REVISTA ARKEOGAZTE / ARKEOGAZTE ALDIZKARIA N. 11., año 2021. urtea 11. Monográfico: Los animales en el arte prehistórico Monografikoa: Animaliak historiaurreko artean EDITORES DEL NUMERO/ZENBAKI HONEN EDITOREAK Dario Sigari (Università degli Studi di Ferrara) Sara Garcês (Instituto Politécnico de Tomar) CONSEJO DE REDACCIÓN/ERREDAKZIO BATZORDEA Aitor Calvo (Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea y Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg) Cristina Camarero Arribas (Asociación ArkeoGazte Elkartea) Maite García Rojas (Asociación ArkeoGazte Elkartea) Aitziber González García (Asociación ArkeoGazte Elkartea) Hugo Hernández Hernández (Asociación ArkeoGazte Elkartea) Uxue Perez Arzak (Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea) Arantzazu Jindriska Pérez Fernández (Universidad del País Vasco/ Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea y Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen) Dario Sigari (Università degli Studi di Ferrara) COMITÉ CIENTÍFICO/BATZORDE ZIENTIFIKOA Miriam Cubas (Universidad de Alcalá) Marta Díaz-Zorita Bonilla (Eberhard-Karls-Universität Tübingen) Sergio Escribano-Ruiz (Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea) Marta Fernández Corral (Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea) Marcos García Diez (Universidad Complutense de Madrid) Sandra Montón Subias (Universitat Pompeu Fabra) Margarita Sánchez Romero (Universidad de Granada) Silvia Valenzuela Lamas (ASD-Csic-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas) TRADUCCIÓN/ITZULPENA Rufus Mallim Uxue Perez Arzak Hugo Hernández Hernández MAQUETACIÓN Y DISEÑO/MAKETAZIOA ETA DISEINUA Dario Sigari Arantzazu Jindriska Pérez Fernández PORTADA/AZALA “Il lungo sonno del Paleolitico” de 2501 EDITADO POR ARKEOGAZTE-K EDITATUA REVISTA ARKEOGAZTE es una revista científica de ARQUEOLOGÍA, editada por ARKEOGAZTE: ASOCIACIÓN DE JÓVENES INVESTIGADORES EN ARQUEOLOGÍA PREHISTÓRICA E HISTÓRICA con periodicidad anual y en la que los originales recibidos son evaluados por revisores externos mediante el sistema conocido como el de doble ciego. Se compone de las siguientes secciones: MONOGRÁFICO, VARIA, ENTREVISTA, RECENSIONES y publica trabajos originales de investigación en torno a una temática definida, trabajos originales de temática arqueológica libre, notas críticas de trabajos arqueológicos actuales o entrevistas a personalidades científicas de la Arqueología. Los originales se publican en castellano, euskera, inglés, portugués, gallego, catalán, francés e italiano. El Consejo de Redacción tiene el castellano, el euskera y el inglés como sus idiomas de trabajo. ARKEOGAZTE ALDIZKARIA, ARKEOLOGIA aldizkari zientifikoa da, ARKEOGAZTE: HISTORIAURREKO ETA GARAI HISTORIKOKO ARKEOLOGIA IKERTZAILE GAZTEEN ELKARTEAk argitaratua eta urtean behin kaleratzen dena. Jasotako originalak kanpoko zuzentzaileen bidez ebaluatzen dira bikun itsua deritzon sistemari jarraituz. Aldizkaria hurrengo atalek osatzen dute: MONOGRAFIKOA, VARIA, ELKARRIZKETA, AIPAMENAK, hau da, zehaztutako gai baten inguruko ikerketa lan originalak, edozein gai arkeologikoari buruzko lan originalak, egungo lan arkeologikoen nota kritikoak edo Arkeologiaren munduko pertsona zientifikoei egindako elkarrizketak argitaratuko dira. Erredakzio Batzordeak gaztelera, euskara eta ingelesa ditu lan-hizkuntza bezala. Originalak gazteleraz, euskaraz, ingelesez, italieraz, portugaldarrez, frantsesez, katalunieraz eta galizieraz idatzitako originalak onartzen ditu. DIRECCIÓN/HELBIDEA Taller y Depósito de Materiales de Arqueología (UPV/EHU), C/ Francisco Tomás y Valiente, s/n, 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz. arkeogazterevista@gmail.com PÁGINA WEB/WEB ORRIA www.arkeogazte.org Creative Commons REVISTA ARKEOGAZTE ALDIZKARIA N.º 11, año 2021. urtea 11. zbk. Animals in prehistoric art: The Euro-Mediterranean region and its surroundings Animaliak Historiaurreko Artean: Euro-Mediterranear eskualdea eta bere ingurua Los animales en el arte prehistórico: la región euro-mediterránea y su entorno INDEX/AURKIBIDEA/ÍNDICE EDITORIAL...................................................................................……………………………………………................……5-9 EDITORIAL/EDITORIALA….................................................................................................................................11-18 Palaeolithic Art in Portugal and its zoomorphic figures Arte Paleolitikoa Portugalen eta bere irudi zoomorfoak El arte paleolítico en Portugal y sus figuras zoomorfas MÁRIO REIS...........................................................................................................................……..…….…….…….…….……..19-46 Zoomorphic figures in the open-air Palaeolithic Rock Art of Spain Irudi zoomorfoak Espainiako aire zabaleko arte paleolitikoan Las figuras zoomorfas en el arte paleolítico al aire libre de España CARLOS VÁZQUEZ MARCOS..........................................................................................................................................47-73 Animal depictions in the mobile art of Central Europe Animalia irudiak Erdialdeko Europako arte higigarrian Las figuras animales en el arte mueble de Europa Central EWA DUTKIEWICZ..................................................................................................................................................75-111 Zoomorphic figures in the Post-Palaeolithic Rock Art of the Italian Peninsula and islands Irudi zoomorfoak penintsula italiarreko Paleolito osteko labar-artean Las figuras zoomorfas en el arte rupestre post-paleolítico de la península italiana e islas RENATA GRIFONI CREMONESI and ANNA MARIA TOSATTI..................................................................................…….113-143 Zoomorphic figures in the Post-Palaeolithic Rock Art of France or past societies as hybrid communities Irudi zoomorfoak Frantziako Paleolito osteko labar-artean edo iraganeko gizarteak komunitate hibrido gisa Las figuras zoomorfas en el arte rupestre post-paleolítico de Francia o sociedades pasadas como comunidades híbridas CLAUDIA DEFRASNE.................................................................................................................................................145-171 Rock Art in Central Norway - Challenges with chronology and Rock Art narratives Labar-artea Erdialdeko Norvegian - kronologia eta labar-artearen narratibekiko erronkak El arte rupestre en Noruega central - retos cronológicos y narrativas del arte rupestre HEIDRUN STEBERGLØKKEN................................................................................………………………………......................173-190 Animals in Egyptian Rock Art Animaliak Egiptoko labar-artean Los animales en el arte ruprestre egipcio PAWEL LECH POLKOWSKI.........................................................................................................................................191-215 Milk, meat and heavy loads: diachronich changes in camel petroglyph depictions from the Negev desert Esnea, haragia eta zama astunak: aldaketa diakronikoak Negev basamortuko petroglifoetako gamelu-irudietan Leche, carne y cargas pesadas: cambios diacrónicos en los petroglifos con representaciones de camellos en el desierto del Néguev DAVIDA EISENBERG-DEGEN, LIOR SCHWIMER, LIORA KOLSKA HORWITZ and IFAT SHAPIRA..............................217-242 Post-Paleolithic zoomorphic images in Gobustan Rock Art Irudi zoomorfoak Gobustango Paleolito osteko labar-artean Las representaciones zoomorfas post-paleolíticas en el arte rupestre de Gobustán SEVINC SHIRINLI and RƎHMAN ABDULLAYEV........................................................................................................243-270 Revista ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria Nº 11, pp. 113-143, year 2021 Received: 11-02-2019; Reviewed: 20-10-2020; Accepted: 29-07-2021 ISSN: 2174-856X ZOOMORPHIC FIGURES IN THE POST-PALAEOLITHIC ROCK ART OF THE ITALIAN PENINSULA AND ISLANDS Irudi zoomorfoak penintsula italiarreko Paleolito osteko labar-artean Las figuras zoomorfas en el arte rupestre post-paleolitico de la peninsula italiana Renata Grifoni Cremonesi (*) Anna Maria Tosatti (**) Abstract This work examines animals’ representations of the post-Palaeolithic rock art that can be found on walls of caves and shelters located in the Italian peninsula, along the Apennine ridge, and in the main islands. The rare represented animals are Neolithic cervids in hunting scenes and very schematic figures of quadrupeds, few birds and fishes, datable between Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. Representations of anthropomorphic and abstract figures are dominant. Images of horses and riders, dogs and cervids, depicted more realistically and in motion, can be surely related to the Iron Age. After an analysis of evidence identified from Liguria to Sicily and the islands, attention is directed to the opposition of this lack of images in rock art, which are often located in places with a high symbolic and sacral value in addition to their function of controlling routes and territories, to the abundant frequency of domestic and wild animals’ remains observable in several cave and outdoor sites surely related to cults and ritual offers. The sacred significance of deers, bulls (represented with protomes), canids, horses, can be observed too: as their presence in many mythologies and in Christian symbologies demonstrate, their symbolic meaning has been perpetuated until historical periods. Key words Italian Rock Art; Italian Prehistory; Prehistoric zoomorphic figures; Neolithic engraves; Italian Chalcolithic. Laburpena Lan honetan, penintsula italiarreko kobazulo eta aterpeetan, Apenino mendikatean eta uharte handienetan dauden Paleolito ondorengo labar-arteko animalien irudikapenak aztertzen dira. Oso ohikoak ez diren animalia irudi hauek, ehizako eszenetan agertzen diren zerbido neolitikoek eta Kalkolito eta Brontze Aroen artean kokatzen diren koadrupedo oso eskematikoek (hegazti eta arrain gutxirekin) osatzen dituzte. Irudi antropomorfiko eta abstraktuak dira nagusi. Zaldi- eta zaldun(*) Formerly Università degli Studi di Pisa. Via Redi, 1 56124 PISA (PI) Italy. renata.grifoni@unipi.it (**) Formerly Soprintendenza Archeologia Toscana – MIBACT. via Maternità, 12 54100 MASSA (MS) Italy. annamaria.tosatti@ gmail.com 114 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti irudiak, zein txakur eta zerbidoen irudiak, modu errealista batean eta mugimenduan margotuak, Burdin Aroarekin erlaziona daitezke. Ligurian, Sizilian eta beste uharte batzuetan identifikatutako ebidentziak aztertu ondoren, aurkakotasun bat nabarmendu da: alde batetik, labar-artean antzematen den irudi horien eskasia (askotan, balio sinboliko eta sakratu handiko lekuetan aurkitzen direnak, bideak eta lurraldeak kontrolatzeko eginkizunekin batera) eta, beste aldetik, kobazulo eta aire zabaleko aztarnategietan aurkitu diren animalia basatien eta etxeko animalien aztarna ugariak, gurtzei eta erritu-eskaintzei lotuak. Oreinen, zezen (protomoetan irudikatuak), kanidoen eta zaldien esanahi sakratu bat ere hautematen da: hauen balio sinbolikoa garai historikoetaraino iritsi dela nabaria da, kristau sinbologian zein mitologia askotan duten presentziak adierazten duenez. Hitz-gakoak Italiar labar-artea; Italiar historiaurrea; Historiaurreko irudi zoomorfoak; grabatu neolitikoak; Kalkolito italiarra. Resumen Este trabajo aborda las representaciones animales del arte rupestre post-paleolítico que se encuentran en las paredes de las cuevas y los abrigos de la península italiana, en la cordillera de los Apeninos y en las mayores islas. Estas poco frecuentes figuras animales están compuestas por cérvidos neolíticos de escenas de cazas y cuadrúpedos muy esquemáticos, con pocas aves y peces, datables entre el Calcolítico y la Edad del Bronce. Las representaciones antropomórficas y abstractas son las dominantes. Las figuras de caballos y caballeros, perros y cérvidos, pintados de forma realista y en movimiento, pueden ser puestas en relación con la Edad del Hierro. Después del análisis de las evidencias identificadas entre Liguria y Sicilia y otras islas, se ha puesto atención en la oposición de la falta de estas imágenes en el arte rupestre, que frecuentemente se encuentran en sitios con un valor simbólico y sagrado muy fuerte, junto a sus funciones de control de los caminos y de los territorios, con la abundante frecuencia de restos de animales salvajes y domésticos que se evidencia en muchas cavidades y sitios al aire libre, ligados a cultos y ofrendas rituales. Se observa también un significado sagrado de los ciervos, toros (representados en prótomos), cánidos y caballos: tal y como nos enseña su presencia en muchas mitologías y en simbologías cristianas, su propio valor simbólico se ha mantenido hasta los periodos históricos. Palabras Clave Arte Rupestre italiano; Prehistoria italiana; figuras zoomorfas prehistóricas; grabados neolíticos; Calcolítico italiano. Italian peninsula & islands Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Revista ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria Nº 11, pp. 113-143, year 2021 ISSN: 2174-856X ZOOMORPHIC FIGURES IN THE POST-PALAEOLITHIC ROCK ART OF THE ITALIAN PENINSULA AND ISLANDS Irudi zoomorfoak penintsula eta uharte italiarreko Paleolito osteko labar-artean Las figuras zoomorfas en el arte rupestre post-paleolitico de la peninsula italiana Renata Grifoni Cremonesi(*) & Anna Maria Tosatti(**) 1. Introduction T he predominance of animal figures in the prehistoric art, especially the Palaeolithic expressions, decreases in successive periods: hunting scenes representing men with bows chasing cervids and bovids seem to begin during the Mesolithic period and are typical of the Spanish Levant where they are numerous between the Neolithic and the Iron Age (BELTRAN, 1968). During the Neolithic period, there are very few examples of rock art, the only known paintings are in the Western Alps. An example includes the hunting scene with the archer and a horned quadruped (likely an Alpine ibex) on a little wall in the “Gias des Peintures” (Val d’Enfer, Tende: MANO 1995; FOSSATI and ARCÀ 2012: 176, figure 2: 4). A few other examples of Neolithic art (engravings and paintings) can be found in the Central-Southern Italy and in the islands. In the most ancient phase, they are characterized by hunting scenes. Representations of deer are located in the Riparo Rinaldi of Tuppo dei Sassi (Potenza) (GRAZIOSI 1973: 147, XLC; BORZATTI von LOWENSTERN and INGLIS, 1990), in the Apulia region. They can be found in the Grotta dei Cervi in Porto Badisco near Otranto (LE) and in the Grotta Cosma (Santa Cesarea Terme, LE) GRAZIOSI, 1973: 146, figure 168;1980). The representations of deer are chased by men with bows. Another hunting scene can be seen in the Grotta di Su Longu Fresu in Sardinia (GRADOLI and MEADEN, 2011). The anthropomorphic figures of the Grotta Cala del Genovese in Levanzo (Egadi Islands, TP) can be dated to the Neolithic period too. These figures are accompanied by three images of big fish and by other zoomorphic figures (GRAZIOSI, 1973). Since the late Neolithic period, a specific style of schematic art starts to prevail. This style is expressed with stylised symbols that now seem to refer to a world where the dominant element has male features. In the Alps these symbols consist of knives, halberds, axes, taurine protomes, ploughing scenes with yoked bovines, which can also be found in the statue-stelae together with necklaces and cloaks. Anthropomorphic figures continue to be represented whilst grids, zig zags, chains of rhombuses and five-pointed stars abound. The comparison of these symbols with the objects found in the Copper Age male (*) Formerly Università degli Studi di Pisa. Via Redi, 1 56124 PISA (PI) Italy. renata.grifoni@unipi.it (**) Formerly Soprintendenza Archeologia Toscana – MIBACT. via Maternità, 12 54100 MASSA (MS) Italy. annamaria.tosatti@ gmail.com 116 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti Figure 1. Riparo dei Buoi (Finale Ligure, SV), taurine protome (PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994) (left). Arma della Moretta (Finale Ligure, SV), long horned theriomorphic figure hunting (?) deer (PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994) (right). graves is obvious and surely indicates a change of ideologies based on the value of weapons and on socio-economic transformations (metallurgy, introduction of the use of ploughs, bovines and control of agricultural and mining areas, etc.). In this wide panorama, zoomorphic symbols seem to be missing or are at least very rare. Sometimes they are difficult to recognize amidst the chaos of overlapping signs engraved or painted onto the walls of small shelters or on the rocks and boulders which are always located in high visibility points in order to control routes and territories. Below there is a list of zoomorphic representations identified among the engravings and paintings on the rocks along the Apennine ridge and the Tyrrhenian islands. These sites are described with a geographic parameter. Regions and provinces are presented starting from the North with the Liguria region proceeding down the peninsula with other regions where cases of zoomorphic engravings have been reported (Tuscany, Umbria, Abruzzo, Molise, Lazio, Basilicata, Apulia) and concluding with the Sicily and the Sardinia islands. Corsica is also included (politically French, but geographically Italian). A Italian peninsula & islands small description of the environmental situation and an essential bibliography are provided for each site. 2. Liguria 2.1. Province of Savona - Territory of Finale Ligure In the coastal area Finale Ligure extends from Capo Caprazoppa to Capo Noli and it is characterised by the “Pietra di Finale”, a dolomitic limestone. It is rich in hydrography including caves and shelters. It has been inhabited many times since Prehistory. On wide stone planks (called “ciappi”) human groups left several engravings. Some examples are Ciappo de Cunche, Ciappo dei Ceci, Ciappo del Sale. • Riparo dei Buoi: A rock shelter near Ciappo de Cunche, partially utilized by men in order to make it more comfortable. They created seats, columns with pilaster strips and benches. At the bottom there is a series of complex linear, geometric and cruciform engravings. A Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art zoomorphic element of the site is represented by a taurine protome type Mount Bego (Figure1a) (PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994:42; PRESTIPINO, 2007: 41). • Roccia dell’Altare (Val di Nava): Roughly a 20 smq wide rocky outcrop, located on a cliff with, at its center, a big quadrangular basin featuring many gutters, cup marks and crosses. An engraved “bucranio” (bull’s skull) can also be found too (PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994: 50; PRESTIPINO, 2007:44). • Arma della Moretta: A small cave, which is known for the linear and thin engravings covering its floor and ceiling. Among several figures including cruciforms and geometric lines are a linear zoomorphic quadruped with five lines originating from its head (most likely a deer) and an armed (potentially a spear?) anthropomorphic figure with a horned head are worth considering. This is because the quadruped figure has a particular stylistic comparison with the engravings from Southern Italy (cf. Riparo Il Cavone in the territory of Bari. ASTUTI, et al., 2008) and Southern France (Figure 1b) (GIUGGIOLA, 1979; PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994: 53 figure 137). • Rocca Carpanea: A little hill in the Aquila Valley with linear engravings. Between these engravings there are schematic anthropomorphic figures similar to Ciappo de Cunche’s ones. Nearby, there are non-ancient engravings as an image of the game of “tris” (merels) can be found near to an empty outline of a fish (PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994: 48-49). 2.2. Territory of the Massiccio of Mount Beigua (now Geopark) This area features a complex of boulders engraved with various symbols such as cruciforms, “polissoir” engravings or sharpeners. Engraved surfaces are generally pointed towards SouthEast. • Complex of the “Roccia del dolmen”: This site is composed of several engraved rocks 117 located next to a perennial stream. The most significant rock has a wide surface area and is explicitly pointed towards North. It is covered with linear motifs such as filiforms, cruciforms, ladder-shaped figures, crosses (maybe for Christianization), sharpeners, a grid with micro cup marks and an anthropomorphic figure. A figure of a deer is also reported to have been found (PRESTIPINO, 2007: 43; COIMBRA, 2014:9, footnote n° 9). • Pietra Scritta: This site is located beyond the watershed, in the North-West area of Mount Beigua, near the source of the Rio Traversa. This great outcropping stone (measuring 7m x 3,50m) is characterized by a sloped surface and it is one of the richest sites for engravings in the Ligurian region. These engravings are created with the “repeated scratch” technique (“a graffito ripetuto” T.N.) by pecking and with the schematic linear technique. There are both aniconic and figurative elements. These can be shaped geometrically, five-pointed star-shaped, vulvar, solar, comb-shaped, tree-shaped, cruciform, phishaped, anthropomorphic figures, games of “tris”, Christian figures, modern acronyms and dates. Among these signs, some bull’s skull figure can be maybe recognized (PRIULI and PUCCI, 1994: 7275, figure 204). 3. Tuscany 3.1. Province of Massa Carrara • Grotta di Diana (Canossa, municipality of Mulazzo): This site is in a little shelter on the cliff. It is fully engraved and has several aniconic signs similar to cup marks and grooved lines as well as figurative ones such as handprints and anthropomorphic figures. There are two taurine protomes type Mount Bego. At the bottom of the cave, next to a grid pattern (this could potentially be interpreted as a fence or trap?) there is an anthropomorphic figure with triangular body near an adult deer’s antler, ramified with several tines (CARRERA and TOSATTI, 2015: 6, figure 1B2). There is also a likely snake figure on the western ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or. 118 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti Figure 2a. Grotta di Diana (Mulazzo, MS), scene with an anthropomorphic figure, antler of adult deer and grids (TOSATTI and CARRERA p.p.). Figure 2b. Grotta di Diana (Mulazzo, MS): snake (courtesy Stefano Pucci). Figure 2c. Masso di Terrinca (Stazzema, LU), taurine protomes (courtesy Giorgio Citton). Italian peninsula & islands Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art wall positioned vertically. A pair of long horns maybe belong to a caprin. The cave overlooks the valley floor of Magra River, where several statuestelae were found (Figure 2a,b). • Masso di Ciampa del Diavolo.2 (Monte Brugiana, municipality of Massa): This site can be found at the entrance of the Frigido River Valley. It is upstream from the city of Massa, above the chalcopyrite mines, along the mountainside path that heads towards a Northernly direction where many boulders are located. These boulders are engraved with encircled cup marks and small cup marks. On one of these boulders next to a conical cup mark is a filiform anthropomorphic 119 figure with scissor-shaped limbs and slightly bent open arms with “brush-like” hands. Above this figure can be found a complex sign that has been renewed over time. This first sign/figure was a taurine protome, with long horizontal horns and an underlying triangular element (TOSATTI, 2010; 2011; 2017: 81, figure 14). 3.2. Province of Lucca • Masso di Terrinca (Stazzema): This site is a petroglyph located on a mountainside path of the Giardino Channel Valley. It features fully engraved cruciform figures and other almost indistinguishable figures. One of these figures, probably two taurine protomes with long falcate horns, are engraved with a very thin line and are difficult to see (Figure 2c) (CITTON& PASTORELLI, 2000; TOSATTI, 2010: 144, 145, figure 10; 2017: 86, figure 23). • Greppolungo (Camaiore): This site is located near the Roccia dei Pennati at 580 m a.s.l. on a calcareous vertical boulder. The engraving seems to represent a small fish (15cm x 2,5cm). The second engraving which is very close to the first one, illustrates a near indistinguishable shape, but may be a much bigger fish that is similar to the former (80cm x 15cm) (https://www. versiliatoday.it/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/ IMG-20150124-WA0000-1024x768.jpg). 4. Umbria 4.1. Province of Terni Figure 3. Mattioli 2007, plate 9: n° 251, 267, Riparo delle Mummie (Ferentillo, Terni); n° 252 Riparo Santo Spirito III (Roccamorice, Pescara); n° 253-54, 258-63, 266, 268-271 Riparo Roberto (Sezze, Latina); n° 256 Riparo San Bartolomeo II (Roccamorice, Pescara); n° 257 Grotta dell’Eremo di Nerone (Carpineto della Nora, Pescara); n° 264-265 Riparo Santo Spirito I (Roccamorice, Pescara); n° 272 Riparo di Pacentro (Sulmona, L’Aquila). • Riparo delle Mummie (Ferentillo): This site is a small shelter located at 375 m a.s.l.. It features paintings and engravings on the walls of the site which are covered by concretions. On these concretions a one-meter-high red strip was obtained with a layer of ochre. In addition to anthropomorphic and tree-shaped figures, a quadruped (potentially equid?) figure can be seen, both painted in black on the red layer ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or. 120 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti Figure 4. Parete Manzi and Riparo di Cicco II (Civitaluparella, Montelapiano, CH): Fishes (courtesy DI FRAIA). (Figure 3)1 (MATTIOLI, 2007:28, figure 19 e tav. 9 n. 251 e 267). 5. Lazio 5.1. Province of Latina • Riparo Roberto (Sezze Romano): This site is a wide rock shelter above the Pontine 1 In the volume MATTIOLI 2007, several images of straddling men are illustrated in the plate n. 7 and almost all of them belong to a recent age. As the Author specifies on page 189, they consist of figures related to straddling Carabinieri which fought, during the 19th century, brigandage and the resistance of groups loyal to the Bourbons after the Italian Unification in 1870. The figure of the straddling Carabiniere is widespread still today in the folklore of Southern Italy, as is shown by several whistles made of terracotta especially in Apulia. Italian peninsula & islands plain featuring many figures painted in black on its walls. Among them several key figures can be identified. These include two canids, five running deer, two equids, three undeterminable zoomorphic figures, a probable flying animal, six or seven anthropomorphic figures, gridded figures, wavy lines and a tree-shaped figure. The heavy degradation of the paintings and the acts of vandalism at the site make it difficult to properly identify the possible overlaps. Inside the shelter there are also cup marks and linear grooves. Due to the stylistic features found here, it seems possible to attribute the zoomorphic figures to the late Bronze Age/Iron Age (Figure 3) (PRIULI and SGABUSSI, 1992 figures 2-6; MATTIOLI, 2007: 30-33, tav. 9). Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art 121 Figure 5a. Morricone del Pesco (Isernia), equids (courtesy SIGARI). 6. Abruzzo 6.1. Province of L’Aquila • Riparo di Pacentro: This site can be found in a little rock shelter. Below the red painted anthropomorphic figures there is a black painted fish (GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1969 figure 26) (Figure 3). 6.2. Province of Pescara • Grotta dell’Eremo di Nerone (Carpineto della Nora): This site features a complex of walls in the Grotta di Nerone-Eremo di Sant’Anna, on which there are eight anthropomorphic figures painted in black and one zoomorphic figure (a flying animal) (Figure 3) (DE POMPEIS, 1992:541; MATTIOLI, 2007: 96, figure 82: 517/6). • Riparo di San Bartolomeo II (Roccamorice): This site is a big shelter with walls where stalagmitic concretions have covered the paintings. These paintings consist of several anthropomorphic figures represented in scenic compositions. A lengthened figure surrounded by short segments could be interpreted as a fish (Figure 3) (DE POMPEIS, 1993: figure 7; MATTIOLI, 2007: 71, figure 54: 503-522). Figure 5b. Riparo Ranaldi (Castel Lagopesole, Potenza): complex red scene with globiforms, reeds and anthropomorphic figures. 6.3. Province of Chieti • Parete Manzi (Montelapiano): This site is located at 550m a.s.l. on the wall made of yellowish rock that overlooks the Sangro river valley. There are various anthropomorphic figures painted in red, as well as crosses and a knife dagger. In addition to other thinly engraved figures several fishes can be identified with underlined fishbones or fins (similar to the one found in San Bartolomeo, seen above). Some of them have been interpreted as cetaceans. Next to these figures are other figurative images interpreted as probable harpoons (Figure 4) (CUOMO et al., 2018: 70-72, tables 62-65). • Parete di Cicco II (Civitaluparella): iThis site is an isolated rock formation, partially covered by a greyish patina . It site has pecked representations of an anthropomorphic figure and a fish, sometimes interpreted as a dolphin (Figure 4) (CUOMO et al., 2018: 57, tav. 19). ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or. R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti 122 Figure 6a. Grotta Pazienza (Rignano Garganico, FG): two serpentiform figures painted in red ochre. Figure 6b. Grotta B di valle del Sorbo (San Giovanni Rotondo, FG): red painted archers and an equid (GRAVINA, 2017). Italian peninsula & islands Figure 6c. Grotta A di valle del Sorbo (San Giovanni Rotondo, FG): red painted taurine protome (GRAVINA, 2017). Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art 7. Molise 7.1. Province of Isernia • Morricone del Pesco: This site is composed of three areas of a steep shelter. There are black engraved and painted figures: Sector a): This sector features engraved figurative and aniconic figures. There are also zoomorphic quadrupeds painted with a black profile line. If they were considered to be equines, they would be referred to the Early Iron Age; Sector b): This sector features a probable zoomorphic figure painted in black, presumably dated to the upper Palaeolithic (bovid); Sector c): features There are figurative and geometric elements along with anthropomorphic ones. These anthropomorphic figures feature a grid pattern and heads with a double profile line (cf. types from Pacentro: GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1979). There is a schematic zoomorphic upon a floral motif and higher above it is a meander (Figure 5a) (SIGARI et al., 2014: 36 figures 4-5). 8. Basilicata 8.1. Province of Potenza • Riparo Ranaldi (Tuppo dei Sassi – Castel Lagopesole): This site is an arcuate rock shelter. On the vertical wall it presents a complex scene painted in red ochre with anthropomorphic figures. On the left, one of these figures is composed by three globes (tree-shaped, polilobated or “hyper-anthropic” figure). On the right there is an anthropomorphic figure with rod-shaped head and potentially scissors-like arms. This figure is not easily visible because it overlaps an underlying zoomorphic figure; cervids and comb-shaped figures are present as well. Potentially two different chronological phases can be distinguished: Neolithic and Eneolithic 123 phases (GRAZIOSI, 1973: 147 tav. XVC; BORZATTI VON LOWENSTERN and INGLIS, 1990: figure 2; ARCÀ and BOZZARELLI) (Figure 5b). 9. Apulia 9.1. Province of Foggia • Grotta Pazienza (Grignano Garganico): This site features two zig-zag-shaped or serpentiform figures (interpreted as lightning bolts) painted in red ochre. These are seen among anthropomorphic figures of various typologies. Such typologies include “prayer” type figures, a rod-shaped figure with a T-shaped head, a figure with an empty oval-shaped head and triangular chest (with the vertex pointing down). For the authors it could be a scene with two big characters, a male and a female (GRAVINA, 2008: figure 4; GRAVINA and MATTIOLI, 2010: 109, figure 7: 10-11) (Figure 6). • Grotta A di Valle del Sorbo (San Giovanni Rotondo): This site features a red painted wall with various figures among which a T-shaped taurine protome (Figure 6c). • Grotta B di Valle del Sorbo (San Giovanni Rotondo): This site features red painted images featuring an archer and a quadruped, potentially an equid (Figure 6b). 9.2. Province of Bari • Riparo Il Cavone (Spinazzola, BA): This shelter is located on the first hill chain of the Murge plateau. At this site, a flat and intensely smoothed (maybe intentionally done) surface has been identified. This surface has a dense series of thin engravings forming organized and complex patterns. The position of the spur on which this shelter is located overlooks the landscape, representing an excellent observation point in ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or. 124 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti Figure 7a.: Riparo Il Cavone (Spinazzola, Bari): schematic anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures in traps or fences (ASTUTI et al., 2008). Italian peninsula & islands Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art Figure 7b. Riparo Il Cavone (Spinazzola, Bari) (ASTUTI et al., 2008). the general valley area. This develops in a SENW direction along the trajectory connecting the Ionian Sea with the Ofanto River. This site seems as though it was part of a connection network for territorial control of the main valley. On the smoothed surface there is a scene composed of many types of anthropomorphic figures. They are nearly organized in a circle around other anthropomorphic figures that are lying down. These figures are surrounded by five-pointed stars, hourglasses and zigzags. There are also four schematizations of traps or fences which have two extremely schematic zoomorphic figures inside these designs. The identifiable ones are: 125 Figure 8a-c Grotta dei Cervi, Porto Badisco (LE): red and black painted hunting scenes, deers, various figures, “pettiniformi” (GRAZIOSI, 1980). A quadruped with paws ending in small circles and another very small quadruped. Both of which are both enclosed in fences; A deer antler drawn with parallel lines; A little ornithomorphic figure (?) (ASTUTI et al., 2008: figure 11, 14) (Figure 7 a, b). 9.3. Province of Lecce • Grotta dei Cervi (Porto Badisco): This site features a cave with two entrances and it is organized in to three corridors. In one of them there is a small lake with dripping water and two burials have been discovered with the fictile materials dated between Neolithic and Bronze Age. The white calcareous walls highlight ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or. 126 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti Figure 9a-b. Grotta dei Cervi (Porto Badisco, LE): several hunting scenes with archers and deers; a dog. (GRAZIOSI, 1980). Figure 10a-c. Grotta dei Cervi, Porto Badisco (LE): tables (GRAZIOSI, 1980). Figure 11. Grotta Cosma (Santa Cesarea Terme, LE): hunting scene with archer near a dog pointing to a snake. Figure 12. Grotta Mirabella (San Giuseppe Jato, Palermo): red painted cervid and dog (?) in motion. Italian peninsula & islands Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art 127 paintings made with red pigments or with a mixture of bat guano. The figurative paintings: These can be found on a small wall, some red figures (potentially even older than the aforementioned) show the presence of a hunting scene with archers and cervids. The other figures painted in black are found in the innermost corridors, where guano was used. The figurative paintings consist of anthropomorphic figures (some with and some without bows) and quadrupeds. Figure 13. Grotta dell’Ucceria (Favignana, TP): survey of black painted anthropomorphic and zoomorphic (bovids? ovines?) figures (MANNINO, 2017). The non-figurative paintings: These include theriomorphic elements and nonfigurative elements with a zoomorphic origin. These paintings are simple or speculatory combshaped figures possessing many abstracted and geometric elements. These were identified and interpreted by prof. Graziosi as an increasingly marked abstraction of the human body turning Figure 14. Grotta del Genovese (Levanzo, TP): survey of the painted figures (GRAZIOSI, 1973). ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or. 128 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti into geometric figures. In the first corridor there are deer hunting scenes with dogs and a shepherding scene. This shepherding scene is the only one in the whole cave. In this painting the anthropomorphic figure can be seen holding a probable cane and it is possible to see quadrupeds (caprines) and a dog. More hunting scenes are found in the second and third corridors where there are schematic animals and comb-shaped figures organized in columns (GRAZIOSI, 1973: figure 166a). The total amount of representations consists of twenty hunting scenes (including complex ones) alternating with symbolic images, interpreted as extreme abstractions of human figures. These are organized in geometric patterns, in overlaps of spiral elements and in probable representations of objects such as horned hats, wineskins, potentially axes, semicircles with a hunter holding a ring. Animals represented in the art (except for a boar and a dog) are always schematic and culminate in comb-shaped figures (GRAZIOSI, 1973, 1980) (Figure 8-10). Figure 15a-b. Grotta del Genovese (Levanzo, TP): photoes of the black painted figures. • Grotta Cosma (Santa Cesarea Terme): This site consists of various chambers and corridors. In one of these corridors there are paintings in black and red. These paintings feature two anthropomorphic figures, one with bow (a hunting scene) next to a small quadruped (dog?) pointing towards a serpentiform. Next to this painting are abstracted-symbolic figures, similar to the one of the contiguous Grotta dei Cervi in Porto Badisco (Figure 11) (GRAZIOSI, 1973: 146, figure 168; 1980). 10. Sicily 10.1. Province of Palermo Figure 16. Grotta di Su Longu Fresu o del cranio (Cagliari): black painted hunting scene. Italian peninsula & islands • Grotta Tonnara: This site is a little cave in the district of Carini in a hemicycle of sea cliffs. In 1947 two taurine protomes with long horns of the Mount Bego type were photographed by Giovanni Mannino. Mannino described it as “two frontal taurine heads, one almost twice the size of Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art Figure 17a-b. Grotta Scritta (Olmeta di Capocorso, Bastia): complex scene with anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures (t-shaped corniform) (WEISS 1998). the other”, it was created with deep engravings. Now they no longer exist due to the construction work for a military storehouse (MANNINO, 2017 : 112, figure 23.1). • Grotta Mirabella (San Giuseppe Jato): This site is a naturally illuminated funnel-shaped cave. The figures painted in red are located at eye level to the left of the entranceway. Among the ten figures there are three zoomorphic figures (one of which is faded), a probable female cervid and a dog turned to the left with the front paws bowed as if running. Each one measures about ten centimeters. The other seven figures consist of frontal anthropomorphic designs. Each of these designs is related to a particular typology 129 Figure 18a-c. Gias des Peintures (Tende, France): a External area of the cave (courtesy Musée de Tende, Dr. S. Sandrone, ph. André Soriano (Monaco); b – The red painted hunting scene (courtesy J.M. Strangi CD06 - Musée départemental des Merveilles); c– survey of the painted scene (VICINO, BERNARDINI in MANO 1995). (MANNINO, 2017: 113-118, Figures 26.1, 26) (Figure 12). 10.2. Province of Trapani • Grotta dell’Ucceria o del Cervo, (Favignana, Isole Egadi): This site is a small cave that belongs to a complex of three caves (called “del Faraglione”). It is positioned around twenty meters from the sea. Two scenes with anthropomorphic and zoomorphic figures can be found here and are painted in black. The first ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or. 130 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti scene is a potential bovid facing left and found between three different anthropomorphic figures (One frontal with a truncated-conical hairstyle or mask. One on the right and possibly a part of another cruciform anthropomorphic figure. One below with an idoliform representation of about 12 cm). The second scene represents a rural context: two zoomorphic figures (probably two bovids), can be seen from the top and a frontal anthropomorphic figure (the shepherd) that is crouched and potentially holding a cane (Figure. 13) (MANNINO, 2017: 248-51, Figures 65.1-3). • Grotta del Genovese (Levanzo, Isole Egadi): This site features a rich set of animal representations that were engraved during the upper Palaeolithic and three anthropomorphic figures. One of these anthropomorphic figures are sumptuously dressed and possess a mask. Isolated from the rest of these figures is a female figure painted in red ochre half-lying on a sinuous line and is just below a quadruped with enlarged body (this may be a bovid or an ovine). At the bottom of the cave there is a long frieze with black paintings divided into three areas, two on Figure 19a-b. Domus de Janas (Sardinia): taurine protomes (TANDA 2012). Italian peninsula & islands Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art the walls and one on the stalactitical wall hanging from the ceiling. From these can be identified: Schematic anthropomorphic figures with stocky bodies and thin arms, that are often ithyphallic; Some painted zoomorphic figures: A deer, three fish (tuna or dolphins), a canid (turned to the left, and appears to look at the anthropomorphic figure next to it), bovids, two swine, a caprine and, potentially two taurine protomes; A selection of idoliforms (Figures 14, 15 a, b) (GRAZIOSI, 1973, 1980; TUSA, 2003; MANNINO, 2017:251-260, figures 66.8b-66.13). 11. Sardinia 11.1. Province of Nuoro • Grotta di Su Longu Fresu o del Cranio (Cagliari): This site is a narrow and long cave inside a system of nine “ritual” caves in the territory of central Sardinia in the Barbagia area. It has eight lateral recesses in which water flows. There were human and animal bones with prestigious obsidian goods and a small greenstone axe have been found. A cranium attached to the bottom wall was dated by the Oxford Laboratories to the V millennium BC. Next to it, on a small vertical wall is a scene painted in black featuring an anthropomorphic figure with the head adorned with long horns (could this be a theriomorphic figure?) hunting a horned zoomorphic figure (GRADOLI& MEADEN, 2011: 224, figure 6) (Figure 16). 12. Corsica • Grotta Scritta (Olmeta di Capocorso, Bastia): This site is a rock shelter with signs and stylized figures painted in red ochre. These include ithyphallic anthropomorphic figures with arms up or down, a horned element, T-shaped corniforms with descending sides, one of which is covered by one of the two quadrupeds (potentially with 131 a rider). Two potential phases can be identified, a prehistoric phase (potentially Neolithic) and the other phase is dated to the Iron Age due to the presence of probable riders (GROSJEAN, 1959; 1969; WEISS, 1998: figure 15, phase IV (Iron Age?) (Figures 17 a, b). 13. Observation The collected data illustrates that during the Neolithic period in the Italian peninsula the parietal representations are few and are restricted to hunting scenes with deer or horned quadrupeds. Some feature the presence of dogs, some other non-well identifiable quadrupeds, a few snakes and extremely rare fish. On the contrary, in the same period, the archaeological data shows a lot of artistic manifestations documented by both small fictile or stone statuary (BAGOLINI and CREMONESI, 1992; GRIFONI CREMONESI and PEDROTTI, 2012) and painted and plastic decorations on pottery, surely provided with a symbolic value (GIMBUTAS, 1974, 1991; COPPOLA, 1999-2000; GRAZIOSI, 1980; GRIFONI CREMONESI, 2004; OTTE 2012; WASILEWSKA, 1994). However, the use of artistic manifestation in caves seems to disappear, or at least became a rarer phenomenon. There is less evidence that can be attributed to the Neolithic period not only in Italy, but also in the rest of the Mediterranean, the European world and in the Near East. Painted deer hunting scenes dated to the early Neolithic period are also located in the Anatolian site of Çatal Hüyük where there are representations of other animals (bulls, leopards, vultures), all painted or carved inside domestic spaces, interpreted as sanctuaries (MELLAART, 1967). As reported above, there are three deer hunting scenes in the previously mentioned red paintings of Grotta Cosma, Grotta dei Cervi of Porto Badisco in Apulia, and in Grotta del Cranio in Sardinia. An Alpine ibex hunting scene can be found in the small shelter of “Gias des Peintures” in the Mount Bego region (France) (Figure 18). In the Riparo Rinaldi of Tuppo dei Sassi in Basilicata, ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or. 132 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti there are anthropomorphic figures among the deer. A larger one of these figures is located in the center of the scene, which may refer to hunting. The deer hunting is part of a larger scope of figurative manifestation that, since the earliest prehistory, gives this animal a special value. This can be observed from the remains of antlers that are located in many Epi-gravettian and Mesolithic burials as well as in the atrophic canines used for personal decorations and in their stone or bone imitations made by Neolithic people2 . The symbolic connotation also continues into the late Neolithic, with crania found at the Manfredi hypogeum next to a selection of refined vases of the Serra d’Alto culture (GENIOLA and SANSEVERINO, 2014) and in successive periods, with sacrificial depositions in many sites (MIARI, 1995; MANFREDINI, 2011-2013, GRIFONI CREMONESI, p.p.). This high symbolic value of the deer continues even in successive periods, maybe in relation to a warrior aristocracy in the Bronze and Iron Ages. It then appears in the Greek and Roman myths and continues up until the Middle Ages when this animal is the main character of magical hunts and legends about various Saints (GRIFONI CREMONESI, p.p.). As an example, the church of St. Eustache in Rome features a deer head with a cross between its horns on the church itself, but more importantly, the legends about St. Humbert, who saw the Cross between golden deer horns, and the legend about the King Theodoric of the Ostrogoths (sung by Heinrich Heine and then by Giosuè Carducci) supply an interesting context. Theodoric, as a punishment for his political acts that ran contrary to the Church, rode a black horse (a symbol of the devil) and had to chase a deer with golden horns along the whole Italian peninsula until it pushed him into the Stromboli, a volcano considered the entrance of hell. 2 This phenomenon continues even later as evidence can be observed in the bone imitation found in the burials of Laterza Chalcolithic culture in the Mound 7 of Salve near Lecce (APRILE et al., 2018). Italian peninsula & islands Regarding the stricter aspects of the postPaleolithic art, the progressive transition from a veristic art to an abstract art through schematic forms can be observed. This is pointed out by many authors and, above all, by Paolo Graziosi (1980) for Porto Badisco. These schematic forms gradually became completely abstracted symbols. For example: in the hunting scenes, these symbols alternate with anthropomorphic figures, armed with bows and zigzags, grids, five-pointed star-shaped elements, pentacles, or spirals. Even animals are more schematic, often reduced to comb-shaped elements, i.e., sketched out with horizontal lines and orthogonal segments, parallel to each other. In successive periods, from Chalcolithic to the Bronze Age, shelter and cave representations along the Apennine ridge feature more anthropomorphic figures. The more recurring signs refer to anthropomorphic figures often in “narrative” compositions whilst animals are almost absent, except for some rare examples. The more interesting examples are the hunting scenes with a probable theriomorphic figure as a main character in Arma della Moretta in Liguria and the zoomorphic figures of the further Riparo Il Cavone in Apulia. In both cases the animals are extremely stylized, and, in the Riparo Il Cavone, they seem to be enclosed in cages or traps. Such stylistic comparisons bring us, for both sites, to the sites of Southern France, e.g., in the Grotte des Oiseaux in Herault (ABELANET, 1986: figure 73 n. 9; ASTUTI et al., 2008: figures 11, 14). Many scenes with painted deers, alpine, ibex and snakes are known in Southern France’s caves and shelters (GARIDEL and HAMEAU, 1997; HAMEAU, 2018). In Northern Italy, mostly in the region of Valcamonica and also in the exceptional figurative representations of Mount Bego, recurring animal figures can be found. Here in particular, during the Copper Age, the figure of a bull (symbolized by a bucranium with long horns) is represented in many ways. It is predominant and associated with the dagger and zig-zags (symbol of water or lightning) (DE LUMLEY, 1995). Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art In the Valcamonica area, from the Neolithic period to the beginning of the historical era, several various animals appear in the engravings. In addition to deer examples include Alpine ibexes, canids, wolves, swine and, in the later phases, birds and fish can be found beside horses and horsemen (ANATI, 1979; FOSSATI, 1991, 2004). Bovids, with rod-shaped bodies and long horns, when present on menhirs and in the rock art of the Copper Age, are represented ploughing while yoked. The bull cult (of which a lot has been written about) seems to already appear at the end of the IV millennium BC in Western Europe. This is especially the case if considering the images on Gavrinis’ dolmen. It assumes importance especially in the Mount Bego complex, where half of the engravings consist of its symbol and, besides ploughing scenes, it appears in compositions with very schematic anthropomorphic figures, bucrania and knives daggers3. So much repetitive and symbolic manifestations are not present along the Apennine ridge and on the Alps, and we have just few bucrania in Liguria, High Tuscany and Sicily. However, they are abundant in Sardinia, where, during Prehistory, the bull had great importance. Here figurative depictions present long horns and bucrania which are carved in a remarkable number on the walls of artificial sepulchral little caves (domus de janas) and on some menhirs (TANDA, 2012) (Figure 19). Moreover, during the Bronze Age there are a lot of horned handles on vases, interpreted as bull’s symbols as well. They are also associated with solar or lunar cults but are considered to be astronomical symbols in any case. Any reference to other animals seems to be absent in Sardinia, except for the Grotta di Su Longu Fresu (or the Grotta del Cranio). At 3 According to some authors, compositions with ploughs and oxen suggest a farming world where daggers and halberds wouldn’t be warrior symbols, but instead be agricultural tools (knives and sickles) and the bull wouldn’t have an astronomical meaning in this context (ABELANET 1986). See also the Horned God in the Bronze Age of Cyprus. 133 these sites a zoomorphic figure is painted with long horns in a hunting scene where the archer is adorned with the same long horns. As in the Arma della Moretta, it seems possible to hypothesize the presence of a horned theriomorphic figure (this could be a bovine or perhaps an Alpine ibex) (GRADOLI and MEADEN, 2011). On the Island of Corsica, there is just one painted scene with quadrupeds from Grotta Scritta that is potentially older because it seems to be partially overlapped by other figures appearing as taurine protomes (or caprins?) (WEISS, 1998). This is believed to be the only evidence of taurine presence among the island’s symbologies. The existence of a bull cult in the Mediterranean West has been thoroughly discussed in order to find connections with the great Mediterranean and Eastern manifestations of this cult which dates back to the Minoan Bronze Age (Minotaur’s Myth and bullfighting), Greek mythology (Abduction of Europa), the AssyrianBabylonian world and in Egypt (sacred bull Apis). Even in the Bible there is a reference to this cult in relation to the golden calf which was destroyed and cursed by Moses. However, the cults of the bull are an ancient phenomenon developed in different ways and times in various cultural areas, the origins and manners of which are lost to the distant past. There are traces of this ancient practice even today (besides the corrida) in the use of decorating the red oxen and cows during some celebrations and the apotropaic use of the red horn as a lucky charm. Other cases of engravings with zoomorphic figures must be attributed to later periods, probably the late Bronze Age – Iron Age, as the animals of the Riparo Roberto of Sezze in the Lazio region (PRIULI and SGARBUSSI, 1992), while some fish engraved in the shelters of the Abruzzo and Molise regions are hardly datable (CUOMO et al., 2018). 14. The archaeological data It is evident how during the Copper and Bronze Ages rock representations along ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or. 134 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti the Apennine ridge do not exclusively consist of animals, but these are present in the votive depositions of caves and burials. It seems appropriate therefore to analyze this with a short paragraph on the topic by which another discussion may start. a hare metatarsal. All of which were found with little balls made of clay and red ochre at one extremity in the XI and II circles. The ritual and symbolic value of the hare is more than evident (CREMONESI, 1976). Inside the circle there were also domestic and wild fauna remains. Since the ancient Neolithic period there are already depositions of sheep, pigs and dogs in cave burials (GRIFONI CREMONESI, 2007; DI FRAIA and GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1996; WILKENS, 1995) and some offerings associated with specific burials are known too. This parting between rock art and archaeological data could mean a lot for a possible reading as a symbol related to a religious, ritual and/or magical superstructure. Other animals with a strong symbolic value include dogs which can be found in the burials of some Neolithic females and, more frequently, in those of Copper Age warriors (DE GROSSI MAZZORIN, 2001:393). Few cases of little domestic animals’ ritual depositions are wellknown in the funerary contexts of the prehistoric age. This is a practice documented since the Neolithic period up until the Roman period4. The case of Grotta Patrizi in the Lazio region (GRIFONI CREMONESI and RADMILLI, 20002001) is interesting for the purpose of observing the symbolic value of some animals. Besides deer there are semi-carbonized remains of ox, sheep, pig, dog, hare, wolf and roe deer which were found together with millstones. These were found in the Neolithic funerary context dating to 4100 circa BC and consist of the front and rear quarters of the animals which have cuts to their shoulders and thighs. These cuts are in slightly different positions for the different animals such as the shoulder for sheep and pigs, the front hooves for the ox, rear paws for wolf and rear hooves for roe deer and the thigh in the case of the hare. Three hare tibiae were furthermore placed under an individual with a drilled cranium. They were buried with a rich supply of decorated vases, millstones and bone assegais, in a small isolated chamber of the cave. We remember that in many cultures until the present day, the hare paw has always had a strong value as talisman. The hare (and in many places around the world, the rabbit too) is linked to the moon and considered as mediator with the chthonian world. Some animal bones were treated and butchered in caves where human bones have also been found. These are dated to the early Neolithic period (BARRA et al., 1989; WILKENS, 1995, a dog was at the feet of a woman in Ripoli’s village in Abruzzo). Whilst those in the late Neolithic period (CREMONESI, 1965) can be connected to the ones in the important necropolis of Chiozza di Scandiano in Emilia (MARTINI, 2006 with bibliography). It must also be remembered that the singular and well-known case found in the circles of the Grotta dei Piccioni of Bolognano in Abruzzo, inside late Ripoli cultural layers dated to 2900/2800 BC consist of humeri of Anas boscas, Fulica atra, Columba palumbus and of Italian peninsula & islands In the case of the Copper Age, depositions of dog are found in burials of armed males with rich supplies and belong to diversified cultural aspects during the III millennium in the Italian peninsula (cultures of Rinaldone, Gaudo, Ortucchio, Laterza) (NEGRONI CATACCHIO and ASPESI, 2016; DE GROSSI MAZZORIN, 2001). In the so-called burial “della Vedovella” (the widow) in Ponte San Pietro (VT) (MIARI, 1993), a dog was located on the external slab of a burial containing a man with weapons, jewelry, high quality pottery, and a woman with fractured cranium. Another example can be seen in the necropolis of Fontenoce (Recanati) where two animals were located (SILVESTRINI and PIGNOCCHI, 1997): an adult male dog (with 4 For a very interesting documentation about the meaning of animals in the Middle Age’s art and religion see FRUGONI 2018 Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art 135 its cranium disjointed) was found in a recess that was separated from the human burials. It was hypothesized that this animal was a sort of “guardian” of the necropolis with evident connection with the chthonian world and infernal forces. The other animal is a young swine found without head and with a hoof bent on the ribs, it is believed to have probably had a “food” function, making it a ritual offering (WILKENS, 1995). as well as in the small fictile statuary of the terramare. Horses appear frequently in engraved scenes of war or hunting in the Valcamonica area and are moreover painted on the walls of: Riparo Roberto of Sezze Romano (Latina), Riparo Morricone del Pesco in Molise and in the Grotta Scritta in Corsica. They demonstrate the concept of the chariot of the sun which was drawn by horses. In the burial of Mirabella Eclano in Campania (BAILO MODESTI and SALERNO, 1988 with bibliography) and in the burial of Tursi in Basilicata (CREMONESI, 1978) the inhumed were buried with vases, weapons (daggers and arrowheads), a sandstone shaft (interpreted as symbol of command) and a dog. In the Mirabella Eclano site, the dog was buried next to the inhumed, while in Tursi it was buried upon the lithic case with the human burial. In this case the presence of the dog in these burials could be interpreted as guardians too. In the same ideological sphere, during the Late Bronze Age and at the beginning of the Iron Age, water birds (anatids, swans) are very important. They link to the cult of the sun, whose boat was drawn by them (BETTELLI, 1997). These animals are often represented on pendants which are found, along the whole Adriatic Sea, from Apulia to Veneto, connected in particular with one female figure (a theriomorphic one), potentially the Reitia goddess. Other dogs in burials can be found in Casa del Dolce near Rome and in the caves of Mount Cetona in Tuscany next to a human crania (DE GROSSI MAZZORIN, 2001). The dog is also related in many myths with the chthonian world and therefore assumes a strong symbolic value too, in addition to the one of man’s companions. There is further evidence for other animals that are dangerous but connected to the chthonian world anyway. Examples include: two snakes found in burial 20 in Guidorossi Street in Parma, the remains of a bear and a wolf (among which penis bones can be found in the Romita of Asciano near Pisa), (PERONI, 1962-63) are present in many sites as well (BERNABÒ BREA and MAZZIERI, 2011-2013; GRIFONI CREMONESI, p.p.; MANFREDINI, 2011-2013). The horse is also a symbolic animal used during the late Bronze Age. This appears, with a cult value already in the Bronze Age village of Maccarese (Rome). Here a horse was buried in a pit with two dog puppies (MANFREDINI, 2005), An important example of the cult value of various animals is provided by the Alpine site of Pigloner Kopf in the Eastern Alps (OBERRAUCH, 2014). At this site copper objects and remains of burned animals and birch resin (that is believed to be a type of incense) were found in a shelter dated to the mid III millennium BC and was also frequented in the successive periods afterwards. Fauna remains indicate both domestic species (goat/sheep, pig, ox, dog) and wild species (deer, boar, roe deer, chamois, brown bear, wolf, beaver, otter, testudo). Among the remains included edible animals but also other animals with a symbolic value (in addition to fur animals or dangerous creatures such as the bear or the wolf) found in many other funerary or cult contexts. The place was surely sacred, in relation to both its position on the top of the mountain and the geothermal manifestations of steam that, in several sites, have shown evidence of cults (GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1999, 2005). Wild fauna seems therefore to have had a specific meaning in contexts related to agricultural or funerary cults or to ceremonies with religious meaning where sheep and pigs have great importance, and which are located in many ritual pits. There is no trace of these animals in rock art ArkeoGazte Aldizkaria, 11, 2021, 113.-143. or. 136 R. Grifoni Cremonesi & A. M. Tosatti however, where prevalent figurative elements include the human figure and abstracted symbols with a difficult meaning except for the deer, the bull and the snake5. 15. Conclusions In this case it is not necessary to focus too much on the possible meanings of symbols recurring in the large area that comprises the Italian peninsula, France, and the Iberian Peninsula. What we are trying to show is that they represent a great cultural and ideological koine extending through a large part of Europe. They express with symbols and signs that are incomprehensible to us or just intelligible in their various forms, from the simplest forms using only colour (black, red, but also white in pottery) to the more complex forms (paintings, sculptures, engravings, etc.) (WASILEWSKA, 1994; WHITEHOUSE, 1992; GIMBUTAS, 1974, 1991; GRIFONI CREMONESI, 2004; COPPOLA, 19992001). Some of these symbols are present in the whole Italian peninsula and on the islands. They are represented by typologies which become increasingly similar even if interpreted with different techniques such as engravings which are often very thin and paintings which can be coloured red or black. The black style of painting continues into even the most recent times. Many sites have evident traces of medieval or modern frequentations, with crosses and other Christian symbols. Unfortunately, we don’t have enough data regarding dating except for a few pigments. The few dates that are available to us allow us to visualize a part of the known artistic production in a chronological range from the late Neolithic to the Bronze Age. Regarding the recent Neolithic period, the presence of some abstracted symbols painted on the walls of Grotta dei Cervi at Porto Badisco can be helpful. These symbols are identical 5 Oxen are known in many burials of the Bronze and Iron Age in continental Europe (TECCHIATI 2018). An ox is also buried in the Beakers village of Semitella near Florence (SARTI &MARTINI 1993, table 41). Italian peninsula & islands to the ones on the ceramics of Serra d’Alto culture, dated between 5740-5330 BC cal.2σand 3969-3710 BC cal. 2σ. These symbols express, in an extremely abstract way, the human figure in artistic compositions with several individuals (GRAZIOSI, 1980). Based on stylistic comparisons with Malta Island, the paintings of Grotta Cala del Genovese at Levanzo are attributed to a chronological period roughly between the late Neolithic and the beginning of the Copper Age. Most of the artistic representations in the Italian peninsula can be dated back to the Chalcolithic period and to the Bronze Age in relation to several comparisons with Western Mediterranean sites. For example, the pigments of the Riparo di Pale site in Umbra are dated to 5661±36 - 1569±4 BC and the pigments of Grotta la Pileta (Malaga) to 2394 -1975 BC (MATTIOLI, 2006, 2008). In some sites and near to some shelters ceramic fragments were discovered and were dated to the early and middle Bronze Age, as in Civitaluparella in Abruzzo and in the Riparo Il Cavone in Apulia. The wider problem about the meaning of the choice of these sites in relation to territory and landscape is discussed in many recent studies. In the first place, the choice of the space is presented in the following features: little shelters, singular natural formations, dominant position, orientation, rock colours and the presence of water. The evidence of artistic manifestations in sites that are often almost unreachable but where there are even overlapping symbols of many periods (from the Calcholithic-Bronze Age to the Christian era, with crosses and mostrances) let us hypothesize a strong sacredness to these places, but this does not exclude a use for controlling economic activities. The concept of sacredness found in these particular places is well-known and concerns particularly mountains, most of which believed to be abodes for deities (Olympus, Sinai, and probably also Mount Bego and other peaks with a particular appearance) but also cliffs, sources, woods, rivers and lakes (OTTO, 1917). These are sites with a meaning incomprehensible to us but have continued to be frequented in historical periods until the present day. This is the Revista ArkeoGazte, 11, 2021, pp. 113-143 Animals in prehistoric art case of some caves which became sanctuaries or collapsed shelters that had seen continuous votive depositions even after they had lost every other functionality (GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1969b; 1996,1996b). The decorated sites of the Bronze and Iron Age are usually far from inhabited and farming areas, so it can be hypothesized that there is a need for controlling grazing lands or mining areas. In some research it has been the importance of visual angles has been highlighted along with route crossings and fluvial valleys which are useful positions for controlling territory and roads (CHIARENZA et al., 2010; CARRERA, TONARELLI and TOSATTI, 2021). Connections with rocks decorated with cup marks are also important, as well as their distribution in relation to routes and areas of exploitable resources (CAVULLI, 2005; TOSATTI, 2013, 2014; ARCÀ and RUBAT BOREL, 2017). In some cases there are signs of the presence of dripping water such as in the Riparo di Pale and especially in the Grotta dell’Arco di Bellegra. Red and black anthropomorphic figures located inside Grotta dell’Arco di Bellegra are almost exactly the same as the figures in Levanzo but are partially covered by concretions. Due to these concretions the art can be related to cults of dripping or galactofore waters (BERNABEI and GRIFONI CREMONESI, 1996). The relation with water running off the walls along fissures is also reported in many shelters in Southern France and in the Mount Bego site. In Liguria, the Pietra Scritta and the complex site around the Roccia del Dolmen in the Geoparco del Beigua, are near or next to perennial streams or water sources. The Masso di Zingola, was located directly on the flowing water of the Giardina stream in the Versilia area (Stazzema, Lucca) and has an engraved spiral with six double spins (twelve coils) (CITTON and PASTORELLI, 2000; TOSATTI, 2005). In this quite complex panorama, that sees a strict correlation with animals as an economic resource, regarding rearing, pastoralism and hunting, their presence is not so evident in the symbols. Instead they highlight the importance of the human figure and sometimes, the connection with the uranic world too. The symbolic and, in a 137 certain way, religious value of animals shows up in the offers to entities connected with natural phenomena (water, geothermal energy, plants), in an ostentatious manner but it doesn’t benefit, at least for a certain period, the association with other manifestations of artistic expressions. The fact that representations in the peninsula’s shelters are mostly about anthropomorphic figures and abstracted symbols, while animals are well documented in cave burials and votive offerings is very impressive. The absence or rarity of zoomorphic figures in some periods does not mean the loss of consciousness of their importance in human life, but a change of meaning in rock art. This new artistic medium expresses with symbols regarding mostly the human figure and others, connected with beliefs or myths controlled and worshipped by the communities that inhabited them but in a different manner from the previous use of these natural places. 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