JIPE
Journal of Issues and Practice in Education
Volume 4 No. 2, December 2012 ISSN 1821 5548
The Open University of Tanzania
Faculty of Education
P. O. Box 23409
Dar es Salaam
Tanzania
Email: jipe@out.ac.tz
Website: www.out.ac.tz
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
Editorial board
Dr. John A. Soka
The Editor; Ed. Admin, Plan and Policy Studies,
Faculty of Education, The Open University of
Tanzania
Prof. Ezra Maritim
Education Psychology, The Open University
of Tanzania
Prof. Cornelia Muganda
Education Foundation, The Open University of
Tanzania
Dr. Felix Mulengeki
Curriculum and Instructions, The Open
University of Tanzania
Prof. Philemon A. K. Mushi
University of Dar es Salaam
Dr. Elinami Swai
Adult and Distance Education, The Open
University of Tanzania
Prof. Emmanuel Babyegeya
Ed. Admin, Plan and Policy Studies, The Open
University of Tanzania
Dr. Peter P. Lipembe
Linguistics, The Open University of Tanzania
Dr. Joviter K. Katabaro
DUCE
Prof Issa M. Omari
Faculty of Ed. Research and publication coordinator,
The Open University of Tanzania
The Journal of Issues and Practice in Education (JIPE) is a property of the Open
University of Tanzania and is operated by the Faculty of Education. The journal
publishes research articles that add new knowledge in the field of education.
All correspondence should be addressed to:
The Chief Editor –JIPE
The Open University of Tanzania
P.O. Box 23409
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
or
Email: jipe@out.ac.tz
©The Open University of Tanzania, 2012
All rights reserved
Note: Opinions expressed in this journal are those of the authors and not necessarily
those of the publisher- The Open University of Tanzania
i
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
Contents
Editorial ................................................................................................................ iii
Preferred Leadership Styles for Combating Poverty and Discrimination
John A. Soka and Larry Bright ............................................................................... 1
Women‟s Voices on Gender Mainstreaming in ODL Institutions: The case of the Open
University of Tanzania
Cornelia K. Muganda, Martina Rwegerela and Honoratha. Mushi ......................... 14
Prospects and Challenges at the Open University of Tanzania: Experience from
the Field
Raymond Mutasingwa Bitegeko and Elinami Swai .................................................. 23
Implementation of the Tanzanian ICT Policy in Education in a Teachers‟ Colleges
Elisei Lubuva ......................................................................................................... 36
Flexible Delivery of Education: The Globalization of Life Long Learning
Honoratha Mushi ................................................................................................... 60
Application of Multimedia Learning of Multimedia Learning Theory in Instructional
Materials: A Case of Psychology and Special Education
Hyasinta kessy ........................................................................................................ 68
Challenges of Teaching and Learning Through Open and Distance Learning (ODL)
System: The Case of the Open University of Tanzania
Cornelia K. Muganda and M. Kabate ..................................................................... 78
Potentiality, Challenges and Prospects of Mixed Mode of Delivery of Higher Education
in Tanzania: The Case of the Open University of Tanzania and the University of Dar Es
Salaam
Muganda, Mwanongwa, Kapalanaka ...................................................................... 89
Application of System Analysis in ODL
Kamya Edward and Ochan Joseph ......................................................................... 102
Language as a Hurdle in Delivering of Secondary Distance Education
Paul Msoka and Mwajuma Vuzo ............................................................................ 109
The Current Environment of Education in Tanzania: Challenges of Teaching / Learning
Mathematics in Tanzania
Ralph W. P. Masenge ............................................................................................ 122
Editorial Guidelines and Polices ............................................................................ 135
ii
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
iii
Editorial
Accessing higher education has been a challenge for many years. The limitations within
the institution can cause restricting through redirecting possible means of accessing
higher education. Is within the chosen means of admission an individual is categorized
as a full member of the institution or remain just an external stakeholder. Through
absolute zeal in seeking knowledge comprised by maximizing available means, an
individual can succeed to belong to the institution. Therefore, awareness of admission
prerequisite unveils the potentiality of a candidate to either proceed with the process or
substitute higher education to other opportunities available. Not all aspirants can be
quenched by barriers in accessing higher education. There is a possibility of breaking
down all hindrances to identify next step in attaining the admired knowledge. Rebuilding
the past attainment and accessing required bridging courses are some of the means used
for those lagging behind full institutional membership. The admission process is
controlled at the institutional level; therefore, institutions need to minimize restrictions
for all qualified individuals. Institutions should not be the roadblock of access
knowledge; but the societal needs should dictate the limitations in admission. When
educational institutions fix the number of students to be admitted without responding to
the needs of the society, the submergence of potential manpower and talents prevails.
Low admittance hinders the social contribution in building the society due to elevation
minority‟s skills. The reason for small number for intake does not outweigh the loss of
superior knowledge, and the highest quality of productivity. The challenge of access
should be left to the current needs and future of the society.
The debate on statistical number of possible candidates in higher education and the
groups to be targeted narrows the focal point of essence of higher education.
Enlightening the small group of students who have proven to excel beyond others can be
defended by critics who view the process as a mass production of workforce, waste of
resources and minimizing low class job workers. The main knowledge difference within
the society can be measured through personal values, cultural practices, beliefs, in
reaching conclusion, and through the reasoning processes. The aim of higher education
is not only to uplift superior knowledge but to change the society to align to its actual
needs and solving its problems. Is through the institutional process scientist, doctor,
researchers, leaders and other are publicly acknowledged without doubts. In
communities where access of proper knowledge is missing, pockets of individuals can
mushroom to occupy the vacuum of proper knowledgeable individual. To motivate and
support social transformation Open and Distance Learning (ODL) solves most problems
of accessing higher education.
Open and Distance Learning is unbounded to potential access hurdles in a conventional
higher learning institution. The open and distance learning is mentioned by Rwegerela,
Muganda and Mushi “to widen education opportunities to those who due to historical,
socio-cultural and economic barriers could not access higher education”. Same authors
upload the learning system for promoting gender equity.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
iv
The challenges of ODL are to incorporate individuals who are not in working class and
adults especially in a rural environment. Adults pass their values to their offspring
therefore accessing a proper knowledge will eliminate wrong knowledge passing from
one generation to the next. Root cause of educational system are explained in article by
Masenge to include “policy implementation” that the author mentioned to “contribute
significantly towards the problem of poor performance in mathematics”.
Dr. John Soka
The Editor
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
1
Preferred Leadership Styles for Combating Poverty and
Discrimination
a
John A. Sokaa and Larry Brightb
The Open University of Tanzania, Faculty of Education
b
The University of South Dakota, School of Education
Abstract: The study set out to identify perceptions regarding leadership styles of school
principals serving in South Dakota public and tribal school schools in the USA. From 152 public
school districts and 20 tribal schools, 55 school principals participated in the study.
Leadership styles in the study include transformational, transactional, laissez-faire, democratic,
and autocratic types. The results showed that the leadership styles preferred for combating
poverty and discrimination included transformational and democratic leadership approaches.
Respondents did not endorse laissez-faire and autocratic leadership styles. Transformational and
democratic leadership styles were correlated, as were laissez-faire and autocratic styles.
School principals administer students from diverse family backgrounds, gender, race, religious
affiliation, and disability. Issues encountered most frequently were related to socio-economic
status, followed by race; and with religion rated the lowest. Students included inappropriate
behaviors, apathy, inadequate school funding, and parental apathy.
Introduction
The struggle to solve social and educational problems puts pressure on individuals
entrusted to provide educational leadership to schools in an increasingly complex social,
political, and economic environment. School principals in education face this leadership
challenge. Rapid social change based on technology and globalization has created
demand for innovative educators who can lead education and respond to demands for
change. National, and local issues revolve around how education can serve the
community through “teamwork, communication, problem solving, [and] social
responsibility” (Miller & Sundre, 2008, p. 152).
Those who choose to be educational administrators either select leadership styles and
foci to move education forward, or they find themselves using static patterns of
leadership and assumed to be effective based only by traditions of practice and culture.
In an increasingly diverse and technological context, educators have to make decisions
on how best to serve students, facing the perennial global, national, and local issues of
pressures to eradicate poverty and discrimination.
Each school principal in South Dakota encounters effects of poverty and discrimination,
requiring the use of particular leadership styles. One study on leadership styles
determined that dependable leader has attributes such as leadership quality and higher
skills for needed in the organization (Baumgartel, 1957). Research by Rice and Urban
Institute (2010) has shown that sometimes “the effectiveness and distribution of
principals have been undermined by the lack of data to study principals, their complex
work, and their impact on school outcomes” (p. 1). Many administrative styles and
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
2
purviews of the task of leading have been in use for centuries. Which styles are best
today, and how school principals perceive the styles most suited to confronting problems
of poverty and discrimination are basic questions that call for a study.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to identify perceptions of school principals regarding
preferred administrative leadership styles for leading change, and particularly for facing
issues of poverty and discrimination.
Research Questions
The study was guided by the following research questions:
1. What are the preferred leadership styles?
2. What are the perceptions of preferred leadership styles, based on demographic
characteristics, including gender, role, and years in positions?
3. What are the relationships among preferred leadership styles and potential
issues of poverty and discrimination?
Literature Review
Administrative behaviors come under scrutiny of people who have widely varied
perceptions about how leadership should occur (Mayeski, Gaddy, & Goodwin, 1999). In
spite of the complex philosophies and styles of leadership, however, contemporary
educational leaders and teachers need to manage change and accommodate the
community that schools serve. While institutional job descriptions try to define what
capabilities are sought in a leader, the complexity of factors involved in the challenge of
leading a particular educational organization, let alone the complexity of factors in the
leader‟s knowledge, experiences, and preferences; can confound a search for the
appropriate fit of teaching and administrator styles in school organizations (Mitchell &
Poutiatine, 2001). Convergence of contemporary political, social, academic, and
religious attitudes may result in a broad preferences for leadership styles, as well as
which social problems might be the focus of human energies.
Schools‟ structures enable principals to lead educational institutions through valuing its
goals and missions. Bennis and Goldsmith (1997) defined a leader as a person “who has
the capacity to create a compelling vision that takes people to a new [horizon], and to
translate that vision into action” (p. 4).
The need of good leadership in schools was encouraged by Cooper (2002) who
mentioned that it “provides a spirit to the individuals within an organization as well as a
functional foundation for day-to-day operations”(p. 9). School principals are committed
in creating a channel that can produce consistence and predetermined final products. Lee
and King (2001) defined leadership as the role of “fostering human spirit” (p. 80)
through modeling leadership to include supportive environment to ensure work is done.
Leadership qualities are very important in integrating personal beliefs on the perceived
needs of organization and actual needs of the relevant community. In order to implement
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
3
change, Cooper (2002) described the need for visionary leaders prepared to work
productively with both people and educational institutions. The role of a leader is
expected to affect the individual‟s life and the relationship between the society and the
organization. According to Cooper (2002) employees became aware of the person in
charge when the institution had powerful leadership. The need for direction creates a
tendency to rely on entrusted leaders who have resources to solve problem. Bennis and
Goldsmith (1997) mentioned that sources of the leaders‟ decisions come from “their
appeal to others, and their integrity on reality, on the facts, on a careful estimate of the
forces at play, and on the trends and contradictions” (p. 4).
According to Hilliard (2010), “effective leaders have emotional intelligence and can
connect easily with others as people in building relationships” (p. 94). Members of a
school relate with a leader according to the level preferred by the leader and daily
exposure to the members of the organization. Palmer (1998) mentioned that leaders
operations should be “guided by [a] major sense of direction” (p. 162).
Source of poverty and discrimination in the functionalist approach theory was defined by
Palen (2001) “as a consequence of cultural conflict where traditional roles, rules, and
social structures break down and become dysfunctional” (p. 15). School principals
dedicated to facing poverty and discrimination can motivate parents of students to take
the lead in reducing issues pertaining to poverty and discrimination. Challenges in
solving such social problems was explained by Palen (2001) as not to deal with affected
persons but to rebuild social systems.
Leadership styles. The five identifiable as different styles include democratic,
autocratic, laissez-faire, transactional, and transformational approaches. Each of the five
leadership styles has characteristics that may or may not be familiar to practicing
educators even when being applied. According to Penn (n. d) an “effective leadership is
dependent on the right behavior” (para. 12). Clearly, the styles are not discrete and
mutually exclusive, since a leader may practice some inclusive, participatory, or
democratic process, and yet be perceived as a controlling person not always open to
suggestions from people who are being served. While each of the five leadership styles
require some careful study and detail for full understanding, the brief introductions
below introduce the primary characteristics of each of the five, including democratic,
autocratic, laissez-faire, transactional, and transformational styles.
The process of sharing leadership power and resources can be used by leaders to suggest
that they are democratic. But, using democratic style over a period of time requires more
than occasional listening to others. Democracy was defined by Kjær (2004) as “rule by
the people” (p. 92). The inclusion of majority of members of the society in decision
making is an expected phenomenon in a democratic society. Democracy was described
by Donahue and Nye (2003) as a social ethical agreement. Democracy is preferred in
many societies, although some leaders oppose democracy as it can reduce or eliminate
leader power in the society. Inclusion of the perspectives of others on a systematic basis
has also been referred to as authentic democratic leadership. The complexity in
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
4
leadership is explained by Donahue and Nye (2003) that, “democratic legitimacy is
variable, fluid and often problematic: something to be achieved, not taken for granted”
(pp. 170-171).
Ledeen (1999) mentioned the goal of the autocratic leader is “the domination of others,
and the winners revel in it, savoring what Machiavelli calls „sweetness of domination‟”
(p. 2). The power to control access to wealth and social resources may add to the
material nature of rewards for dictatorial leadership. According to Nye (2008),
“Machiavelli believed that when one has to choose, it is better to be feared than to be
loved” (p. 110). The autocratic leader does not incorporate values of other; therefore a
community is excluded in the decision-making process.
In laissez-faire style, leaders assume that any adult who has reasonable perceptiveness
and some social experience can take their turn as the boss, leading a group to follow
rules to keep interference from people who want to control others. Laissez-faire
leadership was described by Avolio (2011) as “the near-avoidance or absence of
leadership and is, by definition, the most inactive, as well as the most ineffective,
according to almost all prior research on this style of leadership” (p. 65). Leaders expect
members of the society to make their own decisions and execute them with as little
oversight, governmental control, or expert intervention as possible.
Transactional style focuses on achieving major changes and productivity as leaders
“emphasize constructive promises, praises, and rewards that are contingent on achieving
expected performance” (Avolio, 2011, p. 53). This style focuses on behavioral
intervention in groups, and is sometimes described as a “carrot and stick” approach.
Rewards and punishments are managed to ensure organizational productivity. Using
transactional leadership model leaders, are able to attract workers to cooperate in achieve
their goal (Hellreigel & Slocum, 2009).
Transformational leadership was explained by Lee and King (2001) as bringing change
through “moving into an unknown future, reshuffling the cards, developing new habits
and methods, creating systems, working with different people, and playing by different
rules” (p. 92). Transformational leaders “develop and encourage new and broader
energies among followers” (Nye, 2008, p. 126). Leaders with this style need extensive
knowledge of social change, technological change, and global issues to communicate
with organizational members in constructing futures visions which can accommodates
changing social conditions and needs (Hellreigel & Slocum, 2009). Leaders‟ inspiration
and ability to influence their followers can help to clarify leadership styles. Nye (2008)
posits that “transformational leadership has been the dominant paradigm since the
early1980s” (p. 22).
The Methodology Used in the Study
The analysis of the collected data related leadership styles, poverty, and discrimination
factors. School principals contributed their ideas on how to bring changes and how to
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
5
solve some problems associated with poverty and discrimination. Demographic data
were used to relate gender, experience, and school principals‟ roles in the preferred
leadership styles. The survey also identified respondents‟ levels of job satisfaction. This
quantitative research study used a formal survey (Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire)
and researcher-created questions to collect data from school principals.
The quantitative research study collected data using online SurveyMonkey. The sample
was randomly selected from 152 public school districts and 20 tribal schools in South Dakota
schools. The number of school principals who participated in the study was 55. The
online survey included the leader form of the Bass and Avolio (1995) MLQ-5X which is
a self-rating questionnaire Online survey had 70 questions whereby 45 were from the
MLQ-5X focusing on the three leadership styles of transformational, transactional, and
laissez-faire types. The researcher created 25 additional questions regarding autocratic
and democratic leadership styles as well as additional items focusing on leading changes
related to issues of poverty and discrimination.
The interconnection of school principals‟ roles was simplified through identifying their
administrative roles as single or multiple. School principals who also served as school
superintendents were categorized as serving multiple roles. The school principals were
grouped according to the years they served as principals. Respondents who served for
more than ten years were 47.4% and those who served 10 or less years were 52.6%. Data
were downloaded from the SurveyMonkey website to Microsoft Excel sheet and was
analyzed using window based SPSS version 19.0. Descriptive statistics and Pearson
correlation were used to analyze collected data.
Results of the Study
Preferred leadership styles of school principals. Transformational leadership style was
analyzed using five scales known as idealized influence (attributed), idealized influence
(behavior), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized
consideration; transactional leadership style was analyzed using three scales known as
management-by-exception (active), management-by-exception (passive), and contingent
reward; laissez-faire leadership was measured using a scale known as laissez-faire. The
survey scale had a five-point Likert-scale with 0-4 response options (with center of 1.52.5). The result indicated that transformational leadership was rated higher with three of
its scales having mean score of 3.0 and above (out of possible score of 4.0) while
transactional leadership scales had the highest mean of 2.92 (Table 5). Laissez-faire
leadership scale had the lowest mean of 0.5 (on scale of 0-4).
According to the MLQ-5X survey results, school principals regarded inspiration
motivation as the most important element in their leadership styles (Table 1). Descriptive
statistics were used to obtain mean scores and standard deviations of all the MLQ-5X
scale factors. Inspiration motivation, a factor in transformational style, was rated highest
by the respondents (M = 3.29, of a possible score of 4.00). Laissez-faire style was least
preferred (M = 0.50).
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
6
Table 1
Leadership Factors Measured by MLQ-5X
Idealized influence (Attributed)
Idealized influence Behavior
Management-By-Exception(Active)
Management-By-Exception(Passive)
Inspirational Motivation
Intellectual Stimulation
Extra Effort
Individualized Consideration
Effectiveness
Contingent Reward
Satisfaction
Laissez-Faire
Note: Scale values ranged from 0 to 4
N
M
SD
50
50
50
51
51
51
51
51
50
48
51
50
2.87
3.17
1.45
0.92
3.29
3.00
2.97
3.14
3.17
2.92
3.25
0.50
.58
.53
.59
.53
.48
.49
.52
.49
.36
.51
.47
.44
Table 2 gives data on preferences among the five leadership styles. Democratic
leadership style had the highest rating (M = 3.17, out of a possible score of 4.00),
followed by transformational leadership style (M = 3.09). Transactional leadership style
was less preferred (M = 1.77), followed by autocratic leadership style (M = 1.56).
Laissez-faire leadership style was least preferred (M = 0.50).
Table 2
Leadership Style Preferences
Laissez-faire
Transformational
Transactional
Democratic
Autocratic
N
M
SD
50
49
47
48
48
0.50
3.09
1.77
3.17
1.56
.44
.40
.32
.48
.51
Pearson‟s Product Moment Correlation (often denoted r)was used to determine the
correlation among all five leadership styles. There was a significant correlation between
transformational and democratic leadership styles (Table 3).
Transformational leadership style had highest significant correlation with democratic
leadership style (r =0.634, p < 0.01). Autocratic leadership style had a significant
correlation only with transactional leadership style (r =0.387, p < 0.01).
Transformational and democratic leadership styles correlated negatively with laissez-
7
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
faire leadership style(r =-0.200 and r =-0.225). There was significant correlation
between transactional and democratic leadership styles (r =0.295, p < 0.05).
Table 3
Correlation among Leadership Styles
1. Laissez-faire
2. Transformational
3. Transactional
4. Democratic
5. Autocratic
**p< 0.01, 2-tailed
*p<0.05, 2-tailed
1
2
3
4
1
-.200
.066
-.225
.139
1
.445**
.634**
.134
1
.295*
.387**
1
.123
5
1
Preferred leadership styles, based on demographic differences. Female school
principals rated both transformational and democratic leadership style higher than male
school principals with mean difference of 0.07 and 0.17, respectively. Male school
principals rated transactional, laissez-faire, and autocratic leadership styles higher than
did females. Both male and female school principals rated laissez-faire leadership style
as their least preferred leadership style. Democratic leadership style was rated the highest
by both genders, followed by transformational leadership style.
The results of the study indicated that democratic and transformational leadership styles
were perceived to be the most preferred styles of leadership. This finding confirms
literature suggestion that leadership style for the new millennium should embrace
transformational concepts. School principals indicated that those who use
transformational leadership styles also prefer democratic leadership and they did not
prefer laissez-faire leadership style. The correlation between leadership styles and job
satisfaction indicate that both democratic and transformational school principals were
satisfied with their jobs. Out of 55 respondents, 32 (58.2%) had multiple roles and 23
(41.8%) had single roles. In terms of gender, 58% of male and 58% of female school
principals had multiple administrative roles, such as being a principal and a
superintendent.
Apparently, “setting explicit goals for learning” was the preferred future solution for
both male and female school principals(M =3.13, and M = 3.64, on a 0-4 scale). School
principals view setting goals to be more important than increasing salary of teachers.
Increasing dialogue between school principals and funding bodies was mentioned as
helping in raising funding levels. Dialogue among collaborative groups was rated with a
mean above 3.0 for both male and female school principals (M = 3.03 and M =3.36).
Potential discrimination and socio-economic status that school principals encounter.
School principals administer students from diverse family backgrounds, gender, race,
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
8
religious affiliation, and disability. Socio-economic status as a potential problem issue
was rated highest(M = 2.35), and religious practices of students was rated lowest (M =
1.08). Students‟ race was rated second highest (M= 2.08).
Correlation analysis was used to relate leadership styles with potential discrimination
and poverty issues. There were significant correlations between transactional leadership
and socio-economic status (r = 0.442, p < 0.01), gender (r =0.490, p < 0.01), and race (r
= 0.300, p < 0.05) (Table 4). There was significant correlation between autocratic
leadership and expectation to encounter problems associated with social-economic status
(r = 0.303, p < 0.05).
Table 4
Correlation among Preferred Leadership Styles and Expectations to Encounter Potential
Discrimination and Poverty Issues
Q56
Laissez-faire
.189
Transformational
.221
Transactional
.442**
Democratic
.059
Autocratic
.303*
* p< 0.05, 2-tailed
** p< 0.01, 2-tailed
Q56 = Socio-economic status of students
Q57 = Gender of Students
Q58 = Race of students
Q59 = Religious practices of students
Q60 = Disability
Q57
Q58
.119
.164
.490**
.178
.287
.278
.003
.300*
-.011
.149
Q59
.118
.046
.165
-.084
-.176
Q60
.188
.056
.255
.117
-.063
Experienced effects of poverty and discrimination among students. Low economic
status of students‟ families emerged as one of the most pressing issues for school
principals. Family financial instability was mentioned as affecting students‟ education
achievement and lower graduation rates. Many students from poor families “lose hope
that they are 'worthy' to accomplish goals and lose motivation due to lack of
encouragement, resources (who to seek and where to seek), isolation from urban areas
where resources are available.”
Poverty affects students‟ performance as it “decreases the ability of students to focus on
learning.”Students from poor families experienced learning difficulties whereby school
principals had to “meet the needs of all the students despite the socio-economic divisions
(the gap between the „haves and the „have-nots).” Socio-economic difference was
mention to affect students‟ reading and vocabulary. One respondent mentioned that
“schools are forced to do more” to cater for resources that parents of students could not
afford.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
9
Some students from low income families had experienced living in “broken homes and
having multiple step moms and dads” causing “students to bring a lot of baggage to
school that negatively affects their ability to concentrate and learn when at school.”
School principals had to face drinking and drug problems while “parents condone these
behaviors which make it impossible for schools to keep kids away from drugs and
alcohol.” Lack of guidance at students‟ homes was also mentioned to contribute on
students‟ behaviors. The challenge for school principals was mentioned with survey
respondent as the “lack of parents‟ involvement” in supporting education of their
children.
Academic achievement was mentioned as being coupled with socio-economic status of
students‟ families. Students from low income families had low academic “achievement
due to socio-economic inequalities and materialistic values.” Apathy was mentioned as a
challenge in improving academic achievement of students. One respondent mentioned
that technology can have positive or negative impact on students; therefore, “schools
need to continue along with families and religious institutions work on instilling
morality” related to technology.
Lack of funding for programs that help students was mentioned as a challenge to school
principals especially in affording to offer programs that help students from low-income
families. Lack of state‟s financial support has affected those students “at risk of not
graduating.”
School principals were faced with students‟ issues of bulling, harassment, drugs, alcohol,
and economic inequality. One respondent mentioned that “not enough respect is given to
education” because of what people “see and hear” about schools.
In order to make changes to the school and school community one respondent mentioned
that the changing mindset of the people “about the effects that poverty has on students”
is important. One of ways to learn about students is for educators to have knowledge
about “students‟ backgrounds”. One respondent viewed reversing the trend of reducing
educational funding by the state as one of the solution to meet needs of students from
who might be struggling due to poverty and discrimination. Social reform can create
awareness of students‟ challenges and needs. “Higher level thinking” in the classroom
was mentioned by a respondent to help students to solve their problems.
Some respondents mentioned that in order to promote change school principals need
communicate with students‟ parents and let them take responsibility of their children
education. One respondent proposed motivating students to spend “hours of reading and
writing” as part of taking responsibilities for their education. “School teachers and
principals should be accountable for students‟ achievement.”
School principals can reduce issues of poverty and discrimination through “developing
programs that meet individual needs rather than group needs.” One respondent
mentioned that school principals can “promote social skills of all students to provide
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
10
self-esteem”. Positive school climate and justice system can help students‟ learning. One
respondent mentioned that the state need “to invest in the educational system to increase
economic development and produce graduates who are ready to meet the rigors of postsecondary education or the workforce.”
School principals were committed to change through encouraging social reform and
developing programs that meet individual student‟s needs. Open ended responses linked
the possibility of students from low-income families to have low motivation in
accomplishing their educational goals. Broken families were mentioned to add pressure
to students‟ academic and lack of support from home. School principals supported
students from low-income families and those with behavioral needs. The support
included offering equal opportunity, justice, school funding resources parents could not
afford.
Discussion
This research study determined the preferred leadership styles of South Dakota school
principals. The leadership styles were to determine the best ways of approaching issues
of poverty and discrimination. School principals rated themselves highest in preference
for transformational and democratic leadership styles. Their preferred leadership styles
provided their views on how to reduce issues of poverty and discrimination. Variation in
individuals‟ choice and inclusion of experience makes each school principal to have
unique ways of dealing with institutional issues. Personal expression can be a source of
order and supportive strength in the leadership role.
The achievement of institutional goals has higher implication on the leadership styles
used as the means to achieve final results. Principals are in the position of public domain
whereby their relation with individual institutional member indicates the scope of
leadership in dealing with matters of institution and its stakeholders. Perspectives of
external stakeholders‟ reality of leadership goal can be viewed either attainable or
diverted from reality. Responses from principals are relevant to innovation required to
meet challenges of poverty and discrimination. Although leadership styles
Leadership in schools has been a challenging task that needs balance between school and
school community needs. The socio-economic and culture of community around the
school permeate students‟ behavior and their expectations in schools. School principals‟
awareness of students‟ background including cultural values might be helpful during
budgeting and decision making.
This perspective resonates with the characterization of the effects of poverty and
discrimination reported in the literature. This study showed that the South Dakota
principals responding believe, as other educational leaders, that social change to address
poverty and discrimination can be best nurtured with transformational and democratic
leadership styles. Dialogue is preferred over the regulatory whip to control, encourage,
or empower people suffering the effects of poverty. Despite school challenges affiliated
with poverty and discrimination in South Dakota, school principals view dialogue as one
of the options that can help schools offer higher quality of education.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
11
Many school principals mentioned that “apathy” was the challenge in dealing with
students. Students‟ motivation can be attributed to cultural awareness of importance of
education and support to achieve goals of learning. Family role models can help students
to learn, although some students can go beyond community expectation.
Leadership styles of school principals help students to see school as a trustable learning
environment where their needs can be met. Students‟ race and religion correlate
negatively with democratic leadership style. School principals need to be aware that
working in a school where majority of students and parents are not of the same race need
to understand the importance of associating with the school community. Some issues of
students trusting their teachers of different races were instilled by parents who
downgraded educational responses of their children in attaining formal education.
Transformational and democratic leadership styles and theories are essential for leaders
who will make progress in this context.
Conclusion
School principals are perceived to embrace change through their transformational
leadership style. Although school principals have the capacity to bring changes in
schools, poverty continues to hinder progress. Preferred leadership behavior related to
democratic and transformational styles can be effective in engaging parents and
community members to improve their schools. Leaders need to balance the vision of
institutions to its stakeholders so that school employees and students can have similar
perceptions of the institution. But, poverty results in adequate funding for both the
schools and the families in parts of the State. This poverty works against school
improvement for children. Some school principals‟ initiatives are hindered by parents
who condone unacceptable behavior in schools such as use of drugs and alcohol. It is a
huge challenge for principals to maintain a vision of the school as important for students
who want to get ahead when some parents let their children know that education may not
help them to avoid poverty or discrimination. Students who experience both
discrimination and poverty learn to have little hope in the school as a social institution.
The discrepancy between school values and some family values are challenges brought
to school by students.
Many school principals in South Dakota serve in administrative multiple roles. Some
male and female school principals have multiple leadership roles in schools. Leading
multiple schools in South Dakota does not indicate much difference with leaders of one
school on how to solve issues of poverty and discrimination. Contingent theory helps
leaders to be flexible in changing their methods of decision-making. Flexibility is a key
point for leaders with multiple roles in solving diverse problems.
Students‟ family income can affect students‟ learning. In order to help needy students,
school principals rely in part on creating programs funded by the State of South Dakota.
Many school principals who need money for special programs are affected by economic
downturn which forces State to reduce funds. The economic downturn affects students‟
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
12
ability to receive financial support from low-income parents. The cycle of hopelessness
and low expectations can infect a community. Transformation leadership, visioning, and
engagement of school leaders in projects for economic development can be important in
rural communities.
According to the research results, students from the poorest county such as Ziebach are
subjected to some family financial challenges which can affect their academic
achievements. The importance of democratic and transformational educational
leadership cannot be underestimated in facing deep and continual issues of poverty and
discrimination.
References
Avolio, B. J. (2011). Full range leadership development. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE
publications, Inc.
Baumgartel, H. (1957). Leadership Style as a Variable in Research
Administration. Administrative Science Quarterly, 2(3), 344-360. Retrieved
from EBSCOhost.
Bennis, W., &, Goldsmith, J. (1997). Learning to lead: A workbook on becoming a
leader (Rev. ed). Cambridge, MA: Perseus books.
Cooper, A. A. (2002). Leadership in organizations: Professional development series.
Cincinnati, OH: Southern Educational publishing.
Donahue, J. D., & Nye , J. S. (Eds.). (2003). For the people: Can we fix public
service? Washington, D.C: Brooking Institution Press.
Hilliard, A. T. (2010). Student leadership at the University. Journal of College
Teaching & Learning, 7(2), 93-98. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
Kjær, A. M. (2004). Governance. Malden, MA: Polity Press.
Ledeen, M. A. (1999). Machiavelli on modern leadership: Why Machiavelli's iron
rules are as timely and important today as five centuries ago. New York,
NY: Truman Talley/Books St. Martin's Press.
Lee, R. J., & King, S. N. (2001). Discovering the leader in you: A guide to
realizing your personal leadership potential. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- Bass.
Mitchell, M. M., & Poutiatine, M. I. (2001).Finding an experiential approach in
graduate leadership curricula. Journal of Experiential Education, 24(3), 17985.Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
Miller, B. J., & Sundre, D. L. (2008). Achievement goal orientation toward
general
education versus overall coursework. Journal of General
Education, 57(3), 152169.Retrieved from EBSCOhost.
Nye, J. S. (2008).The power to lead. New York, NY: Oxford University press, Inc.
Palen, J. J. (2001). Social problems for the twenty-first century. New York, NY: The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Palmer, S. (1998). The university today: Scholarship, self-interest, and politics.
Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc.
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Rice, J., & Urban Institute, N. (2010). Principal Effectiveness and Leadership in an
Era of Accountability: What Research Says. Brief 8. National Center for
Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research, Retrieved from
EBSCOhost.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
14
Women’s Voices on Gender Mainstreaming in ODL Institutions:
The case of the Open University of Tanzania
Martina K. Rwegerela, Cornelia K. Muganda and Honoratha K. Mushi
The Open University of Tanzania, Faculty of Education
Abstract: Open and Distance Learning (ODL) has widen education opportunities to those who
due to historical, socio-cultural and economic barriers could not access higher education. There
are still less women representation at ODL institutions. At the Open University of Tanzania, the
enrolment of female students is less than 30%, while women academic staff are 119 constituting
35.5% of total number of academic staff. Women administrative staff constitute 57% most of them
in lower cadres of employment (OUT 2012). Gender mainstreaming in the institutions has been
identified as a viable mechanism for enhancing gender equity in education. The study is based on
a recent qualitative research study entitled” Women‟s Voices on Gender Mainstreaming in
Higher Learning Institutions: The Case of The Open University of Tanzania”. A sample of 100
women from different categories of OUT staff, work stations and age groups was purposively
selected from the target population. Open handed questionnaire, interviews and documentation
techniques were used to collect data while content and discourse analysis were employed to
analyse the data.
The findings of the study indicated that the prevailing understanding of gender mainstreaming
was that it is „a process of increasing women participation in all aspects of the organization‟.
Most women at OUT did not interrogate gender perspectives and practices in relation to existing
policies, guidelines and plans. Some voices however, indicated that certain practices including
budgets, staff development and work environment were gender blind. Some of the positive gender
initiatives at the institution require strengthening.
Introduction
For a long time in history women‟s voices have been silenced by socio-cultural
traditions which do not allow women to air their views even in the matters concerning
their own lives. Socio-cultural inclinations and stereotyping have created and reinforced
the relationship between discrimination and silence. Social construction of gender and
the relationship between sexes has rendered women‟s views not valued. Meanwhile,
men‟s views, tasks, roles, functions are valued higher than those of women. Traditionally
in many tribes of Tanzania for example, women were not allowed to contribute to men‟s
talk, they had to listen. This applied also to community meetings whereby women were
not allowed to contribute even in the matters concerning their own lives, including child
bearing, family resources and education. In contemporary time policies, structures,
procedures and practices play a very important role in shaping conditions of life, and in
doing so, they often institutionalize the maintenance and reproduction of the social
construction of gender. Often this construction of gender contains an unequal power
relationship with male domination and female subordination in most spheres of life;
from family up to places of work. Discrimination of women takes away their confidence
and courage to act or speak where men are in control. The research and literatures on
gender often focus on women. This is because gender inequalities are still more often a
manifestation of women‟s lower status in income, power to make decisions and access to
education, services and resources.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
15
Gender mainstreaming is a process that aims at redressing such situations hence
widening opportunities for both women and men in acquiring resources, social services
and power to make decisions. It is important therefore to examine gender mainstreaming
at an institution providing resources and educational services. Focusing on the Open
University of Tanzania this paper examines gender mainstreaming in open and distance
learning (ODL) institutions.
One of the major potentials of open and distance learning (ODL) is to widen education
opportunities to those who due to historical, socio-cultural and economic barriers could
not access higher education. Thus, gender equity and balance in education is among the
envisaged achievements of ODL. There are still less women representation at ODL
institutions. At the Open University of Tanzania, for example, the enrolment of female
students is less than 30%, the number of female is also less than men. Gender
mainstreaming in the institutions has been identified as a viable mechanism for
enhancing gender equity in education. This paper analyses the voices of women staff at
ODL institutions on gender mainstreaming. The paper is based on a recent qualitative
research study entitled” Women‟s Voices on Gender Mainstreaming in Higher Learning
Institutions: The Case of The Open University of Tanzania”. The purpose of the study
was to register OUT women staff‟s voices; to assess their understanding of gender
mainstreaming and analyse their views on policy, plans, procedures and practices that
were either challenging or enhancing gender mainstreaming at their work place. The
paper discusses the finding of the study and suggestions of strategies for enhancing
gender balance through gender mainstreaming are proffered and as a way forward.
Understanding Gender Mainstreaming
Gender mainstreaming is a globally accepted strategy for promoting gender equality.
Gender mainstreaming is not an end in itself but a strategy or approach; it is a means to
achieve the goals of gender equality. Understanding gender mainstreaming requires
clarity on related concepts of gender, equity and equality.
The concept of gender
Gender refers to social attributes and opportunities associated with being female or male
and the relationships between women and men. These attributes, opportunities and
relationships are largely, socially constructed and are learned through socialization
processes. Gender determines what is expected, allowed and valued in a woman or a
man in responsibilities assigned, activities undertaken, access to and control over
resources as well as decision-making opportunities. Gender is part of broad sociocultural context
Gender equity
Gender equity is the quality of being fair and just to both men and women. It includes
fairness and justice in the distribution between men and women of responsibilities,
access to resources, control over resources and access to benefits. It embraces
affirmative action where and when necessary. This implies that gender equity does not
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
16
mean sameness between women and men hence where there are gender inequalities
positive discrimination in favour of the disadvantaged group or individual is encouraged.
Gender equity is a step towards gender equality.
Gender equality
Gender equality is between women and men. It refers to the equal rights, responsibilities
of women and men, girls and boys. Equality implies that women and men have equal
rights to resources, services, responsibilities and opportunities. Gender equality implies
that the interests, needs and priorities of both women and men are taken into
consideration. Therefore gender equality is not a women‟s (feminist) issue but it
concerns men as well. Equality is a human rights issue and a precondition for and an
indicator of justice.
Gender mainstreaming for achieving gender equality
The term gender mainstreaming was logged in global policy at the Beijing conference in
1995 and adopted as a development accepted methodology for achieving gender equality
(United Nations, 1997). Specifically, gender mainstreaming is a strategy for making
women‟s and men‟s concerns and experiences an integral part of designing,
implementing, monitoring and evaluating programmes and activities in the socioeconomic and political spheres of the society. It involves a process of incremental
change in policies, strategies and activities for the benefit of both women and men.
Gender mainstreaming is a process of assessing and bridging gender imbalances.
Therefore, policy, plans, programmes and decisions should incorporate gender analysis
at all levels in order to contribute to equal outcome for women and men Thus, gender
mainstreaming is about more than gender analysis; it involves all the steps between
analysis and incorporating that analysis into the policy and programme decisions that
will contribute to equality of outcomes for men and women (Hunt, 2000). The ultimate
goal of gender mainstreaming is to achieve gender equality.
The Need to Examine Gender Mainstreaming at the OUT
The Open University of Tanzania is a higher education institution offering programmes
through ODL. One of the major potentials of open and distance learning (ODL) is to
widen education opportunities to those who due to historical, socio-cultural and
economic barriers could not access higher education. Thus, gender equity and balance in
education is among the envisaged achievements of ODL. To date however, there are still
gender imbalances in ODL institutions including the Open University of Tanzania.
In response to UN declaration, national frameworks and for harmonious human relations
there is need for each institution to mainstream gender into its policy plans and practices.
Through declarations and protocols at regional and sub-regional levels, African nations
have expressed support to gender mainstreaming. The Nairobi Looking Forward
Strategies (1985); The Beijing Declaration and Platform of Action (1995) and Gender
Development Declaration of the Southern African Development (1997) are expressions
of the support to gender mainstreaming.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
17
Tanzania has been in the forefront to promote equity and equality for its citizens both
men and women especially at the policy level. The United Republic of Tanzania (URT)
constitution of 1977 (as amended from time to time) provides for recognition of equality
of persons, and the constitution has incorporated a Bill of Rights, which bans
discrimination on all grounds. Article 9 of the constitution provides for respect of human
rights as provided for in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 21 asserts
that, every citizen of the United Republic of Tanzania has a right to participate in the
governance of the country directly or through their elected representatives. Article 22
provides for equality of opportunities and equal rights through equal terms and
conditions to hold any public office. The Constitution establishes an affirmative
principle as a temporary measure to rectify the historical gender imbalances.
Tanzania is a signatory of various international conventions related to gender. The
government has endorsed and adopted the implementation of various strategies and plans
of actions as an effort to promote gender equity and equality in Tanzania. In order to
address gender issues properly, Tanzania formulated the Women and Development
Policy in 1992. This was replaced by the National Gender Policy in 2000. The policy
directs formation of gender focal points within the government structures at all levels.
In response to national policy and directives, OUT has undertaken initiatives of
mainstreaming gender in its policy and plans. The OUT Charter stipulates guidance on
systematic execution and accountability for gender concerns at OUT headquarter and its
Regional Centres. The OUT Five Years Rolling and Strategic Plans which is regularly
reviewed includes gender equity and mainstreaming as one of the priority objectives; the
institutional structure provides for Gender Steering Committee as one of the decision
making participatory organs of the university. Efforts towards institutionalizing gender
issues at OUT have led to the establishment of the Gender Unit of OUT under the office
of the Vice Chancellor.
Despite these commendable efforts, however, gender balance and mainstreaming has not
yet been attained at the Open University of Tanzania. There are gender imbalances
observable in areas of student enrollment and participation, curricula, staff recruitment,
human resource development, leadership and institutional culture. Student enrolments,
for example, indicate that female students constitute less than 30% of the total
enrolment. By 2011 male academic staff constituted 65% of the total while women
constituted 57% of the administrative staff, most of them in low cadre jobs.
The situation presented above indicates a mismatch between the policies and the
situation of gender equality at the institution. The question are the members of the staff
aware of the policies and plans that are supportive to gender mainstreaming? Are the
policies and plans being translated in actions and activities? Which plans and practices
are envisaged to be supportive to gender mainstreaming?
A qualitative study was deemed necessary so as to examine policy and practices at OUT.
The objective of phase1 of this research, whose results are a focus of this paper, was to
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
18
register OUT women staff‟s voices; to assess their understanding of gender
mainstreaming and analyse their views on policy, plans, procedures and practices at their
work place that were either challenging or enhancing gender mainstreaming or were
gender blind.
Methodology
The study was mainly qualitative research with descriptive statistics for elaboration and
clarification of issues. A sample of 100 women from different categories of OUT staff,
work stations and age groups was purposively selected from the target population which
comprised all women staff at the institution. Documentation, interviews
(Kiswahili/English languages) and focused group discussions were employed to collect
data while content and discourse analysis were employed to analyse the data. Related
ideas/perspectives were clustered to form thematic areas that are presented in this paper.
This first phase of research focused on women participants mainly because they are the
more negatively affected of the two gender groups.
Findings
The following is the presentation and discussion of voices of OUT women staff on
gender mainstreaming at OUT based on their experience as OUT women
workers/employees. The participants were women in different positions at the Open
University of Tanzania: Administrators, Human resource, Academicians, Secretaries,
Registry clerks and Office attendants. Their age profile indicated that the majority range
from 18-45 and only a few were above 46.
Participants Understanding of Gender Mainstreaming
The research findings show that gender mainstreaming is a new concept for the majority
of women employees at the Open University of Tanzania. Most of the participants
indicated „femininazation‟ of gender mainstreaming. While some see gender
mainstreaming biased towards women and against men others sees it as a process of
emancipating women from male domination. The following are some of the statements
of the participants
„Gender mainstreaming is giving women a chance to take leadership positions‟.
„Gender mainstreaming is taking actions to address women issues‟
„Gender mainstreaming is to remove discrimination of women by men.‟
More participants however, were aware that the concept of gender included both women
and men. During the focused group discussion some participants required an explanation
why the research included women only while the focus was on gender. The researchers
explained that this was one of the three phases of the research. The second phase will
constitute men‟s voice; and phase 3 will be comparative analyses of the voices of both
men and women. The researchers further explained that this first phase of the research
has focused on women participants mainly because the analysis of the gender situation
of OUT indicate that women are the more negatively affected of the two gender groups.
Gender Mainstreaming and OUT Policies, Procedures and Structures
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
19
The Swedish international Development Agency (SIDA) has contended that gender
mainstreaming strategies can be identified in three spheres/ arenas including: (i) the
organization‟s structure, policies and procedures; and in its culture.(ii) in the substantive
activity that it undertakes (its programme) and (iii) in the impact of this work on
increased gender equality in broader community (Schalkwyk, Thomas and Woroniuk
1996:4) As stated earlier OUT has a number of policies on student Affairs; staff
recruitment, deployment/placement; staff development, research and publication;
HIV/AIDS, research and consultancy, quality assurance and gender mainstreaming; etc;
to guide all major practices. However, majority of participants were ignorant of the
existence of most of these polices. The participants contended that the policies are not
made available to all employees. “They are kept as gray literature in the library hence
most workers are not aware whether policies are gender mainstreamed or not”, said one
of the participants.
A few of the participants of the focused group discussion (FGD) said that they were
aware of the gender policy which is awaiting printing but did not know its content.
“I have heard about the gender policy, the Gender Unit coordinator talked about it at
certain meeting; but I have not seen the document. Where and how can I get it? Where is
the OUT Gender Unit office?” Some of the women employees who have come across
OUT policies but are not fluent in English language expressed that they could not
understand the content of the policies.
“The documents are written in English language. They should be translated into
Kiswahilli language so that the majority of us can read and understand them”. Said one
participant. “Even for those who can read and understand English they need to be
guided by experts because the policies are written in a technical language that is not
easy to understand” Another participant added. Such statement indicated a feeling of
exclusion from the contents of the policies and even the policy formulation processes
which consequently make gender mainstreaming in policies a far reached dream. Thus,
the researchers probed further on the issue. It was revealed that normally those who are
eligible to attend forums where draft policies are discussed hold certain positions. The
majority of these positions are held by men.
The participants also questioned some of the policies on gender mainstreaming; “When
you look at the OUT policies you wonder. Currently all the top leadership positions are
held by men. Women make about 30% of management. But the policy aims at increasing
the number of women in management positions up to 40% by the year 2015. Why not
50%?” A participant lamented. Other participant added “What does that mean? Does it
mean there are no women to hold top administrative posts? ….Why can‟t the policy aim
higher for women?” Such statements indicate that given the opportunity the female staff
of OUT could question the policies and identify gender mainstreaming issues.
Regarding the organization structure, OUT institutional structure provides for a Gender
Steering Committee as one of the decision making participatory organs of the university.
This Committee is chaired by the Vice Chancellor. However, the participants noted that
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
20
the committee is not representational. The members of this committee comprise of
heads of faculties, directorates and administrative departments the majority of who are
men. This situation indicates gender imbalances in participation in the decision making
processes.
Gender mainstreaming activities at OUT
Majority of the participants were not aware whether there were gender mainstreaming
activities at OUT. “I have been with OUT for more than a year now I have never heard
about gender activities”. One participant said.. “I have recently heard about a social
activity to commemorate the „a women‟s day. That is all”. Another participant said.
The findings also indicated that there is no clear strategy for advocating gender
mainstreaming at the institution. The following statements denote this situation
“Sometime back, about 3 or 4 years ago we had a seminar on gender. It was
good. I thought the event was to happen every year”.
“I think last year there was a workshop on gender and HIV/AIDS. Only a few
were selected to participate. I do not know what they discussed”.
“Fortunately, I participate in the RSP workshops. There is where I have heard
about OUT gender policy and action plans. But only high ranked academicians
and administrators participate in RSP workshops”.
Gender Sensitive Policy and Practices
Participants from the faculties indicated that there were gender courses in almost every
faculty. However these are not coordinated and not all students study these courses. In
some departments gender courses are elective. There is no Gender programme offered at
OUT which could provide skills and in-depth understanding of gender and gender issues.
Such programme could in turn produce more gender experts. “If OUT had a gender
studies programmes like they have at Makerere we would have more gender experts.” It
was also revealed that in recent years advertisement for recruitment for posts at OUT is
including a statement that women are encouraged to apply. Some of the participants
required an explanation on this. They asked what difference it make if the criteria for
recruitment (e.g. GPA) are the same. The explanation was that if a man and a woman
had the same criteria then the woman will be selected for the post.
Voice and silence
Participants indicated that they had not been voicing their gender concerns because they
did not often participate in the forums that discussed gender issues. Those who
participated in some discussions on policy and procedures explained that sometimes they
were not sure it was the right place or they were the right persons to raise gender issues.
Participants at the FGD expressed that the meeting was an eye opener. The following are
some of the statements by participants
“..this is good. I have learnt something about gender mainstreaming…”
“We should meet more often”.
“… We could use such meetings to ask those who have knowledge and
experiences on gender mainstreaming to educate others”.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
21
The participants urged women employees to collaborate and to give a helping hand to
each other. “those on higher positions should pull others who are below. And those in
lower positions should push others who are above. This way we will reach very far”.
Thus, participation in the FGD was seen as a way of giving confidence hence voice to
whole group.
Suggestions for Transformation
Transformation means taking steps to make changes for the betterment of the situation.
Most of the participants agreed that OUT was increasingly taking some strides in gender
mainstreaming but more needs to be done if OUT was to achieve gender equity in the
near future. The participants‟ recommendations included
OUT need to create awareness of all employees on what constitutes gender
mainstreaming through gender sensitization meetings, seminars, workshops and
events.
OUT management should make policies available and accessible to all.
OUT to train staff on gender and gender mainstreaming in so that staff are able
to identify the presence or absence of gender mainstreaming in policies, plans
and practices.
OUT need to increase the budget for gender mainstreaming activities.
Disseminate the OUT gender policy. Enhancing research on gender and gender
related issues.
OUT should strengthen the gender Unit which in turn would coordinate gender
mainstreaming activities and address gender issues. “The gender unit should
establish a gender help desk …. If a I had a gender issue I would not know
where to go”, one participant stated.
Concluding Remarks
From the voices of women staff at the Open University of Tanzania we note that lack of
awareness and limited knowledge about gender mainstreaming are challenges to gender
mainstreaming and gender equality at ODL institutions. Such challenges may be met by
institutions organizing gender awareness and gender sensitization seminars, workshops
and meetings; improving participation in decision making processes by ensuring gender
balance among participants and capacity building through training on gender analysis
and gender mainstreaming so that OUT staff and students gain knowledge, skills and
competences in gender analysis and gender mainstreaming. It is also important for
institutions to undertake gender analysis of all institutional policies and to ensure that all
members of the institution (employees and students) are aware of the gender
mainstreaming strategies and activities.
We also conclude that gender blind policies are in most cases gender insensitive.
Therefore, institutions need to engage gender experts to ensure that policies and
important documents contain correct conceptualization of gender and gender is
mainstreamed in the documents.
ODL institutions need to strengthen or establish a strong gender coordinating unit which
can provide leadership on the gender mainstreaming at the institution and act as a focal
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
22
point whereby students and employees can share expertise and experiences on gender
issues; air their views and concerns; network and collaborate for the purpose of
enhancing gender equality at the institution and beyond. Institutions should also
encourage and support learning from good practices in gender mainstreaming.
ODL institutions should encourage and enhance research on gender and gender issues;
document and learn from good practices of gender mainstreaming and share research and
experiences on gender mainstreaming, equity and equality. The good practices can be
within or outside the institution. One mechanism would be establishing a databank of
research and literature on gender at institution, which can scale up to national, sub
regional and regional levels.
References
Hunt, J. (2000) Institutionalizing Gender Equality Commitment in Developing
Organizations and Programmes, The Winston Churchill Memorial Trust of
Australia, Canberra. Retrieved May, 2012 from http://scripts.churchiltrust.
com.au/search.php
Gender mainstreaming. (2002). Retrieved May, 2012 from http://www.un.org/
womenwatch/osagi/gendermainstreaming.html.
Schalkwyk, J.H., Thomas B. & Woroniuk. (1996). A strategy for achieving equality
between women and men. SIDA, Stockholm.
OUT. (2012). The Open University of Tanzania facts and figures 2011/2012. OUT,
Dar es Salaam.
UNDP. (2000). Learning manual and information pack on gender main streaming.
Retrieved May, 2012 from http://www.undp.org/gender
UN. (1995). Beijing declaration and platform for action, United Nations. New York.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
23
Prospects and Challenges at the Open University of Tanzania:
Experience from the Field
Raymond Mutasingwa Bitegeko a and Elinami Swaib
a
University of Dodoma, College of Education
b
The open University of Tanzania, Faculty of Education
Abstract: While effective and balanced teaching and support systems have been pointed as among
the contributors to the success at Open and Distance Learning (ODL) institutions and necessary
conditions for learners‟ retention at ODL, practitioners at Open University of Tanzania seem to
ignore this balance. As we are celebrating the 20 years of Open University of Tanzania existence,
there is a need to stop and assess how we are faring on. This paper presents the finding of the
opportunities of ODL and challenges facing distance learners at the Open University of Tanzania
based in Kagera Region. These opportunities, challenges and some suggestions to rectify the
situation are brought to view as eye openers for the OUT to gain insights and move forward while
making informed decisions on how to capture the opportunities while minimizing the challenges
that its students face as they pursue their course of studies.
Key words; Open and Distance Learning, Challenges, Students service supports.
Introduction
This paper presents the finding of the opportunities of Open and Distance learning
(ODL) and challenges facing distance learners at the Open University of Tanzania
(OUT) based in Kagera Region. Since 1994, OUT has been providing higher education
opportunities to Kagera region residents who are unable to attend traditional universities
due to various socio-economic barriers. For example, women who have been denied
access to higher education, because of household responsibilities, and workers who
prefer to upgrade their education level while continuing with their employment
responsibilities. Learners from these groups would otherwise denied access to higher
education.
The potential benefits of ODL related to its flexibility, accessibility, affordability and life
based education are numerous. ODL could enable an expansion of tertiary enrollments at
less cost per student than under the traditional residential campus system (Pityana,
2004), since it allows the training of more people. Greater flexibility enables ODL
courses to adapt to specific student needs or work requirements, thereby enabling greater
relevance (Saint, 1999). ODL also accommodates the growing demand for lifelong
learning more easily than do residential programmes.
The statistics shows that, ODL is increasingly dominating global educational systems. It
is revealed that about 4.6 millions students are enrolled in ODL courses in United States
(Allen & Seaman, 2010), compared to 1.6 million students in 2002. In India, 22% of the
total numbers of students enrolled in India‟s higher education system are distance
learners (Forzdar & Kannan, 2006). Meanwhile as in 2006 in China, 1.4 million or
24.4% of its 5.8 million students in higher education were studying through ODL
(Forzdar & Kannan, 2006). According to Perryer at el. (2004), in England more than 2.4
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
24
million students were enrolled in ODL and it is estimated that there are about 1.6
distance learners in Turkey.
In Tanzania, by 2010, OUT had already admitted 56,889 students (OUT, 2011).
However, the data show that enrollment has been on the increase but completion rate is
very low, though on the increase trend. For example, between 2000 - 2009, OUT had
admitted 24,602 (Table 1) students in various degree programmes, however, in the same
period only 3,519 students had managed to graduate (OUT, 2011).
Table 1
OUT enrollments and graduation in degree programmes 2000-2009
Year
Enrollments
Graduands
2000
675
47
2001
1209
71
2002
1340
68
2003
1567
192
2004
1920
210
2005
2692
380
2006
3460
296
2007
5668
530
2008
2565
466
2009
3506
1259
Total
Source: OUT, 2011
24602
3519
Such low completion rate is a sign that distance learners at OUT do experience obstacles
on their educational journey. Despite the expanding growth of ODL and individual
learners‟ self struggle, imbalanced teaching and lack of effective support seems to hinder
the smooth utilization of perceived ODL advantages. Although, successful learning at a
distance essentially demands learner‟s self-directing (Bhalalusesa, 1999); supports to
students from immediate social environment within which learning is pursued and from
the educational institution offering distance education cannot be ignored.
Lack of supports from social environment and from educational institution offering
distance education can increase burden to distance learners who are naturally isolated
learners. ODL students have been shown to face many challenges related to individual,
institutional and instructional (Cross,1981; Mbukusa, 2009; Mushi, 2001). However, to
review the challenges facing distance learners, it is the literature of student attrition that
is most helpful (Bird & Morgan, 2003).This makes a sense that; it is unfortunate we
must wait until students drop out before exploring their needs.
At individual level distance learners are challenged with those barriers related to time
constrains like failure to balance time for self study versus work and family obligations
(Garland, 2007) ; Mbukusa, 2009; Tresman 2002). For example, Garland (2007) found
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
25
that students felt that the course took more time than anticipated because they failed to
judge the demands of work, home and school, thus failed to integrate the demands of off
campus study with family, work and social commitments. In fact studying by distance
mode demands equal time as traditional mode if not more. This is the realistic demands
that most of the students fail to realize prior to enrollment.
Another challenge is lack of experience and/or training with instructional technology
(Juutinen & Saariluoma, 2006; Zirnkle, 2004). Distance learners are lacking two types of
skills namely; technical competence and information literacy that people need in order to
have effective access to contemporary ICT (Mossberger et al., 2003). Further, learners
are challenged by scarce or apparent absent of technological devices (Basaza et al., 2010;
Mbukusa, 2009). Other challenges include problem of transport, greater distance to study
center, poor financial capacity and lack of encouragement from family (Mushi, 2001;
Pierrakes & Xenos, 2004).
Challenges facing distance learners related to instructional includes; poor course material
design (Pierrakes & Xenos, 2004; Tresman 2002) unhelpful course information, lack of
direction and dissatisfaction with tutors (Senanayake & Dadigamuwa 2005; Keegan,
1996). Other challenges are such as low students‟ engagement in teaching and learning.
Tresman (2002) claim that tutors‟ quality is a significant causative of these challenges
and an issue even in well-established ODL institutions like Open University UK.
Indeed, academicians in distance education institutions need a qualitatively extra
dimension. They must have a passion for and commitment to distance education as a
mode of learning delivery, empathy with their learners and skills to participate in a
distance learning mode.
Open Universities may be causing, or at least contributing, to their own students‟ sense
of burden (Tresman, 2002, Carnwell, 2000). Institutional barriers are constructed by
educational institutions with or sometime without their knowledge (Zernke, 2004).The
institutional related challenges includes difficulty in administrative services such as
registering and paying fees, and lack of appropriate advice provided under the umbrella
of students services support. Others are lack of guidance and information prior to
enrolment (Carnwell, 2000), and lack of an effective institutional network of technical
assistance, (Zernkle, 2004). Other cited challenges are those concerned with poor
logistics, inappropriate and delayed study materials at regional centers, lost assignments
and other important documents (Bhalalusesa, 1999; Mbukusa, 2009; Mushi, 2001).
These challenges obviously prompt many problems to distance learners. Among these
problems are high rate of students‟ drop-out and late completion. High attrition in ODL
is regarded as a dilemma for which appropriate solutions as yet to be found. Drop-out
rates vary between countries. In United States, Carr (2000) indicated that drop-out rates
ranged from 20% to 50%, and it range from 20% in the United Kingdom to 45% or more
in Austria, France, and Portugal. It is estimated that in Nigeria and South Africa and
other African countries the drop-out rate is much higher topping 50% and above (Daniel,
2005). Such high dropout rate not only leads to financial loss to both the students and the
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
26
institution, but also leads to student‟s psychological distress as they fail to reach their
ambitions. Some fragile students may feel they have personally failed, when in reality it
is the system that may have made them fail (Fozdar,et al., 2006).
Methodology
Population and Area of the Study
The population of this study consisted of undergraduate students who were enrolled in
various degree programs offered by OUT, ex-OUT students, and OUT staff based at
Kagera Regional Centre. The centre was purposely selected from among 30 regional
centres, because of its familiarity to the researcher who has been a distance learner at the
Centre. Given limited time, choosing regions other than Kagera would take the
researcher more time to get familiar with a new area; a situation that would extend the
research process and make the data collection plan difficult to execute. It involved a
sample of 61 respondents including an academic staff, 39 continuing students and 21
former OUT students.
Procedures
The study adopted descriptive research design. The study also adopted a mixed methods
approach, which is a procedure for collecting, analyzing and “mixing” both quantitative
and qualitative data at some stage of the research process within a single study
(Creswell, 2002). The validation for mixing approach is that neither quantitative nor
qualitative methods are sufficient by themselves to capture the trends and details of the
situation, such as difficult issues pertaining to challenges facing learners in distance
learning environment. Three issues (priority, implementation and integration) in mixed
research approach were observed.
Sampling and sampling Procedures; Because respondents in this study were drawn
from a number of different categories (i.e. continuing students, former students and OUT
staff), the sampling design may be best described as stratified sampling (Patton 1990).
However, elements of simple random and purposive sampling were involved at some
stages. Hence, two sampling techniques namely, stratified- random sampling and
purposive sampling were employed to obtain the sample. The stratified random sampling
was used to choose the respondents from two groups namely, continuing and former
students. Whereas, purposive sampling was used to select the study area and respondents
from main sample framework who were subjected to interviews.
Methods of data collections; Data collection instruments included combination of
various techniques namely: questionnaire, interview and documentary review. The use of
more than one technique was considered as an appropriate way for ensuring reliable and
valid data through triangulation. The primary instrument for data collection was selfdeveloped questionnaire, containing items of different formats, such as dichotomous
answers like “Yes” and “No”, self-assessment items, measured on the likert-scale type,
and open-ended questions. The questionnaire was self-administered to 61 respondents.
The face-to-face semi structured interviews were used as a second tool to get deeper
understanding of the study and supplement the main data gathering technique
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
27
(questionnaire). This method can yield a great deal of useful information and allow the
researcher to use verbal and non-verbal cues to adapt their questions as necessary, clarify
doubts and ensure that the interviewee‟s responses are clearly understood by repeating or
rephrasing their answers to questions (Leedy & Ormrod 2005). Thus, it enables the
researcher to have access to “what a person thinks” (attitudes and beliefs). A sub sample
of continuing and former students from the main research sample framework and one
academic staff were interviewed.
Data Analysis Procedures; In accordance with the employed research approach, data
analysis process blended both qualitative and quantitative analysis. Literature suggests
that the combination of these two types of data analysis is necessary in order to remove
each method‟s shortcomings in the research field (Rourke & Anderson, 2004). The
qualitative aspect focused on the verbal data analysis where as quantitative descriptive
measures such as frequencies and percentages helped to reduce the subjectiveness of
qualitative analysis.
Results and Discussion
The study was carried out From December, 2011 to January, 2012. The focus of the
study was to establish view on the prospects and challenges at the OUT as perceived
mostly by students. These opportunities, challenges and some suggestions to rectify the
situation are brought to view as eye openers for the OUT to gain insights and move
forward while making informed decisions on how to capture the opportunities while
minimizing the challenges that its students face as they pursue their course of studies.
Various issues were emerged from participants‟ responses. The main findings from the
field and discussion follow.
Perceived Individual Related Challenges Facing ODL Students
One specific objective of this research was to determine the individual related challenges
facing ODL students as experienced by continuing and former ODL students. This
objective was guided by the research question, „what are individual related challenges
facing ODL students? In the questionnaire, respondents were asked to rate seven
selected individual related challenges in a likert scale format. These selected challenges
were reviewed from the literature as most cited individual related challenges facing
distance learners.
Over 80% of the respondents either strongly agreed or agreed with three individual
related challenges facing them. These challenges were lack of sufficient time for study
(86.7%); difficulties in learning complex and/or technically demanding materials (85%);
and information and communication technologies barriers (80%). These responses to
individual related challenges confirm with Bean and Metzner attrition model. That,
environmental (socio cultural) variables such as finances, hours of employment, family
responsibilities, and social services infrastructures can determine the succeeding or
withdraw of distance learners (Zirnkle, 2004).
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
28
Results from open responses also revealed that respondents were challenged by lack of
enough time for self-study. One respondent who was a teacher commented that, “high
teaching load left me with little time for self study”. Another respondent posted that, “it
is not easy studying while working”. Many other statements indicated that respondents
were constrained with time management. Likewise, the findings from interviews also
revealed that employment pressure had impact on individual learner learning progress.
One interviewee stated that; “the major problem facing me is lack of time, as most of the
day time is dedicated to work”. Time management problem among the distance learners
is not new. Nash (2005) in United States found that the “number one” challenge facing
distance learners was time management. In another study, Rao and Giuli (2010)
concluded that most of the distance learners face difficult in keeping up with deadline
and completing coursework.
In contrast, two interviewees demonstrated that time management to distance learners is
not the matter of being fully employed or not but it depends on self-commitments and
dedications Interviewee (graduate) mentioned that „I successfully completed my degree
within three years while teaching (working)‟. Another interviewee disclosed that
„studying while fully employed is a matter of self- determinations‟. The same interviewee
continued to highlight that „always time is a scarce resource, is difficult to graduate
from OUT, it needs sacrifice and extra efforts‟. This is in line with Tresman‟s (2002)
findings that students who are able to devote extra efforts in studying are likely to
succeed in their academic endeavor. Further, according to the results, 58.3% of the
respondents had no computer/laptop and 36% were computer illiterate. Moreover,
interviewees showed the magnitude of these challenges related ICT applications as
illustrated in the following statements:
“Cannot access SARIS unless I seek help from someone”
“With little computer operation skills, to get what you pay for from the internet café is a
difficult task”
“I cannot search from the internet to supplement my coursework materials”
“I used a computer owned by my employer; it was often difficult to use it at convenient
time. Working hours are very limited to attend my work duties and for self- study”
These findings reveal that, distance learners who are not well versed with skills of
information literacy, the use of an electronic medium in distance learning can
inadvertently exclude them or be problematic in their education undertakings. Prior
studies, for example, (Mbukusa, 2009) found that barriers related to applications of
technologies in ODL is a cross sectoral issue, but most of the affected are individual
students. Despite all these difficulties, ICT is increasingly dominating the educational
systems globally; therefore, application of ICT in distance learning is not a matter of
choice, but a must.
It is fair however, to note the development made by OUT in information and
communication technologies. During the field visit the researcher observed the modern
computer laboratory at Kagera Regional Centre connected to internet. It was further
revealed from the interview that computer courses are offered and the OUT is assisting
students to buy laptops at reasonable price. It is therefore fair to anticipate that, though
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
29
under circumstances some students are unable to access ICT facilities offered by the
University, others might be lagging behind time simply because they are reluctant to
change their mind set towards accepting the fact that, ICT is increasingly becoming the
part and parcel of distance learning enterprises.
Although respondents identified lack of support from employers as a challenge facing
them, with statements such as, “denial of permission from employer to attend exams”,
“my boss does not recognize my effort in advancing my qualifications,” etc. Many
indicated that they were self-sponsored, an indication of self-motivation in learning.
Brien (1992) asserted that distance learners who are self motivated with “never give up”
attitude are more likely to persist, even more under the most adverse circumstances, such
as lack of support from employers and financial constraints.
Furthermore, the study intended to establish the relationship between home environment
and learners‟ motivation to learn. The results showed that respondents were less
concerned with unfavorable home learning environment as a challenge facing them, and
instead, insisted on isolation and difficulties in creating learning communities (study
groups) with their fellow students. Carroll (2008) asserted that distance learners have
many challenges to overcome such as physical groups has negative impacts to distance
learners as these groups could lessen isolation nature of distance learning.
Moreover, the study wanted to find out whether distance from home to Regional centre
had any impact on learning. Some of those who saw distance as a challenge had this to
say:
“Because of taking care of my little baby, I was forced to travel back and forth to
regional center for the all days during exams. My home is about 40 kilometers away,
then you can imagine how it cost and risks”.
“I have to incur travelling cost to regional centre and sometimes could not get expected
services.”“I had to lodge during the exams and tests, in spite of being expensive; the lodging
environment was not friendly for studies”
From these responses, it was concluded that, distance from home to regional centre was
among the challenges to distance learners, where many students were forced to lodge
especially during examinations, tests and face-to-face sessions. Similarly, prior studies
documented the problems related to travelling distance, for example, Mushi (2001)
reported problems of transport and greater distance to regional centre as among the
challenges facing ODL students in Tanzania.
Perceived Instructional Related Challenges Facing ODL Students
The research objective two was concerned with determining the instructional related
challenges facing ODL students. In the first stance, the questionnaire presented
instructional related challenges as perceived from the literature. The respondents were
asked to rate them in likert scale containing six items. About 83% of the respondents
separation, feeling of isolation, and feeling disconnected. Failure to form voluntary study
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
30
agreed that delayed or ineffective feedback was a challenge; 75% agreed that lack of
instructor‟s contact and /or inadequate academic support was a challenge. Inappropriate
learning materials were identified by 60% of the respondents as a challenge facing them.
Further, findings revealed that, many respondents experienced delays with the
instructors‟ feedback on the marked assignments, and timed tests as a discouraging
factor to their studies success. One respondent revealed that, „if you do not know the
results from what you did, it becomes difficult to progresses. Meanwhile an interviewee
(former student) remarked that:
“I received feedback on my first year assignments and timed tests scripts on the followed
year when I had already sat for annual examinations. It was if these assessments were
used for grading not for individual student academic growth”.
Respondents‟ experience on timing of feedback showed that there was no fixed time for
instructors to send feedback to students. Some indicated a few months, (0-3 month and
some over the year. If students‟ feedbacks are delayed, they may contribute negatively to
students‟ future learning. It is difficult for the students when they do not receive timely
feedback as they may find it hard to move on to new content. Hara and Kling (2001)
found that students reported confusion, anxiety, and frustration due to perceived lack of
prompt or clear feedback from the instructors.
Through open-ended responses and the discussions which the researcher had with the
interviewees, it became evident that the, problem of scripts getting lost frustrated,
discouraged and brought many discomforts to students. One respondent (former student)
remarked that; “I lost so many scripts which I had to repeat, not easy to explain”. The
same respondent continued showing the magnitude of the problem when he commented
“I repeated some assignments and timed tests, again did not get the results” .The
researcher was interested to probe further how that respondent managed to graduate in
such situations. It was disclosed that he once travelled to Dar es Salaam (OUT
headquarters) to make follow-up and it took him a year to clear the gaps that were not of
his fault. Other several respondents indicated that lost scripts and/or unrecorded grades
costs them a lot, for they were forced to travel to Dar-es-Salaam to make a follow up,
and in many cases, they had to pay more fees to sit for the missing grades. Some of
responses expressing these views are as follows:
“It affected me a lot either I was supposed to delete the affected course and start afresh
or in order to remove incomplete in my examination records I had to accept zero as if I
failed. This affected my grade”
“I had to do them for the second time. It mean I lost my time and money”
“I was supposed to graduate in 2009 but I came to graduate in 2011, because some of
my academic records were missing I repeated three courses in 2011”.
These findings confirm what Mbukusa (2009) pointed out that, more money and time
was lost when students repeated courses several times due to ineffective and poor
students‟ records keeping. In an ODL setting where learners are isolated, accurate ways
of students‟ grades recording and ensuring that instructors give regular feedback is of
great importance not only for learners‟ satisfactions, but also for institution‟s reputation.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
31
It is imperative, however, to note some acknowledgments submitted by respondents on
improvement made by OUT so far. Commenting on those improvements, one
interviewee said, „there are remarkable improvements in students‟ scripts handling and
marks recording. For the time being, I do not have serious problems compared to the
past. Documentary analysis revealed that following the establishment of Examinations
Syndicate, coupled with the revival of the marking panel sessions (OUT, 2011),
students‟ academic progressive records handling has improved.
Commenting on the effectiveness of their instructors, different comments were provided
ranging from „very effective‟ to „poor‟ and it would be unfair to make any conclusion
from these comments as it failed to provide any base from which judgment could be
drawn. These variations might be attributed to the fact that respondents were not much
conversant with the role of instructors versus the role of learners in ODL enterprises. For
example, one respondent fumed that “Student like me who is fresh from school needs
many lectures, but we had never received any. OUT lecturers are paid for nothing-(they
don‟t teach)”. This reflects the lack of understanding of what distance learning entails.
Consequently, students failed to understand not only their teachers‟ role but also their
roles as distance learners.
Perceived Institutional Related Challenges Facing ODL Students
This part presents the findings for objective three, which aimed at determining the
institutional related challenges facing ODL students. Delayed or apparent lack of study
materials emerged as a key institutional related challenge facing ODL students. Results
demonstrated that, students receive study materials late or never got them. Open ended
questions produced the following responses:
“Study materials are not provided”“I have taken long to finish because each time there are no study materials”“Some courses never receive materials for the entire year”
“Most of us are getting tired with the situation of study materials”
The findings also show that most of the respondents (over 50%) received study materials
late or never got them. Barriers related to study materials in ODL were also reported in
previous studies. Bhalalusesa (1999) and Mushi (2001) reported logistics problems that
lead to delayed study materials at regional centers. Basaza et al (2010) also found that
lack of study materials was a challenge hindering distance learners in Uganda. OUT
acknowledge that „the shortage of study materials has been a genuine problem for the
University and impacts negatively on students‟ overall performance‟ (OUT, 2011,p.26).
However, the status of development of new study materials is not impressive.
Accordingly, starting 2006 to 2010, only 80 new study materials have been produced.
This is inadequate when you compare with the current courses on offer.
Similarly, participants showed their concerns on the minimal flexibility in learning
associated with the use of study materials delivered through electronic media. They said
that it was a very tiresome exercise when required to do “screen reading” where some of
them had little computer skills and do not own computer. Transforming study materials
into softcopy is inevitable as ODL cannot remain static in the present age of new
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
32
technologies, however, lack of access to computer and other ICT devices bar students
from accessing the required materials (Zirnkle,2004). McIsaac (1993) warned that
materials and services that are transferred without attention being paid to the social and
technological settings of the recipients could affect technology based distance learning.
Inadequate academic support and poor contacts between the instructors and students
were also the issues which emerged during the interviews. Respondents complained
about the low instructors‟ responses to their problems and inadequate or apparent
absence of academic advice at the regional centre. One respondent had this to say,” We
are doing things in our own ways; there is an acute shortage of instructors at the
Regional Centre who can assist us, even the few available are not supportive enough”.
This was supported by another interviewee who stated that, „there is nothing like that
(academic support); it is better you fight for yourself instead of wasting time looking for
nothing‟. Lack of direction from instructors‟ supports has been proved to be one of the
major factors contributing to students‟ dilemma, as there is no frequent contact with
instructors, students are likely to have trouble in self-evaluation (Keegan, 1996).
Further, majority of respondents claimed that some administrative personnel are not
supportive enough. They reported abusive language, inconsiderate and failure of regional
centre administrative team to attend to their problems accordingly. “They are lacking
customer care skills” one interviewee claimed. A statement like that sounds simple but it
has big implications on today‟s‟ ODL enterprises. What matters most in the case of ODL
institution like OUT is the presence of staff personnel who pay attention to students'
problems and who help students feel that they are supported (Daniel, 2005).
Conclusion and Recommendations
The findings show that there are several challenges that OUT students face emerging at
individual, instructional and institutional levels. In addition, some good progress made
by OUT so far were revealed.
First, it is recommended that, although studying through ODL mode is an independent
endeavor OUT should equip students with independent study skills. Specifically, OUT
should strengthen its initiatives of compulsory introduction to ODL courses with a focus
to improving students‟ ODL knowledge and skills, as means of helping them to cope
with changes to non-traditional education. Secondly, OUT should continuously establish
necessary infrastructure for ICT at its Regional Centre and provide students with access
to ICTs facilities such as audio –visual conferencing facilities, computers and CDROMs. More important, those students who are reluctant to change their mind set
towards ICT should be oriented to ICT.
Third, OUT should plan for hostel services at the Regional Centre with permanent
buildings. Hostel services would not only create revenue to OUT, but also provide safe
place to students and cuts the cost and risks related to lodging environment during the
examinations and face to face sessions. Fourth, attention should be paid to improving
administrative services at the Regional Centre by appointing right personnel. Students‟
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
33
services should include counseling and guidance as most students are compounded by
various problems. Further, OUT must ensure on-time production and delivery of study
materials. It is not proper in ODL when study materials are not available, as study
materials form the basis of teaching and learning.
Generally, OUT should strive to achieve effective and balanced teaching and learning
system. This means provision of high quality education that satisfies the desire of the
learners to the extent that they would wish to come back to the institution for further
studies and to feel proud of their institution to recommend it to others who are seeking
for knowledge.
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36
Implementation of the Tanzanian ICT policy in Education in a
Teachers’ Colleges
A research paper presented in the Distance Education Association of Tanzania
(DEATA) annual conference held in the Open University of Tanzania- Dar es salaam
on 24th August, 2012
Elisei Emili Lubuva
Aga Khan University Institute of Educational Development Eastern Africa-Dar es salaam
Abstract: The education systems around the world are pursuing policies that embrace
pedagogical integration of ICT in education as a means to develop a competitive human
resource, for the global knowledge economy jobs and careers. In Tanzania, the ICT policy in
Education has been developed to initiate the integration of ICT in teaching and learning at
various levels of education. This paper reports data from an empirical study about the
implementation of the policy on ICT integration in teaching and learning, by tutors in a public
Teachers‟ College. A mixed method approach was adopted for the study which included a survey,
interviews, focus group discussion and document analysis. Analysis was done using the
Knowledge ladder conceptual framework of ICT levels of integration. Results seemed to reveal
that; despite government provision of ICT infrastructure and training of tutors, majority of tutors
had limited understanding of how ICT can be integrated in their teaching. Tutors not only lacked
knowledge of the goals of the ICT integration policy but also lacked the necessary aptitude and
knowledge to support the adoption of the ICT policy. This paper, therefore, recommends a more
integrated and holistic approach in preparing tutors to adopt ICT.
Key words: Policy implementation; ICT; ICT integration; Knowledge economy
Background
The turn into the 21st century has experienced a growing understanding among nations
that effective ICT integration in social and economic activities can maximize global
social and economic development (Haddad, 2007; Selwyn, 2011). ICT has been broadly
defined to constitute media like the computer, telephones and networks, television, radio,
print, video, DVD, both hard and software used to process, transmit, store and share
information through electronic means (Kozma, 2011; MoEVT, 2007). ICTs, particularly
computers, internet and mobile phones, have had a major impact on social and economic
development by acting as key resources for knowledge acquisition, dissemination,
creation and evaluation (Brown, Lauder, & Ashton, 2008). The rise in the importance of
ICT has led to the growth of knowledge economy. The concept of knowledge economy
recognizes human knowledge and skills as capital for social and economic development
(Haddad, 2007; OECD, 2003; Sachs, 2008). The authors emphasize that what propels
social and economic development is the shift from mass production to knowledge and
skills production whereby a small group of highly skilled labour force use technology to
maximize production. In response to this global ICT trend, nations and individuals
around the world, and Tanzania in particular, have adopted ICT in their socio economic
activities. Like many other nations, Tanzania resorted to integrate ICT in education in an
attempt to prepare its citizenry for active participation in the knowledge economy
(MoEVT, 2007; URT, 2003). Research has confirmed that, effective ICT integration in
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
37
education may foster higher-order thinking skills which are essential in the knowledge
economy jobs (Lim & Tay, 2003).
In order to make ICT integration in education a practical endeavour, nations around the
world developed ICT in education policies that would map out plans and frameworks for
guiding the nation‟s initiatives in ICT integration in teaching and learning. It was in line
with this premise that the ICT policy in education in Tanzania was developed (MoEVT,
2007). The policy states that, “the integration of ICT in education will empower learners,
teachers, educators, managers and leaders to use ICT judiciously and effectively for
expanding learning opportunities and ensuring educational quality and relevance”
(MoEVT, 2007, p. 2). Through ICT, learners can up-skill their work competencies by
studying electronic content through the internet and participation in on-line learning
programmes that may increase productivity in their organizations (OECD, 2003).
Moreover, scholars have argued that effective ICT integration in education helps to
develop and foster learners personal skills including creativity, networking, self
organizing, entrepreneurial and innovation hence learners competitive in the knowledge
economy based jobs (Brown et al., 2008; Marsh & Willis, 2007).
Different literatures posit that ICT integration has positive benefits to learners and
educational administrators. Haddad (2007) assert that, learners‟ motivation and creativity
is enhanced when learning in ICT integrated environment. Additionally the author
argues that, ICT integration in education encourages collaborative learning among
learners in peer groups within the school and beyond the school setting. On the other
hand, Barak et al (2011) assert that, ICT integration enhances learners disposition to
research and problem-solving focused on real social situations.
In order to tap on these ICT benefits, the MoEVT committed itself in a phased
integration of ICT in the education sector. The first cycle of ICT integration in
education focused on teachers‟ colleges which is also the focus of the study reported in
this paper. In the year 2005, MoEVT in collaboration with Swedish International
Development cooperation Agency (SIDA) initiated a project in implementation of ICT
in Tanzanian public TCs. In this project, all 34 public TCs were provided with ICT
facilities including computers printers, projectors and internet connectivity (MoEVT,
2007). In addition, a group of college tutors were given training aimed at equipping them
with both computer application and maintenance skills. The group of tutors who
received this training, formed college teams for cascading similar training to all tutors in
their respective colleges.
Since the official launch of the ICT integration in Tanzanian public TCs in 2007
(MoEVT, 2007), there is little that is known about how ICT integration is implemented
by tutors in the TCs despite the important role tutors play in preparing teachers of
secondary schools who, in turn, are expected to integrate ICT in their teaching. This has
created a need for a study that would help to bridge the knowledge gap on how ICT is
being integrated by tutors in teaching and learning in Tanzanian TCs. Previous studies
have mainly focused on existing inputs and expected outputs for ICT integration in
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
38
relation to policy recommendation (Ghumpi, 2008; Hennessy et al., 2010). Other studies
focus on use of ICT in particular subjects in secondary schools in Tanzania (Voogt,
Tilya, & Akker, 2009) and others focus on ICT integration in a university education
(Komba, 2009; Mtebe, Dachi, & Raphael, 2011). However there are limited studies on
how teachers are prepared to integrate ICT in schools. Consequently, much remains
unknown on how the policy on ICT integration is implemented in Tanzanian TCs.
The ICT policy in education explicitly states that teachers must have the necessary skills
needed for ICT integration (MoEVT, 2007). As with many other skills expected of
teachers, ICT integration skills are taught to teachers at TCs by tutors. However, little is
known about the role of TC tutors in the overall implementation of the ICT integration
policy and specifically on how they prepare teachers to integrate ICT in their teaching.
Consequently, this study intended to investigate how tutors in a public TC in Tanzania
contribute to the policy on ICT integration in teaching and learning in their training of
teachers.
Literature Review
The rise of the knowledge based economy across the world has intensified pressure in
individual countries to adopt ICT in their socio economic sectors. The UNDP cited in
Avgerou (2003) in an attempts to qualify how technology, especially ICT, is
„enabling‟ development effects argued that “Technological innovation enhances human
capabilities – such as a healthy life, knowledge, creativity, and participation in the
social, economic, and political life of a community – and impacts on economic
growth through productivity gains. At the same time, human capabilities are an
important means for achieving technological innovation. Therefore, technology
innovation and development are „mutually reinforcing, creating a virtuous circle” (p.28).
This argument suggests that ICTs act as resource for development and that people and
their capabilities are an important avenue for achieving technological innovation that can
further social and economic development. Kirkman, Cornelius, Sachs and Schwarb
(2002) propose a framework of factor contributing to a country‟s capacity to exploit the
opportunities offered by ICT „Networked Readiness Index that identifies the education
level and the incorporation of ICT in education as a major determinant.
In view of the importance attached to ICT innovation and the critical role education
plays, different nations including Tanzania developed policies to guide the
implementation of ICT in their socio economic sectors and particularly in education
(MoEVT, 2007). However, despite the development and implementation of a
comprehensive ICT integration policy in 2007 and the realization that ICT integration
benefits for development accrue in five years (Kirkman, Cornelius, Sachs and Schwarb,
2002), there has been no notable changes in Tanzanian ICT and development indices
since 2005. Tanzania Networked Readiness Index in 2012 is a meagre 2.95 and is ranked
123rd out of 142 countries, its human development index HDI is 0.466 ranking 123 out of
187 countries (World Economic Forum and INSEAD, 2012). This development scenario
is no different from the case in 2005 and consequently seems to suggest that the policy
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
39
on ICT integration may not have been effective and is what generated an interest in
exploring the implementation of the policy on ICT integration in teaching and learning.
In a public policy process, implementation is a stage in which a policy formally adopted
is put into practice (Fowler, 2004). Policy implementation consists of actions by public
and private individuals or groups directed at achieving objectives set forth in policy
decision (Paudel, 2009). A great deal of research in policy implementation has evolved
into top-down and bottom-up approaches (Elmore, 2004; Matland, 2009; Paudel, 2009).
The top-down approach represents a hierarchical flow of policy decisions from the
policy makers at the top through the macro level technocrats, down to the micro-level
implementers at the bottom. The approach considers macro-implementers as key actors
in successful policy implementation. Under Top-down approach, what matters as
implementation includes budgeting, funding and evaluation of practice in relation to
policy intent (Elmore, 2004; Paudel, 2009). On the other hand, the bottom up approach is
set at the premise that policy implementation is manifested at the bottom level through
collaboration between the micro and macro-level implementers (Fowler, 2004; Elmore,
2004). The main assumption in this approach is that, micro-implementers [street level
bureaucrats] are key actors in successful policy implementation due to their knowledge
of implementation context and close interaction with learners who are the target of the
policy (Fowler, 2004; Hill & Hupe, 2006).
The study reported in this paper adopted the bottom up approach intended to explore
how tutors, who are micro level implementers, contribute to the policy on ICT
integration in teaching and learning through their preparation of teachers. The
implementation process for ICT integration in Tanzanian public TCs involves roles of
different actors including the policy makers at the state level who authorize the policy;
followed by macro implementers involving ministry of education, curriculum and
assessment authorities; and micro implementers consisting of college principals, ICT
programme coordinator for TCs and tutors also referred to as street level bureaucrats
(Fowler, 2004). In order to maintain efficiency in policy implementation, different
institutions provide different services in the implementation of the policy. The Tanzania
Institute of Education is responsible for designing, developing, evaluating and
monitoring curriculum process; The School Inspectorate is concerned with monitoring
the quality of the implementation; The National examinations Council of Tanzania
conduct assessment and evaluation of student teacher and Ministry of Education and
Vocational Training (MoEVT) take charge of overall administration and management of
the programme (MoEVT, 2007, p.6). Together these institutions are supposed to ensure
the successful implementation of the policy by effectively playing their different roles.
However, policy implementation is never as smooth as intended (Paudel, 2009). The
involvement of many actors in their individual and institutional capacities, open room
for different interpretations of policy and subsequent different implementation, Bell and
Stevenson, (2006a) label these different interpretations policy refraction.
Effective implementation of ICT integration depends on the extent to which different
actors in policy implementation understand what ICT integration entails. ICT integration
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
40
has been interpreted differently by different scholar. In summarizing some of the
definitions, Hew and Brush (2006) notes ICT integration being defined as narrowly as
teachers use of technology in the classroom in activities like students searching for
materials from the internet. ICT integration has also been interpreted as blending of ICT
and other crucial components such as content and pedagogy into one entity such that, the
quality of the lesson may diminish if the ICT component is removed from the ICT
integrated lesson (Wang and Woo (2007).
Kozma (2011) came up with the knowledge ladder (figure 1). The knowledge ladder
suggests that ICT integration should start with it first being adopted as a subject (basic
knowledge), then by being blended in the curriculum (knowledge acquisition), then used
for problem solving (knowledge deepening) and finally as a pedagogy (knowledge
creation). He argues that it is only when ICT is adopted as a pedagogy that ICT
integration can have an impact on development. Figure 1, illustrates the knowledge
ladder approach and some of key factors affecting effective ICT integration in teaching
and learning.
Figure 1
Conceptual framework for ICT integration in TCs
The knowledge ladder questions the narrow view where ICT integration is referred to as
the process of learning about technologies (including hardware, software and networks),
instead it emphasizes on the adoption of appropriate pedagogical design in the use of
technology to enhance student learning in a lesson, topic or at curriculum levels (Kozma,
2011; Wang & Woo, 2007).
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Specifically the constructs in the knowledge ladder depicts complementary alternatives
in the adoption of ICT in education beginning from lowest level of knowledge
acquisition to the highest level of knowledge creation. According to Kozma (2011),
Basic knowledge level aims at equipping learners with skills that will help them to
participate in the formal economy. In this case, ICT use focuses on awareness of
technologies for supporting work performance. This is followed by knowledge
acquisition which emphasizes on preparation of workforce that is knowledgeable and
skilled and capable to take up new technologies. Kozma argues that, knowledge
acquisition entails organization of ICT knowledge into a distinct subject aimed at
mastery of technologies rather than integration of technologies into teaching and
learning.
On the other hand, knowledge deepening focuses on infusing technology into teaching
and learning with the intention of solving complex real world problems in a particular
subject and across subjects and disciplines. The author asserts that, ICT integration is
more evident in knowledge deepening level as the curriculum and daily classroom
practice supports ICT integration. Moreover, in knowledge deepening ICT facilities are
fitted into classroom to support teaching and learning unlike the basic knowledge and
knowledge acquisition levels where ICT facilities are placed in the labs for teaching and
learning of technologies. The last part of knowledge creation is the target level for ICT
integration in education. Kozma (2011) argues that, knowledge creation is the level in
which ICT integration takes pedagogy as the point of departure. In this level, ICT
integration extends beyond the subjects and disciplines to include, “the ability to use a
wide range of technological tools and resources, search for, organize, and analyse
information; to communicate effectively in a variety of forms; to collaborate with others
of diverse skills and backgrounds; and to think critically, innovatively, and creatively”
(p. 25).
At the core of the Tanzanian ICT policy in education is the statement that defines the
goal of ICT integration. It states that, “ICT integration in teaching and learning will
focus on two main aspects: the first is teaching of ICT for learners who will specialize in
ICT related careers and, secondly, ICT will be integrated as a pedagogical tool for
teaching and learning in other subjects” (MoEVT, 2007, p.19). This statement suggests
that the goal of ICT integration in education is to see that ICT is taught both as a subject
and be used as a pedagogical tool by teachers. The policy‟s interpretation of ICT
integration is similar to conventional definitions of ICT integrations in as far as it relates
to facilitating pedagogy. In literature, most of the definitions relate to the use of ICT as a
pedagogical tool where ICT is embedded into teaching and learning with focus on
enhancing the quality learning outcomes (Guzman & Nussbaum, 2009; Haddad, 2007;
Pritchard, 2004).
Clearly, research in ICT integration in education posits that ICT integration skills are
essential in pedagogical integration of ICT in teaching and learning (Mishra, Koehler, &
Henriksen, 2011;Schmidts et al., 2009). The authors maintain that, the key implementers
of ICT integration need to embrace a domain of knowledge that seamlessly combine
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42
technology with subject content and relevant teaching and learning strategies that will
augment mastery of requisite competencies in that particular subject. This constitutes the
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) domain. Teaching and
learning strategies that may enhance pedagogical integration of ICT include those which
emphasize on development of learners‟ critical thinking, problem solving skills and
inquiry based learning (Barak, Nissim & Ben-Zvi, 2011; Tondeur et al.2007).
However, the Tanzanian ICT policy in education also envisions teaching of ICT as one
of specialization subjects students learn. This conjures the policy intentions to prepare
technology specialists for the knowledge economy jobs and careers. Despite the focus on
technology, the quality of competencies and creativity acquired by learners determines
their participation in the knowledge economy jobs. Brown and Tannock (2009)
emphasize on the development of creativity among learners in order to enable them to
compete in the knowledge economy labour market. The authors argue that, “the key
factor propelling economic prosperity is the rise of human creativity as the prime mover
of economy” (p.378). This seems to suggest that, teaching and learning in the TC need to
embrace the development of creativity among student teachers in order to include them
in the knowledge economy. Studies in ICT integration cautions on the existing
interpretation of ICT integration in a subject as replication of office application skills
(Kozma, 2011; Unwin, 2005). According to Unwin (2005), “word processing,
presentation software and spreadsheets are merely tools that usually have little if
anything to do with substantive educational or pedagogical practice”, (p.118). This
means ICT integration in teaching and learning in TCs need to emphasize much on
teaching and learning through ICT rather than dwelling mainly on basic use of ICT. In
addition, Voogt et al (2009) and Wang and Woo (2007) maintain that, what matters in
ICT integration is not merely having technologies in the lesson but the extent to which
the quality of teaching and learning is enhanced through the use of technology in the
lesson. In essence, the authors are trying to illuminate the importance of having a
rationale for adopting technologies in the lesson and the need to ensure that technology
adds value in the learning outcomes of learners.
Additionally, Wang and Woo (2007) assert that effective implementation of ICT
integration in teaching and learning requires continuous reflection of the integration
process in order to ascertain whether it adds value in relation to target learning
outcomes. This suggests that where ICT integration is not yielding expected outcomes; a
reflective implementer may discover the problem and improve the practice.
ICT integration is also highly influenced by availability of adequate and relevant ICT
hardware, software, internet connectivity and technical support to facilitate integration.
These facilities need to be fitted into the curriculum during integration process (Mandell,
Sorge, & Russell, 2002). Additionally, effective implementation of ICT integration in
TCs requires understanding of what the policy seeks to attain. This can be achieved
through continuous policy dissemination and sensitization to all policy implementers
throughout the policy process from initiation to institutionalization stages (Fullan, 2007).
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
43
Methodology
The study used both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods aimed at
capturing depth and breadth of data on how the policy on ICT integration in teaching and
learning was implemented by tutors in the teachers‟ college. Three subsidiary questions
which sought to understand: the policy context in which ICT was implemented; tutors
views about implementation of the policy on ICT integration and strategies used by
tutors to implement ICT integration were used to answer the main study question.
The study reported in this paper adopted an embedded design. According to Ary, Jacobs,
Sorensen, and Razavieh (2009) and (Yin,2009) an embedded design involves one form
of data supporting a second form of data within a single study. In the current study,
quantitative data are embedded within a qualitative case study where by the quantitative
are supportive of the major qualitative findings. The rationale for mixing qualitative and
quantitative data was the need to collect rich data that would enhance clarity of findings
and subsequently inform the education stakeholders on the status of policy
implementation on ICT integration in the TC. In addition, data from both qualitative and
quantitative strands will help the researcher to generalize tutors understanding of, and
level of, ICT integration in the TC. According to Stake (2010), survey is a strategy in
social research that produces generalisable results.
This study adapted a case study methodology intended to explain how ICT integration in
teaching and learning was implemented by tutors in a TC. The rationale for using a case
study was to help the researcher to get deeper understanding of realities in ICT
integration through interaction with key participants in the implementation of ICT
integration in their work context. Yin (2011) considers case study as a research
methodology that captures real life experiences of people in their natural context as was
the case of a TC in this study.
In qualitative, a focus group discussion (FGD), Interview and document analysis were
used to capture realities about ICT integration as viewed by study participants (Yin,
2009), whereas in quantitative a survey was used to capture data from all tutors in the
TC. Data collection for this study was done concurrently. According to Driscoll,
Yeboah, Salib and Rupert (2007), a concurrent design helps to validate one form of data
from the other. Likewise, the current study adopted concurrent design in order to
facilitate comparison of both qualitative and quantitative data that involved tutors as the
main focus of the study.
Participants
In qualitative strand, participants for FGDs consisted of 10 tutors and 10 student teachers
in different sessions. In order to understand how ICT was integrated in different subjects,
two participants from ICT, Sciences, Languages and Education subjects were selected.
The subject disciplines acted as a strata from which tutors were selected (Denscombe,
2007). Student teachers were purposefully selected in order to understand their view
about ICT integration in their learning. Discussion guides consisting of open-ended
questions for tutors (Appendix B) and for student teachers (Appendix C) used in this
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44
study. The use of open-ended questions allows for flexibility among participants
individually or in groups to articulate their views in an understandable manner to other
participants and the researcher (Yin, 2009). Interview involved the college principal and
ICT programme coordinator for TCs who were purposefully sampled due to their
experiences and roles in the implementation of ICT integration in the site for this study.
Interview guides (Appendix D1 & D2) with open ended questions were used in data
collection. Document analysis was done by the researcher. This was especially important
in the review of policy statements, documents and communications which provided
important insights in the goals, strategies and outputs of the policy. A document analysis
protocol (Appendix E) was used in the analysis of documents.
Analysis of Qualitative Data
Data from focus group discussion, interview and document analysis were analyzed
instantly as they were collected. Audio data from focus group discussion, interviews
and documents was transcribed into text and coded into categories indicating issues and
ideas relevant to the study (Denscombe, 2007). After coding, the data was read in-depth
in order to interpret emerging themes from the converging ideas across data sources.
This convergence of ideas could inform the researcher of the meaning conveyed by data
from different participants or data collection methods in relation to the study problem
(Stake, 2010).The next section presents the quantitative data collection process.
Quantitative Data Collection
Data was collected using a questionnaire adapted from ISTE. In order to cater for
validity, structures of items in the questionnaire were modified by including addition of
demographic information and aligning the items to constructs of the knowledge ladder
(figure 1) in order to meet the purpose of this study but without changing the prior
meaning of the survey. The survey finally used in this study (Appendix A) consists of
five points Likert‟s scale of Strongly Agree (5); Agree (4); Neither Agree/Disagree (3);
Disagree (2) and Strongly Disagree (1).
In order to ensure for parsimony in interpretation of findings, the survey likert‟s scale
was collapsed into a three-point scale as illustrated in table 1
Table 1
Collapsing scale
Survey scale
% Merged scale
Strongly Agree; Agree
Agree
Strongly Disagree; Disagree
Disagree
Neither agree/Disagree
Neutral
The quantitative strand involved the target population of 114 tutors in the TC. The
response rate was 100 (88%) of the population. According to (Baruch & Holtom, 2008),
a survey response rate averaged around (50%) is good for an academic study. This
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45
response rate (88%) was good because it was valid and representative and can therefore
be generalized to all tutors in the TC.
Validity and Reliability
In order to ensure that the questionnaire is understandable to the respondents, the
researcher conducted an expert review with a group of five Master of education course
participants at AKU IED EA for construct validity. Some of the suggested changes from
the expert review included adding sections in the survey in order to help the respondent
have a clear understanding of the requirements in the survey. In this case, separate
sections for demographic information; ICT environment and ICT in teaching and
learning were created. After the review, the questionnaire was piloted for reliability
with a group of 15 tutors from a different TC to the study site for the current research.
An internal consistency method was used, which yielded a reliability coefficient of 0.794
Cronbach‟s Alpha coefficient. According to Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2007), a
reliability coefficient of “0.70 to 0.79” is reliable for a study, (p.506).
Quantitative Data Analysis
Survey data was analyzed using SPSS software version 20. Data was coded into SPSS
using the constructs from the knowledge ladder. The descriptive analysis based on
determining frequency and percentage of responses from each of the constructs was
made in order to create parsimony in data interpretation. Tables and charts were used to
provide for visual display of data in the interpretation of findings. Findings are reported
using the total percentage of responses in each construct in line with the knowledge
ladder as discussed in the literature review section. In the discussion of findings, data
from the survey are embedded within qualitative findings in order to make sense of the
meaning communicated by data as suggested by Johnson and Onwuegbuzie (2004).
Results and Discussion
Overall results seemed to reveal a very low level of ICT integration in the TC. While the
ICT policy goal suggests that ICT integration should be implemented in teaching and
learning other subjects in the TC, evidence on how tutors integrate ICT suggest that ICT
integration is not happening in the TC as envisioned by the policy. This has been caused
by a number of factors including; policy refraction at the stage of designing syllabus;
low level of ICT integration skills among tutors and inadequate ICT facilities
specifically teaching software and internet connectivity.
In exploring the policy implementation context for ICT integration, it was found that, the
ICT policy in education in Tanzania seeks to prepare a human resource that is
competitive in the knowledge economy (U RT, 2003). The policy states that “ICT will
be taught as a subject and be integrated as a pedagogical tool in teaching and learning
other subjects.” It further recommends that, “the ICT academic syllabus will cater for
ICT as a subject of specialization and the pedagogical syllabus will be compulsory for all
student teachers in order to equip them with competence to integrate ICT in other
subjects” (MoEVT, 2007, p.7). In my view this policy proposes that ICT integration
should be done by both teaching ICT as a subject and as a pedagogical tool for teaching
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
46
other subjects. More importantly the policy recommends that all training teachers should
be equipped with ICT integration skills.
To facilitate the achievement of ICT integration, training and provision of ICT
infrastructure were implemented. Specific to training, the policy states that “MoEVT
will ensure that a sufficient number of experts, curriculum developers and educational
content developers are trained in the development of, and use of ICT as a pedagogical
tool” (MoEVT, 2007, p.16). Findings from Ministry of education training report
(Appendix F) reveal that, from the year 2006 to 2012, MoEVT has trained total of 1564
tutors from across the TCs in: CISCO – an ICT maintenance and networking course,
pedagogical skills like mapping, teaching and learning pack and in the use of learning
management systems like Moodle (Document analysis, ICT training report for tutors,
11th May, 2012).
Training for ICT integration in TCs adopted the strategy of a cascading model (Figure
2). Findings from the Ministry of Education training documents showed that a group of
16 tutors four from each zone college were initially trained as trainers in ICDL and
CISCO courses for basic ICT Skills and computer maintenance respectively. The 16
trainers conducted cascade training in ICT basic skills to the rest of tutors in their
respective colleges and zones. Similarly, a further group of 28 tutors from seven TCs
trained as trainers on the use of Moodle in teaching and learning. The trainers were
expected to cascade the training to the rest of tutors in their respective colleges. In turn,
tutors in each college have to impart the acquired ICT skills to student teachers and
eventually student teachers are expected to pass on the acquired ICT skills to students in
schools.
Figure 2 summarizes the process of training for ICT uptake in TCs up to the point in
which a learner in a Tanzanian school acquires ICT skills. It creates a question on how
can student teachers integrate ICT in teaching their students when the tutors in the TC
were not integrating ICT in their teaching of student teachers.
Figure 2
ICT integration in Tanzanian TCs, Cascade training
47
Knowledge economy skills
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
In my opinion, while cascade training model may be useful in replicating ICT skills to
the largest population possible, its effectiveness in providing tutors and student teachers
with requisite skills for ICT integration may be minimal because ideas learnt are diluted
each time they are passed on to a new group of learners (figure 2). Furthermore, in light
of ICT integration in teaching and learning, the cascade training model adopted may be
questionable because of being dominated by learning about technology rather than
infusing technology into teaching and learning as suggested by the policy and previous
studies in ICT integration in teaching and learning (Kozma, 2011; Pritchard, 2004;
Unwin, 2005).
Providing ICT facilities to TCs was another policy implementation strategy adopted by
the nation. Analysis of ICT inventory records revealed that all 36 public TCs including
the one under study were provided with ICT hardware, software and internet facilities in
order to support ICT integration in teaching and learning. Hardware facilities include
Sunray 270 thin client computer, X2200 servers running Solaris operating system [open
source], printers and data projectors. A total of 1293 thin client computers were issued to
TCs. The distribution of computers in TCs ranged between 15 and 72 with the former
being issued to colleges with smallest number of student teachers and the later being for
zone colleges which coordinate ICT activities across several colleges located in one
geopolitical location like a region. Ten computers were also provided to zone colleges
for conducting computer maintenance training. Moreover, all colleges were also
provided with internet connectivity using aperture terminal (VSAT). A total internet
bandwidth of four (4) megabits per second is shared by all 36 TCs (Document analysis,
11th May, 2012). In addition to these computers, the TC in which this study was
conducted received 45 extra computers for language teaching. The language lab facilities
were funded by USAID through MoEVT. This makes the total number of computers in
the TC to be 127 (Researcher‟s field notes, 25th May, 2012).
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
48
As noted in literature review, effective implementation of the policy on ICT integration
among other things requires ICT facilities to be fitted into the curriculum during
integration process (Mendel, Sorge & Russell, 2002). The findings show that great
initiative has been made by the Tanzanian government in equipping TCs with ICT
facilities in order to facilitate ICT integration in teaching and learning. However, having
ICT facilities placed in labs which are allocated specific subjects like ICT and languages
as noted in the study site, has tended to limit chances for use of the labs in teaching other
subjects in the TC, and subsequently perpetuates teaching of computer skills instead of
ICT integration in teaching all subjects in the TC.
Moreover, the implementation of ICT integration in the TC seemed to be influenced by
policy interpretation by policy actors at macro level including: the Tanzania Institute of
Education responsible for designing, developing, evaluating and monitoring curriculum
at both TC and school level (MoEVT, 2007, p.6).
Analysis of policy document reveal that, what was proposed by the policy as a
pedagogical syllabus for implementation of ICT integration in teaching other subjects in
TCs, seemed to be interpreted as the pedagogy syllabus for preparation of teachers of
information and computer studies subject (ICS) in secondary school as revealed in the
ICS syllabus for Diploma in secondary education (TIE, 2009, p. v). This discrepancy
between policy and curriculum seemed to be predictive of the level of policy
implementation in the TC where, ICT integration has meant teaching of ICT subject
rather than other subjects through ICT as proposed by the policy. In addition, the
discrepancy seemed to affirm the aforementioned policy refraction (Bell and Stevenson
2006a) which may delay the attainment of ICT integration skills among teachers and
subsequent delay the attainment of the envisioned competitive human resource for
knowledge economy based jobs. This scenario created a need for analysis of how policy
implementation context affect how ICT was integrated by tutors in the TC. To do so,
analysis based on tutors‟ views about implementation of the policy on ICT integration
specifically on meaning tutors made of ICT integration in teaching and learning.
Overall FGD findings suggest that, tutors were at a very basic level of ICT integration.
This could have been caused by inadequate training on ICT integration skills. The kind
of training conducted through cascade model (figure 2), seemed to focus much on basic
computer skills which appeals to basic knowledge level of the knowledge ladder (
Kozma, 2011). Results from tutors FGD revealed that, the meaning of ICT integration
expressed by tutors seemed to be mainly associated with the use of LCD projector and
application software such as PowerPoint with few tutors focusing on the combination of
content, pedagogy and technology as proposed in the conventional definition for ICT
integration. In the FGD when asked what ICT integration was about, one of the
representative meanings given by tutors explained:
Extract 1a
“I think ICT integration may be the use of programs like power Point in teaching my
subject…” (Focus group discussion-tutors, 25th April, 2012).
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
49
The findings (extract 1a) suggest that some tutors have low understanding of what
constitute ICT integration because the key pedagogical components like mastery of
subject content and teaching methods and approaches seemed to be missing in their ICT
integration meaning.
In contrast however, few tutors seemed to have a deeper understanding of ICT
integration. They were able to relate the use of technology to pedagogy and content. As
one of the tutors explained:
Extract 1b
“When you talk of ICT integration you talk of TPACK … You integrate technology,
content of your subject and teaching methods in teaching your subject” (Focus group
discussion- Tutors 25th April, 2012).
This view (extract 1b) seems to demonstrate an understanding of what entails ICT
integration as explained in the use of TPACK. TPACK refers to the nature of knowledge
consisting of subject content, pedagogy and technological knowledge expected of a
teacher in this case tutor in order to be able to integrate ICT in teaching and learning
(Mishra et al., 2011; Schmidts et al., 2009).
The two extracts (1a &b) seem to suggest that tutors at the TC had different
interpretations of what ICT integration is. The interpretation of ICT as simply the use of
LCD projector and power point application software by tutors is particularly disturbing
because it means this is the knowledge they will pass on to teachers and the knowledge
teachers will pass on to students as illustrated in the cascade model (figure 2). In relation
to the knowledge ladder, a focus on mastery of power point and use of LCD projector
lends itself well with basic knowledge and knowledge acquisition levels (Kozma, 2011;
Temechegn, 2012).
The qualitative data was corroborated with survey data which indicated a similar result
that majority of tutors (83%) agree that they had basic knowledge in relation to Kozma‟s
knowledge ladder summarized in figure 3 below. In addition (10%) of responses
disagreed possessing basic knowledge level of the ladder. This means, they either do not
have basic ICT skills at all or their level may be higher than basic knowledge. If they are
in higher level, could be tutors whose meaning of ICT integration focused on TPACK as
afore explained. On the other hand (7%) were neutral which means they could not make
any opinion on whether they are at basic knowledge or at a higher level. It can be noted
that, unless tutors‟ ICT integration skills are enhanced, their current basic knowledge
level may not adequately facilitate
ICT integration in their teaching as envisioned by the policy.
Figure 3
Tutors basic knowledge levels of ICT skills
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
50
Figure 3 shows tutors responses on their level of ICT integration in line Kozma‟s
Knowledge ladder.
A further clarification of how ICT integration was implemented focused on
understanding the strategies tutors use in implementing ICT integration policy. Findings
revealed that, tutors strategies for implementation of ICT was influenced by their level of
ICT integration skills. Some strategies used like problem solving seemed to have more
relevance to ICT integration, while the use of demonstration and creating repository in
moodle seemed to be associated with technology skills rather than technology
integration in teaching and learning.
Problem solving was noted in the explanation by the head of department for English
subject when explaining the use of the language lab in teaching writing skills.
It was explained that:
Extract 2a
“In teaching writing skills, I engage my student teachers in a live discussion
forum in the language lab. I post a problem to the forum and student teachers
respond to the problem by typing their responses and I type back responses
[feedback- My addition] to each of the posts and allow student teachers to reply
to responses from their fellow student teachers” (Conversation with the English
language department head in the language lab, Researcher‟s field notes, 25 th
April, 2012).
My interpretation of extract 2a was that, ICT was used to facilitate problem solving in a
writing skill session. The use of the online discussion forum in the lesson seemed to
present an attractive scenario for pedagogical integration of ICT in teaching and learning
as it created a possibility for learners to develop multiple skills like cooperation, writing
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
51
skills and the technology application skills that could help to improve their classroom
teaching and learning as intended by the ICT policy in education. The extract presents a
similar experience as discussed by Barak et al (2011) who argue that, in problem solving
learners cooperate with peers each contributing to the group knowledge according to
his/her ability so that at the end of the process the group will reach a reasoned solution
together.
Demonstration is one of teaching strategies where by the tutor performs an instructional
activity or a process as learners observe. The aim of the demonstration is to provide
learners with a concrete illustration of what they are expected to do, how they can best
do it and how they can tell when they have used the skill or ability correctly. During the
student teachers‟ FGD, one of participants explained how ICT subject was taught. It was
explained that,
Extract 2b
“In ICT subject, the tutor uses a projector to show us steps of doing something in
topics like word and excel, we observe and later practice the skills shown by the
subject tutor” (FGD, Student teachers 16th April, 2012)
In my interpretation, extract 2b showed that demonstration was one of strategies used to
develop student teachers‟ skills in the use of technologies. Demonstration seemed to be
used for the purpose of equipping student teachers with skills to use technologies as part
of the ICT subject. What seemed to happen was practicing the use of technologies
through technology. In this case, if the benchmark for ICT integration were technology
awareness alone, the identified use of demonstration strategy in the ICT subject could
have been the best practice.
Another strategy used by tutors to integrate ICT in their teaching and learning is through
storage of teaching and learning content in the moodle platform. This was revealed by
student teachers when they argued that,
Extract 2c
“We access information about other subjects in the system called moodle … we get
syllabus and other content for different subjects” (Focus group discussion, student
teachers, 16th April, 2012).
My interpretation of extract 2c was that moodle was used as repository for content that
could be accessed by student teachers during their learning as illustrated in figure 4
below.
This screenshot shows the kind of content stored in moodle repository for teaching and
learning content in different subjects. Although availing content for learners to access
was important, little evidence could be obtained to substantiate that pedagogical
Figure 4
Teaching and learning content stored in Moodle
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
52
Moodle screenshot accessed at Mashujaa TC, (9th May, 2012)
integration of ICT was taking place through moodle. This was because apart from
syllabus and content, activities that could demonstrate interaction between tutors and
student teachers through moodle were lacking.
Overall extracts 2a, b, and 2c, seemed to reveal that, a great deal of ICT use is left to
tutors of ICT subject. Demonstration strategy seemed to be the dominant strategy used in
ICT subject lessons. The problem solving strategy (extract 2a) noted in the English
language subject was among the very scarce scenarios that could not sufficiently count
as ICT integration in the TC. It could have happened in English subject in the process of
trying to use facilities in the language lab. Generally pedagogical integration of ICT
seemed to be lacking. Findings obtained from analysis of lesson plans (Table 2) seemed
to affirm that ICT is not adequately used in teaching other subjects in the TC.
Table 2 presents a disturbing scenario on the implementation of ICT integration in
teaching and learning. The data were collected from tutors‟ lesson plans prepared from
February, 2011 to May, 2012. In my interpretation, it seemed that, ICT integration in
teaching and learning in other subjects as recommended by the ICT policy in education
was not yet the current focus in the TC. This scenario may delay the attainment of
competitive human resources for the knowledge economy based jobs as envisioned by
the nation.
Table 2
ICT integration in lessons
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
53
Subject
No. of lessons Type of ICT used
Comment
involved ICT
Development studies
4
Materials downloaded No any URL presented
from Internet
Biology academic
3
Internet resources
Biology (Pedagogy)
-
No any ICT cited
No
any
reference
presented
No evidence of ICT use
Educational media
and technology
Educational research
3
Internet resources
No any URL presented
3
Internet resources
Geography
2
Internet resources
ICS
English (Pedagogy)
1
-
ICS syllabus in moodle
No any ICT cited
No
any
reference
presented
No
any
reference
presented
Content in moodle
No evidence of ICT use
Chemistry academic
-
No any ICT cited
No evidence of ICT use
Curriculum
and
No any ICT cited
teaching
Source: Analysis of Lesson plans 12th May, 2012
No evidence of ICT use
Having identified the strategies used, I then sought to find out the level of ICT
integration that tutors afforded. Survey finding indicated that majority of the tutors were
at the minimum level of ICT integration, which is Basic knowledge (83% see table 3
below) and Knowledge acquisition (69%). This means that tutors posses basic
technology skills. This finding affirms what is found in qualitative data which shows that
majority of tutors appeared to express awareness of basic technology skills specifically
use of Office application software like word processing, and presentation application as
discussed in extract (1a).
Table 3
Tutors rating of level of ICT integration they practice
Construct
% Agree
% Neutral
% Disagree
Basic Knowledge
83%
7%
10%
Knowledge Acquisition
69%
17%
15%
Knowledge Deepening
62%
14%
24%
Knowledge Creation
77%
14%
10%
Table 3 shows tutors‟ levels of implementation of ICT integration policy in relation to
the knowledge ladder. However, effective implementation of ICT integration requires
tutors to have mastery of ICT integration skills that can equip them with strategies that
adequately combine technology, subject content and pedagogy (Schmidts et al., 2009).
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
54
These strategies appeal to knowledge deepening and knowledge creation levels of ICT
integration. Contrary to findings in tutors FGD, survey findings indicate that majority of
tutors are highly versed with ICT integration skills as (62%) agreed that they integrate
ICT at knowledge deepening level, and (77%) agreed that they integrate ICT at
knowledge creation level. In my view, the difference could be a methodological
weakness attributed to the use of the anonymous questionnaire which lead to attribution
bias (participants‟ tendency to attribute positive outcomes to themselves and negative
outcomes to others) (Muijs, 2011). In addition, the high rating in the survey could have
been attributed to tutors low level of knowledge of what ICT integration entails. Perhaps
the tutors‟ understanding of ICT integration is based on their prior knowledge on the use
of computer office programs, which basically focus on awareness about technologies
rather than integration of technologies in teaching and learning. Spillane et al (2002)
found that tutors and other policy implementing agents tend to assimilate new
knowledge about instruction into their existing framework for understanding.
Consequently, the intended outcome of equipping student teachers with ICT integration
skills may be constrained.
Due to the aforementioned disparity document analysis was done to shed more insights.
I conducted the analysis of tutors‟ lesson plans (Table 6), which confirmed low ICT
integration in teaching and learning in the TC.
Moreover, survey findings indicate a large number of tutors (24%) who disagree about
being able to integrate ICT at knowledge deepening level; whereas in knowledge
creation (10%) rated disagree. This difference have been caused by rating behaviour of
respondents where positive items were rated “Agree “and negative items 17,18, 19 and
20 in knowledge deepening and 26 and 27 in knowledge creation (Appendix A) were
rated “disagree”. The difference in this case was caused by the number of negative items
which were four in knowledge deepening and two in knowledge creation (see summary
in Appendix G). This scenario seems to affirm the aforementioned attribution bias
(Muijs, 2011). On the other hand (14%) of responses rated on neutral which means, they
either can integrate ICT in either knowledge deepening and knowledge creation levels
but not in the current practice, or they are not sure of either of the levels. Consequently,
the overall findings indicate low ICT integration in the TC.
The study recommends the need for a detailed inquiry on how tutors can be trained to
teach in line with technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) which is an
important knowledge base for the implementation of the policy on ICT integration in
teaching and learning.
The study further recommends the adoption of an alternative model (Figure 5) for
preparation of tutors to integrate ICT that will improve on tutors‟ mastery of ICT
integration in their teaching.
Figure 5
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
55
Model for tutor preparation for ICT integration
Figure 5 presents an alternative model for training of tutors to integrate ICT in their
teaching. The model proposes that ICT integration in TCs follows a dual mode which
focuses on both the delivery mode of ICTs used and on the pedagogical use of ICTs. By
so doing TCs focus on both ICT as a subject [delivery mode] and ICT for pedagogical
purposes [based on usage] and in so doing fulfill the dual intentions of the ICT
integration policy of integrating ICT at pedagogical and subject level. In addition, the
model also highlights the various levels of ICT integration that tutors would need to
cater for to ensure that ICT integration is adopted to levels that can prepare teachers for
the knowledge economy. The assumption in the model is that a tutor poses the basic
knowledge level of technology literacy as presented in the knowledge ladder (Kozama,
211).
Conclusion
The study reported in this paper intended to ascertain how tutors contribute to the ICT
policy in education by preparing teachers who would integrate ICT in their teaching in
schools. Overall findings revealed low level of ICT integration in the TC accompanied
by low level of ICT integration skills among tutors. The findings further indicate that,
one of the greatest challenges in ICT integration in the TC was policy refraction at the
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
56
stage of designing ICT syllabi. The current ICT implementation in the TC emphasizes
teaching ICT as academic subject and pedagogy for teaching computer studies in schools
rather than equipping student teachers with skills to integrate ICT in teaching other
subjects in schools as proposed by the policy. The study finally proposes an area for
further research and an alternative model for preparation of tutors who will subsequently
equip student teachers with ICT integration skills in their teaching in schools.
Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank Mr Nicholas Wachira and Ms Shelina Walli from the
Aga Khan University Institute of Educational Development in Eastern Africa (AKU IED
EA)- Dar es salaam for guidance and encouragement in the process of writing this paper.
In addition, the author is grateful of the logistic support provided by the Aga Khan
University IED EA to facilitate the author‟s participation in the DEATA conference.
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Flexible Delivery of Education: The Globalization of Life Long
Learning
A Paper Presented at the National Open and Distance Learning Conference, at The
Open University of Tanzania, Dar-es-salaam, Tanzania
Honoratha M. K. Mushi
The Open University of Tanzania, Faculty of Education
Abstract: In this paper the author provides brief explorations on flexibility in the delivery of
education, globalization and lifelong learning. Flexible online, m-learning inclusive, is conceived
as the most appropriate means through which globalization of lifelong learning can be realized.
Among the issues that are discusses as pertinent to the globalization of lifelong learning are:
flexibility in terms of institutions, instructors, programmes, time and space; qualifications in
education are no longer measured in terms of paper credentials, but rather on practical outcomebased relevance of what is attained through the education provided; assessment mechanisms in
online education is no longer teacher-based or institutional based; learners acquire extensive
freedom/autonomy to either engage institutions and instructors or to educate themselves through
Open Education Resources (OERs) and other forms of online educational resources.
Globalized online learning and proposes that relevant contextualized online education has great
potentials as a realization of democratization of education on a global scale in accordance with
UN‟s proclamation of education as a human right. It provides a means through which meaningful
and relevant innovations in education can be realized instead of current trends where education
has become a sustained system of producing technological and scientific products. Globalizing
lifelong learning is realizable, while online education provisions contemporary educational
technologies and enhanced capabilities for content development, use, distribution, storage,
retrieval, updating, and pedagogical alternatives and enhancement.
Key Words: Flexible delivery of education, globalization, lifelong learning, technology,
open and distance learning (ODL), open education resources (OERs), online learning,
m-learning, e-learning, learner autonomy/freedom.
Introduction
The globalization of lifelong Learning within the confines of flexible delivery of
education can best be conceptualized when education is considered as a basic right for
all human beings. This position is backed and underscored by the UNs declaration of
human rights and supporting policies that have featured at international, national and
organizational levels. Until very recently, the practice of leaving behind majority of
humanity without formal education was a taken for granted norm. There wasn‟t much
hope that this state of affairs could ever be proactively addressed because of great
limitations experienced within the dominant hegemonic traditional education systems
around the globe. With contemporary Open and Distance Learning (ODL), advanced
technologies and the capabilities of such technologies there is hope at the end of the
education tunnel! E-learning, online learning and m-learning which characterize
contemporary ODL are gradually proving that education can reach most, if not all,
individuals wherever they are and whenever they wish to study. The systems provide
expansive flexibility ensuring multiple teaching and learning spaces enabled through the
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
61
cyber space, computer and m-gadgets screens; speedy completion rates; global outreach;
greater choices of programmes, instructors, institutional affiliations and pedagogical
approaches. With contemporary systems of ODL; what counts most is individuals‟
realization of the need to acquire and generate knowledge, skills as well as values that
will facilitate „healthy and prosperous livelihoods”. There is need to cultivate or
motivate global populations to have the interest to learn and be aware of what they want
to learn. To be able to locate where to obtain the materials/content they want to learn.
The rest of the learning processes are then handled through technology capabilities and
expert facilitation of lifelong learning.
Globalization
There is no „one fit all‟ conceptualization of globalization both as a term and a practice
(Mudimbe-Boi, 2002; Peters, 2004; Goodfellow & Lamy, 2009). Some scholars
represent globalization as the extension of the crafty imperialistic enclosure of local
economies, spaces and political systems (Goodfellow & Lamy, 2009; Un Ulrik, u.d;
Miranda, 2011). This consideration focuses on globalisation as disruption of local
ownership and enforcement of the instatement of subservient political regimes. Using his
working experience with the port industry –dock workers in Sweden, Ulrik (u.d) projects
globalization as an indication of unemployment, exclusion from jobs, and a violation of
basic human rights. Globalization is typically characterized by „global ownership and
management‟. Ulrik further asserts that “the creation of the economy within the global
system turns towards biopolitical production of social life in which economic, political,
and cultural aspects overlap and invest one another. This situation allows global systems
to redefine power relations since governance is executed without strong governments
(Dale, 2007). Corporate elites collude with corrupt state governments to lure local
populations into trusting multinational investors as competitors although the competition
is unlikely and in fact, almost none existent because of unequal socioeconomic and
political status or economic levels/clout of the competitors.
The perception of globalization briefed in the preceding narrative provokes interrogation
of the new global order of life which gradually cannot conceal its complex reality of
furthering deeper social stratifications, social disequilibrium, and in most cases chaos
that has continually led to endless wars, loss of lives and ecological destabilization. The
new structures that emerge with this way of perceiving and practicing globalization has
forced individuals into lifelong learning loops that ensure their survival as they learn and
re-learn so as to fit into endless stealthy exploitative innovations that have little or no
benefit to the individuals but rather benefits amalgamating and expanding multinational
corporations and corrupt political elites (Mudimbe-Boyi, 2002; Goodfellow & Lamy,
2009).
The first perception of globalization calls peoples and governments to interrogate their
position in a system where there is “the persistence or recurrence of the binaries
colonizer/colonized, center/periphery, empire/its Others, local/global, premodernity/moderninty, all of which are still prevalent despite a widespread public
discourse on globalization [and] … heterogeneity” (Mudimbe-Boyi, 2002, p. xiii). Our
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main focus as we ponder over this perspective is to engage discourse of flexible delivery
of education that enables lifelong learning processes capable of generating equity amid
global and local diversities that exist harmoniously. The aim should be to initiate and
sustain learning processes that eliminate capitalistic greed and establish grounds for the
grooming of moral character among „globalized‟ (Friedman, 2006) citizens.
The second conceptualization of globalization is advanced by scholars who project
globalization as a natural growth phenomenon ensuing from advances in science,
technology, business, and multilateral trade (Friedman, 2006; Sachs, 2005). This
perception signifies globalization as a normal (or natural) experience leading humanity
to development. The perspective takes for granted the inequality that emanate from
globalized malpractices; it directs globalization approaches primarily to “the economy,
technology, and the media” (Mudimbe-Boyi, 2002, p. xii). Scholars who propagate this
perspective overlook the necessity to reflectively critique ensuing disequilibrium
emerging from the escalating global system. There is need to ask in-depth critical
reflective questions such as: Who is behind the advances of the global systems? Why are
such advances made? Who benefits (and who loses) from such advances? What
consequent impacts do the systems have over individuals, communities and the totality
of existing and changing social cultural structures?
The two perspectives on the conception and practices of globalization show a group of
scholars who criticize the system and would wish for alternative globalizations and those
who celebrate globalization as a triumph of modernity that should be accepted as an
inevitable imperative. Based on these conflicting perspectives, the author advances the
need to chart a transformative approach that would allow global citizens to employ
flexible delivery of education to engage the citizens to embrace relevant moral lifelong
education that equips them with techniques to live and serve with love and care taking
from Freire‟s pedagogy of hope and Vygotsky‟s concept of learning as pleasurable
activity or play through which individuals and communities grow from low to higher
levels of development.
Lifelong learning
Similar to globalization, lifelong learning has been conceptualized variedly based on
individual (or group) perceptions as influenced by social cultural backgrounds. Lending
from a European Community background, Ulrik (n.d) posits lifelong learning as "all
learning activity undertaken throughout life, with the aim of improving knowledge, skills
and competence, within personal, civic, social and/or employment-related perspectives.
Lifelong learning begins from birth to death and has the purpose of encouraging
individuals to gain and revitalize abilities, interests, knowledge and other experiences. It
provides wide opportunities for individuals to value formal, non-formal and informal
learning. On these grounds lifelong learning provides chances for those who missed
compulsory education and those who did not complete the schooling circle. It is also an
avenue for updating and upgrading knowledge, skills and values in a continuum from
pre-school to post retirement age. This way of perceiving lifelong learning takes lifelong
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learning as a norm, a natural phenomenon within existing social structures. It does not
interrogate structural disjunctions that are the causes of schooling stratifications.
From a somehow different perspective lifelong learning is linked to globalization as
concerned with promoting learning after graduating from compulsory school systems.
This second conceptualization closely associates lifelong learning with adult education
and has its genesis in the 1970s when “UNESCO published the „Faure report‟ (1972)
foregrounding „lifelong education‟ as a means to deal with modernization, economic
uncertainty, and technological changes and advances. Lifelong education gradually
transformed into lifelong learning which, according to Walker (n.d), coincides with the
floating of national currencies, high levels of joblessness, loss of belief in Keynesian
economics and in the practicability of the welfare state. In line with this argument,
lifelong learning is considered a means of encouraging social inclusion and prevention of
social disruptions. Transformations experienced in the economic sector, science and
technology creates triggers for lifelong learning which serves unstable economies and
troubled social economic equilibrium. Individuals who lose their jobs take refuge in
education while seeking for alternative employment. The scientific and technological
innovations enable opportunities for technologically enhanced teaching and learning
content and pedagogy.
Flexible Delivery of Education
Advances in technology and their ensuing impact on escalating globalization and its
consequences have made lifelong learning an unequalled pillar and an imperative of
globalization. The two concepts (globalization and lifelong learning) have been
considered closely linked to conditions resonating with the global knowledge economy
and information communication technologies - ICT (Walker, n.d). ICT constitute the
breeding ground for innovations, creativity and flexibility which continuously trigger the
drivers to learn as a lifelong endeavor serving the largely shifting and unstable, social
cultural ground (Reich, 1992; Martin, 2003). Because of unstable/shifting and insecure
employment and the need to acquire knowledge, skills and values relevant to offset the
consequences of innovations and shifting jobs; flexible delivery of education has become
a necessity to all. Multitasked individuals prefer an education that can be obtained
without disrupting engagements which determine individuals and community survival
and stability. ICT and Open and Distance Learning, particularly in forms of online and
m-learning enable and enhance such flexible education in terms of providing time and
space; choice of content, institution, instructors, learning technology and related
platforms and out-come based programmes. Within the framework of such flexibility an
in-depth consideration of learners‟ freedom (autonomy) and potentials from which to
choose education content that is meaningful when transferred for life engagements
leading to innovations and growth. When this state is achieved bureaucratic red tapes are
most likely to be done away with and in their place authentic empowerment to a
transformation that enhances self employment and independence can be realized. With
effective flexible lifelong learning experiences, individuals are not necessarily forced to
labour for other peoples‟ profit but rather, they independently open up avenues from
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which they freely choose among a variety of profitable socioeconomic and political
activities to engage in.
Choice of time: in a genuine global lifelong learning, the learner can study at any time –
morning, daytime or nighttime; the choice is determined by learner‟s convenience and
responsibilities.
Choice of spaces: the learner can study anywhere (at home, work, on a journey, at a
mall or park). With online/m-learning, the learner is exposed to a one-stop-shop where
all sorts of learning spaces are available without the learner having to move away and
use costly means. From the learning screen of a computer, a laptop or an empowered
handset there is space for: (i) presentation of information content/instruction/directions,
(ii) storage of information (iii) retrieval of information (iv) communication with
peers/instructors/experts (v) collaboration with the learning community (vi) Browsing
for additional/extensive information (vii) access to multimedia (viii) hypertext and
hypermedia (iX) simulations and (x) display of virtual reality) (Peters, 2004, p. 87). To
this list we can add space for (xi) assessment, (xii) research and (x) edutainment
(educative music, graphics/simulations and virtual reality). The space(s) that the
learners‟ engage at any moment of their learning is (are) generally determined by the
learners‟ task at a given moment.
Choice of relevant content: With online or m-learning, learners are exposed to massive
sources of educational (and non educational) information. Educational content is obvious
in content spaces where text books, academic journals/newsletters, and study guides or
manuals are deposited for retrieval. These are easily located where learners have access
to education facilitators. Where such facilitators are unavailable learners need to be
inducted into techniques for surfing web sites with academic credibility in terms of
relevance of content to target academic areas and level of target learners. It is worthwhile
mentioning the need for facilitators to orient learners to Open Education Resources
(OERs) and how to track such materials both online and other educational sources.
Choice of technology and technology platforms: Generally, selection of the
technology to use for education purposes is based on four major fundamental aspects:
the technology‟s accessibility, affordability, usability, and efficacy to learning and
teaching pedagogy.
Choice of programmes, institution and instructor: With flexible global lifelong
learning a learner has great latitude of autonomy with which she can choose a
programme she wishes to study. She is not bound to associate with an institution that
might restrict her to pursue predetermined programmes or courses. The learners are
empowered with the freedom to study only the programmes or courses that they consider
necessary for what they want to engage in during and/or after their studies. In a
comprehensive online education, qualifications no longer imply paper credentials, but
rather what is paramount is the practical output-based relevance of what is attained
through education. Assessment mechanisms are no longer institutional or teacher-based,
rather they are personalized to the learner‟s needs given target educational requirements.
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On the basis of contemporary global reality, learners have the freedom to engage
institutions and instructors for their educational needs or to educate themselves through
OERs and other forms of educational sources. The latter has great implications for home
based learning during childhood stages and self learning at adulthood. Under such
circumstances learning becomes a continuum from birth to death. Additionally, the
choice of what is to be learnt (content and pedagogy) is to a large extent determined by
learners themselves (at adulthood) or the choice of parents and guardians at childhood
stages.
Advantages/Opportunities of Flexible Global Lifelong Learning
Lifelong learning under contemporary multifaceted technological driven and knowledge
based economies has multiple advantages and opportunities that can be harnessed for the
improvement of peoples‟ livelihoods. The following list constitutes some of such
opportunities.
Reaching the traditionally unreached citizens for educational purposes through
an efficient use of multimedia technologies;
Enhancing potentials for massifying or democratizing education at all levels;
Expanding home-based learning for individuals of all ages;
Encouraging multitasking among citizens, a condition that has the potential to
improve the quality of goods and services while reducing production costs since
one is provided with facilities to perform multiple activities at a given time;
Enhancing chances of addressing chronic soocialcultural challenges such as
poverty, ignorance and diseases (Nyerere, 1974). Or, in the light of UN attaining
the eight Millenium Development Goals (MDGs): eradicate extreme poverty,
achieve universal primary education, promote gender equality and empower
women, reduce child mortality improve maternal health combat HIV/AIDS,
malaria and other diseases, ensure environmental sustainability and develop a
global partnership for development;
Expand research, innovations and solutions for common challenges; and
Expanding opportunities for democracy and empowerment of global and local
citizens.
Challenges of Flexible Global Lifelong Learning
Despite the list of opportunities highlighted above, there are several challenges that are
likely in a flexible lifelong learning system. Some of such challenges include:
Limited awareness and competences to appropriately and adequately
contextualize available education content and information from global sources to
local situations;
Limited participation (only 1% of research and publication emerge from SubSahara Africa) and control by people from low developed countries over what is
available as educational content (curricula) and educational information;
Limited opportunities to patent local content in low developed countries;
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High possibilities of retaining the current global status quo whereby the already
developed countries continue to control the underdeveloped counties because of
the differential economic status of the two global spheres.
Conclusion
As can be deduced from the presentations above, flexible provision of education is a
historic actuality that can be explored. Flexibility in the provision of education features
in a number of issues: time, space, choice of programmes, institutions, instructors,
multimedia technology, learner‟s autonomy and the changing role of teaching to
facilitation. Flexible provision of education provides broader opportunities for global
lifelong learning as local and global citizens can access education content and
information from any location across the globe. Learners can freely decide not to seek
for credential and instead just pursue programmes or courses for which outcome they
intend to engage in their life endeavors or engagement. The latter empowers learners
and enhances learning freedom from bounding schooling systems that reproduce unequal
social structures.
Despite the fears expressed above, flexible provision of education and its consequent
global lifelong learning should be considered as part of a realization of democratization
of education on a global scale in accordance with UN‟s proclamation of education as a
human right. The situation should be applauded as a means through which meaningful
and relevant innovations in education can be achieved. It would be erroneous to stick to
traditional modes of providing education which has witnessed catastrophic production of
technological and scientific killer products, social disequilibrium and chaos!
Globalizing lifelong learning can now be realized, thanks to Open and Distance learning,
specifically online and m- learning which are enabled through contemporary educational
technologies and their enhanced capabilities for content development, use, distribution,
storage, retrieval, updating, and pedagogical alternatives and enhancements.
References
Faure, E., & International Commission on the Development of Education. (1972).
Learning to be; the world of education today and tomorrow. Paris: UNESCO.
Hardt, M., & Negri, A. (2001). Empire. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. (1st American ed.). New York:
Seabury Press.
Friedman, T. L. (2006). The world is flat. A brief history of the twenty-first century. New
York. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Goodfellow, R. & Lamy, M. (2009). Learning
Cultures in Online Education. UK. Continuum.
Martin, I. (2003). Adult education, lifelong learning and citizenship: Some ifs and
buts. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 22(6), 566-579.
McLaren, P. & Jaramillo, N. E. (2008). Alternative globalizations: Toward a critical
globalization studies. Rhizoma freirean Vol. 1-2
Peters, O. (2004). Distance education in transition. New trends and challenges (4th
ed.). Bibliotheks- und Informationsysytem der Universität Oldenburg, Center
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Reich, R. B. (1992). The work of nations: Preparing ourselves for 21st century
capitalism. New York: Vintage Books.
Sachs, J. (2005). The end of poverty: How we can make it happen in our lifetime.
London. Penguin Books.
Vygotsky, V. (1978). Mind in society. The development of higher psychological
processes. Havard University Press.
Walker, J. (n.d). Towards alternative lifelong learning(s): what Freire can still teach
us. Educational Studies. University of British Columbia.
Walker, J. (forthcoming). The inclusion and construction of the worthy citizen through
lifelong learning: a focus on the OECD. Journal of Education Policy.
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68
An Application of Multimedia Learning Theory in Instructional
Materials: A Case of Psychology and Special Education
Hyasinta C. F. Kessy
The Open University of Tanzania, Faculty of Education
Abstract: Multimedia offers exciting possibilities for meeting the needs of Open and Distant
learners. The use of multimedia instruction can significantly enhance student learning if properly
designed and implemented. This paper investigates the extent in which multimedia, illustrations,
interactivity, visibility and vocabulary are presented in Psychology and Special Education study
materials so as to enhance readability as well as learning. Four study materials were involved in
assessing the presence of illustrations, interactivity as well as text visibility to enhance
readability and learning
Four Psychology study materials were involved including Child Development, Special Education,
Personality Dynamics and Principles of Guidance and Counselling.The study employed content
analysis as a method of data collection which revealed that the study materials had only 1
percent illustrations, 2 percent interactions, 17 percent visibility while the percentage of
vocabulary was found to be 80 percent. It was recommended that Psychology and Special
Education teachers should prepare multimedia enriched study materials in order to facilitate
learning as well as performance to Faculty of Education students
Key Words: Multimedia, Interactivity, Visibility, Readability, Attribution, Learning,
Instructional materials
Introduction
Globally, education remains the most vital strategy for the development of the society
throughout the developing world (Aikaman & Unterhalter, 2005). Many studies concur
that it is the human resources of a nation that ultimately determine the pace of its
economic and social development. Since education is an investment, there is a
significant positive correlation between education and social development. When people
are educated, their standards of living are likely to improve, as they are empowered to
access productive undertakings, which will ultimately lead to an improvement in their
livelihoods and the nation at large.
The Faculty of Education is one of the largest faculties of The Open University of
Tanzania facilitating learning by distance mode. It consists of both undergraduate and
postgraduate programs aiming at improving the qualifications and the effectiveness of
serving education personnel, as well as preparing competent new teachers for different
levels of education in Tanzania
This study was conducted in the Psychology and Special Education, one of the
departments in the faculty of education others being Curriculum and Instructions, Policy,
Planning and Administration, Educational Foundations as well as the Department of
Adult and Distance Education. Several courses are provided by Psychology department
such as General Psychology Learning Attitudes and Motivation, Educational Statistics,
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Child Development and Personality, Introduction to special Education, Introduction to
Educational Research, as well as The Principles of Guidance and Counselling.
The department consists of well trained and experienced staffs including professors,
doctors and lecturers. Most of psychology staffs are highly experienced in teaching
several educational levels including primary, secondary, colleges, as well as universities.
The department has been providing several services to students including consultation,
and preparation of study materials which are available in the OUT Regional Centres. Not
only that but also, to enhance the accessibility of study materials to the OUT Distant
learners recently the OUT academic staffs (psychology teachers inclusive) in
collaboration with the IT department are in the process of making sure that the study
materials are easily available online
Student’s Performance and Attribution Theory
For some time now, most Faculty of Education students are not performing well in
Psychology. Most of them have been scoring so low marks necessitating a repeat of the
test or doing supplementary examination and consequently failing to graduate on time.
Many factors contribute to failures but Open University students like other students
worldwide attribute their failures to teachers (Amani, 2010). This supports the Social
Psychological Attribution Theory that success is always attributable to internal factors,
while failure is attributed to external factors (Weiner, 1985). The attribution theory
assumes that people will attribute their success or failure to factors that will enable them
to feel as good as possible about themselves. To avoid negative emotional reactions,
people have a tendency to attribute success to their own efforts or abilities, but they tend
to attribute failure to some external factors that they do not have control of
(Augoustinos, 2005). According to Weiner if the causes are controllable, then people
believe that they can alter these causes. But, on the other hand, if people believe that the
causes are uncontrollable, they cannot be altered easily. This implies that people‟s
perceptions or attributions for success or failure will determine the amount of effort the
person is willing to expend on a particular activity. Impliedly, therefore, people who
attribute a cause to external factors are less likely to put more effort on a task than those
who attribute internally Kitila and Amani (2012)
A considerable body of evidence exists that individuals often take credit for successes
and deny responsibility for their failures. This tendency to make internal attributions for
success and external attributions for failure has been referred to as self-serving bias
(Miller & Ross, 1975) Whitehead, Anderson and Mitchell (1987) found that children
attribute their success to ability, as compared their negative outcomes, while, Bar-Tal
and Darom (1979) found that pupils attribute successes mainly to external causes while
failure is attributed to internal causes. Conversely, according to Bar-Tal and Guttmann
(1981) pupils attribute success mainly to themselves as well as teachers while their
failure is attributed to a number of other causes. Additionally, a study conducted by
Abiodun and Owoyele (2011) at Tai Solarin University of Education in Nigeria revealed
the following order of causal attributions in academic failure: Difficulty of items, lack of
study materials, poor timing and examination timetable, poor infrastructure, poor quality
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of facilitators, inappropriate teaching methods, poor examination marking, influence of
peer pressure, poor study skills, lack of preparations and low ability. This shows that
students attributed causes of their failure more to external factors than internal or selfinduced factors. Consequently, students who failed feel mostly helpless believing that
they would not have failed if these factors were not there.
Recently, Kitila and Amani (2012) conducted a study at the University of Dar es Salaam
on the Perceived University Students‟ Attributions of Their Academic Success and
Failure. This study assessed the applicability of the attribution theory in understanding
how students in higher education attribute their academic success and failure. The study
specifically assessed the variation in attribution of academic performance between high
performing and low performing students. The results show that, high performing
students are more likely to attribute their academic performance to internal causes (like
their own ability or effort) than low performing students who attributed their failure
externally to (to teachers or study materials).
A number of empirical researches and studies support Weiners theory that identified four
attribution factors that are related to academic success or failure, namely: ability, task
difficulty, effort and luck. Effort is the most important factor in which learners can
exercise a great deal of control. Task difficulty is an external and a stable factor, which is
beyond the learner‟s control. Though ability is an internal factor, learner cannot control
it because it is a stable factor and cannot easily be changed. Moreover, luck is an
external as well as unstable factor hence learner have little control over it. Similar
situation is happening to OUT students, because the external factors are not controllable
to them such results may cause learners to feel helpless and continue to fail year after
year.
Meaningful Learning
Students are expected to learn from the available study materials, understand them, and
perform well in tests and examinations (Mayer, 2002). Learning does not happen
accidentally, there is a role to be played by both the learner as well as the teacher. Omari
(2008) described learning as involving a change of behaviour from not knowing to
knowing something new or being aware of something new. He further insisted that
learning must be accompanied by a permanent change of behaviour as a result of
experience and reflection. Hence, meaningful learning is deep understanding of the
material, which includes attending to important aspects of the presented material
mentally, organizing it into a coherent cognitive structure, and integrating it with
relevant existing knowledge. Meaningful learning is reflected in the ability to apply what
was taught to new situations that is the reason we measure learning outcomes by using
tests and examinations (Mayer & Moreno, 2003).
The Concepts of Multimedia and Plain Study Materials
This study aimed at assessing the presence of multimedia in psychology books due to
increased rate of failures among education students. Multimedia is operationally defined
as an environment that offers learners access to information in a variety of formats,
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including illustrations, pictures, text, still images, animation, video, and audio
presentations while plain texts include books without pictures or illustrations
(Techterms, 2012). It is believed through literature that illustrations and other
multimedia motivates the leaner while reading and lead to better understanding of the
material to be learned (Omari, 2011)
Brain Processing and Multimedia Learning
Information is collected from the environment through our sense organs before reaching
the brain. These are the eyes, the ears, the nose, the tongue as well as the skin (Omari,
2008). This ability to process information is a multi-step process that involves the
perception, attention, selection, organization and integration of information (Sweller,
2005). At the centre of this process is long term memory. As the name implies, our long
term memory stores our accumulated knowledge which is organized into chunks of
information known as schema. Schemas allow us to organize information in meaningful
ways and help us to integrate and organize new information (Chi, Glaser, & Rees, 1982).
In short, our long term memory is where what we know is stored and where we integrate
new information. If information does not find its way into long term memory, it is lost.
Learning can be thought of as change in our long term memory. Before information can
be integrated into long term memory it must be received and processed by our working
memory. Working memory is very limited; it can only handle small amounts of
information before it has to be integrated into our long term memory or lost. Miller
(1956) suggested that we can only process about seven pieces of information at one time,
and, we must do so quickly, as working memory can only keep information for about 20
seconds.
Learning in Plain versus Multimedia Enriched Materials
Effective multimedia presentations take advantage of both the auditory and visual
channels in working memory to deliver content. Using multiple channels increases the
overall amount of information the brain can process. Moreover, effective multimedia
presentations recognize that long-term memory organizes information into meaningful
chunks called schema. Presenting information in a way that makes use of existing
organizing structures (schema) or that helps students organize the information can
greatly assist the learner in incorporating information into long term memory (Mayer,
2005).
Numerous studies have found that students learn better from text combined with pictures
than from text alone. Mayer (2005) one of the leading researchers in this area for
example, has found that students understand technical machines or natural occurrence
better when they learn from text and pictures combined. In this context, words include
written and spoken text, and pictures include static graphic images, animation and video.
That using both words and pictures is more effective than words alone should not be
surprising in light of what we know about how the brain processes information. Research
tells us that the use of both words and pictures lets the brain process more information in
working memory (Sweller, 2005).
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The current standard form of instruction is traditional classroom lecture and plain printed
books. It is reasonable to compare learning when the information is presented in the
tradition mode and when it is presented in multimedia enriched format. Petitt (1994)
compared the two situations where learning information was presented in a traditional
lecture to learning the same information presented via computer based multimedia
instruction. The students were in higher education, industry, and the military. The
information learned included biology, chemistry, foreign languages, and electronic
equipment operation. The researcher measured learning using tests of achievement. Over
this wide range of students and topics, it was found that learning was higher when the
information was presented via computer-based multimedia systems than traditional
methods of plain materials
Multiple Channels for Information Processing
Researchers now believe that there are multiple channels in working memory. Baddeley
(1992) proposes an auditory and a visual channel where the auditory channel handles
information that is heard, while the visual channel processes information that is seen.
Furthermore, Mayer (2005) revealed that written text like the study materials used by our
students seems to have unique processing requirements, with words initially captured by
the visual channel and then converted to sounds in the auditory channel. This was termed
as duo coding of information by Allan Paivio of the University of Western Ontario in
1986. According to Paivio (1986) there are two ways a person could expand on learned
material: verbal associations and visual imagery. Dual coding theory postulates that both
visual and verbal information is used to represent information (Sternberg, 2003). Visual
and verbal information are processed differently and along distinct channels in the
human mind, creating separate representations for information processed in each
channel. The mental codes correspond to these representations and are used to organize
incoming information that can be acted upon, stored, and retrieved for subsequent use.
Both visual and verbal codes can be used when recalling information (Sternberg, 2003).
Building on this theory Mayer (2005) showed diagrammatically how text in book can be
enriched by images and consequently enhance learning (Figure 1)
From Figure 1, diagrammatical illustration it is revealed that when printed content is
presented together with pictures or other illustrations learning is more effective than the
text alone because more than one learning modality are involved whereby verbal model
organize words and pictorial model organize pictures before both being integrated
together (Mayer, 2005). This implies that learning efficiency is enhanced in enriched
texts (multimedia) than text alone which use only one communication channel.
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Figure 1
Dual Information Processing Model by Mayer (2005)
Multimedia Content
Words
Pictures
Working Memory
Ears - Sounds
Eyes- Images
Verbal Model
Pictorial
Model
Long Term Memory
Integrate
d Model
Prior
Knowledge
(Existing
Schema)
The Open University students process information like any other human being in
learning from the study materials we prepare. It is obvious that despite of the efforts
done by the teachers in providing several study materials the performance is so poor that
we are challenged to study on these facts so as to come out with genuine alternatives.
This study aims at analysing the nature of Psychology and Special Education study
materials available to students and suggests methods of improving them by making them
more readable, easy to comprehend as well as learner friendly
Objectives
Under the Open and Distance Learning system where the students have minimum
contact with teachers, not only that enough learning materials are needed but they should
be readable, learner friendly and motivating to read. Hence, the objectives of this study
include:
1. To assess the readability of the selected DPSE study materials
Presence of illustrations
The number of vocabularies per page
The text size
2. To examine the interactivity of the selected DPSE study materials
3. To devise ways of improving the available DPSE study materials
Methods
This study employed content analysis of the selected DPSE study materials including:
Child Development, Special Education, Personality Dynamics and Principles of
Guidance and Counselling. Content analysis was employed based on the readability of
the above mentioned course study materials. The term “Readability” have been
explained differently by different authors, Flood (1984) defines readability of a text
material as “the sum total (including the interactions) of all those elements within a
given piece of printed material that affects the success a group of readers have with it.
The success is the extent to which they understand it, read it at an optimal speed, and
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
74
find it interesting” (p236). The following criteria for analysis were involved in this
study: The number of pictures/illustrations per page; The number of vocabularies per
page and; The interactivity of text to the reader
Results
To assess the readability of the selected DPSE study materials
From Table 1 it is revealed that the book titled Child Development interact with the
learners very minimal. Among the 6 pages assessed only 9 interactions with the learners
were observed. Also the book had no a single picture or illustrations related to the
content. The number of vocabularies in the pages assessed was 63 while the visibility
was only 50 percent which indicate that most of the printed text was faint while some
pages were not visible at all.
Table 1
Results from the book titled child development
No of
Assessment Criteria Pages Interactions
17
0
53
3
73
0
97
1
133
5
196
0
Total
9
No of
Picture
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
No of
Vocabularies
15
8
12
16
12
0
63
%Text
Visibility
80
50
60
30
90
0
50
Table 2 indicates results obtained from the book titled Special Education. Six pages were
assessed and the following tabulated results were obtained: neither pictures nor
interactions were found from the book. This reduces reading motivation and readability
of the book. From the assessed pages a total of 129 vocabularies were obtained.
Table 2
Results from of the book titled special education
No of
Assessment Criteria Pages Interactions
1
0
19
0
89
0
109
0
151
0
160
0
Total
0
No of
Pictures
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
No of
vocabularies
21
24
22
15
31
16
129
%text
visibility
80
90
90
60
60
80
77
Table 2 further reveal that the text visibility was fair as most of the pages scored above
50% meaning that the text is clearly printed.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
Table 3
Results from the book titled personality dynamics
No of
No of
Assessment Criteria pages Interactions Pictures
7
0
0
17
0
0
38
0
0
68
0
0
99
0
0
136
0
0
Total
0
0
No of
vocabularies
17
13
4
13
8
13
68
75
%text
visibility
60
70
50
20
90
80
62
As shown in Table 3, the book titled Personality Dynamics lack interactions as well as
illustrations/pictures. The number of vocabulary obtained was 68 while visibility of the
text was only 62%. This indicates that the readability of the text is low
Table 4
Results from the book titled principles of guidance and counseling
No
of No
of No
of %text
Assessment Criteria
pages Interactions Pictures vocabularies visibility
9
0
0
10
100
22
0
0
6
100
59
0
0
8
90
91
0
2
19
90
117
0
0
4
100
142
0
0
18
70
Total
0
2
65
92
Table 4 shows results obtained after assessing the book titled Principles of Guidance and
Counseling. No interaction was found in the text while only 2 pictures were found on
table 2. The number of vocabularies was 65 while the book scored 92% on the visibility
criteria. Figure 2 summarises the above results
Figure 2
Study material readability result summary
2%
1%
17%
No of vocabularies
Text visibility
No. of interactions
80%
No of pictures
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
76
Discussion
After assessing the selected study materials through the criteria of presence of
multimedia including illustrations, number of vocabularies and text visibility most of
DPSE study materials were found to have low readability to the learners. The presence
of illustrations was found to be only 1 percent. Literature shows that a picture is worth
10,000 words, pictures have indeed various advantages as tools of communication
because pictures are not dependant on a specific language, and they are less culturally
specific than texts (Schnotz, 2005). The number of vocabularies in the text was very
high that is 80 percent while most part of the text was faint with visibility of only 17
percent. Most of these books have been photocopied many times such that some of the
text is invisible and some pages are totally plain.
Moreover, when the criterion for interactivity was measured it was found to be only 2
percent. Several authors insist the interaction of the material with the learner in order to
enhance memory (Mannes & Kintsch, 2002; Obrien & Myers, 2008). This study shows
that only one study material seems to interact with learners by inviting them to the
materials and interactions which forced the learners to think critically.
Conclusion
Multimedia learning environments can facilitate and enhance learning processes.
However, multimedia instruction does not automatically happen. The development of
multimedia instructional materials requires more facilities including, financial and
human resources compared to delivering information through a single medium.
Therefore as lecturers in the ODL system we have to decide carefully on how many
resources should we invest into creating books especially for psychology teachers.
Basically, the essence of multimedia design lies in the fact that the teacher is aware of
what goes in the mind of the learner when learning through single as well as multiple
sense organs as in multimedia. Psychology teachers are aware of the major learning
modalities where most of them should be involved during studying, if we want our
learners to perform better then let us prepare such enriched materials.
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JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
78
Challenges of Teaching and Learning Through Open and
Distance Learning (ODL) System: The Case of the Open
University of Tanzania
Cornelia K. Muganda and M. Kabate
The Open University of Tanzania
Abstract: Like in other countries higher and technical education through Open and Distance
Learning (ODL) in Tanzania is increasingly becoming popular. Teaching and learning through
ODL has also been recognized to be effective in practical application of the acquired knowledge,
skills and competences. While recognizing the potential of teaching and learning through ODL,
this paper acknowledges existence of challenges that need to be identified and analyzed so that
viable solutions to address them are sought and implemented. It also explores some ways to
stimulate innovativeness and creativity in teaching and learning through ODL for the purpose of
enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of ODL programmes. The paper is based on a recent
research on the challenges of teaching and learning through ODL at the Open University of
Tanzania (OUT) which investigated the challenges that OUT was facing and the initiatives it was
undertaking to combat these challenges. The findings of the research indicated that there were
challenges in the areas of: ODL qualifications of both academic and supporting staff; production
and distribution of study materials; infrastructures for teaching and learning, student attitudes
and expectations; student support services and assessment. Initiatives by OUT to meet these
challenges included introduction of staff ODL induction course; developing and encouraging
staff and students to use e-learning materials, teaching computer courses to students and
potential students; collaboration with other educational institutions at national, regional and
global levels; the use of students portfolio and participating in the development of a national
ODL policy.
Key words: Teaching and Learning, Open University of Tanzania, Open and distance
Learning, Challenges, Initiatives
Introduction
In contemporary times, the potentials of teaching and learning through Open and
Distance Learning (ODL) including widening access, reducing some barriers to
education, flexibility and the learner friendly approaches to teaching and learning are
increasingly acknowledged. While recognizing the potential of teaching and learning
through ODL, this paper acknowledges existence of challenges that need to be explored,
identified and analyzed so that viable solutions to address them are sought and
implemented. The paper is based on a recent research on the challenges of teaching and
learning through ODL at the Open University of Tanzania (OUT) which investigated the
challenges that OUT was facing and the initiatives it is undertaking to combat these
challenges.
The study employed a mixed/eclectic methodology to obtain and analyse both
quantitative and qualitative data. The target population of the study was all OUT staff
and students, however, only 50 staff and 50 students were included in the study sample.
Cluster sampling and purposive sampling were used to select respondents to ensure
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
79
representation of regional centres and headquarters, male and females as well as those
who are well informed on issues (e.g. Directors of regional centres). Questionnaires,
interviews and document review research techniques were employed to collect data. The
study included collections of both primary and secondary data. The primary data were
obtained through interviewing, tutors and students and the Directors of the regional
centres. The Directors of the Regional Centres were given the interview guide. Some of
the information on the centres was obtained from Deputy Vice Chancellor Regional
services and Learning technologies‟ office. Students were asked about their attitudes
and expectations on ODL, support services, computer access, their ICT skills and
internet connectivity; and issues related to the continuous assessment, examination and
feedback. Secondary data were also gathered from the Facts and Figures, these included
information on trend of study material production, as well as student enrolments
Teaching and Learning Through ODL at the Open University of Tanzania
The Open University of Tanzania was established as a single mode ODL institution by
the act of Parliament No 17 of 1992 which was replaced by the Universities Act in 2005.
OUT became operational in 1994 with 766 students in the faculties of Education and
Arts. According to OUT facts and Figure (2010) publication, by 2009 OUT had an
enrolment of over 31,793. As a single mode ODL institution most of the teaching and
learning at OUT is through ODL. The teaching and learning strategies include the use of
study/ instructional materials mainly in print form, face to face contacts, and e-learning
and other technology assisted techniques. Successes of OUT not withstanding teaching
and learning through ODL pose challenges which are briefly discussed below. The
challenges range from those related to production and distribution of study materials,
staff qualifications and competences in ODL techniques, the Physical and ICT
infrastructure, the mindset towards ODL and limited (or lack) of awareness of the
potentials of ODL, the students‟ expectations, learner support services and assessment.
Challenges Related to Possession of ODL Qualification for Both Academic and
Supporting Staff
Effective teaching and learning through ODL system requires both academic and
supporting staff to have at least the basic knowledge, skills, and competences for
providing appropriate support services to students. Laymaman (I999) observes that few
academicians who are employed in open and distance learning institutions have pursued
ODL as their career. The status of OUT staff in terms of having ODL qualification
concurs with Laymaman observation. Very few academicians (3 out of 135) and
supporting staff (1 out of 102) in the regional centres had formal training in ODL. Table
1 below illustrates the case by indicating ODL qualification from selected Regional
Centres.
Substantial portion of the OUT staff not possessing formal training and/or ODL
qualification implies that most of them have to learn and acquire the basics and
principles related to ODL system through on job training in terms of seminars or
workshops. However, when asked how regional centres orient and/or equip the staff with
knowledge and skills for writing standard instructional materials, conducting
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
80
assessments, and provision of support services for students the responses included use of
staff meetings and peer learning as the main methods through which the staff get
Table 1
ODL qualification for OUT staff from selected Regional Centres
Regional Centre
Academicians
Academicians with
ODL
qualification
Non
academicians
Non academicians
with ODL
qualifications
Arusha RC
Morogoro RC
Mara RC
Zanzibar RC
Kinondoni RC
Ilala RC
Shinyanga RC
Temeke RC
Tanga RC
Dodoma RC
Manyara RC
Iringa
Kilimanjaro
Njombe
Coast
Mtwara
Lindi
Mwanza
Kagera
Mbeya
Geita
Katavi
Pemba
Singida
Tabora
4
6
3
8
14
11
2
10
6
11
3
8
6
3
5
2
4
8
6
5
1
1
3
2
3
None
None
None
2
1
None
None
None
None
1
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
7
4
2
10
11
3
4
3
8
1
6
6
5
3
4
4
3
6
2
3
1
4
4
9
1
None
None
None
1
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
oriented to the basics and principles related to the teaching and learning under ODL
system. The seminars are short and not regular. One junior academic staff reported:
“I was employed in 2006 as an academician , I never had Open and Distance
Learning qualification, I do all the responsibilities which are supposed to be done by an
academician at the higher learning institution like teaching including setting exams,
invigilation, marking the papers , research as well as consultation. In teaching I also
wrote a study material on a certain subject, but in this activity I got a little knowledge on
how to undergo writing I got that knowledge from the seminar held in Tanga…”
Lack of a clear or formal system for orienting and/or equipping the OUT staff with the
basic knowledge and skills related to teaching and learning through ODL system can
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
81
partly account for the shortage of study materials for the students. OUT staff lacking
training and skills on principles of ODL must be considered among the top priority
challenge to be addressed for two reasons. First, it is a problem which is caused by other
perennial problems particularly inadequate funding and subsequent shortage of IT
facilities and services. Secondly, it may render the staff to develop sub-standard study
materials and provide inadequate student support services which are core elements of
teaching and learning through ODL system in which the OUT operates.
Challenges Related to Production and Distribution of Study Materials
In spite of the fact that the OUT has clear policy and elaborate guidelines for standards
for writing and distribution of study materials for its students, there remains some
challenging which hinder effective and efficient production and distribution of study
materials. Lack of possession of ODL qualifications, issues of publication and printing
as well as the distribution process significantly contribute to challenges of production
and distribution of study materials. In case of ODL system where students have limited
opportunities for face to face teaching and learning interaction with their tutors the study
materials have to be effectively designed for self teaching and learning. As Carrols
(2004) observes the study materials must be written in a very clear manner, permit
learner-material interactive teaching-learning session, relevant and available in
appropriate ways. This requires competences of the study material writers, designers,
editors and printers.
As stated earlier most of the academic staff who joined OUT lacked competences in
study materials writing, there was only one qualified designer; the publication unit was
understaffed with only two editors and one typesetter; printing takes a long time due to
lack of capacity of the commissioned printers and lack of a print unit at OUT.
Consequently, production of study materials was slow.
Despite increase in faculties, programmes and students the production of study materials
has been slow. Insufficiency of study materials for students except for the MBA
executive and ICT degree programmes was reported by all OUT regional centres.
The findings also indicated that shortages of study materials for students in the regional
centres appear to be caused not only by low production in relation to the students‟
requirements but also due to the defects in the distribution process. For instance, some
regional centres reported to be supplied with study materials which they did not
immediately require while the same study materials were not available in other regions
where they were needed. The fact the study materials are in print form and bulky result
into budgetary constrains in terms of transport costs. The move to distribute study
materials in electronic form by CDs can be helpful but a substantial number of OUT
students particularly those in rural or semi urban places cannot access materials on CDs
because of limited access to computers, lack or limited electricity power supply and
general lack of ICT skills. The study by Muganda et.al (2010) on the use of TESSA
materials by OUT students pursuing Diploma in Primary Teacher Education (DPTE)
revealed that the majority (90%) do not have computers at home or at work places.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
82
Those students who used the internet services to access the materials reported that it was
too costly for them to afford on regular basis.
Challenges Related to Infrastructures for Teaching and Learning Through ODL at
OUT
Open and distance learning system requires a variety of adequate and appropriate
infrastructures to provide various services effectively at different phases of ODL
students‟ life cycle. Infrastructures in the context of the OUT teaching and learning
through ODL include institutional land ownership, possession of buildings, PC
laboratories, lecture/examinations halls or classrooms, vehicles, computers, print and
photocopy unity and furniture (RSP, 2006).
i)
Land and Buildings
The implications of OUT not having its own buildings in some of the regional
centres breed a number bottlenecks which include:
Lacking spacious Headquarter and Regional Centre Head Offices which in
turn makes it difficult for OUT to develop permanent ICT infrastructure,
adequate storage of materials and enough space for face to face activities
which are crucial for the teaching and learning through ODL mode in which
the OUT operates.
The OUT relying on renting and hiring of building and facilities result into
substantial running costs which in turn reduces its own financial capacity to
implement some of the planned construction and/or rehabilitation of
buildings which it could otherwise afford.
ii)
Laboratories,
To date the Open University of Tanzania has no single laboratory for conducting
science practical activities for its students pursuing undergraduate and postgraduate
science degree programmes. Currently OUT hires the SUA and UDSM laboratories
for practical training as well as for conducting the students‟ continuous assessments
and final examinations. Hiring is an inconveniences to OUT in terms of scheduling
of practical teaching and learning as well as assessments/examinations timings
because programmes of the other institutions take the first priority. Loss of the
opportunity for OUT to train its own staff in particular, laboratory technicians is
another consequence of the OUT not possessing its own science laboratories.
iii)
ICT Infrastructure
ICT infrastructures in terms of computer rooms and reliable internet services
particularly for online interaction between students and tutors and other supporting
staff for teaching and learning, assessment, and administrative purposes are very
important in teaching and learning through ODL.
When in place, ICT infrastructures facilitate handling large number of users. Data in
Table 2 indicates that only one regional centre was possessing a computer room
Table 2
Status of infrastructures at selected regional centers.
Regional
center
Ownership
Library
Computer
rooms
No. of
Computers
Access to
Internet
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
Morogoro
Arusha
Mara
Zanzibar
Kinondoni
Ilala
Temeke
Tanga
Hired
Hired
OUT
Hired
Hired
Hired
Hired
Hired
NIL
NIL
NIL
Available
NIL
NIL
NIL
Available
NIL
Available
NIL
NIL
Available
NIL
Available
Available
3
4
1
2
43
7
10
10
YES
YES
Unreliable
YES
Unreliable
unreliable
unreliable
unreliable
Rukwa
Manyara
Shinyanga
OUT
Hired
Hired
Available
Available
NIL
Available
Available
2
10
10
31
YES
Reliable
Reliable
83
with computers connected to internet, majority 19 (83%) of the regional centres
suffer from unreliable access to internet services. Moreover, great proportion of the
regional centres possess number of computers ranging between 1 and 4 in total and
in such cases it was reported that the few computers available are accessed by
respective Regional Centre Directors and Secretaries. This implies that academic
staffs in such centres have to rely on their personal computers and students do not
have access to computer and/or internet services provided or available at their
respective centres.
iv)
Library facilities
The interviews with few students from three regional centers indicated that, the
national library centres do not have adequate resource to satisfy the OUT students‟
demands. “One may find one book of reference for only one course” the student
stated.
Mindset and Awareness of the Potentials and Support for ODL System
The position and awareness of the potentials of ODL systems can be observed by
looking at different declarations at global and regional levels. For instance United
Nations Millennium Declaration of 2000 and its eight Millennium Development Goals
and the New Partnership for African‟s Development report of 2005 do not stipulate
directly the ODL and its potential contribution to national development (WB 2011).
However, this can also be observed in Tanzania‟s Education policy and Training of 1995
which do not even mention the sector of Open and Distance Learning. To date there is
no comprehensive National ODL policy. For over twenty years the national ODL policy
has not moved from the draft stage.
Limited Collaboration Among Institutions Providing Programmes Through ODL
There are a number of institutions in Tanzania providing education through ODL. In the
Regional Meeting of focal points in Africa and the Mediterranean which was held in
Lilongwe Malawi May 22-23, 2008, Mahai (2008) highlighted institutions which
provide open and distance learning in Tanzania. Apart from The Open University of
Tanzania the institutions included: Institute of Adult Education (IAE) Tanzania, Sokoine
Agricultural University (SUA), The Ministry of Health and Social Welfare (MoHSW),
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
84
Health and Sanitation Water (HESAWA) and Centre for Development in Health
(CEDHA), Tanzania Global Development Learning Centre (TGDLC), South African
Extension Unit (SAEU), Ministry of Education and Vocational Training and The
Development of Educational Management (ADEM). These and many others across the
borders are working alone. A number of conventional universities are also offering
courses through ODL. The challenge is that most of them are working in isolation. There
is no network of ODL institutions to foster collaboration, monitor and evaluate or set
standard frameworks based on ODL criteria. Consequently, ODL programmes, including
those of The OUT are subjected to quality assurance criteria based on conventional
settings.
Challenges Related to Students Attitudes and Expectations
Most of the students have experiences in conventional ways of teaching and learning so
their expectations are based on their experiences. For example, the students expect
everything to be taught by the seminar facilitators as conventional students. This
happened due to the misunderstanding of the concept of ODL and lack of study skills at
the beginning of their programme. As a result, they always lodge many complaints on
many issues which sometimes are not real.
Insufficient preparation of students for self-study and time management. Distance
learning requires that students be self-motivated to study and self-directed in their
learning. This modality is new and difficult for some students. Tutors who were
interviewed stated that students in Tanzania are „not used to being self-motivated
learners‟. Four tutors from ICE stated that students needed training on how to learn
through distance learning. . As one third year student reported:
“Students need study skills that will help them find resources on their own and
for those who have been employed to balance their time for work, home, and
study effective”……..sometimes we fail to manage our time because at first we
were not given orientation on how to study through open and distance
learning….. I think in Tanzania it is a new system, we are familiar with
University of Dar es Salaam where students enter in class and are taught.”
Students also cited difficulty with finding materials on their own either because of
infrastructure issues or their inability to find an internet site.‟ The problem for provision
of skills and knowledge for open and distance learning could be provided during
orientation. From the interviews done students claimed not to have been given such
knowledge, however some blamed the management not organizing the orientation
properly, especially in making sure that all respective teachers are available for any
question which will arise from students.
Inadequate Student Support Services
In open and distance education student support is the most critical factor influencing
student success (Keast, 1997) because it overcome the negative effects of isolation and
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
85
lack of regular contact between the distance learner and the tutor, and in doing so
different forms and channels of interactions are created.
In a conventional learning situation, interpersonal interactions are usually termed as
teacher/student, student/teacher and student/student relationships. In an entirely distance
learning mode, direct contacts of this kind are on rare occasions, almost always
compromised. ODL students may be bogged down by unsolved scientific or pedagogic
difficulties in their learning process, by discouragement and demoralisation or by doubts
that they are following the right path in the process of knowledge acquisition. Student
support mechanisms should be designed to overcome these difficulties. By creating
opportunities for contact between students and the teaching system, questions can be
asked and answered, advice provided and moral support given whenever needed. Some
virtual substitutes can also assist. At The OUT Mail and telephone have been used as
main means for these interactions.
The Student support service includes; counselling services, access to library and
laboratory materials and timely feedback to students on their performance. According to
Tait (2000) the primary functions of student support are proposed as being threefold:
cognitive: supporting and developing learning through the mediation of
the standard and uniform elements of course materials and learning
resources for individual students;
affective: providing an environment which supports students, creates
commitment and enhances self-esteem;
Systemic: establishing administrative processes and information
management systems which are effective, transparent and overall
student-friendly.
From the interview done with the kinondoni, Temeke and Ilala regional centres,
students claimed that the service is somehow not encouraging because the information
provided by the non academic staff is not enough for a person to make a decision;
“ for example I am a second year student at…. regional center , if you go to
supporting staff and ask them about anything on what to study, at what time a
person can postpone the exam , these people do not give the right information
…..”
Students lack basic computer skills, access to computers and the internet. Limited
skills in the use of computers and the internet pose significant additional challenge in
teaching and learning for all distance learning programme. Nearly all students
interviewed did not have computers. Only 1 student out of 20 students interviewed had a
computer at home. Given this unavailability of computers, students reported accessing
them at internet cafés, but this was expensive at TSH 500 up to 1000 per hour.
Moreover, students need training on how to access online libraries since printed
materials are so limited. Students also appear to use e-mail infrequently. Ten students
said they don‟t use e-mail because it „takes too much time‟ and they have other activities
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
86
to be done. Sometimes, computers at the regional centres are not working or use a
system which the majority of the students have no skills to use it. For instance, in some
students indicated that some computers (about 30 computers) at their regional centre
have sun system, which students acquired specific knowledge on how to use them.
Challenges Related to Continuous Assessments, Examinations and Feedback
Interviews with some students have indicated that although things have improved and
they are getting the results of their timed test; marking is still not good because some
pages are skipped without being marked. They explained that they wanted to see some
comments on each page. The examination timetable is one of the aspects that are making
students not to perform well or complete their studies as planned. A third year student
complained that
“One may find three subjects colliding. As a result students opt to do one
subject per session, consequently take longer to complete studies……. This
is also causes confusion in studies.”
Students indicated that the face to face sessions which are held once a year are not
enough in terms of time. They explained that most of the time is used to fill in students‟
portfolio
Out Initiatives to Meet the Challenges
The above discussion has explicated the challenges of teaching and learning at the Open
University of Tanzania. The discussion indicates that challenges of teaching and learning
through open and distance learning (ODL) system have implications to a number of
stakeholders ranging from government, to institutions, faculties, regional centres, staff
and students. The following are some ways the OUT can or have employed to stimulate
innovativeness and creativity in teaching and learning through ODL for the purpose of
enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of ODL programmes of the institution.
Open and Distance Learning Staff Orientation Course. In an attempt to build
capacity of staff in ODL teaching and learning knowledge skills and competences OUT
made comprehensive staff orientation to teaching and learning through ODL program
compulsory to all OUT academic staff. However there are members of staff who are not
yet participating in this programme. OUT need to encourage and motivate staff to
undertake the orientation pogramme. The programme should also be extended to support
staff so that they also can effectively provide student support services.
Infrastructure. In regard to land and buildings OUT has made good progress. The OUT
has already acquired an expanse of land in Bungo-Kibaha in Coast Region which is
planned for headquarter administration, amenities such as printing press, storage
facilities for instructional materials, accommodation for students during face to face and
examinations activities. In addition, the OUT management has also acquired land which
it intends to distribute to the OUT staffs for the purpose of building their residences near
OUT Headquarters an aspect which among others will be a retaining incentive of the
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
87
staff. The OUT also has managed to purchase plots for its five regional centres, namely,
Rukwa, Manyara, Lindi, Kigoma and Mtwara which are yet to be developed (RSP,
2006). Furthermore, OUT has managed to secure permanent buildings for its five
regional centres, namely, Singida, Mbeya, Iringa, Kilimanjaro and Ruvuma. Despite
these good moves toward developing OUT own physical infrastructure, financial
limitations for construction of buildings in the acquired land and rehabilitation of the
acquired buildings to suit OUT operations or activities remains the fundamental
bottleneck towards greater progress.
Assessment, Examination and Feedback. Regarding assessment, examination and
feedback, the OUT has made a change in its assessment procedures. Before there were
two assignments, two tests and one annual examination carried. In 2010 there was a
change the two assignments were replaced by a Students Progress Portfolio (SPP).
Currently assessment comprise of one test which carries 30% marks and annual exam
carries 70% marks. In 2009 there was an establishment of the Directorate of
Examination Syndicate (DES) which deals with all matters concerning examinations
including uploading of the results into SARIS.
Collaboration and networking with ODL institutions. OUT is taking a leading role
in the Distance education association of Tanzania (DEATA) - an association that brings
together ODL stakeholders. The OUT is also actively participating in the development
of the national ODL policy. The OUT, its staffs and students are involved in various
networks and a number of agreements have been signed. These are assisting in
enhancing collaboration.
ICT skills and e- learning. OUT has made „The introduction to ICT„ course is
compulsory to all students. Some staff have been trained in teaching through e- learning
Way Forward
From the deliberations above the authors of this paper concludes that ODL institutions
are making a commendable contribution towards widening the opportunities for higher
education. They need to strengthen the potentials of ODL by understanding the
challenges in particular those which affect teaching and learning. Therefore there is a
need to enhance research in ODL issues; more collaboration with other ODL institutions
is important so that experiences and good practices are shared. Assisting students to
learn how to learn through ODL and strengthening the regional centres as well as
improving ICT and Library infrastructures is important ensure that learners are learning.
Other initiatives include Instituting capacity building mechanisms to enhance
competences in instructional materials writing, design, production and delivery as well
as distribution of instructional materials; employing multimedia approach to delivery of
teaching and learning. Use a variety of technologies so that learners can have a choice to
use what is available in his/her immediate environment; and More marketing of OUT
programmes, itself and ODL to ensure change of mindset on ODL.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
88
References
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JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
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Potentiality, Challenges and Prospects of Mixed Mode of Delivery
of Higher Education in Tanzania: The Case of the Open
University of Tanzania and the University of Dar Es Salaam
Cornelia K. Muganda, Mwanongwa Lusekelo and Peter Kapalanaka
The Open University of Tanzania
Abstract: In the 21st century trends in the delivery of higher education indicate transitions
towards a mixed mode. Conventional institutions are increasingly employing open and distance
learning (ODL) methodologies; while ODL institutions are acquiring more conventional
characteristics. This paper analyses the potentiality, challenges and prospects of mixed mode of
delivery of higher education in Tanzania. The paper is based on a recent research entitled:
„Challenges and Prospects of Transitions towards Mixed Mode of Delivery of Higher Education:
The Case of The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) and the University of Dar Es Salaam
(UDSM). Eclectic methodology was employed to collect and analyse data from 100 purposively
selected respondents from the OUT and UDSM. The findings obtained through interviews,
questionnaires, and document review indicated that increasing demands for higher education,
developments in ICT, dwindling funding and changing characteristics of students are some of the
forces behind the transitions. The benefits include: expanding access to a variety of students;
generating more funds, better utilization of resources and competitiveness. The challenges
included: mandates; less expertise in ODL; limited (or lack of) infrastructure, administration and
management and ICT related challenges. Enhancing collaboration and partnership; sharing
experiences, collaborative research; capacity building in requisite expertise and review of
mandates are some of the recommended strategies to harness the mixed mode for the betterment
of delivery of higher education in Tanzania.
Introduction
Towards the end of the 20th century, growing demand for higher education in Africa
together with developments in ICT created a shift in modes of delivery in favour of
Open and Distance Learning (OECDE 2011). Single mode institutions such as The Open
University of Tanzania were established; while some long standing conventional
universities like the University of Dar es Salaam, decided to pursue a dual mode;
offering some parallel programmes by distance while maintaining the conventional
mode. However, trends in the approaches to delivery of higher education in the 21 st
century indicate transitions towards a mixed mode.
Conventional institutions are increasingly employing open and distance learning (ODL)
methodologies including less face to face, satellite campuses, more asynchronous
interactivity hence becoming more open and flexible. Open and distance learning
(ODL) institutions on the other hand are acquiring more conventional characteristics.
Intensive face to face, more synchronous interactivity, residential programmes and on
campus study arrangements are some of the manifestations of this shift. There is a need
to understand these phenomena so that they can be harnessed for the betterment of
higher education in Africa. The major questions that are addressed in this paper include
what are the forces behind these transitions, which are the benefits and challenges and
how can the phenomena be harnessed for the benefit of higher education and the
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
90
development of Africa? The deliberation in this paper is based on a recent research
entitled: „Challenges and Prospects of Transitions towards Mixed Mode of Delivery of
Higher Education: The Case of The Open University of Tanzania (OUT) and the
University of Dar Es Salaam (UDSM)‟.
The study aimed at investigating the phenomena of transition to the mixed mode and
how it may be harnessed for the betterment of higher education. The objectives of the
study were to: Identify forces behind the transitions to mixed mode; assess benefits of
the transitions, identify challenges of the transitions; and suggest strategies to harness the
phenomena for the betterment of provision of higher education in Tanzania
The Open University of Tanzania and the University of Dar es Salaam were purposefully
selected to be the area of study because in Tanzania each one of them is the founder
university for the single mode and conventional mode respectively. History informs us
that the University of Dar es Salaam was first established in 1961 as a College of the
University of London and in 1963 it became a Constituent College of the University of
East Africa. In August 1970, it became the first national University, named „The
University of Dar es Salaam‟. Since its establishment it had been implementing the
teaching and learning process through the orthodox approach (UDSM, 2007). On the
other hand, the Open University of Tanzania was also the first University in the country
to undertake the teaching and learning process through the open and distance learning
mode. The OUT initially was established in 1992; however the institution became an
operational entity in a year later (Wikipedia, 2012).
In the study random purposive sampling was employed to select academic staff and
students. This sampling procedure was used because academic staffs are the
implementers of this new approach and students are the targeted consumers. There are
mainly two research approaches, quantitative and qualitative paradigms (Opie, 2007). In
this aspect the study employed an eclectic approach, thus attributes from both
quantitative and qualitative paradigms were applied. It was considered that the use of
components from both paradigms would complement each other. As Borg and Gall
(1989) observed, in many cases the combination of the two approaches is superior to
either one. Generally, in this study the research techniques comprised questionnaires,
personal interviews and the document analysis
Conceptualization of Key Terms
This paper is guided by some key concepts in the delivery of higher education including
single mode, conventional mode and mixed mode. It is therefore important to understand
how these concepts are used in the paper.
Conventional mode. Refers to full-time teaching and learning through on-campus faceto-face approach. Some scholars prefer to identify it as a residential education (Mushi,
2001). Most of the worlds‟ universities fall in this category. For the case of Tanzania
universities such as Dar es Salaam University, Dodoma University, ST Augustine
University to mention a few fall in this category..
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Single mode. Refers to a wholly dedicated open distance learning (ODL)institution.
Open and distance learning is a flexible approach to delivery of education to those who
are unable to undertake full-time study for a variety of reasons including socio-economic
responsibilities. ODL can be referred to as the learning approach that focuses on freeing
learners from constraints of time and place while offering flexible learning opportunities.
For many students, open and distance learning is a way of combining work and family
responsibilities with educational opportunities (UNESCO, 2012). Ideally, in a single
mode ODL institution most of the learning process is conducted by someone
geographically removed from the learner, with all or most of the communication being
conducted through a variety of media. The „open‟ nature of distance learning might be
formally institutionalized in such policies as open admissions, and freedom of selection
of what, when and where to learn. The openness of distance learning is also seen in
relatively flexible organizational structures, delivery and communication patterns as well
as the use of various technologies to support learning. For the case of Tanzania, The
Open University of Tanzania is the one which is categorized in this group.
Higher learning institutions which are described as dual mode universities generally
teach both full-time students on campus and part-time students at a distance. Both types
of student follow the same syllabus, take the same examinations and therefore are judged
by the same standards. On-campus students may benefit from the use of teaching
materials which have been developed for distance learners. Teachers have the stimulus
of face-to-face teaching and might have a greater variety of jobs than in a single mode
institution, where there is usually more specialisation. Distance education services may
be handled in a special, separate unit with staff whose sole responsibility is teaching at a
distance. Essentially, in dual mode institutions, distance education is incorporated into
the structure of a traditional university, although dual mode universities often have
specialist distance educational administration and student support systems.
Mixed mode. Is a description which may be applied to a variety of different teaching
methods operated by one institution. Farnes (2000) presents three different variations of
a mixed mode organization. One method is „integrated‟, when on-campus students use
distance learning materials as part of their courses; another is „parallel‟ when students
take both on-campus and distance learning courses at the same time and yet another is
„sequential‟, when students take on-campus courses followed by distance learning
courses (or vice versa). Further variants are possible, such as offering distance learning
students occasional lectures or tutorials, or supporting on-campus learners with ICT
material which they can use independently. In mixed-mode institutions staff normally
teaches both on- and off-campus students. Defined in these terms, mixed mode includes
a large category of higher education institutions which are increasingly incorporating
ICT in their teaching and learning process. Many traditional institutions are
incorporating elements of the technologies into their traditional course offerings to
enhance learning and provide greater flexibility of delivery. These blended courses have
further blurred the distinction between ODL and traditional learning.
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Evidence of Transition Towards a Mixed Mode
At the Open University of Tanzania (OUT). The evidence of the transition from the
single mode of delivery which is ODL to the mixed mode is currently very ubiquitous at
the Open University of Tanzania. The university is now having different courses which
are offered through both: ODL and conventional approaches. For example, OUT (2011)
points out that there is an intensive face to face program in courses such as Diploma in
Primary Teacher Education (DPTE) in the Institute of Continuing Education (ICE) and
Executive Master of Business Administration (MBA) by the Faculty of Business
Management (FBM). Also in FBM there is a presence of a residential programme in
courses such as MBA evening which is centered at Dar es Salaam and MBA executive
which is currently offered in Arusha, Mbeya, Mwanza and Zanzibar and the prospective
Master of human recourse management (MHRM) in evening mode is expected to be
centered in Dar es Salaam. In addition to that, the OUT through the Faculty of Science,
Technology and Environmental Studies (FSTES) is also offering the Bachelor of Science
Information and Communication Technology (BSC ICT) through intensive and regular
face to face and laboratory sessions methodologies. To pursue this course the students
are required to acquire the residence in Dar es Salaam and to complete the course within
three years, hence atypical approach of a conventional model. Furthermore, when one
comes to the OUT headquarters and even in some of the OUT regional centers he/she
finds some campus study sitting arrangements such as the tents which are encouraging
full-time study and intensive face to face interaction among students.
At the University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM)
The transition in the mode of delivery is seen to be dominant too in some of the
university faculties at UDSM. In this context, the transition is seen in the programmes of
Engineering Management, Education and BBA programs. The university is currently
offering three online programmes in Post-graduate in Engineering Management,
Education and BBA. All of the courses in these programs are delivered through the open
and distance learning approach (UDSM, 2010). Furthermore, there is flexibility in time
and pace of study in some of the courses as it is for the case of the Master of Business
Administration (MBA –evening). Additionally, the university has already launched some
of the satellite campuses for computer causes in regions such as Arusha, Mwanza,
Mbeya and Dar es Salaam and the university is having enrollment of more students than
the physical place to accommodate them hence using technology to reach them.
Forces Behind the Transitions to Mixed Mode
The data collected indicates that the pushing factors towards the mixed mode of delivery
are similar in both cases, but the factors are varying in extent to which they influence the
transitions in question. The graph below, presents the summarized data on the forces
behind the move at the University of Dar es Salaam towards mixed mode.
The data in figure 1 indicates that most of the respondents (40%) point out that the
universities move towards the mixed mode of delivery is mainly attributed to the
universities‟ response to the current increasing demands for higher education in the
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
93
Figure 1
Factors behind UDSM transition
country. This argument is in line with the statement made by the UDSM (2010) which
contends that with the increasing demand for high education and increasing pressure on
the existing physical infrastructure, the future University depends very much on the
expansion in the use of ICT and increasing online programmes to cater for increasing
candidates. The UDSM expressed the need to develop and establish more ODL
programmes so as to expand access to higher education.
A few others (10%) indicated developments in ICT as another strong factor behind the
move towards mixed mode. This finding is in agreement with Komba (2009) who
revealed that the development in ICT technology has inspired the university to move to
the ODL teaching and learning. Komba (2009) contends that through the ICT the UDSM
is now efficiently able to rich to many of its students who are learning through the ODL
methodology. In the same vain he points out that, the recent global developments in
Information Communication Technologies have, brought new players into the distance
education sphere. Whereas between 1960s and 1980s there were only four major
distance education providers, all of them financed by the government, the number of
such providers has now gone up to seven, all of them enjoying some form of support
from the government. The providers are: the Cooperative Education Center (Moshi
Cooperative College), the Institute of Adult Education, the Southern African Extension
Unit, The Open University of Tanzania, University of Dar es Salaam and the Tanzania
Global Development Learning Center.
Dwindling funding from government was also identified by some of the respondent
(10%) to be also contributing reason towards the transition. The issue of dwindling of
fund is also supported by the UDSM (2010) which indicates that in recent years public
funds to UDSM have been received at a declining rate, which has the potential to reverse
the University‟s achievements so far. Therefore, in the environment of this manner
where the institution is forced to run its activities with the shortage of financial
resources, it is seen to be logic to resort to the mixed mode of delivery so as to widen the
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
94
capturing net for UDSM potential students who are not able to join the institution
through the conventional approaches but they can join it through the ODL mode of
delivery.
Surprisingly the data collected through questionnaire indicated that most of the
respondents (40%) from the University of Dar es Salaam didn‟t respond to this question
which required them to identify factors behind the universities move to the mixed mode.
During interviews, it was explained that though steadily expanding the transitions have
not yet been implemented by all schools and faculties of the university.
Figure 2 presents the summarized data on the forces behind the move towards the mixed
mode of delivery at the Open University of Tanzania
Figure 2
Factors behind OUT transition
The data in Figure 2 indicates that most responses (60%) indicated that mostly the
OUTs‟ shift from the former dominant paradigm in the teaching and learning process
was attributed to the demand of the students as a whole for more flexibility in the
teaching and learning approaches so as to cope with the current national and global
pressures.
The other issues which was also identified by many (58%) of the OUT respondents as
one of the contributing factors to the OUT move to the mixed mode was the
development of ICT. This was followed by the observation that it was cheaper for the
institution to run (56%) some courses/ programs through conventional means. The
participants explained that the fees for programmes run through conventional techniques
were not controlled by the government which insists on very low fees for ODL
programmes. Increasing demands for higher education was also identified by many
(54%) respondents; while half (50%) of the respondents pointed to the dwindling
funding from government this is supported by the OUT (2011) which highlighted that
while the OUT is expanding day after day in terms of responsibilities and functions the
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
95
government financial support have been declining year after year since 2009 to date.
This OUT Institutional Self Assessment and Evaluation Report shows that in the
academic year 2001/2002 the government allocated to the OUT Tshs.1004, 000,000/=
the amount which more or less remained the same up to 2009/10 where it drastically
went down to Tshs 917,000,000/=. Only few of them (6%) identified the changing
characteristics of students as a contributing factor. This factor is related to the age profile
of the students whereby more younger students are enrolling to OUT programmes. These
aim at completing their programmes within the same duration as their cohort in
conventional institutions; studying is their full time occupation. Some students who are
employed also require new qualifications to cope with changes at their work place or
maintain their employment. From the above presented data it is obvious that, the move
of the OUT and UDSM towards mixed mode of delivery is not contributed by a single
factor but many which combined together to exert strong forces behind the transition.
Envisaged Benefits of the Transitions to Mixed Mode
When the respondents were asked to identify the benefits which the universities are
expecting to gain through implementing the mixed mode of delivery, they said that
universities gain various benefits. However, when one assesses these benefits as they
were mentioned by the respondents he/she may find that the envisaged benefits at both
the OUT and UDSM are also similar but they differ in levels. This is evident from the
data in graphs and the presentation below.
The Benefit of ODL Institutions Offering Some Programs Through Conventional
Methodologies
The data collected and summarized in figure 3 indicated the envisaged benefits of the
ODL methodologies using the orthodox conventional approaches in the delivery of their
courses/programmes as they were revealed by the respondents from the OUT.
The data summarized in figure 3 indicate that, the respondents from the OUT were of the
view that the higher learning institutions in Tanzania gain much when they offer some of
their programs through conventional modes of delivery while they are mainly ODL
institutions. With this aspect, most of the respondents (41.7%) contend that, the tertiary
institutions expand access to more variety of potential customers when they are offering
some of their programs in a conventional mode than in a solely ODL mode.
Moreover, other respondents (33.3%) asserted that, through this approach the tertiary
institutions are at a better position of utilizing its resources in a more effective and
efficiency manner than if they would be offering in a merely ODL approaches. In this
context, the higher learning institutions establish different evening programs where by
the lecturers from the ODL institutions provide their face to face services to the students.
Issues of generating more funds was also mentioned by some respondents (33.3%) to be
among the gains the OUT obtains when applying the conventional approaches of
delivery in some of its programs. Through these gains the institution find itself in a good
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
96
Figure 3
The transition envisaged benefit at OUT
position to overcome the problem of fund shortage in running its activities. Additionally
other, respondents (33.3%) commented that the diversion of the institutions from the
former approach of delivery in ODL methodologies to the conventional one is mainly
contribute by the competitive environment where both conventional and ODL
institutions compete to attract more potential students following the mushrooming of
universities. By employing the conventional approaches, the institution is envisaged to
be in a good environment where it can survive well in this competitive situation.
Furthermore, the respondents said that the global world is facing quick changes and
great dynamics in all spheres of life whereas the flexibility becomes an indispensable
approach if one wants to cope well with these changes. To the OUT flexibility in the
aspect of methodologies became automatically an inevitable thing if the university needs
to survive and thrive well in this world of dynamics.
Through personal interview some respondents contended that ODL is more adventitious
to students as it enables them to access update information and learning material
compared to those of conventional universities while the conventional approach assists
them to complete their programmes quick than the ODL approach. Mixing the two
modes make them get the best of the benefits from each mode.
The Benefits of Conventional Institutions Offering Some Programs Through ODL
Methodologies
As we have pointed out earlier conventional universities have also been shifting from
single mode of delivery to mixed mode; they have employed ODL methodologies to
some of their programmes. The benefits that were identified by respondents from the
University of Dar Es salaam are summarized in figure 5 below.
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97
According to the data summarized in figure 5, the advantage of using this approach that
was identified by majority of respondents to increase access to variety of students. Those
students who cannot leave their working station for a long time and those who face the
problems of limited time to pursue their studies at conventional institutions benefit much
from ODL established programmes. Other respondents (33.3%) pointed out that the
institution was collecting more fiscal resources through employing a mixed mode of
delivery hence reducing the total dependence of universities on government
Figure 5
The transition envisaged benefit at UDSM
funding. Some respondents (33.3%) indicates that when conventional universities are
offering some of their programmes in ODL system they overcome the problem of
shortage of human resources (lecturers) since through ICT one lecturer can teach
thousands of students. This idea is also supports the observation by Mushi (2001) who
pointed out that with ICT there is a possibility of offering courses during vacation .
Some findings revealed that the increased demand for higher education in Tanzania has
resulted into fast emerging of universities. The outcome of this is the increasing
competition over potential students. The changing from single mode to the mixed
methodologies enables universities to manage competitions.
Challenges of the Transitions to Mixed Mode
The respondents were also asked to show some of the challenges which are encountered
by the universities when they move to a mixed mode. Various responses summarized in
figure 6 and 7 were provided by the respondents.
The respondents at OUT revealed that the out encounters several problems when moving
from a single ODL approach to mixed mode.
As Figure 6 indicates, most of the respondent (70%) identified two major challenges,
which are the limited infrastructures that would allow the full implementation of the
mixed mode of delivery and issues related to ICT. The required physical infrastructures
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98
included lecture rooms and residence halls and laboratories for its students. Related to
this is limited permanent premises where the university could fix ICT infrastructure
internet connection, video cassette and tapes for face to face residential sessions. Other
respondents (58%) highlighted that the OUT faces the problem of less expertise in
implementing the mixed mode approach whereas the lecturers need to be ready to serve
in both ODL and face to face lecture sessions. Furthermore, the respondents (48%)
identified that, the management finds it hard to implement the teaching and learning
because of the poor managerial skills to support both approaches the conventional and
the ODL at the same institution concurrently. A few of the respondents (20%) said that
there is also the problem of mandate to support the mixed
Figure 6
Challenges of the transitions to mixed mode at OUT
mode. However, the data collected through the documentary review indicates that this
argument was invalid as the OUT Charter allows the university to offer its programs
through both ODL and conventional approaches (OUT, 2007 and OUT, 2005).
Other challenges which were identified by some respondents (20%) include the heavy
work load among the academic staff and having the shortage of the laboratories
particularly for students who are pursuing science courses in the face to face sessions.
These assertions are supported by Mushi (2001) who advocates that mixed mode of
delivery has high running costs hence requiring high fees. Centralization of programmes
was also identified as other challenges because most of the programmes under mixed
methodologies are offered in Dar es salaam
Challenges of the Transitions at UDSM
The respondents from the UDSM outlined challenges encountered by the university
when offering some of its programmes through ODL methodologies as they are shown
in figure 7 below. At the University of Dar es Salaam the respondents identified some of
the three difficulties at the rate of the same ratio of (30%) They asserted that some of the
lecturers in the conventional universities have less expertise in ODL approaches hence it
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99
becomes hard for them to accept and adopt the new ODL techniques. The ICT related
challenges were also among the critical problems which the respondents from the
University of Dar es Salaam raised. They revealed that skills and sufficient
infrastructures are needed for the UDSM to be able to successfully implement the ODL
mode of delivery. Limited ICT infrastructures particularly in networks and technologies
were a challenge. Another problem that was identified was the mindset. The respondents
explained that it is difficult for the proponent of the of the orthodox learning (to adopt
the mainstreaming of the mixed mode in their teaching and learning process
Figure 7
Challenges of the transitions to mixed mode at UDSM
Strategies to Harness the Mixed Mode for the Betterment of Provision of Higher
Education in Tanzania
The following are some of the strategies of harnessing the mixed mode for the
betterment of provision of higher education in Tanzania that were recommended by
participants in the study. Some of the recommendations were specific to OUT or UDSM
while others were general.
It was recommended that OUT establish laboratories in all regional centers so as to be
able to be able to effectively accommodate the students who are pursuing the science
subjects in their courses. This will motivate and strengthen the performance of students
in these subjects for the prosperity of the country. There is a need to train the academic
staff so as to be able to cope in both environments of teaching and learning as the mixed
mode is an inevitable phenomenon in the higher learning institutions. The lecturers need
to be conversant in both ODL and Conventional techniques
The issue of improving the ICT infrastructures in all tertiary institutions needs to be
taken with serious considerations as currently no country can afford to exist without
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using ICT in its learning and teaching strategies. “African countries are now talking on
the ratio of one student one laptop” Said one of the interviewees.
Instituting quality assurance mechanisms for the mixed mode was also recommended.
“The tertiary institutions need to mainstream issues of monitoring and evaluation for
quality assurance to the extent of making it an important culture that every academic
staff needs to live in so as to achieve to the desired quality and competitive education,
the education that is able to stand and to overcome the current global wave of change in
all spheres of life”. One respondent explained.
Related to this was the recommendation that There is a need to conduct a regular
rigorous and continuous assessment so as to be able to identify both the strength to
which the institution can go on clinging to and the weaknesses which they can struggle
to get rid of them. The sensitization on the use of E-resources needs to be well
emphasized and the related orientation courses need to be provided to the students so
that they are able to access variety of useful and current E-resources.
OUT need to expand the mixed mode to regional centres so that many students who are
in need of this dual mixed mode can benefit from the transition. There is a need to
increase collaboration with other mentor institutions in each of the desired learning
approach. For example the OUT may benefit much in being in collaboration with the
UDSM vice versa to ensure that the expertise and experiences that OUT has in ODL and
that which UDSM has in conventional approaches are shared and enhance in both
institutions. There is a need to review university charters so as to incorporate the
flexibility of the institutions in the teaching and learning process for the better of the
country
Concluding Remarks
The paper has explicated the current transition towards a mixed mode of delivery of
higher education. Based on the comparative study on the challenges and prospects of
mixed mode of delivery of higher education, the envisaged benefits and the challenges of
the mixed mode were discussed. Increasing demands for higher education and flexibility,
developments in ICT, dwindling funding from the government and changing
characteristics of students were identified as some of the forces behind the transitions.
The benefits include expanding access to a variety of students; generating more funds,
better utilization of resources and competitiveness. Less expertise in ODL or
conventional mode of delivery; limited (or lack of) infrastructure, administration and
management and ICT issues were identified as challenge of the mixed modes. Enhancing
collaboration and partnership; sharing experiences, capacity building in requisite
expertise and review of mandates are some of the recommended strategies to harness the
mixed mode for the betterment of delivery of higher education in Tanzania. The
contemporary world is exerting pressure on education and its institutions to provide
more and better education to diverse learners. This makes transition to mixed mode of
delivery of education inevitable. Educational institutions need to understand the
phenomena and set strategies to harness it for positive contribution towards development
of education and societies.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
101
References
Borg, W. R. Gall, M. (1989). Educational research: An introduction. New York:
Longman Inc.
Farnes, N.C. (2000). Distance education for the information society: Policies,
pedagogy and professional development. Moscow: UNESCO Institute for
Information Technologies (IITE)
Komba W. L.M. (2009). Increasing education access through open and distance
learning in Tanzania: A critical review of approaches and practices.
International Jounal of Education and Development Using Information and
Communication Technology ( IJEDICT). 5, 8-21
Mushi, P.S.D. (2001). Prospects for combining residential and distance mode of
university education in Tanzania. UTAFITI (New Series) Special Issue, 4,
221- 255
Opie, C. (Ed.). (2007). Doing Educational Research. London: Sage Publications.
OUT. (2011) Prospectus 2011/2012. The Open The Open University of Tanzania
OUT. (2005) The Open University of Tanzania charter of 2005, Dar Es salaam, The
Open University of Tanzania.
OUT. (2007). The Open University of Tanzania Charter of 2007. Dar Es salaam, The
Open University of Tanzania.
OUT. (2011). The Open University of Tanzania : Report of institutional self
assessment and evaluation. Submitted to Tanzania Commission for
Universities.
UDSM. (2007). Institutional self-assessment of the university‟s mission in relation
to the civic role in and social responsibility to society, with a special focus on
two self-initiated global projects. An institutional assessment report prepared
for the Talloires Network. University of Dar es Salaam.
UDSM (2004). Corporate strategic plan, 2004-2013. Dar es Salaam: University of
Dar
es Salaam.
UDSM. (2010). Five-year rolling strategic plan 2010/2011–2014/2015 University Of
Dar Es Salaam draft. University Of Dar Es Salaam. Retrieved 3 August, 2012
from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_University_of_Tanzania
UDSM. (2007). Institutional self-assessment of the university‟s mission in relation to
the civic role in and social responsibility to society, with a special focus on
two self-initiated global projects. An institutional assessment report prepared
for the Talloires network. University of Dar es Salaam.
UDSM. (2004). Corporate strategic plan, 2004-2013. Dar es Salaam: University of
Dar es Salaam.
UDSM. (2010). Five-year rolling strategic plan
2010/2011–2014/2015
University of Dar Es Salaam draft. University of Dar es Salaam
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
102
Application of System Analysis in ODL
Paper presented at the second national ODL conference and commemoration of 20 years
of delivery of affordable quality university education by ODL in Tanzania, 23 rd – 24th –
august 2012.
Kamya Edward and Ochan Joseph
Kampala International University, Dar es Salaam College– Tanzania
Abstract: Research reports and observations have indicated the absence of quality planning in
the management of open and distance education in Africa. This appears to be one of the major
constraints to the effective management of Open and distance education in majority of the
institutions all over Africa. This paper is theoretical in nature. The main purpose is to discuss the
application of system Analysis in Educational Management. The paper reviewed how system
Analysis can help to promote distance education. It also discussed the meaning and objectives of
System Analysis. Distance education and the strategies for applying System Analysis in distance
education. It was recommended that Policy makers should avoid working on the symptoms of
problem but rather the exact nature of the problems, the government should equip study centers
with facilities in order to facilitate learning through distance education.
Introduction
Distance learning which is an integral part of distance education is an organized course
of study in which the teachers are not physically present but teach the learners through
correspondence, radio, television, computer or a combination of two or more of the
process (Ocho, 2005). According to Alaeze (2005) distance learning refers to educational
pattern, approaches and strategies that permit people to learn with no barriers in respect
of time and space, age and previous educational qualification – no entry qualification, no
age limit, no regard to sex, race, tribe, state of origin etc. It has developed from a modest
and inconsequential beginning through correspondence course to a full fledge modern
day technology facilitated, flexible and learner-driven self-directed learning, which
involves learners who are often in location remote from institutions and/or instructional
or tutorial facilitators (Jegede, 2005).
However, mere learning through reading books is only accidental and therefore, cannot
be called distance learning (as par distance education) unless there is an organized course
of study which is delivered sequentially and directed at specific and reorganized
audience of students or learners (Ocho, 2005). Jegede (2004), defined distance education
as the kind of education mode provided other than the conventional face to face method
whose goals are similar to and just as noble and practical as those of on-campus full
time face to face education. However, for effective dissemination of information in such
mode of study, good communication medium is required.
System Analysis and ODL Administration
Systems analysis began as a mathematically rigorous, "rational" means of comparing the
expected costs, benefits, and risks of alternative future systems – such as weapons
systems – characterized by complex environments, large degrees of freedom, and
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considerable uncertainty. Since then the systems approach to organization has risen and
biologists such as Millerad Rice have linked the chemical and industrial organizations to
a biological organism. Earlier approaches to organizational administration were based on
parts working solely in terms of external environment but the systems approach views
the organization as a whole and involves the study of organizations in terms of
relationships between technical and social variables within the system (Nwankwo,
1982). Changes in the technical part will affect other parts in the social hence the whole
system. For example the classical approach emphasized the technical requirement of the
organization and its needs, it looks at production or output maximization by equating
people to machines “organization without people”. The human relations approaches
emphasizes the psychological and social aspects and the consideration of human needs
“people without organization”
The systems approach attempts to reconcile these two earlier approaches attention is
focused on total Work organizations and interrelationship of structure and behavior; and
the range of variables within the organization. The systems approach calls managers to
view organizations as both a whole and as part of the larger environment. The idea being
that any part of the organization‟s activities affects all other parts (Nwankwo,1982).
Management of Open and Distance Learning (ODL) may be seen as a problem solving
process that include planning, designing, implementation, control, evaluation and
revision; Planning is only concerned with determining what is to be done so that
practical implementation of decisions may be made later. Planning comes before doing,
it is a process for determining where to go and indentify the requirements for getting
there in the most effective and efficient manner possible. Then a systems approach could
be taken as a design, tool or process that may be useful to ODL educational managers or
administrators to identify managerial problems through getting solutions. ODL
management using a systems approach starts with an assessment of educational needs;
identify problems based on documented needs. Determine solution requirement and
solution alternative, select solution strategy (ies) from among alternatives, implement
selected strategies, determine performance effectiveness and revise as required.
System analysis is a logical scientific systematic problem solving tool consisting of
mission analysis, function analysis, task analysis and methods-mean analysis. According
to Kaufman (1972); the systems approach is the type of logical problem solving process
which is applied to identify and resolve important educational problems. It is both a tool
and process for more effective and efficient ways of achieving educational out comes.
The tools for educational planning include needs assessment and systems analyses,
where the needs assessment describe a discrepancy analysis which help to tell us where
we are now and where we should be going. The system analysis then builds from this
basis and identifies the requirement for whatever action indicated. Basically three tools
help to determine the requirements for getting from where we are to where we should be.
These include the mission analysis, function analysis and task analyses. However the
three help to ascertain what is to be done to meet the need but not how. The mission
analysis tells us about the requirement for the total problem, the function analysis tell us
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about more detailed aspect of each part of the total problem and the task analysis breaks
the problem into the smallest units we require for planning. The use of these three tools
is linked to looking through a Microscope with several lenses of increasing
magnification where the first lens (mission) gives us a big picture, the function show us
smaller part of the total problem in grater details and the task analysis gives the exact
details of every part we had seen in the function analysis. There after identifying all the
parts of educational system, we identify the possible method and means for each of the
requirements we have unearth during the mission, function and task analysis. Here we
match requirements against possible solutions and note the relative advantages and
disadvantages, to pick the best for solving a problem
Most educational agencies today are involved in change, students and teachers are
becoming more organized, educational organizations are changing ways of doing thing
such as administration, management, motivation, leadership, to mention. In their demand
for change, educational planning today exerts pressure for and against educational
programs and procedures. The technological innovation in educational institutions has
also created demand for educational institutions to change the way they are doing things.
Education is subject to change and it is sensitive to change. New educational methods
and techniques are always being introduced and tried, although not always on the most
rational, empirical, measurement basis. Many school administrators are often accused of
pursuing panaceas with nothing but hope and faith to guide them. ODL educational
administrators and planners therefore requires a systems approach to education, it
requires that systematic, and formal planning, design, implementation, evaluation, and
revisions aspects to take place by use of the mission analysis, function analysis, task
analysis and methods-mean analysis in solving educational problems. Therefore Since
many competitors have taken initiative of changing from traditional approaches of
planning to the systems approach ODL educational administrators need to change its
style if it is to fit into the competitive world.
Mission Analysis
A mission is an overall job; product, a completed service or change in the condition of
something or somebody that must be accomplished. Mission analysis is the
determination of where we are going, how we know when we have arrived, what major
steps are to get from here to there. Mission analysis tells a systems planner about
requirements for the total problem; it has two elements, Mission objective and associated
performance requirement.
Mission objective. Mission objective is a precise statement expressed in performance
terms which qualifies outcomes of the mission that is to say, What is to be done to
demonstrate completion, By whom it is to be done; who will display the outcomes,
Under what conditions is the outcome to be demonstrated, What criteria will be used to
determine if the outcome has been achieved?.
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105
Figure1
Conceptual framework describing the application of system analysis to ODL
management
Determine Mission
Objective and Performance
requirements
Identify possible
Methods-Means
Reconcile
constraints
Determine Mission
profile
Identify possible
Methods-Means
Identify Functions and
performance
requirements
Reconcile
constraints
Identify Possible
Methods-Means
Identify Tasks and
performance
requirements
Reconcile
constraints
Mission profile. The second element of mission analysis is the mission profile. The
planning effort so far has yielded (1) what is to be done, (under the mission objective)
(2) the performance requirements for the mission. Here the following steps are very
important (1) obtain the mission objective and performance requirements that tell where
we will be when we have completed the mission. The planner here is also required to
describe the status quo; list the necessary outcomes or products. (2) When the first major
function in the mission profile has been identified then sub functions are
also identified to the last function. (3) When all the major functions in the mission
profile have been identified, they are re-examined against the needs in order to ensure
internal consistency and external validity based on needs. (4) Once the internal
consistency has been determined, arrange the mission profile functions in an orderly
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array of rectangles or squares and connect the graphic blocks with lines pointing to the
flow of functions from the first to the last.
Function Analyses
A function is one of the several related outcomes contributing to a larger outcome. A
function is a collection of required jobs or tasks necessary to achieve a specified
objective or bring about a given product or outcome; they are things that have to be done
to achieve a product or part of a total product, function analyses proceeds from the
results of the mission analysis to a precise statement naming the functions that must be
performed in order to solve the problem. Function analysis is the process of breaking
each function into its component parts while identifying interactions, function analysis
formally proceeds from the analysis of the functions identified in the mission profile.
Task analysis. Task may be defined as units of performance which, when collected
constitutes a function. A task is the lowest level of detail in a system analysis. It is the
lowest level that indicates what must be done to get a higher -order function
accomplished. When the detailed analysis is at the task level the educational planner has
for the first time determine all the “what” for successful problem solution, it provides the
complete array of what is to be done down to the level of understanding actual
requirements for implementation of a plan. Task analysis may be conceived of occurring
in two basic steps; Identifying the basic tasks (or steps) involved in accomplishing an
overall function, Determining the characteristics of the task, their requirements and their
context and putting these in a time ordered sequence, the following are the steps for
performing task analysis (1) list all the tasks and sub tasks necessary to accomplish the
functions being analyzed. The tasks identified are placed in sequence, (the order in
which they will occur) we need to make tasks independent in order to avoid overlap. (2)
list the data and or anything needed for a specific task (3) list the action requirement.
Method-Means Analysis
A method mean is a strategy for achieving some performance requirements and a Mean
is a vehicle by which a strategy is achieved. A Method-Mean Analysis is the
identification of the maximum possible number of methods and the advantages and
disadvantages of each for achieving the specified performance requirement (s) identified
in a system analysis. The method mean analysis does not select how the requirements
will be met; it only gives the possible method-means for achieving the performance
requirements. The method-mean analysis begins as soon as the performance
requirements for an outcome have been identified ordinarily immediately after the
setting of one or more of the performance requirement for the overall mission.
Mission analysis, function analysis and task analysis are process tools with which an
educational planner identifies and documents those functions and tasks which must be
performed in order to ensure the predictable accomplishment of a mission objective. The
three tools identifies the what to be done and or may be in what order; but this is not
enough but he is also required to establish ways to accomplish each function, hence the
ODL planner requires strategies and vehicles (method-means) with the advantages and
disadvantages of each. A systems approach is a six step process for realizing valid
planned change; this acts as a roadmap for achieving the desired change through the
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Identification of a problem based on needs, Determine solution requirement and solution
alternative, Select solution strategy (ies) from among alternatives, Implement selected
strategies, Determine performance effectiveness, Revise as required
Attitudes Towards System Analysis as a Tool for ODL management
Systems analysis as a tool for ODL planning is not actually practiced in many
organizations in East Africa, many planners and their subordinates‟ lack the knowledge
of the systems approach, and it seems the concept of change threatens every one. Change
is apparently an extremely painful experience for most people, when an educator decides
to change or innovate he must be prepared to meet resistance from many sources, his
teachers, administrators, board and even members of his community. Since systems
analysis is a process of planned change, both the process and its outcomes are always
questioned.
The attitude towards systems analysis in ODL planning seems not to be that good, many
people still view ODL and their administrations with the traditional view of say
Taylorisim who looked at the organization without people and the human relations who
looked at people without the organization, for Taylor to maximize productions human
beings should work as machines and for the human relations they looked basically at the
human aspect. The systems approach however looks at the organization as a whole and
all parts should work together to form a whole.
The Practice of Systems Analysis in the Management of ODL
The practice of systems analysis for educational planning among ODL administrators is
still very low; this is due to the fact that many administrators as already observed lack
the knowledge of systems approach to educational planning and for those with the
knowledge fear resistance from their subordinates and or being accountable. To practice
systems analysis for educational planning, planners should however follow the example
given bellow:
The three systems analysis tools we have considered so far are all concerned with
determining what is to be a accomplished to get us effectively and efficiently from where
we are to where we should be or to meeting the identified and selected needs. The
analysis proceeds in layers or levels, to determine all the requirements for successful
problem solution by identifying all the aspects of the problem and setting detailed
specifications for the resolution of the problem.
Conclusion
Distance learning which emulated world over is regarded as a tool for developing the
educationally disadvantaged. For distance learning programme to be effectively run, the
application of system Analysis should not be overlook in distance learning. Just as
Kaufman cautions policy makers on the tendency of citizens and educators or stake
holders in education to protest that “we already know what our problems are, what we
need are solutions”. As Kaufman suggests we always know some symptoms of problems
but not the exact nature of the problem; many policy makers and educational planners
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108
tend to avoid needs assessment when dealing with educational issues and in most cases
jump to the conclusion, this in most cases hinder policy makers chance to solve the real
problem and end up solving the problem poorly or end up treating the symptom and
never really solve the problem.
Recommendations
1. Policy makers should avoid working on the symptoms of problem but rather the
exact nature of the problem, many policy makers and educational planners tend to
avoid needs assessment when dealing with educational issues and in most cases
jump to the conclusion, this in most cases hinder policy makers chance to solve the
real problem and end up solving the problem poorly or end up treating the symptom
and never really solve the problem.
2. The government equips schools/study centres with necessary distance learning
facilities. Besides companies market this equipment should be sell at affordable
rates to individuals who are interested in procuring them.
3. ICT programme should be part and parcel of the pre-service training programme for
teacher trainees. This then calls for ICT to be fully integrated into the present
school curriculum. Adequate supply of electricity should be ensured since all ICT
tools operate with dependable source of power.
References
Alaezi, O.A. (2005). National Open University plan: Enhancing higher education in
Nigeria through open and distance language. Delivery System, Lagos: Noun.
Jegede, O. (2005). Inaugural speech at the induction workshop for noun staff. Facilitated
by commonwealth of learning (col). Victoria Island Lagos: 1721 January.
Jegede, O. (2004). Evolving a national policy on distance education. An Agenda for
Implementation Education Today. 8
Kaufman, R.A. (1972). Educational systems planning. NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Nwanko, J.I. (1982). Educational administration theory and practice. Vikas
publishing
House PVT LTD.
Nwankwo, J.I. (1981). Educational planning: Theory and methods (Nigeria). Lahore:
Izharsons.
Ocho, L.O. (2005) Issues and concerns in education and life Enugu. Institute for
Development Studies. Ondo. 3rd to 6th Sept.
Visitation committee to public Universities (2007). Report. Kampala
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
109
Language as a Hurdle in Delivering of Secondary Distance
Education
Paul Msoka and Mwajuma Vuzo
The Open University of Tanzania
Abstract: This study, which was conducted in Tanga region assessed the way language of
instruction (LOI) affects learners‟ academic performance in secondary distance education. The
objectives of the study were: first to assess learners‟ ability to interpret instructions and questions
presented in the language used as LOI, second, to examine learners‟ ability to express their ideas
appropriately using the current LOI and third, to assess learners‟ views on language of
instruction used for secondary distance education. The study employed principally survey design.
Data were gathered through questionnaires as well as interviews. The respondents for the study
were secondary education distance learners, teachers who assisted such learners and the IAE
regional tutor.
Findings revealed that secondary distance learners faced problems due to poor competence in
using English language as LOI. These included interpretation and expression problems,
grammatical problems, difficulty of English vocabularies, inadequate competence in the language
used as LOI (English language), and ambiguity of the language used to present the content in
study materials and the problem of spelling errors. Such problems rendered secondary distance
learners‟ academic performance to be poor as revealed in this study.
It was therefore recommended the need for providing English training programs to teachers and
learners in order to improve learners‟ language competence, and encouraging scholars and
educational professionals to write English language study materials for secondary distance
learning. Moreover, learners‟ individual efforts to improve their language competence should be
encouraged.
Introduction
Language plays a very big role in education since teaching and learning process cannot
take place without it. It is through language that learners read, comprehend, and
effectively interact during teaching-learning process. Interaction is effected through
asking and responding to questions or when discussing issues pertaining to their subjects
of interest (Vuzo, 2002). If learners and even teachers are disabled in language that is
used as a medium of instruction, then the learning process cannot take place effectively
(Malekela, 2004). In this case, language can simultaneously play conflicting roles in the
educational sphere. It can be a factor in either providing or withholding access to
education (Roy-Campbell, 2001).
According to Tanzania‟s Education and Training policy of 1995, primary education and
Teachers‟ Training Colleges for primary school teachers in Tanzania use Kiswahili as a
language of instruction, while Secondary as well as Tertiary education learning should
be through English language and Kiswahili remains only as a subject (URT, 1995). This
applies even to distance learning, which is viewed as an independent study, home study,
correspondence instruction or transmission of knowledge offered to students who are
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distant from the institution. Distance learning is conducted through correspondence
materials, special radio programs and video cassettes (Mahenge, 2002).
In Tanzania, secondary distance learning is provided by the Institute of Adult Education
(IAE) which functions through its regional centres which are found in all regions within
the country (IAE, 2009). Printed study materials for secondary distance learning are
often distributed to learners through such regional centres and the learners are examined
during the academic year in which they study through qualifying test (QT) for stage one
learners and Certificate of Secondary Education Examination (CSEE) for stage two
learners (ibid).
Following nature of study in distance education where a learner has to rely on posted
materials, and at the same time study independently without getting constant help of his
or her teacher as an intermediate source of knowledge, a learner needs to understand the
instruction on his or her own for his or her academic progress (Holmberg, 2003).
Language of Instruction in this case, seems to be one of the major ingredients for
learner‟s success although in Tanzania‟s secondary education the situation is different.
For instance, empirical evidence by the Presidential Commission‟s report on Education
of 1982 shows that most students in Tanzanian secondary schools neither understand
what they are taught in English nor can they express themselves in the language (URT,
1982).
If in conventional schools where teachers have direct contact with students the situation
is bad, what will the situation in distance learning be like where learner is expected to
work independently with a few supportive services such as residential face-to-face
contacts? Furthermore, some of the secondary distance learners who are served by
regional centres have difficult access to regional centres‟ libraries due to remoteness of
such centres from the clients in rural areas (Mcharazo, 1999). The situation is worse for
them since they have not acquired sufficient level of English proficiency to enable them
follow instruction in the language. This may lead to poor academic performance.
Distance learning, which is the mode of learning that gives more room for written mode
of communication may fail because not all learners can place high premium on accuracy
of expression when giving feedback particularly using a foreign language (Sigalla,
1998). Learning in this mode may also be affected by imperfect conceptualization of the
content on part of learners since there is no or very little room for clarification from
teacher who is separated from the learner (Rowntree, 1992).
Research Objectives
1. To examine the secondary distance learners‟ ability to interpret instructions as
well as questions presented in the language used as LOI.
2. To investigate secondary distance learners‟ ability to express their ideas
appropriately using the existing LOI.
3. To identify learners‟ views on the language used as the LOI for secondary
distance learning.
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Research Questions
1. How is secondary distance learners‟ ability of interpreting instructions and
questions in the LOI?
2. How is secondary distance learners‟ ability of communicating ideas in the LOI?
3. What are learners opinions on use of the existing LOI for secondary distance
learning?
Research Methodology
In this particular study, the researchers employed principally a survey design involving
both quantitative and qualitative approaches due to the nature of the study. The study
was conducted in three districts of Tanga region, namely Tanga city, Korogwe and
Pangani. Tanga region was selected because of its poor performance trend among stage
one and stage two secondary distance learners in their qualifying tests and form four
examinations (IAE, 2010). Thus, the researchers expected to collect enough relevant data
from the area to realize effects of LOI on this situation.
A total of 73 respondents participated in the study including: one IAE regional tutor,
sixty secondary distance learners (20 from each district) and twelve teachers who
assisted them (4 from each district). Such respondents were selected by using purposive
and stratified random sampling techniques. Stratified random sampling was used to
select learners on the basis of their sex, learning stage and location. While a purposive
sampling was employed to select IAE regional tutor based on his duties as the overall incharge of the program in the region and subject teachers basing on subjects they taught.
Data were gathered using questionnaires and interviews. Sixty learners filled
questionnaires and twelve teachers who assisted them were interviewed to get the
required data regarding the effects of LOI on learners‟ academic performance. In
addition, the IAE regional tutor was also interviewed to get the required data. Findings
from the study were presented and discussed according to the research objectives and
research questions of the study, and were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Presentation and Discussion of Findings
Learners’ Ability to Interpret Instructions and Questions Presented in the
Language Used as LOI
The ability to interpret instructions and questions was tested by asking learners (in the
questionnaire), teachers and the IAE regional tutor (in the interview) whether or not they
identified any interpretation problems faced by the learners in their learning process. In
addition, respondents were asked to mention nature of language problems that learners
faced.
Findings revealed that 46 (76.67%) learners out of 60 learners involved in the study and
all 12 teachers as well as the only IAE regional tutor who were interviewed claimed that
learners faced numerous linguistic problems when interpreting instructions and questions
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112
in the LOI used (English language in this case). This confirms previous findings by RoyCampbell (2001) and Skutnabb-Kangas (2000) who caution that the use of a foreign
language in education hinders learning. Many linguistic problems encountered by
secondary distance learners in learning through English as the LOI were identified by
such respondents. In essence, it disclosed learners‟ incapability to interpret instructions
and questions in English language.
One of the interpretation problems explained by learners was difficulties in
comprehending English vocabularies. Thus, 38 (63.33%) learners revealed that they
faced difficulties in English vocabularies when using English language as LOI. The
learners‟ problem with vocabularies, which restricted them from interpreting instructions
and questions presented in English LOI merged with teachers and IAE regional tutor‟s
assertions. Some of the teachers stated that learners were forced to cram rather than
understand subject matter presented in the study materials using English LOI. One of the
teachers said that, “The learners sometimes are obliged to cram things that they do not
understand their meaning because of the use of difficult words in presenting them”. Such
a problem affected learners‟ academic performance since cramming did not enhance
learning and little comprehension was attained. Such a practice leads to what Freire
(1993) terms narration sickness since the narrating subject is the teacher and the patients
the listening objects are the students. Thus, more sophisticated learning should be
encouraged.
Learners involved [28 (46.67%)] in the study found it difficult to interpret instructions or
questions in the language used as LOI (English language in this case) caused by
grammatical problems. Most learners lacked English grammar competence. That was the
reason, it was explained by the teachers that learners always asked for meaning of
sentences, repetitions and translations of some phrases when meeting with teachers who
were assisting them during face-to-face sessions. This indicates that the basic level of
understanding was yet to be attained due to their grammatical incompetence. In this
respect, it was reported that with English LOI, learners‟ understanding of the content
was largely constrained and hence, affected their academic performance.
In addition, 5 (41.67%) teachers explained complexity involved in trying to solve the
matter. For instance, teachers went out of their way teaching English grammar to assist
learners before proceeding with lessons. Always there were several instances of English
grammar teaching during face-to-face sessions. However, that was not the task of a
subject teacher who is not trained to teach English. In some instance, they misguided
learners, given lack of English proficiency illustrated by some teachers in this study. In
this predicament, Qorro (2004) argues for the use of Kiswahili instead as the LOI. This
will enable removal of negative exposure to incorrect English from teachers of subjects
other than English and give learners exposure to quality English by allowing English to
be taught by only qualified teachers to teach it. Results from the study revealed that
teachers who assisted secondary distance learners deviated from focus on lessons when
conducting face-to-face sessions. Sometimes they failed to give the required assistance
effectively.
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113
Pertaining to learners‟ problem of lack of adequate competence in English LOI, 39
learners who made 65% of all learners involved in this study claimed to ignore the
lessons because of this problem. They always struggled to read the study materials
independently but gained very little. It can be remarked that under such circumstance
learners are likely to end up with poor academic performance. It is not surprising to
observe a big number of secondary distance learners perform poorly in their qualifying
tests and form four national examinations. It was explained that a couple of learners on
several occasions failed to interpret the content presented in the study materials caused
by lack of linguistic competence. Hence they privately made wrong comments to
themselves. Sometimes they asked for explanations from colleagues with whom they
sailed in the same boat. Such problem, in one way or another, appeared to trim down
learners‟ confidence in using the language. Skutnabb-Kangas (2000) stresses that it is
important to ensure that students gain full confidence in their language in school.
Otherwise, the damage, which this will have on learners‟ self-esteem, may be
irreversible.
That is the reason 10 (83.33%) teachers involved in this study noticed that learners
crammed and that they needed constant repetitions as well as translations during face-toface sessions. Furthermore, 8 (66.67%) teachers claimed to give elaborations of contents
in Kiswahili so long as learners faced difficulties in interpreting instructions particularly
when presented in English language. The learners maintained that there were more
difficult vocabularies in English than in Kiswahili. Although Qorro (2003) states that the
language in education is supposed to provide teachers and students with linguistic space
for them to actively engage in, such learners felt restricted from understanding the
content caused by the limited competence in the language used as the LOI. Hence, it
constrained their academic performance.
On the other hand, 35 (58.33%) learners and 5 (41.67%) teachers found out that study
materials for secondary distance learners were not easy to understand. The language used
to write such study materials was explained to be complicated and ambiguous to readers.
The learners were forced either to look up in the dictionary for translations of such
ambiguous words or wait for teachers who assisted them to give elaborations so that they
could understand better than when they read on their own. It appeared that following
study materials was not a straight-forward issue. Ambiguity and complication of
language used to present lessons in the study materials forced learners to cram and
memorize. Hence, they forgot easily what they read on their own. Thus, in one way or
another, that can be considered to be among factors, which may hinder learners‟ good
academic performance.
Generally, 41.67% teachers maintained that lessons presented in the study materials
using English as the LOI were time consuming. Learners tried to figure out meaning of
ambiguous contents from elsewhere. One of the teachers said that, “In study materials
prepared for learners, the language is complicated and confusing. Hence, it affects
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
114
learners‟ understanding of the content…There is frequent use of very difficult words in
those study materials.”
It can be concluded that learners‟ interpretation problems were not only rooted from
learners themselves, but also those who presented the study materials were among the
causal factors. It is unfair to keep on claiming that there is a problem on part of learners
while even writers of study materials contribute to the problem. They sometimes used
complicated language when preparing study materials. There is a need for having
collective efforts among all stakeholders, like secondary distance learners, teachers who
assist them, the Institute of Adult Education and writers of study materials, in order to
getting rid of all interpretation problems. The measure would ensure that the LOI used
does not restrict or affect learners‟ academic performance.
Learners’ Ability to Express Their Ideas Appropriately Using the Current LOI
Learners‟ ability to express their ideas appropriately using the existing LOI was also
investigated in this study. Learners were asked in the questionnaire whether they
experience any expression problems in their learning process. They were also asked to
point out self-expression problems that they faced in learning process if they did.
Teachers and the IAE regional tutor were also asked to state whether they identified any
expression problems when they were attending their learners.
Findings from this study revealed that 50 (83.33%) learners, all teachers and the only
IAE regional tutor involved in the study claimed that learners encountered several
linguistic problems when expressing their ideas by using English as the LOI. It was
revealed that the largest number of respondents identified numerous expression problems
encountered by secondary distance learners, which in essence disclosed learners‟
incapability to express their ideas in English language. Hence, it affected their academic
performance.
It was revealed by 34 (56.67%) learners and 5 (41.67%) teachers that it was difficult for
learners to express their ideas appropriately in English LOI caused by their
incompetence in English grammar. That was the reason explained by teachers that
learners always wrote incorrect sentences and made frequent repetitions of arguments
when doing assignments provided to them by teachers who assisted them during face-toface sessions. This indicates that the basic level of self-expression was yet to be attained
due to incompetence in grammar.
In this respect, 5 (41.67%) teachers reported that with English LOI, questions that
appeared to be more problematic to attempt were reasoning questions than factual
questions. Barnes (1969) makes a distinction between factual and reasoning questions
where factual questions expect the learner to recall and then present a piece of
information, while reasoning questions require a learner to give wider explanation.
Factual questions require learners to answer what, when, who or where, whereas
reasoning questions, which, for instance ask how and why, require learners to write a
large piece of information that needs them to have competence in expression (ibid).
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Thus, it appears very difficult for learners to attempt reasoning questions, which require
highly grammatical competence to make a number of correct and meaningful sentences
or phrases. This is very hard for the learner with limited grammatical skills.
In this case, findings from this study revealed that it was very difficult for teachers to
assist secondary distance learners successfully. That was so because teachers could not
get relevant feedback from learners and so no common understanding was being
reached. This makes it difficult for teacher to incorporate what learner says into flow of
the discourse and gather the learners‟ contributions together to construct more
generalized meanings as Mercer (1995) and Wells (1999) argue. Freire (1993) criticized
such kind of education as a banking model of education. The banking model of
education diminishes the learners‟ creativity.
Findings from this study also showed that learners‟ inadequate competence in English
LOI appeared to affect their academic performance. The problem was revealed by 44
(73.33%) learners as well as 6 (50%) teachers and the IAE regional tutor involved in this
study. Those respondents revealed that giving self-expression appropriately in English
LOI was constrained by learners‟ inadequate competence in English language. Learners
claimed to fail lessons because of the problem. Due to lack of competence in using
English as the LOI, learners, on several occasions, tried to present their ideas in writings
but sentences, phrases and paragraphs they wrote appeared to be wrong and meaningless.
The situation highly discouraged learners leading them to lose confidence when giving
self-expressions. In order to improve learners‟ linguistic competence, it is therefore
important to ensure that students gain full confidence in their language in school.
Otherwise, the damage, which will have effect on learners‟ self-esteem, may be
irreversible (Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000).
Amongst learners‟ expression problems identified by secondary distance learners
themselves, teachers who assisted secondary distance learners and the IAE regional
tutor, was lack of appropriate vocabularies to use for expressing ideas. Thus, 42 (70%)
learners revealed that they faced difficulties in English vocabularies when using English
language as the LOI. The learners‟ problem with vocabularies, which restricted them
from expressing their ideas in English LOI merged with views from 9 (75%) teachers
and the only IAE regional tutor involved in this study. The learners maintained that they
faced difficulties in producing English vocabularies compared to Kiswahili words. They
declared that they were capable to give better explanations and much more detailed
examples in Kiswahili than in English. One teacher noted that. “In Kiswahili, learners
gave better explanations…In giving emphasis, they gave details contrary to English
where they read notes from the study materials and text books… They are much more
free in constructing ideas and giving expressions in Kiswahili”.
Although Qorro (2003) states that the language in education is supposed to provide
teachers and students with linguistic space for them to actively engage in, the learners
felt restricted by limited competence in the language used as the LOI and hence, it
hindered their free self-expression.
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116
Learners’ Views on the Language Used as LOI
In order to solicit learners‟ views on language used as a LOI in secondary distance
learning, respondents responded to the question, “In your own views, what do you think
could be done about language competence of secondary distance learners in Tanga
region?”. To consolidate learners‟ views, teachers and the IAE regional tutor were also
asked in interviews to give their opinions about language of instruction in secondary
distance learning. In responding to this question, a number of views were provided by
the respondents including:
English language should be used intensively for academic and administrative
communication instead of using Kiswahili most of the time (suggested by 37 out
of 60 learners and 7 out of 12 teachers);
It is better to use English language as LOI at primary school level in order to
enable learners be competent in the language when reaching secondary
education level (suggested by 32 out of 60 learners and 2 out of 12 teachers);
There is a need of changing the language of instruction used in secondary
distance learning from English to Kiswahili (suggested by 29 learners out of 60);
The Institute of Adult Education should provide English Language Orientation
Courses/Seminars to secondary distance learners so as to improve their language
competence (suggested by 27 out of 60 learners, 4 out of 12 teachers and the
only interviewed IAE regional tutor);,
Learners should be assured of availability of language study materials and
facilities so that they could use them for improving their language competence
(suggested by 27 out of 60 learners and 5 out of 12 teachers);
The Institute of Adult Education has to extend learning duration to enable
learners have plenty of time for learning English language (suggested by 25 out
of 60 learners and 8 out of 12 teachers);
Learners should initiate self-efforts in improving their language competence
(suggested by 22 out of 60 learners and 5 out of 12 teachers);
The Institute of Adult Education should improve inspectorate programs for
assessing the LOI used in secondary distance learning (suggested by 9 learners
out of 60);
Teachers who assist secondary distance learners should be motivated to teach
learners English language besides the subject that they teach (suggested by 7 out
of 60 learners and 2 out of 12 teachers.
Concerning recommendations provided by secondary distance learners and teachers in
this study on the need for using English language as the LOI from primary school level,
the argument was built on establishing learners‟ English language base before joining
secondary distance learning. It implies that without English proficiency in lower levels
of education, a child could not cope with further education, leading to poor academic
performance. In his study, Mosha (1995) cemented that students who enter secondary
schools experience inadequate language proficiency and fail to have good performance
in examinations. Even Chonjo and Welford (2001) are in line with the argument that
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
117
such students struggle to raise their academic ability in form four and six because of the
use of LOI which they do not command well when joining for secondary education.
In a similar vein, Prah (2003) asserts that starting children off in primary school in
Kiswahili and then, expecting them at secondary as well as university levels to work in
English is like casting them into two worlds with one leg in either and belonging
nowhere. Thus, learners‟ English language basis has to be built from the primary school
level by introducing English language as the LOI at that level. That may not only help
learners maintain their competence in the language for better academic performance, but
also it may help them to keep up abreast with what is going on elsewhere in the world,
considering that English is an international language (Rubagumya, 1990). This argument
also assumes that using English language as the LOI in primary school level will lead to
greater proficiency in the language amongst learners. Klein (1994) pointed out that
where the home language is different from the LOI used in the classroom, it may create
pedagogical and cognitive problems. This seems to be certainly the case in secondary
distance learning as it was expressed by respondents in this study.
This view demonstrates that learning in a familiar language (Kiswahili, in this case)
would facilitate success for masses and promote learning. For this reason, it seems
necessary to put into serious consideration the proposal from UNESCO (2003) that use
of the first language is extended to as late a stage in education as possible. Thus, what
required is to widely disseminate Kiswahili version study materials and further develop
use of Kiswahili as the language of instruction in secondary distance learning.
Learners and teachers in the present study further reported prevailing habit of teachers
and secondary distance learners of switching into Kiswahili language when conducting
learning during face-to-face sessions. Such habit was explained to limit intensive use of
English language and hence, it was one of factors that hinder learners‟ competence in the
language. Some previous studies showed that contrary to Tanzanian policies on
education, secondary school teachers and students made intensive use of code-switching
during learning. Mwinsheihe (2003), Roy-Campbell and Qorro (1997) as well as Vuzo
(2002, 2007), in their respective studies, discovered that even teachers themselves
practiced code-switching and code-mixing in classes although the country‟s policy
directs them to teach in English language only. Therefore, for the purpose of improving
learners‟ language (English, in this case) competence, there is a need for the IAE
officials and teachers who assist secondary distance learners to use English language
intensively in order to install more language skills in them. That can help to improve the
learners‟ language competence.
This view was related to learners and teachers‟ recommendations of extending learning
duration which was indebted by the factor that short learning duration affected
improvement of learners‟ language competence. Code-switching discourse during faceto-face sessions plus little time they spent with teachers who assisted them limited them
from using English language intensively. It caused them to spend more time using
Kiswahili language.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
118
Such an argument shows that respondents were aware of the fact that both learners and
their teachers had deficiency in English skills. The comment concurs with previous
research results that teachers as well as their learners are far from having any English
language proficiency (Malekela, 2004; Rubagumya, 1991; Vuzo, 2002). Thus, there is a
need for learners and teachers who assist them to improve their competence in the LOI
used for secondary distance learning.
The need for raising learner‟s individual effort in improving language competence was
another crucial suggestion provided by 22 learners and 5 teachers involved in this study.
They argued that learners should initiate efforts to improve their language competence
instead of depending only on teachers or the institute (IAE) to do it for them. For
instance, they may buy and read many English language books and spend more time
learning the language. Therefore, it necessitates the importance of ensuring availability
of language study materials and facilities for secondary distance learners to use in
improving their competence in the LOI, taking into account that they spend most of the
time studying without consistent help of teachers.
The learners also need to use little language skills they possess to support each other in
the process of improving their language competence. Wells (1999) asserts that learners
need to take advantage of expertise of each other and also be recognized for their own.
That will provide learners with important reinforcement and incentives for continuing
growth as well as development in whatever they need to achieve. This is in line with
Mercer‟s (1995) argument that peer collaboration has the potential for enhancing
development of learners to be effective. The need for such participation should arise
from learners rather than being imposed on them by the teacher.
Conclusion
The study revealed that the secondary distance learners‟ academic performance was
constrained by the language of instruction used. Although both conventional and
distance learners faced the problem, circumstances in distance learning were different
and made it worse for the distance learners to perform well in their studies. Since it was
discovered that using English language as the LOI brought several problems to most
learners in secondary distance learning, it appeared important to make efforts of doing
away with them. That is because learning in the language that learners command well
may enable them to have good academic performance (UNESCO, 1953).
Learners‟ interpretation and expression problems were found to constrain learners‟
academic performance because of learners‟ poor proficiency in the language. This
strongly justifies the importance of raising learners‟ competence in the language used as
the LOI for their better academic performance. In this regard, there is need to do away
with the identified learners‟ language problems.
The Way Forward
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
119
The Institute of Adult Education should provide English training programs to both
teachers and learners so as to enable them be competent in the language. To implement
this, learning duration should be extended in which one year can be taken as a
preparation period whereby learners can be taught English language before starting to
learn secondary education subjects at the end of that period.
Teachers who assist secondary distance learners should be given special training on how
to assist their learners in improving their language competence. Thus, seminars and
workshops should be conducted where they will be equipped with techniques of assisting
distance learners in improving language competence.
The Ministry of Education and Vocational Training as well as the Institute of Adult
Education should encourage scholars and education professionals to write more English
language study materials for secondary distance learners. The government should
provide incentives or rewards to English language materials‟ writers and efforts should
be made to assist them.
Acknowledgements
We convey our sincere thanks to all people, whom through their recommendable efforts,
advice and inspiration contributed to successful completion of this paper.
Their critical mind and concern for accuracy have shaped our study into its present form.
Despite their workload in relation to other responsibilities, their cooperation has been
regular. Their contribution was of the greatest value we will always live to remember.
Our heartfelt gratitude is also due to our families for their encouragement, prayers,
blessings and moral support which contributed greatly to the success of this work.
Special thanks are also extended to the members of staff whom we work with for their
cooperation, encouragement and academic advice that have helped us to accomplish this
paper successfully.
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JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
122
The Current Environment of Education in Tanzania: Challenges
of Teaching / Learning Mathematics in Tanzania
Ralph W. P. Masenge
University of Dar Es Salaam
Abstract: Tanzania is among the least developed countries of the world. In order to catch up in
development with the rest of the world, Tanzania has to invest much more in training its manpower
in science and technology. However, such an ambition will remain an illusion if a critical mass of
the most important resource for development, the human resource, does not have a good grasp of
mathematics. This is the reason for putting so much emphasis on the subject of mathematics in our
schools, colleges and tertiary institutions. Unfortunately, teaching and learning mathematics is a
big challenge worldwide and, research into ways and means of surmounting the challenges is of
paramount importance (Johnson, 2000).
Introduction
Persistent poor performance in mathematics by candidates at primary, secondary and
university levels is an indication that there is a serious problem in the teaching and
learning of mathematics at all levels of the educational pyramid. In trying to locate the root
causes of the problem we need to look critically at the entire educational process.
Education is a process of acquiring knowledge and skills by a learner.
Knowledge
Learner
Traditionally the learner was solely dependent on the teacher. The teacher was the
authority in the contents of the syllabus and was well grounded in the art and skills of
transferring that knowledge to the learner using teaching and learning resources that were
provided. If the teacher did not know it so was the learner.
Student
Passive
Learning
Knowledge
acquisition
triangle
Teacher
Knowledge
Source
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
123
Since its independence in 1961, Tanganyika (Mainland Tanzania) has witnessed a rapid
expansion of enrolment in education at all levels. However, this expansion has taken place
without matching expansion in training of teachers and adequate provision of the required
resources (infrastructure and instructional materials). As a result of insufficient budgetary
allocations and because of unattractive remuneration in the teaching profession compared
to other sections of the labour market, the quality of teachers, both in their professional
training and in knowledge content has dramatically declined. The recent abortive teachers
strike over pay and other work benefits is a symptom of the underlying problem. The
cumulative consequence of all these factors is what we are witnessing, mass failures both
at the primary and secondary levels.
In this presentation we shall discuss challenges in teaching and learning mathematics in
Tanzania (Mainland) at the primary, secondary and university levels and at each level we
shall suggest ways and means of mitigating the problem.
At the primary schools level we shall use data on performance of pupils in the Primary
School Leaving Examination (PSLE). At the secondary schools level we shall use data on
performance of candidates both in the, Certificate of Secondary Education Examination
(CSEE) which is done at the end of Form IV and in the Advanced Certificate of Secondary
Education Examination (ACSEE) done at the end of Form VI. The aim of presenting the
performance of candidates at these two levels (primary and secondary) is to highlight the
magnitude of the problem. We shall also use the examination results to expose the
challenges posed by the problem to various stake holders. In the sequel, we shall point out
the possible causes of the problem, with a view to come up with recommendations to key
stakeholders on the way forward.
Because of the unavoidable dependence of knowledge at different levels of the academic
pyramid, analysis of the problem and its possible solution at each level is bound to have
substantial overlap.
Performance at primary level. The quality of our primary education is extremely poor.
The following statistics bear witness to this pathetic situation.
Overall failure rate. The Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) consists of five
examination papers, one on each of the following topics:
Kiswahili
Kiingereza
Maarifa
Hisabati
Sayansi
Almost 50% of all primary school leavers fail the PSLE by scoring an overall D or E
grade. The overall failure rate for a period of 5 consecutive years (2007 – 2011) is as
shown in Table 1.
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124
Table 1
Overall failure rate in the PSLE in all five topics - NECTA
Year
Failure Rate
2007
46%
2008
47%
2009
51%
2010
46%
2011
45%
Source: National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA, 2012)
Comparative failure rate. The percentage failure rate in each of the 5 topics examined
for the same five year period (2007 – 2011) is given in Table 2.
Table 2
Failure rate in the PSLE in each of the five topics - NECTA
Subject
Year
2007
2008
2009
2010
Hisabati (Mathematics)
83%
82%
79%
75%
Kiingereza (English)
69%
69%
65%
64%
Maarifa (General Knowledge)
44%
39%
41%
32%
Sayansi (Science)
33%
32%
47%
44%
Kiswahili (Swahili)
20%
27%
31%
29%
Source: National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA, 2012)
2011
61%
53%
45%
39%
31%
Table 2 shows that mathematics consistently leads the other topics in the rate of failure,
followed at a respectable distance by English. A gender breakdown of the data for
mathematics reveals that, on average, the failure rate for girls is almost 10% higher than
that of boys. This is shown in Table 3.
Table 3
Failure rate in Mathematics according to gender - NECTA
Year
Boys
Girls
2007
77%
89%
2008
77%
87%
2009
75%
83%
2010
71%
79%
2011
56%
65%
Source: National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA)
The data displayed in Tables 1, 2 and 3 on performance of pupils in the PSLE indicate
that there is a serious problem in the entire process of delivering primary education in
Tanzania, especially in mathematics at the Primary level.
Consequences of the Problem at the Primary Level
The consequences of the problem of mass failure in mathematics in the PSLE are many:
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125
The declared national objective of considering primary education as forming the
foundation of education in Tanzania is ridiculed. More than half of our primary
school leavers are barred from pursuing any secondary education or vocational
training.
Some of the pupils who fail mathematics do pass the PSLE on the basis of better
performance in the other topics and are admitted into Secondary Schools (Form I
– IV) where mathematics is a compulsory subject. In this way the primary
failure syndrome is transmitted to the secondary schools.
This problem of massive failure in mathematics in the PSLE is documented and
well known to all stakeholders of education in Tanzania including the
Government (Ministry of Education and Vocational Training), primary school
teachers, parents of pupils, the National Examinations Council of Tanzania
(NECTA), the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) which developed the
curriculum, and the Mathematical Association of Tanzania (MAT),
Possible Causes of the Problem
What is not known to many of the education stakeholders are the possible causes of the
problem. The root causes of the problem can only be found by analysing the entire
primary education process in the country, from policy to the final assessment of pupils in
the PSLE. The causes of the problem are a combination of shortfalls in some or all of the
essential stages in the education process.
Education policy. Are our education policies well focused to meet the needs of our
current society and are we, as a nation, giving education the priority level it deserves?
Curriculum. The curriculum of an education programme includes clear statement of the
programme objectives, syllabi, texts, quality of trainers, other training resources,
duration of the programme and mode of assessment. Is our primary school curriculum
well stated, available to stakeholders, implementable and are the required resources
available and adequate? In particular. Is the primary school syllabus designed to achieve
the educational objectives stipulated in the curriculum? Are primary school textbooks
appropriate and available to pupils? Are there enough and properly trained primary
school mathematics teachers?
Examination
Is the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) a reliable instrument for measuring
the learning outcomes stipulated in the curriculum and associated syllabi?
Answers to the Questions Posed
Answers to the key questions raised above must be provided by the relevant authority for
each. Policy matters, textbooks and teachers must be addressed by the Ministry. TIE is
responsible for curriculum and syllabi matters and the issue of examination is to be
handled by NECTA.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
126
Unless answers to these key questions are found and implemented, there will be no let up
in the downward trend in decline of our basic education at the primary school level and
its domino effect will be real and devastating at all levels of our educational pyramid.
Performance at the Secondary School Level
At the secondary school level, the following three separate mathematics courses are
offered. Basic Mathematics: a compulsory course for all students at Junior Secondary
Schools (Form I – Form IV). Basic Applied Mathematics (BAM): an elective course at
Senior Secondary School level (Forms V – VI) for students who do not take
Mathematics as a principal subject. Advanced Mathematics: a course offered at Senior
Secondary School level (Form V – Form VI) to students taking Mathematics as a
principal subject.
Observation
It is important to note that many of the primary school leavers who join Form I are those
who passed the Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE) despite failing in
mathematics and an obvious consequence of the problem spotted at the primary level is
its nock on effect at the secondary education level.
Table 4
Performance of candidates in the CSEE (Form IV) Basic (2003 – 2007)
Year
SAT
PASS
FAIL
F
27,700
4,690
7.55 %
23,010
37.05 %
2003
M
34,405
12,035
19.38 %
22,370
36.02 %
Total
62,105
16,725
26.93 %
45,380
73.07 %
F
27,216
5,439
8.58 %
21,777
34.37 %
2004
M
36,148
13,489
21.29 %
22,659
35.76 %
Total
63,364
18,928
29.87 %
44,436
70.13 %
F
36,838
5,553
6.72 %
31,285
37.88 %
2005
M
45,743
13,816
16.73 %
31,927
38.66 %
Total
82,581
19,369
23.45 %
63,212
76.54 %
F
36,141
5,684
6.63 %
30,457
35.53 %
2006
M
49,588
14,350
16.74 %
35,238
41.10 %
Total
85,729
20,034
23.37 %
65,695
76.63 %
F
55,794
13,062
10.45 %
42,732
34.17 %
2007
M
69,280
26,109
20.87 %
43,171
34.51 %
Total
125,074
39,171
31.32 %
85,903
68.68 %
F
183,689
34,428
8.22 %
149,261
35.64 %
Grand M
235,164
79,799
19.05 %
155,365
37.09 %
Totals
418,853
114,227
27.27 %
304,626
72.73 %
Source: National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA, 2012)
The Tables (Table 4, Table 5 and Table 6) display the performance in mathematics of
candidates at public secondary schools for a period of five (5) years (2003 – 2007) in the
CSEE, BAM and ACSEE taken at Form IV and Form VI, respectively.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
127
We infer from Table 4 that: The failure rate at Form IV (Basic Mathematics) during the
five years period 2003 – 2007 lies in the range 69 – 77 percent, with an average of
almost 73 %. The difference in failure rate between male and female candidates in the
CSEE (Form IV) is not significant, being less than one percentage point.
Approximately, 81% of all female candidates failed compared to a failure rate of 66%
for male candidates.
Table 5
Performance of Candidates in the ACSEE (BAM - Form VI) 2004 – 2008
Year
SAT
PASS
FAIL
F
1,634
825
17.00 %
809
16.67 %
2004
M
3,219
1,992
41.05 %
1,227
25.28 %
Total
4,853
2,817
58.05 %
2,036
41.95 %
F
1,952
705
12.39 %
1,247
21.92 %
2005
M
3,738
1,370
24.08 %
2,368
41.61 %
Total
5,690
2,075
36.47 %
3,615
63.53 %
F
2,390
1,328
18.95 %
1,062
15.15 %
M
4,619
2,681
38.25 %
1,938
27.65 %
2006
Total
7,009
4,009
57.20 %
3,000
42.80 %
F
2,867
1,269
15.02 %
1,598
18.92 %
2007
M
5,579
2,241
26.53 %
3,338
39.52 %
Total
8,446
3,510
41.55 %
4,936
58.44 %
F
3,241
1,445
14.76 %
1,796
18.34 %
2008
M
6,551
2,652
27.08 %
3,899
39.82 %
Total
9,792
4,097
41.84 %
5,695
58.16 %
F
12,084
5,573
15.56 %
6,512
18.20 %
Grand M
23,706
10,936 30.56 %
12,770
35.68 %
Total
35,790
16,508 46.12 %
19,282
53.88 %
Source: National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA, 2012)
We infer from Table 5 that: The failure rate at Form VI in the Basic Applied
Mathematics during the five years period 2004 – 2008 lies in the range 41 – 59 percent,
with an average of almost 54 %. The difference in failure rate between male and female
candidates in this examination is significant. The overall failure rate for female
candidates is almost one half that of male candidates (18% versus 36 %). Almost equal
percentage (54 %) of all female and male candidates failed.
We infer from Table 6 that: The failure rate at Form VI in the Advanced Mathematics
examination is relatively lower than that in Basic Applied Mathematics, and lies in the
range 15 – 26 percentage points, with an average of about 20 %. The difference in
failure rate between female and male candidates in this paper is quite significant. The
overall failure rate for female candidates is almost one third that of male candidates (5%
versus 15 %). In this case, an almost equal percent (54 %) of all female and male
candidates failed.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
128
Table 6
Performance of candidates in the ACEE, Advanced Mathematics 2004 - 2008
Year
SAT
PASS
FAIL
F
583
464
14.46 %
119
3.71 %
M
2,626
2,252
70.18 %
374
11.65 %
2004
Total
3,209
2,716
84.64 %
493
15.36 %
F
807
580
13.93 %
227
5.45 %
M
3,357
2,659
63.86 %
698
16.76 %
2005
Total
4,164
3,239
77.79 %
925
22.21 %
F
886
704
15.78 %
182
4.08 %
2006
M
3,575
2,982
66.85 %
593
13.29 %
Total
4,461
3,686
82.63 %
775
17.37 %
F
1,035
788
14.51 %
247
4.55 %
2007
M
4,397
3,638
66.97 %
759
13.97 %
Total
5,432
4,426
81.48 %
1,006
18.52 %
378
1,084
1,462
1,153
3,508
6.71 %
19.25 %
25.96 %
5.04 %
15.32 %
Grand
Total
22,898
18,237
79.65 %
4,661
Source: National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA, 2012)
20.36 %
2008
F
M
Total
F
M
1,191
4,441
5,632
4,502
18,396
813
3,357
4,170
3,349
14,888
14.44 %
59.61 %
74.04 %
14.63 %
65.02 %
Performance at University Level
The data presented for performance in mathematics at the secondary level shows that
there was a gradual improvement in performance from a failure rate of 73% at Form IV
to 53% and 20% in the two examinations taken in Form VI. This trend of improvement
in performance is maintained at the university level.
There are two main reasons for this unexpected improvement, namely: After Form IV,
the subject of mathematics is no longer a compulsory subject. Admission into subject
combinations at Form V involving mathematics or into university programmes involving
the subject is strictly regulated. Only applicants with specified pass grades are allowed to
study the subject.
However, because of strict admission requirements sighted in (ii) above and because of
the high failure rate (73%) at Form IV only a very small percentage (20%) of the Form
IV leavers proceed to study mathematics in Form V and VI. The percentage is even
smaller at the University level where most of the secondary school mathematics teachers
are supposed to be trained. This accounts for the serious shortage not only of secondary
school mathematics teachers but also of the university mathematics lecturers needed to
train such teachers.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
129
Who is to Blame?
It is easy to point an accusing finger at the two key subjects involved in our earlier
triangular model: the student and the teacher. Certainly, they are part of the problem just
as they are also part of the solution. However, the situation is more complex than it
looks. In order to identify the factors leading to the problem we have to look at the
bigger picture by putting under the loop the four interacting ingredients in the following
flow chart.
Policy
(Ministry)
Curriculum
(TIE)
Teaching
(Teachers)
Learning
(Student)
Education Policy
The problem of poor performance in mathematics is not due to lack of guiding policy.
Tanzania has an abundance of education policy documents, including the 1995
Education and Training Policy, the National Development Vision 2025, Mpango wa
Maendeleo ya Elimu ya Msingi (MMEM) or Primary Education Strategic Development
Plan) and Mapango wa Maendeleo ya Elimu ya Sekondari (MMES) or Secondary
Education Strategic Development Plan.
However, in addition to having good educational policies, educational authorities at all
levels of the educational pyramid must ensure that the policies are properly implemented
(Edwin M. Dickey, 2012). Problems associated with educational policy implementation
contribute significantly towards the problem of poor performance in mathematics.
Implementation of various policy documents is weak because of a catalogue of
impediments, including budgetary constraints, shortage of qualified teachers and
shortage of educational infrastructure.
Curriculum
Curriculum is an inclusive terminology in education. When used as a noun it means all
the courses of study offered by an educational institution. Curriculum development
describes the entire process of operationalizing an educational training policy. It
embodies the following six stages shown in the following organization chart, starting
with the designing stage.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
130
Except for the item on assessment, the statutory organ that is responsible to the Ministry
of Education and Vocational Training in organizing the subject content into a curriculum
at the primary and secondary schools levels is the Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE).
TIE subject experts working in close consultation with subject panels, decide on the
content of each subject, determine its level of difficulty and organize it into manageable
portions to fit a prefixed timeframe. A badly designed and developed curriculum can
have disastrous consequences on the achievement levels of students.
REVIEW
DESIGN
THE CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
EVALUATE
MONITOR
DEVELOP-MENT
IMPLEMENT
Curriculum developers must pay special attention when dealing with the subject of
mathematics, which has all the characteristics of a language. In learning mathematics,
one has to learn many concepts (the vocabulary) and apply very strict rules and
regulations in a logical framework (the grammar) to arrive at a logical conclusion. The
crucial question now is whether TIE has the resources it requires to perform its role of
developing curricula successfully.
Quality Assurance
Quality assurance is an essential component of any curriculum development exercise. It
encompasses quality of the inputs, quality of the processes and quality of the output.
Quality of
Input
(Learners)
Quality of
Processes
(Teaching)
Quality of
Output
(Students and
Teachers)
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
131
Learning Process
Students are an input in our model. The criteria for admitting students into any
programme and the accreditation conditions for the institution assure the quality of the
input. However, several factors have the potential of negatively affecting the quality of
learning at the primary and lower Forms of secondary education. They include social
adjustment, proficiency in the English language, communication skills, their attitude
towards mathematics, past performance in mathematics, and preferred learning style
The secondary school mathematics curriculum must take into consideration these
potential contributors to the overall problem in order to reduce their impact on the
students‟ performance. It is worth noting that the high failure rate in mathematics at
lower Forms seriously limits any enrolment expansion plans in mathematics at higher
academic levels. This is manifested by the data in Tables 4, 5 and 6, in which the total
number of candidates drops dramatically from 420,000 at Form IV to a mere 59,000 (14
%) at Form VI due to the high (over 70%) failure rate in the subject at Form IV.
Teaching Process
In the educational context, the teaching process includes teaching, learning and
assessment. The quality of the process is an admixture of the quality of the teachers, the
learners, the instructional materials available, the instruments of assessment. All these
have a direct impact on the quality of the output.
The quality of teaching is a function of several teacher related attributes, chief among
them being academic qualifications, professional training, motivation in the teaching
profession, and style of teaching
There was a time when teaching was among the most respected and relatively highly
paid profession in the country, attracting then the best academically qualified students.
Those times are now mere history. The profession is now widely considered as the
refuge of those students who, because of low academic qualifications, fail to secure any
other type of training. Teacher‟s salaries are law compared not only to that of employees
with similar academic qualifications in the private sector, but even jobs in some other
sections of the public sector. As a result, teaching has lost its respect in our community
and no longer attracts the cream of students. Some teachers have even gone to the extent
of abandoning the profession.
This phenomenon is very worrisome. As the country builds more schools, we shall need
more teachers with higher academic qualifications and better training. Anything that
goes against these goals is a step backwards because, in our view, teachers are the most
important resource in ensuring the quality of our academic output.
We congratulate the Mathematical Association of Tanzania (MAT) for its contribution
towards uplifting and updating the knowledge content and pedagogical skills of its
members during its uninterrupted annual seminars and publications. While we can attract
more qualified students to join the teaching profession by revamping their pay package
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
132
and other allowances, there is still the need for improving their professional
qualifications.
All statutory organs responsible for assessing students‟ academic performance and those
responsible for accrediting academic institutions, are jointly responsible for ensuring the
quality of outputs, both students and teachers. These organs include the National
Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA), Teachers Colleges and Universities
involved in training secondary school teachers.
Who is Challenged?
The problem of persistent poor performance in mathematics at secondary school level as
exposed by the high failure rate in the subject in Tables 4, 5 and 6 poses a big challenge
to all key stakeholders in education. Concerted efforts are required in order to find a
lasting solution. Stakeholders in education are many, but the key ones in our context are
policy makers, curriculum developers, examining authority, and subject Associations
These stakeholders are in one way or the other part of the problem and therefore must be
part of the solution. A lasting solution to the problem lies in each of them singly and
collectively making efforts to create the required conducive environment for the teaching
and learning process.
Policy Makers
The proper Government policymaking organ for education is the Ministry of Education
and Culture. We applaud the Government for having put in place a comprehensive set of
policy documents and operational procedures on education. However, policies are only
plans and, in order to achieve their objectives one must implement them. Unfortunately,
a number of factors hinder proper implementation of many of our education policies.
These factors include insufficient number of qualified mathematics teachers, insufficient
resources provided to key stake holders, insufficient teaching and learning tools and,
unattractive working environment for teachers. A well trained and sufficiently motivated
teacher is the key for improving the teaching and learning process in any subject,
including mathematics (James Hiebert and Douglas A. Grouws, 2012).
To overcome these factors and thereby facilitate proper implementation of the policies
we recommend as follows:
Increase the number of mathematics teachers in secondary schools through
training and providing special incentives, including special loans and/or
scholarships.
Provide sufficient financial and human resources to key educational institutions
(TIE, NECTA and Teacher Training Institutions) to enable them efficiently
execute their respective functions of developing curricula, examining students and
training our teachers.
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
133
Provide the required infrastructure and working tools to teaching institutions and
sufficient instructional materials to students to facilitate the teaching and learning
process.
Review teachers‟ salaries and provide commensurate working incentives with a
view to attract and retain in the teaching profession teachers with high academic
qualifications.
Curriculum Developers
A curriculum is a comprehensive plan for implementing an educational policy aimed at
providing knowledge and skills to learners. Curriculum development is an academic
profession acquired through specialized academic training and therefore requiring
financial, human and technical resources. Achievement of the goals of a specific policy
is dependent on the quality of the corresponding curriculum for its implementation.
The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) is the statutory organ responsible to
Government on all curriculum matters at the primary and secondary schools levels. In
order to accomplish its mission TIE needs sufficient and adequately trained curriculum
developers, adequate number of supporting staff, and sufficient financial resources
In addition to the above recommendations we also recommend that the Tanzania
Institute of Education (TIE) enhances its curriculum development capacity by recruiting
curriculum developers with high academic qualifications, adopting a staff development
and succession plan that encourages its academic staff (curriculum developers) to aspire
for higher academic qualifications in their fields of specialization, encourages formation
of and supporting subject associations, such as the MAT, that aim to uplift the academic
and professional competencies of its members, and revives and sustains subject panels as
think tanks and reference points for curriculum developers in specific subjects.
Examining Bodies
The National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA) is the statutory organ
responsible for maintaining standards of output (quality assurance) at the secondary
schools level. The Council administers national examinations at the end of Forms IV and
VI and awards the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) and the Advanced
Certificate of secondary Education (ACSE) certificates, respectively, to successful
candidates.
Setting a good examination is a science that requires targeted training. Experience in
teaching may be useful but not sufficient for setting a good examination. Frequent cases
of examination leakages have tended to erode the credibility of the setting system at
NECTA and consequently on the reliability of its awards. In order to accomplish its
mission NECTA needs sufficient and adequately trained personnel of the highest
integrity, adequate number of supporting staff, and sufficient financial resources. In
addition we recommend that NECTA expands and strengthens the examination setting,
moderation and marking processes to ensure properly designed, professionally set,
moderated, and marked examinations to strengthen their credibility and acceptability,
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
134
and strengthens security measures surrounding the entire administration of examinations
to eliminate the occurrence of any case of examination leakages.
Subject Associations
Subject associations are important players in bringing about improvement in teaching
and learning. The Mathematical Association of Tanzania (MAT) does not need being
reminded of this role, for it has been on the forefront in executing this task since its
formation in 1966. The MAT can proudly congratulate itself for the work it has done
during the past 46 years, work which includes holding without any interruption annual
seminars for its members, most of whom are secondary school mathematics teachers,
publishing regularly its official publication, the MAT Bulletin, and publishing a number
of complementary mathematics texts for teachers and mathematics students with a view
to improving the teaching and learning processes. In order to maintain and consolidate
the work done by the MAT thus far, we recommend that the MAT expands and increases
its membership and makes efforts to retain members through aggressive publicity of the
activities you carry out and benefits of being a member, and maintains the current
momentum of holding annual seminars and encourage members to publish mathematics
books and articles both on pedagogical issues as well as on mathematics content to
benefit teachers and students of mathematics.
References
Johnson, J. (2000). Teaching and learning mathematics: Using research to shift from the
“yesterday” mind to the “tomorrow” mind. Retrieved 4th August, 2012 from
http://www.k12.wa.us/research/pubdocs/pdf/ MathBook.pdf
Dickey, E. M. (February, 1997). Challenges of mathematics teaching today: How can
school leaders help? (NASSP Bulletin). Retrieved 4th August, 2012 from
http://ed.sc.edu/ite/dickey/nassp/nassp.html
Hiebert, J. & Grouws, D. A. (n.d). The effects of classroom mathematics teaching on
students‟
learning.
Retrieved
on
10th
August
2012
from
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/lsi/expert/ documents/effectsofmathteaching.pdf
National Examinations Council of Tanzania (NECTA). (2012)
JIPE VOL 4 NO. 2, DEC 2012
135
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