Isolation and Characterization of
Differentially Expressed Genes in the
Mycelium and Fruit Body of Tuber borchii
Isabelle Lacourt, Sébastien Duplessis, Simona Abbà, Paola
Bonfante and Francis Martin
Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2002, 68(9):4574. DOI:
10.1128/AEM.68.9.4574-4582.2002.
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APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Sept. 2002, p. 4574–4582
0099-2240/02/$04.00⫹0 DOI: 10.1128/AEM.68.9.4574–4582.2002
Copyright © 2002, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
Vol. 68, No. 9
Isolation and Characterization of Differentially Expressed Genes in the
Mycelium and Fruit Body of Tuber borchii
Isabelle Lacourt,1, Sébastien Duplessis,2 Simona Abbà,1 Paola Bonfante,1* and Francis Martin2
Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale, Università di Torino, and Sezione di Torino, Istituto di Protezione delle
Piante-CNR, 10125 Turin, Italy,1 and UMR INRA/UHP “Interactions Arbres/Micro-Organismes,”
Centre de Recherches de Nancy, 54280 Champenoux, France2
Received 5 April 2002/Accepted 4 June 2002
Several truffle species are harvested all over the world in
significant quantities, as the organoleptic properties (i.e., taste
and flavor) of their edible ascomata are highly appreciated.
The fruiting of ectomycorrhizal Tuber depends on a complex
set of variables, including metabolites and signals produced by
the host plant, the nutritional status of the substrate, and
unknown environmental cues (e.g., humidity and temperature). The different types of cells and tissues of fruit bodies of
ascomycetes (ascomata) are the result of a differentiation process leading to the production of asci containing meiospores
(30). The molecular bases of such events are largely unknown,
with the exception of those in some model fungi, such as
Aspergillus nidulans (1) and Neurospora crassa (26), in which an
interactive cascade of developmentally regulated genes regulates sporulation.
Morphological descriptions of ascoma development in truffles are scarce and illustrate only advanced developmental
stages (27). This situation is due to the hypogeous habitat of
truffles, which leads to erratic sampling. In addition, symbiotic
relationships are required for the development of the truffle
fruit body (36), and fruit bodies cannot be produced in vitro.
These features have hampered systematic studies of the molecular bases underlying fruit body development. Truffles, however, are not obligate symbionts, and some of them, including
Tuber borchii, can be grown in pure mycelial cultures by exploitation of their limited saprotrophic capabilities. Efforts
have been made to elucidate this developmental process in T.
borchii. A number of genes involved in cell wall formation (5,
7, 12), signal transduction (3, 11), and lipid metabolism associated with nutrient deprivation and cellular organization (35)
have been characterized. Although this knowledge has led to a
better understanding of some aspects of fruit body development, the molecular processes underlying fruit body initiation
and maturation remain unclear. mRNA differential display has
been used successfully to isolate five developmentally regulated genes in T. borchii (45). However, no data concerning the
function of the deduced proteins encoded by these genes are
yet available.
For further study of the genetics of T. borchii fruit body
formation, we wanted to investigate the structure, function,
and expression of additional genes involved in fruit body development. Therefore, cDNA clones isolated from a cDNA
library of vegetative mycelium were sequenced and screened
by using cDNA arrays for altered mRNA levels in the spore
maturation stage of fruit body development. Even though the
biological material was not homogeneous in its origin (i.e.,
vegetative mycelium is grown in axenic media, while fruit bodies are sampled in nature), novel information was obtained: 57
new cDNAs corresponding to up- or down-regulated genes
were isolated. Transcripts with the highest increased concentrations in ascomata were involved in C and N metabolism, cell
wall synthesis, and antioxidant defense mechanisms. On the
other hand, genes expressed in vegetative mycelium and downregulated in ascomata coded for unknown proteins.
* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Dipartimento di Biologia
Vegetale, Università di Torino, and Sezione di Torino, Istituto di
Protezione delle Piante-CNR, Viale Mattioli 25, 10125 Turin, Italy.
Phone: 39 011 670 7446. Fax: 39 011 670 7459. E-mail: p.bonfante
@csmt.to.cnr.it.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Biological materials. Vegetative mycelia of T. borchii Vittad (isolate ATCC
96540) were grown for 30 days in the dark at 24°C without shaking. Modified
4574
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The transition from vegetative mycelium to fruit body in truffles requires differentiation processes which lead
to edible fruit bodies (ascomata) consisting of different cell and tissue types. The identification of genes
differentially expressed during these developmental processes can contribute greatly to a better understanding
of truffle morphogenesis. A cDNA library was constructed from vegetative mycelium RNAs of the white truffle
Tuber borchii, and 214 cDNAs were sequenced. Up to 58% of the expressed sequence tags corresponded to
known genes. The majority of the identified sequences represented housekeeping proteins, i.e., proteins
involved in gene or protein expression, cell wall formation, primary and secondary metabolism, and signaling
pathways. We screened 171 arrayed cDNAs by using cDNA probes constructed from mRNAs of vegetative
mycelium and ascomata to identify fruit body-regulated genes. Comparisons of signals from vegetative mycelium and fruit bodies bearing 15 or 70% mature spores revealed significant differences in the expression levels
for up to 33% of the investigated genes. The expression levels for six highly regulated genes were confirmed by
RNA blot analyses. The expression of glutamine synthetase, 5-aminolevulinic acid synthetase, isocitrate lyase,
thioredoxin, glucan 1,3--glucosidase, and UDP-glucose:sterol glucosyl transferase was highly up-regulated,
suggesting that amino acid biosynthesis, the glyoxylate cycle pathway, and cell wall synthesis are strikingly
altered during morphogenesis.
VOL. 68, 2002
4575
Superscript II RT and a SMART PCR cDNA synthesis kit (Clontech, Palo Alto,
Calif.). Labeling of cDNA probes was carried out in the presence of 30 Ci of
[32P]dCTP, 30 Ci of [32P]dATP, and random hexamers by using a Prime-aGene labeling system (Promega, Madison, Wis.) according to the manufacturer’s
instructions. Three copies of the EST blots were then hybridized in duplicate
with the labeled cDNAs from the mycelium and the CF15 and CF70 ascomata
essentially as described previously (40). Clones corresponding to transcripts
showing the highest level of regulation in fruit body RNA compared to vegetative
mycelium RNA were hybridized to RNA blots containing size-fractionated
RNAs (12) isolated from ascomata and vegetative mycelium to confirm the
induction or repression of the corresponding genes in fruit bodies. Briefly, 10 g
of total RNA was loaded on a 1.2% (wt/vol) agarose gel under denaturation
conditions, blotted onto a Hybond-N filter, and hybridized with the selected
cDNA labeled with [32P]dCTP by random priming. A stringent wash was performed at 65°C with 0.5⫻ SSC and 0.1% (wt/vol) sodium dodecyl sulfate. The
filter was then dehydribized and probed with T. borchii 5.8S ribosomal DNA
(rDNA) to estimate the level of total RNA loaded in each lane. The dry filter was
then wrapped in a plastic bag and exposed to a phosphorimaging screen (Kodak)
for various periods (1 h to 3 days), after which the imaging plate was scanned
with Personal Molecular Imager FX (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules, Calif.) at
a maximum resolution of 50 m/pixel.
Data acquisition and analysis. The raw image data obtained with the phosphorimager system were imported into an Apple Macintosh G3 computer. Detection and quantification of the signals representing hybridized DNA were
performed by using the volume quantitation method of Quantity One software
(Bio-Rad). Each spot was defined by manual positioning of a grid of squares over
the array image. For each image, the average pixel intensity within each square
was determined. The local background value for each membrane was calculated
on the basis of five positions with no DNA-spotted areas. The net signal was
determined by subtraction of this mean background value from the intensity for
each spot. Spots deemed unsuitable for accurate quantitation because of array
artifacts were manually flagged and excluded from further analysis. The data
table generated by Quantity One, containing the intensity for each spot, was then
exported to the Excel 98 worksheet program (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond,
Wash.) for further manipulation. The probe-to-probe variance was filtered out by
using the signal intensities of human desmin spotted at six locations on the filters
(i.e., interfilter normalization) (40). Eight cDNA clones (VL76, VL12, VA76,
VL79, VA71, VA17, VL47, and VL70) coding for constitutively expressed transcripts in vegetative mycelium and ascomata were used to normalize the signal
intensities (VL indicates clones derived from potato dextrose broth, and VA
indicates clones derived from MMN medium). Only genes with reproducible
expression differences of 2.5-fold or more were considered in our analysis. Hierarchical gene clustering was carried out by using average linkage (unweighted
pair-group method with arithmetic averages) clustering based on the Euclidean
distance of the log-transformed normalized transcript ratio (http://ep.ebi.ac.uk
/EP/EPCLUST). This distance-based analysis allowed the grouping of genes
sharing similar expression patterns during spore maturation (6)
Nucleotide sequence accession numbers. All of the ESTs have been deposited
in dbEST at the National Center for Biotechnology Information under accession
numbers BM266140 to BM266336.
RESULTS
ESTs of T. borchii vegetative mycelium. Up to 214 cDNAs
were selected at random from two cDNA libraries of vegetative mycelium of T. borchii grown on potato dextrose agar or in
MMN medium. Upon assembly of the readable sequences
obtained from the 5⬘ end, we were left with 183 nonredundant
ESTs corresponding to different genes. Among them, 107 sequences (58%) were similar to known genes, including ascomycetous (79%), plant and animal (18%), and bacterial (3%)
sequences. According to their putative biological roles, these
homologs have been classified in seven groups (see http:
//mycor.nancy.inra.fr/TuberDB.html). The largest category
(25%) of identified sequences corresponded to genes involved in gene or protein expression machinery, which includes transcripts such as those coding for ribosomal proteins, translational regulatory proteins, elongation factors,
and the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway. A large proportion
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Melin-Norkrans synthetic medium (MMN medium) or potato dextrose broth
(Difco) were used as liquid nutrient solutions (23). Mycelium was harvested by
filtration, fixed in liquid N2, and stored at ⫺80°C. Spore-bearing ascomata of
T. borchii were collected under hazelnut trees from natural truffle grounds near
Alba in Piedmont (Italy) during the December 1999-March 2000 production
season. They were washed and brushed, and the peridium was peeled. Their
degree of maturation was evaluated by determining the ratio of immature and
mature ascospores as described previously (12). Two stages of maturation (i.e.,
15 and 70% mature spores; referred to as CF15 and CF70, respectively) were
selected by observing sections under a light microscope (magnification, ⫻10),
and the corresponding ascomata were fixed in liquid N2 and stored at ⫺80°C.
Isolation of total RNA and genomic DNA. Total RNA for cDNA hybridizations, RNA blot analyses, and reverse transcriptase (RT) PCR analyses was
isolated from vegetative mycelium and ascomatas according to Viotti et al. (39).
Total DNA was isolated by using the phenol-chloroform method according to
Garnero et al. (12).
RT PCR assays and RNA blot analyses. To assess the expression of isocitrate
lyase (ICL) transcripts, reverse transcription assays were performed at 42°C for
50 min in 20 l of first-strand buffer of the Superscript II RNase H-RT (Life
Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.), supplemented with dithiothreitol as recommended by the manufacturer, 20 U of RnaseOUT recombinant RNase inhibitor
(Life Technologies), 1 mM each deoxynucleoside triphosphate, 0.25 ng of oligo(dT) 18-mer, 0.1 to 0.5 g of total RNA, and 200 U of Superscript II. Five
microliters of reverse transcription product was amplified in a 50-l PCR mixture
containing 1 M specific primers, 6.5 U of REDTaq DNA polymerase (Sigma),
and the buffer supplied by the manufacturer of the GeneAmp 9700 PCR system
(PE Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.). The PCR parameters were as
follows: 94°C for 3 min; 94°C for 30 s, 55°C (annealing temperature) for 0.5 min,
and 72°C for 1 min for 35 cycles; and a final cycle at 72°C for 10 min. For RNA
blot analyses, electrophoresis under denaturing conditions was performed with
1.2% agarose containing 0.7 M formaldehyde (18). Gels were stained with
ethidium bromide and blotted on nylon membranes (Hybond-N⫹; Amersham
Pharmacia Biotech, Little Chalfont, United Kingdom) as described by the manufacturer. Hybridization was carried out as recommended by Amersham Pharmacia Biotech.
cDNA library construction, sequencing, and analyses. Total RNA was extracted from 20-day-old mycelium grown on potato dextrose agar and 30-day-old
mycelium grown in MMN medium. A unidirectional cDNA library was then
constructed by using a UniZapXR cDNA library system construction kit (Stratagene) (5; B. Lazzari and A. Viotti, unpublished results). UniZapXR clones
were converted to pBK-CMV phagemid clones by using Escherichia coli BM25.8
as the bacterial host. A total of 214 recombinant bacterial clones were picked at
random, and plasmid DNA was purified by using a Concert rapid plasmid
miniprep system (Life Technologies). Inserted cDNA fragments were amplified
by PCR with universal T3 or T7 primers. Automated sequencing of amplified
cDNA was performed by using a BigDye terminator cycle sequencing kit (PE
Applied Biosystems) and Genome Express with universal T3 or T7 primers.
Leading and trailing vector and polylinker sequences and sequences with more
than 3% ambiguous base calls were removed. Nucleotide and protein searches
were performed by batch processing with BLASTN and WU-BLASTX against
the nonredundant nucleic acid sequence GenBank database at the Baylor College of Medicine World Wide Web server by using a MacPerl script Mac-searchlauncher (version 2.6) (43). Sequences with an expected value of 1e⫺5 were
considered to identify known genes or to have partial homology to known genes
(2). Expressed sequence tags (ESTs) and homology comparisons were organized
into an online database that is accessible via the World Wide Web at http://mycor
.nancy.inra.fr/TuberDB/index.html.
cDNA array construction and hybridization. cDNA inserts of purified plasmids corresponding to 171 selected ESTs of vegetative mycelium were amplified
by PCR with 1 M universal primers T3 and T7, 100 M each deoxynucleoside
triphosphate, 2.5 U of REDTaq DNA polymerase, and the buffer supplied by the
manufacturer of the GeneAmp 9700 PCR system. The PCR parameters were as
follows: 94°C for 3 min; 94°C for 0.5 min, 55°C for 0.5 min, and 72°C for 1 min
for 35 cycles; and a final cycle at 72°C for 10 min. Successful production of PCR
products was confirmed by agarose gel electrophoresis. The amplified cDNAs
(10 to 15 ng/l) were placed in spotting solution (0.2 M NaOH in 10⫻ SSC [1⫻
SSC is 0.15 M NaCl plus 0.015 M sodium citrate]) to a volume of 25 l and were
spotted on Hybond-N⫹ nylon filters (8 by 12 cm) by using a Minifold spot blot
system (Schleicher & Schuell). Processing of the filters was done as described by
Voiblet et al. (40).
Complex cDNA probes were prepared from total RNA isolated from vegetative mycelium grown under the same conditions as those used to construct the
cDNA libraries or from CF15 and CF70 ascomata by using oligo(dT)-primed
MYCELIUM VERSUS FRUIT BODY IN T. BORCHII
4576
LACOURT ET AL.
responsive to fruiting even when quantitative differences due
to the different hybridization techniques used (i.e., RNA blot
analyses versus cDNA arrays) were observed. Thioredoxin
transcripts were abundant in vegetative mycelium, but their
concentrations were drastically increased in stage 2 and 3 ascomata. GS and ICL transcripts gave no signal or only a weak
signal with the corresponding mycelium mRNA sequence.
They were induced in stage 2, even though the band was lower
and more diffuse in CF15 samples, probably due to some
degradation events. Transcripts reached a higher level in the
last phase of spore maturation (stage 3), i.e., CF70 ascomata.
In contrast, clones VA65, VA115, and VL71, coding for hypothetical proteins, hybridized strongly to unique vegetative mycelium sequences and seemed to be absent from or else
present at very low concentrations in ascomata (Fig. 2 and 3).
ICL expression was further characterized by monitoring
transcript accumulation by using RT PCR analysis of vegetative mycelium grown with different media (Fig. 4). ICL transcripts were not detected in vegetative mycelium grown in
MMN medium containing 4% glucose, whereas an intense
band was detected when vegetative mycelium was grown in
sugar-deprived MMN medium (Fig. 4).
DISCUSSION
An EST database containing more that 2,000 clones was
recently set up for the widely cultivated edible mushroom Pleurotus ostreatus with the aim of providing information on differential gene expression during the transition of vegetative mycelium to spore-bearing structures (17). In other ascomycetes
and basidiomycetes, the transition has already been demonstrated to be coupled to transcriptional changes in many genes
which regulate reproductive development after induction (1, 8,
10, 34, 41, 44). With differential screening approaches, cDNAs
from genes showing down- or up-regulation during the development of spore-bearing structures have been characterized
for the ascomycetes N. crassa (26) and A. nidulans (38) and the
basidiomycetes Agrocybe aegerita (32), Lentinus edodes (15),
Schizophyllum commune (41), and Agaricus bisporus (8).
In the present study, we isolated from vegetative mycelium
of T. borchii 57 genes having up- or down-regulated expression
in fruit bodies. Fruit body formation and sporulation are therefore accompanied by the differential expression of about 33%
of the investigated genes. Forty-one transcripts showed striking
up-regulation at either of the developmental stages, suggesting
that the corresponding proteins are directly implicated in the
morphogenesis and functioning of fruit bodies during spore
maturation. In Lentinula edodes (19), A. bisporus (8), and A.
aegerita (32), similar numbers of fruit body-regulated genes
were identified. Sixteen genes, mostly coding for unknown
proteins, had lower transcript concentrations and probably
represented vegetative mycelium-specific genes. The hierarchical clustering of ascoma-regulated transcripts indicated concomitant up- or down-regulated expression of groups of genes
(Fig. 2), suggesting that common inducer signals may coordinate their expression.
Fruiting in truffles requires the establishment of a functional
ectomycorrhizal symbiosis and is associated with the presence
of soil microorganisms (13). Since truffles cannot fruit under
axenic conditions, we compared gene expression in vegetative
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of genes (22%) expressed in vegetative mycelium coded for
enzymes of primary and secondary metabolism (e.g., phosphofructokinase [PFK], aldolase, citrate synthase, glutamine
synthetase [GS], and ICL). Transcripts involved in stress responses (10%) (e.g., thioredoxin, glutaredoxin, and heat shock
protein), cell signaling (7%) (e.g., GTPases, 14-3-3 protein,
and calmodulin), and cell structure (7%) (e.g., actin) represented smaller proportions of the sequenced cDNAs.
Gene expression profiles in vegetative mycelium and fruit
bodies. A total of 171 cDNA clones from vegetative mycelium
were differentially screened with probes from vegetative mycelium (stage 1), CF15 ascomata (stage 2), and CF70 ascomata
(stage 3) by cDNA array hybridization. The aim of the experiment was to select clones corresponding to genes whose transcripts were regulated by fruit body formation in which karyogamy and meiosis are occurring. Nonregulated genes, which
encode hypothetical proteins, were arrayed to normalize signal
differences. Totals of 128 (75%) and 130 (76%) of the cDNA
clones did not show significant differences (2.5-fold) in RNA
expression levels (Fig. 1 and Table 1) between vegetative mycelium and CF15 and CF70 ascomata, respectively. On the
other hand, 28 (16.5%) and 27 (16%) of the transcripts showed
increased expression levels in CF15 and CF70 fruit bodies
compared to mycelium, respectively. Fifteen (9%) and 14 (8%)
of the genes showed decreased expression levels in CF15 and
CF70 ascomata compared to mycelium, respectively (Table 1).
Genes that showed up-regulated expression in fruit bodies
encoded proteins involved in nitrogen and carbon metabolism
(e.g., GS, 5-aminolevulinic acid synthetase, PFK, succinate dehydrogenase [SDH], and ICL), antioxidative enzymes (thioredoxin and glutaredoxin), Pi and hexose transport, and cell wall
synthesis (glucan 1,3--glucosidase and UDP-glucose:sterol
glucosyl transferase) (Table 1). The highest differential expression (54-fold increase) was detected for the GS gene (clone
VA113). The mRNA capping enzyme (clone VL29), 5-aminolevulinic acid synthetase (clone VL26), thioredoxin (clone
VL19), and ICL (clone VL9) transcripts also showed a striking
increase in expression (⬎10-fold) in fruit bodies. Of the genes
that were up-regulated ⬎2.5-fold, five had unknown functions;
most genes whose expression was diminished ⬎2.5-fold also
had unknown functions.
Analysis of the expression profile (Fig. 2) by hierarchical
clustering allowed us to define groups of coregulated genes
among the 171 ESTs. Cluster A contained transcripts (e.g., GS,
thioredoxin, and ICL) showing a high level of up-regulation
and identical expression patterns in CF15 and CF70 ascomata.
Transcripts in cluster B (e.g., UDP-glucose:sterol glucosyl
transferase and glucan 1,3--glucosidase) and cluster E (e.g.,
glutaredoxin) exhibited a higher concentration in CF70 ascomata, whereas transcripts in cluster C (e.g., 5-aminolevulinic
acid synthetase and mRNA capping enzyme) showed their
highest expression levels in CF15 ascomata. All genes of clusters F and G were highly down-regulated (up to 50-fold) in
CF15 and CF70 fruit bodies and can be considered mycelium
specific.
To validate the cDNA array data, the expression of six moderately and strongly regulated genes (i.e., those for GS, ICL,
thioredoxin, and three unknown proteins) was monitored by
RNA blot analyses (Fig. 3). RNA blot analyses confirmed
that the expression of all six vegetative mycelium ESTs was
APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL.
VOL. 68, 2002
MYCELIUM VERSUS FRUIT BODY IN T. BORCHII
4577
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FIG. 1. Expression profiles of 171 genes in vegetative mycelium and ascomata of T. borchii. For each gene, transcript levels were calculated for
the free-living mycelium and CF15 or CF70 ascomata and are displayed on a scatter plot (see Materials and Methods). If the genes are not affected
by fruit body development, then their transcript levels will fall between the lines labeled 2.5⫻. Solid lines indicate 2.5-fold expression differences
between free-living partners and ascomata; broken lines indicate 10-fold expression differences.
4578
LACOURT ET AL.
APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL.
TABLE 1. Differential gene expression in ascomata and vegetative mycelium from T. borchiia
cDNA
GenBank
accession no.
Size (bp)
BM266151
BM266330
BM266140
BM266256
BM266266
VA113
VL94
VA1
VL19
VL29
698
694
629
609
644
BM266325
BM266263
VL9
VL26
611
605
BM266273
BM266248
VL36
VL11
620
685
BM266163
VA20
659
BM266252
BM266317
BM266255
BM266239
BM266329
BM266155
BM266324
BM266272
BM266210
BM266156
BM266192
BM266171
BM266240
BM266153
BM266305
BM266295
VL15
VL82
VL18
VA92
VL93
VA12b
VL89
VL34
VA65
VA13
VA48
VA28
VA93
VA115
VL71
VL60
680
722
657
695
693
551
574
639
948
421
666
393
969
644
907
630
GS (A. nidulans)
Glucan 1,3--glucosidase (N. crassa)
Hypothetical protein
Thioredoxin (Emericella nidulans)
mRNA capping enzyme  subunit (Schizosaccharomyces pombe)
ICL (E. nidulans)
5-Aminolevulinic acid synthetase aminotransferase (Aspergillus oryzae)
Hypothetical protein
UDP-glucose:sterol glucosyl transferase
(Magnaporthe grisea)
Regulator of Pho81 (phosphate transport
regulation) (Saccharomyces cerevisiae)
Heat shock protein, 70 kDa (E. nidulans)
SDH (Mycosphaerella graminicola)
Cell cycle regulator p21 protein (S. pombe)
Glycine-rich protein (Coccidioides immitis)
UDP-galactose transporter (S. pombe)
Glutaredoxin (N. crassa)
Hypothetical protein
Hypothetical protein
Hypothetical protein
Hypothetical protein
Hypothetical protein
Hypothetical protein
Hypothetical protein
Hypothetical protein
Hypothetical protein
Hypothetical protein
Expected
value
Identity
Similarity
Overlap
in aa
76
59
89
74
204
226
3e-98
1e-77
55
31
74
46
81
192
74
78
77
87
63
Transcript ratio
(normalized
hybridization)
CF15/VM
CF70/VM
1e-20
3e-15
11.1
2.4
3.8
11.5
12.0
55.0
20.0
10.7
17.3
1.5
154
180
1e-59
2e-80
10.8
11.1
9.9
3.1
71
253
1e-91
5.2
5.0
9.1
7.8
54
66
79
5e-17
6.4
4.9
77
80
44
84
45
47
84
87
60
93
63
65
226
214
125
93
155
109
4e-93
1e-103
7e-24
2e-38
4e-27
1e-21
5.0
4.7
4.1
4.0
3.9
2.3
1.9
1.5
⫺3.9
⫺5.3
⫺7.7
⫺12.5
⫺20.0
⫺33.3
⫺33.3
⫺50.0
3.8
2.2
2.2
1.7
3.7
3.7
2.6
4.4
⫺4.0
⫺9.1
⫺11.1
⫺7.2
⫺33.3
⫺25.0
⫺50.0
⫺50.0
a
The 26 genes with the highest (up-regulation) and lowest (down-regulation) ascoma/vegetative mycelium (VM) expression ratios are listed. Signal ratios of ⬍1.0
were inverted and multiplied by ⫺1 to aid in their interpretation. aa, amino acids.
b
Full-length clone.
mycelium grown under axenic conditions and in fruit bodies
collected from soil. Therefore, we cannot exclude the possibility that part of the difference in transcript levels observed for
fruit body-regulated genes is a metabolic difference as a result
of different genetic backgrounds, growth conditions (i.e., agar
medium versus soil), and/or environmental cues. However, in
order to minimize individual differences, different fruit bodies
were investigated in separate experiments.
The spore contains surface structures which are lacking in
vegetative mycelium, including an outer, proteinaceous lipid
layer and a constant chitin layer (4). Changes in cell wall
metabolism during fruit body morphogenesis have been observed for many fungal species (37, 41). The hydrophobin
family has been investigated in detail during the morphogenesis of several ascomycetes and basidiomycetes (37, 41), but
several additional proteins are probably involved in fruit body
and spore formation. The Tbf-1 gene from T. borchii codes for
a structural cell wall protein specifically expressed in fruit bodies (7). In T. magnatum and T. borchii, chitin synthase genes
are differentially expressed in fruit bodies in a maturation
stage-dependent manner (5, 12). Tbchs3, identified among the
EST clones of T. borchii as VA116, appears to be involved in
spore maturation, whereas Tbchs4 may play a role in ascoma
enlargement. The hierarchical clustering of ascoma-regulated
transcripts confirms that VA116 showed up-regulated expres-
sion in fruit bodies (data not shown). Together with chitin
polymers, -1,3-glucans are important components of T.
borchii and T. magnatum hyphae as well as ascus walls (3, 5).
Wessels and Sietsma (42) showed how cell wall components
are continuously recycled during fungal morphogenesis. The
induction of an exo-1,3--glucosidase (clone VL94) and UDPglucose:sterol glucosyl transferase (clone VL11) in CF15 and
CF70 ascomata of T. borchii (Table 1) is possibly related to the
degradation of sterile hyphae located around the ascus during
the ascoma maturation process or spore cell wall expansion
(25).
A number of T. borchii genes encoding key enzymes of
carbon and nitrogen metabolism (e.g., GS, PFK, ICL, and
SDH) have been cloned from vegetative mycelium. Analysis of
CF15 and CF70 ascomata showed increased expression of several of these genes. This result suggests that hyphae involved in
spore production and maturation are metabolically very active.
Glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway are down-regulated in mature T. borchii fruit bodies (31), suggesting that the
availability of external hexose and oxygen is limited in these
hypogeous tissues. Nutrient deprivation is probably a primary
stress in fruiting hyphae, and catabolism of lipids accumulated
in vegetative mycelium probably sustains the constant carbon
flux needed for fruit body construction and maturation. Black
Sudan staining indicated that lipid globules are abundant in T.
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Name
%
Best database match (corresponding
species) determined with
WU-BLASTX
VOL. 68, 2002
MYCELIUM VERSUS FRUIT BODY IN T. BORCHII
4579
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FIG. 2. Changes in transcript levels during T. borchii fruit body formation. Shown is the hierarchical clustering of ratios of the transcript levels of selected genes in CF15 (stage 2) or CF70
(stage 3) ascomata versus vegetative mycelium. Distance-based clustering (6) allowed definition of a subset of genes sharing similar expression profiles (A to G). Each gene is represented by
a row of colored boxes, and each stage is represented by a single column (left, CF15/VM; right, CF70/VM). Regulation levels (log2 transformed for hierarchical analysis) range from pale to
saturated colors (red for induction; green for repression). Black indicates no change in gene expression.
4580
LACOURT ET AL.
APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL.
borchii fruit bodies. Lipid accumulation was observed initially
in vegetative hyphae of CF15 fruit bodies and then in mature
spores of CF70 fruit bodies (I. Lacourt and P. Bonfante, unpublished data). The TbSP1 phospholipase gene of T. borchii is
strongly up-regulated in response to carbon and nitrogen deprivation (35). The TbSP1 phospholipase was localized in hyphae and ascus cell walls of fruit bodies, where this enzyme
could participate in the generation of free fatty acids. Twocarbon compounds resulting from this fatty acid degradation
are probably assimilated into the tricarboxylic acid cycle
through the glyoxylate cycle steps catalyzed by ICL and malate
synthase. This anaplerotic metabolic pathway is operative in
microorganisms experiencing nutritional deprivation (20, 22),
including mycorrhizal fungi (16). The increased concentrations
of ICL and SDH transcripts during T. borchii fruiting are
consistent with active gluconeogenesis. Studies with isotope
labeling should confirm the activities of these pathways (16).
The glyoxylate/tricarboxylic acid/gluconeogenesis pathways are
probably used to sustain the dramatic carbon drain accompanying fruit body enlargement and spore maturation (i.e., lipid
and glycogen stores and chitin synthesis). The down-regulation
of ICL transcripts in vegetative mycelium grown in glucosecontaining medium is in agreement with the catabolite repression of the glyoxylate cycle (14).
GS is involved in nitrogen assimilation and amino acid biosynthesis in ectomycorrhizal fungi (21). The isolation of a GS
cDNA thus enabled study of the regulation of these key aspects
of primary metabolism. The GS gene displayed the highest
up-regulation of the investigated genes. Its transcript concentrations increased 11-fold in CF15 ascomata and 55-fold in
CF70 ascomata. RNase protection experiments confirmed
these increased levels of GS transcripts during spore maturation (S. Ottonello, personal communication), irrespective of
the technique and the individual samples. A striking increase
in GS activity was also reported during the maturation of
Coprinus cinereus basidiomata (9). This up-regulation was correlated with the accumulation of urea and arginine. These
nitrogen compounds are probably involved in cellular expansion through increased osmotic pressure, and the increased GS
activity led to a lower level of the ammonium ion, a powerful
inhibitor of meiosis (24). In T. borchii, the up-regulation of GS
expression at the CF15 and CF70 stages may play a similar role
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FIG. 3. Hybridization of six vegetative mycelium cDNAs strongly regulated during fruit body formation to total RNAs from vegetative
mycelium (VM) and CF15 (stage 2) or CF70 (stage 3) ascomata. Total RNAs, isolated at the three stages in the course of fruit body formation,
were hybridized with 32P-labeled cDNA inserts of clones VL9, VL19, VL71, VA65, VA113, and VA115 and the nonregulated rDNA internal
transcribed spacer. The 5.8S rDNA signal intensity was used to normalize RNA loading, and then the expression ratios were calculated as
CF15/VM and CF70/VM. Ratios of less than 1 (repression) were multiplied by ⫺1 to allow a direct comparison between up- and down-regulated
genes.
VOL. 68, 2002
MYCELIUM VERSUS FRUIT BODY IN T. BORCHII
4581
the fact that ascomata have not yet been produced under
axenic conditions, but the construction of cDNA libraries from
mRNAs isolated from fruit bodies collected in the field is
under way. These libraries will allow the identification of a
larger number of fruit body-regulated genes to decipher the
complex networks of developmental and metabolic changes
taking place during ascoma formation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
by participating in ascoma enlargement and allowing meiosis
during spore formation.
The concentrations of transcripts of the antioxidant enzymes
thioredoxin and glutaredoxin were strikingly increased in CF15
and CF70 ascomata, suggesting that cell differentiation and
nutrient deprivation in hyphae led to the production of active
oxygen species. Similar genes were found to be up-regulated by
dehydration in Arabidopsis thaliana (33). It is commonly accepted that hypogeous fruit body formation in Tuber may be a
response to dehydration (28). It is therefore tempting to speculate that a similar mechanism of protection against water loss
and based on the up-regulation of genes coding for antioxidant
enzymes also operates in truffles. Such a mechanism would be
active not only during the formation of truffle fruit bodies but
also during the establishment of Tuber ectomycorrhizae. Polidori et al. (29) also found a plant glutaredoxin homolog to be
up-regulated during the establishment of symbiosis.
Fifteen transcripts coding for unknown proteins were strongly regulated in T. borchii fruit bodies. Additionally, four differentially expressed genes were identified by mRNA display (45).
These transcripts could be essential for functions required
during ascoma morphogenesis. Further investigations (in situ
hybridization and immunolocalization of the corresponding
proteins) will concentrate on the elucidation of the functions of
these genes.
The cDNA library used in this study was constructed by
using mRNA expressed during the vegetative phase of the life
cycle of T. borchii grown on agar media. The identification of
genes specifically expressed during fruiting is hampered by
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FIG. 4. Changes in the presence of the isocitrate lyase (VL9) transcript in T. borchii mycelium grown with various carbon sources, as
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Isabelle Lacourt was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from
the University of Torino. Sébastien Duplessis was supported by a
doctoral scholarship from the Ministère de l’Education Nationale, de
la Recherche et de la Technologie. This investigation was partly supported by grants from the Italian National Council for Research,
special project Tuber: Biotecnologia della Micorrizazione, a 40%Murst project; the INRA (Action Transversale Microbiologie Fondamentale); and the French Genetic Resource Office.
We thank Denis Tagu (INRA-Nancy) for valuable discussions during the course of this study.
Isabelle Lacourt and Sébastien Duplessis contributed equally to this
work.
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APPL. ENVIRON. MICROBIOL.
APPLIED AND ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY, Nov. 2002, p. 5788
0099-2240/02/$04.00⫹0 DOI: 10.1128/AEM.68.11.5788.2002
Copyright © 2002, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
Vol. 68, No. 11
ERRATA
Albidovulum inexpectatum gen. nov., sp. nov., a Nonphotosynthetic and Slightly
Thermophilic Bacterium from a Marine Hot Spring That Is Very Closely Related
to Members of the Photosynthetic Genus Rhodovulum
Luciana Albuquerque, Joāo Santos, Pedro Travassos, M. Fernanda Nobre, Fred A. Rainey,
Robin Wait, Nuno Empadinhas, Manuel T. Silva, and Milton S. da Costa
Departamento de Zoologia and Departamento de Bioquı́mica, Universidade de Coimbra, Coimbra, and Instituto de Biologia
Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, 4150 Porto, Portugal; Department of Biological Sciences, Louisiana State
University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803; and Centre for Applied Microbiology & Research, Porton Down,
Salisbury, Wiltshire SP4 OJG, United Kingdom
Volume 68, no. 9, p. 4266–4273, 2002. Page 4272, column 2, lines 34 and 35: “Hydrogen and reduced sulfur compounds are not
used as energy sources” should read “Hydrogen and reduced sulfur compounds are not used as energy sources under autotrophic
conditions.”
Line 36: “Chemoorganotrophic” should read “Facultatively chemolithoorganotrophic on reduced sulfur compounds.”
Line 50: “Chemoorganotrophic” should read “Facultatively chemolithoorganotrophic.”
Fumarate-Mediated Inhibition of Erythrose Reductase, a Key Enzyme for
Erythritol Production by Torula corallina
Jung-Kul Lee, Bong-Seong Koo, and Sang-Yong Kim
BioNgene Co., Ltd., Chongro-Ku, Seoul, Korea 110-521, and Bolak Co., Ltd.,
Yangkam-Myun Hwasung-Si Kyongki-Do, Korea 445-930
Volume 68, no. 9, p. 4534–4538, 2002. Page 4534, Abstract, line 9: “noncompetitively” should read “uncompetitively.”
Page 4537, column 1, line 4: “noncompetitive” should read “uncompetitive.”
Page 4537, column 2, line 1: “noncompetitive” should read “uncompetitive.”
Isolation and Characterization of Differentially Expressed Genes in the Mycelium
and Fruit Body of Tuber borchii
Isabelle Lacourt, Sébastien Duplessis, Simona Abbà, Paola Bonfante, and Francis Martin
Dipartimento di Biologia Vegetale, Università di Torino, and Sezione di Torino, Istituto di Protezione delle
Piante-CNR, 10125 Turin, Italy, and UMR INRA/UHP “Interactions Arbres/Micro-Organismes,”
Centre de Recherches de Nancy, 54280 Champenoux, France
Volume 68, no. 9, p. 4574–4582, 2002. Page 4575, column 1, line 41: “pBK-CMV” should read “P-Bluescript (SK ⫹/⫺).”
Column 2, line 13: “Hybond-N” should read “Hybond-N⫹.”
Line 16: “dehydribized” should read “dehybridized.”
5788