The Etruscans Revisited: A Symposium

THE ETRUSCANS REVISITED: A SYMPOSIUM ABSTRACTS OF THE PAPERS The abstrac ts presented below give summaries of papers presented at a regional symposium of the Archaeological In stitute of America. held by the Tall ahassee Soc iety of the AlA in May. 1996. in commemoration of the forti eth anniversary of the Society. and of the twentieth anniversary of the first regional symposium of the AlA , held in Tall ahassee in May, 1976. The theme of the conference "The Etru scans Revis ited," was based on that of the first symposium. in which participants addressed questions about the relationship between the Etru scans and their neighbors (publi shed in Archaeological News 4 [1976]). The second symposium included considerations of the Etru scan connections with the Greeks, Romans, Phoenicians, and local Italic groups known as the Situla Peoples . In conjunction with the symposium was an open sessi on for papers, for which the abstracts are also included here. The conference was co-spon sored by the Student Archaeology Club. the Congress of Graduate Students. and the Department of Cl ass ic. at Florida State University The Etruscans and the Situla Peoples: A Progress Report In current scholarship, "Athenocentric" and " Romanocentric" are out of vogue. Non-Greek barbari ans, Celts, Phoenicians, Scythians, Etruscans, Sardini ans are in. A wider context is thus available for the peopl es of ancient Italy. for whom a renewed interest is encouraged. too. by current Itali an politics, refl ecting the importance of the Italian Lari ssa Bonfante 9 Lari ssa Bonfante 10 regions today, whil e interest in the European Community influenced Massimo Pallottin o's last great internation al project, the exhibit on the Etruscans in Europe. ([n an earlier ex hihit. the Celts were held up as the Fir. t Europeans.) [n thi s context , and in the li ght of new research, it is worthwhil e to take up once more, twenty years after the first Tall aha ee Etru scan sympo iu m, the que ' ti on of the li fe and art of that little-known group of ancient people, the so-ca ll ed "Situl a Peopl es" li ving in the Alpine regions of modern Ital y (around Venice), Austria, the fo rmer Yugos lav ia (Sloveni a), and Switzerl and in the seventh and sixth centuri e ' B . . These people spoke diffe rent languages but shared art and customs. and a proto-urban type of li fe not unli ke that of the Homeric king. Th ey pi ctured themselves on the bronze buckets or situl ae whi ch they used for their banquets and buried in their graves , and the li vely cenes portrayed in their art illustrate their li ves and ri tuals, the special local furnishin gs, dress, ritu als. and ways of thin kjng. Under the influence of the sophisti cated, civili zed Etru. cans to the south, their arti ts represented their Orientali zing style of art and dress, whi ch remained as foss ili zed statu s symbols from the seventh to the fi fth century B.C. Recent di scoveries are adding to our know ledge and understanding of the contex t. influence, and significance of their art. Two particul ar areas of interest are worth rev isitin g in connection with the art and customs of the situla people: the "Chiusi connection ," incl uding compari sons with the materi al fro m Murl o; and the role of women in situla art. espec ially in eroti c scenes. Worth noting. too, is the remarkably long- lived continuity of art of the northern regions, illustrated by the Roman marbl e Corsini Chai r, made in the fi rst century B.C. fo r a fa mil y whose generals had fo ught in the north. Here are to be found the boxing match with trophy, women in process ion, and other standard scenes of situla art. From the seventhcentury monuments of itula art to the first century B.C.: 600 years of statu s symbols frozen in the art of the northern reg ions! The "Chiusi connect ion" has been accepted by mo ·t scholar . The Orientali zing phase of Chiusi is seen as the mi ss ing link between Etruscan in fl uence and situla art. A remarkable monument of thi s period, the seventh-century sil ver gilt Pli cas nas vase from Chiusi, has many of the motifs of the situlae: the boxin g match with trophy, the women in procession carrying containers on their heads. The ex istence. of thi s Chiusi connection is confi rmed by Mauro Cri stofani 's study of the spread of the Etruscan alphabet, showing Chiusi to be the site from which the northern alphabets deri ved. The northern routes for Etruscan influence into Gaul and central Eu rope, as well as the. route fo r the amber that was coming down into Italy in such great quantiti es at thi s time, also showed how li vely was the exchange between North and South. The Alps were clearly more of a hridge than a barrier. The Chiusi connection involve comparisons, often noted but not yet expl ained , with material from Murlo. Recent publications have made much of thi s material more fully available for study, especiall y the final publi cation s of the architectural terracotta decorations; for exa mple, Ingrid Edlund-Berry's book on the seated and standing figures includes the famous "cowboy," wearing a wide-brimmed hat of a type appearing prominently on the situlae . Other scholars are workin g on the frie zes . There are striking similariti es in the antiquarian deta il s: the seated figure s, the "throne ." the wide hats, the pointed shoes, the musica l in struments. At leas t as important are other similarities: the absence of mythology, the non-funerary context , the mixture of real and fantastic figures from the Orientali zin g repertoire that coex ist without any ev ident sense of strain ; from Murlo come a centaur. sphinxes, etc. Recent scholarship has been much concerned with gender snldies, and indeed iconograp hi c studies examining the place of women in society-erotic art. nudity, and soc ial status- provide narrow points of focus that are useful in attempting to " read" the me sages of the situla art. The cleaning and publication , in the I 970s, of a bronze axe-shaped pendant in the style of situl a art found in a ri ch woman 's grave in Bologna a hundred years earli er revealed sce nes of woolworking. all of it performed by women. To thi s evidence we can now add that of the recently restored wooden t.hrone from Verucchio, near Bologna. Here a remarkable series of scenes, styli stically related to those of situl a art, represent all the phase of the craft of woolworking. from the shearing of the wool to the spinning and weaving. and show the different rol es of men and women; the outdoor work is done by men, while canopies, wall and roofs make it very clear that the women, identiti ed by their costume, are working indoors . On the situlae e legantly dressed women are serving the men. They are presumably wives, sisters and mothers, of eq ual rank with the male banqueters. Though they thus participate in the banquet or drinking parties, unlike women in Greek symposia, where wive were not invited, they do not recl ine or sit together with the men as women do in Etruscan banquet scenes. Erotic scenes or symp/eglllatC/ occur on several examples of situla art. The 1110st ambitious one occurs on the Castelvetro mirror- not surpri ingly. perhaps, for engraved bronze mirrors, an Etruscan specialty imported into the north. were made fo r women , and this was a subject that perta ined to the world and th e rank of women- where the couple lies on an elaborate swan bed . The scenes we have are very close to the ones represented on the seventh-century R.C'. Etruscan vase from Tragliatell a, near Cerveteri . They all involve, as John Boardman has noted, the "m iss ionary pose," face to face, unusual in Greek art. Su ch scenes sure ly represent the consummation of the marriage and the primacy of the family so important in this arti stocratic society. The Etrllsca ns Revi ited 11 New Discoveries Concerning the Relationship between Etruria and the Greek World, from the Eighth to the Fifth Century H.C. Antonia Rallo The study by Antonia Rallo is forthcoming as "Con siderazione su una rotta commerciale tra Etruria e Cartagine," in Etrusca et italicCl, Scrilli ill ricorc/o di MlI.I'silllo Pallottino, in press. Greek Religion, Architecture, and the Origin of the Etruscan Temple Pat rick Rowe 12 Although there have been several studies of early non-Greek religious architecture in Italy, none deal s adequately with pre-Roman te mples located within the area of Etruria proper. Situated in this region and dating from the time of the Etruscan civilization. there have been discovered certain monumental structures that undoubtedly were of a sacred nature. The indigenous and outside sources that led to the initial formation of these early temples is a problem that needs to be di scussed and debated. Traditionally the evolution of the Etruscan temple has been closely linked to the development of Etruscan domestic architecture. 80th A. Andren in his "Origine e formuzion e dell ' architettura templ are etruscoitalica" and. more recently, G. Colonna in Sontuari cl 'Etruria argued and attempted to demonstrate that the earliest Etruscan temples imitated the form of Etruscan hou ses. A similar relationship has been posited between Etruscan funerary architecture and Etruscan domestic architecture, as illustrated by the comparison of several of the Archaic houses at San Giovenale and Acquarossa with contemporary existing tombs in Etruria. The resemblances between the plan s of these houses and tombs contirm that there clearly was a developmental relationship from house to tomb in the Archaic period. Contrary to what Andren and Colonna theori zed. however. the same developmental relationship between early Etruscan houses and early Etruscan temples cannot be establi shed. In fact, the ev idence indicates that the Etruscan temple appeared as the result of strong fore ign influences that were merged with native Etruscan building concepts. As demon strated in Chapter Four of my di ssertation. Etruscan Te/nples: A StUl(Y of th e Structural Remains. Origins and Developrnent. it can be argued that the appearance of the earliest Etruscan templ es, like the Portonacc io Temple at Veii and Temple 8 at Pyrgi, was a s udden development under strong Greek influence, notably the di style in amis Greek treasury and peripteral templ e, rather than a solely independent evolution occurring in the confines of Etruria. Given the existence of the thriving trade between the Etruscans and Greek during the sixth centu- ry, the strong Greek influence is not surpri sing. Joined with these traditional Greek architectural forms were nati ve Etru scan features, such as the tripartite cell a arrangement. monumental akroteri a, and the use of loca l building material s. Only after a clearer understanding of the manner in which the Etruscan temple originated and evolved can we hope to understand the role it played in influencing the development of Roman and even Early Christian religious buildings . A fresh look at the old and new evidence concerning the ori gin of the Etruscan temple will aid, it is hoped, in defining its appropriate pl ace in the history of western architecture. Vitruvius and Etruscan Archaeology: the Hidden Etruscan Tradition in Roman Architecture Before the di scovery of Etruscan settlements and cemeteri es, the main source for our knowl edge of Etruscan architecture was the Roman architect Vitruvius. In hi s treati e De Arc/zileclura (On Architecture) he discu ssed Etruscan temples and houses specifically, but he also included Etruria in hi s general comments on architectural styles and on the development of architecture. While Vitruvius' di scuss ion is quite clear and precise. his tex t has caused endless frustration for architectural historians and archaeologists alike. There is no one structure preserved that fits Vitruvius' specitication s for the genus Tuscanicum (''Tuscan-like style"), and even those that meet some of the criteria for a Tuscan temple plan fall short in others. There is no easy solution to this apparent contlict between the literary and the archaeological evidence, but a close analys is of the material remains shows that Vitruvius in fact gi ves us a sound explanation of the architectural traditions in ancient Italy that resulted in Roman architecture and its heritage in Renaissance and later architecture. In order to evaluate these architectural tradition s, we must first of all recogni ze that the term "tuscanicus" does not apply to a limited time or area. In Vitruvius' text. thi s word is used in conjunction with terms such as Doric and Ionic, whi ch represent architectural definitions for certain combinations of features such as columns or entablature. In the same way as a "Doric" column can appear almost anywhere in the Greek world. to say that something is built in a "Tuscan-like" fas hion does not automatically suggest that it would occur only in the limited area of Etruria, or in areas controlled by the Etruscuns. Likew ise, Doric. Ionic. or Tuscan-like features have no chronological boundaries-they were equall y well known to Vitruvius and architects of his time as to their anonymou s predecessors of fi ve hundred years or more. By examining the archaeologica l ev idence for Etruscan architecture we find that there is a great deal more variety in form and function Ingrid Edlund-Berry 13 Ingrid Ed lund-Berry than is included in Vitruvius' definitions of what is Etruscan. What is significant. however. is that the Etruscan concern with material (wood and clay). location , and continuity agrees with Vitruvius' analysis of what he defi nes as the natural development of ancient architecture (ii.I.6-7). According to thi s scheme. the earliest type of building was the hut made of straw and clay. The next step in the architectural development was the erection of houses set on foundations with wall s of brick or stone. The roofs were made of wood and tiles. It is interesting that Vitruvius here emphasizes the correct "natural" use of building materials, and suggests that the human mind is actually inspired to "build itself up" (instruere) by using that which is available . By combining the excavated examples of buildings and monument with Vitruvius' di scussion of what he considers characteri stic of the gen.us Tuscanicum we can outline a continuous development of architectural form beginning with the Iron Age. The basic principles of material and plan were developed in Etruria and were taken over by Rome. A key characteristic of any building type that originated in Etruria was the use of the Etruscan round as a base molding, a feature which was incorporated into Roman temples throughout Italy and one which became associated with Romanization throughout the peninsula and Sicily. As Rome developed its own architectural form during the Roman Republic, we find an unbroken continuity from the Iron Age and Archaic period; onto thi s is superimposed the influence from the Helleni stic Greek world. While the material and form remain Etrusco-Italic. decorati ve elements of Greek origin become common and result in monuments such as the sanctuary of Fortuna at Praeneste. the rectangular temple in the Forum Boarium in Rome, and the Scipio sarcophagus. By juxtaposing Vitruvius and the ex tant monuments, it is thus possible to apply hi s theories of the Etruscan heritage to the birth and development of Etruscan and Roman architecture . The fundamental principles are the material , workmanship, and function of the tructures. The decoration is an important addition, but one which will vary with time and pl ace . While Vitruvius uses the term genus Tusconicum in a narrow sense to apply to specific architectural featu res, it can also be broadened to describe the architecture of Etruri a as a whole. Ultimately Roman architecture emerged as a successful union between two equally strong traditions. Etruscan and Greek. Tarquin Revisited: the emergence of the study of Etruscan contributions to Rome as a field of Etruscan studies John Hall During the past two decades a slow but steady increase of interest in the Etruscans has occurred among American classici sts and archae- ologists. A better understanding of many of the past findings of Etruscan studies, as well as important new discoveri es and their prompt di ssemination may- at least in part- account for thi s growing recognition that Etruscan civilization. both in and of itself, and as the cultural predecessor of Rome, demands greater attention. Similarly, the influence exerted by Etruscans on the civili zations of Italy. and espec ially upon Rome, has during the same twenty years compri sed the subject of an increas ingly significa nt segment of Etruscnn studies. and also of studies on early Rome in particular. and of various eras of Roman hi story in general. The many-centuries-Iong consociation of Etruscans with Rome makes the advent of studies concerning such interaction by no means surprising. Indeed, the ancient Romans themselves supply a substantial portion of extant written sources about the Etruscans. Largely from thi s material, recent schol arly effort has produced at least a partial narrative of Etruscan presence at Rome and the contributions to Roman civilization that deri ve therefrom. The involvement of Etruscans in Roman government and soc iety and their influence upon the development of Roman civili zation is ascertainabl e through three areas of inquiry: archaeological excavation , interpretation of the Roman literary and historiographica l tradition , and investigation of Roman institutions. From each methodology important conclusions can be drawn , but a ca veal must be observed against relying too much on any singl e approach. For example, despite its many contributions, archaeology 's very nature limits its role in reconstructing certain aspects of Etruscan civilization in that it produ ces only a random sampling of evidence, at best a parti al depiction of soci ety. While defi nite conclusions can be drawn about particular topi cs of art hi story or the history of technology, broader questions of political, social , or economic history remain largely unanswered. Archaeological investigation is most reliabl e when used in tandem with the hi storical tradition of a culture as contained in its literary sources, of whi ch few remain for Etruria. By contrast, a relative abundance of Roman historical and literary sources makes possibl e the application of the techniques of comparative hi story to reveal not only Etruscan influences on Rome, but al so aspects of Etruscan society itself as depicted in Rome during the period in which the city was governed by Etruscan rul ers and was firmly set in the Etruscan cultural sphere. The I950s and [960s witnessed extensive archaeological investigation of early Rome by. among others, Colini, Gj erstad, Brown, Pugli si, and Carretoni. In addition to these excavations, material from the earli er excavations of Colini on the Capitoline and in the Forum Boarium, as well as the prolific but unpubli shed work of Boni , were collected in what was once often cited as at least the best single collocation of pertinent evidence, if not the best interpretation of that evidence, Gjerstad's six-volume Early Rom.e (Lund 1953-73). Now only The Etruscans Revisited 15 John Hall 16 marginally usefu l as a catalogue and problematic otherwise, as Palmer twenty years ago exposed it to be, Gjerstad 's presentation of early Rome has been superceded by works that provide a chronology that is hi storically rea li. tic and therefore allows cognizance of the Etruscan contribution to early Rome. Among these are the publications of Colonna, Ridgway, Mtiller-Karpe, Meyer, and Romanelli. In part on the basis of thi s archaeological ev idence, and with reference to the ev idence of hi storical and literary sources, synthes izing analyses about early Rome have been produced that emphasize Etruscan contributions. Published several years before the twenty-year period under consideration in the present paper was Alfoldi 's important volume about Etruscan presence in monarchical Rome perhaps mi snomered as EarLy Rome and the Latins (Ann Arbor 1965). Within a few years other hi storical syntheses appeared acknowledging the considerable extent of Etruscan involvement at Rome. Most significant were monographs by Scullard, The Etruscan Cities and Rome (Ithaca 1967), and Ogilvie, Early Rome al/d the Etruscal/.I· (Gl asgow 1976), and an extensive corpus of articles by Heurgon and Gage. Palmer's Archaic Communit), of th e Ancient ROII/an s (Cambridge 1970) delineates Roman governmental institutions of the era including those whose origin is attributed to the Etruscans; and hi s ROI/'/an Religion. aI/cl Roman. E/'/'/pire (Pennsylvania 1974) depicts Etruscan contributions to the origin of Roman state cult. More recent articles by Bonfante. Gantz, Hall, Palmer, and Sordi , and Thomsen's comprehensive monograph treating an Etruscan Servius Tuliius, have provided additional information concern ing the period of Rome's Etruscan monarchy. In contrast to the extensive researches assoc iated with the Etru. can role in early Rome, little work has been completed about the Etruscan presence at Rome, or relations between Rome and the Etruscan states during the fifth and fourth centuries s.c. Rel ations between Rome and her Etruscan neighbors form the subj ect of Sordi 's I Rapporti Romano -Ceriti (Rome 1960) and Hubeaux ' Rome et veies (Paris 1958). Of very recent date Hall's "From Tarquins to Caesars: Etruscan Governance at Rome," in Etruscan Ita.ly (Provo 1995) demonstrates continued political involvement by Etruscan families until at least 367 S.C. , and raises questions about how that involvement necessitates reconsideration of Rome's internal and external politics. The period that witnesses the alliance of Rome and Caere, the conflict of Rome and Veii. and the beginnings of a hi storiographical deemphasis of Rome's Etruscan heritage, is one rife with opportunity for research into res Etrusca at Rome. Recent but important studies about the incorporation of Etruria and Etruscans into the Roman state comprise perhaps the newest area of Etruscan studi es. The third and second centuries, of course, saw the conquest of Etruria by Rome and the Romanization of the region. Severa l recent works contribute much to our understanding of these events. Harri s' Rome ill Elruria and Umbria (Oxford 1971) offers a current and thorough treatment of the period and its attendant problems. The Finnish Institute's Studies ill the Rom{lnization ofEtrurill (Rome 1975) collects important articles on the development of Etruria into a region of Roman Italy. Harri s continues hi s srudy into the period of the late Republi c, analyzing the impact of the events of Roman history upon Etruria. Hall commences his study of the involvement of Etruria's municipal aristocracy in Roman politics with the late Republic and continues it through the lulio-Claudian era. The Augustan era is treated by a host of recent articles relating to Etruscan intluence in politics by Torelli and Hall. in religion by Palmer. Weinstock. and Hall. The just-published EtruscolI Italy (Provo 1995) contains articles about Etruscan influence on Roman soc iety in the Augustan age and beyond. by de Grummond. Fracchia, Hall, Johnson. Macfarlane, Maxwell , Moser, and Palmer. The Etruscan background of both Vergil and Maecenas has tigured in works by classicists about the Aeneid and Augustan literature in general, including Galinsky 's influential monograph Aeneas. Sicily. and ROllle (Princeton 1969). Torelli's L{fl'illio e RO/I/{f (Rome 1984) and articles by Dalzell, Enking, Hall. Nielsen. and StatT. As classicists have become aware of the duration of Etrusca n influence, and of its relation. not only to Roman history and religion but also to Latin literature, increased interest in Etruscan influence at Rome has been manifest. In 1986 one of two keynote panels at the annual meeting of the Classical Association of the Middle West and South featured Augustan Rome. with papers by Hall. Moser. Niel sen. and Wilhelm. Similarly, the ame organization's 1992 meeting pre ented as its vice-presidential panel an offering on Rome and the Etruscans; thi s featured papers by Moser and Hall. The 1992-93 U.S. tour of the Vatican Etruscan exhibit, with Nancy de Grummond as consultant. made the Etruscans more access ible to the general classicist who before may not have understood their signiticance for Rome. The 1993 symposium on "Etruscan Influences upon the Civilizations of Italy" at Brigham Young University was a conference generated directly as a result of the Vatican tour. It is likely that in future years more such symposia will be organi zed, not only by and for the profess ional Etruscologist, but for the more general audience of classicists, hi storians, archaeologists, etc. The future of Etruscan studies, and espec ially that area of Etruscan studies relating to Rome, is brighter than ever in the United States. The Etruscans Revisited 17 OPEN SESSION ABSTRACTS Etruscan Death and Destruction: Recent excavations at La Piana l ane Whitehead The material from this paper ha since been published in the articl e "New Re earche at La Pi ana. 1991-95" in Etruscan Studies 3 ( 1996) 105- 146. Caeretan Braziers: portable hearths for the living and the dead Li sa Pieraccini 18 Between roughly the seventh and fifth centurie ' B.C. the southern city known in ancient times as Caere (modern Cerveteri) was the forerunner of Etruscan ceramic production and must have hou. ed several, if not many, work shops that speciali zed in vase making, vase painting, and metope and cylinder clay stamping. One of the most abundant forms of vessels produced at Cerveteri during the. eventh and sixth centuri e B.C. was the stamped impasto brazier, also known a. red ware, stamped ware, or red bucchero. These ceramics are known in Italian as foc uli, il11pasto ceretano stalllpiglia1(} or bracieri, and their abundance in Caeretan tombs dating from the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. and most recently in the ancient city of Caere, testifies to their importance and wide use. To date there are some three hundred exa mples of these vessels housed in mu seum s throughout Europe. While their function and decorati ve styl e are not yet entirely understood, their purpose seems to cross over between daily life and afterlife. We know that they were containers for small tires and were used for domestic purposes in homes and perhaps ritualistically in tombs. Caeretan brazier have been the topic of brief comment by many scholars due to their frequent appearance in Caeretan tombs, but they never have been the focus of any significant research. I have di scovered that Caeretan braziers are unique in shape and decoration so much so that the Caeretan craftsmen set the standards for both form and stamped decoration , which later became imitated in nearby towns like Veii , Tolfa. and San Giovenale. The decoration on thi s pottery exemplifies the artistic influences that were drifting into Italy during the Orientalizing period. The study of Caeretan workshop production will serve to enhance our knowledge of artistic influences from the east whi ch were pouring into Caere's main port, Pyrgi, during the seventh and sixth centuries B.C. The influx of Greek pottery directly affected the subj ect matter stamped on the braziers to such an ex tent that often compl ex narrative scenes from Greek mythology were cho ' en a decorative scenes for these Caeretan vessels. Particul ar attention has been paid to other types of pottery fo und in the same tombs as braziers. ev idence of braziers with their original contents, and the signifi cance of brazier locati on in the tombs. A precise catalogue and interpretation of the artistic motifs and subject matter depi cted on all Caeretan braziers will prove crucial for establishing concrete chronology. All of thi s, coupl ed with fo rm typo logy. will lead to a better understanding, not only of the function of the braziers but al so of the ir importance in Caeretan life and afterlife. Through current sc ienti fic analysis, burned materi als in side the brazier can be identifi ed and accurate dates pertaining to the last time the brazier was used ca n be determined. Speculati on about the attempt on the part of the Caereta ns to leave a tire in the tomb for the purpose of deox ygenation will al so be addres 'ed. This research will reveal certain as pects of Etruscan tomb ritual never before studied. The shape of braziers may seem simple to the twenti eth century viewer, but they were spec ially made obj ects that had a spec ific funerary and domesti c function that certainly merits attention. In fac t. braziers played a seriou s role at the very center of c ivili zed li fe, offering heat, warmth , and li ght. Until now Caeretan braziers have been little understood. indeed neg lected. It is my hope that thi s study will shed li ght upon a type of functio na l Etruscan pottery of a kind still in use in parts of the Mediterranean to thi s day. The Etru scans Rev i ited Glass Finds from the Etruscan Site of Poggio Civitate (Murlo) Over the past thirty years excavations at the Etru scan site of Poggio Civilate (Murl o ) ha ve produced an abundance of materi al from both its Ori entali zing and Archaic phases. Thi s materi al includes a num be r of locally produced and imported luxury ite ms, among which are some 73 glass speci mens. While the majority of these glass find s are extreme ly f rag mentary, limiting the extent of possible analyses, there are some better preserved pi ece that permit a greater depth of study. These include diagnostic fragments from 14 beads and 12 vessels; among the vessel form s identified are the "spiky" oinochoe, the alabastron, and (poss ibly) the aryballos. The g lass from Pogg io Ci vitate can be securely placed within the Orie ntali zing phase of the site, dating to the second half of the seventh century B. C. The tinds come primarily from two di stinct areas on the plateau of Pi ano del Tesoro, from the context of the Ori entalizing struc ture known as the Lower Building, and from the open colonnaded work shop on the southern edge of the site . These contex ts provoke questions A lex i Christensen 19 Al ex is Christensen about the origin of the glass finds. Could the gl ass have been loca lly produced? There is strong evidence to suggest that the workshop produced a great variety of items, including bronzes , bone and ivory carvings, architec tural terracottas, and pottery. If Poggio Civitate was not the site of production of this glass, from where was it imported? It is necessary to inquire into the po sibilities of workshops in Etruria as we ll as ones outside of the region. The glass find s from Poggio Civitate provide a further insight into the much di sputed nature of the site. These find s also will help to expand the currently limited field of the study of glass from Etruscan sites by adding to the publi shed materi al. Hellenistic Etruscan Tomb Groups of Northern Etruria Alli son Purcell The paper examines evide nce of funerary customs, social status, daily life, and the economy of Northern Etruria by studying selected tombs of the third to first century B. C. Included are the Calisna Sepu Tomb near Monterigg ioni , the Papena Tomb near Siena. and a tomb near Gaiole in Chianti. These chamber tombs featured cremation burial s and regul arly included ash urns. The grave goods reveal through the ir number and quality a broad spectrum of economic groups in this geographical area . The simplest buri als utili zed a pl ain stone box with a hollow for the ashes, while the most elaborate featured urns with sculptural decoration in reli ef and recl ining fi gures on the lids. Common motifs include depi ctions of bloodshed scenes (e .g. Eteocies and Polynices) and of Etruscan demons such as Charu and Vanth. The grave goods regularly included mirrors, ointment jars, and a range of vessels, especially in black gloss; these were connected with serving and drinking wine (e.g. the Volterran kraters) and with dining. The Northwest Complex at Cetamura del Chianti: the Kiln Area Matthew Kee lean 20 Thi s paper summarizes the re ults of recent excavations, under the direction of Nancy T. de Grummond and Charles Ewell, in the area of a He llenistic kiln for mak ing brick and til e at Cetamura, located in the Chianti region 30 kms. northeast of Siena. The rectangular building. Structure K, with exterior measurements of 3.68 x 2.68 m .. is made of irregul ar blocks of local sandstone. The firing chamber (roughl y 2.62 x 2.56 m.) is di vided in two by a centra l partition , or /'I"/(/sfio, made of a refractory cl ay. The kiln is provided with two stoking ch anne ls, or prae- jilmia, on the north side of the structure, where the hill slopes down- The Etruscans ward and would allow for an updraft of air. This report gives special attention to a deep pit adjacent to Structure K on the west, nearly two meters deep, that served to receive debris from successive firings of the kiln. Excavations produced layers of carbon, numerous pieces of refractory brick and tile that had been used in the kiln , and abundant pottery, both local "utilitarian" wares and specimens of Hellenistic black gloss pottery. The stratigraphy produced a useful sequence of the black gloss wares that can be used to date the kiln. (See the following abstrac!.) Revisited Etruscan Black Gloss Pottery from the Kiln Area at Cetamura del Chianti From 1988 to 1994, excavations by Florida State University at Cetamura del Chianti in the area of the Hellenistic kiln , Structure K, have yielded a number of exampl es of datable black gloss wares. This study focuses on the pottery from strata that contained carbon layers and lenses, unfired brick and ti le, scoriae of overtired clay and possibl e kiln furniture, and therefore were probably contemporary with the operation of the kiln. Thi s black gloss pottery showed dates beginning around 300 B.C. and endin g by around the middle of the second century B.c' with trade connections with Volterra and other sites in Northern Etruria. Among the forms identified were paterae, drinking cups with "rounded triangle" handles and "bent ear" handl es, assorted bowls, a tall-footed krater, a two-handled skyphos, and a one-handled cup with a stemmed base. The fairly precise dating of the period of the usage of the kiln is important for the study of the development of Etruscan production of brick and til e. (Cf. the precedin g abstract.) Jillian Curry 21 JETRuse STUDIES JOURNAL OF THE ETRUSCAN FOUNDATION EDITORIAL REMARKS Foreword hy lane K. Whitehead III NEWS AND REVIEWS Museum News and Reviews by Larissa Bon/ante and Naney T de Grummol1d Review of J. G. Szilagyi and J. Bouzek, Corpus Speeulorum Etruseorum. Hongrie. Tcheeoslol'aqllie. by Helen Nagy 7 13 Short book reviews by Larissa Bon/elt/le ARTICLES The Etruscan Wolflnan in Myth and Ritual by John Ellioff 17 TRANSLA TIONS Discourse on Method: A Contribution to the Problem of Classifying Late Etruscan Mirrors by Janos Gyorgy Szilagyi 35 Funerary Architecture in Chiusi by Stephan Steingriiber 53 Shipwreck at Baratti hy the Soprintendenza Areheologica Toscana 85 Cortona of the Principes by M. Torcellan Vallone 109 REPORTS FROM THE FIELD Defining an Economic Area of the Hellenistic Period in Inland Northern Etruria: The excavation of a fortifi ed hilltop village at Poggio la Croce in Radda in Chianti- Siena by Marzio Cresei and Luca Viviani 141 Errata and Paralipomena 159 Volume 2 1995