Taking Seriously the Teaching of Critical Thinking

Taking seriously the teaching of critical thinking — Roland Case, Executive director, The Critical Thinking Consortium and Ian Wright, Professor (retired), University of British Columbia This article, which is reprinted here with the permission of the publisher, was first published in 1997 in Canadian Social Studies. bias studies remains “more wish than practice” (1991, p. 354). Research in the U.S. supports these observations. For example, Su’s (1990) study, based bias The state of affairs in social studies on interviews with 112 Teaching students to think well has been a goal of educators, found that social studies since the inception of the subject although teachers in 1916. At that time, the U.S. National Education stated that they Association identified promoting “good judgment” valued critical in making decisions as a central element of social thinking they did studies (Barr, Barth & Shermis, 1977). This notion of not implement “good judgment” mirrors contemporary accounts of it in their bias critical thinking. In the intervening years, the call to classrooms. improve students’ thinking in social studies has been Similarly, in her made countless times. Few educators—teachers and study of a three-year teacher educators alike—oppose the idea of getting project to foster critical students to think more critically. thinking in social studies, McKee (1988) found Yet the rhetoric outstrips practice. There is a rather that teachers spent only depressing irony: thinking critically is much valued four percent of class time on and yet inadequately addressed in classrooms. This reasoning activities. dichotomy was recognized in the 1942 Yearbook for the National Council for the Social Studies which observed This predicament appears to extend that American social studies teachers had “accepted to Canadian schools. A survey of over critical thinking in principle without bothering to define 1,700 elementary and secondary teachers of social the term precisely or to do much by way of direct studies in British Columbia (Case, 1993) found that instruction to see this goal was achieved” (Anderson, almost 88 percent supported the teaching of cited in Parker, 1991, p. 345). Fifty-years later, in his critical thinking (79 percent judged it to be a major introduction to a special issue on higher order thinking, emphasis in their teaching), yet the 1989 provincial the editor of Theory and Research in Social Education assessment involving social studies teachers of over remarked that as long as he could remember critical thinking had been a goal of social studies, yet with a few notable exceptions it had remained just that—a goal The Critical Thinking Consortium critical thinking and not a classroom reality (Fraenkel, 1991, p. 323). www.tc2.ca Or, as Parker puts it, the teaching of thinking in social the consortium educational objectives, the teaching of knowledge is separated from the teaching of critical thinking which, perhaps, explains why many teachers complain that critical thinking detracts from teaching content. As a result, when pressured to teach the content—judged by many teachers to be the core of the curriculum— critical thinking is overlooked or downplayed, becoming At the risk of being trite, taking seriously the challenge an add-on or an enhancement if and when the subject of teaching students to think critically is long overdue. matter of the curriculum or in the textbook has been Many of the studies cited above identify factors covered. Notice how consistently, despite the rhetoric responsible for this depressing state of affairs. The about its centrality and importance, critical thinking explanations often focus on a lack of pre-service activities are attached to the end of a chapter or a unit. and in-service preparation both in critical thinking and in the teaching of critical thinking, a paucity of Not only does this positioning relegate critical thinking suitable teaching methodology and resources and the to a low status, but it reinforces the dangerous demands of too much curricular content to cover. We impression that critical thinking is a task that is agree that these factors are crucial to the problem, undertaken from time to time, if teachers have the but believe there is a more fundamental impediment, time. To make the point in a slightly different way, namely widespread confusion or, at least, “haziness” consider the lists below. On the left-hand side is a list about (1) what critical thinking really means and (2) of tasks or operations, on the right-hand side is a list of what is involved in promoting it (Bognar et al., 1991, qualities or characteristics: p. 105; Fraenkel, 1991, p. 323; Parker, 1991, p. 345). Quality/characteristic Little will be gained by altering training, resources and Task/operation • superficially or in-depth curriculum if teacher educators, curriculum developers • interpreting a passage • discerningly or blindly and classroom teachers remain unclear about what • writing a report • rashly or cautiously this would require. Before we can begin to turn the • predicting a result • carefully or hurriedly tide of neglect, educators need a richer, more concrete • preparing a talk • seriously or frivolously understanding of critical thinking and of how it is • analysing an issue promoted. As we see it, the prevailing view would locate critical We propose to characterize the prevailing views on thinking in the left-hand column, as a label for a range the nature and pedagogy of critical thinking, and point of activities or operations that students undertake—if out their inadequacies. In the process, we lay the students are interpreting, analyzing or evaluating they foundations for what we regard as a more promising are, by definition, “doing” critical thinking. We believe understanding of and approach to teaching students this to be a serious mistake—critical thinking is more appropriately located in the right-hand list, as a quality to think critically. or characteristic that may or may not be present in virtually any task students undertake. Just as students The nature of critical thinking may read a passage slowly or quickly, or superficially or According to the prevailing view—and by “prevailing” in-depth, so too they can read a passage in a critically we mean what is typically found in professional journals thoughtful way, or not. This point applies equally to and student textbooks—learning to think critically is analyzing, predicting and evaluating. The mere fact that widely viewed as mastery of a series of discrete skills someone is analysing an issue does not mean that they or operations which can be generalized across a variety are doing it critically. In fact, the consequences of our of contexts. These generic operations often include collective failure to teach critical thinking are student interpreting, predicting, analyzing, evaluating and so analyses that fail to detect dubious assumptions, on. This view is frequently predicated on a distinction contain many fallacious and unsupported statements between knowledge, skills and attitudes. Since and reveal close-minded, prejudicial attitudes. critical thinking is seen to fall with the skill domain of 100,000 British Columbia students in grades 4, 7 and 10 concluded: “The relative lack of teaching strategies which support the development of critical thinking, particularly at the secondary level, suggests that students are not being supported in the development of critical thinking” (Bognar & Cassidy, 1991, p. 82). 2 The Critical Thinking Consortium We believe that critical thinking refers to the thinking through of any “problematic” situation where the thinker seeks to make a judgment about what it would be sensible or reasonable to believe or do. The need to reach reasoned judgments—to think critically—arises in countless kinds of situations from problem solving, decision making, issue analysis, inquiry and other socalled “processes,” to reading, writing, speaking and listening. All of these are occasions for critical thinking, since there is limited value in undertaking these tasks in an uncritical manner. Thus critical thinking is not usefully viewed as a unique type of operation or “process,” but as a particular set of qualities of thinking regardless of the task or operation. This emphasis on the quality of thinking focusses teachers’ attention on the crucial dimension in promoting critical thinking. Students develop as critical thinkers as their judgments come to embody the qualities of good thinking. Thus, in deciding whether or not students’ cooperative planning of a field trip was critically thoughtful we would consider, among other qualities, the accuracy and adequacy of their ideas, the extent to which they seriously considered the ideas of others and the degree of respect they showed for the ideas of those with whom they disagree. independence” (Beers, 1983, p. 1). To complete the task, students first identify those words which suggest a pro-American bias in the statement (e.g., “heroic,” “inspired”), then students recast the sentence in a blatantly pro-British bent and finally they rewrite the account from a more fair-minded perspective. In the process, content (in the textbook) is made problematic, as opposed to being transmitted as non controversial facts to be accepted unquestioningly. To do otherwise is to discourage a “critical” disposition in students. The implications of conceptualizing critical thinking as a quality, not an activity, are profound. Critical thinking need not be treated as an “add-on” activity, but as an orientation that guides any task students undertake, including such “rote” tasks as taking notes and reading the textbook. Students can be encouraged to think critically as they learn to take notes by making the task problematic. Consider the following scenario: “Suppose the premier has asked for concise notes on the day’s front page news. Your notes must be less than one-half page in length, focus on the important issues and clearly summarize the main points.” In responding in a critical thoughtful manner to this task, students must judge what to report on the basis of importance, coverage of main points and conciseness. So too, the learning of content can and should be approached in a critically thoughtful manner. For example, in a teaching resource building on our model (Case, Daniels & Schwartz, 1996), students are invited to critique the opening page of a popular grade nine textbook which offers the following account of the Battle of Bunker Hill: “The heroic stand of American patriots in this battle inspired the colonists in their struggle for Let us now look more closely at the prevailing view of how critical thinking is to be developed. This last point raises a final major deficiency in the prevailing view of critical thinking. By identifying critical thinking as a skill, distinct not only from knowledge but from also attitudes, we overlook the crucial role of attitudes in the formation of critical thinkers. Developing the dispositions of a careful and conscientious thinker are crucial—no amount of “skill” will overcome the limitations of closed-minded, prejudicial thinking. This omission is particularly alarming since the desired attitudes are unlikely to develop through occasional exercises—they typically require more sustained and concerted attention. All of this highlights the inadequacy of the add-on, discrete activity view of critical thinking. The pedagogy of critical thinking In effect, the prevailing view of the way to promote thinking is to provide students with opportunities to practise thinking. This assumption, that the mere practising of thinking will improve students’ critical competence, is replete in social studies textbooks. Rarely do we find textbooks that do more in their socalled critical thinking sections than pose questions or present items (e.g., a picture or a passage) for students to consider. Of course, students need opportunities to think, but the mere practice may do very little to help them get better at what they do. Of what value towards becoming a better thinker is there in asking students to assess the pro and con arguments on an issue if they are profoundly unaware of the standards they should use in critiquing competing pieces of evidence? Ironically, it may be counter productive to present such tasks without instruction since they may reinforce bad habits, such as closed-mindedness, The Critical Thinking Consortium 3 pose unhelpfully vague challenges. For example, social studies teachers are frequently urged to provide two or more competing accounts of a historical event and invite students to write their own history. Yet the tools for critically addressing this task are profoundly contextual. At least, three underlying issues may be at stake, each requiring different tools. Perhaps, the “problematic” issue is the credibility of the authors of the documents. In this case students need to employ criteria for judging appeals to authority (e.g., the author has studied the topic, is a recognized expert in the field, is not in a position of bias). Alternatively, the issue may hinge on the reliability of individual observations described in the documents. If so, students need to employ criteria for assessing observational accounts (e.g., the observer is not in conflict of interest, is functioning at a moderate level of emotional arousal, has a reputation for being honest and correct, has no preconceived notions of how the Even when some “tools” of critical thought are observation will turn out, made the report close to the introduced in curriculum materials, they are typically time of observing). Or, the underlying issue may be a inadequate and crudely done. Standards of good matter of deciding upon the most plausible inferences thinking, if mentioned at all, are often described in based on the body of accepted facts. This requires that the vaguest of terms, for example, “Decide if this students be able to distinguish inferences from direct interpretation is reasonable? or “Judge whether or not observations, and learn to assess inferences for their the argument is logical?” Terms such as “reasonable” consistency with the body of evidence. Our experience and “logical” offer little direction to someone who does is that many professional resources—especially those not already have a clear grasp of sound thinking. Dull recommending generic problem solving or decision tools make for dull distinctions. Providing the requisite making models—neglect the significant differences in tools demands a more careful unpacking of the implied requisite tools that vary with the type of problem or standards of good reasoning. For example, students decision that students confront. need to learn that reasonable may be judged in terms of consistency with the body of relevant and credible In response to the prevailing pedagogy of critical evidence. In mastering these concepts, students will thinking we recommend that teachers work on three need help in learning to distinguish relevant from fronts: irrelevant reasons and to recognize and apply the more • directly and systematically teaching, in context, the range of intellectual tools, that include background specific criteria for assessing credibility. knowledge, criteria for judgment, critical thinking A final common impediment to promoting critical vocabulary, thinking strategies and habits of mind thinking stems from the tasks or questions put to • scrutinizing the questions and tasks asked of students. Many “thinking” assignments may not students to ensure that students frequently engage actually invite critical judgment. Requests such as with bona fide critical challenges—rich invitations to “Which option do you like the most?” and “Take a think critically position for or against this issue” may simply illicit • developing communities of thinkers where critical students’ ruminations about their tastes or prejudices, reflection is valued and reinforced by infusing but not require that students critically assess these expectations and routines to think critically in every matters. In addition, many “higher-order” questions aspect of students’ school lives. ethnocentrism and hasty generalizations. Thinking critically is, in effect, responding thoughtfully to a particular challenge by making appropriate use of intellectual resources—or what we call “intellectual tools.” In this respect, arriving at a thoughtful answer is akin to constructing a house. Repeated attempts at either endeavour are unlikely to be fruitful unless the “builder” possesses the requisite tools—in one case, the appropriate cutting and mending tools (e.g., sawand hammer-like devices) and, in the other case, the relevant critical concepts, standards of good reasoning, and dispositions of thoughtful reflection. Proponents of a “pedagogy of practice” have been deaf to the calls of notable writers (e.g., Paul, n.d.; Lipman, 1992) to provide students with the standards of reasoning and other requisite intellectual resources. Only as students acquire these tools do they learn to competently think through the tasks that teachers put before them. 4 The Critical Thinking Consortium them emotionally—these are the criteria for their assessment of movies. Although we will not always Neither the hand nor the mind alone would amount to share identical criteria when judging something, students need help in thinking more carefully about the much without aids and tools to perfect them. criteria to use when judging various alternatives and — Francis Bacon, Novum Organum (1623) when judging the adequacy of their own reasoning. In this second part we describe five types of intellectual As was suggested earlier, when interpreting historical documents, students may need to apply the criteria resources or “tools” for thinking: • possession of relevant background knowledge—the for judging the reliability of an observation statement. information about a topic that is required for thoughtful A reasoned judgment cannot competently be made without these criteria. Some of the criteria that are reflection • understanding of appropriate criteria for judgment— particularly relevant are general criteria of good the criteria or grounds for deciding which of the reasoning. These include accuracy, reliability, logical coherence, weight of evidence, clarity, precision and alternatives is the most sensible or appropriate • possession of key critical thinking vocabulary—the relevancy. It is not essential that critical thinkers be range of concepts and distinctions that are helpful able to name these standards, but they must be able to apply them appropriately in judging the reasoning and when thinking critically • fluency with relevant thinking strategies—the actions of others and in monitoring their own thinking repertoire of strategies, heuristics, organizing devices, and acting. models and “tricks” that may be useful when thinking Critical thinking vocabulary through a critical thinking problem • possession of essential habits of mind—the values Critical thinking is possible only if we have a vocabulary and habits of a careful and conscientious thinker. or set of concepts that permits us to make important distinctions among the different kinds of issues and Background knowledge thinking tasks facing us. When interpreting historical The most obvious and basic “tool” for critical thinking documents, for example, students need to be able is background knowledge. Students cannot think to distinguish the concepts of “direct observation” critically about a topic if they know nothing about it. In and “inference.” Possession of these concepts is not fact, expecting students to speculate on matters about essentially a matter of acquiring “correct” terminology, which they know very little may have the undesirable but a matter of understanding key distinctions consequence of encouraging ill-informed conclusions. that facilitate thinking critically about, in this case, Because the requisite background knowledge will interpretive matters. Other key critical thinking depend on the particular problem under consideration, vocabulary includes: there is no set body of information in a subject area • cause and effect that students must acquire. Rather background • factual, value and conceptual (definitional) knowledge is best understood in the context of statements particular questions or tasks—by identifying what • premise and conclusion students would need to know about in order to make a • points of view (e.g., moral, aesthetic, environmental) • necessary and sufficient conditions well-informed judgment. • deduction and induction. Criteria for judgment Thinking strategies Critical thinking is essentially a matter of judging the reasonableness of alternatives. Necessarily, all Although critical thinking is never simply a matter judgments are based on criteria of some sort or of following certain procedures or steps, there are another. For example, people will judge a movie as strategies or heuristics that are useful for guiding “good” because it was funny or because it moved performance of thinking tasks. The most useful Teaching the intellectual tools The Critical Thinking Consortium 5 strategies tend to be those designed to guide thinking in particular areas or domains of knowledge. For example, making lists of the reasons for and against a value position may help many in deciding which side of an issue to support. Because of differences among students, some strategies will be more or less helpful to individual students. Examples of simple, but nevertheless potentially helpful, strategies include: • when struggling or blocked, stand back from a situation to get the total picture • talk through a problem or confusing issue with another person • double check responses before deciding that the task is completed • use models, metaphors, drawings and symbols to simplify problems • use various graphic organizers (e.g., webbing diagrams, Euler circles, “T” charts) to represent information • before deciding on a course of action that affects others, put oneself in their position and imagine how they might feel about the situation. Habits of mind Being able to apply relevant criteria and strategies is of little significance in promoting critical thinking unless students also have certain habits of mind. Without, for instance, the disposition to be careful and critical in approaching particular tasks, students are unlikely to be successful. Developing each student’s resolve to think critically is vital if schools are to foster critical thinking. These habits, commitments and sensitivities 6 include such things as: • open-mindedness—willingness to withhold judgment and seek new evidence or points of view when existing evidence is inadequate or contentious, and willingness to consider evidence against one’s view and to revise one’s view should the evidence warrant it • fair-mindedness—willingness to give fair consideration to alternative points of view and commitment to open, critical discussion of theories, practices and policies where all views are given a fair hearing) • independent-mindedness—the willingness and personal strength to stand up for one’s firmly held beliefs • an inquiring or “critical” attitude—an inclination to question the clarity and support for claims or actions • respect for high quality products and performances— appreciation of good design and effective performance • an intellectual work ethic—a commitment to carrying out relevant thinking tasks in a competent manner. Although these tools are not generic—different kinds of each of the five types of tools will typically be required when thinking through any given critical challenge— over time students can develop a repertoire of tools which will empower them to critically address a wide range of problematic situations. To illustrate this point, the charts on the following pages list the specific tools (of all five types) that secondary students might be expected to develop in order to address in a critically thoughtful manner three common social studies tasks: interpreting data, analysing issues and presenting information. The Critical Thinking Consortium Tools for interpreting data Background knowledge Criteria for judgment Vocabulary understands that documents can be read beyond their surface meaning is familiar with the following criteria: • justifies interpretations in light of consistency of evidence in text with other known beliefs and theories • recognizes ambiguity and vagueness • recognizes bias understands the following concepts: • inference and direct observation • cause and effect • point of view • bias • stereotype • hypothesis • primary and secondary source • degrees, minutes, seconds • types of scale (i.e., rf, stated, linear) • global position index— six-figure coordinates • propoganda • deconstruction • cause versus correlation • impartial versus neutral. has knowledge of the range of symbols used in maps and other graphic representations understands that interpretations may be from different perspectives or lenses (e.g., from feminist perspective, employer/ employee perspective) understands that the past is often different from the present in many subtle and undetected ways judges the reliability of observations in light of the following criteria: • first-hand and not hearsay • good access to event • no conflict of interest • corroborated • representative coverage of situation/ population judges the credibility of an authority in light of the following criteria: • no conflict of interest • has solid reputation • is well-informed about the topic • there is general agreement among experts • used proper methods to research topic Strategies looks to identify author’s purpose or hidden intentions. summarizes ideas in one’s own words. sequences or translates information into various forms to assist in interpretation Habits of mind does not take everything at face value—is inclined to question when warranted is willing to consider alternative points of view/interpretations is willing to evaluate information when it is important to do so withholds reaching a conclusion when the evidence is inconclusive has historical empathy—the capacity to place oneself in the minds and times of historical persons can distinguish the following forms of bias: • eurocentricism • egocentricism • national chauvinism • cultural chauvinism • presentism • anthrocentricism The Critical Thinking Consortium 7 Tools for presenting information Background knowledge has a basic understanding of the following forms of presentation: • various types of graphic displays (e.g, collages, murals, overheads) • small and large group presentation approaches (e.g., debates, lectures) • the mechanics of formal written presentations (e.g., titles and headings, report structure) •the principles and techniques in making short video presentations understands that presentations serve different purposes (e.g., create awareness, inform, persuade) has some knowledge of audience needs and how to respond to different audiences can present on same topic from significantly different perspectives (e.g., victim/advocate) and for different purposes (to promote, to critique, to inform) knows the elements and principles of a formal debate 8 Criteria for judgment is familiar with the following criteria: • presentation is interesting and appropriate to the audience • oral and visual comunication is clear and accurate—does not distort the information • presentation is thoughtfully sequenced; • topic is focussed and keeps to the point • medium is suitable for the message • integrates various media within a presentation Vocabulary understands the following concept: • media as “representation” • media as “construction Strategies Habits of mind generates titles and considers needs of the sub-headings to classify/ audience organize information is flexible in adjusting uses rehearsal presentation as needed techniques and mock-ups to prepare takes pride in preparing presentations quality work develops appropriate outlines to sequence presentations is willing to engage respectfully in group discussion prepares speaking notes and other aides to support familiar presentation. uses graphics (e.g., timelines, charts, graphs) to present information carefully edits written reports makes use of relevant and illustrative examples in oral and written communication uses accepted bibliographic style to reference sources of ideas uses recognized techniques of persuasion (e.g., focus on the positive, appeal to authoritative figures) The Critical Thinking Consortium Tools for analysing issues Background knowledge has substantive knowledge about the issue at hand has some knowledge of the types of concerns that should be considered when defending a position on a social/ethical issue Criteria for judgment Vocabulary Strategies is familiar with the following criteria: • avoids ambiguous language • supports arguments with reasons • uses evidence and examples to substantiate reasons • fairly considers all reasonable alternatives/ perspectives • judges whether an explanation is oversimplified • judges whether the evidence is sufficent to establish the claim understands the following concepts: • assumption • justification and evidence • argument, premise and conclusion • factual and value claims • generalization • pro and con • justice/fairness • eyewitness • fallacy • generalization and over-generalization • unstated assumptions • truth, validity and soundness • deductive and inductive reasoning can follow a five-step issue analysis model: • define the issue and explain why it is important • research and explain several pro and con arguments • evaluate reasons from all sides of a debate • formulate a defensible position • offer counterarguments to defend position avoids most basic informal fallacies • ad hominen • false appeal to tradition • false appeal to popularity • false dichotomy • slippery slope • straw person • begging the question • false appeal to authority • vagueness thinks of counterarguments creates pro and con charts uses role taking to understand other perspectives can follow a complex issue analysis model: • define the issue and explain why it is important • research and explain all major pro and con arguments • evaluate the comparative strength of competing reasons • formulate a defensible position that consider the interests of all who are affected • offer counterarguments in defence of position Habits of mind is willing to tackle an issue is open to points of view other than one’s own— especially those that are counter to one’s own position is fair-minded—will judge ideas on their merits and not simply enforce personal interests and biases is independent minded—resists the pressures to adopt and espouse opinions merely because they are popular has an intellectual work ethic—is committed to thinking in a thorough and careful manner is tentative in one’s belief until there is sufficent evidence to warrant a more definitive position uses diagrams to trace structure of arguments The Critical Thinking Consortium 9 Infusing critical challenges Critical challenges are the tasks or questions that provide the impetus and context for critical thinking. If students are to improve in their ability to think critically they require numerous opportunities to think through problematic situations. Critical challenges may be extended assignments (e.g., undertaking case studies or class debates, producing elaborate displays or reports on controversial issues, and designing, administering and analyzing the results of surveys). They may also be very focussed tasks that take a few minutes only to work through (e.g., generating a few criteria to use in deciding which picture in the textbook is more representative of the historical period, or which of several possible titles of a student essay is the best). The use of critical challenges does not imply a particular pedagogical style, what is sometimes called an issue- or problem-centred approach. Critical challenges can be used with any approach to teaching: activity centres, textbook-based programs, cooperative groupings, self-directed study and so on, provided students are encouraged and assisted in assessing the reasonableness of what they are hearing, seeing, or doing. The teacher’s job, regardless of the form of question or task, is to ensure that these approaches represent rich invitations to think critically. Earlier we discussed weaknesses in many so-called thinking assignments put to students. In this part, we explore four criteria for judging a good critical challenge: • Does the question or task require judgment? • Will the challenge be meaningful to students? • Is the challenge embedded in the core of the curriculum? • Is the challenge focussed so as to limit the requisite tools? must require more than retrieval of information, rote application of a strategy or mere assertion of a preference. One impediment to promoting critical thinking is the difficulty in distinguishing when a question or task explicitly invites critical thinking and when it does not. Critical challenges can be distinguished from two other types of questions—what we refer to as “Where’s Waldo?” and “All answers are valid” questions. • “Where’s Waldo?” questions. This type of question requires the identification or retrieval of information. The label for these questions is based on a series of children’s picture books called Where’s Waldo? The books consist of sets of pictures containing hundreds of figures only one of whom is Waldo. Children are challenged to locate Waldo among the maze of other individuals in each picture. Although the correct answer can be very difficult, it is not a critical challenge because the task involves locating a pre-established, non-contentious answer. Often questions such as “What were the major causes of World War II?” and “How does electricity work?” may simply be Where’s Waldo questions if students are expected to retrieve the answers from their class notes, their textbooks, the library, or from memory. • “All answers are valid” questions. This type of question invites students to offer their opinions on matter where their answers are essentially personal preferences or mere guesses. Questions such as “Who is your favourite character in this period?”, “What do you like best about Canada?” and “What will the world be like in two hundred years from now?” are not likely to be critical challenges because almost no answer could be said to be unacceptable. Who is to say that a student should like the heroine more than the villain in a historical episode? Or that someone can be faulted for liking Canada best for its cold or rainy weather? Both “Where’s Waldo?” and “All answers are valid” questions are valuable questions to ask of students. Does the question or task require judgment? Our sole point in drawing attention to them is to make Critical thinking occurs only in the context of a it clear that they are not critical challenges—these problematic situation. If an answer is simply there, two types of questions do not explicitly invite critical waiting to be found, or if any and all answers are reflection. acceptable then there is no invitation to think critically. A question or task is a critical challenge only if it invites There is a further feature of posing critical challenges students to assess the reasonableness of plausible that deserves explanation. The point can be made by options or alternative conclusions—the assignment distinguishing reasoned judgments from what may be 10 The Critical Thinking Consortium called rationalized judgments: • A rationalized judgment is a position that is supported after the fact with reasons why it could be justifiable. These reasons may simply be excuses—attempts to justify a position that has not been arrived at through careful, open-minded scrutiny. A rationalized judgment occurs when students leap to conclusions or reiterate positions that they have heard others put forward and then after making the judgment think of reasons to support it. • A reasoned judgment is a criteria-based (or reasondriven) position. It is a position that is defended because it meets the perceived requirements of a thoughtful answer. Although we cannot guarantee which type of judgment students will make, there are ways of posing critical challenges that are more explicitly invitations for reasoned judgment: • specify (some or all of) the criteria for judgment that students are to use in defending their answer (e.g., Provide an interpretation of this cartoon that is plausible, comprehensive and insightful) • expect student to demonstrate that they have considered alternative positions (e.g., Argue with conviction both sides of the issue: Should Quebec separate from the rest of Canada?). Will the challenge be meaningful to students? Thinking critically is not an amusing mental game to be played, but an important feature of daily life. If students view a challenge as irrelevant and unimportant they are unlike to engage seriously in the activity and, over time, are likely to regard critical thinking as a boring or trivial exercise. Consequently critical challenges should arise within meaningful contexts. Often these contexts are real-life, but they need not be. It is sufficient that the thinker see the challenge to be interesting or stimulating (to some extent at least) and that the context provide an adequate grounding for deciding what would be reasonable. Critical challenges are likely to engage students to the extent that the challenges: • create dissonance with students’ pre-existing beliefs • involve real (or, at least, realistic) problems • have an obvious connection with a contemporary event, the local community or a personal concern of students • provide a sufficiently rich context so that students can get fully into the situation • when feasible, are chosen or suggested by students themselves. Is the challenge embedded in the core of the curriculum? As we have emphasized, critical thinking should not be an add-on, nor should it interrupt the pursuit of other curricular goals. Rather, we should encourage students to think critically about matters that are at the very core of the curriculum. The key to infusing critical thinking into the curriculum is to recast the core elements of the subject matter in the form of critical challenges. In this way students confront the material in the context of thinking critically about it, and not merely as a matter of retrieving information. For example, instead of asking students to learn “the five causes” of World War II invite them to judge which of a list of influences is the most significant factor in the outbreak of the war. Critical challenges can be embedded into ongoing activities by connecting or infusing a challenge into the topic under consideration, for example, by focussing on a statement or picture in a textbook, on an event in a story or one that happened in the community, or on students’ questions. Critical challenges need not be large scale undertakings, since these kinds of challenges may take considerable time. Although in-depth challenges are valuable, there are many opportunities to pose challenges “in passing.” Is the challenge focussed so as to limit the requisite tools? We have stressed the role of “tools” in dealing competently with critical challenges. If students lack crucial background knowledge or are unaware of relevant criteria, and if they do not acquire these tools as they address the challenge, then the value of posing challenges may be lost. Students are less likely to develop their ability to think critically if they are fumbling in the dark. For this reason, it is important to anticipate the tools required by a challenge and to compensate for those tools that are not already in students’ repertoires: • provide instruction (e.g., teach any new concepts, introduce thinking strategies that students might use) • provide support materials (e.g., supplement The Critical Thinking Consortium 11 background knowledge by including a data sheet or referring to pages in the textbook) • offer reminders (e.g., encourage students to attend to specific habits of mind). do a competent job. For example, instead of asking “Assess the legacy of the Enlightenment thinkers”—a task that could fill volumes—it may be better to pose a more focussed challenge: “Based on the following two documents and your own knowledge, which One way to increase the likelihood that students will Enlightenment philosopher—Hobbes or Locke—offers already possess, or will be able to acquire, all the the more realistic theory of government for modern requisite tools is to narrow the focus of the challenge society?” or “make it compact.” Critical challenges must be sufficiently delimited so that students do not require The following chart offers sample prompts for critical encyclopedic background knowledge in order to questions and tasks, with accompanying examples. Critical question prompts Who is more “x”? Judge the character Defend an interpretation Settle the dispute Is this really an “x ?” “The best of” award What’s wrong with this? Critical task prompts Rewrite from point of view Make a memo Realistic application Create a masterpiece 12 Critical challenges in social studies Example of question • Whose suggestion for solving the problem is more realistic? • Who was the greater explorer—Vancouver or Cook? • Is Simon Fraser a hero or a rogue? • What is the cartoonist really saying in this drawing? • Should this recreational site be developed? • Is the term “Quiet Revolution” an oxymoron? • Which of the civilizations studied this semester has made the most significant political contribution to our society? • Has the author provided a fair and full account of what actually happened? Example of task • After reading a pro-European version of Simon Fraser’s descent down the Fraser River, write a fair-minded account of what happened on this trip. • In 1876, The Yorkshire Post referred to the charge of the Light Brigade during the Battle of Balaclava as “That glorious blunder of which all Englishmen are justifiably proud.” Write two editorials—one that supports this statement, and another that refutes it. • Write a letter of reference on behalf of Thomas More to Henry VIII. • The premier has asked for concise notes on the day’s front page news. Your notes must be less than one-half page in length, focus on the important issues and clearly summarize the main points. • Your mother has been informed that she is being transferred to either Weyburn, Saskatchewan, or Prince George, British Columbia. She asks you to gather information and offer her your advice in deciding which would be a better place to live for your family. • Create a poster-size advertisement to discourage fellow students from smoking, effectively employing the techniques of persuasion without distorting the evidence. The Critical Thinking Consortium Building a community of thinkers in the discussion students are encouraged to move physically along the “U” as their intellectual position on A community of thinkers is a collection of individuals the issue changes. In this way, less dogmatic attitudes interacting in mutually supportive ways to nurture are reinforced critical reflection. Building a community of thinkers is vital for, at least, If we are serious about critical thinking we must two reasons. First, critical thinking is not a set of establish the conditions that are likely to nurture the abilities that one uses from time to time, such as required attributes. This involves infusing expectations learning how to cook or how to play basketball. Critical and opportunities to think critically in all our students’ thinking is a way of approaching almost everything school lives. If classroom and school routines do not that one encounters. This mindset will not develop if consistently reinforce thoughtful reflection, then little classroom routines transmit inconsistent messages or or no lasting gains can be expected from occasional fail to reinforce this expectation. Second, the classic lessons on critical thinking. This point was affirmed image of the isolated thinker is a misleading one; we by studies of the effects of educational programs on should not expect to be able to think through all of our developing respect for others. Various researchers “problems” by ourselves. Rather we should actively have found that the specifics of the curriculum have develop, supplement and test our ideas in conjunction a marginal impact on this key attitude—the classroom with others—to put our heads together. But many climate is the determining factor (cf., Daniels & Case, students may be unwilling or unable to contribute to 1992, pp. 19-23). If teachers solicit and value student and benefit from collaborative reflection. Perhaps, opinions, and provide a healthy forum for student they do not listen very well, or they cannot accept any dialogue, then students are more likely to come to form of criticism, or they do not know how to monitor what they say, or they have no confidence in their respect other’s opinions. ability to add to the discussion. Students will acquire Generally speaking, in promoting critical thinking the these tools only through participation as a member in influence of the hidden curriculum—the latent norms a community of thinkers. and subtle messages that powerfully affect what students actually learn—has been underestimated or Nurturing the appropriate climate is an orientation overlooked. Consider, for example, the tendency of that pervades all of our actions. We can transform our many people to cast issues in dichotomous terms— classrooms into communities of thinkers by working in as black or white, and right or wrong. This attitude is the following ways: reinforced by the traditional classroom debate that • setting appropriate classroom expectations has been the paradigm format for engaging students • implementing appropriate classroom routines and in issue discussion. In a two-sided debate the objective activities is to prove that the opposing side is without merit by • personally modeling the attributes of a good critical refuting, belittling or ignoring opposing arguments. thinker There is a tacit prohibition against changing one’s mind • employing effective group questioning techniques part way through the debate. Crossing to the other side • developing the tools for student participation in a is like crossing the floor of the House of Commons— reflective community. both are seen as betrayals. Increasingly teachers are replacing this adversarial, closed-minded format with Classroom expectations more open-ended discussions where students are encouraged to see the merits of all sides and to recast Teachers’ expectations of their students are often binary options as extreme positions along a continuum. self-fulfilling. Specific expectations that support a To facilitate this approach, class discussions may be community of thinkers are: configured in a “U” shape—students with polar views • students are expected to make up their own minds— (either strongly agreeing or strongly disagreeing) locate not simply take someone’s word for things themselves at either end, and students with mixed • students and teacher are expected as a matter of opinions sit along the rounded part. At varying stages course to provide reasons or examples in support of The Critical Thinking Consortium 13 their observations, conclusions and behaviour • students and teacher are expected to seriously consider other perspectives on a issue and alternative approaches to a problem before reaching a firm conclusion • all persons are to be treated respectfully by everyone, even if their ideas are wrong or silly • disputes about ideas are encouraged, but they must never be directed personally or be mean-spirited • it is not acceptable merely to criticize and complain— the pros of a position should always be examined as should possible solutions to problems • the insincere use of critical techniques to show off or to be contrary is not tolerated (this does not mean that there is no place for well-intentioned devil’s advocacy). reflect and provided with the tools to address their tasks critically (e.g., students should not be expected merely to guess). Teacher modelling It has been said “Example is not the best way to influence people, it’s the only way” (reported in Norman, 1989, p. 27). This principle applies to critical thinking. If we want our students to be good critical thinkers we must model these attributes ourselves. We may want to consider being a role model in the ways suggested below: • not being dogmatic and not always having the answer—living with ambiguity—being satisfied with tentative conclusions until full review of complex issues can be carried out Classroom routines and activities • sincerely attempting to base all comments and A community of thinkers can be supported by building decisions on careful and fair-minded consideration of into the daily classroom operation various routines and all sides activities that habituate students to particular frames • be willing (if asked) to provide “good” reasons for our of mind. Some of the routines that support a critical decisions and actions (This does not mean that every time any student asks for a justification that the lesson community are: • the vocabulary of critical thinking is used as a matter must be interrupted) of course in classroom discussion (e.g., Asking “What • being careful to avoid making gross generalizations can you infer from this picture about the individual’s and stereotypical comments about individuals and state of mind?” “What assumptions are you making?”) groups and seeking to expose stereotypes in books, • assignments, including those that are for marks, pictures, films and other learning resources consistently contain a non-trivial commitment to • being willing to change our mind or alter our plans when good reasons are presented thinking critically • students regularly scrutinize textbooks, news • always acknowledging the existence of different articles and reports and other “reputable” sources of positions on an issue (e.g., looking at events from information for bias, stereotyping, overgeneralization different cultural, gender and class perspectives) • not being cynical—adopting, instead, a realistic but and inaccuracy • student ideas and suggestions are regularly questioning attitude toward the world. considered and (when appropriate) accepted in setting assignments, establishing rules for the class and Questioning techniques establishing criteria for evaluation • thoughtfully supported, insightful or empathic We can support a community of thinkers by being responses (even if flawed) are to be valued more than effective questioners. We must pose questions that go beyond recall or retrieval of information by inviting merely correctly recalled responses • students regularly explore and defend positions from students to make reasoned judgments. We can further particular points of view, especially from perspectives support critical thinking by consistently responding to student comments using non-threatening probing that are not personally held by them • students regularly identify and defend criteria to techniques such as those listed below (Saskatchewan evaluate their classroom behaviour and work, and Education, 1988, p. 34): then apply these criteria to themselves and their peers • the conditions for thoughtful reflection are Seeking greater clarity respected—students are given adequate time to • Could you give me an example? 14 The Critical Thinking Consortium • Is your point “this” or “this”? be clear to everyone? Probing for assumptions • You seem to be assuming that . . . • Is this always the case? Critical thinking vocabulary • unanimous, consensus, minority positions Probing for reasons and evidence • Is there reason to doubt this evidence? • How could we find out if this is true? Exploring alternative perspectives • How might other groups respond? • What would people who disagree with your position say? Probing consequences or implications • What effect would this have? • If this were the case, what else must also be true? Tools for community participation Thinking strategies • group management strategies such as taking turns, assigning cooperative roles, active listening, and keeping a speaker’s list • strategies for critiquing in a non-threatening manner including putting the comment in the form of a question, preceding comment with a caveat, or preceding comment with positive remarks • strategies for presenting information in group settings including limiting comments to a few points, speaking from notes, and connecting remarks to previous speaker’s comments. Habits of mind • independent-minded—willingness to stand up for firmly held beliefs • sensitivity to others—attention to the feelings of others • self-monitoring—attention to how one’s actions are affecting the group. Just as students are taught to be good citizens, so too students need to be taught how to be effective contributors to and beneficiaries of a community of thinkers. Many of the tools employed in individual reflection apply here, however other tools are uniquely employed in collaborative deliberation. Some of these Concluding remarks tools are suggested below. We are optimistic that the current state of affairs can be improved. As we have tried to illustrate, the prevailing Background knowledge • knowledge that individuals may see things in view does little in the way of teaching for thinking. In this article we hope to combat the prevailing view by significantly different ways • knowledge of how individuals are likely to react in clarifying the nature of critical thinking and how to effectively promote critical thinking in social studies. various situations Of course, greater clarity is not enough—extensive training, resources, and curriculum revision are Criteria for judgment • Are one’s comments relevant to the discussion (on required—but it represents a necessary and promising first step in taking seriously a challenge raised topic)? • Are one’s comments expressed in a manner that will consistently since the very beginning of social studies. The Critical Thinking Consortium 15 References Allen, R. (1975).Values education series.. Evanston, IL: McDougal, Little. Bailin, S., Case, R., Coombs, J. & Daniels, L. (1993, September). A conception of critical thinking for curriculum, instruction and assessment. 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