʦȲˑȲɷʦʰȲʜʦʰʁ˒ȉʟȬʦʰɏȲȬɔˑɔɷȲɔʦɅʁȦʹʦɔɷɆʁɷআʰɏȲʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅ Alciabiades or Phaedrus or some other outwardly pleasing body, it inclines ʰʁ˒ȉʟȬʦʰɏȉʰȉɷȬȬȲɫɔɆɏʰʦɔʰʦȲɫɅɔɷʰɏȉʰʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɅʁʟɴेই43 ΤȲȬȉɷɆȲʟʁɅȬȲɫɔɆɏʰɔɷɆɔɷʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫȥȲȉʹʰ˘ूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟू˒ȉʦɔʰʦʜʁʦʦɔȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʁɅ arousing the body as opposed to the spirit. Ficino goes on to explain: So great is the complete change that occurs in an older man who is inclined toward the likeness of youth that it makes him to want to ʰʟȉɷʦɅȲʟʰɏȲ˒ɏʁɫȲʁɅɏɔʦȥʁȬ˘ʰʁ०ʰɏȲ˘ʁʹɷɆɴȉɷ१ȉɷȬʰʁȬʟȉ˒ʰɏȲ whole of the youth into himself. . . . Hence they are driven together ʰʁȬʁɴȉɷ˘ȬɔʦɆʟȉȦȲɅʹɫʰɏɔɷɆʦे<ʁʟ˒ɏȲɷʰɏȲɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦȲɴȲɷζʁ˒ʦ Ȭʁ˒ɷʰɏȲ˒ɏʁɫȲȥʁȬ˘ूʰɏȲ˘ʰʟʹʦʰʰɏȉʰʁɷɫ˘ȥ˘ȲɣȉȦʹɫȉʰɔɷɆʁʟʟȲȦȲɔˑɔɷɆ this, they can surrender or receive the whole body.44 ɔɴɔɫȉʟɫ˘ूɔȦʁ˒ȉʟɷʦʰɏȉʰআJʰɔʦɷʁʰʜʟȉɔʦȲ˒ʁʟʰɏ˘ʰʁȬȲɫɔɆɏʰɔɷʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʁɅ a handsome youth unless you use it as a means of looking within yourself ȉʰʰɏȲʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷȉɷȬεʰʰɔɷɆ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȉʰεɆʹʟȲȉʜȉʟʰɅʟʁɴʰɏȉʰɆʟʁʦʦ ȉɷȬɴȉʰȲʟɔȉɫȥʁȬ˘ɔɷ˒ɏɔȦɏ˘ʁʹɏȉˑȲʦȲȲɷɔʰूই˒ɏɔɫȲ<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁȉʰʰȉɷɔȬȉ $ɔȉȦȦȲʰʁʁȥʦȲʟˑȲʦʰɏȉʰɫʁˑȲʟʦȉʟȲɫɔɦȲȥɔʟȬʦ˒ɏʁɏȉˑȲআȉɷȲ˗ȦȲʦʦɔˑȲȬȲʦɔʟȲ ʰʁζ˘ȥȲɅʁʟȲʰɏȲɔʟ˘ʁʹɷɆ˒ɔɷɆʦȦȉɷȥȲȉʟʰɏȲ˒ȲɔɆɏʰʁɅʰɏȲɔʟȥʁȬ˘ेेेʦʁ ʜɫʹɴɴȲʰʰʁʰɏȲɆʟʁʹɷȬेই45 104 ȦʁʟʜʁʟȲȉɫɫʁɷɆɔɷɆेɫʰɏʁʹɆɏʦȲ˗ʹȉɫȦʁɷʰȉȦʰȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷɴȉɫȲʦ˒ȉʦʁΪȦɔȉɫɫ˘ condemned, it is now well known that, in practice, sex between men was a relatively normal part of growing up in many Italian Renaissance ȦɔʰɔȲʦेΤȲεɆʹʟȲʦɅʁʟ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲȉʟȲʦʰʟɔɦɔɷɆे<ʟʁɴࢾࣁࣀࣁʰʁࢾࣂࢽࢿूȉʦɴȉɷ˘ as 17,000 individuals were accused of sodomy at least once, with 3,000 convicted, from a total population of around 40 to 50,000; in the later εδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ूʰɏȲɴȉɣʁʟɔʰ˘ʁɅɫʁȦȉɫɴȉɫȲʦ˒ȲʟȲɔɷȦʟɔɴɔɷȉʰȲȬȉʰɫȲȉʦʰ once for homosexual relations.46^ʁʟȲɷˢʁȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔউʦʟȲɆɔɴȲूʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ू was associated with a high tolerance of sodomy by his opponents – the ɏȉʟʦɏȲʦʰɫȉ˒ȉɆȉɔɷʦʰʰɏȲʦȲʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲʦȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘˒ȉʦʜȉʦʦȲȬ ɔɴɴȲȬɔȉʰȲɫ˘ȉδȲʟʰɏȲgȲȬɔȦɔȲ˗ʜʹɫʦɔʁɷʁɅࢾࣁࣆࣁूɔʰʦʜʟȲȉɴȥɫȲȦʁɷȬȲɴɷɔɷɆ আɏʁ˒ɴʹȦɏɔɷɣʹʦʰɔȦȲȉɷȬɫɔʰʰɫȲɅȲȉʟʁɅ=ʁȬʰɏȲʟȲɏȉʦȥȲȲɷɅʁʟʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲ concerning the repression and extinction of this vice because of the evil ɆʁˑȲʟɷɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲʜȉʦʰʟȲɆɔɴȲेই47 gʁʦʰʁɅʰɏȲɴȲɷɔɷˑʁɫˑȲȬɔɷʦʁȬʁɴ˘˒ȲʟȲʹɷȬȲʟʰɏȲʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷȉɫȉɆȲʁɅ marriage for Florentine males – around 30 years old – and there tended ʰʁȥȲȉȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɔȉʰɔʁɷɔɷʦȲ˗ʹȉɫʟʁɫȲʦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷ˘ʁʹʰɏʦूʰɏʁʦȲʹʜʰʁʰɏȲȉɆȲ ʁɅȉȥʁʹʰࢾࣅू˒ɏʁ˒ʁʹɫȬʰȉɦȲȉʜȉʦʦɔˑȲूআɅȲɴɔɷɔˢȲȬইʟʁɫȲूȉɷȬʰɏȲɔʟʁɫȬȲʟू dominant partners.48 Painters and sculptors seem to have been no more implicated in this behavior than other artisan groups; interestingly both Leonardo da Vinci and Botticelli were accused of sodomy (in 1476 and 1502 ʟȲʦʜȲȦʰɔˑȲɫ˘३ȉɷȬȥʁʰɏ˒ȲʟȲȉȦ̍ʹɔʰʰȲȬे49=ɔˑȲɷʁȦɦȲউʦεɷȬɔɷɆʦूɴʁʦʰȉʟʰ historians now are less concerned with the putative sexuality of individual ȉʟʰɔʦʰʦʰɏȉɷ˒ɔʰɏɏʁ˒ȉɴʁʟȲɆȲɷȲʟȉɫȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʁɅɴȉɫȲ्ɴȉɫȲȲʟʁʰɔȦɔʦɴɴȉ˘ ɏȉˑȲȉΦȲȦʰȲȬʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲʁȥɣȲȦʰʦʰɏȲ˘ɴȉȬȲे50 JʰȉɫɔȉɷȦʹɫʰʹʟȲȉʰʰɏɔʦʰɔɴȲʜʟɔˑɔɫȲɆȲȬʰɏȲ˘ʁʹʰɏɅʹɫɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ȉʦȉɷʁȥɣȲȦʰ ʁɅȬȲʦɔʟȲɔɷȉ˒ȉ˘ʰɏȉʰȦʁʹɫȬȲ̍ʹȉɫɫ˘ȥȲȉʦʰȉʟʰɔɷɆʜʁɔɷʰɅʁʟȉʦʜɔʟɔʰʹȉɫ ɣʁʹʟɷȲ˘ूʁʟȉʦʜʹʟʰʁʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫȦʁɷʦʹɴɴȉʰɔʁɷेΤȲȉȦʰʁɅɆȉˢɔɷɆȉʰʰɏȲ male body that life drawing implies – the hungry desire to incorporate ʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘উʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɔɷʰʁʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦɴɔɷȬȉɷȬɏȉɷȬॹȦʁʹɫȬȥȲʦȲȲɷȉʦ homoerotic in itself. However, this process is ennobled by the concept of ʰʟȉɷʦɅʁʟɴɔɷɆȉɷɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫȥʁȬ˘ॹ˒ɏɔȦɏूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫूɔʦʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʰʁ the corruption and degradation of time – into an ideal type. ΤȲʦȲʜȉʦʦȉɆȲʦʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬɔɷʰɏȲȦʁɷʰȲ˗ʰʁɅȉʦʁȦɔȲʰ˘ʰɏȉʰʜʟɔˢȲȬ strong bonds of friendship and love between men, and celebrated them ɔɷʜʁȲʰʟ˘ȉɷȬɫȲʰʰȲʟʦ˒ɏȲʟȲʦʜɔʟɔʰʹȉɫȬȲʦɔʟȲʁδȲɷʦȲȲɴʦʰʁȥȲɴȲʟɆȲȬ˒ɔʰɏ ΤȲʜʟʁȦȲʦʦȲʦʁɅɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆȉδȲʟʰɏȲɴʁȬȲɫʜȉʟȉɫɫȲɫʰɏȲɅʁʟɴʹɫȉʰɔʁɷʦ of love and desire that were articulated and debated in humanistic ȦɔʟȦɫȲʦɔɷʰɏȲ˒ȉɦȲʁɅ<ɔȦɔɷʁे^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦɔɷɣʹɷȦʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰʜʹʜɔɫʦʦɏʁʹɫȬ আȦʁʟʟȲȦʰইʰɏȲɔʟɔɷɔʰɔȉɫȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲूȉɷȬȲˑȲɷʰʹȉɫɫ˘ȥȲȉȥɫȲʰʁ draw without reference to a model, have close kinship with Giovanni Pico ȬȲɫɫȉgɔʟȉɷȬʁɫȉউʦȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲʦʰȲʜʦʰʁ˒ȉʟȬʦȬɔˑɔɷȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेδȲʟʰɏȲ εʟʦʰʦʰȲʜू˒ɏɔȦɏɔɷˑʁɫˑȲʦɆȉˢɔɷɆʹʜʁɷʰɏȲআʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɅʁʟɴইʁɅȉȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ ˘ʁʹʰɏूআʰɏȲʦȲȦʁɷȬʦʰȲʜɔʦʰȉɦȲɷ˒ɏȲɷʰɏȲʦʁʹɫʟȲɅȉʦɏɔʁɷʦɔɷɔʰʦȲɫɅʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲ ʟȲȦȲɔˑȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲȲ˘ȲʦेेेȉɷȬɴȉɦȲʦɔʰȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏʰɏȲɔȬȲȉɫȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेेेेΤȲ THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 105 third step is taken when by the light of the Active Intellect the soul . . . no longer pays attention to the particular image of a single body but to the ʹɷɔˑȲʟʦȉɫȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅȉɫɫȥʁȬɔȲʦʰȉɦȲɷʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟेইΤȲɅʁʹʟʰɏʦʰȲʜʦȲȲʦআʰɏȲ ɔɴȉɆȲʁɅʰɏȲɔȬȲȉɫȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेेेʰɏȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɔɴȉɆȲʁɅɏȲȉˑȲɷɫ˘ɫʁˑȲইȉɷȬȉʰ ɫȉʦʰʰɏȲআɏȲȉˑȲɷɫ˘ÁȲɷʹʦʦɏʁ˒ʦɏȲʟʦȲɫɅʰʁʰɏȲʦʁʹɫɔɷɏȲʟʰʟʹȲɆʹɔʦȲইȉʦʰɏȲ ʦʁʹɫʰʟɔȲʦʰʁʹɷɔʰȲɔʰʦɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʰʁʰɏȲআʜʟɔɴȉɫȉɷȬʹɷɔˑȲʟʦȉɫ०ʦʁʹɫ१ूʰɏȲ εʟʦʰȦʟȲȉʰȲȬʰɏɔɷɆूʰɏȲʹɫʰɔɴȉʰȲȉɷȬʹɷɔˑȲʟʦȉɫȬ˒ȲɫɫɔɷɆʁɅɔȬȲȉɫȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेই51 ΤȲjȲʁʜɫȉʰʁɷɔȦʦʰȲʜɅʟʁɴʰɏȲʁȥʦȲʟˑȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȉȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȲȉʟʰɏɫ˘ȥʁȬ˘ʰʁ mental refashionings that bring many beautiful forms together in order to approach divine creation is fundamentally the same pattern followed by contemporary Florentine artists. Indeed, the theoretical point of life drawing mirrored this Neoplatonic idea of ascent from the concrete example to the divine form; through the repeated study of naked male bodies, the artist eventually could break free of nature completely and create a perfected nude from their ɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔʁɷȉɫʁɷȲेΤɔʦ˒ȉʦʰʁȥȲȦʁɴȲȉȦʁɴɴʁɷʜɫȉȦȲɔɷʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼ ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉʟʰʰɏȲʁʟ˘ेȉʁɫʁ=ɔʁˑɔʁʟȲʜʁʟʰȲȬʰɏȉʰ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦʜʹʜɔɫʦ˒ȲʟȲू indeed, able to draw the nude body without observing a model.52ÂɏȲɷ Vasari discusses the nature of disegnoɔɷʰɏȲεʟʦʰʜȉʟʰʁɅɏɔʦࢾࣂࣃࣅȲȬɔʰɔʁɷ of the LivesूɏȲȉˑȲʟʦʰɏȉʰআȉȥʁˑȲȉɫɫूʰɏȲȥȲʦʰʰɏɔɷɆɔʦʰʁȬʟȉ˒ɴȲɷȉɷȬ ˒ʁɴȲɷɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɷʹȬȲȉɷȬʰɏʹʦε˗ɔɷʰɏȲɴȲɴʁʟ˘ȥ˘ȦʁɷʦʰȉɷʰȲ˗ȲʟȦɔʦȲ the muscles of the torso, back, legs, arms and knees, with the bones ʹɷȬȲʟɷȲȉʰɏेΤȲɷʁɷȲɴȉ˘ȥȲʦʹʟȲʰɏȉʰʰɏʟʁʹɆɏɴʹȦɏʦʰʹȬ˘ȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʦ ɔɷȉɷ˘ʜʁʦɔʰɔʁɷȦȉɷȥȲȬʟȉ˒ɷȥ˘ɏȲɫʜʁɅʰɏȲɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔʁɷ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰʁɷȲউʦ ɏȉˑɔɷɆʰɏȲɫɔˑɔɷɆɅʁʟɴʦɔɷˑɔȲ˒ेই53 Measured and Potent Mankind If the purpose of all these drawings was not to record a moment in time but to create an idealized, beautiful human form, how was this ɔȬȲȉɫɔˢȲȬɅʁʟɴȦʁɷȦȲɔˑȲȬɔɷʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȉɫʰȲʟɴʦैEʁ˒˒ʁʹɫȬʁɷȲʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲ ȉȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȥʁȬ˘ैΤȲɴʁʦʰɅȉɴʁʹʦȦȉɷʁɷʁɅɏʹɴȉɷʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷʦȬʹʟɔɷɆ the Renaissance was that put forward by the ancient Roman architectural theorist Vitruvius, in his Ten Books on Architecture. At the beginning of his third book, which discusses the correct design of temples, Vitruvius argues that buildings, like the human body, should be governed by measured proportional relationships – thus, for example, the length of the face (from the chin to the roots of the hair) is an eighth of the height of the entire ȥʁȬ˘ौʰɏȲɷȉˑȲɫɔʦʰɏȲɷȉʰʹʟȉɫȦȲɷʰȲʟूʦʁʰɏȉʰɔɅȉɴȉɷɫɔȲʦআʁɷɏɔʦȥȉȦɦ˒ɔʰɏ hands and feet outspread, and the center of a circle is placed on his navel, ɏɔʦεɆʹʟȲȉɷȬʰʁȲʦ˒ɔɫɫȥȲʰʁʹȦɏȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲȦɔʟȦʹɴɅȲʟȲɷȦȲेɫʦʁȉʦ̍ʹȉʟȲ˒ɔɫɫ ȥȲɅʁʹɷȬȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲȬ˒ɔʰɏɔɷʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲेेेɔɅ˒ȲɴȲȉʦʹʟȲɅʟʁɴʰɏȲʦʁɫȲʁɅ 106 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE the foot to the top of the head, and apply the measure to the outstretched ɏȉɷȬʦूʰɏȲȥʟȲȉȬʰɏ˒ɔɫɫȥȲɅʁʹɷȬȲ̍ʹȉɫʰʁʰɏȲɏȲɔɆɏʰेই54 He explains in the previous paragraph that the ancient painters and sculptures who used ʰɏȲʦȲʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷʦȬɔȬʦʁʰʁআɔɷεɷɔʰȲʜʟȉɔʦȲेই JʰɏȉʦȥȲȲɷʦȉɔȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲʁɅʰɏȲÁɔʰʟʹˑɔȉɷɴȉɷআɏȉʹɷʰȲȬ०ʰɏȲ१ ɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔʁɷইʁɅȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲȉʟȦɏɔʰȲȦʰʦे55 Some commentators believed that ʰɏɔʦȦȉɷʁɷʁɅʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷʦ˒ȉʦɦȲ˘ʰʁɏʁ˒ȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟʦȉɷȬʜȉɔɷʰȲʟʦ ȦʟȲȉʰȲȬʦʹȦɏʜʟȉɔʦȲ˒ʁʟʰɏ˘ɷʹȬȲʦेΤɔʦ˒ȉʦʰɏȲʁʜɔɷɔʁɷɔɷʰɏȲVitruvio ferrarese, an anonymous manuscript of about 1500 attributed to Giacomo Andrea da <ȲʟʟȉʟȉेJʰ˒ȉʦȉɫʦʁʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬȥ˘ȲʦȉʟȲȲʦȉʟɔȉɷʁू˒ɏʁूɔɷɏɔʦȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʟ˘ ʁɷɏɔʦʰʟȉɷʦɫȉʰɔʁɷʁ̎ÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦʁɅࢾࣂࢿࢾूɫɔʦʰȲȬʰɏʁʦȲɴʁȬȲʟɷʜȉɔɷʰȲʟʦȉɷȬ ʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟʦ˒ɏʁɏȉȬȉʰʰȲɴʜʰȲȬʰʁεɷȬʰɏȲআʦ˘ɴɴȲʰʟ˘ইʁɅʰɏȲȉɷȦɔȲɷʰʦʰɏʟʁʹɆɏ ʦʰʹȬ˘ɔɷɆȉɷȦɔȲɷʰʦʰȉʰʹȉʟ˘ॹʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɦʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁू=ɔʹɫɔʁʁɴȉɷʁू¢ʹɫɫɔʁ ^ʁɴȥȉʟȬʁूȉɷȬ=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔɷʰʁɷɔʁʁɫʰʟȉΪʁȉɴʁɷɆʁʰɏȲʟʦे56 ʁɴȲȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʰʁʟʦʰʁʁɦʹʜÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦউʦɴȲʰɏʁȬʁɅɴȲȉʦʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲ human body but disagreed with his conclusions. In his discussion of the proportion of columns in On the Art of Building (1452), Leon Battista Alberti explained that the appreciation of beauty was innate in all humans, who admired bodies the most when they tended towards the mean in terms of proportions.57 He was to expound upon this idea and its meaning for artistic practice in his little book On Sculpture, which is variously dated between the late 1430s and early 1460s.58 Here he explains ʰɏȉʰ˒ɏɔɫȲɏʹɴȉɷʦूʹɷɫɔɦȲȉɷɔɴȉɫʦूআˑȉʟ˘०ɔɷȉʜʜȲȉʟȉɷȦȲ१˒ɔʰɏʰɔɴȲेेे there is something else deeply embedded and inborn which remains always ȦʁɷʦʰȉɷʰȉɷȬʹɷȦɏȉɷɆȲȉȥɫȲɔɷʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʰʁʰɏȲʦʜȲȦɔȲʦेই59JʰɔʦʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟউʦ ʰȉʦɦʰʁεɷȬȉɷȬʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰʰɏȉʰʹɷȦɏȉɷɆȲȉȥɫȲ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘ेJɷ ʁʟȬȲʟʰʁȬʁʰɏɔʦूɫȥȲʟʰɔʦʹηȲʦʰʦȉ˒ʁʟɦɔɷɆɴȲʰɏʁȬȥȉʦȲȬʁɷʁȥʦȲʟˑȉʰɔʁɷ ʁɅɴȉɷ˘ɴʁȬȲɫʦेEȲ˒ȉʦɔɷʦʜɔʟȲȬूɏȲʦȉ˘ʦूȥ˘ʰɏȲʰȉɫȲʁɅÒȲʹ˗ɔʦȉɷȬʰɏȲ ɴȉɔȬȲɷʦʁɅʟʁʰʁɷ२ɦɷʁ˒ɷȦɏɔȲζ˘ɔɷʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɅʟʁɴɔȦȲʟʁউʦ Rhetoric), where the best of nature is combined in the mind of the artist to produce idealized beauty:60 I proceeded accordingly to measure and record in writing, not simply the beauty found in this or that body, but as far as possible, that ʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȥȲȉʹʰ˘ȬɔʦʰʟɔȥʹʰȲȬȥ˘jȉʰʹʟȲूȉʦɔʰ˒ȲʟȲɔɷε˗ȲȬʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷʦू ȉɴʁɷɆɴȉɷ˘ȥʁȬɔȲʦौȉɷȬɔɷȬʁɔɷɆʰɏɔʦJɔɴɔʰȉʰȲȬʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰ०ÒȲʹ˗ɔʦ१ at Croton who, when making the likeness of a goddess, chose all remarkable and elegant beauties of form from several of the most handsome maidens and translated them into his work. So we too chose many bodies, considered to be the most beautiful by those who know, and took from each and all their dimensions, which we then compared one with another, and leaving out of account the extremes ʁɷȥʁʰɏʦɔȬȲʦू˒ȲʰʁʁɦʰɏȲɴȲȉɷεɆʹʟȲʦे61 ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 107 ΤȲȲɷȬʁɅɏɔʦȥʁʁɦȦʁɷʦɔʦʰʦʁɅȉɷȲ˗ʰȲɷʦɔˑȲɫɔʦʰɔɷɆʁɅɴȲȉʦʹʟȲɴȲɷʰʦ ʁɅȥʁȬ˘ʜȉʟʰʦेɫȥȲʟʰɔউʦεɆʹʟȲʦȬɔΦȲʟɅʟʁɴʰɏʁʦȲʁ̎ÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦȉɷȬ ʜʟȲȬȲȦȲʦʦʁʟʦɫɔɦȲȲɷɷɔɷʁȲɷɷɔɷɔॹɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूɏȲʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ ɫȲɷɆʰɏʁɅʰɏȲɅȉȦȲʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲȲ̍ʹȉɫʰʁȉɷɔɷʰɏʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ȉʦȉ˒ɏʁɫȲȉʦ opposed to an eighth.62 Several other architects and scholars in the early to ɴɔȬॼûʹȉʰʰʟʁȦȲɷʰʁȉɫʦʁʟȲȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȲȬÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦউʦɔȬȲȉʦȉȥʁʹʰʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷू ʦʹȦɏȉʦgȉʟɔȉɷʁ¢ȉȦȦʁɫȉ२ȉɔȲɷȲʦȲȉʟȦɏɔʰȲȦʰ˒ʁʟɦɔɷɆɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣁࣀࢽʦ३ȉɷȬʰɏȲ ȉʟȦɏɔʰȲȦʰ<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁȬɔ=ɔʁʟɆɔʁgȉʟʰɔɷɔ२ࢾࣁࣀࣆॹࢾࣂࢽࢾ३े63 Commentators on ʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूʰʁʁू˒ȲʟȲɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȦȉɷʁɷʁɅʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷʦे Pomponio Gaurico, for example, in his De sculptura of 1504, echoes Alberti ɔɷȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷɔɷɆʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟআɴʹʦʰȦʁɷȦȲɔˑȲɔɷɏɔʦɴɔɷȬȉɷɔȬȲȉɫɅʁʟɴʁɅ ȉɫɫɏɔʦɴʁȬȲɫʦইौআɫʰɏʁʹɆɏʦʁɴȲɏȉˑȲʰȉɦȲɷʰɏȲȦʁʟʟȲȦʰɴȲȉʦʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲɏȲȉȬ ȉʦȉɷɔɷʰɏʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ूʁʰɏȲʟʦȉʦȉɷȲɔɆɏʰɏȉɷȬɴʁʟȲʟȉʟȲɫ˘ेेेȉʦȲˑȲɷʰɏूই ʰɏȲɴɔȬȬɫȲ˒ȉ˘ɔʦʰɏȲȥȲʦʰআȉʦʰɏȉʰɔʦɴʁʦʰɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɔɷʰɏȲɴȉɣʁʟɔʰ˘ʁɅ ɴȲɷेই64JʰɔʦɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰʰʁʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬʰɏȉʰɫȥȲʟʰɔউʦȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟʦউʦȲȉʟȦɏ for the mean through measurement was far more than a merely aesthetic ̍ʹȲʦʰौʟȉʰɏȲʟɔʰ˒ȉʦȬȲʦɔɆɷȲȬʰʁʟȲˑȲȉɫȉɷȉȥʦʁɫʹʰȲʰʟʹʰɏȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲɷȉʰʹʟȲ ʁɅɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘ेʦXȉɷȲɔɦȲɷʜʹʰʦɔʰूʰɏȲআɴȲȉɷूʰɏȲȉˑȲʟȉɆȲʁʟʰɏȲɷʁʟɴ ʰ˘ʜɔεȲʦɷʁʰʁɷɫ˘˒ɏȉʰȦʁɴɴʁɷɫ˘ʁȦȦʹʟʦूȥʹʰ˒ɏȉʰɔʦȲʦʦȲɷʰɔȉɫɫ˘ʰʟʹȲेই65 ɷʁʰɏȲʟ˒ʟɔʰȲʟʁɷȉʟȦɏɔʰȲȦʰʹʟȲू<ɔɫȉʟȲʰȲूɔʦɔɫɫʹɴɔɷȉʰɔɷɆुআʦȲˑȲʟ˘ʁɷȲ ɦɷʁ˒ʦूইɏȲȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬɔɷɏɔʦʰʟȲȉʰɔʦȲʁɅȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣁࣃࣁूআɴȉɷ˒ȉʦȦʟȲȉʰȲȬ by God; the soul, the intellect, the mind, and everything was produced ɔɷʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɔʁɷȥ˘EɔɴेইΤʹʦूʰɏȲεʟʦʰȉʟȦɏɔʰȲȦʰʦ˒ʁʹɫȬɏȉˑȲɴȲȉʦʹʟȲȬ ʰɏȲɔʟʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷʦɅʟʁɴȬȉɴूȉʦɏȲ˒ȉʦɴʁʟȲআɏȉɷȬʦʁɴȲȉɷȬȥȲʰʰȲʟ ʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷȲȬʰɏȉɷȉɷ˘ʁʰɏȲʟɴȉɷ˒ɏʁɏȉʦȲˑȲʟɫɔˑȲȬेই66ΤȲȉʟʰɔʦʰ˒ȉʦʰʁ become the vessel through which this perfection could be displayed and the perfect man remade. ΤȲɴʁʦʰɅȉɴʁʹʦʟȲʦʜʁɷʦȲʰʁÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦউʦʜȉʦʦȉɆȲ˒ȉʦȦʟȲȉʰȲȬʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲ in the late 1480s or early 1490s. ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁȬȉÁɔɷȦɔউʦȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲ Vitruvian Man२εɆेࣀेࢾࢾ३ȉȦʰʦȉʦȉȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʟ˘ȉɷȬȦʁʟʟȲȦʰɔˑȲʰʁʰɏȲʦȲȦʁɷȬ ʦȲȦʰɔʁɷʁ̎ÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦউʦʰȲ˗ʰȉɷȬʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲʦȲʰɔɷʰɏȲȦʁɷʰȲ˗ʰʁɅȉȥ˘ʰɏȲɷ well-established tradition.67ȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ɔʰɏȉʦȥȲȲɷȉʟɆʹȲȬʰɏȉʰ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦ drawing was intended as a frontispiece for a mooted printed edition of ɫȥȲʟʰɔউʦOn Sculpture, although this is far from certain; it has also been ʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬɔɷʦʰȲȉȬʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦ˒ȉʦȉʰ˘ʜȲʁɅআɅʹɆɔʰɔˑȲʦɏȲȲʰूইɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬ for circulation and discussion amongst learned circles.68 Certainly ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁʦȲȲɴʦʰʁɏȉˑȲʰȉɦȲɷʹʜɫȥȲʟʰɔউʦɔɷɣʹɷȦʰɔʁɷʰʁʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟʦɔɷ re-measuring a number of models to arrive at his own proportional relationships, making several proportion drawings in the year preceding the Vitruvius sheet.69 ΤȲɔȬȲȉʁɅȦʁɫɫȉʰɔɷɆɔɷɅʁʟɴȉʰɔʁɷʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʁȥʦȲʟˑȉʰɔʁɷȉɷȬɴȲȉʦʹʟȲɴȲɷʰ ʁɅɴȉɷ˘ɴʁȬȲɫʦɔɷʁʟȬȲʟʰʁεɷȬȉɷʁʟɴȦȉɷʦȲȲɴˑȲʟ˘ɴʁȬȲʟɷूȉʜʟȲȦʹʟʦʁʟ ʰʁʰɏȲʦȦɔȲɷʰɔεȦɴȲʰɏʁȬौɔɷɅȉȦʰूɴȲȉʦʹʟɔɷɆȉɷȬȦʁɴʜȉʟɔɷɆɷʁʟɴʦȉɷȬ 108 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 3.11. Leonardo da Vinci, Scheme of the Proportions of the Human Body, or Vitruvian Man, c.1490. Pen and ink with wash over metalpoint. =ȉɫɫȲʟɔȲȬȲɫɫউȦȦȉȬȲɴɔȉूÁȲɷɔȦȲे ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 109 Fig. 3.12. Cesare Cesariano, Vitruvian Man, 1521. Engraving. From Vitruvius, De architectura libri dece, book 3, fol. XLIX, Como. facial or bodily proportions to attain an agreed standard of beauty is still used in research in cosmetic plastic surgery – there are several academic ȉʟʰɔȦɫȲʦʟȲɫȉʰɔɷɆʰʁȦʁʦɴȲʰɔȦʦʹʟɆȲʟ˘ʰɏȉʰȬɔʦȦʹʦʦ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦVitruvian Man, for example.70 One could argue that the search for a standard body ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲʁɅɴȲȉʦʹʟȲɴȲɷʰ˒ȉʦȉʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰȦʁɷȦȲʜʰʹȉɫʦɏɔδूȉɷȬ a necessary preliminary for early anatomical investigation, as Renaissance ȉɷȉʰʁɴɔʦʰʦʦʁʹɆɏʰʰʁȲʦʰȉȥɫɔʦɏȉʦʰȉɷȬȉʟȬɔˢȲȬˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘উʦɔɷʰȲʟɔʁʟे Andreas Vesalius was to do this in his &ǱȎɸȳǈȶȓǥɀɞɛɀɞȓɥʦǈǤɞȓǥǈ of 1543 through close observation of many dissections, a method that Nancy Siraisi has shown owes much to the story of the maidens of Croton so beloved by Alberti and other Renaissance art theorists.71JɷɅȉȦʰ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦɔɷʰȲʟȲʦʰ in human proportion started around the same time as his anatomical investigations (the late 1480s), and the poses of some of his idealized nude males – fully frontal with arms outstretched, palms forward – are very similar to the way bodies are disposed in his contemporary anatomical illustrations.72JɅʰɏȲɆȲʟɴʦʁɅʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʁɅʰɏȲআɷʁʟɴইȉʟȲʰʁȥȲɅʁʹɷȬɔɷʰɏɔʦ Renaissance measuring, however, it was fueled by the aim to get closer to ʰɏȲȬɔˑɔɷȲेȦʹʟɔʁʹʦɅȲȉʰʹʟȲʁɅʦʁɴȲɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷʦʁ̎ÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦউʦȦȉɷʁɷʁɅ proportions around the turn of the sixteenth century speaks to the broader ʦ˘ɴȥʁɫɔȦ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʦȲɔɴȉɆȲʦूȉɷȬʰɏȲɫɔɷɦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷɴȉɫȲʜʁʰȲɷȦ˘ू imagination, and procreation. ɔʦȉɫʦʁȉʰʰɏȲȦȲɷʰȲʟʁ̎¢ȉȦȦʁɫȉউʦɴʹȦɏȲȉʟɫɔȲʟˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲÁɔʰʟʹˑɔȉɷ man – and it was to be repeated by other commentators, such as Cesare Ȳʦȉʟɔȉɷʁू˒ɏʁȦȲɷʰȲʟȲȬɏɔʦεʟʦʰɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȉɴȉɷ˒ɔʰɏɔɷȉʦ̍ʹȉʟȲʁɷ the genitals.74 <ɔɆेࣀेࢾࣀे२ȥȲɫʁ˒ɫȲδ३ Giacomo Andrea da Ferrara, Vitruvian Man, c.1500. Pen and ink on paper. From De Architectura, 78r, Biblioteca Ariostea, Ferrara. Fig. 3.14. (below right) Giovanni Battista Caporali, Vitruvian Man, 1536. Engraving. From Vitruvio Architettura in volgar lingua, p. 71, Perugia. Other early sixteenth-century artists gave their Vitruvian men erect penises.75<ʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूɔɷɏɔʦʦȲȦʁɷȬɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲʦʹȥɣȲȦʰूȲʦȉʟɔȉɷʁ follows the text in placing the navel as the center of both a circle and a ʦ̍ʹȉʟȲूȥʹʰɆɔˑȲʦɏɔʦɷȉɦȲȬɴȉɷȉʜʟʁɴɔɷȲɷʰȲʟȲȦʰʜȲɷɔʦूʜʁɔɷʰɔɷɆʦʰʟȉɔɆɏʰ ʹʜʰʁ˒ȉʟȬʦʰɏȲȦȲɷʰʟȉɫʜʁɔɷʰʁɅʰɏȲʦʰʁɴȉȦɏेEȲȉɫʦʁɆɔˑȲʦɏɔʦεɆʹʟȲ ɫʁɷɆ˒ȉˑ˘ɏȉɔʟूȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲ˒ɔʰɏɆȉʟɫȉɷȬʦʁɅɫȲȉˑȲʦȉɷȬȥȲʟʟɔȲʦ२εɆेࣀेࢾࢿ३े76 Cesariano himself avoids explaining this image in his commentary, instead ʟȲɅȲʟʟɔɷɆʟȲȉȬȲʟʦʰʁʰɏȲɷʁ˒ʟȉʰɏȲʟɴ˘ʦʰȲʟɔʁʹʦεɆʹʟȲʁɅɔȲʰʟʁȉʁɫʁ Segazone.77 Another illustration of a priapic Vitruvian man is found in the Vitruvio ferrareseूʰɏȲɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰȲȬɴȉɷʹʦȦʟɔʜʰʁ̎ÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦɅʟʁɴȉʟʁʹɷȬ ࢾࣂࢽࢽȉʰʰʟɔȥʹʰȲȬʰʁ=ɔȉȦʁɴʁɷȬʟȲȉȬȉ<Ȳʟʟȉʟȉे^ɔɦȲȲʦȉʟɔȉɷʁউʦȥʁʁɦू ɔʰɏȉʦʰ˒ʁɔɴȉɆȲʦʁ̎ÁɔʰʟʹˑɔȉɷɴȲɷेΤȲεʟʦʰɔʦˑȉɆʹȲɫ˘ȥȉʦȲȬʁɷʰɏȲ Apollo Belvedere and portrays a naked man with an erect penis alongside ȉʦȲʟɔȲʦʁɅʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷȉɫʟʹɫȲʦ२εɆेࣀेࢾࣀ३ेΤȲʦȲȦʁɷȬɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷूʁɅȉ ɴȉɷɔɷȉȦɔʟȦɫȲȉɷȬȉʦ̍ʹȉʟȲूɔʦȦȲɷʰȲʟȲȬʁɷʰɏȲɷȉˑȲɫूȉɷȬʟȲʦȲɴȥɫȲʦȉ ȦʟʹȦɔε˗ɔʁɷे78ΤȲࢾࣂࣀࣃJʰȉɫɔȉɷȲȬɔʰɔʁɷʁ̎Áɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦȥ˘=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔȉʰʰɔʦʰȉ ȉʜʁʟȉɫɔɔʦɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲȬȥ˘ȲʦȉʟɔȉɷʁȥʹʰɏȉʦɷȲ˒ɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷʦेEɔʦʦȲȦʁɷȬ ÁɔʰʟʹˑɔȉɷɴȉɷউʦȲʟȲȦʰɔʁɷɔʦȉʰȉɫȲʦʦˑȲʟʰɔȦȉɫȉɷɆɫȲȥʹʰɔʦɷȲˑȲʟʰɏȲɫȲʦʦɏɔɆɏɫ˘ ɷʁʰɔȦȲȉȥɫȲ२εɆेࣀेࢾࣁ३े79 sɷȲʁɅʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ʦʰɏȉʰ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦɴȉɷʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰɫ˘ȬɔΦȲʟʦɅʟʁɴÁɔʰʟʹˑɔʹʦউʦ ȬȲʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷɔʦɔɷʰȉɦɔɷɆʰ˒ʁȦȲɷʰȲʟʦɅʁʟɏɔʦȦɔʟȦɫȲȉɷȬʦ̍ʹȉʟȲूʰɏȲɷȉˑȲɫɅʁʟ ʰɏȲȦɔʟȦɫȲȉɷȬʰɏȲȥȉʦȲʁɅʰɏȲʜȲɷɔʦɅʁʟʰɏȲʦ̍ʹȉʟȲेEȲȉȬȬʦȉɫɔɷȲɔɷʰɏȲ ȉȦȦʁɴʜȉɷ˘ɔɷɆʰȲ˗ʰʰʁʰɏȲȲΦȲȦʰʰɏȉʰআʰɏȲˑɔʟɔɫȲɴȲɴȥȲʟʟɔʦȲʦ२nascie) in ʰɏȲȦȲɷʰȲʟʁɅɴȉɷेই73ΤɔʦɔʦɷʁʰȉɷɔɷɷʁˑȉʰɔʁɷʁɅ^ȲʁɷȉʟȬʁউʦॹʰɏȲʜȲɷɔʦ 110 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 111 ȲɷȲȬȲʰʰɔউʦ˒ȉʦɅȉʟɅʟʁɴʰɏȲʁɷɫ˘ʰʟȲȉʰɔʦȲʰɏȉʰȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲȬʦȲɴȲɷ˒ɔʰɏ ȦʟȲȉʰɔˑɔʰ˘ेΤȲ=ʟȲȲɦʜɏ˘ʦɔȦɔȉɷ=ȉɫȲɷू˒ɏʁʦȲ˒ʁʟɦʟȲȦȲɔˑȲȬɔɷȦʟȲȉʦɔɷɆ ȉʰʰȲɷʰɔʁɷɅʟʁɴȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣂࢽࢽूȉʦʦȲʟʰȲȬʰɏȉʰɴȲɷউʦʦȲɴȲɷʜʟʁˑɔȬȲʦʰɏȲ ȦʟȲȉʰɔˑȲʦʜȉʟɦʰɏȉʰʦɏȉʜȲʦʰɏȲɴȉʰʰȲʟʁɅȉȦɏɔɫȬुআJɷʰɏȲʦȉɴȲ˒ȉ˘०ʰɏȲ ʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟ१ɏɔȬɔȉʦʜʁʦʦȲʦʦȲȬʰɏȲɅȉȦʹɫʰɔȲʦʁɅɏɔʦȉʟʰȥȲɅʁʟȲʰʁʹȦɏɔɷɆʰɏȲ ɴȉʰȲʟɔȉɫेेेʦʁɔʰɔʦ˒ɔʰɏʦȲɴȲɷेই86 How are we to account for this insistence on the erect penis as a central ȦʁɴʜʁɷȲɷʰʁɅʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘ै<ʁʟʦʁɴȲȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʰʁʟʦूȲˑȲɷɴȲɷʰɔʁɷʁɅ the penis was shameful. Pomponio Gaurico, for example, reprimands those who have measured the penis as part of the canon of proportions, which, ȉɫʁɷɆ˒ɔʰɏআʰɏȲʹɆɫ˘Ȧȉˑɔʰ˘Ʌʟʁɴ˒ɏɔȦɏȉɫɫȲ˗ɔʰूইɔʦȬɔʦɴɔʦʦȲȬȉʦʁȥʦȦȲɷȲ ȉɷȬআȉɷ˘˒ȉ˘ूȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦɴʁȬȲʦʰɫ˘ɏɔȬȬȲɷूȲ˗ȦȲʜʰȥ˘ȥʁ˘ʦेই80ΤɔʦȦʁɴɴȲɷʰू ʁɅȦʁʹʟʦȲू˒ʁʹɫȬʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰʦʁɴȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟʦ˒ȲʟȲूɔɷȬȲȲȬूɴȲȉʦʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲ penis and including it in their canon of proportions. Cennino Cennini ʟȲȦʁɴɴȲɷȬʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʜȲɷɔʦʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬআʁɅȉɫȲɷɆʰɏʰɏȉʰȦȉɷɆɔˑȲ ʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲʰʁ˒ʁɴȲɷूই˒ɏȲʟȲȉʦʰȲʦʰɔȦɫȲʦʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲআʦɴȉɫɫू˒ȲɫɫɅʁʟɴȲȬȉɷȬ ɅʟȲʦɏॼɫʁʁɦɔɷɆेই81 Perhaps not surprisingly, given Renaissance notions of decorum, there is no mention anywhere in the written sources of the depiction of erect penises. Instead we have to look at broader notions of artistic creativity and masculine potency to show how what may seem a mere curiosity in fact betrays a widely held cultural assumption. ΤȲȉȦʰʁɅȦʟȲȉʰɔɷɆεɆʹʟȲʦʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʁʟʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲȥȲȦʁɴȲʦ ɔɷȲ˗ʰʟɔȦȉȥɫ˘ɫɔɷɦȲȬɔɷʰɏȲɫȉʰȲʟεδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦ˒ɔʰɏʦȲ˗ʹȉɫ ɆȲɷȲʟȉʰɔʁɷȉɷȬʰɏȲʜʁ˒ȲʟʁɅʰɏȲɴȉɫȲʦȲȲȬʰʁʦɏȉʜȲʰɏȲɅȲʰʹʦेΤȲɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰ ʜȉɔɷʰȲʟʦউ˒ʁʟɦʦ˒ȲʟȲȉɦɔɷʰʁȦɏɔɫȬʟȲɷ˒ȉʦȉˑȲʟ˘ʁɫȬʁɷȲॹʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȉʦȉ˒Ȳɫɫॼ ɦɷʁ˒ɷɣʁɦȲȉȥʁʹʰ=ɔʁʰʰʁউʦȦɏɔɫȬʟȲɷȥȲɔɷɆʹɆɫ˘ȥȲȦȉʹʦȲɏȲȦʟȲȉʰȲȬʰɏȲɴআȥ˘ ɷɔɆɏʰইȉɷȬɏɔʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦআȥ˘Ȭȉ˘ूইȥʁʟʟʁ˒ȲȬɅʟʁɴʰɏȲεδɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʁɴȉɷ ˒ʟɔʰȲʟgȉȦʟʁȥɔʹʦȉɷȬ˒ɔȬȲɫ˘ȦɔʟȦʹɫȉʰȲȬɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɅʁʹʟʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ onwards.82Eʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɫȉʰȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʁɷ˒ȉʟȬʦूʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰ painting is akin to progeny became increasingly important, and should be looked at in the light of understanding of procreation. Fig. 3.15. Botticelli, Birth of Venus, c.1484. Tempera on panel. Galleria degli ©Ϊˢɔू<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲे ΤȲʦȲɔȬȲȉʦεɫʰȲʟȲȬɔɷʰʁȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ˒ʟɔʰɔɷɆʦू˒ɏɔȦɏʦʰȉʟʰȲȬɔɷȦʟȲȉʦɔɷɆɫ˘ to use metaphors of reproduction about painters and their works, with terms like partorito, nato, and concetto (gave birth, born, and conceived) ʹʦȲȬɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ȉʦɴȲʰȉʜɏʁʟʦɅʁʟȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦȦʟȲȉʰɔˑɔʰ˘ौɔȬȲȉʦूȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆ ʰʁ<ɔȦɔɷʁूȉʟȲʰɏȲআʁΦʦʜʟɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲʦʁʹɫेই87ΤȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦɴɔɷȬȥȲȦȉɴȲ like a womb where sensory impressions and fantasy come together, আɅȲʟʰɔɫɔʦȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲȦʟȲȉʰɔˑȲɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔʁɷȉɷȬʦɏȉʜȲȬȥ˘ʟȲȉʦʁɷȉɷȬȦʟɔʰɔȦȉɫ ɣʹȬɆȲɴȲɷʰूইɔɷ<ʟȲȬʟɔɦȉXȉȦʁȥʦউʦ˒ʁʟȬʦूȥȲɅʁʟȲεɷȉɫɫ˘ɆɔˑɔɷɆȥɔʟʰɏʰʁ the work of art.88ΤɔʦɔȬȲȉɔʦȦʟʹȦɔȉɫʰʁʰɏȲȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁɅɷʁʰɔʁɷʦʁɅ ȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɆȲɷɔʹʦे¢ʁʟȲˑɔʦɔʰ^ɔɷȬȉjʁȦɏɫɔɷউʦࢾࣆࣄࢾ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷআÂɏ˘ɏȉˑȲʰɏȲʟȲ ȥȲȲɷɷʁɆʟȲȉʰ˒ʁɴȲɷȉʟʰɔʦʰʦैই˒ȲȦʁʹɫȬȉɷʦ˒ȲʟʰɏȉʰूɅʁʟʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲ thinker, this is fundamentally because women do not produce semen, the physical analogue to the creative power of the mind.89ΤɔʦȲɫɔʦɔʁɷʁɅ a kind of (literally) thrusting masculinity with artistic genius underlies the way many scholars speak about the creativity of the Renaissance EʹɴʁʟȉɫʰɏȲʁʟ˘˒ȉʦʰɏȲȥȉʦɔʦʁɅʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅʦȲ˗ʹȉɫȬɔΦȲʟȲɷȦȲɔɷʜʟȲॼ ɴʁȬȲʟɷ*ʹʟʁʜȲेgȲɷ˒ȲʟȲʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʰʁȥȲɷȉʰʹʟȉɫɫ˘আɏʁʰʰȲʟইʰɏȉɷ˒ʁɴȲɷू who were female precisely because they had colder and wetter humors.83 ΤɔʦɏȲȉʰɴȉȬȲɴȲɷɴʁʟȲɅʁʟȦȲɅʹɫȉɷȬȉȦʰɔˑȲूȉɷȬȉΦȲȦʰȲȬʜʟʁȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷ ʰʁʁेsʜɔɷɔʁɷʦȬɔΦȲʟȲȬȉʦʰʁ˒ɏȲʰɏȲʟ˒ʁɴȲɷȉȦʰʹȉɫɫ˘ʜʟʁˑɔȬȲȬআʦȲȲȬই from which the fetus was formed or not, but it was generally agreed that women provided the substance for new life, while men provided the form ȉɷȬʰɏȲʦʁʹɫेΤȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲɷʹɴȲʟʁʹʦɴȲʰȉʜɏʁʟʦɔɷʰɏȲɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲȦʁɷȦȲʟɷɔɷɆ generation, current throughout the early modern period, that likened the blood of the womb to wax to be molded, metal to be beaten to shape, wood to be carved, or stone to be sculpted.84 Patricia Simons has recently shown how crucial the emission of seed was ɅʁʟʰɏȲȬȲεɷɔʰɔʁɷʁɅɴȉʦȦʹɫɔɷɔʰ˘ɔɷȲȉʟɫ˘ɴʁȬȲʟɷ*ʹʟʁʜȲेgȉɫȲʦȲȲȬ˒ȉʦ ʜʁ˒ȲʟɅʹɫʦʰʹΦूȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬɫȲʦʦȉɷȬʟʁȲɷȲȬȲʰʰɔɔɷɏɔʦHistory of the Human BodyʁɅȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣁࣆࣄेJʰɆȲɷȲʟȉʰȲȬȉআɏȲȉʰȲɷȬʁ˒ȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʦʹȦɏʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫȉɷȬ ȲɷȲʟɆ˘ইʰɏȉʰɔʰȦʟȲȉʰȲȬʰɏȲȲɷʰɔʟȲȥʁȬ˘ॹɫɔɦȲȉʜȉɔɷʰȲʟूɏȲȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʦूʰʟȉȦɔɷɆ ʰɏȲʁʹʰɫɔɷȲʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ɔɷʦȲɴɔɷȉɫζʹɔȬे85ΤɔʦɴȲʰȉʜɏʁʟɔʦʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰȉɷȬ 112 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 113 ȉʟʰɔʦʰुɔɷȉʟȲȦȲɷʰȉʟʰɔȦɫȲɔʰɔʦȉʟɆʹȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲআʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔʁɷইʁɅʰɏȲ আʰȲʦʰʁʦʰȲʟʁɷȲॼʦȦȲɷʰȲȬইȉʜɏȉȲɫ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜȬʟʁˑȲʰɏȲȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁɅ High Renaissance art.90ÂȲʦɏʁʹɫȬʦʰȲʜȥȉȦɦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲȲɷʰɏʹʦɔȉʦʰɔȦȲɫɔʦɔʁɷ of semen with the creative impulse and understand this as a piece of ɏɔɆɏɫ˘ɔɷζʹȲɷʰɔȉɫʟɏȲʰʁʟɔȦʟȉʰɏȲʟʰɏȉɷʰɏȲʟȲζȲȦʰɔʁɷʁɅআɷȉʰʹʟȉɫইȬʟɔˑȲʦू particularly when one acknowledges the innovations of female painters in ʰɏɔʦʜȲʟɔʁȬȬȲʦʜɔʰȲʰɏȲʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷʰȦʹɫʰʹʟȉɫȥȉʟʟɔȲʟʦʰɏȉʰɏɔɷȬȲʟȲȬʰɏȲɴे Fig. 3.16. ɆʁʦʰɔɷʁÁȲɷȲˢɔȉɷʁूȉʰʰʟेूȉδȲʟ gȉʟȦȉɷʰʁɷɔʁȉɔɴʁɷȬɔȉɷȬ=ɔʹɫɔʁ Romano, Fragments from I modi, cेࢾࣂࢿࢽे*ɷɆʟȉˑɔɷɆेʟɔʰɔʦɏgʹʦȲʹɴू London, 1972, U.1306–1314. ɔɴʁɷʦউʦʦʰȉʟʰɫɔɷɆȥʹʰʜȲʟʦʹȉʦɔˑȲȉɷȉɫ˘ʦɔʦʁɅʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦBirth of Venus of cेࢾࣁࣅࢿॹࣂ२εɆेࣀेࢾࣂ३ूɴȉȬȲɅʁʟ^ʁʟȲɷˢʁȬɔɔȲʟɅʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔूʦɏʁ˒ʦ ɏʁ˒ʰɏɔʦȦʁɴɴʁɷʜɫȉȦȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʜɏ˘ʦɔʁɫʁɆ˘ɴȉ˘ɏȉˑȲɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲȬɏʁ˒ ȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʦʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʜʟʁȦȲʦʦेÂɏȲɷʰɏȲʦɦ˘ɆʁȬ ©ʟȉɷʹʦ˒ȉʦȦȉʦʰʟȉʰȲȬȥ˘ɏɔʦʦʁɷZʟʁɷʁʦूɏɔʦʰȲʦʰɔȦɫȲʦ˒ȲʟȲζʹɷɆɔɷʰʁʰɏȲ ʦȲȉेΤȲɅʁȉɴʰɏʹʦɆȲɷȲʟȉʰȲȬɆȉˑȲȥɔʟʰɏʰʁʰɏȲɆʁȬȬȲʦʦÁȲɷʹʦू˒ɏʁ˒ȲʦȲȲ ɔɷʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆȲɴȲʟɆɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬʁɷɏȲʟʦȦȉɫɫʁʜʦɏȲɫɫɅʟʁɴʰɏȲ˒ȉˑȲʦे Here the meticulously painted foam-tipped waves of the sea refer both to ©ʟȉɷʹʦউʦʦȲɴȲɷȉɷȬȉɫʦʁʰʁʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦʁ˒ɷȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁȦʟȲȉʰȲॹʰʁɆɔˑȲȥɔʟʰɏ to – images.91 Venus, though a goddess, shared with all humans the fact that she was born naked, so the ability to portray a perfected nude human ɏȲʟȲɔʦȉʰȲʦʰȉɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲɴȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲʜʁ˒ȲʟʁɅʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦȦʟȲȉʰɔˑɔʰ˘े ʹʜʜʁʟʰɔɷɆɔɴʁɷʦউʦɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȉʰɔʁɷɔʦʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɏȉȥɔʰʁɅʹʦɔɷɆ ʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦȥʟʹʦɏ२pennello) as a metaphor for penis (pene), each being an ʁȥɣȲȦʰʁɅɆȲɷȲʟȉʰɔʁɷॹʰɏɔʦȬȉʰȲʦȥȉȦɦʰʁɔȦȲʟʁूɔɅɷʁʰȲȉʟɫɔȲʟूȉɷȬ˒ȉʦ enthusiastically revived in the Renaissance.92 Two Florentine carnival ʜʁȲɴʦूʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ȬȉʰɔɷɆɅʟʁɴȉʟʁʹɷȬʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʜȲʟɔʁȬȉʦʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦ ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆूȥʁʰɏʦȉɫȉȦɔʁʹʦɫ˘ȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲʰɏȲɫȉʟɆȲʦɔˢȲʁɅʜȉɔɷʰȲʟউʦȥʟʹʦɏȲʦȉɷȬ their creative powers.93ΤȲʟȲ˒ȉʦȉɫʦʁȉɷɔɷʦʰȉɷȦȲʁɅʰɏɔʦɔɷʰɏȲʜʁȲɴ written about the frescos by Romanino in the Palazzo del Buonconsiglio in Trent, discussed in the previous chapter. Here the poet-physician ɔȲʰʟʁɷȬʟȲȉgȉʰʰɔʁɫɔȲɷȬʦɏɔʦȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɅʟȲʦȦʁʦ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɫɔɷȲʦ আɏȲȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬȲˑȲʟ˘ʰɏɔɷɆ˒ɔʰɏɆʟȲȉʰɔɷɆȲɷʹɔʰ˘ूȉɷȬʦɏʁ˒ȲȬʰɏȉʰ˒ɔʰɏɏɔʦ ȬɔˑɔɷȲȥʟʹʦɏɏȲ˒ȉʦȉɫʦʁȉȥɫȲʰʁȦʟȲȉʰȲȉɷȬȬȲʦʰʟʁ˘ইुʰɏȲʜɫȉ˘ʁɷȦʟȲȉʰɔˑȲ sexuality is clear.94Xʹʦʰȉ˘ȲȉʟȥȲɅʁʟȲgȉʰʰɔʁɫɔʜʹȥɫɔʦɏȲȬʰɏɔʦȬȲʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷू the Florentine painter Bronzino wrote what is possibly the most famous Ȳ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʁɅʰɏȲȥʟʹʦɏ्ʜȲɷɔʦȲɫɔʦɔʁɷɔɷȉʜʁȲɴʁɅࢾࣂࣀࣅूDel pennelloेδȲʟ ȬȲʦȦʟɔȥɔɷɆȉʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʁɅȉɷȉɦȲȬɴȉɷȉɷȬ˒ʁɴȉɷɔɷȉআʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȉȥɫȲȉȦʰইɏȲ ȉʦɦʦूআ˒ɏʁȬʁȲʦɷʁʰʰȉɦȲʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲɔɷȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔɷɆʰɏȲʰɏɔɷɆʦʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦpennello ेेेȥʟɔɷɆʦʰʁɫɔɅȲই˒ɔʰɏɔʰʦȲɴɔʦʦɔʁɷʦʁɅʜȉɔɷʰॹȉɷȲȉʰʟȲˑȲʟʦȉɫʁɅȲɷȲȬȲʰʰɔউʦ metaphor of the fetus being painted with semen.95 114 ʜʟʁʁɅʁɅʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦআɅȲʟʰɔɫȲইɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔʁɷेJɷʟʁɷˢɔɷʁউʦʜʁȲɴूʰɏɔʦȉɴʁʹɷʰʦ to a variety of positions for sex. Bette Talvacchia is surely correct in seeing an allusion here to the most famous representation of sexual positions in the Renaissance, the series of engravings called I modi (̨Ǳɀɥȓɯȓɀȶɥ), ȦʟȲȉʰȲȬȥ˘gȉʟȦȉɷʰʁɷɔʁȉɔɴʁɷȬɔɔɷࢾࣂࢿࣁȉδȲʟʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȥ˘ =ɔʹɫɔʁʁɴȉɷʁूȥʁʰɏɦȲ˘εɆʹʟȲʦɔɷȉʜɏȉȲɫউʦ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜेʁɴȉɷʁɴȉȬȲ a series of 16 drawings of men and women having sex in various positions that circulated in Rome in the early 1520s – none of which survive. In 1524, Raimondi made a set of engravings based on these drawings, which created something of an uproar; the engraver was imprisoned and the ʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫɔɴȉɆȲʦ˒ȲʟȲȬȲʦʰʟʁ˘ȲȬे=ɔʹɫɔʁζȲȬʰʁgȉɷʰʹȉू˒ɏȲʟȲूȉʦJȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔɷ ɏȉʜʰȲʟ<ɔˑȲूɏȲ˒ʁʟɦȲȬɅʁʟgȉʟ̍ʹɔʦ<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉे96 In these poems, the artistic imagination – and particularly the ability to imagine and depict the naked bodies of men and women – is directly ȉɷȉɫʁɆʁʹʦʰʁʰɏȲʜʟʁȦʟȲȉʰɔˑȲʜʟʁȦȲʦʦेʁʰɏʟʁɷˢɔɷʁȉɷȬgȉʰʰɔʁɫɔȲɴʜɏȉʦɔˢȲ variety, a key aim in Renaissance art theory from Alberti onwards, and JʰʦȲȲɴʦɫɔɦȲɫ˘ʰɏȉʰ˒ȲȬʁɷʁʰɏȉˑȲȉɷ˘ʰɏɔɷɆɫȲδʁɅʰɏȲʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫI modi engravings. Remaining is a handful of copies by Agostino Veneziano, ɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆɅʟȉɆɴȲɷʰʦɔɷʰɏȲʟɔʰɔʦɏgʹʦȲʹɴ२εɆेࣀेࢾࣃ३े97=ɔʹɫɔʁʁɴȉɷʁউʦ ȬȲʦɔɆɷʦ˒ȲʟȲɷʁʰɫʁʦʰʰʁʜʁʦʰȲʟɔʰ˘ूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूȉʦʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲ̍ʹɔȦɦɫ˘ȦʁʜɔȲȬɔɷ woodcut form and printed as a book with accompanying sonnets by Pietro Aretino; a 1550 edition survives today.98 Talvacchia convincingly makes the case that because Romano managed to escape with no punishment, ɔʰ˒ȉʦɷʁʰʰɏȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦʰɏȉʰȦȉʹʦȲȬʁΦȲɷȦȲȥʹʰʟȉʰɏȲʟʰɏȲ ȬɔʦʦȲɴɔɷȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɴɔɷʰʁʰɏȲʜʹȥɫɔȦʟȲȉɫɴेΤʹʦ˒ɏȉʰ˒ȉʦʜʟʁȥɫȲɴȉʰɔȦ was the public context for these sexual images, and the concomitant lack of control of their audience, rather than the images themselves.99 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 115 Fig. 3.17. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूɔʦʰɔɷȲɏȉʜȲɫȦȲɔɫɔɷɆू 1508–12. Fresco. Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome. ɫȲ˗ȉɷȬȲʟjȉɆȲɫɏȉʦʜʁɔɷʰȲȬʁʹʰʰɏȉʰ=ɔʹɫɔʁʁɴȉɷʁউʦȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦॹ responses to sexualized classical images, playing on the notion of variety, and the method of life drawing from a live model in a variety of poses ॹʦɏȉʟȲɴȉɷ˘̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦ˒ɔʰɏgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɴȲɷɔɷȉ variety of poses on the Sistine Chapel ceiling, the ignudi, and indeed could ȥȲʦȲȲɷȉʦȉ˒ɔʰʰ˘ूɔɅʦȦʹʟʟɔɫʁʹʦूʟȲʦʜʁɷʦȲʰʁgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦ˒ʁʟɦे100Τɔʦ ʦɏʁʹɫȬȦʁɴȲȉʦɷʁʦʹʟʜʟɔʦȲुʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆɔʦȲΦȲȦʰɔˑȲɫ˘ȉȬȲȦɫȉʟȉʰɔʁɷ about the parallel workings of artistic and divine creativity. I modi simply takes the notion of visual art being akin to masculine procreativity to its logical extreme. The Sistine Ceiling and (Pro)Creation gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦɅʟȲʦȦʁʦʁɷʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲɏȉʜȲɫȦȲɔɫɔɷɆ२ࢾࣂࢽࣅॹࢾࢿूεɆेࣀेࢾࣄ३ȉʟȲ generally understood as a watershed in the history of art, and it is true that their importance in the history of the nude form can hardly be overstated. <ʁʟÁȉʦȉʟɔू˒ʟɔʰɔɷɆȉɫɴʁʦʰࣁࢽ˘ȲȉʟʦɫȉʰȲʟूʰɏȲɅʟȲʦȦʁʦ˒ȲʟȲȉআɫȉɷʰȲʟɷɅʁʟ ʁʹʟȉʟʰेेेʦʹΪȦɔȲɷʰʰʁɔɫɫʹɴɔɷȉʰȲʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɫȬू˒ɏɔȦɏɏȉȬʟȲɴȉɔɷȲȬɔɷ ȬȉʟɦɷȲʦʦɅʁʟɏʹɷȬʟȲȬʦʁɅ˘Ȳȉʟʦेই101ΤȲɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷȦȲʁɅʰɏȲȦɏȉʜȲɫɔʦɫɔɷɦȲȬ ʰʁɔʰʦȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲेΤȲɔʦʰɔɷȲɏȉʜȲɫ˒ȉʦȥʹɔɫʰȥ˘ʁʜȲɔ˗ʰʹʦJÁȉʦȉɷ appropriate location for the papal court to hear mass and listen to sermons ȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷȬˑȲɷʰ२Ȳȉʟɫ˘$ȲȦȲɴȥȲʟ३ȉɷȬȲɷʰȲȦʁʦʰ२ɫȉʰȲgȉ˘ʁʟȲȉʟɫ˘XʹɷȲ३े ÁɔʦɔʰɔɷɆȉɷȬɫʁȦȉɫȬɔɆɷɔʰȉʟɔȲʦȉɫʦʁɣʁɔɷȲȬʰɏȲʜȉʜȉɫȦʁʹʟʰʁɷʦʁɴȲʁɅʰɏȲʦȲ occasions, and occasionally the chapel was opened up to a wider audience. It was (and still is) a place where cardinals would stay while they decided ʹʜʁɷʰɏȲɷȲ˗ʰȦȉɷȬɔȬȉʰȲɅʁʟʰɏȲʜȉʜȉȦ˘ेΤȲȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲɅʁʟʰɏȲȦɏȉʜȲɫ was almost entirely male, and in the main highly educated.102ΤȲ˘ȉɫʦʁ typically hailed from outside Rome and were, as I discuss in Chapter Five, sometimes wealthy enough to replicate the new kind of artistic style they admired in Rome in their home cities. ΤȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅʰɏȲȦʁɴɴɔʦʦɔʁɷȉɷȬʰɏȲʜʟʁɆʟȲʦʦʁɅʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲ ȦȲɔɫɔɷɆɔʦ˒Ȳɫɫɦɷʁ˒ɷूʦʁJ˒ɔɫɫʁɷɫ˘ȥʟɔȲζ˘ʟȲɏȲȉʟʦȲɔʰɏȲʟȲे*ȉʟɫ˘Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦ ȉɷȬȉɫȉʰȲʟɫȲʰʰȲʟʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰɔɷɔʰɔȉɫʜɫȉɷʦɅʁʟʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆ were relatively modest – the Twelve Apostles, seated in thrones in the spandrels of the vault (the triangular areas between the windows that now house the Prophets and Sibyls). Probably because Pope Julius II was keen on a grander scheme, the plan soon became much more complex, as we see today.103ΤȲȦȲɷʰʟȉɫʟȲȦʰȉɷɆʹɫȉʟɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲʦȦȲɷȲʦʦɏʁ˒ʰɏȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅ=ȲɷȲʦɔʦ Ʌʟʁɴ=ʁȬউʦʦȲʜȉʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɫɔɆɏʰȉɷȬȬȉʟɦɷȲʦʦʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰʁʰɏȲȬɔʦȦʁˑȲʟ˘ʁɅ the naked, drunk Noah by his sons (1.1–9.29). Alternate narrative scenes ȉʟȲȲɷȦɫʁʦȲȬȥ˘ɅʁʹʟɷʹȬȲɴȉɫȲεɆʹʟȲʦ२ɷʁʟɴȉɫɫ˘ȦȉɫɫȲȬignudiȉδȲʟÁȉʦȉʟɔউʦ ʰȲʟɴ३ूȲȉȦɏʦʹʜʜʁʟʰɔɷɆȉɴȲȬȉɫȉɷȬʁδȲɷʟȲʦʰɔɷɆʁɷʦ˒ȉɆʦʁɅȉȦʁʟɷʦȉɷȬ 116 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 117 ʁȉɦɫȲȉˑȲʦूȉʦ˘ɴȥʁɫʁɅXʹɫɔʹʦJJউʦɅȉɴɔɫ˘ूʰɏȲ$ȲɫɫȉʁˑȲʟȲेsʰɏȲʟʦȦȲɷȲʦ from the Old Testament, including the punishment of Haman, are painted ɔɷʰɏȲȦʁʟɷȲʟʜȲɷȬȲɷʰɔˑȲʦेɫʁɷɆʰɏȲʦɔȬȲʦʁɅʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆूζȉɷɦɔɷɆʰɏȲ narrative scenes, are the prophets and sibyls who foretold the coming ʁɅɏʟɔʦʰेJɷȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷȉɷȬʹɷȬȲʟɷȲȉʰɏʰɏȲʦȲεɆʹʟȲʦɔɷʰɏȲʦʜȉɷȬʟȲɫʦȉɷȬ ɫʹɷȲʰʰȲʦȉʟȲɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅʰɏȲȉɷȦȲʦʰʁʟʦʁɅɏʟɔʦʰेΤȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆʰɏʹʦʰʟȉȦȲʦʰɏȲ world from its creation by God to the precursors of Christ, leading on to the scenes from the Old and New Testaments that were painted on the ˒ȉɫɫʦʁɅʰɏȲȦɏȉʜȲɫɅʟʁɴࢾࣁࣄࣅʰʁࢾࣁࣅࢽ२ʦȲȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूεɆʦࢿेࢾࣂȉɷȬࢿेࢾࣃ३े ΤȲεʟʦʰɏȉɫɅʁɅʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆ˒ȉʦʜȉɔɷʰȲȬȥ˘ࢾࣂࢾࢽूȉɷȬʰɏȲʦȲȦʁɷȬɏȉɫɅ ȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷࢾࣂࢾࢾȉɷȬࢾࣂࢾࢿेʁʰɏ˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲȉɷȬʰɏȲεɷȬɔɷɆʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲ ࢾࣆࣅࢽʦʟȲʦʰʁʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁʜȉɔɷʰȲȬɴʹȦɏʁɅ ʰɏȲɴȉɔɷɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲʦɔɷɆɫȲɏȉɷȬȲȬɫ˘ू̍ʹɔȦɦɫ˘ȬɔʦɴɔʦʦɔɷɆʰɏȲȉʦʦɔʦʰȉɷʰʦɏȲɏȉȬ initially hired. However, the scholarly consensus is that a claim he made ɔɷȉɫȲʰʰȲʟʁɅ$ȲȦȲɴȥȲʟࢾࣂࢿࣀूʰɏȉʰɏȲɏȉȬɫɔȦȲɷʦȲʰʁʜȉɔɷʰʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆȉʦɏȲ wanted, was misleading; in fact the theological complexities of the ceiling make it likely that he took advice from members of the papal court to work out the program.104 It is interesting, though, that he made this claim: it is an important part of the rhetorical response to the ceiling that it was created by a single male genius, akin to the creative God that it represents. ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲɴȉɷ˘ȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʦूʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦȦʁɷζɔȦʰɔɷɆूʁɅʰɏȲআɴȲȉɷɔɷɆইʁɅ the Sistine ceiling.105 I will discuss one element of the meaning here, the importance of the naked body. Vasari was clear that the artistic value of ʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆɔʦȬȲʟɔˑȲȬɅʟʁɴgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦȬȲʜɔȦʰɔʁɷʁɅɷʹȬȲʦु ȉɷȬ*ˑȲȉʟȲɷȉɦȲȬूȉʦʁɷȲ˒ʁʹɫȬȲ˗ʜȲȦʰूȥʹʰʦʁȉʟȲʰɏȲʜȲʁʜɫȲζʁȦɦɔɷɆʰʁ ɆȲʰʁɷʰʁjʁȉɏউʦȉʟɦȉʦ˒ȲɫɫȉʦjʁȉɏউʦɅȉɴɔɫ˘ेΤȲDrunkenness of Noah२εɆे ࣀेࢾࣅ३ूȉʦʰʁʟ˘ʰɏȉʰɏɔɷɆȲʦʁɷjʁȉɏউʦʦɏȉɴȲȉʰʟȲˑȲȉɫɔɷɆɏɔʦɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦȬʹʟɔɷɆ his intoxicated slumber, even risks the meaning being obfuscated by the ɷʹȬɔʰ˘ʁɅȉɫɫʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦɔɷʰɏȲʦȦȲɷȲॹ˒ɏ˘ȉʟȲjʁȉɏউʦʦʁɷʦʦɏʁȦɦȲȬȉʰʰɏȲɔʟ ɅȉʰɏȲʟউʦɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ˒ɏɔɫȲɷȉɦȲȬʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦै107 ΤȲɔʦʰɔɷȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆɔʦूɔɷȬȲȲȬूʰȲȲɴɔɷɆ˒ɔʰɏʹɷȦɫʁʰɏȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦेJɴȉɆȲʦʁɅ naked men, women, and children – with seemingly no function beyond ʰɏȲȬȲȦʁʟȉʰɔˑȲॹεɫɫȉɫɴʁʦʰȲˑȲʟ˘ȉˑȉɔɫȉȥɫȲʦʹʟɅȉȦȲेΤȲʟȲȉʟȲʰɏȲignudi, the ɅʁȦʹʦʁ̎ÁȉʦȉʟɔউʦʜʟȉɔʦȲौʰɏȲ˘ʁʹɷɆspiritelliɔɷεȦʰɔˑȲɴȉʟȥɫȲʦʹʜʜʁʟʰɔɷɆʰɏȲ ʜɔɫȉʦʰȲʟʦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲʜʟʁʜɏȲʰʦȉɷȬʦɔȥ˘ɫʦौȉɷȬʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɴȲɷɔɷεȦʰɔˑȲ bronze above the pendentives with the scenes of the ancestors of Christ. Naked bodies also play a large part in the central narrative scenes – Adam It seems that the nudes on the Sistine vault bring together many registers ʁɅɴȲȉɷɔɷɆʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁʰɏȲ=ʁȬউʦɔɷɔʰɔȉɫȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘ȉɷȬɏʟɔʦʰউʦ ʦʹȥʦȲ̍ʹȲɷʰʰȉɦɔɷɆʁɷʁɅɏʹɴȉɷζȲʦɏɔɷʰɏȲJɷȦȉʟɷȉʰɔʁɷे108 I noted in ɏȉʜʰȲʟsɷȲɏʁ˒εδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰʦʟȲʰɏʁʹɆɏʰȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʦ towards the human body based on newly popularized texts by Cicero and ^ȉȦʰȉɷʰɔʹʦेΤȲɴʁʦʰʟȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬɅʁʟɴʹɫȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏɔʦȦȉɴȲɔɷɔȦʁȬȲɫɫȉ gɔʟȉɷȬʁɫȉউʦOration on the Dignity of ManʁɅࢾࣁࣅࣃू˒ɏɔȦɏूɏʹɆȲɫ˘ɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲȬ ȥ˘ɫȉʰʁɷɔȦɔȬȲȉʦूʦȉ˒ɴȉɷɦɔɷȬȉʦȉʦʜɔʟɔʰȲɴȥʁȬɔȲȬɔɷζȲʦɏʰɏȉʰȦʁʹɫȬ make choices, either to rise to the angels or sink to a bestial level.109ΤȲʦȲ ɔȬȲȉʦɔɷɆȲɷȲʟȉɫूȉɷȬɔȦʁউʦOration in particular, were enthusiastically taken up by several of the preachers of the papal court at the turn of ʰɏȲȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेΤȲȬȲȉȦʁɷ¢ʁɴɴȉʦʁ२আ<ȲȬʟȉই३JɷɆɏɔʟȉɴɔ२ࢾࣁࣄࢽॹࢾࣂࢾࣃ३ूʰɏȲ Servite procurator general Agostino Filippi (c.1441–1517), and the Spanish ʹɆʹʦʰɔɷɔȉɷ$ɔʁɷɔʦɔʁÁȊˢ̍ʹȲˢ२ࢾࣁࣄࣆॹࢾࣂࣀࣆ३ȉɫɫɆȉˑȲʦȲʟɴʁɷʦʜȉʟȉʜɏʟȉʦɔɷɆ ॹʁʟɏȲȉˑɔɫ˘ȬȲʜȲɷȬȲɷʰʹʜʁɷॹɔȦʁউʦOration, and linked the dignity of the human body to the miracle of the Incarnation.110 How contemporaries may have interpreted the chapel can be glimpsed through a sermon preached, most likely in the chapel itself, to Julius II and his court on Epiphany २Xȉɷʹȉʟ˘ࣃ३ࢾࣂࢾࣀेΤȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆɏȉȬʁɷɫ˘ˑȲʟ˘ʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ȥȲȲɷʟȲˑȲȉɫȲȬूʁɷ October 31, 1512.111ΤȲʜʟȲȉȦɏȲʟूɆʁʦʰɔɷʁ<ɔɫɔʜʜɔूʦȲȲɴʦʰʁʹʦȲʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲʦ THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ *ˑȲʟ˘ɴȉɷɔʦʦʰʹʜȲεȲȬ˒ɏȲɷʰɏȲ˘ɷʁʰɔȦȲʰɏȲȲ˗ȦȲɫɫȲɷȦȲʁɅʰɏȲ εɆʹʟȲʦूʰɏȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɅʁʟȲʦɏʁʟʰȲɷɔɷɆूʰɏȲʦʰʹʜȲɷȬʁʹʦȦʹʟˑȲʦ ʁɅʰɏȲȦʁɷʰʁʹʟʦू˒ɏɔȦɏȲ˗ʹȬȲɆʟȉȦȲȉɷȬεɷȲʦʦȲू˒ɔʰɏʰɏʁʦȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ ʜʟʁʜʁʟʰɔʁɷʦʰɏȉʰʁɷȲʦȲȲʦɔɷʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɷʹȬȲʦेΤȲʦȲूɔɷʁʟȬȲʟʰʁ show the highest point and perfection of art, are painted in all ages, diverse in expression and form both in the face as in the body; with slimmer or more bulky limbs, as you can see in how they are made ˒ɔʰɏȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȥʹʰɴʁʦʰȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʦॹʦɔʰʰɔɷɆȉɷȬʰʹʟɷɔɷɆȉɷȬ holding some festoons of oak leaves and garlands.106 118 Fig. 3.18. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूDrunkenness of Noah and surrounding ignudi, 1512. Fresco. Sistine Chapel ceiling, Vatican, Rome. 119 ȦɏȉʜȲɫȉʦȉ˒ɏʁɫȲेΤȲɅʟȲʦȦʁʦʁɷʰɏȲ˒ȉɫɫʦʁɅʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȲȬȉ ʰ˘ʜʁɫʁɆ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɫɔɅȲʁɅgʁʦȲʦȉɷȬɏʟɔʦʰे114ΤȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰȲȬʰɏȲεʟʦʰ ʜȉʟʰʁɅ=ȲɷȲʦɔʦȉʦʰʁɫȬȥ˘gʁʦȲʦेΤȲȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲʁɅȥʁʰɏʰɏȲʦȲʟɴʁɷȉɷȬʰɏȲ chapel decorations would have been familiar with this type of linkage as an ȉʦʜȲȦʰʁɅʦȲʟɴʁɷʰȲȦɏɷɔ̍ʹȲूʰɏȲʹʦȲʁɅʁɷȲʰȲ˗ʰʰʁʦȲʰʁΦȦɏȉɔɷʦʁɅɴȲɷʰȉɫ associations.115 One can imagine an audience looking at the ceiling at the ʦȉɴȲʰɔɴȲȉʦɫɔʦʰȲɷɔɷɆʰʁ<ɔɫɔʜʜɔউʦʦȲʟɴʁɷूʹʦɔɷɆgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦɔɴȉɆȲʦ ʰʁȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟʰɏȲʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɔʁɷʁɅɴȉɷɦɔɷȬेgȉɷूɏȲʦȉ˘ʦɏȲʟȲूɏȉʦ a dual aspect, one that is tied to the mortal body and one that is divine. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦignudi on the ceiling would have prompted their audience to see their impossibly perfect bodies as representing this divine aspect ʁɅȉɫɫɏʹɴȉɷʦेΤȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦʁɅʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦʁɷʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬɅʁʟȉ meditation on the nature of humanity outside the boundaries of lived temporality that would normally be marked by the changing fashions of ȦɫʁʰɏɔɷɆेΤȲɔʟʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰʰɏȲʜʁʦʦɔȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʁɅȉɏʹɴȉɷɔʰ˘ আȬɔˑɔɷȲूʦʜɔʟɔʰʹȉɫूȉɷȬɅʟȲȲȬɅʟʁɴʰɏȲȦɏȉɔɷʦʁɅȬȲȉʰɏेই Fig. 3.19. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूCreation of Adam, 1512. Fresco. Sistine Chapel ceiling, Vatican, Rome. on the vault as a spur for his text, which ponders the nature of mankind. EȲȥȲɆɔɷʦȥ˘ʰȲɫɫɔɷɆɏɔʦȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲʰɏȉʰɏȲʁδȲɷʟȲʰʹʟɷȲȬʰʁʟȲȉȬɔɷɆ =ȲɷȲʦɔʦू˒ɔȬȲɫ˘ʰɏȲɷʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬʰʁɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷ˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷȥ˘gʁʦȲʦु112 JʁδȲɷɆʁʰɏʟʁʹɆɏɴȉɷ˘ȬɔˑɔɷȲȥʁʁɦʦूȉɷȬȲʦʜȲȦɔȉɫɫ˘ʰɏʁʦȲʰɏȉʰʰȲɫɫ ʹʦʁɅʰɏȲȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏɔɷɆʦेेे˒ɏȲʟȲgʁʦȲʦȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲʦʰɏȲȥɔʟʰɏʁɅ ɴȉɷɦɔɷȬेÂȲʟȲȉȬʰɏȉʰɴȉɷɔʦɴȉȬȲɔɷʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲȉɷȬɫɔɦȲɷȲʦʦʁɅ =ʁȬूȉɷȬɏȲɆʁˑȲʟɷʦʁˑȲʟʰɏȲεʦɏʁɅʰɏȲʦȲȉȉɷȬʰɏȲζ˘ɔɷɆȦʟȲȉʰʹʟȲʦ of the sky, and other things of the entire earth. In the beginning man was made of two main constitutions: one corporeal, in his nature ζʹɔȬȉɷȬʦʁʁɷɅʹɫɫʁɅɅȲȉʟौʰɏȲʁʰɏȲʟȬɔˑɔɷȲूʦʜɔʟɔʰʹȉɫȉɷȬɅʟȲȲȬɅʟʁɴ ȉɫɫʰɏȲȦɏȉɔɷʦʁɅȬȲȉʰɏेΤɔʦɔʦʰʟʹɫ˘ʰɏȲɴȉɷ˒ɏʁɔʦʟȲɅȲʟʟȲȬʰʁ˒ɏȲɷ we read about the image of God . . . inside man invisible, incorporeal and incorrupt, the divine image is made. . . . God moreover created ɴȉɷɔɷʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲȉɷȬɫɔɦȲɷȲʦʦʁɅɏɔʦʁɷेΤɔʦȬɔȬɷʁʰȬɔɴɔɷɔʦɏʰɏȲ ʰʟʹȲεʟʦʰɔɴȉɆȲूȉɷȬɏȲʰɏʁʹɆɏʰɷʁʰʁɅɆʟȲȲȬɔɫ˘ȉʦʦʹɴɔɷɆɏɔɴʦȲɫɅ ʰʁȥȲȲ̍ʹȉɫʰʁ=ʁȬȥʹʰेेेȉȥȉʦɔɷɆɏɔɴʦȲɫɅȥ˘ʰȉɦɔɷɆʹʜʁʹʟζȲʦɏू loosened the chains of death, so Christ therefore is our savior.113 120 Recently, Kim E. Butler has added to scholarly emphasis on the Incarnation as a key to the way contemporary audiences may have understood the ceiling by showing how the Immaculate Conception of ʰɏȲÁɔʟɆɔɷȉɫʦʁʜʟʁˑɔȬȲȬȉɷɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰɅʟȉɴȲ˒ʁʟɦɅʁʟɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȉʰɔʁɷेΤȲ JɴɴȉȦʹɫȉʰȲʁɷȦȲʜʰɔʁɷɔʦʰɏȲȥȲɫɔȲɅʰɏȉʰʰɏȲÁɔʟɆɔɷgȉʟ˘˒ȉʦȦʁɷȦȲɔˑȲȬ free of the stain of original sin, and it was a matter of some controversy ȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏɔʦʜȲʟɔʁȬूȥȲɔɷɆȬʁʹȥʰȲȬʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ȥ˘$ʁɴɔɷɔȦȉɷʰɏɔɷɦȲʟʦȥʹʰ ȲɷʰɏʹʦɔȉʦʰɔȦȉɫɫ˘ʜʟʁɴʁʰȲȬȥ˘<ʟȉɷȦɔʦȦȉɷʦेXʹɫɔʹʦJJউʦʹɷȦɫȲूʁʜȲɔ˗ʰʹʦ IV, himself a Franciscan, was a keen proponent of the feast, and it is likely that this provides an overarching link between the seemingly disparate elements on the ceiling.116 It is clear that notions of generation are key – ɅʟʁɴʰɏȲȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲ*ȉʟʰɏȥ˘=ʁȬूʰʁjʁȉɏউʦɅȉɴɔɫ˘ूʰʁʰɏȲȉɷȦȲʦʰʁʟʦ of Christ depicted in the lunettes and spandrels. Butler points out the unusual emphasis on female generation, and the inclusion of many heroic ɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦूɷʁʰȉȥɫ˘ʰɏȲʜʟȲɫȉʜʦȉʟɔȉɷ*ˑȲȉɷȬʰɏȲ˘ʁʹʰɏɅʹɫɷȉɦȲȬ εɆʹʟȲʁɅgȉʟ˘ू˒ɏʁɴ=ʁȬʰɏȲ<ȉʰɏȲʟȲɴȥʟȉȦȲʦɔɷɏɔʦˑʁɫʹɴɔɷʁʹʦȦɫʁȉɦ ˒ɏɔɫȲȦʟȲȉʰɔɷɆȬȉɴ२εɆेࣀेࢾࣆ३े117 ΤɔʦʦȲʟɴʁɷȦɏȉɔɷʦʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟʦȲˑȲʟȉɫȥɔȥɫɔȦȉɫȲʜɔʦʁȬȲʦॹgʁʦȲʦूʰɏȲȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷ of mankind in Genesis, and the Incarnation – in a way similar to the ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲȲȦɏʁȲʦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲʟȲȉʰɔʁɷɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲʁɅʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆȉɷȬɔȬȲȉʦ ȉȥʁʹʰȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰ˒ȲʟȲȦɔʟȦʹɫȉʰɔɷɆȉʰʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʰɔɴȲेÁȉʦȉʟɔউʦ description of the most celebrated scene on the ceiling, the Creation of AdamूʜʟȉɔʦȲʦʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲউʦআȥȲȉʹʰ˘ूʜʁʦʰʹʟȲȉɷȬʁʹʰɫɔɷȲʦইɔɷȉʰȲɫɫɔɷɆ ˒ȉ˘ेȬȉɴूɏȲɆʁȲʦʁɷूআɏȉʦȉ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʦʁʰɏȉʰɏȲʦȲȲɴʦʰʁȥȲɴȉȬȲɅʟʁɴ εʟʦʰʜʟɔɷȦɔʜɫȲʦȥ˘ʰɏȲʟȲȉʰʁʟूʟȉʰɏȲʟʰɏȉɷ०ȦʁɴɔɷɆɅʟʁɴ१ʰɏȲȥʟʹʦɏȉɷȬ ȬȲʦɔɆɷʁɅȉɴȉɷेই118ɦɔɷʰʁ<ɔɫɔʜʜɔউʦʦȲʟɴʁɷू˒ɏɔȦɏɫɔɷɦʦ=ʁȬউʦȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʁɅ ɴȉɷɦɔɷȬʰʁgʁʦȲʦȉɷȬʰʁɏʟɔʦʰूÁȉʦȉʟɔɏȲʟȲɔʦʜɫȉȦɔɷɆgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁȉʰ ʰɏȲȦɫɔɴȉ˗ʁɅȉȬɔˑɔɷȲɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲेΤȲɔȬȲȉʁɅʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟউʦʜʟʁȦʟȲȉʰɔˑȲȥʟʹʦɏ ɔʦʜʹʦɏȲȬʰʁʁɷȲʦɔȬȲɔɷɅȉˑʁʟʁɅȉɴʁʟȲȬɔˑɔɷȲȉȦʰʁɅɴȉɦɔɷɆेgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁ THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 121 ɏȉȬȦʁɷȦȲɔˑȲȬʰɏȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȥʁȬ˘ɔɷɏɔʦɴɔɷȬेΤȲȲȦɏʁȲʦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷ=ʁȬউʦ ȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɫȬȉɷȬgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦȉɷȬʦȦȲɷȲʦ on the ceiling would have been clear to sixteenth-century onlookers, who ɔɷȦʟȲȉʦɔɷɆɫ˘ɆȉˑȲgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁʰɏȲȲʜɔʰɏȲʰdivino (divine).119ΤȲɔʦʰɔɷȲ ceiling served as a manifesto for this new type of art, where the fertile ɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰȥʟʁʹɆɏʰɅʁʟʰɏɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦɔɷʦʰȉʟʰɫɔɷɆˑȉʟɔȲʰ˘े gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦɷʹȬȲʦɔɴʜʟȲʦʦȲȬɔɷζʹȲɷʰɔȉɫȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟɔȲʦेJɷXʹɫ˘ࢾࣂࢾࢿू ɣʹʦʰȥȲɅʁʟȲʰɏȲʹɷˑȲɔɫɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆू$ʹɦȲɫɅʁɷʦʁȬউ*ʦʰȲʁɅ<Ȳʟʟȉʟȉ˒ȉʦ allowed a sneak preview: His excellence very much desired to see the ceiling of the large chapel ʰɏȉʰgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɔʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆेेेेɷȬʰɏȲȬʹɦȲ˒ȲɷʰʹʜʰʁʰɏȲ ceiling with several people, and each one came down from the ceiling ɫɔʰʰɫȲȥ˘ɫɔʰʰɫȲूȥʹʰʰɏȲ^ʁʟȬ$ʹɦȲʦʰȉ˘ȲȬʹʜʰɏȲʟȲ˒ɔʰɏgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁू ȥȲȦȉʹʦȲɏȲȦʁʹɫȬɷউʰɆȲʰȲɷʁʹɆɏʁɅɫʁʁɦɔɷɆȉʰʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦूȉɷȬɏȲɆȉˑȲ the artist many kind words, including that his Excellency desired ʰɏȉʰɏȲɴȉɦȲɏɔɴȉʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆौȉɷȬʰɏȲ˘ʰȉɫɦȲȬȉȥʁʹʰɔʰȉɷȬɏȲʁΦȲʟȲȬ him money and he promised to make one.120 It is reductive to produce a history from single encounters; but Alfonso Ȭউ*ʦʰȲউʦɴʁɴȲɷʰʁɷʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆɔʦɦȲ˘ɔɷʰɏȲɏɔʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲ and its enthusiastic adaption by Italian, then European, elites. It marks a moment when the possibilities for the nude, as something to gaze at for ʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȉȥɫȲȲɷɣʁ˘ɴȲɷʰूȉɷȉʜʜʟȲȦɔȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȉʟʰɔʦʰʟ˘Ʌʁʟɔʰʦʁ˒ɷʦȉɦȲू˒ȲʟȲ ȥʟʁʹɆɏʰɏʁɴȲʰʁʰɏȲˑȲʟ˘ʜȲʁʜɫȲ˒ɏʁȦʁʹɫȬȉΦʁʟȬʰʁȬȲȦʁʟȉʰȲʰɏȲɔʟɫɔˑɔɷɆ ʦʜȉȦȲʦʟɔȦɏɫ˘ȉɷȬɅȲɫʰʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ȬȲʦȲʟˑȲȬʰɏȲআɏʁɷȲʦʰɫȲɔʦʹʟȲইʜʟʁˑɔȬȲȬȥ˘ this new type of art, as discussed in Chapter Five. $ʁȲʦʰɏɔʦȉʰʰȲɴʜʰʰʁʟȲȦʁɷʦʰʟʹȦʰʰɏȲʜʟʁȦȲʦʦʁɅȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूȦʁɷˑȲ˘ ʰɏȲɴʁʁȬʁʟȉɔɴʦʁɅʰɏȲʦɏȲȲʰɔɷȉɷ˘˒ȉ˘ैȉɷ˒ȲूɔɷɅȉȦʰूʦȲȲʰɏɔʦ Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆȉʦȉʟȲȦʁʟȬʁɅȉɴʁɴȲɷʰɔɷʰɔɴȲȉʰȉɫɫैʦȦȉɷɔʁʁɷȬɔˑɔ˒ʁʹɫȬ ɫȉʰȲʟȬȲȦɫȉʟȲʰɏȉʰgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɅʁɫɫʁ˒ȲȬʰɏȲɴȲʰɏʁȬʁɅÒȲʹ˗ɔʦȉʰʟʁʰʁɷ ȉʦȲʦʜʁʹʦȲȬȥ˘ɫȥȲʟʰɔुআʰɏȉʰȉɷȦɔȲɷʰɴȉʦʰȲʟूʰʁʜȉɔɷʰȉÁȲɷʹʦू˒ȉʦɷʁʰ content to see one maiden, but wished to contemplate many; and taking from each one the most beautiful and perfect parts, used them to make up ɏɔʦÁȲɷʹʦेই121gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁू˒ɔʰɏɏɔʦȥȉȦɦɆʟʁʹɷȬɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜʦ of the 1480s and 90s, must have been familiar with this story and likely ʹʦȲȬʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʰȲȦɏɷɔ̍ʹȲʦɔɷɏɔʦɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆूʦʰȉʟʰɔɷɆ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɴʁʦʰ beautiful model but, not content with the inevitable imperfections of real people, also having recourse to his own creative imagination. JɷࢾࣂࢾࢾूɣʹʦʰȉʦɏȲ˒ȉʦȦʁɴʜɫȲʰɔɷɆʰɏȲʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʜȉɷȲɫʦʁɷʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆू gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁ˒ʟʁʰȲȉʜʁȲɴȦʁɴʜȉʟɔɷɆ=ʁȬউʦȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʰʁʰɏȉʰʁɅʰɏȲ ʜȉɔɷʰȲʟÒȲʹ˗ɔʦुআEȲ˒ɏʁɴȉȬȲȲˑȲʟ˘ʰɏɔɷɆूɴȉȬȲȲˑȲʟ˘ʜȉʟʰ्ȉɷȬʰɏȲɷ ɅʟʁɴȉɫɫȦɏʁʦȲʰɏȲɴʁʦʰȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ्ʰʁʦɏʁ˒ɔɷʰɏɔʦ˒ȉ˘ʰɏȲʦʹȥɫɔɴȲʰɏɔɷɆʦ ्ʰɏȉʰɏȲɷʁ˒ɴȉȬȲ˒ɔʰɏɏɔʦȬɔˑɔɷȲʦɦɔɫɫेই122 He must, surely, have been ȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟɔɷɆɏɔʦʁ˒ɷ˒ʁʟɦȉʦȥȲɔɷɆȉɦɔɷʰʁʰɏȉʰʁɅ=ʁȬউʦूȦɏʁʁʦɔɷɆʰɏȲɴʁʦʰ ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫʜȉʟʰʦʁɅȬɔˑɔɷȲȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʰʁʦɏʁ˒আʦʹȥɫɔɴȲʰɏɔɷɆʦेইgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦ drawing of Haman thus consciously goes beyond the particular, and is selfconsciously an act of intellectual creation intended to reveal a universal ȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेJʰɔʦȦʁɷȦȲɔˑȲȬȉʦȉɷɔɴʜʁʦʦɔȥɫȲूȬɔˑɔɷȲूʁȥɣȲȦʰʁɅȬȲʦɔʟȲे * ÂȲȦȉɷɷʁ˒ɫʁʁɦȉɆȉɔɷȉʰgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦεɆʹʟȲʁɅEȉɴȉɷ२εɆेࣀेࢾ३े In practical terms, its beginning point was most probably a model ʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ȦɏʁʦȲɷɅʁʟɏɔʦȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫʜɏ˘ʦɔ̍ʹȲेʦ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲȲȉʟɫɔȲʟ Florentine workshop models, he was likely originally sketched wearing underwear – hence the blank space where his genitals should be. In order ʰʁɴȉɔɷʰȉɔɷʰɏȲʜʁʦȲɅʁʟȉɷ˘ɫȲɷɆʰɏʁɅʰɔɴȲूɏɔʦɫȲδɦɷȲȲ˒ȉʦʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ resting on a stool or similar studio prop, which obscured his calf and foot, thus necessitating the separate drawing of these to the right of the sheet. For the twisting torso, it seems likely that ropes were used for the model to ɏʁɫȬʁɷʰʁू˒ɏɔȦɏ˒ʁʹɫȬȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʰɏȲɴȲɫʰɔɷɆȉ˒ȉ˘ȲΦȲȦʰʁɅʰɏȲʹʜʜȲʟȥʁȬ˘ ȉɷȬʰɏȲɷȲȲȬɅʁʟȉɷȉȬȬɔʰɔʁɷȉɫʦʰʹȬ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʟɔɆɏʰɅʁʁʰ२ȥʁʰʰʁɴूȦȲɷʰȲʟɫȲδ३ when it was actually bearing weight. 122 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲȲʟɅȲȦʰʁȬ˘ 123 Chapter Four gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ I will leave out women, because none of them have perfect proportions. Cennino Cennini, LȪȪȓǤɞɀǫǱȪȪ՟ǈɞɯǱ, c.1400 ɔɷȦȲʰɏȲʟȲউʦȉʦɏʁʟʰȉɆȲȥʁʰɏʁɅɆʁʁȬɣʹȬɆȲʦȉɷȬʁɅȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˒ʁɴȲɷू I make use of a certain Idea which comes to my mind. ȉɫȬȉʦʦȉʟȲȉʦʰɔɆɫɔʁɷȲू˒ʟɔʰɔɷɆȉʦȉʜɏȉȲɫ२ै३ू c.1518 ΤȲʟȲɔʦɴʁʟȲʰɏȉɷȉɏʹɷȬʟȲȬ˘ȲȉʟʦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷȲɷɷɔɷɔউʦȬɔʦɴɔʦʦȉɫʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷȉʦ ʹɷ˒ʁʟʰɏ˘ʁɅʦʰʹȬ˘ʰʁɅʁʟɴʰɏȲআʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȥʁȬ˘ইȉɷȬʰɏȲɅȉɴʁʹʦʰȲ˗ʰȉʦȦʟɔȥȲȬ to Raphael about generating his image of ?ǈȪǈɯǱǈ२εɆेࣁेࢾ३ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏȉɷআJȬȲȉेই ΤȲ˘ȥȲʰʟȉ˘ȦʁɷʰʟȉʦʰɔɷɆȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲʦʰʁ˒ȉʟȬʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦ˒ʁʟʰɏʁɅɅȲɴȉɫȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ that encapsulate a change in the dominant way of thinking about images of ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦʁˑȲʟʰɏȲȦʁʹʟʦȲʁɅʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲेJɷȲɷɷɔɷɔউʦȲ˘Ȳʦू˒ʁɴȲɷ were hardly worth bothering with; their imperfect physicalities could play ɷʁʟȲȉɫʜȉʟʰɔɷʰɏȲ̍ʹȲʦʰɅʁʟʰɏȲআʜȲʟɅȲȦʰইȥʁȬ˘ʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦʰʁȬʁɴɔɷȉʰȲȦȲɷʰʟȉɫ JʰȉɫɔȉɷȉʟʰɔɷʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेΤȲআȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫইȉʦʁʜʜʁʦȲȬʰʁʰɏȲআɔȬȲȉɫই played a much greater role in early sixteenth-century artistic discourse of Raphael. In this case, female nudes play an important role, as long as they are ʰɏȲȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȉɴȉɫȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦɴȲɷʰȉɫȦʁɷȦȲʜʰɔʁɷʦे In fact, the emergence of the female nude in Italy is closely linked to ʰɏȲʦɏɔδɔɷɆȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲεʟʦʰʰ˒ʁȬȲȦȉȬȲʦʁɅʰɏȲʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘े $ʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲʜʟȲˑɔʁʹʦȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲʟȲɫȉʰɔˑȲɫ˘ɅȲ˒Ȳ˗ʰȉɷʰʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦू sculptures, or prints hailing from the Italian peninsula that have female ɷʹȬȲʦȉʦʰɏȲɔʟɴȉɔɷʦʹȥɣȲȦʰेΤʁʦȲʰɏȉʰȲ˗ɔʦʰȲȬʰȲɷȬȲȬʰʁȥȲȦʁɷȦȲʜʰʹȉɫɫ˘ 125 Fig. 4.1. Raphael, ?ǈȪǈɯǱǈूࢾࣂࢾࢿे<ʟȲʦȦʁे^ʁηɔȉ of Galatea, Villa Farnesina, Rome. Italian context. Far from being a gradual change as time wore on, the εʟʦʰȬȲȦȉȬȲʦʁɅʰɏȲʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘̍ʹɔȦɦɫ˘ʦȉ˒ɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȲɷ starting to appear in unprecedented numbers. Standing or reclining female nudes became the focus of domestic paintings and prints; female nudes took part in mythological scenes on canvas, fresco, print, and on painted ceramics; and a new image type of half-length, half-dressed women became popular, particularly in Venice and Rome.3 Given the anxiety about female nakedness, and the potentially corrupting ʜʁ˒ȲʟʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦूʰɏȲʟȲȉʦʁɷʦȥȲɏɔɷȬʰɏɔʦʦʹȬȬȲɷʦɏɔδɔɷˑɔʦʹȉɫ ȦʹɫʰʹʟȲȉʟȲʜʹˢˢɫɔɷɆेΤɔʦʦɔʰʹȉʰɔʁɷɏȉʦɷʁʰȥȲȲɷȉɔȬȲȬȥ˘ȉʦȦɏʁɫȉʟɫ˘ literature that has traditionally tended toward division by regional school, ȥ˘ȉʟʰɔʦʰूʁʟȥ˘ɆȲɷʟȲेÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷɔɴȉɆȲʦȉʟȲʁδȲɷʰʟȲȉʰȲȬʦȲʜȉʟȉʰȲɫ˘Ʌʟʁɴ ʰɏʁʦȲɅʟʁɴȦȲɷʰʟȉɫJʰȉɫ˘ौআʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʦইȉʟȲʰʟȲȉʰȲȬʦȲʜȉʟȉʰȲɫ˘ɅʟʁɴআɷʹȬȲʦेইΤɔʦ ȦɏȉʜʰȲʟȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟʦʰɏȲআʜʟʁȥɫȲɴইʁɅʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲ ɷȉɦȲȬɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ȉʦȉ˒ɏʁɫȲूɔɷˑȲʦʰɔɆȉʰɔɷɆɏʁ˒ʰɏɔʦʦʹȥɣȲȦʰ˒ȉʦȲɴȥȲȬȬȲȬ ɔɷॹȉɷȬɏȲɫʜȲȬʰʁɅʁʟɴॹȉɷȲ˒ȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏʰʁȦʁɷȦȲʜʰʹȉɫɔˢɔɷɆ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦ ȥʁȬɔȲʦेΤȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅɏʁ˒ʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲȥȲȦȉɴȲȉȦȲɷʰʟȉɫʦʹȥɣȲȦʰɅʁʟ ÂȲʦʰȲʟɷȉʟʰɔʦɷʁʰʦʰʟȉɔɆɏʰɅʁʟ˒ȉʟȬूȦʁɏȲʟȲɷʰूʁʟɅʟȲȲɅʟʁɴȦʁɷʰʟȉȬɔȦʰɔʁɷʦू yet it is possible to delineate clusters of texts and images dating from around 1510 onwards that set out a new way of considering the physicality of ˒ʁɴȲɷूȥʁʰɏʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȲȬȉɷȬʟȲȉɫेgȉʟȦɔȉʁɔɷʰʁɷɷʁʰȲȬʰɏȉʰআʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲ ȥʁȬ˘ɔɷʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷूʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ूɔʦʁδȲɷȉ˒ȉ˘ʁɅ ȲɷȦʁȬɔɷɆɴȉɫȲȦȲʟȲȥʟȉɫʜʟʁȦȲʦʦȲʦेই4ΤɔʦɔʦʰʟʹȲूȉɷȬɏȉʦȥȲȲɷʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ʰɏȉʰ most scholars have approached the Italian Renaissance female nude to date. 126 In the scholarly literature, the relationship between image and referent (between a painting of a female nude, say, and the woman who modeled for ʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲ३ɏȉʦȥȲȲɷȉʜʁɔɷʰʁɅȦʁɷʰȲʦʰȉʰɔʁɷɅʁʟȬȲȦȉȬȲʦेΤȲɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰʟȲȉɫ women would model naked for artists has been hard for some scholars to accept. However, as I have shown elsewhere, there is abundant evidence that ɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲɴʁȬȲɫɔɷɆ˒ȉʦɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲȬɔɷJʰȉɫ˘ȉɷȬʦʁɴȲȉʟȲȉʦɔɷ northern Europe from the early sixteenth century onwards.5ΤȲɔʦʦʹȲʁɅʰɏȲ ɴʁʟȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅȥʁʰɏʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟȉɷȬʦʹȥɣȲȦʰɏȉʦȥȲȲɷȉȦʁɷʦʰȉɷʰʜʁɔɷʰʁɅȬȲȥȉʰȲ ɔɷȉ˒ȉ˘ʰɏȉʰʦɔɴʜɫ˘ȬʁȲʦɷʁʰȉʜʜɫ˘ʰʁɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦेΤɔʦूʁɅȦʁʹʟʦȲूȥȲʰʟȉ˘ʦ ʁʹʟʁ˒ɷʦʁȦɔȲʰ˘উʦȉɷ˗ɔȲʰɔȲʦȉȥʁʹʰ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ȉʦ˒Ȳɫɫȉʦ२ʁʟɴʁʟȲʰɏȉɷ३ Renaissance ideas. It is hard to imagine a male naked model being described as ȉɴȉɷʁɅআȲȉʦ˘ˑɔʟʰʹȲूইɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲू˘ȲʰʰɏɔʦȦʁ˘ʜɏʟȉʦȲȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟʦȉʟȲʦʰɔɫɫʹʦȲȬ as a code for Renaissance female sex workers in the art historical literature.6 bracketed in spaces that linked them to erotic desire or pastoral leisure: the bedchamber, the bathhouse, the villa. Northern European artists seemed to have more license to portray naked women than those in Italy, a fact not ɫʁʦʰʁɷJʰȉɫɔȉɷȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʰʁʟʦेΤʹʦȉʟʰʁɫʁɴȲʁ<ȉȦɔʁɔɷɏɔʦOn Illustrious Men २ࢾࣁࣂࣃ३ʜɔȦɦʦʁʹʰɅʁʟʜʟȉɔʦȲȉʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʁɅXȉɷˑȉɷ*˘ȦɦউʦʰɏȉʰɔɷȦɫʹȬȲȬ আ˒ʁɴȲɷʁɅʹɷȦʁɴɴʁɷȥȲȉʹʰ˘ȲɴȲʟɆɔɷɆɅʟʁɴʰɏȲȥȉʰɏইȉɷȬʁɆɔȲʟˑȉɷ ȬȲʟÂȲ˘ȬȲɷউʦɔɴȉɆȲʁɅȉআ˒ʁɴȉɷʦ˒ȲȉʰɔɷɆɔɷɏȲʟȥȉʰɏইȥȲɔɷɆʦʜɔȲȬʹʜʁɷ by two youths.1ʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜɔɷ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲ˒ȉʦʜȲʟɏȉʜʦʰɏȲɴʁʦʰ ɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʜʟʁȬʹȦȲʟʁɅɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦू˒ɏɔȦɏूȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆ ʰʁɷʰʁɷɔʁɔɫɫɔू˒ȲʟȲআɴʁʟȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫʰɏȉɷȉɷ˘ʁʰɏȲʟʦेই2ΤȲɴʁʦʰɅȉɴʁʹʦ example of this, the Birth of Venus (probably painted in the mid-1480s), ʦʜȉ˒ɷȲȬʦȲˑȲʟȉɫȲ˗ʰȉɷʰʜȉɔɷʰȲȬȦʁʜɔȲʦʁɅʰɏȲȦȲɷʰʟȉɫεɆʹʟȲʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆ ȉɆȉɔɷʦʰȉʦʰȉʟɦȥȉȦɦɆʟʁʹɷȬ२ȦʁɴʜȉʟȲεɆेࣀेࢾࣂ˒ɔʰɏूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूεɆेࣁेࢾࢽ३े ʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɔʦɫȉʰȲɔɷʰɏȲȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȉɷȬʜʟȲȦʁȦɔʁʹʦɔɷʰɏȲ ȲȦȲɷʰɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȉʰɔʁɷʦʁ̎¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦVenus of Urbino२εɆेࣁेࢿ३ȉʟȲȲɴȥɫȲɴȉʰɔȦ ʁɅʰɏȲɔʦʦʹȲʦȉʰʦʰȉɦȲɏȲʟȲेJɷÂȉɫɫȉȦȲʰȲˑȲɷʦউʦɴȲɴʁʟȉȥɫȲʜɏʟȉʦȲूʰɏɔʦ আʦʁॼȉɷȬॼʦʁʟȲȦɫɔɷɔɷɆʁɷɏȲʟȦʁʹȦɏইɏȉʦȥȲȲɷˑȉʟɔʁʹʦɫ˘ɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȲȬȉʦȉɷ idealized painting of the goddess Venus, a portrait of a courtesan, or a spur to licit sexuality within marriage.7ΤȲʦȦɏʁɫȉʟɫ˘ɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲɏȉʦɫʹʟȦɏȲȬɅʟʁɴ THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 127 Fig. 4.3. Giorgione, Laura, c.1506. Oil on canvas (transferred from panel). ZʹɷʦʰɏɔʦʰʁʟɔʦȦɏȲʦgʹʦȲʹɴूÁɔȲɷɷȉे Fig. 4.2. Titian, Venus of Urbino, 1538. Oil ʁɷȦȉɷˑȉʦे=ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉȬȲɆɫɔ©Ϊˢɔू Florence. 128 one interpretation to the other over the past hundred years or so, generally ʹʦɔɷɆʰɏȲʦȉɴȲȦʁɷʰȲ˗ʰʹȉɫȲˑɔȬȲɷȦȲूεɫʰȲʟȲȬʰɏʟʁʹɆɏ˒ɔɫȬɫ˘ȦʁɷζɔȦʰɔɷɆ interpretations of the image itself. ÂɏȲɷʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆ˒ȉʦȉȦ̍ʹɔʟȲȬɔɷࢾࣂࣀࣅȥ˘=ʹɔȬʁȥȉɫȬʁJJȬȲɫɫȉʁˑȲʟȲू ʰɏȲɫȉʰȲʟ$ʹɦȲʁɅ©ʟȥɔɷʁूɔʰ˒ȉʦȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲȬʦɔɴʜɫ˘ȉʦla donna nuda (the naked woman).8ΤȲȥɫȉɷɦɷȲʦʦʁɅʰɏȲȬȲʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷʦȲʟˑȲʦʰʁɔɷȬɔȦȉʰȲʰɏȲ problems for art historians in attempting to pin down the meaning of this ɔɴȉɆȲȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟʦɫɔɦȲɔʰʰɏȉʰ˒ȲʟȲʜʟʁȬʹȦȲȬȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲεʟʦʰɅȲ˒ȬȲȦȉȬȲʦ of the sixteenth century.9<ʁʟȉʰɔɴȲूɔʰ˒ȉʦɅȉʦɏɔʁɷȉȥɫȲʰʁɔȬȲɷʰɔɅ˘¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦ painting and other images such as his Flora२εɆेࢾेࢿࣆ३ʁʟ=ɔʁʟɆɔʁɷȲউʦLaura २εɆेࣁेࣀ३ȉʦɔȬȲȉɫɔˢȲȬʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʦʁɅȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦे10Τɔʦूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɔʦɏȉʟȬʰʁʜʟʁˑȲ ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȉɷ˘আʰʟʹȲইȦʁɴʜȉʟȉʰɔˑȲɔɴȉɆȲʁɅȉʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȉȥɫȲɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫूȉɷȬɏȉʦ been attacked from two sides. Charles Hope notoriously argued that these ɔɴȉɆȲʦ˒ȲʟȲআɴȲʟȲʜɔɷॼʹʜʦेेेʦȲȲɷȉʦɫɔʰʰɫȲɴʁʟȲʰɏȉɷʦȲ˗ʁȥɣȲȦʰʦইʦʁȥȲȉʟ no relationship to the individual identity of the courtesan model.11 On the ʁʰɏȲʟʦɔȬȲूʁɷȉ=ʁΦȲɷȉʦʦȲʟʰȲȬʰɏȉʰ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦVenus˒ȉʦʰɏȲআȲɴȥʁȬɔɴȲɷʰ ʁɅȥȲȉʹʰ˘ইȉɷȬʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆ˒ȉʦȦʟȲȉʰȲȬʰʁȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲʰɏȲȦʁɷʦʹɴɴȉʰɔʁɷʁɅ =ʹɔȬʁȥȉɫȬʁউʦɴȉʟʟɔȉɆȲे12 gʁʟȲʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ूʜȲʟɏȉʜʦȬʹȲʰʁɅʟʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷȉʰʰɏȲȦɔʟȦʹɫȉʟɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʦȲ arguments, the importance of the identity of the sitter is dismissed. Not ʁɷɫ˘ɔʦɔɷɅʁʟɴȉʰɔʁɷȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲʦɔʰʰȲʟʦআʹɷɦɷʁ˒ȉȥɫȲूইʰɏȲɔʟɔȬȲɷʰɔʰ˘ȬʁȲʦɷʁʰ really matter. Interestingly, authors who disagree on pretty much everything ȲɫʦȲʦɏȉʟȲʰɏɔʦȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏेΤʹʦɅʁʟEʁʜȲूɔɅɴȉɷ˘ʁ̎¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦɅȲɴȉɫȲʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʦ ʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰআɣʹʦʰȉʜʟȲʰʰ˘ɆɔʟɫूইɅʁʟ=ʁΦȲɷूʰɏȲআȉɷʁɷ˘ɴʁʹʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ȥȲȦʁɴȲʦ ȉɴ˘ʰɏɔȦȥȲɔɷɆूইɏȲʟআȥɔʁɆʟȉʜɏ˘ɔʦɔʟʟȲɫȲˑȉɷʰेই13ΤɔʦȉʟɆʹɴȲɷʰɔʦɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰ Ʌʁʟ=ʁΦȲɷूȉʦɏȲʟȉʦʦȲʟʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦVenus of Urbino relates to licit sexuality within marriage is harder to prove if the sitter is a recognizable ȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷे*ɫʦȲ˒ɏȲʟȲ˒ȲȉʟȲʰʁɫȬআɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅʰɏȲʦɫȲȲʜɔɷɆɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲ ȉʟȲȦɏȉʟȉȦʰȲʟɔʦȲȬȥ˘ȉɷʁɷ˘ɴɔʰ˘ूইʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʦȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦ˒ȲʟȲȬȲɫɔȥȲʟȉʰȲɫ˘ multivalent to make them more sellable on the open market.14gʁʦʰ recently, these images have been interpreted as referring solely to male ɔȬȲɷʰɔʰ˘ेΤȲʦȲ˒ʁɴȲɷȉʟȲɴʹʦȲʦɅʁʟȉʟʰɔʦʰʦʦʁʰɏȲɔʟʟȲȉɫॼɫɔɅȲȲ˗ɔʦʰȲɷȦȲɔʦ not (and was not) of much interest to scholars; the images are related to (male) artistic identity, or ogled over as a means of homosocial bonding. THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 129 ɷ˘ʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʰʁȉʟȲȉɫ˒ʁɴȉɷɔʦȲΦȉȦȲȬɔɷɅȉˑʁʟʁɅআʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ɴȲɷɫʁʁɦ at images of women as well as . . . the way men look at other men looking ȉʰɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷेই15 Homosociability and artistic inspiration are both undeniably important factors in understanding these images (I discuss this in more detail below and in Chapter Five), but this scholarly approach has had a cost: women have been all but written out of the history of the Italian Renaissance female nude. If there were new structures in place for looking ȉʰȉɷȬʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦूʦʹʟȲɫ˘ʰɏɔʦȉΦȲȦʰȲȬ˒ʁɴȲɷʰʁʁै Disgusting, Sinful, Beautiful bodies ÂʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦ˒ȲʟȲʰɏȲʁȥɣȲȦʰʁɅɴȉɫȲɅȉʦȦɔɷȉʰɔʁɷȉɷȬʟȲʜʹɫʦɔʁɷे JɷȦʟȲȉʦɔɷɆɫ˘ɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɴɔȬॼʰɏɔʟʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʁɷ˒ȉʟȬʦूʰɏȲআʦȲȦʟȲʰʦইʁɅʰɏȲ female reproductive system became an obsession for Italian medical men who sought to reveal areas of the female body previously unknown to their male readership.16gȲȬɔȦȉɫɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲʁɷ˒ʁɴȲɷ˒ȉʦʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫɫ˘२ʰɏʁʹɆɏɷʁʰ always) misogynist in varying ways: sometimes presenting the female sex as ɫʹʦʰɅʹɫूȬȉɷɆȲʟʁʹʦूɫɔȉȥɫȲʰʁʜʁɔʦʁɷɴȲɷ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɔʟɴȲɷʦʰʟʹȉɫζʹɔȬʦौ˒ɏɔɫȲ in other instances women are merely shown as a danger to themselves because of their natural frailty and intellectual inferiority.17 Girolamo gȉɷɅʟȲȬɔউʦȉʰʰɔʰʹȬȲɔɷɏɔʦʜʁʜʹɫȉʟɏȉɷȬȥʁʁɦ̨ǱǱǈɥɀȶɥÄȎʗ is typical. He Ȳ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʦुআÂɏ˘˒ʁɴȲɷȉʟȲɴʁʟȲɔɴʜʟʹȬȲɷʰȉɷȬɅʁʁɫɔʦɏʰɏȉɷɴȲɷইु Because women have much narrower and smaller pores than men, so ʰɏȲ˘ȦȉɷɷʁʰȲˑȉȦʹȉʰȲˑȉʜʁʟʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɔʟɏȲȉȬेgʁʟȲʁˑȲʟू˒ʁɴȲɷɏȉˑȲ wet and warm complexions. So that if they generate in their head very gross vapors and . . . swirling noxious gases that they cannot purge out of their head through their pores, there cannot be women who are prudent and wise, or only very rarely.18 gȉɷɅʟȲȬɔूɫɔɦȲɴȉɷ˘ȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʰɏɔɷɦȲʟʦूȥȲɫɔȲˑȲȬʰɏȉʰ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦ imperfect bodies inevitably compromised their behavior and intellect. Half-formed in the womb due to a lack of heat, women spent their lives ȬʁɴɔɷȉʰȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɔʟȦʁɫȬȉɷȬ˒ȲʰɏʹɴʁʟʦेΤȲ˘˒ȲʟȲȬȲȲɴȲȬɷȉʰʹʟȉɫɫ˘ passive and intellectually weak, prone to foolishness and easily led by their emotions.19 Even pro-female Renaissance writers argued that women ɷȲȲȬȲȬʰʁʁˑȲʟȦʁɴȲʰɏȲɫɔɴɔʰȉʰɔʁɷʦʁɅʰɏȲɔʟȥʁȬɔȲʦेΤʹʦʁȦȦȉȦȦɔʁ was initiating a familiar trope in his On Famous Women (1374) when he ȥȲɴʁȉɷȲȬɏʁ˒ɔɷʰɏȲȦȉʦȲʁɅʁɷȲȥʟȉˑȲ˒ʁɴȉɷूআʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɦɔɷɆʦʁɅɷȉʰʹʟȲ erred in bestowing female sex on a body that God had endowed with a ˑɔʟɔɫȲȉɷȬɫʁδ˘ʦʜɔʟɔʰेই20 130 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Τʁɴȉʦ^ȉ̍ʹȲʹʟȉʟɆʹȲʦूɔɷʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʰʁȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲȉɷȉʰʁɴɔȦȉɫʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲू ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȉʦআʁɷɫ˘ʁɷȲȦȉɷʁɷɔȦȉɫȥʁȬ˘ȉɷȬʰɏȉʰȥʁȬ˘˒ȉʦɴȉɫȲेইEȲ avers that for most Renaissance thinkers, the vagina was an inverted penis, the ovaries poor versions of testicles, both remaining inside the ȥʁȬ˘ȥȲȦȉʹʦȲ˒ʁɴȲɷȬɔȬɷʁʰʜʁʦʦȲʦʦʦʹΪȦɔȲɷʰɏȲȉʰʰʁʜʹʦɏʰɏȲɴʁʹʰे21 For this reason, the argument goes, in early anatomical books, the bodies used to demonstrate human physiology are always male unless the female ʟȲʜʟʁȬʹȦʰɔˑȲʦ˘ʦʰȲɴɔʦʦʜȲȦɔεȦȉɫɫ˘ȥȲɔɷɆʦʰʹȬɔȲȬे^ȉ̍ʹȲʹʟȲˑȲɷɆɔˑȲʦ several examples of women seemingly turning into men and growing a penis.22EɔʦȬʁɆɴȉʰɔʦɴɏȉʦʟɔɆɏʰɫ˘ȦʁɴȲʹɷȬȲʟεʟȲȥ˘ʦȦɏʁɫȉʟʦ˒ȉɷʰɔɷɆ to nuance his pronouncements about the one-sex model. It has been convincingly pointed out by Katharine Park, Joan Cadden, and others ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲȬɔΦȲʟȲɷȦȲʦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʰɏȲʦȲ˗Ȳʦ˒ȲʟȲȥȲɫɔȲˑȲȬʰʁȥȲɫȲʦʦʜʁʟʁʹʦ ʰɏȉɷ^ȉ̍ʹȲʹʟʦʹηȲʦʰʦȉɷȬूɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰɫ˘ूʰɏȉʰɴȉɷ˘ȦʁɷζɔȦʰɔɷɆȥȲɫɔȲɅʦ ȉȥʁʹʰɆȲɷȬȲʟȬɔΦȲʟȲɷȦȲȦʁॼȲ˗ɔʦʰȲȬɔɷʰɏɔʦʜȲʟɔʁȬौ^ȉ̍ʹȲʹʟউʦɴʁȬȲɫʁɷɫ˘ represents a relatively minor strand of thought about a complex issue.23 As noted, the female reproductive system was a constant preoccupation for anatomists and other medical writers during this period.24 However, that women were the second sex was undoubtedly the prevalent understanding of their intellect and physicality. In a context where the idealized nude was understood to be a test of artistic prowess, this caused certain problems. In previous chapters, the artistic theory growing up around the male nude has been linked to ideas about perfected humanity, ȉȥʁʹʰআȬɔˑɔɷȲইȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȉɷȬɔȬȲȉɫআȦʁɷȦȲʜʰɔʁɷʦेইΤȲɫȲȉɦ˘ूɴʁɔʦʰूȦɏȉɷɆȲȉȥɫȲू ȬȉɷɆȲʟʁʹʦɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘εʰʦʹɷȲȉʦɔɫ˘ɔɷʰʁʰɏɔʦɔɷʰȲɫɫȲȦʰʹȉɫɅʟȉɴȲ˒ʁʟɦेEʁ˒ would one create a representation of a perfect naked woman in a context ˒ɏȲʟȲ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦ˒ȲʟȲूȥ˘ȬȲεɷɔʰɔʁɷूɔɷɅȲʟɔʁʟैΤɔʦɔɷȲˑɔʰȉȥɫ˘ɴȲȉɷʰ that the depiction of the female nude was not governed by the same intellectual criteria as that of the male: a Vitruvian woman would have been an impossibility in the Italian context.25gʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूȉʦJȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬ ɔɷɏȉʜʰȲʟsɷȲू˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȉɫɫʹʟɔɷɆʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫɔʰ˘˒ȉʦɔɷɏȲʟȲɷʰɫ˘ȬȉɷɆȲʟʁʹʦू ʜʁʰȲɷʰɔȉɫɫ˘ɫȲȉȬɔɷɆʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʰʁʦɔɷɅʹɫʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʦʁɅɫʹʦʰेÂȲɏȉˑȲȉɫʟȲȉȬ˘ ʦȲȲɷʰɏɔʦˑȲʟ˘ʜʟʁȥɫȲɴʁʹʰɫɔɷȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰgȉɷʹȲɫɏʟ˘ʦʁɫʁʟȉʦɔɷʰɏȲ ࢾࣁࢾࢽʦू˒ɏɔȦɏɫȲȬɏɔɴʰʁȲɫȉȥʁʟȉʰȲʁɷȲʁɅʰɏȲεʟʦʰʰɏȲʁʟɔȲʦʁɅȉʟʰूȉʟɆʹɔɷɆ ʰɏȉʰɏɔʦȉȬɴɔʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅআȥȲȉʹʰɔȲʦই˒ȉʦɷʁʰȥȲȦȉʹʦȲɏȲ˒ȉʦȉআȥʁʁʟɔʦɏɆȉɫɫȉɷʰই ȥʹʰȥȲȦȉʹʦȲɏȲ˒ȉʦȉȬɴɔʟɔɷɆআʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɴɔɷȬইʁɅʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰे26 ΤȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲʰ˒ʁɴȉɔɷȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʟȲʦʜʁɷʦȲʦʰʁʰɏȲʦȲɔʦʦʹȲʦɔɷʰɏȲεʟʦʰɏȉɫɅʁɅ ʰɏȲʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेΤȲεʟʦʰɫȉ˘ɔɷʦȲȲɦɔɷɆʰʁআʜȲʟɅȲȦʰইʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ through making it more masculine. Androgynous nudes insist on their আȦʟȲȉʰȲȬɷȲʦʦইȉʦʁʜʜʁʦȲȬʰʁˑɔʦʹȉɫɴɔɴɔȦʟ˘ʁɅআʟȲȉɫইȥʁȬɔȲʦौʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ɔʦ ȦɫȲȉʟɫ˘εȦʰɔˑȲूȲɴȲʟɆɔɷɆɅʟʁɴʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦɴɔɷȬेʦJ˒ɔɫɫȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȥȲɫʁ˒ू this was found to be an unsatisfactory solution by many commentators. ΤȲʦȲȦʁɷȬʟȲʦʜʁɷʦȲ˒ȉʦʰʁʜʟȉɔʦȲ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɔɷȉ˒ȉ˘ʰɏȉʰ gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 131 elevated the discourse, transforming what could be seen as problematic ʦȦʁʜʁʜɏɔɫɔȉɔɷʰʁȉʰȲʦʰʁɅɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰȉɷȬɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲɅʁʟʰɏʁʦȲɔɷʰɏȲɦɷʁ˒ॹ in other words, connoisseurship. From around the 1510s, it starts to be a literary commonplace that despite ʰɏȲɔʟʜʟʁȥɫȲɴʦू˒ʁɴȲɷȬʁɏȉˑȲʁɷȲ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ɔɷ˒ɏɔȦɏʰɏȲ˘ȉʟȲʦʹʜȲʟɔʁʟ ʰʁɴȲɷुȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेΤɔʦʦɔɆɷȉɫʦȉȦɏȉɷɆȲɔɷʰɏȲɆȲɷȬȲʟȲȬʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʁɅ ʰɏɔʦ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ेȲȦȲɷʰʦʰʹȬɔȲʦʁɅJʰȉɫɔȉɷɴȉɫȲȲɫɔʰȲʦɔɷʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ ɏȉˑȲʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬʰɏȉʰɅȉɔʟɷȲʦʦूȥȲȉʹʰ˘ूʟȉȬɔȉɷȦȲूȉɷȬʦʜɫȲɷȬʁʟ˒ȲʟȲ̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦ associated with men as much as, if not more than, women.27 By the early sixteenth century, this starts to change as close attention is given to what it means to be female. Texts dedicated to thinking about the nature of women – a genre called the querrelles des femmes२ʰɏȲ˒ʁɴȉɷ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷ३ॹȲ˗ɔʦʰȲȬɅʟʁɴ ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘εδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ȥʹʰʜʟʁɫɔɅȲʟȉʰȲȬɔɷJʰȉɫ˘ɅʟʁɴʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏे28 sȦȦȉʦɔʁɷȉɫɫ˘ʰɏȲʦȲʰȲ˗ʰʦ˒ȲʟȲʜɫȉɔɷɫ˘ɴɔʦʁɆ˘ɷɔʦʰɔȦूȥʹʰɴʁʟȲʁδȲɷɔɷʰɏɔʦ period they were positive, dwelling on areas where women were superior to their male counterparts, with the author intent on describing the ideal ˒ʁɴȉɷेgȉɷ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʦȲȥʁʁɦʦ˒ȲʟȲʰʟȉɷʦɫȉʰɔʁɷʦʁʟɫʁʁʦȲȉȬȉʜʰȉʰɔʁɷʦʁɅȉʰȲ˗ʰ ʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫɫ˘˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷɔɷ^ȉʰɔɷुEȲɷʟɔȦʹʦʁʟɷȲɫɔʹʦɆʟɔʜʜȉউʦDeclamation on the lɀǤȓȪȓɯʗǈȶǫɞǱǱȳȓȶǱȶǥǱɀȄɯȎǱ>ǱȳǈȪǱǱʖू˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷɔɷࢾࣂࢽࣆȉɷȬεʟʦʰʜʹȥɫɔʦɏȲȬ ࢿࢽ˘ȲȉʟʦɫȉʰȲʟेΤȲʦȲʰȲ˗ʰʦूȉɫɴʁʦʰ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȲ˗ȦȲʜʰɔʁɷू˒ȲʟȲ˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷȥ˘ɴȲɷ ȉɷȬȉȦʰȲȬȉʦȉɴȲȉɷʦɅʁʟɴȉɫȲȥʁɷȬɔɷɆे$ȲʦʜɔʰȲʰɏȲɔʟʦʰȉʰȲȬȉɔɴूʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲ also blueprints for female failure: the universal perfect woman they put forward as an exemplar was fundamentally unachievable.29 ΤȲȉʹʰɏʁʟʦʁɅʰɏȲআ˒ʁɴȉɷ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷইɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲȉɫɫʰȲɷȬʰʁȉɆʟȲȲʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʟȲ ˒ȉʦʁɷȲȉʟȲȉ˒ɏȲʟȲ˒ʁɴȲɷȦʁʹɫȬȲ˗ȦȲɫुআȉɫɫʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˒ɏʁɫȲ˒ʁʟɫȬ ɏʁɫȬʦू=ʁȬɆȉʰɏȲʟȲȬʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟȉɷȬɆȉˑȲʰʁ˒ʁɴȉɷूইȬȲȦɫȉʟȲȬɫȲʦʦȉɷȬʟʁ Piccolomini in his loose translation of Agrippa of 1549.30ΤȲgɔɫȉɷȲʦȲ writer Galeazzo Flavio Capra, in his uȶɯȎǱ,ʖǥǱȪȪǱȶǥǱǈȶǫ&ȓȅȶȓɯʗɀȄÄɀȳǱȶ (1525), explained that although men could possess a kind of beauty, with আȬɔɆɷɔʰ˘ȉɷȬɴȉɣȲʦʰ˘ूইɔʰȬɔȬɷʁʰʜʟʁˑʁɦȲʰɏȲʦȉɴȲআȉʰʰʟȉȦʰɔʁɷɅʹɫɫʁɅȬȲʦɔʟȲই ȉʦʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷुআɷȬʰɏʁʦȲ˒ɏʁ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɔʟɆȲɷɔʹʦɏȉˑȲȉʰʰȲɴʜʰȲȬ ʰʁɔɴɔʰȉʰȲʰɏȲɴȉʟˑȲɫʁʹʦȉʟʰɔεȦȲʁɅɷȉʰʹʟȲू˒ȉɷʰɔɷɆʰʁɴȉɦȲȉʦʰȉʰʹȲʰɏȉʰ was the norm and rule to other paintings and sculptures of beauty, made it ȉʦȉ˒ʁɴȉɷेेेȉɷȬɴʁȬȲʟɷʜȉɔɷʰȲʟʦȉɷȬʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟʦȉɆʟȲȲʰɏȉʰ˘ʁʹεɷȬɴʹȦɏ more delicacy, proportion and, if one can say this, perfection in female ȥʁȬɔȲʦेই31 Although it is hard to trace this assertion in real artistic practice, the idea that women are found the most beautiful by those in the know is ʟȲʜȲȉʰȲȬɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ɔɷɫȉʰȲεδȲȲɷʰɏॼȉɷȬȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘˒ʟɔʰɔɷɆʦे32 Indeed, several texts of the 1520s to 1550s focused solely on the beauty of women and the ability of this beauty to evoke love. As I will discuss below, ɴȉɷ˘ȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʰʁʟʦȲȦɏʁȉʜʟȉউʦȲɫɔʦɔʁɷȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷɅȉȥʟɔȦȉʰȲȬ beauty in painting and sculpture and the beauty of real women. 132 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ÂɏȲɷȉʦʦȲʦʦɔɷɆȉɷȬȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟɔɷɆʰɏȲɷȉʰʹʟȲʁɅȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɴȉɷ˘ूȥʹʰɷʁʰȉɫɫू ȉʦʦȲʦʦȲȬ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȲɷʰɔʟȲȥʁȬɔȲʦूɅʟʁɴɏȲȉȬʰʁɅʁʁʰूɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆʜȉʟʰʦʰɏȉʰ were normally hidden under clothes – the arms, breasts, legs, thighs, ɆȲɷɔʰȉɫʦूȉɷȬȥʹʰʰʁȦɦʦेδȲʟȉɫɫूȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁ^ʁȬʁˑɔȦʁ$ʁɴȲɷɔȦɏɔूআʰɏȲʟȲ ɔʦɷʁɷȉʰʹʟȉɫ˒ʁʟɦʰɏȉʰȉʜʜȲȉʟʦʦʁȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȉʦȉȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȉɷेই33 <ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁ^ʹɔɆɔɷɔू˒ʟɔʰɔɷɆɔɷࢾࣂࣂࣁूȉɆʟȲȲʦुআȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȉɷɔʦ more beautiful than one dressed in imperial purple . . . a woman who is ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˒ɏȲɷȬʟȲʦʦȲȬेेेɔʦȲˑȲɷɴʁʟȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˒ɏȲɷ̍ʹɔʰȲɷȉɦȲȬेই34 ΤɔʦूȉʦJȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȥȲɫʁ˒ू˒ȉʦȉɷȲ˒ȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰɅʁʟʰɏȲȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷʁɅ ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेȉʟȉɫɫȲɫ˒ɔʰɏȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʦɔɷȥʁʰɏʰɏȲˑɔʦʹȉɫȉʟʰʦȉɷȬ ȉɷȉʰʁɴ˘ू˒ɏȲʟȲ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦআʦȲȦʟȲʰʦইॹʰɏȲɔʟɆȲɷɔʰȉɫɔȉȉɷȬʟȲʜʟʁȬʹȦʰɔˑȲ ʦ˘ʦʰȲɴॹȥȲȦȉɴȲʟȲˑȲȉɫȲȬʰʁʰɏȲȲɷ̍ʹɔʟɔɷɆɴȉɫȲɆȉˢȲूɔʰȥȲȦȉɴȲɫɔȦɔʰɅʁʟ ʰɏʁʦȲʦȲȦʟȲʰʜȉʟʰʦȉɫʦʁʰʁȥȲɣʹȬɆȲȬɅʁʟʰɏȲɔʟȉʰʰʟȉȦʰɔˑȲɷȲʦʦे35 New Ways of Looking One: the Zeuxian Gaze A key text for understanding new attitudes towards the female nude is ȉɫȬȉʦʦȉʟȲȉʦʰɔɆɫɔʁɷȲউʦ̨ǱɀɀȥɀȄɯȎǱ ɀɸɞɯȓǱɞ, in circulation in various ɅʁʟɴʦɅʟʁɴࢾࣂࢽࣅȥʹʰεʟʦʰʜʹȥɫɔʦɏȲȬࢿࢽ˘ȲȉʟʦɫȉʰȲʟेʦɔʦ˒Ȳɫɫɦɷʁ˒ɷू ʰɏɔʦ˒ʁʟɦ˒ȉʦআʟȲȉȬɅȉɷȉʰɔȦȉɫɫ˘ইौɔʰ˒ȉʦʁɷȲʁɅʰɏȲɴʁʦʰɔɷζʹȲɷʰɔȉɫȉɷȬ widely read books in Europe in the sixteenth century.36 At the end of the εʟʦʰȥʁʁɦूʰɏȲʟȲɔʦȉȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷȉȥʁʹʰɏʁ˒ȦʁʹʟʰɔȲʟʦʦɏʁʹɫȬȉʜʜʟȲȦɔȉʰȲ painting and sculpture. It ends with a consideration of beauty, where Count Ludovico da Canossa explains how knowledge of the visual ȉʟʰʦɆɔˑȲʦʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟɆʟȲȉʰȲʟʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲȉɷȬȥȲʰʰȲʟɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰɔɷˑɔȲ˒ɔɷɆ beautiful women: . . . having a knowledge of painting is a cause of very great pleasure. And let those think of this, who so delight in contemplating a ˒ʁɴȉɷউʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ɅȲȲɫɔɷʜȉʟȉȬɔʦȲूȉɷȬ˘ȲʰȦȉɷɷʁʰʜȉɔɷʰू which if they could do they would have much greater pleasure, because they would more perfectly appreciate that beauty which engenders such satisfaction in their hearts. . . . I think that Apelles Ȳɷɣʁ˘ȲȬʰɏȲȦʁɷʰȲɴʜɫȉʰɔʁɷʁɅȉɴʜȉʦʜȲউʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɅȉʟɴʁʟȲʰɏȉɷ ɫȲ˗ȉɷȬȲʟȬɔȬेेेेEȉˑȲɷউʰ˘ʁʹʟȲȉȬʰɏȉʰʰɏʁʦȲεˑȲɴȉɔȬȲɷʦɅʟʁɴ ʟʁʰʁɷू˒ɏʁɴʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟÒȲʹ˗ɔʦȦɏʁʦȲȉȥʁˑȲʰɏȲʁʰɏȲʟʦʁɅʰɏȉʰȦɔʰ˘ ɅʁʟʰɏȲʜʹʟʜʁʦȲʁɅɅʁʟɴɔɷɆɅʟʁɴȉɫɫεˑȲȉʦɔɷɆɫȲεɆʹʟȲʁɅʦʹʟʜȉʦʦɔɷɆ ȥȲȉʹʰ˘ू˒ȲʟȲȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬȥ˘ɴȉɷ˘ʜʁȲʰʦȉʦɏȉˑɔɷɆȥȲȲɷɣʹȬɆȲȬ ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȥ˘ʁɷȲ˒ɏʁɴʹʦʰɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷʰɏȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɣʹȬɆȲʁɅȥȲȉʹʰ˘ै37 ΤȲ˒ɏʁɫȲʁɅ̨ǱɀɀȥɀȄɯȎǱ ɀɸɞɯȓǱɞ is steeped in visual language; indeed ɔʰʦˑȲʟ˘ʜʟʁɣȲȦʰॹʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʁɅɅʁʟɴɔɷɆȉʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɴȉɷʰʁʦȲʟˑȲʰɏȲʜʟɔɷȦȲॹɔʦ gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 133 ʹɷȉȥɫȲʁʟʹɷ˒ɔɫɫɔɷɆʰʁȬȲʜɔȦʰɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȲɷȉȦȦʹʟȉʰȲɫ˘ेΤɔʦȉʟɆʹɴȲɷʰ has now rightly been shown to be naive.39 Besides being a very crude interpretation of how sexuality intersects with artistic production, a ȥʟɔȲɅɆɫȉɷȦȲȉʰgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁ˒ʦʰɏȉʰɷʁʰʁɷɫ˘ȬɔȬɏȲɴȉɦȲɫɔɅȲ Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȉδȲʟʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲ२ʦȲȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूεɆेࣁेࢾࣃ३ूȥʹʰȉɫʦʁʰɏȉʰ ɏȲȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬȉ˒ɔȬȲʟȉɷɆȲʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦेʦɷʁʰȲȬूʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆ ȉɫʁɷȲɔɷȦɫʹȬȲʦɴȉɷ˘ʰ˘ʜȲʦʁɅɅȲɴȉɫȲεɆʹʟȲʦ.40 ΤȲɴȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʦʁɴȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦ˒ȉʦूʟȉʰɏȲʟूȉ deliberate visual choice, steeped in wider ideas about art theory and gender. ΤȲLibyan SibylʁɷʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲɏȉʜȲɫȦȲɔɫɔɷɆɔʦȉȦȉʦȲɔɷʜʁɔɷʰ२εɆेࣁेࣁ३े ʜʟȲʜȉʟȉʰʁʟ˘Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆɅʁʟʰɏɔʦɔɴȉɆȲ२εɆेࣁेࣂ३ɔʦȦɫȲȉʟɫ˘ȬȲʟɔˑȲȬɅʟʁɴȉʦʰʹȬ˘ ʁɅʰɏȲɴʹʦȦɫȲʦʁɅʰɏȲȥȉȦɦʁɅȉɷȉɦȲȬɴȉɷेʹɔʰȉȥɫȲɅʁʟʰɏȲʜʁ˒ȲʟɅʹɫεɆʹʟȲ ʁɅȉʜʟʁʜɏȲʰɔȦ˘ȥɔɫूʰɏɔʦɴȉʦȦʹɫɔɷɔˢȉʰɔʁɷȉɫʦʁ̍ʹɔʰȲȬȲɫɔȥȲʟȉʰȲɫ˘Ȭɔʦʜɫȉ˘ȲȬȉ type of androgynous beauty that was self-consciously idealistic.41 As we saw ɔɷɏȉʜʰȲʟΤʟȲȲूgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦ˒ȲʟȲȉȥʦʰʟȉȦʰɔʁɷʦʰɏȉʰɴɔɆɏʰ ɏȉˑȲʦʰȉʟʰȲȬʁΦɔɷɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆूȥʹʰ˒ȲʟȲˑȲʟ˘ɴʹȦɏȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʦʁɅʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦ ȥʟʹʦɏेΤȲʦȉɴȲɔʦʰʟʹȲ˒ɔʰɏɏɔʦɅȲɴȉɫȲεɆʹʟȲʦे Fig. 4.4. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूLibyan Sibyl, 1510–12. Fresco. Sistine Chapel ceiling, Vatican, Rome. Fig. 4.5. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूStudy for the Libyan Sibyl, 1510. Red chalk on paper. gȲʰʟʁʜʁɫɔʰȉɷgʹʦȲʹɴूjȲ˒Èʁʟɦे a way of thinking that is akin to, even perhaps inspired by, the triumph of artists in forming perfect bodies in a visual idiom.38ȉʦʰɔɆɫɔʁɷȲউʦ˒ʁʟȬʦɔɷ ʰɏȲ̍ʹʁʰȲȬʜȉʦʦȉɆȲȲɷȦȉʜʦʹɫȉʰȲȉɷȲ˒ȬʁɴɔɷȉɷʰɴʁȬȲʁɅɫʁʁɦɔɷɆɔɷʰɏȲ Ȳȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेΤȲʰȲ˗ʰɔʦʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫूȲˑȲɷȉʟȦɏȲʰ˘ʜȉɫूɔɷʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɣʁ˘ʦ of looking at a beautiful painting and looking at a beautiful woman are ȲɫɔȬȲȬौʰɏȲɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰʟȲ̍ʹɔʟȲȬʰʁȉʦʦȲʦʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɔʦʰɏȲʦȉɴȲɔɷȥʁʰɏȦȉʦȲʦे ¢˒ʁ˒Ȳɫɫॼɦɷʁ˒ɷȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʰȉɫȲʦȉʟȲɴȲɷʰɔʁɷȲȬʰʁʦʹʜʜʁʟʰȉʦʰɔɆɫɔʁɷȲউʦ ȦȉʦȲॹʜȲɫɫȲʦȉɷȬȉɴʜȉʦʜȲू˒ɏɔȦɏJ˒ɔɫɫȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȥȲɫʁ˒ूȉɷȬÒȲʹ˗ɔʦȉɷȬ ʰɏȲɴȉɔȬȲɷʦʁɅʟʁʰʁɷेΤɔʦɫȉʰʰȲʟʦʰʁʟ˘˒ȉʦȉɫʦʁȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȲȬɔɷɏȉʜʰȲʟ ΤʟȲȲȉʦȉɅʁʹɷȬȉʰɔʁɷȉɫʰȲ˗ʰɅʁʟʜʟʁȦȲʦʦȲʦʁɅȦʟȲȉʰɔɷɆʰɏȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲ form, discussed in some detail by Alberti in his On Sculpture. It describes ɏʁ˒ʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟÒȲʹ˗ɔʦूɏȉˑɔɷɆʰʁȦʟȲȉʰȲȉɷɔɴȉɆȲʁɅʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫEȲɫȲɷʁɅ Troy, decided to make her a composite beauty, putting together the most beautiful parts of many beautiful women. ΤȲɔɴʜȉȦʰʁɅʰɏɔʦʦʰʁʟ˘ɔʦɅȉʟॼʟȲȉȦɏɔɷɆɅʁʟȥʁʰɏɴȉɫȲȉɷȬɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦू ȥʹʰɔɷȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰ˒ȉ˘ʦे<ʁʟʦʁɴȲȦȲɷʰʟȉɫJʰȉɫɔȉɷȉʟʰɔʦʰʦूɴʁʦʰɷʁʰȉȥɫ˘ gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁȉɷȬɏɔʦɅʁɫɫʁ˒ȲʟʦूɔʰȦʁɷʦʰɔʰʹʰȲȬȉɴʁȬȲʁɅʁʜȲʟȉʰɔʁɷɅʁʟ ʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦ˒ɏȉʰȲˑȲʟʰɏȲɆȲɷȬȲʟेʁɴȲȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȉʰʁʟʦ ɏȉˑȲʦȲȲɷgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦআɴȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲইɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦȉʦʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦ sexuality, their logic being that a man sexually attracted to other men is 134 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ȲȦȲɷʰʟȲʦȲȉʟȦɏɏȉʦʹɷȦʁˑȲʟȲȬȉɅȉʦɏɔʁɷɅʁʟȉɷȬʟʁɆ˘ɷ˘ɔɷʰɏȲεʟʦʰɅȲ˒ ȬȲȦȉȬȲʦʁɅʰɏȲʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʰɏȉʰʦʹηȲʦʰʦ˒ɏ˘gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦɅȲɴȉɫȲ ɷʹȬȲʦ˒ȲʟȲʦʁʜʟȉɔʦȲȬेΤȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूʰɏȲʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫʟȲȉʦʁɷʦ˒ɏ˘ the most perfect human form might be androgynous. Eve was created from ȬȉɴউʦʟɔȥूȉɷȬɅʁʟʦʁɴȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲʰɏɔɷɦȲʟʦʰɏɔʦɴȲȉɷʰʰɏȲʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫɏʹɴȉɷʦ contained both male and female elements.42 For example in his Dialogues of Love२˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣁࣆࢽʦȥʹʰεʟʦʰʜʹȥɫɔʦɏȲȬɔɷࢾࣂࣀࣂ३ू^ȲʁɷȲ*ȥʟȲʁȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʦ that when God created Adam he was a complete human, containing both male and female parts; Eve was created from his rib while he was sleeping, as women represent the imperfect, passive, and corporeal aspect of men, who are representative of the intellectual and spiritual tendencies of humans.43 Perhaps it is only logical then that for some the most beautiful women were those who looked the most like that perfect original form. Like is ȉʰʰʟȉȦʰȲȬʰʁɫɔɦȲूgȉʟʦɔɫɔʁ<ɔȦɔɷʁȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬुআÂʁɴȲɷʰʟʹɫ˘Ȳȉʦɔɫ˘ȦȉʜʰʹʟȲ men, and even more those women who bear a masculine character. And even more easily, men catch men, as they are more like men than are ˒ʁɴȲɷेই44ɔɴɔɫȉʟɫ˘ूȉɅʁɫɫʁ˒ȲʟʁɅ<ɔȦɔɷʁूgȉʟɔʁ*̍ʹɔȦʁɫȉूȦɫȉɔɴȲȬɔɷࢾࣂࢿࣂ ʰɏȉʰআʰɏȲȲΦȲɴɔɷȉʰȲɴȉɫȲȉɷȬʰɏȲɴȉɷɫ˘ɅȲɴȉɫȲȉʟȲɆʟȉȦȲɅʹɫɔɷȉɫɴʁʦʰ ȲˑȲʟ˘ȉʦʜȲȦʰेই45ʁɴȲ˘ȲȉʟʦɫȉʰȲʟू^ʁȬʁˑɔȦʁ$ʁɴȲɷɔȦɏɔȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ ɫȉʰʁɷɔȦɔȬȲȉɫʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬʰɏȉʰআɷȲɔʰɏȲʟɴȉɷ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰ˒ʁɴȉɷɷʁʟʰɏȲ˒ʁɴȉɷ ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰɴȉɷɔʦʜȲʟɅȲȦʰेই46 ΤȲʦȲȦʁɴʜʁʦɔʰȲɷʹȬȲʦ˒ȲʟȲɴȲȉɷʰʰʁȥȲʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬȉʦআȉʟʰইʟȉʰɏȲʟ ʰɏȉɷআɷȉʰʹʟȲই२ʁʟʟȉʰɏȲʟȉʟʰȬȲɴʁɷʦʰʟȉʰɔɷɆɷȉʰʹʟȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȲȬ३ȉɷȬ˒ȲʟȲ seen as such in the sophisticated cultural discourse of the mid-sixteenth gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 135 century.47 As with many cultural trends, however, the admiration for androgyny was not universal. A discomfort with the muscled nude women ʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁ˒ȉʦȲˑɔȬȲɷʰȉɴʁɷɆʦʰɏɔʦȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟɔȲʦूȉʰɫȲȉʦʰȥ˘ʰɏȲ mid-sixteenth century, when commentators start to complain about a lack ʁɅˑȉʟɔȲʰ˘ɔɷɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦेΤʹʦɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ࢾࣂࣂࢽʦɔʟʟʁ^ɔɆʁʟɔʁȦʁɴʜɫȉɔɷȲȬ ȉȥʁʹʰʜȉɔɷʰȲʟʦ˒ɏʁɴȉȬȲআ˒ʁɴȲɷ˒ɔʰɏȲɴʁʰɔʁɷʦȉɷȬȉʜʜȲȉʟȉɷȦȲʦʰɏȉʰ seem so far removed from feminine delicacy that a painter of pumpkins would be ashamed of them, with . . . harsh muscles and breasts like citrons, ȉɷȬʰɏȲ˘ȉʟȲʦʁɴʹʦȦʹɫȉʟȉɷȬʦʰʟȉɷɆȲɫ˘ʜʹʰʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟेই48 Around the same ʰɔɴȲूɔɷ^ʁȬʁˑɔȦʁ$ʁɫȦȲউʦࢾࣂࣂࣄȉʟʰʰʟȲȉʰɔʦȲʰɏȲAretinoूgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɔʦ explicitly named, compared with Raphael, and found wanting: ȉʦɅʁʟʰɏȲɷʹȬȲूgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɔʦʦʰʹʜȲɷȬʁʹʦȉɷȬʰʟʹɫ˘ɴɔʟȉȦʹɫʁʹʦेेे but in only one mode . . . that is in making a nude body muscular and elaborated, with foreshortenings and bold movements, which show ʁΦɔɷȬȲʰȉɔɫȲˑȲʟ˘ȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦʜʟʁȥɫȲɴेेे०ȥʹʰ१ɏȲȬʁȲʦɷʁʰʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲ or else is unwilling to take into account those distinctions between the ages and the sexes . . . to wind the matter up, the man who sees a εɆʹʟȲȥ˘gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɏȉʦʦȲȲɷʰɏȲɴȉɫɫे49 JʰʦȲȲɴʦʰɏȉʰʦʁɴȲȦʟɔʰɔȦʦʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬʰɏȉʰɅʁʟɏɔʦɅȲɴȉɫȲεɆʹʟȲʦ gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁ˒ȉʦɅʁɫɫʁ˒ɔɷɆʰɏȲȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦʟȲȦʁɴɴȲɷȬȲȬɔɷ <ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜʦɅʁʟʰɏȲɔʟɴȉɫȲȦʁʹɷʰȲʟʜȉʟʰʦूআȦʁʟʟȲȦʰɔɷɆইʰɏȲɔʟ ɔɴʜȲʟɅȲȦʰʜɏ˘ʦɔ̍ʹȲʦȥ˘ʜɫȉȦɔɷɆʰɏȲɴ˒ɔʰɏɔɷȉɴʁʟȲɴʹʦȦʹɫȉʟɅʟȉɴȲेJʰ˒ȉʦ ȉɫʁɆɔȦȉɫȲ˗ʰȲɷʦɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲÒȲʹ˗ɔʦʰʟʁʜȲे50ΤɔʦȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूʜʟʁˑȲȬ unsettling and unsatisfactory for some onlookers. JɅʰɏȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅÒȲʹ˗ɔʦɏȉȬȉȦɔʟȦʹɴʦȦʟɔȥȲȬȲΦȲȦʰʁɷȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏȲʦʰʁ ʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲूɔʰɔʦɏȉʟȬʰʁʦʹΪȦɔȲɷʰɫ˘ȲɴʜɏȉʦɔˢȲɔʰʦɔɷζʹȲɷȦȲʁɷɷȲ˒ ʰ˘ʜȲʦʁɅˑɔȲ˒ɔɷɆȉɷȬȉʦʦȲʦʦɔɷɆʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ेsδȲɷ in texts about the ideal woman, the (normally male) writer implicitly – and sometimes explicitly – takes on the role of a painter or sculptor forming ʰɏȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ेΤʹʦɔɷ̨ǱɀɀȥɀȄɯȎǱ ɀɸɞɯȓǱɞू=ɔʹɫɔȉɷʁȬȲউ gȲȬɔȦɔȦʁɴʜȉʟȲʦɏɔɴʦȲɫɅʰʁ˘ɆɴȉɫɔʁɷूʰɏȲɴ˘ʰɏɔȦȉɫʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟ˒ɏʁɅȲɫɫ ɔɷɫʁˑȲ˒ɔʰɏȉʦʰȉʰʹȲɏȲɏȉȬȦȉʟˑȲȬूȉʦɏȲɅȉʦɏɔʁɷʦȉ˒ʁɴȉɷআʰʁɏɔʦʁ˒ɷ ɫɔɦɔɷɆইʰɏȲɷ˒ɔɫɫআʰȉɦȲɏȲʟɅʁʟɴ˘ʁ˒ɷेই51ΤȲɔɷʰȲʟɫʁȦʹʰʁʟɔɷ^ʁȬʁˑɔȦʁ $ʁɴȲɷɔȦɏɔউʦ̨ǱlɀǤȓȪȓɯʗɀȄÄɀȳǱȶ is similarly told that he has acted like আȉɴʁʦʰɴȉʟˑȲɫʁʹʦʜȉɔɷʰȲʟू˘ʁʹɏȉˑȲȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬȉɴʁʦʰȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˒ʁɴȉɷʦʁ ˒ȲɫɫȉɷȬɆʟȉȦȲɅʹɫɫ˘˒ɔʰɏ˘ʁʹʟʦɦɔɫɫɅʹɫȥʟʹʦɏʁɅ˒ʁʟȬʦेই52ΤȲɷȉʟʟȉʰʁʟɔɷʰɏȲ Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1499, discussed in more detail in Chapter Five) in ȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟɔɷɆʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɏȲʟʁɔɷȲȉˑȲʟʦʰɏȉʰআJɣʹȬɆȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲȦʟȲȉʰʁʟʁɅʦʁ ȬɔɆɷɔεȲȬȉɷȬȉȬɴɔʟȉȥɫȲ˒ʁʟɦȦʁʹɫȬʁɷɫ˘ɏȉˑȲɅʁʟɴȲȬɔʰɅʁʟɏɔɴʦȲɫɅȉɷȬɅʁʟ ɏɔʦʁ˒ɷȲ˗ʰʟȲɴȲʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲेই53 136 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤȲɴʁʦʰȦʁɴɴʁɷȦʁɴʜȉʟɔʦʁɷɔʦʁɅʰɏȲ˒ʟɔʰȲʟʰʁÒȲʹ˗ɔʦेΤʹʦɆɷʁɫʁ Firenzuola in his On the Beauty of Women of 1548 explains his approach is আɔɴɔʰȉʰɔɷɆÒȲʹ˗ɔʦू˒ɏʁɏȉˑɔɷɆʰʁʜȉɔɷʰʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫEȲɫȲɷूʁɅȉɫɫʰɏȲɴʁʦʰ ȲɫȲɆȉɷʰɆɔʟɫʦʁɅʟʁʰʁɷूȦɏʁʦȲεˑȲूɅʟʁɴ˒ɏɔȦɏɏȲʰʁʁɦʰɏȲɴʁʦʰȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ part, and from others he did the same, thus making in his own form Helen, who was thought a most beautiful thing, so that in the whole of Greece ɷʁʁɷȲʰȉɫɦȲȬʁɅȉɷ˘ʰɏɔɷɆȲɫʦȲेই54ΤȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅÒȲʹ˗ɔʦɔʦɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ूȉɫɴʁʦʰ ʹȥɔ̍ʹɔʰʁʹʦɫ˘ूɷȉɴȲȬɔɷʰɏȲʦȲȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷʦʁɅʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷʁˑȲʟʰɏȲεʟʦʰ 50 years of the sixteenth century, and also spread into other textual worlds.55 ^ʹȬʁˑɔȦʁʟɔʁʦʰʁউʦOrlando furioso२εʟʦʰʜʹȥɫɔʦɏȲȬࢾࣂࢾࣃȉɷȬɔɷɔʰʦεɷȉɫˑȲʟʦɔʁɷ in 1532), for example, was, like ̨ǱɀɀȥɀȄɯȎǱ Courtier, a Renaissance bestseller. In its descriptions of female characters, it draws repeatedly on nascent artistic ʰɏȲʁʟ˘ूʦʹȦɏɔʰʦȬȲʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷʁɅȉɷȉɦȲȬȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɏȲʟʁɔɷȲूsɫ˘ɴʜɔȉुআɫȲʰʹʦʜʹʰ ɏȲʟɔɷ्ʟʁʰʁɷू˒ɏȲʟȲÒȲʹ˗ɔʦɴȉȬȲɏɔʦʰʟɔȥʹʰȉʟ˘्ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆɅʁʟXʹɷʁউʦʰȲɴʜɫȲे JʰɏȉʦȥȲȲɷ्ʦȉɔȬʰɏȉʰɏȲɆȉʰɏȲʟȲȬɷʹȬȲʦɅʟʁɴȲˑȲʟ˘˒ɏȲʟȲɏȲ्ȦʁʹɫȬεɷȬʰɏȲɴू ʰȉɦɔɷɆʜȉʟʰʦɅʟʁɴȲȉȦɏʰʁʦ˘ɷॼ्ʰɏȲʦɔˢȲʰɏȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰ˒ʁɴȉɷे२ʹʰ०sɫ˘ɴʜɔȉউʦ१ˑȲʟ˘ ्ζȉ˒ɫȲʦʦɷȲʦʦ˒ʁʹɫȬɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷʦʹΪȦɔȲɷʰुʰɏȲʟȲʦʰ्˒ȲʟȲ̍ʹɔʰȲʹɷɷȲȦȲʦʦȉʟ˘Ʌʁʟ ɏɔʦ̍ʹȲʦʰे३ই56ΤȲɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫ˒ʁɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲʦʁȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ɴȉȬȲ ʰɏȲÒȲʹ˗ɔȉɷɴȲʰɏʁȬʟȲȬʹɷȬȉɷʰ˒ȉʦȉɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰʰʟʁʜȲɔɷȉ˒ɔȬȲʟȉɷɆȲʁɅɫɔʰȲʟȉʟ˘ forms. In the Hypnerotomachia PoliphiliूʰʁʁूʰɏȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅÒȲʹ˗ɔʦɔʦȲˑʁɦȲȬ˒ɏȲɷ ȬȲʦȦʟɔȥɔɷɆʰɏȲɏȲʟʁউʦȥȲɫʁˑȲȬुআɔɅÒȲʹ˗ɔʦɏȉȬʁɷɫ˘ɏȲʟʰʁȦʁɷʰȲɴʜɫȉʰȲूɏȲ˒ʁʹɫȬ have praised her above all the girls of Agrigentum, and of the whole globe, and ȦɏʁʦȲɷɏȲʟȉʦʹɷɔʰɔɷɆȉȥʦʁɫʹʰȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɔʁɷ˒ɔʰɏɔɷȉʦɔɷɆɫȲȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲेই57ΤȲʦʰʁʟ˘উʦ ɅʁȦʹʦʁɷɴȲɷȦʟȉδɔɷɆ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɔɷʜʁȲʰʟ˘ूʜʟʁʦȲूʁʟʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬɅʁʟ ȉɷȲɴʜɏȉʦɔʦʁɷʰɏȲʜʟʁȦȲʦʦʁɅȦʟȲȉʰɔˑɔʰ˘ौȉɷȉȬɴɔʟȉʰɔʁɷɅʁʟʰɏȲɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰʁɅ the man who was bringing together these diverse elements to make a beautiful ˒ɏʁɫȲूɣʹʦʰȉʦȉʜɏȉȲɫȲɷɣʁɔɷȲȬȉʦʰɔɆɫɔʁɷȲʰʁɏȲɫʜɏɔɴɣʹȬɆȲʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅ ˒ʁɴȲɷɔɷʰɏȲ̍ʹʁʰȉʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰʁʜȲɷȲȬʰɏɔʦȦɏȉʜʰȲʟे ΤɔʦȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏʰʁআȥʁȬɔȲʦɔɷʜȉʟʰʦইɔɷɏȲʟȲɷʰɔɷʰɏȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅÒȲʹ˗ɔʦɔʦȉɫʦʁ closely linked to one distinctive element of the sixteenth-century literature ʁɷ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ुɔʰʦȉʰʰȲɷʰɔʁɷʰʁʜȉʟʰʦȉʰʰɏȲȲ˗ʜȲɷʦȲʁɅʰɏȲ˒ɏʁɫȲे^ɔʦʰʦʁɅ beautiful parts of female bodies, later called blasons in French literature, were ɅʁʹɷȬɔɷȉ˒ɔȬȲˑȉʟɔȲʰ˘ʁɅʰȲ˗ʰʦेΤȲ˘ɆɔˑȲʰɏȲɔɴʜʟȲʦʦɔʁɷʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷɴȉȬȲʹʜʁɅ ȉআȦʁɫɫȉɆȲʁɅɅʟȉɆɴȲɷʰʦইʁʟআȉɏȲȉʜʁɅʟȉ˒ɴȉʰȲʟɔȉɫʦूɆʁɫȬूȦʁʟȉɫूɴȉʟȥɫȲूɔˑʁʟ˘ेই58 ΤɔʦɷȲ˒ʰ˘ʜȲʁɅȬȲʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷɏȉʦȥȲȲɷȬȲȲɴȲȬȲʰʟȉʟȦɏȉɷूȉʦʰɏȲȲɴʜɏȉʦɔʦʁɷ beauty and the criteria used (ivory hands, rosebud cheeks, and so on) bear a ʟȲʦȲɴȥɫȉɷȦȲʰʁȲʰʟȉʟȦɏউʦʦʁɷɷȲʰʦɔɷʜʟȉɔʦȲʁɅɏɔʦɫʁʦʰȥȲɫʁˑȲȬू^ȉʹʟȉेJɷʦʁɷɷȲʰ 157 (ðɸǱȪɥǱȳɛɞǱǈǥǱɞǤɀǱɯȎɀȶɀɞǈɯɀȅȓɀɞȶɀ३ूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूȲʰʟȉʟȦɏȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲʦআEȲʟ ɏȉɔʟʜʹʟȲɆʁɫȬूȉɷȬɏʁʰʦɷʁ˒ɏȲʟɅȉȦȲू्ɏȲʟȲ˘Ȳȥʟʁ˒ʦȲȥʁɷ˘ूɏȲʟȲ˘Ȳʦʰ˒ɔɷ ʦʰȉʟʦेই59Eʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूȲʰʟȉʟȦɏউʦʦʁɷɷȲʰʦɷȲˑȲʟȦɫʹɴʦɔɫ˘ɫɔʦʰȲȬʰɏȲʜȉʟʰʦʁɅɏɔʦɫʁˑȲʟ as if making a recipe; and he did not describe areas that could not be seen when clothed. Both of these are key features of the early sixteenth-century blason. gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 137 ΤȲʜʁȲʰȉɔʁȉɫȬȉʦʦȉʟʟȲsɫɔɴʜʁȬȲɆɫɔɫȲʦʦȉɷȬʟɔউʦ?Ȫɀɞȓǈǫ՟ǈȳɀɞǱ of 1520 is an early but typical example of this new type of description. He praises ɏɔʦɫȉȬ˘ɫʁˑȲʦʰȉʟʰɔɷɆɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɏȲȉȬȉɷȬɴʁˑɔɷɆȬʁ˒ɷʰʁʰɏȲɅȲȲʰेΤȲɫɔʦʰ includes golden hair, a broad forehead, benign eyes, rosy cheeks, ruby lips, sweet breath, a white throat, apple breasts, white hands, a graceful body ɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆআʰɏʁʦȲʦȲȦʟȲʰʜȉʟʰʦूইȉɷȬɏȲʟʰʟȲɴȥɫɔɷɆʰɏɔɆɏʦॹȲɷȬɔɷɆ˒ɔʰɏɏȲʟ camicia, her clothes, her house, and her shoes.60 A similar list appears at the end of a 1536 pamphlet called El costume de la donneुআȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˒ʁɴȲɷɏȉˑȲ three long things and three short, three broad and three narrow, and three ɅȉʰȉɷȬʰɏʟȲȲʰɏɔɷʰɏȲʟȲʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲेΤʟȲȲʟʁʹɷȬȉɷȬʰɏʟȲȲʦɴȉɫɫेेेʰɏʟȲȲ ˒ɏɔʰȲ˒ɔʰɏʰɏʟȲȲʟȲȬȉȬȬȲȬूʰɏʟȲȲȥɫȉȦɦʰʁɴȉɦȲȉɫɫʰɏȲʜȉʟʰʦʜȲʟɅȲȦʰेই61 Elements of the body are then listed – so for example the hair, hands, and ɫȲɆʦʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲɫʁɷɆू˒ɏȲʟȲȉʦʰɏȲ˒ȉɔʦʰूʰɏɔɆɏʦूȉɷȬআʰɏȲʜɫȉȦȲ˒ɏȲʟȲɷȉʰʹʟȲ ʜɫȉȦȲʦȉɫɫʰɏȉʰɔʦʦ˒ȲȲʰইʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲɷȉʟʟʁ˒े62ΤȲʦȲʰ˒ʁȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲʦȦȉɷʦʰȉɷȬ ɅʁʟȬʁˢȲɷʦʁɅʁʰɏȲʟʦूȉʦʰɏȲɴȲʰȉʜɏʁʟʦȉʟȲʟȲʹʦȲȬˑȲʟ˘ɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ूʰʁʰɏȲ extent that in 1551 a parlor game was devised that played on this listing of ideal female characteristics.63ΤȲʦȲɫɔʦʰʦ˒ȲʟȲʦʹΪȦɔȲɷʰɫ˘ȬɔΦʹʦȲȬʰʁ˒ʁʟɦ as a pastiche, as in ̨Ǳ&ȓǈȪɀȅɸǱɀȄ?ȓɸȪȓǈǈȶǫiǈǫǫǈȪǱȶǈ, attributed to Pietro Aretino, and probably written in the 1510s: εʟʦʰʁɅȉɫɫɏȲʟζȲʦɏɔʦʹɷȥʟʁɦȲɷȉɷȬʦʁ˒ɏɔʰȲʰɏȉʰɔʰʦȲȲɴʦʰʁȥȲ ɔˑʁʟ˘ौʦɏȲɔʦɷʁʰʰɏɔɷूɷʁʟɔʦʦɏȲˑȲʟ˘ɅȉʰूȥʹʰʁɅȉ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʰɏȉʰȦȉɷɷʁʰ be bettered. Her breasts are separated and in no way distinct from the chest, she is narrow in the waist and broad in the hips, she does ɷʁʰɏȉˑȲ˒ʟɔɷɦɫȲʦʁɷɏȲʟɅȉȦȲȉɷȬɏȉʦʟʁʹɷȬȉʟɴʦूɫʁɷɆȉɷȬʦʁδ hands, and plump thighs, small knees, most beautiful straight legs; ʰɏȲζȲʦɏʁɅ˒ɏɔȦɏɔʦɷউʰˑȲʟ˘ɅȉʰूȥʹʰɴȉʟˑȲɫʁʹʦɫ˘ɷȉʟʟʁ˒ʦȬʁ˒ɷʰʁʰɏȲ ȉɷɦɫȲʦू˒ɏɔȦɏȉʟȲɣʁɔɷȲȬʰʁˑȲʟ˘ʦɴȉɫɫȉɷȬ˒ȲɫɫॼɅʁʟɴȲȬɅȲȲʰेȲʦɔȬȲʦ this she has two round and white buttocks which lead down from those little dimples which one also sees on the chin and in the cheeks of beautiful women; then between her buttocks, there is a little asshole, whose vault is not too thin to impede passage, but neither ʰɏʟʹʦʰʁʹʰʰɏʟʁʹɆɏɅȉʰɷȲʦʦूȥʹʰʰȉɦɔɷɆʰɏȲɴɔȬȬɫȲ˒ȉ˘ɔʦ̍ʹɔˑȲʟɔɷɆ ȉɷȬʟʁʰʹɷȬूȉɷȬȉʦȥȉɫȬȉʦȉɷȲηू˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȉʦɔɷɆɫȲɏȉɔʟेΤȲɷʦɏȲɏȉʦ a plump cunny, highlighted with a few blonde hairs above it, so that ˘ʁʹউˑȲɷȲˑȲʟʦȲȲɷʰɏȲɫɔɦȲे64 ΤȲʦȲʰȲ˗ʰʦȉȦʰȉʦʜʟɔɴȲʟʦʰʁʰȲȉȦɏɴȲɷɏʁ˒ʰʁȉʦʦȲʦʦʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅ ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦȥ˘ɫʁʁɦɔɷɆȉʰȉɷȬȲˑȉɫʹȉʰɔɷɆȲȉȦɏʜȉʟʰɔɷʰʹʟɷेʁɫɔʜɏɔɫʁू the narrator in the Hypnerotomachia Poliphiliूʦɏʁ˒ʦʰɏȲɦɔɷȬʁɅআʜȲʟɔʁȬ Ȳ˘ȲইʰɏɔʦʜʟʁɴʁʰȲʦुআg˘ɔȬɫȲȉɷȬʟʁˑɔɷɆȲ˘ȲʦȦʁɴɴȲɷȬȲȬʁɷȲʜȉʟʰȉʦȥȲɔɷɆ much more beautiful than the others, whereas my appetite was enraptured ȥ˘ȉɷʁʰɏȲʟʜȉʟʰʁɅʰɏȲȬɔˑɔɷȲɫɔʰʰɫȲȥʁȬ˘ूȉɷȬʜʟȲɅȲʟʟȲȬʰɏȉʰʁɷȲेই65ΤȲ 138 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ÒȲʹ˗ɔȉɷʰɏȲʁʟ˘ʁɅɏʁ˒ʰʁȦʟȲȉʰȲȉʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȲȬɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴूʜʹʰɅʁʟ˒ȉʟȬʦʁ ȲȉʟɷȲʦʰɫ˘ȥ˘ɫȥȲʟʰɔɔɷʰɏȲɴɔȬॼεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ूɏȉʦȥ˘ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏ been appropriated as a shaping discourse for new types of looking. Like an artist creating the perfect nude, male elites now hurried to compose the perfect female in their imagination using a Frankenstein approach of ʜɔȲȦɔɷɆʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟɅʟȉɆɴȲɷʰʦʁɅȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȥʁȬɔȲʦेΤȲʁʟ˘ȥʁʟʟʁ˒ȲȬ from the visual arts thus led to a whole new vocabulary for discussing beauty in both art and real life. Ostensibly about women, it is clear that ʰɏɔʦȬȲȥȉʰȲ˒ȉʦȉɫʦʁȉȥʁʹʰɴȉɫȲȦʟȲȉʰɔˑɔʰ˘ेΤȲ˒ɏʁɫȲȲʰɏʁʦʁɅʰɏɔʦɷȲ˒ discourse was about men competing with each other about how alluring ȉɅȲɴȉɫȲεɆʹʟȲʰɏȲ˘ȦʁʹɫȬȬȲʜɔȦʰɔɷ˒ʁʟȬʦʁʟɔɷʜȉɔɷʰेEʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɔɷ˒ȉ˘ʦ ʰɏȉʰȉʟȲʁɷɫ˘ɣʹʦʰȥȲɔɷɆɆɫɔɴʜʦȲȬȉʰɔɷʰɏȲʦȦɏʁɫȉʟɫ˘ɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲूɔʰʦȲȲɴʦʰɏȉʰ ˒ʁɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲȉɫʦʁȉΦȲȦʰȲȬȥ˘ʰɏɔʦɷȲ˒˒ȉ˘ʁɅʰɏɔɷɦɔɷɆूȉʦʰȲ˗ʰʦʁɅʰɏȲɫȉʰȲʟ sixteenth century increasingly informed them how to manipulate their ȥʁȬɔȲʦʰʁɆȲʰʰɏȲȬȲʦɔʟȲȬআɫʁʁɦेই66 New Ways of Looking Two: the Guise of Venus ʦ˒ȲɫɫȉʦʰɏȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅÒȲʹ˗ɔʦूȉʦʰɔɆɫɔʁɷȲȉɫʦʁȲ˗ʜȲȦʰȲȬɏɔʦʟȲȉȬȲʟʦ ʰʁʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬɏɔʦʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʰʁȉɷʁʰɏȲʟʦʰʁʟ˘ȉȥʁʹʰȉɷȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲȉʟʰɔʦʰू ʜȲɫɫȲʦेΤȲʦʁʹʟȦȲɅʁʟʰɏȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅʜȲɫɫȲʦȉɷȬȉɴʜȉʦʜȲɔʦɫɔɷ˘ʰɏȲ *ɫȬȲʟউʦNatural History, written around 77 CE. An important repository ʁɅɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʁʹʰʰɏȲgɔȬȬɫȲɆȲʦूɫɔɷ˘উʦȲɷȦ˘ȦɫʁʜȲȬɔȉʁɅʰɏȲ ɷȉʰʹʟȉɫ˒ʁʟɫȬ˒ȉʦʟȲȉȬ˒ɔʰɏȲɷʰɏʹʦɔȉʦɴɔɷJʰȉɫ˘ɔɷʰɏȲɫȉʰȲʟεδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬ Ȳȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦौɅʟʁɴɔʰʦεʟʦʰʜʟɔɷʰȲȬȲȬɔʰɔʁɷɔɷʁɴȲɔɷࢾࣁࣃࣆʹʜ ʹɷʰɔɫࢾࣂࣀࢽʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲɷʁɫȲʦʦʰɏȉɷࢿࢾȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȲȬɔʰɔʁɷʦूɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆʰɏʟȲȲɔɷ Italian from 1476.67ʁʁɦʦࣀࣁʰʁࣀࣃʁɅɫɔɷ˘উʦˑʁɫʹɴȲ˒ȲʟȲʰɏȲɅʹɫɫȲʦʰʦʁʹʟȦȲ of information about classical artists available in the period. Elizabeth Cropper has argued that the story of Apelles and Campaspe was key to the development of High Renaissance visual culture.68 Apelles was asked to paint the naked portrait of Campaspe (also sometimes called Pancaspe), the beautiful courtesan of King Alexander the Great ʁɅgȉȦȲȬʁɷ२ࣀࣂࣃॹࣀࢿࣀ*३ȉɷȬʰʁʟȲȦʁʟȬɏȲʟআ˒ʁɷȬʟʁʹʦɅʁʟɴेইÂɏɔɫȲ doing so, the painter fell in love with her. Accordingly, Alexander gave Campaspe to Apelles as a present in exchange for his artwork. Pliny ȉɫʦʁʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰȉɴʜȉʦʜȲ˒ȉʦʰɏȲɴʁȬȲɫɅʁʟʜȲɫɫȲʦউʦɅȉɴʁʹʦɫʁʦʰ painting of the Venus Anadyomene (Venus Rising From the Sea).69 So Apelles ʰʟȉɷʦɅʁʟɴȲȬȉɴʜȉʦʜȲूʰɏȲɦɔɷɆউʦȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷȉɷȬʁȥɣȲȦʰʁɅȬȲʦɔʟȲूɔɷʰʁȉ painting that was deemed a worthy replacement for the woman herself. She then becomes the model for Venus, again immortalized and improved upon by the hand of the artist. gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 139 Fig. 4.6. Raphael, >ǱȳǈȪǱlɸǫǱȓȶɯȎǱ?ɸȓɥǱɀȄ Venus २আLa Fornarinaই३ूc.1518–20. Oil ʁɷʜȉɷȲɫे=ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉjȉˢɔʁɷȉɫȲȬউʟʰȲ Antica, Palazzo Barberini, Rome. ɦɷʁ˒ɷȬʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲȉʦʦȲʟʰʰɏȉʰɏʟ˘ɷȲ˒ȉʦʟȉ˗ɔʰȲɫȲʦউʦɴʁȬȲɫ Ʌʁʟʰɏɔʦ˒ʁʟɦेɫȦɔʜɏʟʁɷউʦLetters of Courtesans, for example, includes an apocryphal letter from Phryne to Praxiteles about the Venusुআ˘ʁʹɏȉˑȲ ʦȲʰʹʜȉʦʰȉʰʹȲʁɅ˘ʁʹʟʁ˒ɷɴɔʦʰʟȲʦʦɔɷʰɏȲʦȉȦʟȲȬʜʟȲȦɔɷȦʰेই72 By the early sixteenth century many educated viewers would also have understood the Venus pudicaʰʁȥȲȥȉʦȲȬʁɷʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷे73 ^ʁȬʁˑɔȦʁ$ʁɫȦȲȲɫɔȬȲʦʰɏȲʦʰʁʟɔȲʦʁɅɏʟ˘ɷȲȉɷȬȉɴʜȉʦʜȲ˒ɏȲɷɏȲ discusses this process of creating nudes in his 1557 treatise on painting, the AretinoुআʰɏȲɅʁʟɴʁɷȲȦɏʁʁʦȲʦʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲʰɏȲɴʁʦʰʜȲʟɅȲȦʰʰɏȲʟȲȦȉɷ ȥȲूȉɷȬʁɷȲউʦɔɴɔʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɷȉʰʹʟȲʁɷɫ˘ʜȉʟʰɔȉɫेʜȲɫɫȲʦ˒ʁʟɦȲȬɫɔɦȲʰɏɔʦे He based his celebrated Venus emerging from the sea . . . on Phryne, the most famous courtesan of his time. And Praxiteles sculpted his beautiful statue of the Cnidian Venus based on the same young woman. In part ȉɫʦʁʁɷȲʦɏʁʹɫȬɔɴɔʰȉʰȲʰɏȲɫʁˑȲɫ˘ɴȉʟȥɫȲʁʟȥʟʁɷˢȲεɆʹʟȲʦȥ˘ʰɏȲȉɷȦɔȲɷʰ ɴȉʦʰȲʟʦेই74ʜȲɫɫȲʦȉɷȬʟȉ˗ɔʰȲɫȲʦɏȉȬʰɏȲɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰʰʁʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲȉɷȬ appreciate beauty and to use this skill to create images that gave timeless examples for modern artists to follow. ΤɔʦȬʁȲʦɷʁʰɴȲȉɷूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूȉʦʟʁʜʜȲʟʦʹηȲʦʰʦूʰɏȉʰɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅ ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˒ʁɴȲɷȥȲɫʁɷɆʰʁȉআȬɔʦʰɔɷȦʰȬɔʦȦʁʹʟʦȲɅʟʁɴ˒ɏɔȦɏʰɏȲ˒ʁɴȉɷ ɏȲʟʦȲɫɅɔʦɷȲȦȲʦʦȉʟɔɫ˘ȉȥʦȲɷʰইॹɔɷɅȉȦʰूʰɏɔʦʦʰʁʟ˘ʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȲʁʜʜʁʦɔʰȲे75 ʟʰɔʦʰʦɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣂࢾࢽʦȉɷȬࢿࢽʦʦȲȲɴʰʁɏȉˑȲȬȲɫɔȥȲʟȉʰȲɫ˘ʹʦȲȬ̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦʁɅ আʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ইɔɷɴȉɷ˘ɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˒ʁɴȲɷूɔɷȉˑɔʦʹȉɫʦʰʟȉʰȲɆ˘ that surely would have prodded most viewers to think back to their ʟȲȉȬɔɷɆʁɅɫɔɷ˘ेΤȲআ˒ʁɴȉɷইȉʰʦʁɴȲɫȲˑȲɫɔʦɷȲȦȲʦʦȉʟɔɫ˘present in many images of ideal female beauty. ɫɔɷ˘ʰȲɫɫʦȉɫɫʹʟɔɷɆʦʰʁʟɔȲʦʁɅʁʰɏȲʟȉȬɴɔʟȲȬȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȉɷȬʰɏȲɔʟ ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɴʁȬȲɫʦेΤȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟʟȉ˗ɔʰȲɫȲʦʹʦȲȬɏɔʦɴɔʦʰʟȲʦʦूʰɏȲɅȉɴʁʹʦ ȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷɏʟ˘ɷȲूȉʦȉɴʁȬȲɫेJɷɏɔʦʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʁɅɏʟ˘ɷȲूʰɏȲআgȲʟʟ˘ ʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷूইȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁɫɔɷ˘ूʰɏȲʦɦɔɫɫʦʁɅʰɏȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟ˒ȲʟȲʦʁɆʟȲȉʰআ˒Ȳ ȦȉɷȬȲʰȲȦʰɔɷɏȲʟεɆʹʟȲʰɏȲɫʁˑȲʁɅʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰेই70ʟȉ˗ɔʰȲɫȲʦউʦVenus pudica २εɆेࢽेࣀ३˒ȉʦɅȉɴʁʹʦɫ˘ʦʁȲʟʁʰɔȦȉɫɫ˘ȦɏȉʟɆȲȬʰɏȉʰȉɷʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟɫȉʰȲʟআʦʰȉɔɷȲȬই it with his semen.71gʁʦʰȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟʦ˒ʁʹɫȬɏȉˑȲɦɷʁ˒ɷȉȦʁʜ˘ʁɅ ʟȉ˗ɔʰȲɫȲʦউʦʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूȲɔʰɏȲʟȉɷȉɷȦɔȲɷʰʁɴȉɷˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʁʟȉȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ ̍ʹʁʰȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɅȉɴʁʹʦpudicaʜʁʦȲौɔʰɔʦɷȲȉʟʹȥɔ̍ʹɔʰʁʹʦɔɷɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅʰɏȲ female nude by the early sixteenth century and is still possibly the most ɅȉɴʁʹʦÂȲʦʰȲʟɷɅʁʟɴʹɫȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɅȲɴȉɫȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेȲˑȲʟȉɫȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʦʁʹʟȦȲʦ 140 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 4.7. Raphael, Study of a Naked Woman in a Venus Pudica Pose, c.1508–10. ɔɫˑȲʟʜʁɔɷʰʁɷȥʹΦʜʟȲʜȉʟȲȬʜȉʜȲʟे ˢȳʜɴʾˑȲʦʰɔgʺˢȲʹɴूʹȬȉʜȲʦʰू Inv. 1934. <ʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूȉʜɏȉȲɫউʦʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʁɅȉ˘ʁʹɷɆ˒ʁɴȉɷ२cेࢾࣂࢾࣅॹࢿࢽूεɆेࣁेࣃ३ू called La Fornarina since the eighteenth century, is generally agreed to refer ʰʁȉʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȉȥɫȲɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫॹɔʰɔʦȉআʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰইɔɷʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘˒Ȳɷʁʟɴȉɫɫ˘ ɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰʰɏȉʰ˒ʁʟȬेΤȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦɏʁ˒ʦȉɏȉɫɅॼɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȉɷɏʁɫȬɔɷɆȉ ʦȲɴɔॼʰʟȉɷʦʜȉʟȲɷʰȦɫʁʰɏʹʜʰʁɏȲʟȥʟȲȉʦʰʦ˒ɔʰɏɏȲʟʟɔɆɏʰɏȉɷȬेEȲʟɫȲδɏȉɷȬ ȦʁˑȲʟʦɏȲʟɆȲɷɔʰȉɫȉʟȲȉूȉɷȬɏȲʟȉʟɴʦʜʁʟʰʦȉȥɫʹȲȉʟɴɫȲʰ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦ name picked out in gold letters. On her head she wears a yellow scarf. ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲʦȲˑȲʟȉɫɫȲˑȲɫʦʁɅʟʁɫȲॼʜɫȉ˘ɔɷɆɔɷʰɏɔʦɔɴȉɆȲेEȲʟʜʁʦȲȲȦɏʁȲʦʰɏȉʰ of the Venus pudica, evoking a web of references to the goddess Venus, the sculpture by Praxiteles, and the courtesan Phryne who acted as his model. ȉʜɏȉȲɫʦȲȉɫʦʰɏȲʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʰʁɫɔɷ˘উʦʦʰʁʟɔȲʦʁɅʰɏȲɆʟȲȉʰȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫȉʟʰɔʦʰʦॹ ȉɷȬȉɫʦʁʜȲʟɏȉʜʦʦʹηȲʦʰʦɏɔʦআʁ˒ɷȲʟʦɏɔʜইʁɅLa Fornarina, as both the sitter and her artistic representation – through the armlet that bears his name. ΤɔʦɔʦȉȬʁʹȥɫȲʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʰʁɫɔɷ˘ॹʰɏȲȬȲʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷʁɅÒȲʹ˗ɔʦɏȉˑɔɷɆ ɏɔʦɷȉɴȲʦʰɔʰȦɏȲȬɔɷɆʁɫȬʁɷɏɔʦȦɫʁȉɦूȉɷȬʰʁʰɏȲȉʟɴɫȲʰʁɅʟȉ˗ɔʰȲɫȲʦউʦ Venus.76Τɔʦ˒ʁɴȉɷউʦ˘Ȳɫɫʁ˒ɏȲȉȬʦȦȉʟɅɴȉʟɦʦɏȲʟʁʹʰȉʦȉʜʟʁʦʰɔʰʹʰȲ ʁʟȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷू˒ɏɔȦɏ˒ʁʹɫȬʦʹηȲʦʰʰɏȉʰʦɏȲɔʦʰȉɦɔɷɆʁɷʰɏȲʟʁɫȲʁɅʰɏȲ gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 141 ȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷɴʁȬȲɫʦʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ूɏʟ˘ɷȲȉɷȬȉɴʜȉʦʜȲू˒ɏʁɔɷʰʹʟɷȉɫʦʁ ʰʁʁɦʁɷʰɏȲʟʁɫȲʁ̎ÁȲɷʹʦे77 Fig. 4.8. Piero di Cosimo, ȓȳɀȶǱɯʧǈÃǱɥɛɸǥǥȓ as Cleopatra, c.1490. Oil on panel. gʹʦȳȲʁɷȬȳूɏȉɷʰɔɫɫ˘े Art historians have sought a name for this woman, but pinning down her exact identity is less important (or possible) than acknowledging that the image has a real-life referent that contemporaries would have been able to connect to the representation.78ΤȲɔɴȉɆȲȉȦʰʦȉʦȉ ʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʁɅȉʟȲȉɫ˒ʁɴȉɷȥʹʰȉɫʦʁȲΦȉȦȲʦɏȲʟɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫɔȬȲɷʰɔʰ˘ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏ multiple comparisons with iconic beauties of the past that play on the ȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟউʦɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲʁɅˑɔʦʹȉɫȉɷȬɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲȦʁɷˑȲɷʰɔʁɷे How contemporaries may have understood La FornarinaɔʦʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬȥ˘ ȉɷȲʜɔɆʟȉɴȥ˘gȉʟȦȉɷʰʁɷɔʁȉʦȉɷʁˑȉʁɅȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣂࢾࢿेsɷȲʁɅȉʦȲʟɔȲʦʁɅ ʜʁȲɴʦɔɷʜʟȉɔʦȲʁɅɆʁʦʰɔɷʁɏɔɆɔूɏɔʦȉɷȬȉʜɏȉȲɫউʦ˒Ȳȉɫʰɏ˘ɔȲɷȲʦȲ ʜȉʰʟʁɷूɔʰȦʁɷȦȲʟɷʦɏɔɆɔউʦɅʁʟɴȲʟȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷूJɴʜȲʟɔȉुআÂɏɔɫʦʰÁʹɫȦȉɷ ʦȉ˒ʰɏȲɷȉɦȲȬJɴʜȲʟɔȉȥ˘ʜȲɫɫȲʦू्EȲȲ˗ȉɴɔɷȲȬʰɏȲɷʹȬȲȉɷȬȉΪʟɴȲȬ ঈÁȲɷʹʦɔʦɏȲʟȲेউই79ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲʦȲˑȲʟȉɫʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʦȲɴȥȲȬȬȲȬɔɷʰɏɔʦȥʟɔȲɅʰȲ˗ʰे ÁʹɫȦȉɷ˒ȉʦÁȲɷʹʦউʦɏʹʦȥȉɷȬूȦʹȦɦʁɫȬȲȬɔɷɏȲʟȉΦȉɔʟ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɆʁȬʁɅ˒ȉʟू gȉʟʦेEȲʟȲɏȲɔʦʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰɔɷɆɏɔɆɔेʜȲɫɫȲʦɔʦȉʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʰʁȉʜɏȉȲɫूȉɷȬ Imperia, though named here, is superseded by her image that appears so ȬɔˑɔɷȲʰɏȉʰɔʰʦȲȲɴʦʰʁȥȲʰɏȲɆʁȬȬȲʦʦʁɅɫʁˑȲेΤȲʟȲɔʦɷʁȲ˗ɔʦʰɔɷɆʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆ that relates obviously to this poem.80 Imperia died in 1512, well before La Fornarina was painted, though there are life drawings by Raphael dating ɅʟʁɴɏɔʦȲȉʟɫ˘ʜȲʟɔʁȬɔɷʁɴȲʰɏȉʰʦɏʁ˒ȉɴʁȬȲɫɔɷʰɏȲʜʁʦȲʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲ ʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʦʁ̎ÁȲɷʹʦ२ʦȲȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूεɆेࣁेࣄ३े81 However, more than ʜʁɔɷʰɔɷɆʰʁȉʦʜȲȦɔεȦʜʟʁɣȲȦʰूʰɏȲʦȲɫɔɷȲʦʁɅʰȲ˗ʰʦʜȲȉɦʰʁȉȥʟʁȉȬȦʹɫʰʹʟȲ where the stories from classical texts are imbibed to such an extent that ɔȬȲɷʰɔʰɔȲʦȉʟȲȬȲɫɔȥȲʟȉʰȲɫ˘ȥɫʹʟʟȲȬू˒ɏȲʟȲʜȲɫɫȲʦ्ȉʜɏȉȲɫ˒ɔȲɫȬʦɏɔʦ potent brush to make the already beautiful Imperia into beauty itself. gȉɦɔɷɆʁˑȲʟʰˑɔʦʹȉɫʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜʦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫʦȉɷȬȉʟȦɏȲʰ˘ʜȲʦɔʦ common in paintings of naked women made at the turn of the sixteenth ȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेsɷȲʁɅʰɏȲȲȉʟɫɔȲʦʰʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦʁɅʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲɔʦɔȲʟʁȬɔʁʦɔɴʁউʦ ȓȳɀȶǱɯʧǈÃǱɥɛɸǥǥȓ२εɆेࣁेࣅ३ूɫɔɦȲɫ˘ʰʁɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷʜȉɔɷʰȲȬɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣁࣅࢽʦȉ ɅȲ˒˘ȲȉʟʦȉδȲʟɔɴʁɷȲʰʰȉউʦȬȲȉʰɏɔɷࢾࣁࣄࣃूȥ˘˒ɏɔȦɏʰɔɴȲɏȲʟȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɏȉȬ become legendary in Florentine circles.82ΤȲʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʁɅɔɴʁɷȲʰʰȉʦɏʁ˒ʦ ɏȲʟɔɷʜʟʁεɫȲॹȉʦʰȉɷȬȉʟȬȦɏʁɔȦȲɅʁʟɅȲɴȉɫȲʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʦȉʰʰɏɔʦʰɔɴȲॹ˒ɔʰɏ a snake around her neck, perhaps a reference to Cleopatra, the beautiful *Ɇ˘ʜʰɔȉɷ̍ʹȲȲɷ˒ɏʁ˒ȉʦɦɔɫɫȲȬȥ˘ȉɷȉʦʜूʁʟूɴʁʟȲɫɔɦȲɫ˘ू˒ɔʰɏȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰɔʁɷʦ ʁɅȦɫȲˑȲʟɷȲʦʦȉɷȬɣʹʦʰɔȦȲे83$Ȳɷɷɔʦ=ȲʟʁɷɔɴʹʦɏȉʦȦʁɷˑɔɷȦɔɷɆɫ˘ȉʟɆʹȲȬ ʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲȬȲȲɴȲȬȉআɅȉɷʰȉʦ˘ʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰইʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁʰɏȲʜʁȲʰɔȦ comparisons of Simonetta with a nymph common in Florentine literature of the time.84ɫʰɏʁʹɆɏɔʰɔʦɫȉȥȲɫȲȬ˒ɔʰɏɔɴʁɷȲʰʰȉউʦɷȉɴȲूɔʰɔʦȥȉʟȲɫ˘ a portrait at all as we understand it; rather, once again, the Renaissance viewer is reminded of a series of beautiful archetypes – Simonetta herself, ^ȉʹʟȉूȲʰʟȉʟȦɏউʦȬʁʁɴȲȬ˘ʁʹʰɏɅʹɫɫʁˑȲʟूȉɷȬɫȲʁʜȉʰʟȉूȉɷʁʰɏȲʟ˒ʁɴȉɷ 142 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 4.9. Bernardino Licinio, Reclining Female lɸǫǱȓȶɯȎǱ?ɸȓɥǱɀȄÃǱȶɸɥ, c.1525. sɔɫʁɷȦȉɷˑȉʦे=ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉȬȲɆɫɔ©Ϊˢɔू Florence. ˒ɏʁ˒ȉʦȦɏȲȉʰȲȬɅʟʁɴɏȲʟȥȲȉʹʰ˘ȥ˘ȬȲȉʰɏȉɷȬʰɏʹʦɫȲδʹɷȦɏȉɷɆȲȬɔɷ memory.85 Other similar images that have vexed art historians, such as =ɔʁʟɆɔʁɷȲউʦLaura २εɆेࣁेࣀ३ूȉʟȲɫɔɦȲɫ˘ʰʁ˒ʁʟɦ˒ɔʰɏɔɷȉʦɔɴɔɫȉʟȬɔʦȦʁʹʟʦȲे86 ΤȲʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʹʟȲȉɷȬɴ˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫʁʟɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȦȉɫεɆʹʟȲʦ ɔʦɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ȥɫʹʟʟȲȬɔɷȲȉʟɫ˘ɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦेȲˑȲʟȉɫɅʹɫɫॼɫȲɷɆʰɏʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦ of a naked woman – generally described in museum catalogues as Venus ॹɏȉˑȲȉ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ूʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɔˢȲȬɅȉȦȲʦʰɏȉʰʜʟʁɴʜʰʰɏȲ viewer to understand these women as living individuals.87 One example is ȲʟɷȉʟȬɔɷʁ^ɔȦɔɷɔʁউʦǱǥȪȓȶȓȶȅ>ǱȳǈȪǱlɸǫǱȓȶɯȎǱ?ɸȓɥǱɀȄÃǱȶɸɥ (cेࢾࣂࢿࣂौεɆे 4.9). Set against a darkened interior backdrop of wood paneling and velvet curtain, a naked woman lies on a luminous white sheet, her head raised ȉɷȬʟȲʦʰɔɷɆʁɷȉ˒ȲɫɫॼʦʰʹΦȲȬʜɔɫɫʁ˒ेEȲʟɏȉɔʟɔɷȉɷȲȉʰȦɏɔɆɷʁɷूʦɏȲɫʁʁɦʦ ȉ˒ȉ˘ɅʟʁɴʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟूʰɏȲɅȉȦȲɔɷɆɫȉɷȦɔɷɆʜʟʁεɫȲूɏȲʟȲ˘ȲʦʁʜȲɷेEȲʟȥʁȬ˘ is tilted towards us so we can see her breasts and the slight curve of her belly, the width of her thighs, her hairless body. A gauzy yellow veil largely covers her genitals.88Τɔʦ˒ʁɴȉɷ˒ɔʰɏɏȲʟȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ɏȉɔʟȦʹʰɔʦȥʁʰɏ ÁȲɷʹʦॹȉʦʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲʰʹʟʰɫȲȬʁˑȲʦɷȲʦʰɫɔɷɆɔɷʰɏȲɫʁ˒ȲʟɫȲδȦʁʟɷȲʟʁɅ ʰɏȲɔɴȉɆȲॹȉɷȬɏȲʟʦȲɫɅेΤȲɔɴȉɆȲɔʦȥʁʰɏȉʟȦɏȲʰ˘ʜȲȉɷȬʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰेΤɔʦɔʦ ɷʁʰȬʹȲʰʁȉʦʜȲȦɔȉɫ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏɔʦʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟȉʟʰɔʦʰूȉʦʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬे89 Rather this image represents an artistic approach to the female nude replicated in many paintings of this era. Occasionally, there is compelling visual evidence that allows us to trace ʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰউʦʜʟʁȦȲʦʦɅʟʁɴɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫʰʁȉʟȦɏȲʰ˘ʜȲेʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲࢾࣁࣆࢽʦू ȉʰʰʟɔȥʹʰȲȬʰʁ^ʁʟȲɷˢʁȬɔʟȲȬɔ२εɆेࣁेࢾࢽ३ूʦɏʁ˒ʦȉɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȉɷʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆ in an approximation of the Venus pudica pose, swathed with a gauzy ʰʟȉɷʦʜȉʟȲɷʰȦɫʁʰɏे^ɔɦȲ^ɔȦɔɷɔʁউʦVenus, she sports a contemporary hairstyle and her features are clearly taken from a portrait drawing now in the ^ʁʹˑʟȲ२εɆेࣁेࢾࢾ३ू˒ɏȲʟȲʰɏȲ˒ʁɴȉɷ˒ȲȉʟʦɏȲʟɏȉɔʟʰɔȲȬȥȉȦɦɔɷȉȦɫʁʰɏ wrap.90$ȲʦʜɔʰȲʰɏɔʦʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆȬȲɴʁɷʦʰʟȉʰɔɷɆʰɏȉʰʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆ gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 143 Fig. 4.10. Lorenzo di Credi, Female Nude in ɯȎǱ?ɸȓɥǱɀȄÃǱȶɸɥ, c.1493–4. Oil ʁɷȦȉɷˑȉʦे=ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉȬȲɆɫɔ©Ϊˢɔू Florence. Fig. 4.11. Lorenzo di Credi, Portrait Drawing of a Young Woman, c.1493. Silverpoint and white heightening on pink ʜʟȲʜȉʟȲȬʜȉʜȲʟेȉȥɔɷȲʰȬȲʦ$Ȳʦʦɔɷʦू gʹʦȳȲȬʹ^ʁʹˑʟȲूȉʟɔʦूJɷˑेࢾࣄࣅࣀʟे was of a living individual, a few years later individual identity became subsumed into her role as a symbol of a beautiful woman; this image was used again for an engraving of Prudenceȥ˘=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔȉʰʰɔʦʰȉȉɫʹɴȥȉ२εɆे ࣁेࢾࢿ३ूȬȉʰɔɷɆʰʁʰɏȲεʟʦʰȬȲȦȉȬȲʁɅʰɏȲʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेΤȲʦȲʰɏʟȲȲɔɴȉɆȲʦ instructively trace the distancing from individual to archetype, as the ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫεʟʦʰʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ȲȬʦʰȉʟʰʦʰʁʦʰȉɷȬɅʁʟʰɏȲɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅȥȲȉʹʰ˘ू going beyond the accidents of nature. Fig. 4.12. Giovanni Battista Palumba, Prudence, ࢾࣂࢽࢽॹࢾࢽे*ɷɆʟȉˑɔɷɆेʟɔʰɔʦɏgʹʦȲʹɴू London. 144 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE JɷȉʜʟȲˑɔʁʹʦʦʰʹȬ˘ूJʦʹηȲʦʰȲȬʰɏȉʰȲȥȉʦʰɔȉɷʁȬȲɫɔʁɴȥʁʹʦȲȬʰɏȲʦȉɴȲ model depicted in a life drawing of 1520 as for his representation of ʧԬ AgathaूɅʁʟgȉʟ˘gȉɆȬȉɫȲɷȲɔɷɏɔʦRaising of Lazurus (1517–19), and in a ʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰȬȉʰȲȬʰʁࢾࣂࢾࢿɷʁ˒ɔɷʰɏȲ©Ϊˢɔ२εɆʦࣁेࢾࣀूࣁेࢾࣁूȉɷȬࣁेࢾࣂ३े91 In fact, Pietro Aretino mocked Sebastiano for repeatedly using the same prostitute ȉʦȉɴʁȬȲɫɅʁʟɏɔʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦुআɔʰউʦɷʁʰȲɷʁʹɆɏʰʁɏȉˑȲɏȉȬɏȲʟɴȉɷ˘ʰɔɴȲʦौ ɏȲɏȉʦʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ȲȬɏȲʟȉʦȉɷȉɷɆȲɫूȉʦʰɏȲgȉȬʁɷɷȉूȉʦʰɏȲgȉɆȬȉɫȲɷȲूȉʦ Saint Apollonia, as Saint Ursula, as Saint Lucy, and as Saint Catherine, gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 145 Fig. 4.13. Sebastiano del Piombo, Drawing of ǈlǈȥǱǫÄɀȳǈȶȓȶɯȎǱ?ɸȓɥǱɀȄÃǱȶɸɥ, 1520. Silverpoint on blue prepared ʜȉʜȲʟेȉȥɔɷȲʰȬȲʦ$ȲʦʦɔɷʦूgʹʦȳȲ du Louvre, Paris, Inv. 10816r. Fig. 4.14. Sebastiano del Piombo, Martyrdom ɀȄʧԬȅǈɯȎǈ, 1520. Oil on canvas. Galleria Palatina, Pitti Palace, Florence. ΤɔʦʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲʁɅʹʦɔɷɆʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʦʁɷɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲʦɏȉʦȥȲȲɷɷʁʰȲȬʜʟȲˑɔʁʹʦɫ˘ू but in a piecemeal fashion, relating this to the more general problem of ambiguous female portraiture, or to the peculiarity of individual artists. ΤȲʟȲɔʦɴʹȦɏɴʁʟȲȉʰʦʰȉɦȲɏȲʟȲूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɔɷʰɏȲʦȲʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȉȥɫȲɅȉȦȲʦ ʜɫȉȦȲȬʁɷʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȲȬूȦɫȉʦʦɔȦɔˢɔɷɆȥʁȬɔȲʦेΤȲʦȲɔɴȉɆȲʦʜʟʁɴʁʰȲʰɏȲɔȬȲȉ ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲɴȉɔɷɅʹɷȦʰɔʁɷʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥʁȬɔȲʦɔʦʰɏȲɔʟȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁȲˑʁɦȲɴȉɫȲ ʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲȉɷȬूʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏɔʦूȲɫɔȦɔʰɴȉɫȲɔɷʦʜɔʟȉʰɔʁɷेআÂȲ˒ʁɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲेेे ɅʁʟɴȲȬȥ˘ɆʁȬɅʁʟʰɏȲȦʁɴʜȉɷ˘ʁɅɴȲɷौȉɷȬȥȲȦȉʹʦȲɏʹɴȉɷʦɔɆɏʰȲɷɣʁ˘ʦ ɔʰʦȲɫɅʰɏȲɴʁʟȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫʰɏȲʁȥɣȲȦʰɔʰɆȉˢȲʦȉʰूʦʁȉ˒ʁɴȉɷेेे˒ɔʰɏɏȲʟ ȥȲȉʹʰ˘ȦȉɷʟȲɫɔȲˑȲʰɏȲɴȉɷेेेʁɅȉʰɏʁʹʦȉɷȬȥʁʰɏȲʟʦʁɴȲʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʦूই Ȳ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲɷȉʟʟȉʰʁʟɔɷ=ɔȉȦʁɴʁ^ȉɷʰȲʟɔউʦOn Economy (1560).95 ʟʰʰɏȲʁʟ˘ɆɔˑȲʦɴȲɷʰɏȲȦʟɔʰȲʟɔȉɅʁʟʰɏȲɔʟɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ू ȉɷȬɔʰȥȲȦȉɴȲ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦʟȲʦʜʁɷʦɔȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁȦɏȉɷɆȲʰɏȲɔʟȥʁȬɔȲʦʰʁɴȲȲʰɴȉɫȲ ʟȲ̍ʹɔʟȲɴȲɷʰʦेʟʰɔʦʰʦȉɷȬ˒ʟɔʰȲʟʦूʁɅȦʁʹʟʦȲूɏȉȬʰɏȲȉȬˑȉɷʰȉɆȲʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ worked with material that could be shaped more easily and permanently for male delectation. Courtesan Culture and Transitory Female Identity ȉɷȬJȉɫɫʁ˒ɏɔɴʰɏȲȲ˗ȦʹʦȲूȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʦɏȲউʦȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫूJʰȲɫɫ˘ʁʹॄই92 Along the same lines, a 1544 letter from Giovanni della Casa to Cardinal Alessandro <ȉʟɷȲʦȲɔʦʦʹηȲʦʰɔˑȲे$ȲɫɫȉȉʦȉʜʟʁʜʁʦȲʦʰɏȉʰɏȲʦɏʁʹɫȬȉʦɦ¢ɔʰɔȉɷʰʁȉȬȬ the portrait of a Roman courtesan named Angela, who was known by the ȦȉʟȬɔɷȉɫूʰʁȉʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆȥȉʦȲȬʁɷ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦVenus of Urbinoूɷʁ˒ɔȬȲɷʰɔεȲȬ as the Danae in Naples.93ʁȥȲʟʰʁÒȉʜʜȲʟɔɏȉʦȦʁɷˑɔɷȦɔɷɆɫ˘ȉʟɆʹȲȬʰɏȉʰȉ portrait by Titian also in this collection shows the same model.94 146 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 4.15. Sebastiano del Piombo, Portrait of a Young Woman, c.1512. Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. ΤɔʦʦɏȉʜɔɷɆʁɅɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷʰʁʟȲζȲȦʰȥȉȦɦɴȉɫȲɅȉɷʰȉʦɔȲʦɏȉȬɔʰʦ ʟȲȉɫॼɫɔɅȲʜȉʟȉɫɫȲɫɔɷȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷȦʹɫʰʹʟȲेΤȲȲȉʟɫɔȲʦʰɦɷʁ˒ɷʹʦȲʁɅʰɏȲ˒ʁʟȬ cortegiana (courtesan) was April 2, 1498, in the diary of Johann Burchard, the papal master of ceremonies. He discussed how a woman called ʹʟʦȲʰʰȉूȉআȦʁʟʰȲɆɔȉɷȉूʰɏȉʰɔʦूȉɷɏʁɷȲʦʰʜʟʁʦʰɔʰʹʰȲूই˒ȉʦɔɴʜʟɔʦʁɷȲȬɅʁʟ ȬʟȲʦʦɔɷɆʹʜɏȲʟgʁʁʟɔʦɏɴȉɫȲʦȲʟˑȉɷʰɔɷɅȲɴȉɫȲȉʰʰɔʟȲेʦȉʜʹɷɔʦɏɴȲɷʰू gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 147 the servant was made to walk around the city with his clothes hitched up so his genitals were on view, and later on he was publicly executed at the Campo dei Fiore.96ΤȲʦȲȦʁɷȬɴȲɷʰɔʁɷɔʦɅʟʁɴsȦʰʁȥȲʟࢾࣂࢽࢾूɔɷȉɷ ȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʁɅʰɏȲɷʁ˒ɷʁʰʁʟɔʁʹʦআȥȉɷ̍ʹȲʰʁɅȦɏȲʦʰɷʹʰʦইɏȲɫȬȉʰʰɏȲÁȉʰɔȦȉɷे ΤȲʜʁʜȲউʦʦʁɷूȲʦȉʟȲʁʟɆɔȉू˒ȉʦʰɏȲɆʹȲʦʰʁɅɏʁɷʁʟेʹʟȦɏȉʟȬȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲʦ the proceedings: Fig. 4.16. gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूStudy of Naked Young Woman for the Entombment, c.1500. Red chalk and pen and ink on paper. JɷˑेࣄࢿࣃʟूȉȥɔɷȲʰȬȲʦ$Ȳʦʦɔɷʦू gʹʦȳȲȬʹ^ʁʹˑʟȲूȉʟɔʦे 148 JɷʰɏȲȲˑȲɷɔɷɆूεδ˘ȬȲȦȲɷʰʜʟʁʦʰɔʰʹʰȲʦȦȉɫɫȲȬȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦɏȉȬȬɔɷɷȲʟ ˒ɔʰɏ$ʹɦȲÁȉɫȲɷʰɔɷʁɔɷɏɔʦʟʁʁɴɔɷʰɏȲʜʁʦʰʁɫɔȦȉɫȉȦȲू˒ɏʁ ȉδȲʟȬɔɷɷȲʟȬȉɷȦȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲʦȲʟˑȉɷʰʦȉɷȬʰɏȲʁʰɏȲʟʦʰɏȲʟȲूεʟʦʰ ɔɷʰɏȲɔʟȦɫʁʰɏȲʦȉɷȬʰɏȲɷɷȉɦȲȬेδȲʟȬɔɷɷȲʟɫȉɴʜʦʰȉɷȬʦɏʁɫȬɔɷɆ ɫɔɆɏʰȲȬȦȉɷȬɫȲʦ˒ȲʟȲʜɫȉȦȲȬʁɷʰɏȲζʁʁʟȉʟʁʹɷȬʰɏȲȦʁɴɴʁɷʰȉȥɫȲू and chestnuts were strewn around them, which the prostitutes, ɷȉɦȲȬȉɷȬʁɷʰɏȲɔʟɏȉɷȬʦȉɷȬɦɷȲȲʦɏȉȬʰʁʜɔȦɦʹʜेΤȲʜʁʜȲूʰɏȲ ȬʹɦȲȉɷȬɏɔʦʦɔʦʰȲʟ$ʁɷɷȉ^ʹȦʟȲˢɔȉ˒ȲʟȲȉɫɫʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉɷȬ˒ȉʰȦɏɔɷɆे <ɔɷȉɫɫ˘ʜʟɔˢȲʦ˒ȲʟȲʁΦȲʟȲȬॹʦɔɫɦȲɷȬʁʹȥɫȲʰʦूʜȉɔʟʦʁɅʦɏʁȲʦूɏȉʰʦȉɷȬ other garments – for those who knew the greatest number of these prostitutes carnally.97 $ʹʟɔɷɆʰɏȲɫȉʰȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦू˒ɏɔɫȲʰɏȲ Borgia Alexander VI was pope, there was considerable tolerance – even promotion – of unmarried clerics in the heart of the Vatican having sexual relationships with women. Alexander himself famously fathered four children with Vannozza dei Cattanei, whom he supported throughout her life.98 It was during his reign that the term courtesan was coined, and women who had close relationships with cardinals and other members ʁɅʰɏȲȦʁʹʟʰʦȲȲɴʰʁɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷɆɔˑȲɷȉɷȉɫɴʁʦʰʁΪȦɔȉɫʜɫȉȦȲɔɷʰɏȲʜȉʜȉɫ life, being referred to in documents with the epithet curialis romanum curiam sequens (courtesan follower of the Roman court), which had a male Ȳ̍ʹɔˑȉɫȲɷʰɅʁʟɴȲʟȦɏȉɷʰʦɔɷʰɏȲʜȉʜȉɫʦȲʟˑɔȦȲे99 ˒ʁɴȉɷȦȉɫɫȲȬ<ɔȉɴɴȲʰʰȉȬɔgɔȦɏȲɫȲȉʦʦɔɷɔू˒ɏʁȲɷȬʁ˒ȲȬʰɏȲȦɏȉʜȲɫ and was buried there at her death in 1512.102ȉʦʦɔɷɔ˒ȉʦȲʦȉʟȲʁʟɆɔȉউʦ ȦʁɷȦʹȥɔɷȲूȉɷȬʰɏʹʦɴȉ˘˒ȲɫɫɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷʁɷȲʁɅʰɏȲআȬȲȦȲɷʰʜʟʁʦʰɔʰʹʰȲʦই crawling round naked in the chestnut game in 1501.103ΤȲȉȬˑȲɷʰʹʟʁʹʦ ȦɫȉʦʦɔȦɔˢɔɷɆȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʁɅȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʁɴȲʁΦȲʟȲȬgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁ and other artists new cultural frames that licensed gazing at naked women. If courtesan culture was initiated in Rome, it soon spread to other Italian centers, most notably Venice. From around 1500, it seems to have become increasingly fashionable for certain women to entertain clients of high ʦʁȦɔȉɫʦʰȉʰʹʦɔɷʰɏȲɔʟȲɫȲɆȉɷʰɏʁɴȲʦɔɷʦʰȲȉȬʁɅʰɏȲʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷȉɫȥʁʟȬȲɫɫʁेΤȲ earliest recorded use of the term cortegiana in Venice seems to be around 1514, by which time Venetian courtesans were extremely visible, being accorded chapels in honored ecclesiastical buildings. According to the ȬɔȉʟɔʦʰgȉʟɔɷʁȉɷʹʰʁूʰɏȲআɏʁɷʁʟȲȬȉɷȬʟȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬʜʟʁʦʰɔʰʹʰȲইɷˢʁɫȉ Chaga was buried in the church of the Frari in September 1514, and a ɴʁɷʰɏȉδȲʟ˒ȉʟȬʦ^ʹȦɔȉ¢ʟɔˑɔ˗ȉɷूআʰɏȲȦʁɷʦʹɴɴȉʰȲȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʁɅɏȲʟȬȉ˘ूই was buried at Santa Caterina.104 Categories and naming of sex workers in this era are complex and ambiguous, but many relationships between men and (generally) unmarried women were relatively long-lasting and involved an element ʁɅ˒ʁʁɔɷɆȉɷȬȦȉɣʁɫɔɷɆʰɏȲʁȥɣȲȦʰʁɅɅȲɴȉɫȲȬȲʦɔʟȲȥ˘ʰɏȲɴȉɫȲȉȬɴɔʟȲʟे105 ȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁ¢ȲʦʦȉʰʁʟȲ˘ूɔɷȲɫɔʰȲȦɔʟȦɫȲʦআʰɏȲɴʁȬȲɫ˒ȉʦʁɷȲɔɷ˒ɏɔȦɏ women were experienced and worldly lovers, aloof and somewhat unattainable, who completely dominated their idealistic, romantically ȲɷʦɫȉˑȲȬɴȉɫȲȉȬɴɔʟȲʟʦेই106gȉɷ˘ȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦɏȲɫȬȉɆʟȲȉʰȬȲȉɫʁɅʜʁ˒Ȳʟɔɷ relationships with their male admirers, and it was an important part of ʰɏȲɔʟʟʁɫȲȉɷȬʰɏȲɔʟʦʁȦɔȉɫʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆʰʁȦɏʁʁʦȲʰɏȲȥȲʦʰɫʁˑȲʟʜʁʦʦɔȥɫȲेΤȲ model of relationships with their lovers – always called amici (friends), never clienti२ȦɫɔȲɷʰʦ३ॹ˒ȉʦȥȉʦȲȬʁɷȦʁʹʟʰɫ˘ɫʁˑȲेΤȲ˘ʟȲɅʹʦȲȬȦȲʟʰȉɔɷ ɴȲɷूʦɫȲʜʰ˒ɔʰɏʁʰɏȲʟʦʁɷɫ˘ȉδȲʟȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȉȥɫȲ˒ʁʁɔɷɆȉɷȬɆɔδɆɔˑɔɷɆूȉɷȬ even then could be deliberately capricious with their favors. Jʰ˒ȉʦɷʁȦʁɔɷȦɔȬȲɷȦȲʰɏȉʰʁɴȲ˒ȉʦȉȦȲɷʰȲʟɅʁʟȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆȉδȲʟʰɏȲ female nude: Sebastiano del Piombo, Raphael, and Benvenuto Cellini all employed female life models while living and working in the city. sɷȲʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦȲȉʟɫɔȲʦʰɫɔɅȲȬʟȉ˒ɔɷɆʦȉɫʦʁȬȉʰȲʦɅʟʁɴɏɔʦ˘ʁʹʰɏɔɷ ʁɴȲूȉɷȬɔʦɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ȦɫʁʦȲɫ˘ɫɔɷɦȲȬʰʁʰɏȲȦɔʰ˘উʦȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷȦʹɫʰʹʟȲेEɔʦ ʦʰʹȬ˘Ʌʁʟgȉʟ˘gȉɆȬȉɫȲɷȲ२εɆेࣁेࢾࣃ३˒ȉʦɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬɅʁʟʰɏȲEntombment ȉɫʰȉʟʜɔȲȦȲȬȲʦʰɔɷȲȬɅʁʟȉȦɏȉʜȲɫɔɷʰɏȲȦɏʹʟȦɏʁɅȉɷʰউɆʁʦʰɔɷʁेΤɔʦ church was a renowned center for courtesans, where they went to be ʦȲȲɷɔɷȉɫɫʰɏȲɔʟεɷȲʟ˘ूȉʦ˒ȲɫɫȉʦȥȲɔɷɆʰɏȲɫʁȦȉʰɔʁɷɅʁʟȉȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬ annual poetry competition, the Coryciana.100gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦȉɫʰȉʟʜɔȲȦȲ ˒ȉʦɴȉȬȲɅʁʟȉȦɏȉʜȲɫȬȲȬɔȦȉʰȲȬʰʁgȉʟ˘gȉɆȬȉɫȲɷȲ२ʹɷȬȲʟʦʰʁʁȬʰʁȥȲȉ penitent prostitute in this period) whose patronage rights were owned by a courtesan.101ΤȲȲȉʟɫɔȲʦʰʟȲȦʁʟȬʁɅȉȬʁɷʁʟʁɅʰɏȲȦɏȉʜȲɫɔʦȉ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲ ΤȲɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲࢾࣂࢿࢽʦȉɷȬȥȲ˘ʁɷȬʟȲɫȉ˘ʦʰɏȲȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʁɅɏʹɆȲȬȲʦɔʟȲ these women provoked. Pietro Fortini describes his visit to a Roman courtesan in the 1520s. Her room was richly decorated with gilded leather ˒ȉɫɫɏȉɷɆɔɷɆʦȉɷȬʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦेΤȲ˒ʁɴȉɷɏȲʟʦȲɫɅ˒ȉʦȬʟȲʦʦȲȬɔɷʦʁɴʹȦɏ ɆʁɫȬȉɷȬʜȲȉʟɫʦআʰɏȉʰʦɏȲʦȲȲɴȲȬɫɔɦȲʰɏȲɴʁʦʰʟȉȬɔȉɷʰʦʹɷेই*ˑȲɷɴʁʟȲ impressive, however, was the sight of her stripped down to her chemise. আʁȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȉɷȬεɷȲɫ˘ɴȉȬȲ˒ȉʦʰɏɔʦɫȉȬ˘ʰɏȉʰʦɏȲʦȲȲɴȲȬɫɔɦȲȉȬɔˑɔɷȲ being . . . when I saw her stripped like that I was as if lost, because of the loveliness of her splendor, and because of seeing something so rare and ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫेই107Τɔʦʰ˘ʜȲʁɅʁˑȲʟȥɫʁ˒ɷȬȲʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷ˒ȉʦɅȉɔʟɫ˘ȦʁɴɴʁɷʜɫȉȦȲ ȉɷȬɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ʟȲζȲȦʰʦʰɏȲȉέʹȲɷȦȲʁɅʦʁɴȲʁɅʰɏȲʦȲ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦɫɔˑɔɷɆ THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 149 spaces.108=ʹɔȬʁʹηɔȲʟʁɏȉʦȦɫȉɔɴȲȬʰɏȉʰɔʰʦȲȲɴʦআɔɷȲʦʦȲɷȦȲȉ ȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷ˒ȉʦȉʰʟʹɫ˘ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɫʹ˗ʹʟ˘ɆʁʁȬूɴʹȦɏɫɔɦȲȉ˒ʁʟɦʁɅȉʟʰेই109 ΤɔʦȦɏȉʟȉȦʰȲʟɔˢȉʰɔʁɷɔʦʰʟʹȲʁɷʰɏȲʦʹʟɅȉȦȲूȥʹʰȉɫʦʁʦȲȲɴʦʰʁʁʜȉʦʦɔˑȲे ʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦ˒ȲʟȲूɔɷȬȲȲȬू˒ʁʟɦʦʁɅȉʟʰूȉɷȬʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲʦȲɫɅॼɴȉȬȲे$ʹʟɔɷɆ ʰɏȲʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʰɏȲȲɫʁ̍ʹȲɷȦȲȉɷȬɔɷʰȲɫɫɔɆȲɷȦȲʁɅʦʁɴȲȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦ ʦʹȦɏȉʦ¢ʹɫɫɔȉȬউʟȉɆʁɷȉȉɷȬÁȲʟʁɷɔȦȉ<ʟȉɷȦʁ˒ȉʦʟȲȦʁʟȬȲȬɅʁʟʜʁʦʰȲʟɔʰ˘ in their printed works.110gȉʟɆȉʟȲʰʁʦȲɷʰɏȉɫʦɏʁ˒ʦɏʁ˒ȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦʦɏȉʟȲȬ ɴȉɷ˘̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦ˒ɔʰɏɫɔʰȲʟȉʟ˘ȦʁʹʟʰɔȲʟʦूȉɷȬɔɷȬȲȲȬȦʁɴʜȲʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɴ for the same patrons.111ʁɴȲȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦʜɫȉ˘ȲȬʁɷʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦ ɴȉɫɫȲȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁʰɏȲɔʟȉȬˑȉɷʰȉɆȲेΤȲ˘ʁδȲɷʰʁʁɦʁɷɷȲ˒ɷȉɴȲʦूʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦ grandiose and classicizing (such as Imperia and Angela Greca) and ʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦȦʁɴɔȦ२ʦʹȦɏȉʦgȉʰʟȲɴȉjʁɷÁʁɫȲ३ेʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦ˒ȲʟȲȦʁɷʦʰȉɷʰɫ˘ playing a role. Indeed, in some ways, they could be seen as a pinnacle of ˒ɏȉʰɏȉʦȥȲȲɷȦȉɫɫȲȬȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲআʦȲɫɅॼɅȉʦɏɔʁɷɔɷɆইॹɫɔɦȲȦʁʹʟʰɔȲʟʦूʰɏȲ˘ aimed to please their patron through modifying their appearance and behavior, a comparison that was not lost to contemporaries.112 Partly because of their power and prominence, courtesans attracted much ʟȲʦȲɷʰɴȲɷʰȉɷȬ˒ȲʟȲɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ȦɏȉʦʰɔʦȲȬɅʁʟʰɏȲɔʟআɏȉʹɆɏʰ˘ʜʟɔȬȲेই ɆȲɷʟȲʁɅʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲɆɫʁʟɔεȲȬɔɷʰɏȲʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫȬȲɆʟȉȬȉʰɔʁɷ of courtesans and prostitutes.113ΤȲɫȉɷɆʹȉɆȲʹʦȲȬɔʦɏȉʰȲॼεɫɫȲȬȉɷȬ ȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʰʹʁʹʦू˒ɔʰɏȉʦʹηȲʦʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰɴʁʦʰȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦȉʟȲɏɔȬɔɷɆʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫ ɔɴʜȲʟɅȲȦʰɔʁɷʦʹɷȬȲʟʰɏȲɔʟʟɔȦɏȦɫʁʰɏȲʦेΤȲʦȲ˒ʁɴȲɷȉʟȲȉʰʰȉȦɦȲȬȉȥʁˑȲ all through degrading descriptions of their bodies. An anti-courtesan invective, the 1539 Ragionamento del Zoppinoूɔʦʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫɔɷʦʹηȲʦʰɔɷɆʰɏȉʰ ʰɏȲʟȲȉȬȲʟআgȉɦȲ०ȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦ१˒ȉɫɦȉʟʁʹɷȬʰɏȲȦɏȉɴȥȲʟɷȉɦȲȬȉɫɔʰʰɫȲूȉɷȬ ˘ʁʹ˒ɔɫɫʦȲȲȉʰɏʁʹʦȉɷȬʰɏɔɷɆʦʰɏȉʰʁΦȲɷȬ˘ʁʹইɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆআȉ˒ɏʁɫȲ˒ʁʟɫȬ ʁɅ˒ʟɔɷɦɫȲʦȉʟʁʹɷȬɏȲʟȉʦʦूইআʰɔʰʦʰɏȉʰɏȉɷɆȬʁ˒ɷʰʁʰɏȲȥȲɫɫ˘ȥʹʰʰʁɷूইআɅʁʹʟ ʁʟʦɔ˗ɅʁɫȬʦेेेʁɷɏȲʟʦʰʁɴȉȦɏʰɏȉʰȦʁˑȲʟɏȲʟʹɆɫ˘Ȧʹɷʰेই114 Sometimes this sense of visceral disgust spilled over into actual violence: the Trentuno della Ôǈ̮Ǳɯʧǈ describes the mass rape of a Venetian courtesan named Angela ȬȲɫgʁʟʁूɷɔȦɦɷȉɴȲȬɫȉÒȉΦȲʰʰȉूɔɷʁʟȬȲʟʰʁʰȉɦȲʟȲˑȲɷɆȲʹʜʁɷɏȲʟʜʟʁʹȬ ʟȲɣȲȦʰɔʁɷʁɅȉʦʹɔʰʁʟेgȉɷ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʦȲʦʰʁʟɔȲʦʜʟɔɷʰȲȬɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏ century trace the rise of a courtesan to wealth, and then glory in her ʦɏȉɴȲɅʹɫɅȉɫɫɔɷʰʁʜʁˑȲʟʰ˘ȉɷȬʦɔȦɦɷȲʦʦूʁδȲɷʦ˘ʜɏɔɫɔʦूȉʦʦɏʁ˒ɷʁɷʰɏȲ frontispiece of ̨ǱiȓɥǱɞǈǤȪǱ,ȶǫɀȄȓȅȶɀɞǈȶʡɀȪǈ२εɆेࣁेࢾࣄ३े115 Taking the position of a reclining Venus, the courtesan is undressed so her syphilis sores can be clearly demonstrated to all. 150 Fig. 4.17. ̨ǱiȓɥǱɞǈǤȪǱ,ȶǫɀȄȓȅȶɀɞǈȶʡɀȪǈ, late sixteenth century. Engraving. Civica Raccolta delle Stampe আȦɏɔɫɫȲȲʟʰȉʟȲɫɫɔूইgɔɫȉɷे =ʹɔȦȦɔȉʟȬɔɷɔউʦ˒ȉʟɷɔɷɆʰʁgȉȦɏɔȉˑȲɫɫɔȉȥʁʹʰɏɔʦɫʁˑȲɅʁʟʰɏȲȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷ ȉʟȥȉʟȉȉɫʹʰȉʰɔɔɷȉɫȲʰʰȲʟʁɅࢾࣂࢿࣂुআ^ɔɦȲɏȲʟɦɔɷȬूʦɏȲʰʟɔȲʦʰʁʜɫȲȉʦȲ all and seeks to appear, rather than to be: your eyes, accustomed to this meretricious company, are confusing what is, with what seems to be, and, ʜʟʁˑɔȬȲȬʰɏȲʟȲউʦȉɫɔʰʰɫȲȦɏȉʟɴूʰɏȲ˘ȬʁɷউʰɫʁʁɦȥȲ˘ʁɷȬȉʜʜȲȉʟȉɷȦȲʦेই116 Similarly, the ¤ǈɞȓ̮ɀȄÄȎɀɞǱɥɀȄÃǱȶȓǥǱूεʟʦʰʜʹȥɫɔʦɏȲȬɔɷࢾࣂࣀࣂूȦɫȉɔɴȲȬ ʰɏȉʰআÂɏʁʟȲʦȉʟȲɅʹɫɫʁɅȉɫɫɦɔɷȬʦʁɅɴȉɫɔȦȲȉɷȬɅȉɫʦȲɏʁʁȬʦूȉɷȬȲ˗ȉȦʰɫ˘ ɫɔɦȲʦʰȉʰʹȲʦूʰɏȲ˘ɏȉˑȲɴʹȬɔɷʦɔȬȲȥʹʰȉʟȲȬȲȦʁʟȉʰȲȬʁɷʰɏȲʁʹʰʦɔȬȲेই117 ʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦ˒ʟʁʰȲȉȥʁʹʰʰɏȲȬɔΪȦʹɫʰɔȲʦʁɅʰɏȲʜʟȲʦʦʹʟȲʰʁȉȦʰ Ȧʁɷʰɔɷʹȉɫɫ˘ȉʦʰɏȲʁȥɣȲȦʰʁɅɴȉɫȲʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲेΤȲɅȉɴʁʹʦÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷ˒ʟɔʰȲʟȉɷȬ courtesan Veronica Franco advised a friend not to allow her daughter to ȲɷʰȲʟʰɏȲʜʟʁɅȲʦʦɔʁɷɔɷȉɫȲʰʰȲʟ˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷɔɷʰɏȲࢾࣂࣄࢽʦुআJʰউʦȉɴʁʦʰ˒ʟȲʰȦɏȲȬ ʰɏɔɷɆेेेʰʁʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʁɷȲউʦȥʁȬ˘ȉɷȬɫȉȥʁʟʰʁȉʦɫȉˑȲʟ˘ʰȲʟʟɔɅ˘ɔɷɆȲˑȲɷʰʁ ʰɏɔɷɦʁɅेेेʰʁȲȉʰ˒ɔʰɏȉɷʁʰɏȲʟউʦɴʁʹʰɏूʦɫȲȲʜ˒ɔʰɏȉɷʁʰɏȲʟউʦȲ˘ȲʦूɴʁˑȲ ȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆʰʁȉɷʁʰɏȲʟউʦ˒ɔɫɫेই118 Making Women Beautiful ΤȲʰɏȲɴȲʁɅȥʁȬɔɫ˘Ȳ˗ʜʁʦʹʟȲू˒ɏɔȦɏʜɫȉ˘ȲȬʁɷʰɏȲɔȬȲȉʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ Ȳ̍ʹȉʰɔɷɆʰʁʰʟʹʰɏ२ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬɔɷɏȉʜʰȲʟsɷȲ३ू˒ȉʦȉɷɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰʁɷȲɔɷ ʰɏȲɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦेΤȲʟȲ˒ȉʦȉʜʟȲʁȦȦʹʜȉʰɔʁɷʰɏȉʰ ȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷʦȉʜʜȲȉʟȲȬʰʁȥȲʦʁɴȲʰɏɔɷɆʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲɷʁʰेΤȲɔʟȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ ʦʹʟɅȉȦȲȉʜʜȲȉʟȉɷȦȲɏɔȬȉʟȲȉɫɔʰ˘ʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦʹɆɫ˘ȉɷȬȬɔʦɆʹʦʰɔɷɆेΤɔʦʰʟʁʜȲ ʁɅʰʟʹȲȥȲɔɷɆȉɷȬʜʟȲʰȲɷʦȲ˒ȉʦɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬे¢˘ʜɔȦȉɫɔʦ<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁ Although much ink has been spilt attempting to spot courtesans in early sixteenth-century images, the advent of courtesan culture ȦȉɷɷʁʰȥȲʦȲʜȉʟȉʰȲȬɅʟʁɴ˒ɔȬȲʟɔȬȲȉʦȉȥʁʹʰɅȲɴȉɫȲʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫɔʰ˘ेΤȲ combination of mistrust of and lust for female beauty was leveled at all ˒ʁɴȲɷेȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟȉɷ˗ɔȲʰ˘˒ȉʦȲˑʁɦȲȬȥ˘˒ʁɴȲɷউʦʹʦȲʁɅȦʁʦɴȲʰɔȦʦेΤȲ application of cosmetics (belletti) was commonplace in Italian culture (though it has not been taken seriously in the scholarly literature until recently).119ÂʁɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲȲɷɣʁɔɷȲȬȥʁʰɏʰʁɴȉɦȲʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦȉʦȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ as possible to attract husbands and also to avoid make-up as this involved tricking men, falsely attempting to improve on what God, or nature, THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 151 Fig. 4.19. Antonio Lombardo, Venus Anadyomene, cेࢾࣂࢾࢽेgȉʟȥɫȲेÁɔȦʰʁʟɔȉ ȉɷȬɫȥȲʟʰgʹʦȲʹɴू^ʁɷȬʁɷे Fig. 4.18. Giovanni Bellini, Naked Young Woman in Front of a Mirror, 1515. Oil on panel. Kunsthistorisches gʹʦȲʹɴूÁɔȲɷɷȉे 152 had given them.120 Recent research on cosmetic culture has shown that ideas of female deception were common in invectives against the use ʁɅɴȉɦȲॼʹʜेΤȲʟȲɔʦȉʦȲʜȉʟȉʰɔʁɷɴȉȬȲȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷআɷȉʰʹʟȉɫইȥȲȉʹʰ˘ȉɷȬ ʰɏȉʰȉʟʰɔεȦɔȉɫɫ˘ȦʟȲȉʰȲȬȥ˘˒ʁɴȲɷʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦे*ˑȲɷʰɏʁʦȲʰȲ˗ʰʦɔɷɅȉˑʁʟ ʁɅɴȉɦȲॼʹʜȉȬˑɔʦȲȉɷȉʰʹʟȉɫɫʁʁɦुআɔɷʰɏȲʦȲεȦʰɔʁɷʦȥȲˑȲʟ˘ɴʁȬȲʦʰेे ेʦʁʰɏʁʦȲ˒ɏʁɫʁʁɦȉʰ˘ʁʹ˒ʁʹɫȬɣʹȬɆȲʰɏȉʰ˘ʁʹȉʟȲɴʁʟȲʁɅȉɷȉʰʹʟȉɫ ȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʰɏȉɷȉʟʰɔεȦɔȉɫूইȉȬˑɔʦȲȬȉʟɫʁɫȥȲʟʰɔɔɷɏɔʦAmiria, written in ʰɏȲɴɔȬॼεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘े121 Advice was given, for example, to stain the face with rouge permanently so women could wash their face in front of male admirers to prove they were not wearing cosmetics.122 Conversely, as noted in Chapter One, men were advised to catch their beloveds unaware in the morning before they were fully dressed in order to check they were naturally beautiful.123 It is no coincidence that the literary trope of creating a beautiful woman in words was paralleled visually by artworks that show women in the act ʁɅȥȲȉʹʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷे^ȉʰȲʟȦȉɫɫȲȬআ˒ʁɴȲɷȉʰʰɏȲɔʟʰʁɔɫȲʰूইʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲʁɅɔɴȉɆȲ was completely new in the early sixteenth century, with no classical precedents.124ΤȲʦȲɔɴȉɆȲʦʦɏʁ˒˒ʁɴȲɷɆȲʰʰɔɷɆȬʟȲʦʦȲȬूȉʜʜɫ˘ɔɷɆ ȦʁʦɴȲʰɔȦʦूʁʟȥʟʹʦɏɔɷɆʰɏȲɔʟɏȉɔʟेgȉɷ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɴȉʟȲʜȉʟʰɔȉɫɫ˘ɷȉɦȲȬू showing their bare arms and breasts, areas of their body that would normally be kept covered. An early example of this kind of image – =ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔȲɫɫɔɷɔউʦNaked Young Woman in Front of a MirrorूȬȉʰȲȬࢾࣂࢾࣂ२εɆे 4.18) – shows a woman, almost completely naked, looking into a round hand mirror that she holds with her right hand, while dressing her hair ˒ɔʰɏɏȲʟɫȲδेΤȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟȦȉɷʦȲȲʰɏȲȥȉȦɦʁɅɏȲʟɏȲȉȬूɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆɏȲʟ THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 153 Fig. 4.20. Titian, Woman in a Blue Dress २আLa Bellaই३ूࢾࣂࣀࣃेsɔɫʁɷȦȉɷˑȉʦे=ȉɫɫȲʟɔȉ Palatina, Pitti Palace, Florence. pearled headdress (reticella) in another mirror placed on the wall. Rona =ʁΦȲɷɏȉʦɷʁʰȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦɏȲȉȬȬʟȲʦʦɔʦʰɏȉʰʁɅȉȥʟɔȬȲूʦʁʰɏɔʦɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲ is marked out as young, well-to-do, but sexually available to her husband.125 Âɏȉʰɴȉ˘ʦȲȲɴȉʰεʟʦʰȉʦɔɴʜɫȲȉȦʰʁɅˑʁ˘ȲʹʟɔʦɴॹȦɏȲȦɦɔɷɆʰɏȲআʰʟʹʰɏই ʁɅȉ˒ʁɴȉɷউʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ȥȲɅʁʟȲʦɏȲɔʦɅʹɫɫ˘ȬʟȲʦʦȲȬॹɔʦɔɷɅȉȦʰȉȦʁɴʜɫȲ˗ meditation on beauty, time, and artistry. 154 Fig. 4.21. Titian, Women in a Fur Coat, c.1535. Oil on canvas. Kunsthistorisches gʹʦȲʹɴूÁɔȲɷɷȉे in Pliny; this use of the imperfect also echoes the actions of the woman. Using her small hand mirror to check her hair in the larger mirror behind her, she is makingɏȲʟʦȲɫɅȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫूȲȦɏʁɔɷɆȲɫɫɔɷɔউʦʰȉʦɦे128 As Patricia Phillippy has discussed, it was common across Europe in ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ɴʁȬȲʟɷʜȲʟɔʁȬʰʁɫɔɦȲɷ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦʹʦȲʁɅȦʁʦɴȲʰɔȦʦʰʁʰɏȲȉȦʰʁɅ painting; both activities involve the act of abellimento (making beautiful).126 JɷȲɫɫɔɷɔউʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆूʰɏȲȦʁɴʜȉʟɔʦʁɷȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷȉʟʰɔʦʰʦɅʁʟɴɔɷɆȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ female bodies and women attempting to make their bodies more beautiful – implicit in many of the images discussed above – is made explicit. Bellini, unusually, signs this image in the small piece of paper on the carpet on the ɫʁ˒ȲʟʟɔɆɏʰʹʦɔɷɆʰɏȲɔɴʜȲʟɅȲȦʰʰȲɷʦȲुআJʁȉɷɷȲʦȥȲɫɫɔɷʹʦɅȉȦɔȲȥȉʰg$ÇÁই २=ɔʁˑȉɷɷɔȲɫɫɔɷɔ˒ȉʦɴȉɦɔɷɆ०ʰɏɔʦ१ूࢾࣂࢾࣂे३127ΤɔʦɆʟȉɴɴȉʰɔȦȉɫʹʦȉɆȲ ȦʁɷɷȲȦʰʦȲɫɫɔɷɔউʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʰʁʰɏȉʰʁɅɏɔʦȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫɅʁʟȲȥȲȉʟʦूɴȲɷʰɔʁɷȲȬ ΤɔʦɔȬȲȉʁɅɴȉɦɔɷɆʟȲȉɫ˒ʁɴȲɷɔȬȲȉɫɫ˘ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˒ȉʦȉʰʰɏȲȥȉʦɔʦʁɅʰɏȲ creation of female nudes from a relatively early date. A relief sculpture of the Venus Anadyomene attributed to Antonio Lombardo in the early 1510s २εɆेࣁेࢾࣆ३ɔɷȦɫʹȬȲʦʰɏȲɔɷʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷআÁȲɷʹʦूɷȉɦȲȬू˒ʟɔɷɆɔɷɆʰɏȲ˒ȉʰȲʟɅʟʁɴ ɏȲʟȬʟɔʜʜɔɷɆɏȉɔʟेই129ΤȲȲȬʹȦȉʰȲȬˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟ˒ʁʹɫȬɏȉˑȲɦɷʁ˒ɷʰɏȲʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʁɅ this sculpture from Pliny: it is a marble version of the famous painting by Apelles depicting Campaspe as Venus, discussed above. He or she would ȉɫʦʁɏȉˑȲɫɔɦȲɫ˘ʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ̍ʹʁʰȉʰɔʁɷ˒ȉʦʰȉɦȲɷɅʟʁɴʁʁɦJJJ ʁɅsˑɔȬউʦ̨ǱɞɯɀȄ`ɀʐǱ, a much-read text throughout the period.130 Τɔʦ ʦȲȦʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲʰȲ˗ʰɔʦȦʁɷȦȲʟɷȲȬ˒ɔʰɏ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȦʁʦɴȲʰɔȦʦूɆɔˑɔɷɆȉȬˑɔȦȲʰʁ ˒ʁɴȲɷȉȥʁʹʰɏʁ˒ʰʁʦʰȉ˘ȉʰʰʟȉȦʰɔˑȲʰʁɴȲɷुআ*ˑȲʟ˘˒ʁɴȉɷʦɏʁʹɫȬʦʰʹȬ˘ ʰʁεɷȬʁʹʰʰɏȲʦʰ˘ɫȲʰɏȉʰʦʹɔʰʦɏȲʟȥȲʦʰूȉɷȬɅʁʟʰɏȉʰɏȲʟɴɔʟʟʁʟɔʦʰɏȲʦʹʟȲʦʰ ɆʹɔȬȲेই131sˑɔȬȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬʰɏȉʰɔʰ˒ȉʦʁɅɦȲ˘ɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷȦȲʰɏȉʰআȉʟʰɔεȦȲʦɏʁʹɫȬ THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 155 ɫʁʁɦɫɔɦȲȦȉʟȲɫȲʦʦɷȲʦʦूইʰɏȉʰ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʦɏʁʹɫȬȉʜʜȲȉʟɷȉʰʹʟȉɫूȲˑȲɷɔɅ achieved by the means of art.132 Likely the source of the early modern trope of women using cosmetics being similar to the work of an artist, Ovid here ȦʁɴʜȉʟȲʦɅȲɴȉɫȲȥȲȉʹʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷʰʁʰɏȲɴȉʦʰȲʟʜɔȲȦȲʦʁɅʰɏȲȉɷȦɔȲɷʰʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟ g˘ʟʁɷॹɷʁʁɷȲ˒ȉɷʰʦʰʁʦȲȲʰɏȲআʹɷɏȲ˒ɷȥɫʁȦɦʁɅɴȉʟȥɫȲूইȥʹʰʟȉʰɏȲʟ ʰɏȲɴȉʦʰȲʟʜɔȲȦȲɴȉȬȲɅʟʁɴɔʰुআÁȲɷʹʦूɷȉɦȲȬू˒ʟɔɷɆɔɷɆʰɏȲ˒ȉʰȲʟɅʟʁɴɏȲʟ ȬʟɔʜʜɔɷɆɏȉɔʟेই133JɷɅȉȦʰूȉȬʁʟɷɔɷɆʁɷȲউʦɏȉɔʟɔʦʰɏȲʁɷɫ˘ȦʁʦɴȲʰɔȦʜʟȉȦʰɔȦȲ ɴȲɷȉʟȲȉȥɫȲʰʁʦȲȲूʁʰɏȲʟ˒ɔʦȲআʰɏȲʟȲɔʦȉ˒ɏʁɫȲɏʁʦʰʁɅʰɏɔɷɆʦɴȲɷʦɏʁʹɫȬ ɦɷʁ˒ɷʁʰɏɔɷɆȉȥʁʹʰेই134 ^ʁɴȥȉʟȬʁউʦʟȲɫɔȲɅूȲɫɫɔɷɔউʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆूȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟʦɔɷʰɏɔʦɆȲɷʟȲȉʟȲȉɦɔɷʰʁʰɏȲ many blasons that populate the literature of this period; they are explicitly reminding the viewer that the ability of the male imagination to create a beautiful female body far exceeds the attempts of women themselves – the আȉʟʰইʁɅɅȲɴȉɫȲȥȲȉʹʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷɔʦȉʦɷʁʰɏɔɷɆȦʁɴʜȉʟȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲʰʟʹȲȉɷȬ ʜȲʟɴȉɷȲɷʰȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʁɅȉɷȉʟʰɔʦʰʰʁȦʟȲȉʰȲʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेΤȲȦʁɴʜȉʟɔʦʁɷ ɔʦɴȉȬȲȲ˗ʜɫɔȦɔʰɔɷȉȦʁɴɴȲɷʰȥ˘^ʁȬʁˑɔȦʁ$ʁɫȦȲɔɷɏɔʦDialogue on the Education of Women of 1545, where he attempts to explain to women why ʰɏȲ˘ʦɏʁʹɫȬɷʁʰʹʦȲȦʁʦɴȲʰɔȦʦʰʁȉɫʰȲʟʰɏȲɅȉȦȲɆɔˑȲɷʰʁʰɏȲɴȥ˘=ʁȬुআJɅ ʁʹʟgȲʦʦȲʟ¢ɔʰɔȉɷʜȉɔɷʰȲȬȉεɆʹʟȲेेे˒ʁʹɫȬɔʰɷʁʰɆɔˑȲɏɔɴɆʟȲȉʰɔɷɣʹʟ˘ɔɅ another of this art, even if he was a good painter, placed his hands on it to ȦɏȉɷɆȲʁʟʟȲɴȉɦȲɔʰू˒ʁʹɫȬɷউʰʰɏȉʰȬȉɴȉɆȲɏɔʦ˒ʁʟɦैই135¢ɔʰɔȉɷɔʦȲ̍ʹɔˑȉɫȲɷʰ ɏȲʟȲʰʁ=ʁȬौʰɏȲ˒ʁɴȉɷʰȲɴʜʰȲȬʰʁʹʦȲɴȉɦȲॼʹʜɔʦȲ̍ʹɔˑȉɫȲɷʰʰʁȉɫȲʦʦȲʟ ʜȉɔɷʰȲʟेΤȲɔʟȉɔɴɔʦʰɏȲʦȉɴȲुʰʁȦʟȲȉʰȲȉȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɅȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ȉɫɫʹʟɔɷɆʰʁ ʰɏȲɴȉɫȲʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟे¢ɔʰɔȉɷूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूɔʦɴʁʟȲʦʹȦȦȲʦʦɅʹɫेΤȲȉʟʰʁɅȥȲȉʹʰ˘ू ɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟɔʰ˒ȉʦɅʁʟɴʹɫȉʰȲȬू˒ȉʦȥȲʦʰɫȲδʰʁɴȲɷे JʰʦȲȲɴʦɆȲʟɴȉɷȲɏȲʟȲʰʁʟȲʰʹʟɷʰʁ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦVenus of Urbino२εɆेࣁेࢿ३े Xʹʦʰ˒ɏʁȦȉɷʰɏȉʰআʦʁॼȉɷȬॼʦʁইȥȲैʦɔʦʁδȲɷʦʰȉʰȲȬɔɷʰɏȲɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲू ʰɏȲɅȉȦȲʁ̎¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦʟȲȦɫɔɷɔɷɆɷʹȬȲ seems to be of the same model who appears in his Woman in a Blue Dress२εɆेࣁेࢿࢽ३ȉɷȬɏɔʦWoman in a Fur Coat२εɆेࣁेࢿࢾ३ूȥʁʰɏɔɴȉɆȲʦʰɏȉʰɏȉˑȲˑɔʦʹȉɫȦʁɷˑȲɷʰɔʁɷʦȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏ portraiture.136ΤȲWoman in a Blue Dress was given to Guidobaldo II della ʁˑȲʟȲউʦɅȉʰɏȲʟɔɷࢾࣂࣀࣃूʰ˒ʁ˘ȲȉʟʦȥȲɅʁʟȲʰɏȲVenus of Urbino was given to Guidobaldo. It is highly likely that both patrons recognized the woman represented and understood that Titian was playing with ideas inherited from classical prototypes of the beautiful model immortalized, and made even more beautiful, through the hands of the painter. Certainly Titian ɦɷȲ˒ȉȥʁʹʰɫɔɷ˘উʦʦʰʁʟɔȲʦʁɅʜȲɫɫȲʦȉɷȬȉɴʜȉʦʜȲॹʰɏȲ˘ɏȉȬȥȲȦʁɴȲ a commonplace by the 1530s – and he was very much embroiled in the ȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʁ̎ÁȲɷɔȦȲेJɷࢾࣂࣁࣆɔȲʰʟʁʟȲʰɔɷʁʟȲɅȲʟʟȲȬʰʁ¢ɔʰɔȉɷ ȉɫʁɷɆʦɔȬȲɏɔɴʦȲɫɅȉɷȬʰɏȲȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷɷɆȲɫȉȬȲɫgʁʟʁ२ɫȉÒȉΦȲʰʰȉ३ȉʦআȉ ˒ɔʦȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟूȉɆʟȲȉʰʜʁȲʰȉɷȬȉʰʟʹȲȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷेই137 Titian seems to have ɦɷʁ˒ɷɫȉÒȉΦȲʰʰȉ˒ȲɫɫौȉɷʁʰɏȲʟɫȲʰʰȲʟɅʟʁɴʟȲʰɔɷʁʰʁʰɏȲȦʁʹʟʰȲʦȉɷ of the previous year invites her for dinner with him, Titian, and Jacopo 156 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ȉɷʦʁˑɔɷʁू˒ɏʁȉʟȲȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲȬȉʦɏȲʟআȉɷȦɔȲɷʰȉȬˑʁȦȉʰȲʦेই138^ȉÒȉΦȲʰʰȉ˒ȉʦ a famous courtesan in the 1530s, at the time the portraits and the Venus of Urbino were painted, having had a well-known tryst with Cardinal JʜʜʁɫɔʰʁȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔɔɷࢾࣂࣀࣁू˒ɏɔȦɏʜȲʟɏȉʜʦȉȦȦʁʟȬȲȬɏȲʟʰɏȲɦɔɷȬʁɅɅȉɴȲ that led to the description of her gang rape by Lorenzo Venier and also ʰʁɏȲʟȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷɔɷʟȲʰɔɷʁউʦDialogues and Ragionamenti of 1534 and 1536 respectively.139^ɔɦȲ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦɔɴȉɆȲʦू^ȉÒȉΦȲʰʰȉউʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘˒ȉʦȬȲȲɴȲȬȥʁʰɏ ɏʹɆȲɫ˘ȬȲʦɔʟȉȥɫȲȉɷȬɴʁʟȉɫɫ˘ȉɴȥɔɆʹʁʹʦे©ɷɫɔɦȲ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȲɷू ȲɷɷʁȥɫȲȬʰɏʟʁʹɆɏȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰɔʁɷ˒ɔʰɏɴȉɫȲȦʟȲȉʰɔˑɔʰ˘ू^ȉÒȉΦȲʰʰȉ˒ȉʦ ʜɏ˘ʦɔȦȉɫɫ˘ʜʹɷɔʦɏȲȬɅʁʟɏȲʟȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेÂȲ˒ɔɫɫɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ɷȲˑȲʟɦɷʁ˒ɔɅʰɏȲ Venus of Urbinoআʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ʦই^ȉÒȉΦȲʰʰȉʁʟȉɷʁʰɏȲʟ˒ʁɴȉɷȲ̍ʹȉɫɫ˘ʟȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬ for her beauty in this period. However, given the context of a broader artistic practice relating to the portrayal of beautiful naked women, it is likely that Titian was playing on notions of portrayal and idealization in this series of paintings. Notably, he was condemned for this practice by ȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟɔȲʦेΤȲ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟÁɔɷȦȲɷˢʁ$ȉɷʰɔɔʦʟȲʜʁʟʰȲȬʰʁ ɏȉˑȲȦȉʦʰɔɆȉʰȲȬʰɏȲÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷʜȉɔɷʰȲʟɔɷȉȦʁɴʜȉʟɔʦʁɷ˒ɔʰɏgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁु আ¢ɔʰɔȉɷेेेɏȉʦʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬʰɏȲɴʁʦʰȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɅȲɴȉɫȲεɆʹʟȲूȉɷȬ sometimes not so beautiful . . . depending on whether he has beautiful ȥʁȬɔȲʦʰʁʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ेই140 * ΤȲȲɴȲʟɆȲɷȦȲʁɅʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲɔɷɔʰʦˑȉʟɔʁʹʦɆʹɔʦȲʦ˒ȉʦȬȲȲʜɫ˘ ȲɷɴȲʦɏȲȬɔɷɷȲ˒ȬɔʦȦʁʹʟʦȲʦʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेJɷȉɷȉʰʰȲɴʜʰʰʁʦ̍ʹȉʟȲ the circle of being simultaneously disgusted by and attracted to women, male Italian writers created art and poetry that established criteria they ȦʁʹɫȬʹʦȲʰʁɣʹȬɆȲʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɅȲɴȉɫȲɅʁʟɴेΤɔʦȦʹɫʰʹʟȲȲɷȦʁʹʟȉɆȲȬ the attitude that beauty was fundamentally a female attribute and also a ˒ʁɴȉɷউʦʰȉʦɦू˘Ȳʰɔʰ˒ȉʦȉɫʦʁʦʁɴȲʰɏɔɷɆʰɏȉʰȦʁʹɫȬʁɷɫ˘ȥȲʰʟʹɫ˘ʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲȬ by knowledgeable men, and only be truly realized in the minds of male ȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȉɷȬʜʁȲʰʦेXʁɏɷȲʟɆȲʟউʦWays of Seeing (1972) famously discussed the ɔȬȲȉʰɏȉʰ˒ʁɴȲɷ˒ȲʟȲȦʁɷʦʰȉɷʰɫ˘ʹɷȬȲʟʰɏȲɔʟʁ˒ɷȉɷȬɴȲɷউʦʦʹʟˑȲɔɫɫȉɷȦȲु আgȲɷȉȦʰȉɷȬ˒ʁɴȲɷȉʜʜȲȉʟेgȲɷɫʁʁɦȉʰ˒ʁɴȲɷेÂʁɴȲɷ˒ȉʰȦɏ ʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦȥȲɔɷɆɫʁʁɦȲȬȉʰेই141ΤȲʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲɔɷɫʁʁɦɔɷɆȉʰȬȲʦɔʟȉȥɫȲȥʁȬɔȲʦ may be an innate human trait, but creating a framework for evaluating ȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʦʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦɔɷʰȲʟʰ˒ɔɷȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɣʹȬɆɴȲɷʰʁɅʟȲȉɫ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦ ȥȲȉʹʰ˘˒ȉʦȉȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɔɷˑȲɷʰɔʁɷेʦȉʦʰɔɆɫɔʁɷȲ्ȉʜɏȉȲɫʦȉɔȬूআʰʁʜȉɔɷʰ ʁɷȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˒ʁɴȉɷू˘ʁʹɏȉˑȲʰʁʦȲȲɴȉɷ˘ȥȲȉʹʰɔȲʦইȉɷȬʰɏȲɷɏȉˑȲʰɏȲ discernment to pick out the best ones.142ΤȲʰȲ˗ʰʹȉɫȉɷȬˑɔʦʹȉɫȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʁɅ ʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʰȉʹɆɏʰɴȲɷɏʁ˒ʰʁɣʹȬɆȲʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅȉʟʰȉɷȬ ʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅ˒ʁɴȲɷेΤȲʦȲɷȲ˒˒ȉ˘ʦʁɅɫʁʁɦɔɷɆʜʟʁɅʁʹɷȬɫ˘ȉΦȲȦʰȲȬʰɏȲ understanding of both art and the nature of femininity. gȉɦɔɷɆjȉɦȲȬÂʁɴȲɷȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ 157 Chapter Five g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬ sʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ ÈʁʹʟɣʁʹʟɷȲ˘ɴȉ˘˒ȲɫɫɏȉˑȲȥʟʁʹɆɏʰ˘ʁʹʰʁɏȉʜʜɔɷȲʦʦे Francesco Colonna, GʗɛȶǱɞɀɯɀȳǈǥȎȓǈɀȪȓɛȎȓȪȓ, 1499 Ranged around the walls of the Hall of Psyche in the Palazzo Te in gȉɷʰʹȉूɅʟȉɴɔɷɆɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅɅʟʁɫɔȦɦɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬɆʁȬʦूɆʁȬȬȲʦʦȲʦूȉɷȬɷ˘ɴʜɏʦू ɔʦȉɷɔɷʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷुআgȉʟ̍ʹɔʦ<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉJJूȉʜʰȉɔɷ=ȲɷȲʟȉɫʁɅʰɏȲ Roman Church and the Florentine Republic, had this room constructed ɅʁʟɏʁɷȲʦʰɫȲɔʦʹʟȲȉδȲʟɫȉȥʁʟूʰʁʟȲˑɔˑȲʦʰʟȲɷɆʰɏȉɷȬʰʟȉɷ̍ʹɔɫɔʰ˘ই२εɆʦेࣂेࢾ and 5.2).1ΤȲʟʁʁɴॹȉɷȬʰɏȲʜȉɫȉȦȲȉʦȉ˒ɏʁɫȲॹ˒ʁʹɫȬȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ȬɔʦʰʟȉȦʰ most viewers from their normal cares. Tracing the narrative of the trials the beautiful mortal girl Psyche was forced to undergo for the sake of her love for Cupid, the room dazzles the viewer with sensual nudes, visual ʰʟɔȦɦȲʟ˘ूȉɷȬȉȥʹɷȬȉɷʰˑȉʟɔȲʰ˘ेΤȲEȉɫɫʁɅʦ˘ȦɏȲ˒ȉʦȉʟȲɫȉʰɔˑȲɫ˘ɷȲ˒ type of space given over to relaxation and leisure, decorated with scenes Ʌʟʁɴɴ˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆ˘ʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫɫ˘ȬʁɴɔɷȉʰȲȬȥ˘ȲʟʁʰɔȦɷʹȬȲʦे$ȲʟɔˑȲȬɅʟʁɴʰɏȲ culture of the learned study, the studiolo, that had become a room for ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷȉɷȬɔɷʰȲɫɫȲȦʰʹȉɫȦʁɷʰȲɴʜɫȉʰɔʁɷɔɷʰɏȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ूʰɏȲʦȲ rooms were altogether less earnest than their predecessors. Used for ȥȉɷ̍ʹȲʰɔɷɆȉɷȬȦʁɷˑȲʟʦȉʰɔʁɷूȬȲȬɔȦȉʰȲȬʰʁʦʁȦɔȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ूʰɏȲ˘ɴȉʟɦȲȬʁʹʰȉɷ escape from the stresses and strains of working life, and also spoke to the tastes and erotic proclivities of their patrons.2 ΤȲʟȲȉʟȲɴȉɷ˘ʟȲȉʦʁɷʦ˒ɏ˘<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉ२ࢾࣂࢽࢽॹࢾࣂࣁࢽ३ɴȉ˘ɏȉˑȲɅȲɫʰ ɏȲȬȲʦȲʟˑȲȬʦʁɴȲআɏʁɷȲʦʰɫȲɔʦʹʟȲইɔɷࢾࣂࢿࣅू˒ɏȲɷʰɏȲʟʁʁɴ˒ȉʦȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲȬे ΤȲJʰȉɫɔȉɷʜȲɷɔɷʦʹɫȉɏȉȬɣʹʦʰɆʁɷȲʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʦʁɴȲʁɅɔʰʦɴʁʦʰʰʹʟȥʹɫȲɷʰ 159 Fig. 5.1. Giulio Romano, Wedding Feast of Cupid and Psyche, 1528. Fresco. Hall ʁɅʦ˘ȦɏȲूȉɫȉˢˢʁ¢Ȳूgȉɷʰʹȉे 160 ȉɷȬȥɫʁʁȬ˘˘Ȳȉʟʦɔɷɏɔʦʰʁʟ˘ेΤȲʦȉȦɦʁɅʁɴȲɔɷgȉ˘ࢾࣂࢿࣄू˒ɏȲʟȲɔʰɔʦ estimated some 12,000 people lost their lives at the hands of imperial ʰʟʁʁʜʦू˒ȉʦɣʹʦʰʰɏȲȦɫɔɴȉ˗ʁɅȉʦȲʟɔȲʦʁɅȦʁɷζɔȦʰʦूʦȉȦɦʦʁɅȦɔʰɔȲʦूȉɷȬ ȦɏȉɷɆȲʦʁɅʟȲɆɔɴȲʦʹʦɏȲʟȲȬɔɷȥ˘ʰɏȲεʟʦʰ<ʟȲɷȦɏɔɷˑȉʦɔʁɷʦʁɅJʰȉɫ˘ɔɷ jʁˑȲɴȥȲʟࢾࣁࣆࣁेΤȲʟȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬʦȦɏʁɫȉʟȉɷȬʦʰȉʰȲʦɴȉɷjɔȦȦʁɫʍgȉȦɏɔȉˑȲɫɫɔ ended with this French invasion in his History of Florence (composed in ࢾࣂࢿࣃूʜʹȥɫɔʦɏȲȬࢾࣂࣀࢿ३ूȬȲʦȦʟɔȥɔɷɆɔʰȉʦʰɏȲȥȲɆɔɷɷɔɷɆʁɅআʰɏȲʦȲȥȉȬʦȲȲȬʦू ʰɏȉʰेेेʟʹɔɷȲȬूȉɷȬȉʟȲʦʰɔɫɫʟʹɔɷɔɷɆूJʰȉɫ˘ेই3$ɔʦʟʹʜʰɔʁɷू˒ȉʟूʦɏɔδɔɷɆ international alliances, and regime change were to characterize the Italian ʜȲɷɔɷʦʹɫȉʁˑȲʟʰɏȲʦʹȥʦȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɏȉɫɅȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘े4*ˑȲɷʰɏȲআɴʁʦʰʦȲʟȲɷȲইȦɔʰ˘ॼ ʦʰȉʰȲʁ̎ÁȲɷɔȦȲूȲ˗ʰʁɫɫȲȬɅʁʟɔʰʦȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦॼɫʁɷɆʦʰȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ू˒ȉʦȉΦȲȦʰȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲ ˒ȉʟʦȉʦɔʰɫʁʦʰɴȉɷ˘ʁɅɔʰʦɏʁɫȬɔɷɆʦʁɷʰɏȲɴȉɔɷɫȉɷȬɔɷʰɏȲȬɔʦȉʦʰʟʁʹʦÂȉʟ of the League of Cambrai (1508–16). Fig. 5.2. Giulio Romano, ɸɥɯȓǥǈȶɝɸǱʧԧ1528. Fresco. Hall of Psyche, Palazzo Te, gȉɷʰʹȉे ȥ˘ȉɆʟȉʰȲɅʹɫɏȉʟɫȲʦÁू˒ɏʁȥ˘ȉɫɫȉȦȦʁʹɷʰʦˑȲʟ˘ɴʹȦɏȲɷɣʁ˘ȲȬɏɔʦʦʰȉ˘ɔɷ gȉɷʰʹȉɫʁʁɦɔɷɆȉʰʰɏȲɷȲ˒ȬȲȦʁʟȉʰɔʁɷʦʁɅȉɫȉˢˢʁ¢Ȳे5 Federico Gonzaga, and many of the other patrons considered in this chapter, played a central part in the Italian wars. As a mercenary captain charged with the leadership of papal and Florentine troops, he led them to victory against the French in the Battle of Pavia in 1525, but also acted dishonorably, according to some commentators, by letting imperial troops march through his territory on the way to their calamitous attack on ʁɴȲे<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁউʦȬʹʜɫɔȦɔʰ˘ʜȉɔȬʁΦूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟुɔɷࢾࣂࣀࢽɏȲ˒ȉʦɴȉȬȲ$ʹɦȲ <ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁɏȉȬʦʜȲɷʰɴʹȦɏʁɅɏɔʦ˘ʁʹʰɏȉʦȉɏʁʦʰȉɆȲूεʟʦʰɔɷʁɴȲȉʰʰɏȲ papal court and later in France.6 His life, dotting around from court to court, is symptomatic of the Italian aristocratic experience in the early sixteenth century: geographically fragmented and socially precarious, the Italian elite occupied a world where everyone seemed to know one ȉɷʁʰɏȲʟȉɷȬʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲʁδȲɷʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰɏʟʁʹɆɏȦʁɴʜɫȲ˗ɴȉʟʟɔȉɆȲȉɫɫɔȉɷȦȲʦे One of the common languages this elite shared was that of otium, roughly ʰʟȉɷʦɫȉʰȉȥɫȲȉʦআɫȲɔʦʹʟȲेইȦʁɷȦȲʜʰʰɏȉʰɏȉȬɔʰʦȬȲʰʟȉȦʰʁʟʦूʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȉʦȉ ɅȲɫʰɷȲȲȬʰʁɣʹʦʰɔɅ˘ʰɏȲȲɷɣʁ˘ɴȲɷʰʁɅotium in the sixteenth century, as apparent in the Treatise on Liberal LeisureʜʹȥɫɔʦɏȲȬɔɷࢾࣂࣂࣄȥ˘<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁউʦ ȦʁʹʟʰȉʦʰʟʁɫʁɆȲʟू^ʹȦȉ=ȉʹʟɔȦʁुআʰɏɔʦɅʁʟɴʁɅɫȲɔʦʹʟȲɔʦɷʁʰɏɔɷɆȥʹʰȉ kind of emptying and interruption of grave and serious matters, for the relaxation of the mind, and a certain restoration of the spirit which is ɷʁʰʦɏȉɴȲɅʹɫूȥʹʰʟȉʰɏȲʟɏʁɷʁʟȉȥɫȲेই7ΤɔʦȦɏȉʜʰȲʟʰʟȉȦȲʦɏʁ˒ʦʜȉȦȲɅʁʟ virtuous leisure become associated with the nude form, particularly nudes depicted in bucolic landscapes, and links these associations with new ideas about courtly leisure, masculinity, and bodily control that were to become commonplace in Italy and then across Europe. THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 161 Love, Melancholy, and Escape to the Country Reading tales of love or burying oneself in classical texts are seen to have ȉʰʟȉɷʦɅʁʟɴȉʰɔˑȲȲΦȲȦʰɏȲʟȲूȦʟȲȉʰɔɷɆʰȲɴʜʁʟȉɫȉɷȬʦʜȉʰɔȉɫȥʟȉȦɦȲʰʦʰɏȉʰ ʜʟʁʰȲȦʰʰɏȲʟȲȉȬȲʟɅʟʁɴȦʁɴɴʁɷʜɫȉȦȲȦȉʟȲʦेgȉȦɏɔȉˑȲɫɫɔɔʦˑʁɔȦɔɷɆȉɴʹȦɏॼ revisited trope that contrasts the countryside with the city, presenting ʰɏȲɅʁʟɴȲʟȉʦȉʦɔɴʜɫȲʜɫȉȦȲ˒ɏȲʟȲʁɷȲȦʁʹɫȬȦȉʦʰʁΦȉɷ˗ɔȲʰɔȲʦȉɫʁɷɆ˒ɔʰɏ everyday clothes. Perhaps not surprisingly given the tenor of the times, the idea of an escape from urban responsibilities to rural idylls became ɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɫ˘ʟȲɔʰȲʟȉʰȲȬɔɷȥʁʰɏɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲȉɷȬʰɏȲˑɔʦʹȉɫȉʟʰʦे JɷȉȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬɫȲʰʰȲʟʰʁɏɔʦɅʟɔȲɷȬ<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁÁȲʰʰʁʟɔू˒ʟɔʰʰȲɷʁɷ$ȲȦȲɴȥȲʟ ࢾࢽूࢾࣂࢾࣀूjɔȦȦʁɫʍgȉȦɏɔȉˑȲɫɫɔȬȲʦȦʟɔȥȲʦɏɔʦʦɔɴʜɫȲɫɔɅȲɔɷʰɏȲȦʁʹɷʰʟ˘ʦɔȬȲेEȲ ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲʦɏʁ˒ɏȲεɷȬʦʟȲɫɔȲɅɅʟʁɴȦȉʟȲȥ˘ʰȉɦɔɷɆɏɔʦsˑɔȬʁʟȉɷʁʰɏȲʟʦʹȦɏ ˒ʟɔʰȲʟʰʁʰɏȲʦʜʟɔɷɆʰʁʟȲȉȬȉȥʁʹʰআȉɴʁʟʁʹʦʜȉʦʦɔʁɷʦȉɷȬʰɏȲɔʟɫʁˑȲʦूȉɷȬ ʟȲɴȲɴȥȲʟɔɷɆɴ˘ʁ˒ɷूʰɏȲʦȲʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʦɴȉɦȲɴȲɏȉʜʜ˘Ʌʁʟȉ˒ɏɔɫȲेইΤȲɷू Fig. 5.3. Titian, Pastoral Concert, c.1509. Oil on ȦȉɷˑȉʦेgʹʦȳȲȬʹ^ʁʹˑʟȲूȉʟɔʦे ÂɏȲɷȲˑȲɷɔɷɆȦʁɴȲʦूJʟȲʰʹʟɷɏʁɴȲȉɷȬȲɷʰȲʟɴ˘ʦʰʹȬ˘ौʁɷʰɏȲ ʰɏʟȲʦɏʁɫȬJʰȉɦȲʁΦɴ˘ȲˑȲʟ˘Ȭȉ˘ɆȉʟɴȲɷʰʦȦʁˑȲʟȲȬ˒ɔʰɏɴʹȬȉɷȬ dirt and I put on regal and courtly robes. Appropriately attired, I step inside the venerable courts of the Ancients where, solicitously received by them, I nourish myself on that food which is mine alone and for which I was born. . . . I forget all my trouble, I do not dread ʜʁˑȲʟʰ˘ूȉɷȬJȉɴɷʁʰʰȲʟʟɔεȲȬȥ˘ȬȲȉʰɏे8 Fig. 5.4. Giorgione, ̨Ǳ¤ǱȳɛǱɥɯ, c.1506–8. Oil on canvas. Gallerie ȬȲɫɫউȦȦȉȬȲɴɔȉूÁȲɷɔȦȲे ÂɔʰɏgȉȦɏɔȉˑȲɫɫɔूɫȲʰউʦʰʹʟɷȉ˒ȉ˘ɅʟʁɴʰɏȲআɴʹȬȉɷȬȬɔʟʰইʁɅʜʁɫɔʰɔȦȉɫ ʰʹʟȥʹɫȲɷȦȲȉɷȬȦʁɷȦȲɷʰʟȉʰȲʁɷȉʟʹʟȉɫʦȦȲɷȲ२εɆेࣂेࣀ३े<ʁʹʟ˘ʁʹɷɆʜȲʁʜɫȲ are placed in the foreground of a verdant landscape, a shepherd tending ɏɔʦζʁȦɦʦɔɷʰɏȲɴɔȬɆʟʁʹɷȬेʹɔɫȬɔɷɆʦɔɷʰɏȲȦȲɷʰȲʟȥȉȦɦɆʟʁʹɷȬʦȲʟˑȲʰʁ ʟȲɴɔɷȬʹʦʁɅʰɏȲȦɔˑɔɫɔˢȉʰɔʁɷʰɏȲ˘ɏȉˑȲɫȲδȥȲɏɔɷȬेΤʟȲȲʁɅʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦȉʟȲ ʦɔʰʰɔɷɆूʰ˒ʁɏʁɫȬɔɷɆɴʹʦɔȦȉɫɔɷʦʰʟʹɴȲɷʰʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ʦȲȲɴȉȥʁʹʰʰʁʜɫȉ˘ेΤȲ ɅʁʹʟʰɏूȉʦʰȉɷȬɔɷɆ˒ʁɴȉɷʰʁʁʹʟɫȲδूʜʁʹʟʦ˒ȉʰȲʟɔɷʰʁȉɴȉʟȥɫȲʰʟʁʹɆɏू which is truncated by the edge of the canvas. She and the other seated ˒ʁɴȉɷू˒ɏʁʰʹʟɷʦɏȲʟȥȉȦɦʰʁʹʦȉɷȬɏʁɫȬʦȉζʹʰȲूȉʟȲɷȉɦȲȬेΤȲɔʟɴȉɫȲ companions are fully dressed, one holding a lute in fancy silks and the bicolor hose of a Venetian patrician, the other in the rustic clothes and ȥȉʟȲɅȲȲʰʁɅȉʦɏȲʜɏȲʟȬेΤȲɴȲɷɆȉˢȲȉʰȲȉȦɏʁʰɏȲʟɔɷʰȲɷʰɫ˘े It is now generally agreed that this painting, the Pastoral Concert (a translation of the traditional French name Concert champêtre) was painted by the young Titian, and was likely completed around 1509.9 It is one of many paintings from around this period hailing from the circle of =ɔʁʟɆɔʁɷȲȉɷȬ¢ɔʰɔȉɷʰɏȉʰɔɷȦɫʹȬȲȥʁʰɏȦɫʁʰɏȲȬȉɷȬɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦɔɷȉʟʹʟȉɫ setting, most famously ̨Ǳ Tempest (cेࢾࣂࢽࣃॹࣅूεɆेࣂेࣁ३ौʰɏȲSleeping Venus २εɷɔʦɏȲȬࢾࣂࢾࢽूεɆेࢾेࣀࢿ३ू̨Ǳ ̨ɞǱǱȅǱɥɀȄiǈȶ (c.1512–14) and Sacred and ɞɀʦǈȶǱ`ɀʐǱ (cेࢾࣂࢾࣁूεɆेࣂेࣂ३ेΤȲʦȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦʦɏȉʟȲʦȲˑȲʟȉɫ̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦूʦʹȦɏȉʦ the emphasis on the depiction of landscape; the nakedness of some of their young and beautiful protagonists; and their iconographical complexities. In fact, this group of images is possibly one of the most puzzled over in the history of art. Little is known about the original context of the Pastoral Concertॹɔʰɴȉ˘ूʜȲʟɏȉʜʦूɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬȥ˘JʦȉȥȲɫɫȉȬউ*ʦʰȲʁʟȉɷʁʰɏȲʟ ɴȲɴȥȲʟʁɅʰɏȲgȉɷʰʹȉɷȲɫɔʰȲूȥʹʰʰɏɔʦɔʦɷʁʰȦȲʟʰȉɔɷेΤȲʜȉʰʟʁɷʁɅ̨Ǳ ̨ɞǱǱȅǱɥɀȄiǈȶ was most likely a now rather obscure goldsmith named gɔɫȉɷʁ¢ȉʟɆɏȲʰʰȉʁʟ¢ȉʟɆʁɷȲेΤȲSleeping Venus, as mentioned previously, was made to celebrate the marriage of the Venetian patrician Girolamo gȉʟȦȲɫɫʁȉɷȬgʁʟʁʦɔɷȉɔʦȉɷɔɔɷࢾࣂࢽࣄूȉɷȬɫʁȦȉʰȲȬȉȥʁˑȲȉȬʁʁʟɔɷɏɔʦ house; ǈǥɞǱǫǈȶǫɞɀʦǈȶǱ`ɀʐǱ was likely similarly commissioned on the occasion of the marriage of Niccolò Aurelio (secretary to the Venetian ʁʹɷȦɔɫʁ̎¢Ȳɷ३ȉɷȬ^ȉʹʟȉȉɆȉʟʁʰʰʁे̨Ǳ Tempest was owned by the Venetian patrician and collector Gabriele Vendramin.10 In general, then, we can mainly trace the original commission of these images to elite, highly 162 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 163 ȲȬʹȦȉʰȲȬɴȲɷ२ȉɷȬʁȦȦȉʦɔʁɷȉɫɫ˘˒ʁɴȲɷ३˒ɏʁʦȲȬȉ˘ʦ˒ȲʟȲεɫɫȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲ concerns of business or government: people, in other words, who may have ɅȲɫʰʰɏȲɷȲȲȬȉɷȬɣʹʦʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷɅʁʟɫȲɔʦʹʟȲʰɔɴȲे ȉʦʰʁʟȉɫɔɴȉɆȲʟ˘ɔʦʁδȲɷʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȲȬɔɷȉʟʰɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȦȉɫɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲȉʦȉ আʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫɫ˘ÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷইɅʁʟɴे11 Although it is true that landscape painting found its most mature formulation in Venice and the northern Italian courts, the idea of the escape to nature imbued artistic and courtly culture throughout the Italian peninsula and is connected with the nude from at ɫȲȉʦʰʰɏȲɫȉʰȲʟεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ेJɷʁɴȲȉɷȬ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲूʟʹʟȉɫȲʦȦȉʜȲʦ˒ȲʟȲ ȲɴʹɫȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏˑɔɫɫȉʦ२ȥʁʰɏʟʹʟȉɫȉɷȬʦʹȥʹʟȥȉɷ३ȉɷȬɆȉʟȬȲɷʦेΤȲɫȉʰʰȲʟू ʦʁɴȲʰɔɴȲʦȬȲȦʁʟȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȉɫɷʹȬȲʦूʁδȲɷɔɷȉɅʟȉɆɴȲɷʰȲȬ form, became common as a location for intellectual discussion (like the Orti Oricellari in Florence, or the gardens of Angelo Colocci in Rome).12 ΤȲɴʁʦʰɅȉɴʁʹʦʁɅʰɏȲʦȲɆȉʟȬȲɷʦ˒ȉʦʰɏȲÁȉʰɔȦȉɷȲɫˑȲȬȲʟȲूȬȲʦɔɆɷȲȬȥ˘ $ʁɷȉʰʁʟȉɴȉɷʰȲɅʁʟʁʜȲXʹɫɔʹʦJJȉɷȬȬȲȦʁʟȉʰȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʟȲɷʁ˒ɷȲȬȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲ sculptures including, for example, the Apollo Belvedere२εɆेࢽेࢿ३ूȥʹʰʰɏȲʦȲ were echoed by the numerous gardens of wealthy Roman families and ȦȉʟȬɔɷȉɫʦेΤȲʦȲɆȉʟȬȲɷʦʦʁʹɆɏʰʰʁɣʹ˗ʰȉʜʁʦȲȉʟʰȉɷȬɷȉʰʹʟȲɏȉʟɴʁɷɔʁʹʦɫ˘ to provide a space for rest and diversion.13 In Florence country villas were the earliest spaces where paintings of nudes by living artists were Ȭɔʦʜɫȉ˘ȲȬूʁδȲɷȉʦʜȉʟʰʁɅȦʁɴʜɫȲ˗ȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫȉɫɫȲɆʁʟɔȲʦेȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦʦʹȦɏȉʦ ʁʰʰɔȦȲɫɫɔউʦPrimavera and Birth of Venus२εɆेࣀेࢾࣂ३ȉʟȲɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲू ȉʦɔʦ^ʹȦȉɔɆɷʁʟȲɫɫɔউʦɷʁ˒ȬȲʦʰʟʁ˘ȲȬCourt of Pan २εɆेࣂेࣃ३ूȲ˗ȲȦʹʰȲȬɅʁʟ ^ʁʟȲɷˢʁȬȲউgȲȬɔȦɔȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣁࣅࣆॹࣆࢽूɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ɅʁʟʰɏȲgȲȬɔȦɔÁɔɫɫȉȉʰ ȉʦʰȲɫɫʁे$ʁɴɔɷȉʰȲȬȥ˘ɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦʦʹʟʟʁʹɷȬɔɷɆʰɏȲʦȲȉʰȲȬεɆʹʟȲʁɅ the god Pan, this image has long been related to a commentary by Servius ʁɷÁɔʟɆɔɫউʦEclogues and has also recently been linked to a second pastoral ʟʁɴȉɷȦȲू^ʁɷɆʹʦউʦDaphnis and Chloe.14 ʦʰɏȲʦʁʹʟȦȲʦɅʁʟɔɆɷʁʟȲɫɫɔউʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦʹηȲʦʰूʰɏȲtopos of placing nudes in a landscape forms part of a broader context of the revival of the pastoral form in literature.15ΤȲʟȲ˒ȉʦȉɦȲȲɷȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲɅʁʟȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʜȉʦʰʁʟȉɫ Fig. 5.5. Titian, ǈǥɞǱǫǈȶǫɞɀʦǈȶǱ`ɀʐǱ, 1514. sɔɫʁɷȦȉɷˑȉʦेgʹʦȳȲȬʹ^ʁʹˑʟȲू Paris. 164 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Fig. 5.6. Signorelli, Court of Pan, c.1489–90. Oil on canvas. Now destroyed but formerly Gemäldegalerie, Berlin. ʜʁȲʰʟ˘२ɴʁʦʰɷʁʰȉȥɫ˘ÁɔʟɆɔɫউʦEclogues and ?Ǳɀɞȅȓǥɥ) amongst Renaissance elites throughout the period.16ΤȲʦȲʦʰʁʟɔȲʦʁɅʟʹʟȉɫɔȬ˘ɫɫʦूɏʁɴȲʰʁʜʁȲʰɔȦ shepherds and scantily clad nymphs, were updated in two key texts of the ɫȉʰȲεδȲȲɷʰɏȉɷȬȲȉʟɫ˘ʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟɔȲʦेΤȲεʟʦʰूʰɏȲHypnerotomachia Poliphili (loosely translated as ̨ǱɯɞȓȄǱɀȄ`ɀʐǱȓȶǈ&ɞǱǈȳ) was published in Venice in 1499.17 Almost everything about this book is hazy and mysterious. Jʰ˒ȉʦʜʟʁȥȉȥɫ˘ȦʁɴʜʁʦȲȬȥ˘ȉɷʁ˒ɫɔʰʰɫȲॼɦɷʁ˒ɷεɆʹʟȲȦȉɫɫȲȬ<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁ Colonna, and is written in a strange composite Italian that experimentally layers descriptive words together, his text thus aping the temporality of painting rather than poetry.18 ΤȲHypnerotomachia is a richly illustrated book that tells the story of a man named Poliphilo. Abandoned by his lover, Polia, he experiences a ʦȲʟɔȲʦʁɅȬʟȲȉɴʦॼ˒ɔʰɏɔɷॼȬʟȲȉɴʦɔɷ˒ɏɔȦɏɏȲɔʦʦȲɷʰʁɷȉ̍ʹȲʦʰȉɷȬ˒ȉɷȬȲʟʦ ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʦʜȉȦȲʦʜʁʜʹɫȉʰȲȬȥ˘ȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲूɷ˘ɴʜɏʦू̍ʹȲȲɷʦूȉɷȬ ɆʁȬʦेΤȲȥʁʁɦʦʰȉʟʰʦ˒ɔʰɏʁɫɔʁɫʁʦʰɔɷȉȬȉʟɦɅʁʟȲʦʰेEȲɅȉɫɫʦȉʦɫȲȲʜूʰɏȲɷ εɷȬʦɏɔɴʦȲɫɅȲɷʰȲʟɔɷɆȉɷɔɴʜʟȲʦʦɔˑȲʜʁʟʰȉɫूʰɏȲȬʁʁʟ˒ȉ˘ʰʁȉʟʹʟȉɫɫȉɷȬ ʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦআʦʁʜɫȲȉʦȉɷʰूʦʹȦɏȉʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȬ˒ȲɫɫɔɷɆʟȲʦʁʟʰɅʁʟʦɏȲʜɏȲʟȬʦेই19ΤȲ εʟʦʰʰɏɔɷɆɏȲȲɷȦʁʹɷʰȲʟʦɔɷʰɏɔʦȥʹȦʁɫɔȦʜȉʟȉȬɔʦȲɔʦȉɅʁʹɷʰȉɔɷूʦɏʁ˒ɷɔɷ ȉɷȉȦȦʁɴʜȉɷ˘ɔɷɆɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷ२εɆेࣂेࣄ३ेΤɔʦʰȉɦȲʦʰɏȲɅʁʟɴʁɅȉআȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ ɷ˘ɴʜɏेेेʦɫȲȲʜɔɷɆȦʁɴɅʁʟʰȉȥɫ˘ʁɷȉɷʁʹʰʦʜʟȲȉȬȬʟȉʜȲʟ˘ইʰɏȉʰȬɔʦʜȲɷʦȲʦ streams of hot and cold water from her nipples. She is revealed to the ȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲȥ˘ȉʦȉʰ˘ʟআȉɫɫȉʟʁʹʦȲȬɔɷʜʟʹʟɔȲɷʰɫʹʦʰইʜʹɫɫɔɷɆȥȉȦɦȉȦʹʟʰȉɔɷू ȉɷȬɏȲʟআɫʁˑȲɫ˘ȥʁȬ˘˒ȉʦȲɷʁʹɆɏʰʁʜʟʁˑʁɦȲȲˑȲɷʁɷȲɴȉȬȲʁɅʦʰʁɷȲɫɔɦȲ ɏȲʟʦȲɫɅेेेेΤȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʁʟɏȉȬɴȉȬȲʰɏɔʦʦʰȉʰʹȲʦʁʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȉɷȬȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫʰɏȉʰ JʟȲȉɫɫ˘ȬʁʹȥʰȲȬʰɏȉʰʟȉ˗ɔɫȲʰȲʦɏȉȬȲ̍ʹȉɫɫȲȬɔʰɔɷȦȉʟˑɔɷɆɏɔʦÁȲɷʹʦेेे which was of such beauty that men burned with sacrilegious lust for it and g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 165 Fig. 5.7. Benedetto Bordone, attr., Nymph of ɯȎǱ>ɀɸȶʧǈȓȶूࢾࣁࣆࣆेÂʁʁȬȦʹʰे<ʟʁɴ Francesco Colonna, Hypnerotomachia PoliphiliेgȲʰʟʁʜʁɫɔʰȉɷgʹʦȲʹɴʁɅ ʟʰूjȲ˒Èʁʟɦे=ɔδʁɅXेɔȲʟʜʁɔɷʰ gʁʟɆȉɷूࢾࣆࢿࣀे ʟȲˑȲʟɔȲইȉʦɏȲআʜʁʟȲȬʁˑȲʟʰɏɔʦ˒ʁʟɦ˒ɏʁʦȲʹʰʰȲʟʦʜɫȲɷȬʁʟ˒ȉʦȥȲ˘ʁɷȬ ɴ˘Ȳ˗ʜȲʟɔȲɷȦȲेই23ΤȲȲ˗ʜȲʟɔȲɷȦȲʁɅɫʁʁɦɔɷɆȉʰɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬɴȲɷȉɷȬ ˒ʁɴȲɷȉɫɫʁ˒ɏɔɴȉȬʁʹȥɫȲɫʁɷɆɔɷɆूȥʁʰɏȲʟʁʰɔȦȉɷȬȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦेΤȲɅȉȦʰʰɏȉʰ ɏȲȬʁȲʦɷʁʰȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬʰɏȲʦɔɆɷɔεȦȉɷȦȲʁɅʰɏȲ˒ʁʟɦʦʰɏȉʰɏȲɔʦ ɫʁʁɦɔɷɆȉʰॹআJ˒ȉʦɫȲδɔɷʹʰʰȲʟɔɆɷʁʟȉɷȦȲȉȥʁʹʰɔʰȉɷȬɔʰʦʟɔȬȬɫȲʦইɏȲʦȉ˘ʦ ʁɅȉɷʹȬȲʦʰȉʰʹȲʰʁʜʜɔɷɆȉʰʁɴȥॹɣʹʦʰȉȬȬʦʰʁʰɏȲɔʟɴ˘ʦʰȲʟɔʁʹʦȉɫɫʹʟȲे24 Τɔʦ˒ʁʟɦȦʁɷʦʰɔʰʹʰȲʦȉɴȉɷɔɅȲʦʰʁɅʁʟȉɷȲ˒ʰ˘ʜȲʁɅɔɷˑʁɫˑȲȬɫʁʁɦɔɷɆूʁɷȲ that saturates the senses, transports the mind, and has hazily erotic longing at its core. ΤȲʦȲȦʁɷȬɦȲ˘ʰȲ˗ʰूXȉȦʁʜʁȉɷɷȉˢȉʟʁউʦArcadia, circulated in manuscript form from the 1480s and was published in Naples in 1504. It was an instant ɏɔʰूɏȉˑɔɷɆɷʁɅȲ˒ȲʟʰɏȉɷࣅࣀʦʹȥʦȲ̍ʹȲɷʰȲȬɔʰɔʁɷʦूȉɷȬ˒ȉʦʜȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʟɫ˘ popular in Venice.25 As with the Hypnerotomachia, lost love is at the heart ʁɅʰɏȲʦʰʁʟ˘ूȉɷȬʰɏȲʰȲ˗ʰʦʦɏȉʟȲɴȉɷ˘ʁʰɏȲʟ̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦेʁʰɏʰȲ˗ʰʦɔɷȦɫʹȬȲ melancholic evocations of beautiful female bodies; both are written in ȉɷȉʟʰɔεȦɔȉɫɫȉɷɆʹȉɆȲȬȲɫɔȥȲʟȉʰȲɫ˘ȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰɅʟʁɴʦʜʁɦȲɷJʰȉɫɔȉɷौȉɷȬ ȥʁʰɏɔɷˑɔʰȲʰɏȲʟȲȉȬȲʟʁɷȉɣʁʹʟɷȲ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔʁɷʰɏʟʁʹɆɏȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰ verdant spaces. In self-consciously artful words, Sannazaro declares nature ȉʦʦʹʜȲʟɔʁʟʰʁȉʟʰुআ˒ɏʁȬʁʹȥʰʦʰɏȉʰɔʰɔʦɴʁʟȲʜɫȲȉʦȉɷʰʰʁȉɏʹɴȉɷɴɔɷȬ to see a spring naturally escape from living rock, surrounded by verdant plants, than all the other fountains made in white marble and shining with ɴʹȦɏɆʁɫȬैইɏȲȉʦɦʦɔɷʰɏȲʁʜȲɷɔɷɆʰʁArcadia.26 ʟȉˑɔʦɏȲȬʰɏȲʦʰȉʰʹȲȥ˘ɴȉʦʰʹʟȥȉʰɔɷɆेই20ʁɫɔʜɏɔɫʁȬʟɔɷɦʦআˑʁʟȉȦɔʁʹʦɫ˘ইɅʟʁɴ ȉɷɔʜʜɫȲूআɏȲȉɫʰɏɅʹɫɫ˘ʦɫȉɦɔɷɆɴ˘Ȭȉ˘ॼɫʁɷɆʰɏɔʟʦʰेই21 It is no accident that this erotically charged fountain marks the transition ɅʁʟʁɫɔʜɏɔɫʁউʦɣʁʹʟɷȲ˘ɔɷʰʁȉʜȲʟɅȲȦʰȲȬȥʹȦʁɫɔȦɫȉɷȬʦȦȉʜȲेΤȲʟȲȦɫɔɷɔɷɆ female nude is dreamlike precisely because naked women are not seen ʁʹʰʦɔȬȲɔɷʟȲȉɫɫɔɅȲॹɔʰʦȦʟȉδȲȬɷȲʦʦɔʦȉʜʜȉʟȲɷʰेgʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूȉʦgȉʟɔȉ Ruvoldt has shown, the sleeping nude in a landscape had been interpreted as a source of male intellectual inspiration as well as physical arousal ʦɔɷȦȲʁȦȦȉȦȦɔʁεʟʦʰȬȲˑȲɫʁʜȲȬɔʰɔɷʰɏȲDecameron story of Cymon and Iphigenia.22 Poliphilo thus admires the reclining nude with longing born of ȥʁʰɏɔʰʦʦʹȥɣȲȦʰȉɷȬɔʰʦȉʟʰɔʦʰʟ˘ेΤȉʰʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲʁɅȬȲʦɔʟʁʹʦɫʁʁɦɔɷɆȲɷȉȥɫȲʦ the viewer to forget his pain and his worrying plight runs like a red thread through the text. Poliphilo is full of wonder at what he sees, attesting again and again how looking at wonderful buildings, sculpture, mosaics, ȉɷȬʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆɔʦȉʰʟȉɷʦɅʁʟɴȉʰɔˑȲȲ˗ʜȲʟɔȲɷȦȲुআJɆȉˢȲȬɔɷʰȲɷʰɫ˘ेेेɴ˘ɫɔʜʦ ȉɆȉʜȲूɴ˘ζʹʰʰȲʟɔɷɆȉɷȬɴʁȥɔɫȲȲ˘ȲɫɔȬʦɴʁʰɔʁɷɫȲʦʦूɴ˘ʦʁʹɫȲɷʟȉʜʰʹʟȲȬȉʦ ɔʰȦʁɷʰȲɴʜɫȉʰȲȬʰɏȲʦȲʦȦȲɷȲʦ˒ɏɔȦɏ˒ȲʟȲʦʁȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫूʦʁ˒ȲɫɫȉʟʟȉɷɆȲȬইौ ɏȲɫʁʁɦʦআȉʦʰɏʁʹɆɏɫʁʦʰʰʁɴ˘ʦȲɫ̎ইौɏȲɴʹʦȲʦআɔɷʦʹʦʜȲɷʦȲȉɷȬ˒ʁɷȬȲʟইौɏȲ ɔʦআȉɫɫʹʟȲȬेेेȉɷȬʹʰʰȲʟɫ˘ȉȥʦʁʟȥȲȬইौɏȲɔʦɫȲδআʦʰʹɷɷȲȬȉɷȬɔɷȉʦȲɷʦȲɫȲʦʦ 166 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE $ȲʦʜɔʰȲɔʰʦȲˑʁȦȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲʦʹʜȲʟɔʁʟɔʰ˘ʁɅɷȉʰʹʟȲʰʁȉʟʰूʰɏȲArcadia dedicates much time to descriptions of artworks. In the third chapter of the book, for example, there are extensive ekphrases of paintings on the ˒ȉɫɫʁɅȉʰȲɴʜɫȲॹʦȦȲɷȲʦʁɅʦɏȲʜɏȲʟȬʦूɷ˘ɴʜɏʦूȉɷȬɆʁȬʦेΤȲɷȉʟʟȉʰʁʟू ɔɷȦȲʟʁूȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲʦআɏʁ˒ɔɷʰȲɷʰɫ˘ɔʰʜɫȲȉʦȲȬɴȲʰʁɆȉˢȲʹʜʁɷȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɷȉɦȲȬ ɷ˘ɴʜɏʦইʟʹɷɷɔɷɆȉ˒ȉ˘ɅʟʁɴɫȉʦȦɔˑɔʁʹʦʦȉʰ˘ʟʦे27ɔɷȦȲʟʁউʦʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲȉʰɆȉˢɔɷɆ upon naked female bodies was common, as we saw in Chapter Four. It was seen as a double pleasure to understand that one was really admiring the skill of the artist, rather than a real body, and this is enhanced still more in the text by understanding that one is really admiring the skill of the writer evoking the skill of the artist evoking a naturally beautiful form.28ΤȲ ekphrasis is a form of paragone, the comparison and competition between ȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰȉʟʰɅʁʟɴʦ२ɏȲʟȲʜʁȲʰʟ˘ȉɷȬʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆ३ʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦȉɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟʜʁɔɷʰʁɅ debate in this period. Both Arcadia and the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili evoke spaces that the reader has to step into notionally, through a threshold of a dream, or ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʰɏȲʰʟȉɷʦɔʰɔʁɷɅʟʁɴȦɔʰ˘ʰʁȦʁʹɷʰʟ˘ʦɔȬȲेΤȲPastoral Concert ʦɏȉʟȲʦɴʹȦɏɔɷɴʁʁȬȉɷȬȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏ˒ɔʰɏȥʁʰɏʰɏȲʦȲɔɴȉɆȲʦूɷʁʰɣʹʦʰɔɷ terms of content – so much is obvious – but in terms of function, form, ȉɷȬʰɏȲʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜʰʁʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟेΤȲʜɫȉȦȲɴȲɷʰʁɅȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲɫ˘ɷȉɦȲȬ g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 167 ˒ʁɴȲɷɔɷȉɫȉɷȬʦȦȉʜȲूɣʹ˗ʰȉʜʁʦȲȬ˒ɔʰɏȦɫʁʰɏȲȬɴȲɷूȉɫȲʟʰʦʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟ ʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆȥʟɔɷɆʦʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟȬɔˑȲʟʦȲˑɔʦʹȉɫɫȉɷɆʹȉɆȲʦेΤȲʹʦȲʁɅɷʹȬȲ ˒ʁɴȲɷȲˑʁɦȲʦȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʜʟȲȦȲȬȲɷʰʦȉɷȬȬʟȉ˒ʦȉʰʰȲɷʰɔʁɷʰʁʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟউʦ ʦɦɔɫɫɔɷȦʁɷȦȲʜʰʹȉɫɔˢɔɷɆȉʰɔɴȲɫȲʦʦȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɅʁʟɴेΤȲȦȉʟȲɅʹɫʦʰʹȬ˘ʁɅʰɏȲ ȦȲɷʰʟȉɫɴȉɷউʦȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ȬʟȲʦʦʦȲȲɴʦʰʁȲˑʁɦȲʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲʰɔɴȲौ his plainly dressed companion perhaps relates to theatrical donning of ʜȲȉʦȉɷʰȦɫʁʰɏȲʦेΤȲʟȲɔʦȉɴʁʦȉɔȦʁɅʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʦɏȲʟȲूȉȥʟɔɷɆɔɷɆʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟ of diverse models to create a pleasing whole – a characteristic reminiscent, ʁɷȦȲȉɆȉɔɷूʁɅʰɏȲʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅÒȲʹ˗ɔʦȉɷȬʰɏȲgȉɔȬȲɷʦʁɅʟʁʰʁɷॹʰɏȉʰʦʁɴȲ scholars have argued is a key feature of art of this era. ΤɔʦȉʜʜʟʁȉȦɏʰʁʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆȬʁȲʦɷʁʰɴȲʟȲɫ˘ȉȦʰȉʦȉɴȲȉɷʦɅʁʟˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟʦʰʁ ȦʁɷɆʟȉʰʹɫȉʰȲʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦʁɷʟȲɅȲʟȲɷȦȲʦʜʁʰʰɔɷɆेΤȲʹɷȲ˗ʜȲȦʰȲȬȉʜʜȲȉʟȉɷȦȲ ʁɅɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦɔɷȉɫȉɷȬʦȦȉʜȲȬʟȉ˒ʦȉʰʰȲɷʰɔʁɷʰʁʰɏȲεȦʰɔˑȲ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅ ʰɏȲʦȦȲɷȲेΤɔʦɔʦɷʁʰȉɴɔɴȲʰɔȦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆूȦʁʜ˘ɔɷɆʦʁɴȲʰɏɔɷɆɅʁʹɷȬɔɷʰɏȲ ˒ʁʟɫȬूȥʹʰȉ˒ʁʟɦʁɅȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɔɴȉɆɔɷȉʰɔʁɷे¢ʁȥʁʟʟʁ˒ʰȲʜɏȲɷXेȉɴʜȥȲɫɫউʦ acute observations about paintings made for Renaissance studioli, the Pastoral ConcertȉɷȬ˒ʁʟɦʦɫɔɦȲɔʰɏȉˑȲεȦʰɔˑȲɷȲʦʦȉʦʰɏȲɔʟʦʹȥɣȲȦʰुআʰɏȲɔʟ argument, the source of their power to engage, is the nature of making ȉɷȬʟȲȉȬɔɷɆʜʁȲʰɔȦɔɷˑȲɷʰɔʁɷʦेই29ȲȦȉʹʦȲʁɅʰɏȲʟȲȉɫॼɫɔɅȲɴʁʟȉɫȬɔΪȦʹɫʰɔȲʦ inherent in the viewing of naked bodies, especially female bodies (discussed in detail in Chapters One and Four), the use of the nude could ʁɷɫ˘ȥȲɣʹʦʰɔεȲȬʰɏʟʁʹɆɏȉʜʜȲȉɫʰʁȉʟʰɔʦʰʟ˘ेΤȲȬȲˑȲɫʁʜɴȲɷʰʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲ and the development of art go hand in hand. gʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूʰɏȲȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁɣʹȬɆȲʰɏȲɷʹȬȲूȉʦȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬɔɷʜʟȲˑɔʁʹʦȦɏȉʜʰȲʟʦू ɴȉʟɦȲȬʁʹʰˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟʦ˒ɔʰɏʦʹΪȦɔȲɷʰȲȬʹȦȉʰɔʁɷʰʁȉʜʜʟȲȦɔȉʰȲʰɏȲɴेΤȲʦȲ pastoral paintings are fragments of a discursive culture, and the evidence ʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘˒ȲʟȲȬȲʦɔɆɷȲȬʰʁɔɷʰȲʟȉȦʰ˒ɔʰɏȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰʰ˘ʜȲʦʁɅʦʁȦɔȉɫ activity, such as book readings, music, and conversation. Reading aloud to friends was a common social practice throughout Europe in the early modern period.30ΤɔʦȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ɏȉʜʜȲɷȲȬɔɷʰɏȲÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷȦʁɷʰȲ˗ʰɔɷ˒ɏɔȦɏ these paintings were made: in the summer of 1537, for example, Sperone ʜȲʟʁɷɔউʦDialogue on Love˒ȉʦʟȲȉȬʁʹʰʰʁআɴȉɷ˘ɆʹȲʦʰʦইɔɷɔȲʰʟʁʟȲʰɔɷʁউʦ house.31 Rather than static words read silently by an individual, these texts could be performed, used as prompts for conversation, interruptions, ȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲʟȲȉȦʰɔʁɷʦेÂɏȉʰɴɔɆɏʰʦȲȲɴɷʁ˒ʰʁȥȲʜʹˢˢɫɔɷɆ̍ʹȉɫɔʰɔȲʦ˒ȲʟȲ starting points for verbal exchanges. It is not too much of a leap to understand images such as the Pastoral ConcertʜʟʁˑɔȬɔɷɆȉεʰʰɔɷɆȦʁɷʰȲ˗ʰ ɅʁʟʰɏȲʟȲȉȬɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲʦȲʰȲ˗ʰʦूȉɷȬȉȦʰɔɷɆɔɷʜȉʟȉɫɫȲɫʰʁʰɏȲɴȉʦʁȥɣȲȦʰʦʰʁ ȬɔʦȦʹʦʦ˒ɔʰɏɅʟɔȲɷȬʦेΤȲʦȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦȉʟȲू̍ʹɔʰȲȬȲɫɔȥȲʟȉʰȲɫ˘ूȦʁɴʜɫȲ˗ɔɴȉɆȲʦ that are both allusive (in that they contain references to texts and images ɅȉɴɔɫɔȉʟʰʁʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟɔɷʰɏȲɦɷʁ˒३ȉɷȬȲɫʹʦɔˑȲ२ɔɷʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ʁΦȲʟɷʁȦɫȲȉʟ ɴȲȉɷɔɷɆʰʁʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟ३ेΤȲ˘ȉʟȲɷʁʰȲȉʦ˘ʰʁʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏȲ˘ȉʟȲ ʦȲɫɅॼȦʁɷʦȦɔʁʹʦɫ˘ʜʁȲʰɔȦȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʦɔɷʰɏȲɔʟʁ˒ɷʟɔɆɏʰेΤȲ˘Ȳ˗ɔʦʰɅʁʟʰɏȲɔʟ 168 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE own sake, to provoke contemplation, to enable conversation, and to allow for a complex involvement between the image and the viewer, designed to transport him (or possibly her) away from their workaday world.32 Rooms for Pleasure Talking about and admiring art had become a hallmark of Italian elite culture around the turn of the sixteenth century. Letters of the 1510s ȬȲʦȦʟɔȥɔɷɆ<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉউʦʰɔɴȲʦʜȲɷʰȉʦȉɏʁʦʰȉɆȲɔɷʁɴȲूɅʁʟ example, are revealing of a vibrant social scene that involved a series of ɆȉʰɏȲʟɔɷɆʦɔɷɆȉʟȬȲɷʦूˑɔɷȲ˘ȉʟȬʦूȉɷȬˑɔɫɫȉʦेΤȲ˘ʰ˘ʜɔȦȉɫɫ˘ȦʁɴȥɔɷȲȬ ȦʟȉδȲȬʁȥɣȲȦʰʦूɔɷȦɫʹȬɔɷɆȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲȉɷȬɴʁȬȲʟɷȉʟʰ˒ʁʟɦʦू˒ɔʰɏ verdant, natural-looking spaces. Conversation and dining were enlivened by recitations of poems, plays, and music.33<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁ˒ȉʦȉɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰˑɔʦɔʰʁʟू ȉɫʁɷɆ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲʜʁʜȲूʰʁʰɏȲআˑɔɷȲ˘ȉʟȬইʁɅɆʁʦʰɔɷʁɏɔɆɔूʰɏȲɫȲɆȲɷȬȉʟɔɫ˘ wealthy banker of the papal court. Chigi started to build his renowned villa २ɷʁ˒ȦȉɫɫȲȬʰɏȲÁɔɫɫȉ<ȉʟɷȲʦɔɷȉȉδȲʟʰɏȲɅȉɴɔɫ˘ʰɏȉʰɫȉʰȲʟʁ˒ɷȲȬɔʰ३ɔɷɏɔʦ vineyard on the south of the Tiber in 1505.34 He was famous for the lavish ȲɷʰȲʟʰȉɔɷɴȲɷʰʦɏȲɫȉɔȬʁɷɅʁʟɏɔʦˑɔʦɔʰʁʟʦेΤʹʦूɔɷXʹɫ˘ࢾࣂࢾࢿू<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁȉɷȬ the other diners were plied with ˒ʁɷȬȲʟɅʹɫ˒ɔɷȲʦȉɷȬȲ˗ȦȲɫɫȲɷʰɴȲɫʁɷʦȉɷȬɅʟʹɔʰʁɅȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰʦʁʟʰʦे ΤȲɷȉδȲʟɫʹɷȦɏʰɏȲʟȲ˒ȲʟȲmoresche०ȬȉɷȦȲʦ१ूɴʹʦɔȦʜɫȉ˘ɔɷɆ and singing. . . . And whilst we started dinner they put on a representation of a pastoral recited by some Sienese boys and girls, ʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ʦȉɔȬˑȲʟ˘˒ȲɫɫȉɷȬɔʰ˒ȉʦȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫʦʰʹΦे35 ȬɴɔʟɔɷɆȉɷȬȉʦʦȲʦʦɔɷɆʰɏȲ̍ʹȉɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲȉʟʰ˒ʁʟɦॹȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰɔȲʦू tapestries, as well as wall paintings – was part and parcel of the role of ɏɔɆɔউʦɆʹȲʦʰʦेʁɔɷȉɫȲʰʰȲʟʁɅXʹɫ˘ࢿࣂूࢾࣂࢾࢾू<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁȉȬɴɔʟȲȬʰɏȲআʟɔȦɏ decorations of various things, but the marble was the best of all, so ȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȉɷȬʁɅˑȉʟɔʁʹʦȦʁɫʁʟʦेই36 For some guests the need for admiration ȦʁʹɫȬȲˑȲɷɆʁʰʁʁɅȉʟुআ$ʁɷউʰȬȉʟȲʰɏɔɷɦʰɏȉʰɴ˘ʦʰʁɴȉȦɏɅȲȲȬʦʁɷʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆू ्jʁȥɫȲʰɏʁʹɆɏɔʰɴȉ˘ȥȲुȦʁɴȲʁɷूɆȲʰʁɷ˒ɔʰɏɔʰे्^ȲȉˑȲȉȬɴɔʟȉʰɔʁɷʹɷʰɔɫ ˒ȲউʟȲȬʟʹɷɦूইȲɷɣʁɔɷȲȬʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰ<ɔɫɔʜʜʁȲʟʁȉɫȬʁɔɷȉʜʁȲɴɅʁʟɏɔɆɔ of 1512.37 Given the fame of his parties, it is not entirely surprising that Chigi should ȥȲȉʜɔʁɷȲȲʟɔɷȦʟȲȉʰɔɷɆʰɏȲεʟʦʰʦʜȉȦȲʰʁȲɷʰȲʟʰȉɔɷɆʹȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦूɫɔɦȲʰɏȲ ɔʦʰɔɷȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆूȉɫɴʁʦʰȲɷʰɔʟȲɫ˘ȦʁˑȲʟȲȬɔɷɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲʦे*˗ȲȦʹʰȲȬɴȉɔɷɫ˘ ȥ˘ȉʜɏȉȲɫউʦ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜɔɷࢾࣂࢾࣅॹࢾࣆूʰɏȲ`ɀ̽ȓǈɀȄɥʗǥȎǱ२εɆेࣂेࣅ३ʜʟȲʦȲɷʰʦ ʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟ˒ɔʰɏȉʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅɫʁˑȲʰʟɔʹɴʜɏɔɷɆʁˑȲʟȉȬˑȲʟʦɔʰ˘ेΤȲɴʁʟʰȉɫɆɔʟɫ g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 169 <ɔɆेࣂेࣅे२ɫȲδ३ Raphael and workshop, `ɀ̽ȓǈ of Psyche, 1518–19. Fresco. Villa Farnesina, Rome. Fig 5.9. (right) Raphael and workshop, Feast of the ?ɀǫɥ, ceiling of the `ɀ̽ȓǈɀȄɥʗǥȎǱ, 1518–19. Fresco. Villa Farnesina, Rome. Psyche and the god Cupid fall in love. His mother, Venus, tries to thwart the relationship by giving Psyche a series of seemingly impossible tasks. ΤȲɆɔʟɫूȉɔȬȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɆʁȬʦू˒ɔɷʦʁʹʰɔɷʰɏȲȲɷȬȉɷȬʰɏȲ˘ȉʟȲɴȉʟʟɔȲȬौʰɏȲɔʟ ˒ȲȬȬɔɷɆɅȲȉʦʰɔʦȬȲʜɔȦʰȲȬʁɷʰ˒ʁεȦʰɔˑȲʰȉʜȲʦʰʟɔȲʦʁɷʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲ ɫʁηɔȉ२εɆेࣂेࣆ३े38 ΤȲEȉɫɫʁɅʦ˘ȦɏȲɔʦȉɷȉˑʁ˒ȲȬɫ˘ʜɫȉ˘ɅʹɫʦʜȉȦȲेsʟɔɆɔɷȉɫɫ˘ɫȲȉȬɔɷɆʁɷ to the garden through open arches of the room, there is a deliberately ȉɴȥɔɆʹʁʹʦȬȲɫɔɷȲȉʰɔʁɷȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷɔɷʦɔȬȲȉɷȬʁʹʰʦɔȬȲेΤȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦʁɷ the ceiling are structured as if the viewer is looking through them to the sky, framed by a lattice of leaves, fruit, and vegetables. In the spaces of ʰɏɔʦˑȲʟȬȉɷʰʜȲʟɆʁɫȉ˒ȲɆɫɔɴʜʦȲʰɏȲɫȉʟɆȲɫ˘ɷȉɦȲȬεɆʹʟȲʦʜɫȉ˘ɔɷɆʁʹʰʰɏȲ ʦʰʁʟ˘ेɔʟȬʦूʜȉɔɷʰȲȬȉʦɔɅζ˘ɔɷɆȉʟʁʹɷȬʰɏȲˑȉʹɫʰूȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲʰɏȲɔɫɫʹʦɔʁɷे ΤȲȦʹɫɴɔɷȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲʰȉɫȲɔʦʦɏʁ˒ɷʁɷʰɏȲȦȲɔɫɔɷɆɔɷȉʜȉɔʟʁɅɅȲɔɆɷȲȬ tapestries with scalloped edges, as if pinned to the verdant structure. Here Cupid and Psyche gain permission for their marriage from Jupiter, and then celebrate their wedding feast among the gods. A tapestry that is a painting that is on a ceiling that mimics the sky, framed by greenery that includes obviously phallic vegetables, the `ɀ̽ȓǈɀȄɥʗǥȎǱ is full of visual wonder and delight.39 A profane answer to the Sistine ceiling, completed ɣʹʦʰʦɔ˗˘ȲȉʟʦʜʟȲˑɔʁʹʦɫ˘ूʰɏȲʹʦȲʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲɏȲʟȲȉȬȬʦʰʁɔʰʦɴ˘ʟɔȉȬ ʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲʦॹʦʰȲȲʜȲȬɔɷȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫȦʹɫʰʹʟȲȉɷȬɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲʁɅȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȉɫ ʜʟʁʰʁʰ˘ʜȲʦूʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦȉʟȲʜʟʁɴʜʰʦɅʁʟʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȉȥɫȲȲɷɣʁ˘ɴȲɷʰʁɅɫȲɔʦʹʟȲ ȉɷȬʦȲɷʦʹȉɫɅʹɫεɫɫɴȲɷʰे gȉɫȦʁɫɴʹɫɫɏȉʦȉʟɆʹȲȬʰɏȉʰɏɔɆɔউʦEȉɫɫʁɅʦ˘ȦɏȲ˒ȉʦʰɏȲʦʁʹʟȦȲɅʁʟȉ আ˒ȉˑȲʁɅɴ˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫȬȲȦʁʟȉʰɔʁɷইʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦʰʁʦʜʟȲȉȬȉȦʟʁʦʦ*ʹʟʁʜȲूȉɔȬȲȬ 170 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 171 by the alacrity with which the designs for the ceiling were translated into print.40JʰȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ʜʟʁɅʁʹɷȬɫ˘ȉΦȲȦʰȲȬ<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉू˒ɏʁ˒ȉʦʰʁ ɏȉˑȲɏɔʦʁ˒ɷʦʹȥʹʟȥȉɷˑɔɫɫȉȬȲȦʁʟȉʰȲȬȥ˘ȉʜɏȉȲɫউʦʜʹʜɔɫू=ɔʹɫɔʁʁɴȉɷʁू ȥȉʦȲȬʁɷȲ˗ȉȦʰɫ˘ʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʦʰʁʟ˘ूȉʦɷʁʰȲȬȉȥʁˑȲ२εɆʦࣂेࢾȉɷȬࣂेࢿ३े<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁউʦ ʹɷȦɫȲू$ʹɦȲɫɅʁɷʦʁȬউ*ʦʰȲʁɅ<ȲʟʟȉʟȉूȉɫʦʁʦȲȲɴʦʰʁɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷɔɴʜʟȲʦʦȲȬू ɣʹȬɆɔɷɆȥ˘ʰɏȲʦȲʟɔȲʦʁɅɔɷȦʟȲȉʦɔɷɆɫ˘ʹʟɆȲɷʰɫȲʰʰȲʟʦȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷࢾࣂࢾࣅȉɷȬࢾࣂࢿࢽ attempting to get Raphael to paint a work for a room in his palace.41 ȉʜɏȉȲɫউʦȬȲȉʰɏɔɷʜʟɔɫࢾࣂࢿࢽɴȲȉɷʰʰɏȉʰɏȲ˒ȉʦɷȲˑȲʟȉȥɫȲʰʁȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲʰɏȲ commissioned painting, but Alfonso nevertheless brought together a group ʁɅɔɴȉɆȲʦʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦूɫɔɦȲɏɔɆɔউʦRoom of Psyche, designed to validate and ʜʁʜʹɫȉʟɔˢȲʰɏȲʹʦȲʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲεɆʹʟȲɔɷʦʜȉȦȲʦɴȉȬȲɅʁʟȲɫɔʰȲɫȲɔʦʹʟȲे ÂȲɫȉʦʰȲɷȦʁʹɷʰȲʟȲȬɫɅʁɷʦʁȉʰʰɏȲȲɷȬʁɅɏȉʜʰȲʟΤʟȲȲूʁɷʰɏȲ ʦȦȉΦʁɫȬɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲɔʦʰɔɷȲʦ˒ȲȲʰॼʰȉɫɦɔɷɆgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁेJɷʰɏȲࢾࣂࢾࢽʦूɏȲ was building new rural villas and remodeled his urban palace in Ferrara ʰʁȦʟȲȉʰȲȉʦȲʟɔȲʦʁɅʦʜȉȦȲʦɅʁʟআɏɔʦɫȲɔʦʹʟȲȉɷȬʰʟȉɷ̍ʹɔɫɫɔʰ˘ইूȉʦʁɷȲʁɅʰɏȲ ʟȲɫɔȲɅʦɏȲȦʁɴɴɔʦʦɔʁɷȲȬɅʁʟɏɔʦɷȲ˒ʰʹȬɔʁȬȲɔgȉʟɴɔ२ɴȉʟȥɫȲʦʰʹȬ˘३ proclaims.42 Near this studio Alfonso decided to create another chamber in the palace decorated with mythological paintings, a room now known as the camerino d’alabastro२ɫɔʰʰɫȲȉɫȉȥȉʦʰȲʟȦɏȉɴȥȲʟ३ेΤȲȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲȬʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦ were removed from the apartments in 1598; exactly how they were ʁʟɔɆɔɷȉɫɫ˘ȉʟʟȉɷɆȲȬɏȉʦȥȲȲɷʰɏȲʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʁɅʦʁɴȲȬȲȥȉʰȲे43 ÂɏȉʰɔʦȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɔʦʰɏȉʰूɔɷȦʁɷɣʹɷȦʰɔʁɷ˒ɔʰɏȉɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰȉȬˑɔʦʁʟूgȉʟɔʁ *̍ʹɔȦʁɫȉूɫɅʁɷʦʁɏȉȬȉɫʟȲȉȬ˘˒ʁʟɦȲȬʁʹʰȉʜʟʁɆʟȉɴɅʁʟɏɔʦɷȲ˒ʟʁʁɴɔɷ sȦʰʁȥȲʟࢾࣂࢾࢾेΤɔʦɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ʜɫȉɷɷȲȬʰʁȦʁɴȥɔɷȲʦɔ˗ɫȉʟɆȲɴ˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫ paintings on Bacchic themes below a frieze representing the story of ȲɷȲȉʦȥ˘$ʁʦʦʁ$ʁʦʦɔे44 Four of the large canvases that made up this cycle have long been known: ̨Ǳ >ǱǈɥɯɀȄɯȎǱ?ɀǫɥ of 1514 by Giovanni Bellini, ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɫȉɷȬʦȦȉʜȲʟȲʜȉɔɷʰȲȬȥ˘¢ɔʰɔȉɷȉʟʁʹɷȬࢾࣂࢿࣆ२εɆेࣂेࢾࢽ३ौ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦ ̨Ǳ Worship of Venus२ࢾࣂࢾࣅॹࢾࣆूεɆेࣂेࢾࢿ३ौBacchus and Ariadne२ࢾࣂࢿࢽॹࢿࣀूεɆ 5.13); and Bacchanal of the Andrians२ࢾࣂࢿࣀॹࣃूεɆेࣂेࢾࢾ३ेεδɏȦȉɷˑȉʦू$ʁʦʦʁ $ʁʦʦɔউʦIndian Triumph of Bacchus (cेࢾࣂࢾࣁ३ू˒ȉʦʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ɔȬȲɷʰɔεȲȬȉʦȉɫʦʁ ȥȲɫʁɷɆɔɷɆʰʁʰɏȲȦ˘ȦɫȲूȉɫʰɏʁʹɆɏʦʁɴȲʦȦɏʁɫȉʟʦȬɔʦʜʹʰȲʰɏɔʦɔȬȲɷʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷे45 ΤȲʦɔ˗ʰɏȦȉɷˑȉʦɅʟʁɴȉʜɏȉȲɫ˒ȉʦȦʁɴɴɔʦʦɔʁɷȲȬȉɷȬɷȲˑȲʟȦʁɴʜɫȲʰȲȬे Not surprisingly, given their historical prominence, these panels have ȥȲȲɷʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʰʁˑȉʟɔʁʹʦɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰȉʰɔʁɷʦुȉɷɔɷȬɔȦȉʰɔʁɷʁɅɫɅʁɷʦʁউʦ˒ɔɫɫʰʁ transform the duchy of Ferrara into a paradise on earth, for example, or ȦʁɷˑȲʟʦȲɫ˘ȉɷɔɷʦʰʟʹȦʰɔʁɷʰʁʰɏȲȬʹɦȲɔɷআɅʹɷȬȉɴȲɷʰȉɫȉʦʜȲȦʰʦʁɅʦȲ˗ʹȉɫ ʜɏ˘ʦɔʁɫʁɆ˘ेই46Τɔʦɔʦȉɷȉˑʁ˒ȲȬɫ˘ɔȦʁɷʁɆʟȉʜɏɔȦȉɫɫ˘ʦʁʜɏɔʦʰɔȦȉʰȲȬʦȲʟɔȲʦʁɅ paintings, and this in itself is telling of the kind of conversations, thoughts, and atmosphere these images were meant to evoke. 172 ΤȲεʟʦʰȦȉɷˑȉʦȦʁɴɴɔʦʦɔʁɷȲȬूȲɫɫɔɷɔউʦ̨Ǳ>ǱǈɥɯɀȄɯȎǱ?ɀǫɥ२εɆेࣂेࢾࢽ३ू˒ȉʦ put into place in November 1514. It depicts a wooded grove, where gods, goddesses, nymphs, and satyrs recline in various states of inebriation as the ɔɷɅȉɷʰȉȦȦɏʹʦȬɔʦʜȲɷʦȲʦɣʹɆʦʁɅ˒ɔɷȲɅʟʁɴȉȥȉʟʟȲɫेʦsˑɔȬʦȉɔȬɔɷ̨Ǳɞɯ of LoveूআÂɔɷȲεɫɫʦʰɏȲɏȲȉʟʰ˒ɔʰɏʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʦʁɅɫʁˑȲूইȉɷȬूȉȦȦʁʟȬɔɷɆɫ˘ूɷȲȉʟ ʰɏȲȦȲɷʰȲʟʁɅʰɏȲʦȦȲɷȲ˒ȲʦȲȲȉȥȲȉʟȬȲȬεɆʹʟȲɔɷȉɆʟȲȲɷʰʹɷɔȦ२ɷʁʟɴȉɫɫ˘ ɔȬȲɷʰɔεȲȬȉʦjȲʜʰʹɷȲ३ɆɫȉɷȦɔɷɆȉʰɏɔʦɅȲɴȉɫȲɷȲɔɆɏȥʁʟूʰɏȲɏʁʦʰȲʦʦʁɅ the feast Cybele, as he surreptitiously rests his hand on her upper thigh. ɏȲɔʦȬɔʦʰʟȉȦʰȲȬूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟॹɏȲʟɆȉˢȲɔʦε˗ȲȬʁɷʰɏȲʦȦȲɷȲʰʁʰɏȲʟɔɆɏʰ foreground of the panel where the satyr Priapus, his erect penis visible ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏɏɔʦʰʹɷɔȦूȉʰʰȲɴʜʰʦʰʁɫɔδʰɏȲɆȉʟɴȲɷʰʦʁɅʰɏȲʦɫȲȲʜɔɷɆɷ˘ɴʜɏ Lotis. Contemporary viewers would have known the end of the story, taken ɅʟʁɴsˑɔȬউʦFastiॹ^ʁʰɔʦɔʦ˒ʁɦȲɷʹʜȥ˘ʰɏȲȥʟȉ˘ɔɷɆʁɅɔɫȲɷʹʦউʦȉʦʦूʰʁʰɏȲ amusement of the assembled company.47 Unlike the rest of the paintings THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ Fig. 5.10. Giovanni Bellini, >ǱǈɥɯɀȄɯȎǱ?ɀǫɥ, 1514. Oil on canvas. National Gallery ʁɅʟʰूÂȉʦɏɔɷɆʰʁɷू$े 173 ʰɏȲʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟूɏȲʟɫȉɷɆʹɔȬɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬ˘ȉˑȉɔɫȉȥɫȲɅʁʟȬȲɫȲȦʰȉʰɔʁɷेΤɔʦɔɴȉɆȲ ˒ȉʦȥȉʦȲȬʁɷȉȬȲʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷʁɅȉʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆɅʟʁɴɏɔɫʁʦʰʟȉʰʹʦʰɏȲ*ɫȬȲʟউʦ Imagines२ʰɏɔʟȬȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘*३ेΤɔʦʦɏʁʟʰȥʁʁɦूɫȉʟɆȲɫ˘ȦʁɴʜʟɔʦȲȬʁɅȉʦȲʟɔȲʦ of evocative descriptions of paintings, had been translated from the Greek ɔɷʰʁ^ȉʰɔɷȥ˘ʰɏȲɏʹɴȉɷɔʦʰ$ȲɴȲʰʟɔʁgʁʦȦʁɅʁʟJʦȉȥȲɫɫȉȬউ*ʦʰȲɔɷࢾࣂࢽࣅू and she loaned her copy to her son Alfonso.48ΤȲȥʁʁɦɔʦɔɷʰȲɷȬȲȬȉʦȉ primer, ostensibly aimed at boys who are learning how to look at paintings, ȉɷȬȉȦʰʦȉʦȉɦɔɷȬʁɅȉʟʰॼɫʁˑȲʟʦউɴȉɷʹȉɫूɔʰʦȉɔɴআʰʁɔɷʰȲʟʜʟȲʰʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦ ȉɷȬʰʁȉʜʜʟȲȦɔȉʰȲ˒ɏȉʰɔʦȲʦʰȲȲɴȲȬɔɷʰɏȲɴेই49 It is also the source for ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦȲȉʟɫɔȲʟʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆɅʁʟʰɏȲȦɏȉɴȥȲʟू̨Ǳ Worship of Venus२εɆेࣂेࢾࢿ३ू ˒ɏʁʦȲɣʹɴȥɫȲʁɅɷȉɦȲȬputti playing and collecting apples closely matches ʰɏȲʰȲ˗ʰुআJʰɔʦȉȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫʟɔȬȬɫȲूইɏɔɫʁʦʰʟȉʰʹʦȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʦूআȦʁɴȲɫȲʰʹʦʦȲȲɔɅ ʜȲʟȦɏȉɷȦȲJȦȉɷɆʹȲʦʦʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰȲʟউʦɴȲȉɷɔɷɆेই50 In this passage Philostratus emphasizes how paintings evoke entire sensory worlds. He asks his young Ȧʁɴʜȉɷɔʁɷूআ$ʁ˘ʁʹȦȉʰȦɏȉʹɆɏʰʁɅʰɏȲɅʟȉɆʟȉɷȦȲɏʁˑȲʟɔɷɆʁˑȲʟʰɏȲɆȉʟȬȲɷ ʁʟȉʟȲ˘ʁʹʟʦȲɷʦȲʦȬʹɫɫैই51 In another description he imagines that he hears ɷʁɔʦȲूɴʹʦɔȦूȉɷȬʦʜȲȲȦɏुআJ˒ȉʦȬȲɫʹȬȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆɔɷʰʁʰɏɔɷɦɔɷɆʰɏȉʰ ʰɏȲεɆʹʟȲʦ˒ȲʟȲɷʁʰʜȉɔɷʰȲȬȥʹʰʟȲȉɫȥȲɔɷɆʦूɴʁˑɔɷɆȉɷȬɫʁˑɔɷɆेই52ΤȲ Imagines celebrates the pleasures of talking about paintings with friends, of puzzling over meanings, of recognizing references, of becoming absorbed in the interpretation of artworks; it is perfectly matched to the purpose of art designed for sociable spaces. Fig. 5.11. Titian, Bacchanal of the Andrians, 1523–6. Oil on canvas. Prado, gȉȬʟɔȬे 174 in the camerino, Bellini does not concentrate mainly on depicting nude εɆʹʟȲʦूȉɷȬɔɷɅȉȦʰȬʁɔɷɆʦʁ˒ʁʹɫȬɏȉˑȲʦʜʁɔɫȲȬʰɏȲɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲेΤɔʦȦȉɷˑȉʦ ʜɫȉ˘ʦ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟউʦȬȲʦɔʟȲʰʁʦȲȲɴʁʟȲूȥʁʰɏʰɏȲɷȲ˗ʰɴʁɴȲɷʰɔɷʰɏȲ narrative and to see hidden areas revealed. As with the many Renaissance images that combine a lustful satyr and a beautiful female body, the ʁɷɫʁʁɦȲʟʦউɴʁʰɔˑȉʰɔʁɷʦȉʟȲȉɫ˒ȉ˘ʦɔɴʜɫɔȦɔʰɫ˘̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷȲȬȉɷȬȲˑȲɷूʜȲʟɏȉʜʦू ɴȉȬȲɅʹɷʁɅेʟȲʰɏȲ˘ʰȉɦɔɷɆʰɏȲʜɫȉȦȲʁɅʰɏȲʦȉɫȉȦɔʁʹʦʦȉʰ˘ʟै Philostratus describes how the painting of the Andrians was a tribute to ʰɏȲʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲʦʁɅȬʟʹɷɦȲɷɷȲʦʦेΤȲ˒ɔɷȲɆʁȬूȉȦȦɏʹʦूɏȉȬɆɔˑȲɷʰɏȲɔʦɫȉɷȬ ʁɅɷȬʟʁʦȉʟɔˑȲʟʁɅʜʹʟȲ˒ɔɷȲʰɏȉʰɴȉȬȲʰɏȲɔɷɏȉȥɔʰȉɷʰʦȬʟʹɷɦुআʰɏȲɴȲɷू crowned with ivy and bryony, are singing to their wives and children, some dancing on either bank, some reclining . . . this river makes men rich and powerful in the assembly, and helpful to their friends, and beautiful and, ɔɷʦʰȲȉȬʁɅʦɏʁʟʰूɅʁʹʟȦʹȥɔʰʦʰȉɫɫेই53 Viewers of the painting should hear the singing of the inebriated revellers, Philostratus urges. Titian makes sound visible here by including musical notation on a slip of paper near the center of the painting. Tim Shephard has discussed how it refers to a ȬʟɔɷɦɔɷɆʦʁɷɆȥ˘ʰɏȲ<ȲʟʟȉʟȲʦȲȦʁʹʟʰɴʹʦɔȦɔȉɷȬʟɔȉȲɷÂɔɫɫȉȲʟʰʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦ ɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ʜȲʟɅʁʟɴȲȬɔɷʰɏɔʦʦʜȉȦȲेΤȲ˒ʁʟȬʦʁɷʰɏȲʦɏȲȲʰȉʟȲुআÂɏʁ ȬʟɔɷɦʦȉɷȬȬʁȲʦɷউʰȬʟɔɷɦȉɆȉɔɷू्EȲɦɷʁ˒ʦɷʁʰ˒ɏȉʰȬʟɔɷɦɔɷɆɔʦेই54 ΤȲȥȲɷȲεʰʦʁɅȬʟʹɷɦȲɷɷȲʦʦɅʁʟʰɏȲɫʹʦʰ˘ˑʁ˘ȲʹʟȉʟȲȥʟʁʹɆɏʰɏʁɴȲȥ˘ ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦʟȲʦʜʁɷʦȲʰʁʰɏɔʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆूʰɏȲBacchanal of the Andrians २εɆेࣂेࢾࢾ३ू ˒ɏɔȦɏɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ɏʹɷɆɷȲ˗ʰʰʁȲɫɫɔɷɔউʦʜȉɷȲɫेʦɴȉɷ˘ʦȦɏʁɫȉʟʦɏȉˑȲ pointed out, a sleeping nymph is also stretched out along the lower righthand side of this image, but here she is so drunk on wine she is oblivious to ΤȲȬʟɔɷɦɔɷɆɏȲʟȲȬʁȲʦɷʁʰɫȲȉȬʰʁȦɏȉʁʦूȥʹʰʰʁȥȲȉʹʰ˘ेΤȲȲȬʹȦȉʰȲȬ ˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟ˒ʁʹɫȬɏȉˑȲȉʜʜʟȲȦɔȉʰȲȬʰɏȲˑɔʦʹȉɫɣʁɦȲʦूʦʹȦɏȉʦʰɏȲʜȉʟȉɫɫȲɫ˒ɔʰɏ ȲɫɫɔɷɔউʦʦɫȲȲʜɔɷɆɷ˘ɴʜɏूȥʹʰ˒ʁʹɫȬȉɫʦʁɏȉˑȲʟȲȦʁɆɷɔˢȲȬʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦɔɴȉɆȲ ̍ʹʁʰȲʦʦȲˑȲʟȉɫȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰɔȲʦ˒Ȳɫɫɦɷʁ˒ɷɔɷɷʁʟʰɏȲʟɷJʰȉɫ˘ेΤȲɫ˘ɔɷɆɷʹȬȲ echoes a relief on a Bacchic sarcophagus; the woman dancing in her white ʟʁȥȲूɆȉˢɔɷɆɔɷʰʁʰɏȲȲ˘ȲʦʁɅɏȲʟʜȉʟʰɷȲʟूɔʦȥȉʦȲȬʁɷȉɷȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʰʁʟʦʁ ɅʁʟɴȲʟɫ˘ɔɷʰɏȲȦʁɫɫȲȦʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷȦȉʟȬɔɷȉɫ$ʁɴȲɷɔȦʁ=ʟɔɴȉɷɔौ ʰɏȲʹʟɔɷȉʰɔɷɆȥʁ˘ɔʦȉɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɴʁʰɔɅʁɷȦɫȉʦʦɔȦȉɫʦȉʟȦʁʜɏȉɆɔौȉɷȬʰɏȲ THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 175 Fig. 5.12. Titian, Worship of Venus, 1518–19. Oil ʁɷȦȉɷˑȉʦेʟȉȬʁूgȉȬʟɔȬे Courtly Masculinity, Friendship, and the Nude ΤȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȲȬʦʁɅȉʟɔɷʰɏɔʦȦɏȉʜʰȲʟɏȉˑȲʁδȲɷȥȲȲɷʰʟȲȉʰȲȬ in intellectual silos. So Venetian pastoral painting may sometimes be ȦʁɷʦɔȬȲʟȲȬʰʁɆȲʰɏȲʟ˒ɔʰɏɫɅʁɷʦʁȬউ*ʦʰȲউʦcamerino, but is much less likely to ȥȲʦȲȲɷȉʦɫɔɷɦȲȬʰʁɆʁʦʰɔɷʁɏɔɆɔউʦEȉɫɫʁɅʦ˘ȦɏȲूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲेΤɔʦɔʦɷʁʰ necessarily a bad thing; these images are so complex and innovative they are entirely deserving of intense scrutiny. However, treating them as entirely separate innovations by artists and patrons can obscure the fact that they were part of a much broader masculine culture that started to have a ȬɔʦʰɔɷȦʰɔˑȲʰȲɷʁʟɅʟʁɴʰɏȲɫȉʰȲʟεδȲȲɷʰɏȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ʁɷ˒ȉʟȬेΤɔʦɔʦʟȲɫȉʰȲȬʰʁ an assertive display of male sexuality among European elites, a phenomenon ʰɏȉʰ©ɫʟɔȦɏεʦʰȲʟȲʟɏȉʦʟȲȦȲɷʰɫ˘ʰȲʟɴȲȬʰɏȲআȲʟʁʰɔȦʦʁɅʜʁ˒Ȳʟेই57 ɷȉɦȲȬɴȉɫȲεɆʹʟȲȲˑʁɦȲʦʰɏȲ>ǈȪȪȓȶȅ?ǈɸȪ, a sculpture recently discovered in Rome that also entered the Grimani collection in 1523.55 How pleasing ɅʁʟʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟʰʁȥȲȉȥɫȲʰʁɴȲɷʰȉɫɫ˘ʰɔȦɦʁΦʰɏȲˑɔʦʹȉɫȉʦʦʁȦɔȉʰɔʁɷʦ˒ɏɔɫȲ ʜʁʦʦɔȥɫ˘Ȳɷɣʁ˘ɔɷɆʦʁɴȲ˒ɔɷȲɏɔɴʦȲɫɅे In June 1518, Federico Gonzaga visited his uncle Alfonso in Ferrara. δȲʟȉɷɔɆɏʰʜȉʦʦȲȬɔɷʜɫȲȉʦȉɷʰȦʁɷˑȲʟʦȉʰɔʁɷूɫɅʁɷʦʁʰʁʁɦɏɔɴȉɷȬɏɔʦ Ȧʁɴʜȉɷɔʁɷgȉʟɔʁ*̍ʹɔȦʁɫȉʰʁআʦɏʁ˒ʹʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦȉɷȬȲˑȲʟ˘ʁʰɏȲʟʰɏɔɷɆ ȉʜʜȲʟʰȉɔɷɔɷɆʰʁʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲेই56 Only partially completed by then, Federico cannot have seen the canvases for the camerino on that visit, but the letter ʦʹηȲʦʰʦʰɏȉʰʦʜɔʟɔʰɔɷ˒ɏɔȦɏʰɏȲʟʁʁɴ˒ȉʦȦʁɷȦȲɔˑȲȬे^ɔɦȲɏɔɆɔউʦEȉɫɫ ʁɅʦ˘ȦɏȲूɫɅʁɷʦʁউʦcamerino proclaimed itself a space for license, for relaxation. It created a world within a world where men weighted down with worries could distract themselves for a while. And what manifold pleasures these paintings provided (and provide) for their viewers: physical ʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲɔɷʰɏȲʦȲȬʹȦʰɔˑȲȉɫɫʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲɔʟʦʹȥɣȲȦʰɴȉʰʰȲʟौɔɷʰȲɫɫȲȦʰʹȉɫʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲ in recognizing their citing of dizzying numbers of classical texts and images; sensory pleasure in their evocation of the sound of music, the taste of wine, the smell of a fresh country breeze; the pleasure of conversation ˒ɔʰɏɅʟɔȲɷȬʦʜʹˢˢɫɔɷɆʁˑȲʟʰɏȲʦȲআȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫʟɔȬȬɫȲʦेই 176 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE *ȉȦɏʁɅʰɏȲʜȉʰʟʁɷʦʁɅʰɏȲʦȲʦȦȲɷȲʦʦɏȉʟȲʦʦʁɴȲȦɏȉʟȉȦʰȲʟɔʦʰɔȦʦʰɏȉʰʦʹηȲʦʰ more than individual choice is at play in their decisions about art. Federico =ʁɷˢȉɆȉूɆʁʦʰɔɷʁɏɔɆɔूȉɷȬɫɅʁɷʦʁȬউ*ʦʰȲȉɫɫɏȉȬȦɫʁʦȲʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜʦ ˒ɔʰɏɴɔʦʰʟȲʦʦȲʦʰɏȉʰȉΦȲȦʰȲȬʰɏȲɔʟȦɏʁɔȦȲʁɅȬȲȦʁʟȉʰɔʁɷेgʁʦʰʦȦɏʁɫȉʟʦ ȦʁɷɷȲȦʰʰɏȲȉʜɏȉȲɫ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜউʦȬȲȦʁʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲ`ɀ̽ȓǈɀȄɥʗǥȎǱ with ɆʁʦʰɔɷʁɏɔɆɔউʦɫȉˑɔʦɏ˒ȲȬȬɔɷɆɔɷࢾࣂࢾࣆʰʁɏɔʦɫʁɷɆॼʰȲʟɴɴɔʦʰʟȲʦʦू<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦȉ Ordeaschi, whom Chigi had brought to Rome from Venice eight years previously.58¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦBacchus and Ariadne from the camerino d’alabastro २εɆे 5.13), which shows a god propelled by love towards a beautiful mortal girl, ɏȉʦȥȲȲɷɫɔɷɦȲȬʰʁɫɅʁɷʦʁউʦɷȲ˒ɅʁʹɷȬɫʁˑȲɅʁʟɏɔʦɫʁ˒ॼȥʁʟɷɴɔʦʰʟȲʦʦ^ȉʹʟȉ $ɔȉɷʰɔे59<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁউʦȬȲȦʁʟȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲȉɫȉˢˢʁ¢ȲɏȉʦȥȲȲɷɫɔɷɦȲȬʰʁɏɔʦɫʁˑȲ for his mistress Isabella Boschetti.60Τɔʦɴȉ˘˒ȲɫɫȥȲʰʟʹȲɔɷȉɫɫȦȉʦȲʦूȥʹʰ these repeated individual acts of patronage taken together make a pattern ʰɏȉʰȦȉɷɷʁʰȥȲɔɆɷʁʟȲȬेʦgȉʟɔȉ<ेgȉʹʟȲʟɏȉʦȬɔʦȦʹʦʦȲȬɔɷʰɏȲȦȉʦȲʁɅ Federico, the fact that these men publicly displayed their love for their mistresses, even going as far to commemorate their relationships through ȉʟʰ˒ʁʟɦʦूȬʁȲʦɷʁʰʟȲɫȉʰȲʰʁʰɏȲɔʟɔɷȬɔˑɔȬʹȉɫȦɏȉʟȉȦʰȲʟȉʦআʜɫȉ˘ȥʁ˘ʦूইȉʦ ʦʁɴȲʦȦɏʁɫȉʟʦʦʹηȲʦʰेȉʰɏȲʟʰɏɔʦȥȲɏȉˑɔʁʟʦɏʁʹɫȬȥȲȦʁɷʰȲ˗ʰʹȉɫɔˢȲȬ against new ideals of courtly masculinity, where Renaissance rulers are represented as ardent and passionate, but decorous, lovers.61 In the wave of Petrarchism that characterized this era, expressions of desire for beautiful women (and sometimes men) became a hallmark, even a test of masculinity.62 Psyche undertaking her ordeals is not merely seeking her own marriage, but attempting to capture Love himself; her ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʦɷʁʰɴɔʟʟʁʟɔɷɆsʟȬȲȉʦȦɏɔউʦʟʁɫȲूȥʹʰɏɔɆɔউʦȉɷȬʰɏȲɴȲɷʁɅɏɔʦ ȉȦ̍ʹȉɔɷʰȉɷȦȲेΤȲʦȲȲɫɔʰȲɴȲɷউʦȲ˗ʰʟȉɴȉʟɔʰȉɫʟȲɫȉʰɔʁɷʦɏɔʜʦȉʟȲʰɏʹʦɷʁʰ criticized as representing a lack of continence, but ennobled as proof of their masculinity and virtù. g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 177 Fig. 5.13. Titian, Bacchus and Ariadne, 1520–23. Oil on canvas. National Gallery, London. Fig. 5.14. Titian, ɀɞɯɞǈȓɯɀȄ>ǱǫǱɞȓǥɀ?ɀȶʡǈȅǈ, ࢾࣂࢿࣆेsɔɫʁɷȦȉɷˑȉʦेʟȉȬʁूgȉȬʟɔȬे ^ȲʰʰȲʟʦूʜʁȲɴʦूȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟɫɔʰȲʟȉʟ˘ɅʁʟɴʦɔɷʰɏɔʦʜȲʟɔʁȬʁδȲɷʰȉɫɦʁɅȬȲʦɔʟȲू ʁʟআɴȉȬɷȲʦʦইɅʁʟɫʁˑȲेʁूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूʰɏȲÁȲɷȲʰɔȉɷʜȉʰʟɔȦɔȉɷʦ$ʁɴȲɷɔȦʁ Venier and Benetto Corner write sonnets of lust about their shared desire for the beautiful courtesan Elena Artusi, which they then use as a means ʰʁȲ˗ʜʟȲʦʦʰɏȲɔʟɫʁˑȲɅʁʟȲȉȦɏʁʰɏȲʟुআÈʁʹȉʟȲɦɔɫɫɔɷɆɴȲ्ȥ˘ɴȉɦɔɷɆɴȲ ˒ȉɔʰʦʁɫʁɷɆʰʁʦȲȲ˘ʁʹेेेेJȬʁɷউʰȲˑȲɷ˒ȉɷʰʰʁʦɏȉʟȲ˘ʁʹ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʟɫȉȬ˘ ɅʟɔȲɷȬूইȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷȲȬÁȲɷɔȲʟʰʁʁʟɷȲʟे63gȉȦɏɔȉˑȲɫɫɔউʦ˒ʁʟȬʁɅȉȬˑɔȦȲɅʁʟɏɔʦ enamoured friend Francesco Vettori is to let love take over – he himself ɏȉʦআɅʁɫɫʁ˒ȲȬ०ɫʁˑȲ१ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏˑȉɫɫȲ˘ʦू˒ʁʁȬʦूȦɫɔΦʦȉɷȬεȲɫȬʦेই64আ¢ʁȬȉ˘উʦ ˒ʁʟɫȬɔʦʰʁʰȉɫɫ˘ʰȉɦȲɷʹʜ˒ɔʰɏɫʁˑȲूইʦȉɔȬÁȲʰʰʁʟɔʰʁɏɔʦɅʟɔȲɷȬɔɷࢾࣂࢾࣂे65 It is no coincidence that erotic room decoration became the norm for elite men at the very same moment as the fashion for prominent and elaborate ȦʁȬʜɔȲȦȲʦे¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦɀɞɯɞǈȓɯɀȄ>ǱǫǱɞȓǥɀ?ɀȶʡǈȅǈʁɅࢾࣂࢿࣆूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲ२εɆे 5.14), shows the duke sporting a prominent red codpiece that pokes out of the opening of his doublet.66ΤɔʦʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰɔʦʁɷȲʁɅɴȉɷ˘ʁɅʰɏɔʦʜȲʟɔʁȬ ʰɏȉʰȲɴʜɏȉʦɔˢȲʦʰɏȲʦɔʰʰȲʟউʦˑɔʟɔɫɔʰ˘ȥ˘Ȭʟȉ˒ɔɷɆȉʰʰȲɷʰɔʁɷʰʁɏɔʦɆȲɷɔʰȉɫɔȉे67 ΤɔʦʜȲʟɅʁʟɴȉʰɔˑȲˑɔʟɔɫɔʰ˘ȉɷȬȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁȬʁɴɔɷȉʰȲ˒ʁɴȲɷʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɫ˘˒ȉʦ directly related to the male virtùʟȲ̍ʹɔʟȲȬʰʁʟʹɫȲʁˑȲʟʁɷȲউʦʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʦूʁʟ ʰʁȦʁɷ̍ʹȲʟȉɷȬʦʹȥȬʹȲɷȲ˒ȬʁɴɔɷɔʁɷʦेʦεʦʰȲʟȲʟɷʁʰȲʦूʰɏɔʦɴȲʰȉʜɏʁʟ was evoked in the book of portraits of beautiful Italian women that King Charles VIII of France famously kept as a memorial of his invasion of the Italian peninsula.68 178 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ΤɔʦʜȲʟɅʁʟɴȉʰɔˑȲʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɔʰ˘εɷȬʦɔʰʦ˒ȉ˘ɔɷʰʁȬɔʦȦʹʦʦɔʁɷʦʁɅˑɔʦʹȉɫȉʟʰू and particularly into discussions about nudes.69 In letters that may otherwise be concerned with court machinations, or the unpredictable JʰȉɫɔȉɷʜʁɫɔʰɔȦȉɫʦȦȲɷȲूʰɏȲ˒ʁʟȬʦʁɅɫɔʰȲʟȉʟ˘ȉɷȬʜʁɫɔʰɔȦȉɫεɆʹʟȲʦȦɏȉɷɆȲ tenor as they cement their friendships by talking of erotic encounters with paintings and sculptures.70 Bawdy discussions of sexual exploits had ɫʁɷɆʜɫȉ˘ȲȬȉɷɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰʟʁɫȲɔɷȦʁɷεʟɴɔɷɆɴȉɫȲɅʟɔȲɷȬʦɏɔʜɷȲʰ˒ʁʟɦʦे <ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁউʦɅȉʰɏȲʟू<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁJJ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूȲ˗ȦɏȉɷɆȲȬʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɫ˘ Ȳ˗ʜɫɔȦɔʰɫȲʰʰȲʟʦ˒ɔʰɏɅʟɔȲɷȬʦȉɷȬȉɫɫɔȲʦूʦʹȦɏȉʦ<ɫʁʟɔȉɷʁ$ʁɫɅʁউʦɫȲʰʰȲʟ to Francesco about the baths at Poretta considered in Chapter One.71 Artworks could elevate this discussion to a higher level, while maintaining an emphasis on male potency. Hoping to curry favor with the French king, Francis II, in 1518, Francesco sent his ambassador to present him ˒ɔʰɏ^ʁʟȲɷˢʁʁʦʰȉউʦʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʁɅȉʧǈȶǫȓȶȅlɸǫǱʑȓɯȎ ɀɞȶɸǥɀɛȓǈ. In ȉɷȉȦȦʁɴʜȉɷ˘ɔɷɆɫȲʰʰȲʟ<ʟȉɷȦȲʦȦʁȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʦूআJɦɷʁ˒ˑȲʟ˘˒Ȳɫɫʰɏȉʰʰɏɔʦ ʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆɔʦɆʁɔɷɆȥȲɅʁʟȲȉɆʟȲȉʰȉɷȬɆʁʁȬɣʹȬɆȲʁɅʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅȥʁȬɔȲʦॹ g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 179 Fig. 5.15. ʁʟʟȲηɔʁ२ɷʰʁɷɔʁɫɫȲɆʟɔ३ूJupiter and Io (detail), c.1530. Oil on canvas. ZʹɷʦʰɏɔʦʰʁʟɔʦȦɏȲʦgʹʦȲʹɴूÁɔȲɷɷȉे ȲʦʜȲȦɔȉɫɫ˘˒ʁɴȲɷউʦॹȉɷȬɅʁʟʰɏɔʦʟȲȉʦʁɷJʦȲɷȬ˘ʁʹɔʰʦʰɔɫɫɴʁʟȲɆɫȉȬɫ˘ेই72 ΤȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʟȲʜʁʟʰȲȬɫ˘ʜɫȲȉʦȲȬʰɏȲɦɔɷɆʦʁɴʹȦɏʰɏȉʰɏȲআȦʁʹɫȬɷʁʰʦȉʰɔʦɅ˘ ɏɔɴʦȲɫɅȥ˘ɫʁʁɦɔɷɆȉʰɔʰইȉɷȬȉʦɦȲȬɔɅɔʰ˒ȉʦআȉʜʁʟʰʟȉɔʰɅʟʁɴɫɔɅȲʁɅʁɷȲʁɅ ʰɏȲgȉʟȦɏɔʁɷȲʦʦউʦɴȉɔȬʦेই73 ȲɔɷɆȉআɆʁʁȬɣʹȬɆȲʁɅʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅȥʁȬɔȲʦই˒ȉʦȉɷɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰʜȉʟʰʁɅʰɏɔʦ ɷȲ˒ʰ˘ʜȲʁɅʦʁȦɔȉȥɫȲˑɔȲ˒ɔɷɆेΤȲˑɔȲ˒Ȳʟɴȉ˘ȬȲʦɔʟȲʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɷȉɦȲȬ ȥʁȬ˘ȉɷȬȥȲɴʁˑȲȬʰʁআɆȉˢȲইʹʜʁɷɔʰȥʹʰʹɷȬȲʟʦʰȉɷȬʦʰɏȉʰɔʰɔʦȥʁʰɏʰɏȲ intrinsic beauty of a beautiful nude and the skill of the artist in perfecting nature that is being admired. A bold eroticism is thus placed within the framework of artistic theory, legitimizing a desiring gaze. So in 1527, for Ȳ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूɔȲʰʟʁʟȲʰɔɷʁʰʁɫȬ<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉȉȥʁʹʰȉʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʁ̎ÁȲɷʹʦ আʦʁʰʟʹȲȉɷȬʦʁȉɫɔˑȲʰɏȉʰɔʰεɫɫʦȉɷ˘ʁɷȲ˒ɏʁɫʁʁɦʦȉʰɔʰ˒ɔʰɏɫɔȥɔȬɔɷʁʹʦ ʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʦইȉɷȬ˒ȉʦʦʹʟȲʰʁȦʟȲȬɔʰʰɏɔʦʰʁʰɏȲʦɦɔɫɫʁɅʰɏȲআɴʁʦʰʟȉʟȲJȉȦʁʜʁ ȉɷʦʁˑɔɷʁेই74JɷࢾࣂࣁࢿूʟȲʰɔɷʁ˒ʟʁʰȲʰʁ=ʹɔȬʁȥȉɫȬʁȬȲɫɫȉʁˑȲʟȲू$ʹɦȲ ʁɅ©ʟȥɔɷʁूȉȥʁʹʰʰ˒ʁʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦȥ˘ÁȉʦȉʟɔȉδȲʟȉȬȲʦɔɆɷȥ˘gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁे sɷȦȲȉɆȉɔɷʰɏȲȲʟʁʰɔȦʦʁɅˑɔȲ˒ɔɷɆȉʟȲȲˑʁɦȲȬɔɷɏɔʦ˒ʟɔʰɔɷɆेΤȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆ ʁɅ^ȲȬȉɔʦɴȉȬȲɔɷȉ˒ȉ˘ʰɏȉʰʦɏʁ˒ʦআʰɏȲʦʁδζȲʦɏूʰɏȲȦʁɴȲɫ˘ɫɔɴȥʦूȉɷȬ the lissom body; and so sweet, smooth and delicious in attitude and with such grace, naked in all its parts, that one cannot look at it without feeling ɣȲȉɫʁʹʦʁɅʰɏȲʦ˒ȉɷेই75ɔɴɔɫȉʟɫ˘^ʁȬʁˑɔȦʁ$ʁɫȦȲ˒ʟɔʰȲʦʰʁɫȲʦʦȉɷȬʟʁ ʁɷʰȉʟɔɷɔɔɷȉȦȲɫȲȥʟȉʰȲȬɫȲʰʰȲʟʁɅࢾࣂࣂࣁʰɏȉʰ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦVenus and Adonis was ʰɏȲɴʁʦʰʜȲʟɅȲȦʰʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆȥ˘ȉɷ˘ȉɷʰɔ̍ʹȲʁʟɴʁȬȲʟɷȉʟʰɔʦʰेÁȲɷʹʦɏȉʦআȉ ȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɷʁʰɣʹʦʰȲ˗ʰʟȉʁʟȬɔɷȉʟ˘ूȥʹʰȬɔˑɔɷȲेইδȲʟȦʁɴɴȲɷʰɔɷɆʁɷʰɏȲʦʁδ ɔɷȬȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷɴȉȬȲȥ˘ʰɏȲȦʹʦɏɔʁɷʁɷʰɏȲɆʁȬȬȲʦʦউʦȥʹʰʰʁȦɦʦू$ʁɫȦȲȲ˗ʜɫȉɔɷʦ ʰɏȉʰɷʁɴȉɷ˒ʁʹɫȬȥȲȉȥɫȲʰʁȉˑʁɔȬআȉ˒ȉʟɴɔɷɆूȉʦʁδȲɷɔɷɆूʦʰɔʟʟɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲ blood in his veins . . . if a marble statue could by the stimuli of its beauty so penetrate to the marrow of a young man, that he stained himself, then, ˒ɏȉʰɴʹʦʰʦɏȲȬʁ˒ɏʁɔʦʁɅζȲʦɏू˒ɏʁɔʦȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʜȲʟʦʁɷɔεȲȬȉɷȬȉʜʜȲȉʟʦʰʁ ȥȲȥʟȲȉʰɏɔɷɆैই76ʁɴʜȉʟɔɷɆʰɏȲʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆɅȉˑʁʟȉȥɫ˘ʰʁʟȉ˗ɔʰȲɫȲʦউʦʦȲɴȲɷॼ stained VenusूɏȲȬȲȦɫȉʟȲʦʰɏȉʰ¢ɔʰɔȉɷɔʦȉȥɫȲʰʁȉʜȲɷȉʰʹʟȲȉɷȬȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ ȉɷȬɔɴʜʟʁˑȲʁɷʰɏȲʦȲȬʹȦʰɔˑȲʜʁ˒ȲʟʁɅȥʁʰɏेJɷ*ɫɔˢȉȥȲʰɏʟʁʜʜȲʟউʦ ˒ʁʟȬʦूআ$ʁɫȦȲɷȲˑȲʟɫȲʰʦʹʦɅʁʟɆȲʰʰɏȉʰ¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦVenusɔʦȉʜȉɔɷʰȲȬʜɔȦʰʹʟȲইु the erotic pull of the painting has its roots in the skill of the artist rather ʰɏȉɷʰɏȲʦʹȥɣȲȦʰɴȉʰʰȲʟे77gʁʟȲʰɏȉɷʰɏɔʦूɏʁ˒ȲˑȲʟूʰɏȲʦȲȲɦʜɏʟȉʦȲʦ intended to evoke a physical erotic reaction in the reader draw attention to the skill of the writer, showing the ability to evoke an unseen image, to bring forth moods and pleasures of viewing that were more than merely ʰɏȲȬȲʦȦʟɔʜʰɔʁɷʁɅʦʹȥɣȲȦʰɴȉʰʰȲʟे¢ȉɫɦɔɷɆȉȥʁʹʰȉɷȬɫʁʁɦɔɷɆȉʰɷʹȬȲʦ brought home the virile sexual imagination of the male viewer. * ΤȲʜʁʜʹɫȉʟɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʦɔ˗ʰȲȲɷʰɏॼȦȲɷʰʹʟ˘ɴ˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫɷʹȬȲूʰɏȲɷू˒ȉʦȉʰ least partly its role in the formation of male elite communities. Precisely 180 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE g˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫjʹȬȲʦȉɷȬsʰɏȲʟgȉʦȦʹɫɔɷȲ$ɔˑȲʟʦɔʁɷʦ 181 ȥȲȦȉʹʦȲʰɏȲʦʹȥɣȲȦʰȦʁʹɫȬȥȲʦȲȲɷȉʦʟɔʦ̍ʹȳȉɷȬ˒ȉʦȦȲʟʰȉɔɷɫ˘ȦʁɷʰȲɷʰɔʁʹʦ throughout the period, these letters implicitly (and sometimes explicitly) ȦʁɷεʟɴȲȬʰɏȲ˒ʟɔʰȲʟȉɷȬʟȲȦɔʜɔȲɷʰ˒ȲʟȲɴȲɴȥȲʟʦʁɅʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʦʁȦɔȉɫ ȦɔʟȦɫȲʦे¢ʁʟȲʰʹʟɷʰʁgȉɷʹȲɫɏʟ˘ʦʁɫʁʟȉʦʁɷȦȲȉɆȉɔɷू˒ɏɔɫȲʟɔʦɦɔɷɆ ȉʜʜȲȉʟɔɷɆȉʦআȥʁʁʟɔʦɏɆȉɫɫȉɷʰʦूইʰɏȲʦȲɴȲɷˑʁɫʹȥɫ˘ȉʦʦȲʟʰȲȬʰɏȲɔʟˑɔʟɔɫɔʰ˘ through appreciating the beauty of living women, but also saw the ɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷȦȲʁɅʰɏȲআȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲɴɔɷȬʁɅʰɏȲɴȉɦȲʟইौʰɏɔʦʦʰʁʜʜȲȬʰɏȲɔʟ gaze from being merely prurient.78 Τɔʦȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁȉʟʰɔȦʹɫȉʰȲȦʁɷʰʟʁɫɫȲȬʦȲɷʦʹʁʹʦʟȲȉȦʰɔʁɷʦʰʁȉʟʰ˒ʁʟɦʦʦɏʁʹɫȬ be seen in a broader emphasis on the idea of controlling the body and ɔʰʦɷȉʰʹʟȉɫআȉʜʜȲʰɔʰȲʦইɔɷɴʹȦɏʁɅʰɏȲɫɔʰȲʟȉʰʹʟȲʁɅʰɏȲʜȲʟɔʁȬेjʁʟȥȲʟʰ *ɫɔȉʦউʦ̨Ǳ ȓʐȓȪȓʡȓȶȅɞɀǥǱɥɥ२εʟʦʰʜʹȥɫɔʦɏȲȬࢾࣆࣀࣆूʰʟȉɷʦɫȉʰȲȬɔɷʰʁ*ɷɆɫɔʦɏɔɷ ࢾࣆࣃࣆ३ʟȲˑȲȉɫȲȬȉɷȲ˒Ȳɴʜɏȉʦɔʦʁɷআʁʹʰ˒ȉʟȬȥʁȬɔɫ˘ʜʟʁʜʟɔȲʰ˘ইɔɷʰɏȲȲȉʟɫ˘ sixteenth century, which he linked to the increased importance of conduct ȥʁʁɦʦूʦʹȦɏȉʦ*ʟȉʦɴʹʦউʦ&ǱǥȓʐȓȪȓʧǈɯǱȳɀɞɸȳɛɸǱɞȓȪȓɸȳ (1530).79 As Elias noted, the body became closely linked to marking out social class, so, for example, making sure there was no visible snot on the nostrils was important for ȉɆȲɷʰɫȲɴȉɷू˒ɏʁʦɏʁʹɫȬɷʁʰ˒ɔʜȲɏɔʦɷʁʦȲʁɷɏɔʦȦɫʁʰɏȲʦআɫɔɦȲȉʜȲȉʦȉɷʰ ʁʟȉʦȉʹʦȉɆȲɴȉɦȲʟेই80*ɫɔȉʦউʦȉʟɆʹɴȲɷʰू˒ɏɔȦɏɏȉʦȥȲȲɷɏʹɆȲɫ˘ɔɷζʹȲɷʰɔȉɫ and remains convincing, is that the new humanist and merchant elites ʹʦȲȬʰɏɔʦȲɴʜɏȉʦɔʦʁɷȥʁȬɔɫ˘ʜʟʁʜʟɔȲʰ˘ॹʰɏȲʦȲɷȲ˒ɫ˘ʟȉɔʦȲȬআʰɏʟȲʦɏʁɫȬʦʁɅ ȲɴȥȉʟʟȉʦʦɴȲɷʰȉɷȬʦɏȉɴȲইॹʰʁȦʁɷεʟɴʰɏȲɔʟɏɔɆɏȲʟʦʁȦɔȉɫʟʁɫȲɔɷʰɏȲɅȉȦȲ of the lower classes, the urban plebs, and the rural peasants.81 ΤȲʜʁ˒ȲʟʰʁȦʁɷʰʟʁɫʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘উʦɷȉʰʹʟȉɫȉʜʜȲʰɔʰȲʦॹɅʁʟʦȲ˗ूɅʁʟɅʁʁȬूɅʁʟ alcohol – is, as Tessa Storey has argued, key to ideas about elite masculinity in this period.82ΤȲɴʁʟȲʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɫ˘ʜʁʰȲɷʰȉɴȉɷूʰɏȲɴʁʟȲȦʁɷʰʟʁɫɫȲȬɏȲ had to be, and the assertive and public self-control of libidinous urges was writ large through the decoration of social spaces with sexual themes, ʁδȲɷɔɷˑʁɫˑɔɷɆʰɏȲʟȉʜȲʁɅȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫɴʁʟʰȉɫ˒ʁɴȲɷȥ˘sɫ˘ɴʜɔȉɷȬȲɔʰɔȲʦू ʦʹȦɏȉʦʁʟʟȲηɔʁউʦʦȲʟɔȲʦʁɅʟȉʜȲʦȦȲɷȲʦ२$ȉɷȉȲू^ȲȬȉू=ȉɷ˘ɴȲȬȲूȉɷȬJʁ३ ɴʁʦʰɫɔɦȲɫ˘ȦʁɴɴɔʦʦɔʁɷȲȬɔɷࢾࣂࢿࣀȥ˘<ȲȬȲʟɔȦʁ=ʁɷˢȉɆȉȉʦȉɆɔδʰʁ*ɴʜȲʟʁʟ ɏȉʟɫȲʦÁ२εɆेࣂेࢾࣂɅʁʟJupiter and Io).83 Explicitly, these images were visual, physical, and intellectual pleasures, a form of relaxation, a distraction from ɴȉʰʰȲʟʦʁɅʦʰȉʰȲेΤȲʦȲȉɫɫʹʟɔɷɆɷȉɦȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬȲɫɔʰȲɴȲɷʰʁȲɷɣʁ˘ ʰɏȲɔʟআɏʁɷȲʦʰɫȲɔʦʹʟȲेইJɴʜɫɔȦɔʰɫ˘ʰɏȲ˘ȉɫʦʁʦʰȉʰȲȬʰɏȲȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲʦȲɴȲɷʰʁ ȉʦʦȲʟʰȉɷȬɣʹʦʰɔɅ˘ʰɏȲɔʟȬʁɴɔɷȉɷȦȲɷʁʰɣʹʦʰʁˑȲʟ˒ʁɴȲɷʦȲ˗ʹȉɫɫ˘ूȥʹʰʁˑȲʟ ʰɏȲȬʁɴɔɷɔʁɷʦʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ȦʁɷʰʟʁɫɫȲȬʁʟɏʁʜȲȬʰʁȦʁɷ̍ʹȲʟेΤȲɴ˘ʰɏʁɫʁɆɔȦȉɫ nude became a perfect indicator of elite status precisely because the naked body was potentially dangerous, provoking the viewer to lascivious and ʦɔɷɅʹɫʰɏʁʹɆɏʰʦȉɷȬȉȦʰɔˑɔʰɔȲʦेΤȲȥʁȬ˘˒ȉʦʦʰɔɴʹɫȉʰȲȬȥʹʰɴȉʦʰȲʟȲȬ ȥ˘ʰɏȲʦʹʜȲʟɔʁʟʜʁ˒ȲʟʁɅʰɏȲɴɔɷȬेÂɏȉʰȥȲʰʰȲʟɔɷȬɔȦȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲˑɔʟɔɫȲ ʜʁʰȲɷȦ˘ʁɅɫȲȉȬȲʟʦɏɔʜै 182 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE Afterword $ȲȉʟʰʁɴȲɔʦʦɫȲȲʜूʦʰɔɫɫɴʁʟȲूʰʁʦɫȲȲʜ in stone, while harm and shame persist; not to see, not to feel is bliss; ʦʜȲȉɦʦʁδɫ˘ूȬʁɷʁʰ˒ȉɦȲɴȲूȬʁɷʁʰ˒ȲȲʜे gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूআȉʟʁɴউȿউɫʦʁɷɷʁूই poem spoken by his sculpture of Night, 1545–6 gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦNight२εɆेࢽेࢾ३ȥȲηȲȬʰʁȥȲɫȲδʦɫȲȲʜɔɷɆʟȉʰɏȲʟʰɏȉɷ˒ɔʰɷȲʦʦ the corruption of the world around her.1ΤȲ˒ȉʟʦʟȉɆɔɷɆɔɷJʰȉɫ˘ʰɏȉʰ saw military men share images of lascivious nudes as a testament to their ʰɏʟʹʦʰɔɷɆɴȉʦȦʹɫɔɷɔʰ˘ɫȲȬʰʁ<ɫʁʟȲɷȦȲεɷȉɫɫ˘ʦʹȥɴɔʰʰɔɷɆʰʁʰɏȲɏȲʟȲȬɔʰȉʟ˘ ʟʹɫȲʁɅʰɏȲgȲȬɔȦɔȬ˘ɷȉʦʰ˘२ʦȲȲɏȉʜʰȲʟ<ɔˑȲ३ेɅȲ˒˘ȲȉʟʦȥȲɅʁʟȲɏȲ˒ʟʁʰȲ ʰɏɔʦʜʁȲɴूgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁɏȉȬ˒ʁʟɦȲȬɅʁʟʰɏȲɫȉʦʰ<ɫʁʟȲɷʰɔɷȲȲʜʹȥɫɔȦू ʜɫȉȦȲȬɔɷȦɏȉʟɆȲʁɅɅʁʟʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷʦɅʁʟɏɔʦȥȲɫʁˑȲȬȉɷȬȲɴȥȉʰʰɫȲȬȦɔʰ˘ू ɏʁʜȲɫȲʦʦɫ˘ȉɷȬɏȲʟʁɔȦȉɫɫ˘εɆɏʰɔɷɆȉɆȉɔɷʦʰʰɏȲȦʁɴȥɔɷȲȬɅʁʟȦȲʦʁɅʰɏȲ gȲȬɔȦɔʜȉʜȉȦ˘ȉɷȬʰɏȲEʁɫ˘ʁɴȉɷ*ɴʜɔʟȲेΤȲȦɔʰ˘˒ȉʦεɷȉɫɫ˘ʦʰȉʟˑȲȬ ɔɷʰʁʦʹȥɴɔʦʦɔʁɷɔɷʦʹɴɴȲʟࢾࣂࣀࢽूȉδȲʟȉʰȲɷॼɴʁɷʰɏʦɔȲɆȲे2 In the 1540s, he wrote several poems that spoke of his despair for his native city. ΤȲɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴɔʦɴʹɫʰɔˑȉɫȲɷʰेJɅZɔɷɆɏȉʟɫȲʦÁJJJউʦȥʁʁɦʁɅJʰȉɫɔȉɷ beauties, discussed in the previous chapter, was one response to the Italian ˒ȉʟʦॹ˒ɔʰɏɔʰʦȲɴʜɏȉʦɔʦʁɷȦʁɷ̍ʹȲʟɔɷɆɴȉʦȦʹɫɔɷɔʰ˘ȉɷȬʁɷ˘ɔȲɫȬɔɷɆɅȲɴȉɫȲ ζȲʦɏॹNightউʦɷʹȬɔʰ˘ȉʜʜȲȉɫʦʰʁʰɏȲˑɔȲ˒ȲʟɔɷȉȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰ˒ȉ˘ेʦJȬɔʦȦʹʦʦ in the Introduction, this sculpture, with its uncompromising melding ʁɅȬɔΦȲʟȲɷʰʟȲɆɔʦʰȲʟʦʁɅʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷॹɴȉɫȲȉɷȬɅȲɴȉɫȲूʰɔɴȲɫȲʦʦȉɷȬ aging – forcefully reminds the viewer that the representation of the naked body was not a closed, uncontroversial issue. In fact, it is tempting to see Night ȉʦȉȥʟʹʦ̍ʹȲʟɔʜʁʦʰȲʰʁȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲȦʁʹʟʰȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʰɏȉʰूɅʟʁɴȉʰɫȲȉʦʰ 185 ȉʦʰɔɆɫɔʁɷȲউʦCourtierʁɷ˒ȉʟȬʦूʦȉ˒ʰɏȲɔɴȉɆɔɷɔɷɆʁɅʰɏȲআȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫ˒ʁɴȉɷই as a key conceptual task for a courtier: as noted in Chapter Four, this was ȉȦʹɫʰʹʟȲʰɏȉʰ˒ȉʦɷʁ˒ȦɫȲȉʟɫ˘˒ɔɷɷɔɷɆʰɏȲȬȉ˘ूȬȲʦʜɔʰȲgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦ ȥȲʦʰȲΦʁʟʰʦेΤȲɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴूȲˑȲɷ˒ɏȲɷȲɴʜɫʁ˘ȲȬȥ˘ʁɷȲʁɅɔʰʦȦɏɔȲɅ proponents, could be used to subvert dominant narratives, and counter the expectations of viewers.3 JɅʰɏɔʦȥʁʁɦȲɷȬʦʁɷȉɷʁʰȲʁɅgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁউʦȬȲʦʜȉɔʟȉɷȬȲ˗ȉʦʜȲʟȉʰɔʁɷूɔʰ is because the story of the Italian Renaissance nude is not a story of the triumph of art over adversity. In the history of Renaissance art, artists are ʁδȲɷʦʰɔɫɫʜʁʟʰʟȉ˘ȲȬȉʦɏȲʟʁȲʦूȲɴȥȉʰʰɫȲȬɆȲɷɔʹʦȲʦ˒ɏʁɔɷˑȲɷʰɷȲ˒Ʌʁʟɴʦू wow their audiences, and use their skill and creativity as a beacon for the age.4 Indeed, this is such a standard topos for writing about Renaissance artists (and so useful for marketing books and exhibitions, for attracting students to courses and audiences to lectures) that it takes a conscious ȲΦʁʟʰʁɅ˒ɔɫɫʰʁȉˑʁɔȬʰɏɔʦʰ˘ʜȲʁɅɫȉɷɆʹȉɆȲेÂʁɷȬȲʟɔɷɆʁˑȲʟʰɏȲʦɦɔɫɫʁʟ ȥȲȉʹʰ˘ʁɅȉɅȉʦɏɔʁɷȲȬʁȥɣȲȦʰȥʟɔɷɆʦȉɏʹɆȲȉɴʁʹɷʰʁɅʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲूȥʹʰʰɏȲ ȲˑʁȦȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʜɫȲȉʦʹʟȲɔʦɔɷɔʰʦȲɫɅȉɏʹɆȲɫ˘ȲΦȲȦʰɔˑȲʰʁʁɫɅʁʟȬɔʦʦȲɴɔɷȉʰɔɷɆ ideology. Unconscious assumptions about masculine creativity, female ȉɫɫʹʟȲूʜȉʰʟʁɷȉɫʜʁ˒ȲʟूȉɷȬȦʹɫʰʹʟȉɫȦȉʜɔʰȉɫȉʟȲʁδȲɷȲɴȥȲȬȬȲȬɔɷȉɷ ȉȬɴɔʟȉʰɔʁɷɅʁʟʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɷʹȬȲʦʹȦɏȉʦूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲू¢ɔʰɔȉɷউʦVenus of Urbino२εɆेࣁेࢿ३े gʁʟȲʁˑȲʟूȉʟʰɔʦʰʦȬʁɷʁʰ˒ʁʟɦɔɷȉˑȉȦʹʹɴȉɷȬूɫɔɦȲgɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁूȉʟȲȉɫɫ ʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʰʁȥʟʁȉȬȲʟʦʁȦɔȉɫȉɷȬȦʹɫʰʹʟȉɫɅʁʟȦȲʦेΤȲȉʟʰ˒ʁʟɦɴȲȉɷʦɷʁʰɏɔɷɆ ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰȉɷȉʹȬɔȲɷȦȲेΤȲȥȲɆɔɷɷɔɷɆʦʁɅʰɏȲȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦɷʹȬȲɅʁʟɴʜȉʟʰʁɅ a wider story of cultural change, where its adaptation responded to the Ȳ˗ɔɆȲɷȦɔȲʦʁɅʜʁ˒ȲʟɅʹɫɆʟʁʹʜʦʁɅʜȲʁʜɫȲ˒ɏʁ˒ȉɷʰȲȬʰʁɴȉɔɷʰȉɔɷूɣʹʦʰɔɅ˘ू ʁʟȲ˗ʜȉɷȬʰɏɔʦʜʁ˒ȲʟेΤȲȬɔΪȦʹɫʰɔȲʦʁɅȉȬȉʜʰɔɷɆʰɏȲʹɷȦɫʁʰɏȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦʁɅ ȉɷʰɔ̍ʹɔʰ˘ɔɷȉʦʁȦɔȲʰ˘˒ɏȲʟȲɷȉɦȲȬɷȲʦʦ˒ȉʦʰȉȥʁʁʟȲʦʹɫʰȲȬɔɷʰɏȲȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷ ʁɅȦʁɴʜɫȲ˗ɣʹʦʰɔεȦȉʰɔʁɷʦɅʁʟʰɏȲȲɷɣʁ˘ɴȲɷʰʁɅɷʹȬȲʦूʰɏʹʦʦʰɔɴʹɫȉʰɔɷɆʰɏȲ invention of an art theory that stressed the importance of looking through ʰɏȲʦʹʜȲʟεȦɔȉɫˑɔʦʹȉɫȉɫɫʹʟȲʁɅȉɷʁȥɣȲȦʰʰʁȬɔʦȦȲʟɷʰɏȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ɔɷʰɏȲ ɴɔɷȬʁɅʰɏȲɴȉɦȲʟ२ɏȉʜʰȲʟʦsɷȲȉɷȬ¢˒ʁ३ेΤȲˑȲʟ˘ɷʁʰɔʁɷʁɅȉʟʰɔʦʰɔȦ innovation was bound up with ideas about masculine creativity, bringing bodies into existence through the power of mental rather than bodily conceptions, a process that started in life drawing practices in Florentine ˒ʁʟɦʦɏʁʜʦɔɷʰɏȲȦʁɷʰȲ˗ʰʁɅʰɏȲɫȉʰʁɷɔȦʟȲˑɔˑȉɫ२ɏȉʜʰȲʟΤʟȲȲ३ेȲ˘ʁɷȬ the gendered basis for ideas about art, the very practice of life drawing was to exclude women from participating fully in this new artistic culture. Although successful female painters existed in the sixteenth century, ʰɏȲ˘ȬʁɷʁʰॹȦʁʹɫȬɷʁʰॹɷʁʟɴȉɫɫ˘ʜʟʁˑȲʰɏȲɴʦȲɫˑȲʦȲ̍ʹȉɫʰʁʰɏȲɔʟɴȉɫȲ peers through creating narratives based on nude bodies.5ʦʁδȲɷɷʁʰȲȬ by feminist art historians, the basis of the discipline of art history as ʰʟȉȬɔʰɔʁɷȉɫɫ˘ɅʁʟɴʹɫȉʰȲȬॹʰɏȲȬȲεɷɔʰɔʁɷʁɅȦʁɷȦȲʜʰʹȉɫআȉʟʰই२ʁȦȦʹʜ˘ɔɷɆ 186 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE the public sphere) in a superior hierarchical relationship to practical আȦʟȉδই२ʁȦȦʹʜ˘ɔɷɆʰɏȲʜʟɔˑȉʰȲʦʜɏȲʟȲ३ॹɔʦɅʹɷȬȉɴȲɷʰȉɫɫ˘ɆȲɷȬȲʟȲȬे6ΤȲ examination of Renaissance ideas about creativity and the nude helps to explain the origins of this categorization. As the sixteenth century unfolded, art theory fed into broader social discourse and in particular provided a new vocabulary for assessing the beauty of women, eliding this with the beauty of art – the hazy divide ȥȲʰ˒ȲȲɷɅȲɴȉɫȲȥȲȉʹʰ˘ȉʦȉʜʟʁȬʹȦʰʁɅɴȉɷউʦȦʁɷȦȲʜʰɔʁɷʦȉɷȬʟȲȉɫ˒ʁɴȲɷউʦ identity is thus embedded in the images of the female nude of this period २ɏȉʜʰȲʟ<ʁʹʟ३ेΤȲʜʟɔɷʰʦूʜȉɔɷʰɔɷɆʦूȉɷȬʦȦʹɫʜʰʹʟȲʦʰɏȉʰ˒Ȳɷʁ˒ɏʁʹʦȲɔɷ galleries and museums were not compartmentalized from a broader social sphere, but found their place in domestic settings, churches, and public ʦʜȉȦȲौʰɏȲ˘ɅʁʟɴȲȬʰɏȲɴȉɔɷɅȉȥʟɔȦʁɅʰɏȲˑɔʦʹȉɫ˒ʁʟɫȬेÂɏʁɫȲʦȦȉɫȲȦɏȉɷɆȲʦ in representative idiom, as with the development of the sixteenth-century ɅȲɴȉɫȲɷʹȬȲूɔɷȲˑɔʰȉȥɫ˘ɏȉȬȲΦȲȦʰʦ˒ȲɫɫȥȲ˘ʁɷȬʰɏȲȥʹʟɆȲʁɷɔɷɆʦʰʟʹȦʰʹʟȲʦ of art institutions. ΤȲȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷʁɅʰɏȲɏȲʟʁɔȦɷʹȬȲȥ˘ȉʟʰɔʦʰʦɅʟʁɴʰɏȲࢾࣁࣆࢽʦʰʁࢾࣂࢿࢽʦ˒ȉʦ ʦȲʰȉɆȉɔɷʦʰʰɏȲȥȉȦɦȬʟʁʜʁɅʰɏȲJʰȉɫɔȉɷʜȲɷɔɷʦʹɫȉউʦȦʁɷʦʰȉɷʰɔɷˑȉʦɔʁɷ ȥ˘ɅʁʟȲɔɆɷʜʁ˒Ȳʟʦू˒ɏɔȦɏɔɷˑʁɫˑȲȬʰɏȲɅʟȲ̍ʹȲɷʰʦȉȦɦʁɅȦɔʰɔȲʦूȬɔʟȲȦʰɫ˘ ȉΦȲȦʰɔɷɆʰɏʁʹʦȉɷȬʦʁɅȦɔˑɔɫɔȉɷʦेΤȲȥȲȉʹʰɔɅʹɫȥʹʟɷɔʦɏȲȬȥʁȬɔȲʦȦʟȲȉʰȲȬȥ˘ gɔȦɏȲɫȉɷɆȲɫʁू¢ɔʰɔȉɷूȉʜɏȉȲɫूȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟʦ˒ȲʟȲˑɔȲ˒ȲȬȥ˘ȉʜʁʜʹɫȉʰɔʁɷ that had witnessed dismemberment, rape, and mass murder, their own ȥʁȬɔȲʦʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʰʁʟȲʜȲȉʰȲȬȥʁʹʰʦʁɅʜɫȉɆʹȲूʦɴȉɫɫʜʁ˗ूȉɷȬʁʰɏȲʟɔɷɅȲȦʰɔʁʹʦ diseases.7ΤȲʜʁɫɔʰɔȦȉɫȉɷȬʟȲɫɔɆɔʁʹʦȲɫɔʰȲ˒ȉʦȲ˗ʜȲʟɔȲɷȦɔɷɆȉʦȲʟɔȲʦʁɅ crises – the Catholic church was in need of urgent reform, as it started to lose swathes of Northern Europe from its fold; dynasties like the Sforza, gȲȬɔȦɔूȉɷȬʁʟɆɔȉ˒ȲʟȲʟɔʦɔɷɆȉɷȬɅȉɫɫɔɷɆɔɷȬɔˢˢ˘ɔɷɆʰʹʟɷʦʁɅʰɏȲ˒ɏȲȲɫ ʁɅɅʁʟʰʹɷȲेJɷʰɏȲɅȉȦȲʁɅʦʹȦɏȦɏȉʁʦूʰɏȲȲɴȲʟɆȲɷȦȲʁɅʰɏȲÒȲʹ˗ɔȉɷɴȉɫȲ ɷʹȬȲȉʦʦȲʟʰȲȬʰɏȲʰɔɴȲɫȲʦʦʦʹʜȲʟɔʁʟɔʰ˘ʁɅʰɏȲ˒ɏɔʰȲɴȉɫȲȥʁȬ˘ȉʦʟȲζȲȦʰɔɷɆ ʰɏȲʜɔɷɷȉȦɫȲʁɅ=ʁȬউʦȦʟȲȉʰɔʁɷɔɷʦʰȉʟɦȦʁɷʰʟȉʦʰʰʁȉɅʟȉɆɴȲɷʰȲȬूȬɔΪȦʹɫʰू messy reality. Female nudes in this predominantly male discourse reminded men that the women of their imagination could exceed their real-life Ȳ̍ʹɔˑȉɫȲɷʰʦɔɷȬȲʦɔʟȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ेΤɔʦȉȬˑȲɷʰʁɅʟȲʜʟȲʦȲɷʰȉʰɔʁɷȉɫȉʟʰȉɫɫʁ˒ȲȬɴȲɷ ʰʁʁ˒ɷɷȉʰʹʟȉɫɔʦʰɔȦɔɴȉɆȲʦʁɅɷȉɦȲȬ˒ʁɴȲɷʰʁʟȲζȲȦʰȉɷȬɅʹȲɫʰɏȲɔʟȲʟʁʰɔȦ ɅȉɷʰȉʦɔȲʦेΤȲɷʹȬȲɔɷɔʰʦȦɫȉʦʦɔȦɅʁʟɴʹɫȉʰɔʁɷɔʦɅʹɷȬȉɴȲɷʰȉɫɫ˘ȉȦʁɴɅʁʟʰɔɷɆ ȉɷȬȦʁɷʦȲʟˑȉʰɔˑȲɅʁʟɴूʦʹηȲʦʰɔɷɆʰɏȲʜʁʦʦɔȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʁɅʜʁʦʦȲʦʦɔɷɆ२ɔɷʁɷȲ˒ȉ˘ or another) a perfected body not prone to aging, disease, or death. ȉʟʁɫɔɷȲÂȉɫɦȲʟ˘ɷʹɴɴȲɴʁʟȉȥɫ˘ʦȉɔȬʰɏȉʰʰɏȉʰʦɏȲ˒ʟʁʰȲɏɔʦʰʁʟ˘ɔɷ ʰɏȲআȦʁɴɔȦɴʁȬȲूইɷʁʰȉʰʰȲɴʜʰɔɷɆʰʁʟȲʜɫȉȦȲʁɷȲɏȲɆȲɴʁɷɔȦɷȉʟʟȉʰɔˑȲ with another, but taking an approach that allows for the messiness of ʰɏȲʜȉʦʰूȉɷȬȉȦɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲʦʰɏȉʰɔʰʦȉʟʰɔɅȉȦʰʦȉʟȲʦʹȥɣȲȦʰʰʁɴȉɷ˘ȬɔˑȲʟʦȲ approaches.8ΤȲȉȬɴɔʦʦɔʁɷʰɏȉʰɏɔʦʰʁʟɔȉɷʦɏȉˑȲȉʜʁɔɷʰʁɅˑɔȲ˒ʰɏȉʰɔɷ AFTERWORD 187 ˑȲʰɫȉɷȉɫʜȲʟʦউʦ˒ʁʟȬʦআɔɷˑʁɫˑȲʦȦɏʁɔȦȲʦȉɷȬȲ˗ȦɫʹʦɔʁɷʦȬȲʦʜɔʰȲɔʰʦʹʦʹȉɫ ȦɫȉɔɴʰʁʦȦɏʁɫȉʟɫ˘ʁȥɣȲȦʰɔˑɔʰ˘ইɔʦʜʟʁɅʁʹɷȬɫ˘ɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷʰɏȲʟȲे9 All history, and art history writing, involves making a narrative from fragments that can be picked up or discarded, then pieced together in myriad ways. ΤȲʟȲɔʦूɅʁʟȲ˗ȉɴʜɫȲूɴʹȦɏɴʁʟȲʰʁȥȲʦȉɔȬʰɏȉɷɔʦʜʁʦʦɔȥɫȲɏȲʟȲʁɷʰɏȲ foundations of images of the naked body in the Christian tradition; on ʰɏȲɔɴʜʁʟʰȉɷȦȲʁɅʰɏȲʦʰʹȬ˘ʁɅʰɏȲȥʁȬ˘ɅʁʟʦʹȥʦȲ̍ʹȲɷʰɔɷɷʁˑȉʰɔʁɷʦɔɷ anatomy; on the relationship between Italy and Northern Europe in the development of the nude; on the impact of the classicizing nude form ȥȲ˘ʁɷȬJʰȉɫ˘ȉɷȬ*ʹʟʁʜȲेΤʟʁʹɆɏʁʹʰूJɏȉˑȲɆʟʁʹɷȬȲȬɴ˘ȉɷȉɫ˘ʦɔʦɔɷȦɫʁʦȲ ʟȲȉȬɔɷɆʁɅȦʁɷʰȲɴʜʁʟȉʟ˘ʰȲ˗ʰʦȉɷȬɔɴȉɆȲʦूʦȲȲɦɔɷɆʰʁ̍ʹȲʦʰɔʁɷʦʁɴȲʁɅ the assumptions made in the historiography by recourse to primary source material. Perhaps this book will surprise some readers, who are so used ʰʁʰɏȲȦȲɷʰʟȉɫʜɫȉȦȲʁɅʰɏȲɷʹȬȲɔɷÂȲʦʰȲʟɷȉʟʰʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ˘ȉʦʦʹɴȲʰɏȉʰʰɏȲ representation of the naked body was uncontested during its inception in the Renaissance. I also hope to have convinced some readers that the ɷʹȬȲ˒ȉʦȦʟȲȉʰȲȬȉʦȉɅʁʟɴʰɏȉʰʟȲɔɷɅʁʟȦȲʦ˒ɏɔʰȲɴȉɫȲÂȲʦʰȲʟɷɏȲɆȲɴʁɷ˘ as being the natural order of things: the youthful male body understood as the pinnacle of creation, the youthful female body existing for the delectation of male viewers and proof of male creative powers. In short, through considering the complexities of its reception and the motivations of its onlookers and creators, I hope this book has started the process of laying the Renaissance nude bare. acknowledgments It is not always easy being a mother (on occasion singlehanded) and writing a book; it involves doing two hugely rewarding but incredibly ȬȉʹɷʰɔɷɆʰɏɔɷɆʦȉʰʰɏȲʦȉɴȲʰɔɴȲेJউˑȲɅʁʹɷȬȥʁʰɏȉʟȲȥȲʰʰȲʟ˒ɔʰɏɏȲɫʜे g˘ɴȉɷ˘ʦȦɏʁɫȉʟɫ˘ȬȲȥʰʦʁɅɆʟȉʰɔʰʹȬȲȉʟȲɴȉɔɷɫ˘ȉȦɦɷʁ˒ɫȲȬɆȲȬɔɷʰɏȲ text itself. I would like to acknowledge others here. ΤȉɷɦʦूεʟʦʰʁɅȉɫɫूʰʁʰɏȲ^ȲˑȲʟɏʹɫɴȲ¢ʟʹʦʰेJ˒ʁʹɫȬɷʁʰɏȉˑȲȥȲȲɷȉȥɫȲ ʰʁ˒ʟɔʰȲʰɏɔʦȥʁʁɦɔɅɔʰ˒ȲʟȲɷউʰɅʁʟȉɏɔɫɔʜ^ȲˑȲʟɏʹɫɴȲʟɔˢȲȉ˒ȉʟȬȲȬʰʁ ɴȲɔɷࢿࢽࢽࣆॹࢾࢾेΤɔʦɆȉˑȲɴȲʰɏȲɆʟȲȉʰɆɔδʁɅʰɔɴȲुʰ˒ʁ˘ȲȉʟʦʰʁɅʁȦʹʦʁɷ ʟȲʦȲȉʟȦɏे=ɔɫɫɔȉɷgȉɫʜȉʦʦȉʰÈȉɫȲ©ɷɔˑȲʟʦɔʰ˘ʟȲʦʦूȬȲʦʜɔʰȲʰɏȲɴȉɷ˘˘Ȳȉʟʦ ʁɅ˒ȉɔʰɔɷɆू˒ȉʦʜȉʰɔȲɷʰȉɷȬȲɷȦʁʹʟȉɆɔɷɆʰɏʟʁʹɆɏʁʹʰेJউȬɫɔɦȲʰʁʰɏȉɷɦɏȲʟ ɅʁʟʦʰɔȦɦɔɷɆ˒ɔʰɏʰɏɔʦʜʟʁɣȲȦʰȉɷȬɏȉɷȬɔɷɆʁˑȲʟʦʁɆʟȉȦȲɅʹɫɫ˘ȉɷȬɏȲɫʜɅʹɫɫ˘ ʰʁɏȲʟɷȲ˒ȦʁɫɫȲȉɆʹȲʦȉʰʰɏȲʟȲʦʦेg˘ʰɏȉɷɦʦʰʁȉɫɫȉʰÈȉɫȲूȲʦʜȲȦɔȉɫɫ˘ Lydia Cooper, for so ably helping me through the publication process. XʹʦʰȉʦJɏȉȬεɷɔʦɏȲȬʰɏȲεɷȉɫȬʟȉδʁɅʰɏɔʦȥʁʁɦूʰȲʜɏȲɷȉɴʜȥȲɫɫ ȉɷȬΤʁɴȉʦZʟȲɷȦʁɷʰȉȦʰȲȬɴȲʰʁʦȲȲɔɅJȦʁʹɫȬ˒ʁʟɦ˒ɔʰɏʰɏȲɴʁɷȉɷ Ȳ˗ɏɔȥɔʰɔʁɷʁɷʰɏȲȲɷȉɔʦʦȉɷȦȲɷʹȬȲȉʰʰɏȲXेȉʹɫ=Ȳʰʰ˘gʹʦȲʹɴू^ʁʦ Angeles, in 2018, and then the Royal Academy, London, in 2019. It has been a huge privilege to work with such generous and erudite scholars. JউɴɏʹɆȲɫ˘ɆʟȉʰȲɅʹɫʰʁɴ˘ʁ˒ɷȦʁɫɫȲȉɆʹȲʦɔɷEɔʦʰʁʟ˘ʁɅʟʰȉʰʰɏȲ University of Edinburgh who covered for me in my absence, and who have been wonderfully supportive since then. Carol Richardson deserves a special mention for saving my bacon on many occasions, ȥʁʰɏʜʟʁɅȲʦʦɔʁɷȉɫɫ˘ȉɷȬʜȲʟʦʁɷȉɫɫ˘ेEȉɫɫȲsউjȲȉɫूEȲȉʰɏȲʟʹɫɫɔȉɴूȉɷȬ ɔȦɏȉʟȬÂɔɫɫɔȉɴʦɏȉˑȲȉɫɫʟȉɔʦȲȬɴ˘ʦʜɔʟɔʰʦ२ȉɷȬʁȦȦȉʦɔʁɷȉɫɫ˘ʜɫɔȲȬɴȲ ˒ɔʰɏʦʜɔʟɔʰʦ३ɣʹʦʰ˒ɏȲɷJɷȲȲȬȲȬɔʰेΤɔʦȥʁʁɦʦɔɴʜɫ˘˒ʁʹɫȬɷȲˑȲʟɏȉˑȲ ɏȉʜʜȲɷȲȬ˒ɔʰɏʁʹʰʰɏȲɴȉɷ˘ȦʁΦȲȲʦूɫʹɷȦɏȲʦूȉɷȬȬʟɔɷɦʦʦɏȉʟȲȬ˒ɔʰɏ Stephen Bowd and Sarah Cockram, who are both brilliant historians and 188 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 189 ȥʟɔɫɫɔȉɷʰɅʟɔȲɷȬʦेJʟȲɷȲgȉʟɔȉɷɔȉɷȬɫȲ˗ʁɫɫɔɷʦɏȉˑȲȉȦʰȲȬȉʦʟȲʦȲȉʟȦɏ ȉʦʦɔʦʰȉɷʰʦʁˑȲʟʰɏȲɫȉʦʰɅȲ˒˘ȲȉʟʦूȉɷȬJউɴɆʟȉʰȲɅʹɫɅʁʟȉɫɫʰɏȲɔʟɏȉʟȬ˒ʁʟɦे ΤȲȦʁʦʰʁɅɔɫɫʹʦʰʟȉʰɔʁɷʦɔɷʰɏɔʦˑʁɫʹɴȲ˒ȉʦȦʁˑȲʟȲȬȥ˘ʰɏȲɏʁɷʁʟȉʟɔʹɴJ ʟȲȦȲɔˑȲȉʦʦʦʁȦɔȉʰȲ*ȬɔʰʁʟʁɅʰɏȲɣʁʹʟɷȉɫǱȶǈȓɥɥǈȶǥǱɯɸǫȓǱɥेg˘ʰɏȉɷɦʦ to the Society for Renaissance Studies council and particularly to Jenny ɔȦɏȉʟȬʦूʰɏȲɣʁʹʟɷȉɫউʦȲȬɔʰʁʟू˒ɏʁɏȉʦȥȲȲɷȥʁʰɏɔɷʦʜɔʟȉʰɔʁɷȉɫȉɷȬ ȲɷȦʁʹʟȉɆɔɷɆȬʹʟɔɷɆȬɔΪȦʹɫʰʰɔɴȲʦे <ʁʟʰȲȉूȦʁΦȲȲू˒ɔɷȲूȉɷȬɴȉɷ˘ɏȉʜʜ˘ɏʁʹʟʦʁˑȲʟʰɏȲɫȉʦʰȬȲȦȉȬȲʁʟʦʁू ʰɏȉɷɦʦʰʁɴ˘ɅʟɔȲɷȬʦɷɷȉȉɷɷɔɷɆूʁʦȲ<ʟȉɷȦȲूȲȦɦɔȲgȉʟʦɫȉɷȬू gʁɔʟȉgȦ<ȉʟɫȉɷȲूȉɷȬXʁȉȦɏɔɴȉɷȬjȉʰȉʦȦɔȉ=Ȳɷʰˢेg˘ʦɔʦʰȲʟ^ʹȦ˘ʹʟɦȲू who is preternaturally wise and amazingly kind, brings laughter even to ʰɏȲɴʁʦʰȬɔΪȦʹɫʰʁɅʦɔʰʹȉʰɔʁɷʦेg˘ʦʁɷʦूXʁȲȉɷȬÒȉȦूɏȉˑȲʰȉʹɆɏʰɴȲ ɴʁʟȲʰɏȉɷʰɏȲ˘Ȧȉɷʜʁʦʦɔȥɫ˘ɦɷʁ˒ौJউɴʦʁʜʟʁʹȬʰʁȥȲʰɏȲɔʟɴʁʰɏȲʟेʦ for Gary Ferguson – his steadfast and unwavering love and support have ȥȲȲɷɆȲɷʹɔɷȲɫ˘ɫɔɅȲʦȉˑɔɷɆेÂʁʟȬʦȉʟȲɷʁʰȲɷʁʹɆɏे g˘ɅȉʰɏȲʟूgȉʟɦʹʟɦȲूȬɔȲȬʦʹȬȬȲɷɫ˘ȉɷȬʹɷȲ˗ʜȲȦʰȲȬɫ˘ɔɷʹɆʹʦʰ ࢿࢽࢾࣁेEȲ˒ȉʦɔɷȦʟȲȬɔȥɫ˘ʜʟʁʹȬʁɅɏɔʦȬȉʹɆɏʰȲʟʦȉɷȬʰɏȲɔʟɣʁʹʟɷȲ˘ʦɔɷ academia – and may well have been the only person to have read all of ɴ˘ʜʹȥɫɔȦȉʰɔʁɷʦȉɫɫʁɅʰɏȲ˒ȉ˘ʰɏʟʁʹɆɏेJɴɔʦʦɏɔɴेΤɔʦȥʁʁɦɔʦȬȲȬɔȦȉʰȲȬ to him and to my mother, Barbara Burke. Her kindness, erudition, ȬȲȬɔȦȉʰɔʁɷʰʁʦʁȦɔȉɫɣʹʦʰɔȦȲूȉɷȬȉȥɔɫɔʰ˘ʰʁɆȲʰʰʁʰɏȲȥʁʰʰʁɴʁɅȉɫȉʹɷȬʟ˘ basket still leave me gasping for breath. 190 THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE NUDE

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