TOURISMOS is an international, multi-disciplinary, refereed (peerreviewed) journal aiming to promote and enhance research in all fields of
tourism, including travel, hospitality and leisure. The journal is published
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Volume 10, Number 1, Spring-Summer 2015
Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
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ii
TOURISMOS
An International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism
EDITOR- IN-CHIEF
Paris Tsartas, University of the Aegean, Greece
EDITOR
Evangelos Christou, Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki, Greece
CO-EDITORS
Haris Coccosis, University of Thessaly, Greece
Gerasimos Zacharatos, University of Patras, Greece
ASSISTANT EDITOR
Theodoros Stavrinoudis, University of the Aegean, Greece
BOOK REVIEWS & CONFERENCE REPORTS EDITOR
Marianna Sigala, University of the Aegean, Greece
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT
Konstantina Tsiakali, University of the Aegean, Greece
SCIENTIFIC BOARD:
Bill Bramwell, Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom
Richard Butler, University of Surrey, United Kingdom
Chris Cooper, University of Queensland, Australia
Jafar Jafari, University of Wisconsin-Stout, U.S.A.
David Harrison, London Metropolitan University, United Kingdom
Chris Ryan, University of Waikato, New Zealand
John Swarbrooke, Sheffield Hallam University, United Kingdom
John Tribe, University of Surrey, United Kingdom
Francois Vellas, University of Toulouse, France
EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD
Amal Aboufayad, Lebanese University, Lebanon
George Agiomyrgianakis, Hellenic Open University, Greece
Volkan Altinas, University of Bonn, Germany
George Anastasopoulos, University of Patras, Greece
Konstantinos Andriotis, Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus
iii
Vassilis Angelis, University of the Aegean, Greece
David Airey, University of Surrey, United Kingdom
Teoman Alemdar, Bilkent University, Turkey
Sofia Avgerinou-Kolonia, National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Thomas Baum, University of Strathclyde, United Kingdom
Eleni Briasouli, University of the Aegean, Greece
Dimitrios Buhalis, Bournemouth University, United Kingdom
Nevenka Čavlek, University of Zagreb, Croatia
Konstandinos Chatzimichalis, Harokopion University, Greece
Kaye Chon, Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong SAR China
Lorant Denes David, Károly Róbert Főiskola, Hungary
Alex Deffner, University of Thessaly, Greece
Vasiliki Galani-Moutafi, University of the Aegean, Greece
Hugo Goetch, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Italy
Antti Haahti, University of Lapland, Finland
Michael Hall, University of Otago, New Zealand
Atsuko Hashimoto, Brock University, Ontario, Canada
Svetlana Hristova, University Neofit Rilski, Bulgaria
Olga Iakovidou, Aristotelian University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Elizabeth Ineson, Manchester Metropolitan University, United Kingdom
Stanislav Ivanov, International University College, Bulgaria
Zoran Ivanovic, University of Rijeka, Croatia
Peter Jones, University of Surrey, United Kingdom
Jay Kandampully, Ohio State University, USA
Ioannis Karamanidis, Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki, Greece
Panagiotis Kassianidis, Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki, Greece
Hanan Kattara, Alexandria University, Egypt
Saad Al-Deen Kharfan, Tishreen University, Syria
Fotis Kilipiris, Alexander Technological Institute of Thessaloniki, Greece
Maria Kousi, University of Crete, Greece
Metin Kozak, University of Mugla, Turkey
Dimitrios Lagos, University of the Aegean, Greece
Maria Lekakou, University of the Aegean, Greece
Pericles Lytras, T.E.I. of Athens, Greece
Leonidas Maroudas, University of the Aegean, Greece
Cynthia Mayo, Delaware State University, USA
Audrey Mc Cool, University of Nevada - Las Vegas, USA
Andreas Papatheodorou, University of the Aegean, Greece
Alex Paraskevas, Oxford Brookes University, United Kingdom
Harald Pechlaner, Katholische Universität Eichstätt-Ingolstadt, Germany
Mukesh Ranga, CSJM University, Kanpur, India
iv
Gordana Reckoska, University of Bitola, former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia
Chris Roberts, University of Massachusetts, USA
Ana-Isabel Rodrigues, Polytechnic Institute of Beja, Portugal
Odysseas Sakellaridis, University of the Aegean, Greece
Alexis Saveriades, Cyprus University of Technology, Cyprus
Ian Senior, Emirates Academy, United Arab Emirates
Konstandina Skanavi, University of the Aegean, Greece
Pantelis Skagiannis, University of Thessaly, Greece
Marios Soteriades, T.E.I. of Crete, Greece
Ioannis Spilanis, University of the Aegean, Greece
Snezana Stetic, University of Novi Sad, Serbia & Montenegro
Marianthi Stogiannidou, University of the Aegean, Greece
Theano Terkenli, University of the Aegean, Greece
Rodoula Tsiotsou, University of Macedonia, Greece
Adriana Mirela Tomescu, University of Oradea, Romania
Stelios Varvaressos, T.E.I. of Athens, Greece
Cleopatra Veloutsou, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
Maria Vodenska, University of Sofia, Bulgaria
Sandra Watson, Napier University, United Kingdom
Craig Webster, College of Tourism and Hotel Management, Cyprus
Hannes Werthner, University of Innsbruck, Austria
Atila Yüksel, Adnan Menderes University, Turkey
Elfrida Zefi, University Fan Noli of Korca, Albania
v
TOURISMOS
An International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism
Volume 10, Number 1, Spring-Summer 2015
CONTENTS
EDITORIAL
xiii
RESEARCH PAPERS:
AN IMPORTANCE-PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF
INTERNATIONAL VISITORS TO PENANG ISLAND, MALAYSIA 15
Shida Irwana Omar, Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Badaruddin
Mohamed
This paper examines international visitors’ perceived importance and
performance of 12 destination attributes of Penang Island using an
Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA). The result was drawn from a
questionnaire survey of 803 respondents who visited the island between
August and November 2012. The importance-performance analysis grids
illustrate that Penang Island performs well in six attributes namely 1)
safety and security; 2) image of destination; 3) friendliness of the people;
4) variety of tourism attractions; 5) value for money; and 6) accessibility
to the destination. The attribute of cultural and historical uniqueness
appears to get too much concentration, and five attributes fell into the
Low Priority quadrant. Safety and security was found to be the
determining attribute for international visitors. Implications and
recommendations for Penang managers and marketers were discussed.
APPRAISAL OF FAMILY-FRIENDLY TOURISM IN MALAYSIA
A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
37
Family tourism is a growing market even though it is understudied and
unexplored in Malaysia. Given the rising purchasing power and quality
of life among families, and little work has been done on exploring these
family friendly policies and their implementations, this article aims to
uncover to what extent that family-friendly policies are implemented in
vi
Malaysia. This article utilised a descriptive method with qualitative data
from historical writings, tourism reports and research findings
concerning the participation of family tourists. This study revealed that
the policies and implementations of family tourism are of different level of
concern among various stakeholders. At the national level, families are
encouraged at both explicit and implicit initiatives, while at the tourism
providers families characters are commoditised as tourism products. The
changing demand of families received attentions from the tourism
providers as well as from the governmental agencies. The setting up of a
comprehensive guideline on family-friendly destination should stand as a
competitive edge in promoting family tourism.
SATISFACTION FORMATION AND TYPOLOGY OF BAR
CUSTOMERS
Angelos Pantouvakis & Christos Patsiouras
63
The main purposes of this study is to identify the service features that
determine overall customer satisfaction in the entertainment industry and
to suggest a satisfaction-based typology of bar customers depending on
their loyalty status. The research questions were examined using a sample
of 1,263 multinational bar customers in Greece. Exploratory and
confirmatory factor analysis coupled with cluster analysis were used to
examine the extent to which elements of satisfaction may be identified and
combined with loyalty rankings to segment the bar market’s customers.
The results showed support for both hypotheses and confirmed that
interactive and physical elements are antecedents of customer satisfaction.
Moreover, results found that bar customers may be segmented into four
distinct groups (enthusiastic, apathetic, peripheral and kinetic). The bar
managers may better address their customers’ requirements by choosing
whether to invest in refurbishing the establishment or better train their
personnel to maximise patron satisfaction and loyalty.
EVALUATING TOURIST SATISFACTION IN ACCORDANCE TO
TOUR GUIDES PERFORMANCE: HERITAGE GUIDED TOURS IN
EGYPT
81
Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy
Tourism is one of the top priorities for many countries, because of its
contribution to economy in terms of foreign exchange earnings, creation of
employment opportunities and promoting international understanding.
Furthermore, Cultural heritage tourism has become an increasingly
important factor for tourist destinations, and cultural tourist as the one
who is interested in experiencing the culture of the destination spends
money, time and other resources on a trip or visit to receive an experience
that provides psychological benefits. Happy and satisfied customers are
more likely to return and more likely to say positive things about the
vii
service they have experienced. If tour guiding service is a core component
of heritage tour, then the tour guides (TGs) as being a frontline employee
in the tourism industry play an important role in shaping tourist
experience in a destination. This study evaluates the relationship between
tour guide (TG) performance and tourist’s satisfaction in terms of
psychological, spiritual and practical content during heritage guided tours
in Egypt. A questionnaire was distributed among 200 tourists of different
nationalities. Results derived from the respondents showed that (TG)
performance affects tourist experience. For a satisfied tourist transmits
his/her positive experience (word of mouth) to third persons as well as
repeating his/her visit. Finally the study ends up by a set of
recommendations for TGs to consistently emphasize a creative approach
in order to maintain high standards of TG performance.
TRAINING OR VACATION? THE ACADEMIC CONFERENCE TOURISM
101
Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
The current study concentrates on factors affecting the intentions of
academics attending an academic conference. It highlights the importance
of academic conferences and academic conference tourism and discusses
meetings, the convention industry and also their utility in the career
development of academics. Through qualitative research and a review of
the literature on conference tourism push and pull motivation factors are
suggested. The power of these factors to predict the intention to attend an
academic conference is examined through quantitative research and
regression analysis. The results indicate that ‘pull’ factors are better
predictors of the intention to attend an academic conference than
motivational ‘push’ factors.
THE ENRICHMENT OF TOUR OPERATORS’ PRODUCT BY
INCORPORATING SUSTAINABLE ELEMENTS. A TOURISM AND
TRAVEL MARKETING APPROACH
131
Ourania Vitouladiti
The tour operators offering their services in established and traditional
tourism destinations for a long time face the issue of the lack of
sustainable elements in their holiday packages and their focus is mostly on
the classic 3S model. However, either their target markets or the needs of
destinations for sustainable approaches push for the enrichment of the
offered packages. Therefore, this paper studies the potential for
enrichment of classical tour packages by incorporating components of the
destinations natural and cultural resources. To recognize these elements
research has been conducted on the impressiveness of natural and cultural
resources. The results indicate not only the potential for product
enrichment with unused, till now, elements but also suggest the creation of
viii
new packages for targeted markets. Facts that are positive for both the
tour operators and the prosperity of the destination.
PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL TRUST AS AN ANTECEDENT OF
ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR: FINDINGS FROM
LODGING ENTERPRISES IN TURKEY
149
Ozgur Devrim Yilmaz
Two concepts that have just made their way into research on management
of tourism enterprises are perceived organizational trust (POT) and
organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB). Trust and citizenship
behaviours of employees have become a central variable in regard to the
well-being of organizations. Although the studies of these subjects have
increased markedly in the past decade little effort has spotlighted on the
relationship between POT and OCB from the point of tourism sector.
Therefore in this study the relationship between POT and OCB is
examined in Turkey with 412 participants. The analyses found support for
7 hypotheses, including support for a strong relationship between POT
and OCB. Contrary to expectations, there were no significant differences
between some dimensions of OCB and POT. By the help of findings it is
expected to contribute to the theoretical studies in the field of tourism.
TOURISM MARKET RESEARCH IN SPANISH HIGHER EDUCATION:
ETYMOLOGICAL ISSUES
167
Jesús Manuel López-Bonilla & Luis Miguel López-Bonilla
Tourism market research appears to have increased its academic presence
with the introduction of the new university degree in Tourism in Spain. The
term tourism market research is widely accepted. However, there is some
controversy regarding the use of the terms of market research and
commercial research. In some cases, conceptual differences are posed
between the two terminologies, while in other cases, a greater equity is
advocated. We try to understand the basis of these differences, concluding
that the two terminologies have their own limitations, so it would be
advisable to use a more appropriate and enlightening term.
RESEARCH CASE STUDIES:
PUBLIC PERCEPTION ON PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE
ECOTOURISM AT GUNUNG RENG AREA, JELI DISTRICT,
KELANTAN, MALAYSIA
179
Nor Fadilah M.A., Menti Saysa H., Nur Amalina A.K., Amal Najihah
M.N. & Dony Adriansyah N.
ix
Gunung Reng area is one of interesting places in the state of Kelantan,
Malaysia. It is located in Batu Melintang sub-district, along the East-West
Expressway in Jeli district in the northwestern corner of Kelantan. Though
the local people designated Gunung Reng as a ‘gunung’ (the Malay word
for ‘mount’), it is not a mount in the true definition but it is actually a
mogote hill towering above the flat alluvial topography. This study is to
discuss the public perception on promoting sustainable ecotourism at this
area. This study was carried out by distributing 30 questionnaires to
different respondents which consist of local government staff, local
communities and visitors (foreign and domestic) to see their perception on
the attitude, awareness, and the way to conserve this ecotourism sites
ACHIEVING AUTHENTICITY THROUGH ETHNIC TOURISM, A
CONSUMER PERSPECTIVE
205
Nashwa M. Talaat
Ethnic tourism is considered a unique type of tourism since it enables the
tourist to experience and learn about other cultures through their
traditions, customs lifestyle and practice. Authenticity is an important
concept in ethnic tourism studies. This article examines tourists'
participation in ethnic attractions and products, and the levels of
satisfaction with their experiences based upon empirical research
conducted in number of Nubian villages which still exist north of the Dam.
Field research was done through visiting, interviewing some of the local
people and observing their lifestyle. A survey of 600 visitors to Nubian
villages was also conducted, only 560 questionnaires were valid to
analysis out of which 89.2% was international and 10.8% was domestic.
The study finds out that authenticity is a major concern among
international tourists. Although it was the first experience for large
number of tourists but they have different reasons for getting through this
experience.
TOURISM VERSUS THE VISITOR ECONOMY AND THE SHIFTING
LANDSCAPE OF DESTINATION MANAGEMENT
219
Deyan Hristov
This paper attempts to explore the emerging concept of the visitor
economy, by linking it to recent changes in tourism governance on a
destination level, influenced by complex global and regional politicoeconomic factors. A regional outlook reflecting on England as an
exemplar of a shifting destination management is introduced and provides
the basis of investigation. Particular attention is given to the new model of
destination management in England and its prospective role in realising
the benefits of the emerging visitor economy. Secondary data sources in
the form of destination management strategies and industry reports have
been explored and informed the discussion of the two evolving concepts –
x
destination management on a local level and the multifaceted visitor
economy. Outcomes of the analysis suggest that further enquiry into the
blurred visitor economy concept is imperative, particularly in times of
organisational restructuring, changing destination management priorities
and increased competition.
SECOND HOME TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE RURAL
DEVELOPMENT
S. Zahra Mirani & Banafsheh M. Farahani
235
Second home tourism is one of the patterns of tourism development
especially in rural and mountainous areas that is obtained through
ownership of second homes (bungalows or holiday homes). World's
economic, social and cultural developments after the Second World War,
with improving communication and transportation, increased leisure time.
The possibility of allocating some part of revenue for unnecessary affaires
caused the spread of rural tourism and consequently the popularity of
second homes in the western world and many other countries. This paper
introduced the second homes, their emergence and spread in all around
the world, their geographical and spatial analysis and the importance of
rural development, and then it investigated the role of second home
tourism in rural development and their tourism development implications
in all the environmental, economic, and social aspects. At last Sustainable
development of rural tourism strategies was examined.
RESEARCH NOTES:
THE IMPACT OF SANCTIONS ON DESTINATION IMAGE TOURISM
OF IRAN
255
Hamid Akbarnataj & Mohammad Mirtaghyian
In current situation where Iran is struggling to get through consecutive
sanctions, developing tourism industry and attracting foreign tourist and
also the use of the exchange rate and low values of Rial can be a viable
solution strategy. Iran can be a cheap destination for countries with high
currency value which can be a successful factor in attracting tourism from
other countries. Placed among the first ten countries with cultural and
natural attractions, distinct hospitality and delivering cheaper services
compared to other destinations are the main factors which can be used in
creating a destination brand for Iran. On this basis, relying on real
advantage of its unique attractions is much better than creating artificial
spaces and short-term booms. The present study investigated the brand
image of tourism in Iran, before and after the sanctions. Data are
xi
gathered using 5-point Likert scale in a questionnaire and results in the
analysis and conclusions are presented.
JOURNAL AIMS AND SCOPE
267
NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
273
xii
EDITORIAL 1
This is the nineteenth issue of TOURISMOS, starting its 10th year of
publication. In the previous eighteen issues, our multidisciplinary journal
aimed at providing a platform that supports the transmission of new
scholarly discoveries in the fields of tourism and hospitality, and we have
been excited about offering a platform that supports scholars in building
upon intellectual treasures and advancing our understanding about various
fields of research in novel and meaningful ways. Capitalising on this effort,
we now focus on furthering our scope and consolidating our position in both
conceptual developments and practical applications in tourism, travel,
leisure and hospitality.
All research papers and case studies presented in this issue, address a
number of topics namely family tourism, tourists’ satisfaction, conference
tourism, ecotourism, ethnic tourism, destination management, second home
tourism, tourism marketing, destination image, and tourism education.
Based on the previous analysis, we trust that you will enjoy reading the
present issue, and we look forward to presenting you our next in autumn
2014!
Paris Tsartas
Editor-in-Chief
Evangelos Christou
Editor
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
xiii
xiv
TOURISMOS: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF TOURISM
Volume 10, Number 1, Spring-Summer 2015, pp. 15-36
UDC: 338.48+640(050)
AN IMPORTANCE-PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF
INTERNATIONAL VISITORS TO PENANG ISLAND,
MALAYSIA
Shida Irwana Omar 1
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Badaruddin Mohamed
Universiti Sains Malaysia
This paper examines international visitors’ perceived importance and
performance of 12 destination attributes of Penang Island using an ImportancePerformance Analysis (IPA). The result was drawn from a questionnaire survey of
803 respondents who visited the island between August and November 2012. The
importance-performance analysis grids illustrate that Penang Island performs
well in six attributes namely 1) safety and security; 2) image of destination; 3)
friendliness of the people; 4) variety of tourism attractions; 5) value for money;
and 6) accessibility to the destination. The attribute of cultural and historical
uniqueness appears to get too much concentration, and five attributes fell into the
Low Priority quadrant. Safety and security was found to be the determining
attribute for international visitors. Implications and recommendations for Penang
managers and marketers were discussed.
Keywords:
Importance-performance
analysis,
destination attributes, Penang Island.
international
visitors,
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
Penang Island and the Tourism Industry
Tourism has been an important industry in Malaysia for a number of
years. As one of the country’s leading tourist destinations particularly
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
15
Shida Irwana Omar, Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Badaruddin Mohamed
after Kuala Lumpur and Pahang (The Star Online, 2012), Penang received
over 90.14 million visitors from 1990 to 2012 with an annual average of
3.92 million visitors (Figure 1). The total arrivals for 2012 reached a
record of 6.09 million, representing a remarkable growth of 3.27 times
over 1990. According to Penang Global Tourism (2012), Penang’s top
five foreign tourist generating markets (travelling by air) in 2012 were
Indonesia (234,703), Singapore (98,777), China (43,676), Japan (24,454),
and United States of America (19,948). Recognized by its government as
an important source of revenue and catalyst to the state’s economic
growth, tourism, which is placed as the second sector after manufacturing
(Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2010),
accounted for 39% of Penang’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in 2012
(Chua, 2012).
Figure 1. Visitor arrivals to Penang State, 1990-2012
7
6.31
6.09
Number of tourist arrivals ('000,000)
5.99
6
6.02
5.96
5
5.19
4.72
4.35
3.79
4
3.44
3.24
3.34
3
2.13
2
1.86
3.25
3.43
3.52
3.52
3.47
3.17
3.03
2.38
1.94
1
Malaysian
International
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
0
Year
Total
Source: Compiled from Penang Development Corporation (PDC), 1990-1999; DCT
Consultancy Services Sdn. Bhd., 2000-2003; PDC Consultancy Sdn. Bhd. & Penang
Tourism Action Council, 2004; Penang Development Corporation, 2005-2006; Penang
Global Tourism, 2007-2013
Despite the tremendous growth, Penang’s inbound tourism has
experienced a number of unprecedented declines since 1997. The fall in
visitor arrivals, particularly from the international tourist market, has been
intensified by global disruptions and threats such as the 1997 Asian
16
TOURISMOS: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF TOURISM
Volume 10, Number 1, Spring 2015, pp. 15-36
UDC: 338.48+640(050)
financial crisis and the 2003 terror bombings in Jakarta and Bali, which
have made international tourists stay away from visiting Southeast Asian
countries. Furthermore, Penang Island is now considered less attractive as
a “sun, sea and sand” (3S) destination which previously contributed to the
island’s reputation as the “Pearl of the Orient”. As 3S tourism has been
promoted up to its maximum in the 1990s (Cairns, 2002), Hooi (2006)
asserted that the island’s charm was slowly diminishing and fast losing
out to emerging destinations like Phuket, Bali and other Indo-China
countries which are regarded as more “exotic” in the eyes of Western
foreigners.
Nevertheless, the designation of Penang’s capital city, George Town,
along with Malacca, as a World Heritage Site (WHS) in July 2008, has
brought back visitors to the island. The number of visitors in 2008
recorded the highest arrival in Penang’s history with 6.31 million visitors.
As a WHS, the uniqueness of George Town lies in the cross-roads of
religious pluralism, historic townscape and living heritage. In
consequence, “novelty and knowledge seeking” and “cultural and
historical attractions” have been the most important push and pull motives
of international visitors for visiting Penang in recent years (Yousefi and
Marzuki, 2012).
Since maintaining that the WHS status is important for retaining
tourists in Penang Island as well as attracting new ones, it is vital to
understand how the visitors perceived the product and service attributes in
the destination in order to develop appropriate marketing strategies that
better satisfy them. The provision of products and services that perform
better than other destinations in those aspects of tourism experience
(Dwyer and Kim, 2003) would make Penang remain vibrant. Moreover,
tourists would be more likely to give positive ratings to destinations they
visited when their expectations were met (Pritchard and Havitz, 2006). In
light of these considerations, Penang’s immediate need is to identify the
strengths and weaknesses of the products and services they provide as
well as, accurately define their importance and performance. Hence, it is
the intention of this paper to identify both the importance and
performance of destination attributes in Penang Island using the
Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) from the perception of
international visitors.
17
Shida Irwana Omar, Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Badaruddin Mohamed
LITERATURE REVIEW
Importance-Performance Analysis
Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA) is a useful technique that
was introduced by Martilla and James (1977) in the late 1970s that is
capable of providing managers and marketers with valuable information
for both satisfaction measurement and resources performance, in an easy
applicable format. IPA is able to give a quick overview of what areas are
most in need of improvement and what areas receive too much attention
from management (Lacher and Harril, 2010). The fundamental
assumption of IPA is that the level of customers’ satisfaction with the
attributes is mainly derived from their expectations and judgment of the
product’s or service’s performance (Chu and Choi, 2000).
Martilla and James (1977) have applied the IPA technique to analyse
the performance of the automobile industry. In their study, a set of key
attributes of a target product is generated and subjects rate each attribute
for its importance in a purchase decision. The attributes of importance
need to be measured prior to, rather than after, an actual purchase
experience, because the IPA in general pursues understanding the role of
the key selected attributes in a purchase decision. Performance is then
measured using the same set of attributes so that importance and
performance can be directly compared within the same attributes via the
IPA or grid. The scores of importance and performance are obtained from
a survey instrument Likert scale. In the survey, the customers are asked
two questions about each attribute that may read something like below:
How important is this attribute?
How well did this attribute perform?
The interpretation of the importance and performance scores is
graphically presented on a grid divided into four quadrants (Figure 2).
The Y-axis demonstrates the customers’ perceived importance of selected
attributes, while X-axis reports on the performance (of products or
services) of the same attributes. The four identifiable quadrants include
Concentrate Here, Keep up the Good Work, Low Priority, and Possible
Overkill. Interpretation of the IPA grid is rather straightforward as explain
in Table 1.
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Figure 2. Importance-performance analysis grid
High
IMPORTANCE
QUADRANT I
QUADRANT II
Concentrate Here
Keep Up the Good work
QUADRANT III
QUADRANT VI
Low Priority
Possible Overkill
Low
Low
High
PERFORMANCE
Since the late 1970s, IPA has become a popular managerial tool that
has been broadly used to identify the strengths and weaknesses of brands,
products, services and retail establishments in various industries
(Chapman, 1993) including tourism. While, Lewis (1985) reported the
IPA as a competitive analysis technique to identify tourist’s perceptions
of the hotel industry, Chu and Choi (2000) have used IPA to examine
business and leisure travellers' perceived importance and performance of
six hotel selection factors in the Hong Kong hotel industry. Wade and
Eagles (2003) have applied IPA, complemented with market
segmentation technique, to measure the service quality of Tanzania’s
National Parks. Lee and Lee (2009) adopted IPA to examine the crosscultural comparison of the image of Guam as perceived by Korean and
Japanese leisure travellers. Recently, IPA was applied to Robinson
Crusoe Island Resort in Fiji to investigate the salient features perceived
by backpackers and to measure their satisfaction towards experience
gained at the resort (Lück, 2011). Apart from that, IPA also has been
applied to ski resorts (Hudson and Shephard, 1998), tourist activities
(Lacher and Harril, 2010), heritage site (Yurtseven, 2006), and touristdestination shopping centres (Kinley et al., 2002).
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Shida Irwana Omar, Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Badaruddin Mohamed
Table 1. Description of IPA quadrants
Quadrant
Quadrant I:
Concentrate here
High Importance,
Low Performance
Quadrant II:
Keep up the good
work
High Importance,
High Performance
Quadrant III:
Low priority
Low Importance
Low Performance
Quadrant IV:
Possible overkill
Low Importance,
High Performance
Description
This quadrant is the most critical categorisation because it
provides a classification of elements in which the firm
fails to satisfy the customer perceived level of
performance in areas they judge as salient. Under
performance in these attributes requires immediate
attention and the highest prioritisation in terms of
resources and effort. The factors identified in this
quadrant represent major weaknesses and threats to
competitiveness. Policy changes and strategies should
focus on directing marginal resources and extra effort to
these attributes.
Attributes falling within this quadrant are indicative of a
firm’s success in meeting customer standards of
performance in areas which customer deem relevant. They
represent major strengths and potential competitive
advantages that should be maintained or exploited. It is
assumed that scarce resources are being effectively
allocated where they are needed most and that the current
action strategies should be kept in place or enhanced
(Wade and Eagles, 2003).
Attributes falling in this category do not embody an
immediate competitive threat and are viewed as minor
weaknesses. They are likely to attract low priority in the
rationing of scarce resources by decision makers and are
potential candidates for losing out completely on
resources and effort. If no gains can be achieved from
improved performance, extra effort in this area is
unnecessary (Azzopardi and Nash, 2013).
This area captures those attributes that are suggestive of
over performance. Marginal resources are being directed
at attributes that represent minor strengths that have
minimum impact on the firm’s relative competitiveness.
These attributes signify inefficient use of resources and
should command the lowest priority for improvement.
Cost cutting strategies may be appropriate to release
resources and effort to be redeployed where they are
needed.
Source: Adapted from Martilla and James (1977), Chu and Choi (2000).
Perceived Importance and Performance Attributes
Attribute of importance is generally regarded as a person's general
assessment of the significance of an attribute for a service. A review of
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the literature suggests that tourist satisfaction is assessed in terms of both
expectations that relate to certain important attributes and judgments of
the attribute performance (Beldona and Cobanoglu, 2007). However,
there appears to have been diverse conclusions made about how one
should relate attributes of importance and performance. The concept of
importance is viewed by tourists the same as satisfaction (Yang et al.,
2009). When a customer perceives an attribute as important, the customer
will believe that the attribute will play a significant role in influencing his
or her service choice (Chi and Qu, 2008). More recently, the term
importance has been used to refer to the perceived importance of an
attribute and its effect on service in the destination area (Frías-Jamilena et
al., 2013). Weber (2000) agrees with this view in term of important
attributes considered important by consumers, and that the various
services are perceived to differ. Matzler et al. (2004) assert that
performance lies in customer perceptions of the performance of the
attribute. The more favourable the perception of performance, the greater
the likelihood of it being chosen from among similar alternatives.
The Influence of Destination Attributes on Destination Choice
Different attributes may influence destination choice. Those
attributes directly influencing destination choice are determinant
attributes that may arouse tourists looking for intentions and differentiate
from other competitor destination offerings (Ranjanthran and
Mohammed, 2010). The services and facilities offered by a tourism
destination are those features of services that lead tourists to choose that
service over others (Cerviño and Cubillo, 2005). Oh (2001) agrees that
cleanliness of the accommodation, followed by safety and security,
accommodation value for money, courtesy and helpfulness of staff were
identified as top attributes for travellers in destination choice selection. In
addition, Chu and Choi (2000) mentioned that personal services, physical
attractiveness, opportunities for relaxation, standard of services, appealing
image, and value for money were significantly evaluated by travellers.
However, an extensive review of the literature in the tourism industry
suggests that attributes such as image of the destination, variety of
tourism attractions, historical uniqueness, value for money, safety and
security, cleanliness of destination, and accommodation service have been
considered by most tourists in choice decision (Chu and Choi, 2000,
Guillet et al., 2011, Pritchard and Havitz, 2006, Yousefi and Marzuki,
2012).
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Shida Irwana Omar, Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Badaruddin Mohamed
Destination image is one of the important attributes in influencing
decisions made by travellers as to which destination to visit (Mat Som et
al., 2012, Rittichainuwat et al., 2001, Yousefi and Marzuki, 2012).
Rittichainuwat et al. (2001) found that value for money was considered as
important in affecting tourism destination selection. Limanond and
Niemeier (2003) mentioned that accessibility to the destination is an
undeniable asset to any kind of attraction. It is true that there are cases
where people will take extra time and effort to reach unusually good
entertainment value like that secluded fishing high in the sierras reached
only by mule, but worth the hardship. These, however, are exceptions.
There is a preponderance of vacation travellers who demand ease of
access; without it, an attraction is at a severe competitive disadvantage
(Shi and Ying, 2008).
Grosspietsch’s (2006) study observed that in the international travel
market friendliness builds tourism. It is interesting to note that the main
attraction for visitors to Bermuda was the friendliness of the people.
Rittichainuwat (2006) described friendliness of the local people, service minded people and relaxing atmosphere as very important elements for
travellers. Chen and Hsu (2000) confirmed the positive effect of
availability of information in a tourist destination that will seek tourism
development assistance. Goossens (2000) suggested that information
availability plays an important role in the tourist’s decision making
process. Many studies have pointed out the relationship between
availability of information and ease of communication (Chen and Tsai,
2007, Prayag, 2009, Rittichainuwat, 2006). Cleanliness of destination has
been identified and reviewed by a number of scholars. Most notably, Chu
and Choi (2000) found that cleanliness, comfort of place and quality of
the environment were three attributes in which destinations received the
highest ratings from tourists and visitors. Enright and Newton (2004) also
found that cleanliness was the most important factor influencing the
travellers in their destination selection. Local transport services in
destination have received considerable attention from researchers and
practitioners as an important benchmark for developing the tourist
destination (Liu et al., 2008).
It is strategically important to understand and to identify the
attributes that are perceived by travellers as important in their destination
selection choice as well as to examine how travellers perceive these
attributes. It is also very likely that a traveller’s favourable post-purchase
experience may lead him or her to repurchase if the traveller is satisfied
with the destination performance.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The Study Site
The research was conducted in Penang Island, Malaysia (Figure 3).
Penang Island is located in north-western Peninsular Malaysia specifically
between latitude 5°24′00″N and 100°14′20″E longitude. The island which
has a total land area of 293 km2 is easily accessible, either by air, ferry
and cruise, or land transport. The island is connected to the mainland by a
13.5 km bridge, the longest bridge in Malaysia. The capital city of Penang
State is George Town, named after Britain’s King George III and situated
in the north-eastern cape of Penang Island. The total population of the
island in 2010 was approximately 750,000 and the islanders are
predominantly Chinese (41.7%), followed by Malay (41.3%), Indian
(9.8%) and others (7.2%). Although Penang State is composed of two
parts i.e. Penang Island and Seberang Perai (the mainland), the name of
Penang is widely known and referred to Penang Island, which is how it
will be referred to in this paper.
Figure 3. Location map of Penang Island
Source: http://www.malaysia-map.com
Tourism started in Penang as early as 1834, when the first reference
of ‘tourist’ in the island was published in a travelogue (Begbie as cited in
Din, 1986). A few hotels namely Hotel de L'Europe, E & O, Runnymede
and the Crag Hotel on Penang Hill were established in the 19th century as
a response to British and Europeans expatriate’s demands (Snodgrass,
1980). Starting from the 1940s, Penang promoted the 3S - sun, sea and
sand, where Ferringi beach and tropical weather were the key selling
points. However, the economic recession that affected Penang’s tourism
sector in the late 1990s has pressured the government to focus on heritage
tourism in order to sustain the sector generally. The conservation and
23
Shida Irwana Omar, Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Badaruddin Mohamed
preservation efforts carried out for historic buildings, melting pot
communities and living cultures mainly in the inner city of George Town
was recognized by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) which therefore granted World
Heritage Site status. Apart from heritage tourism, Penang continues to
promote itself as a 3S destination, Meeting, Incentive, Convention and
Exhibition (MICE) hub (The Star Online, 2013), as well as a gastronomy
paradise (Zainal et al., 2010). Due to this variety of key selling points, the
state government therefore adopted the slogan “Penang Has It All” in its
marketing and promotional campaigns (Eng, 2008). Without having any
specific brand name for Penang, the destination managers and marketers
recently faced difficulties in assessing visitor satisfaction from its
marketing programs. Certainly, the application of IPA would benefit
them, and Penang offers an excellent case study example for this study.
Questionnaire Design
This study utilized a questionnaire as a survey instrument. Based on a
review of relevant literature, 14 destination attributes were identified.
These attributes were presented and discussed in a focus group discussion
with tourism industry professionals on July 2012. The professionals
among whom were hotel managers, travel agents, airline officials, airport
staff and tourist attraction representatives, selected 12 destination
attributes and discarded two attributes that were not significantly relevant
to Penang’s situation.
The questionnaire contained 31 questions and was structured into
four parts, namely (1) travel planning, (2) travel expenditure and
shopping, (3) travel preference and opinion, and (4) demographic
background. Section three was the most important part of the survey and
it was, in essence, the IPA instrument. The respondent was required to
rate the attributes based on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1, not at all
important to 5, extremely important, in the Importance part, and from 1,
poor in 5, excellent, in the Performance part. Prior to the main survey, a
pilot survey was conducted in July 2012 and from there, several changes
were made, e.g. word replacement and reduction to avoid ambiguity and
confusion. The final survey instrument was initially written in English
and then translated into Mandarin, Arabic and Japanese by fluent
bilingual experts to capture a wider range of respondents.
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Sampling and Data Collection
The sample chosen in this study were international tourists who
visited Penang between August and November 2012. The survey
population was based on the total number of international arrivals to
Penang in 2011. Using the Raosoft Online Sample Size Calculator, the
sample size was calculated. Data were collected from tourists in the
departure hall of Penang International Airport, Swettenham Pier
Passenger Terminal, Beach Street tourist information centre, departure
hall of the Penang Hill top station and other tourist spots, by trained
enumerators. The tourists were selected using a random sampling
approach and the selection is based on two justifications namely; (1)
respondent must be aged 18 and above and, (2) respondent is not transient
tourist. The questionnaire was completed either by face to face interview
with the tourists or with self-completion by tourists. From the 1000
questionnaires distributed, 851 forms were returned of which only 803
forms were usable (80.3%). The number of usable questionnaires
exceeded the sample size.
Data Analysis
In the first stage of analysis, descriptive analysis was computed on
the respondents’ demographic, travelling profiles and expenditure
patterns. The reliability test was performed on each 12 items of
destination importance and performance respectively to test the stability
of variables and only variables that had coefficients equal or greater than
0.70 were acceptable and considered an excellent indication of
constructing reliability. The Cronbach’s Alpha for 12 items of destination
importance was found 0.874, which is an indication of strong item
homogeneity. While, the reliability value for 12 items of performance was
0.879. All items appeared to be worthy of retention.
In the next stage, the mean score of each importance and
performance attribute were calculated and then presented onto a twodimensional grid where the Importance values (Y-axis) were plotted
against Performance values (X-axis). The overall means of the importance
and performance score were used to position the crosshairs of the grid.
Using the mean scores for crosshair positioning is a more critical
approach than using the middle point of the scale or some arbitrary point
(Lück, 2011). In certain cases where there is insufficient amount of
variance or when the importance ratings show a non-normal distribution
pattern, the use of median is recommended (Martilla and James, 1977).
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Shida Irwana Omar, Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Badaruddin Mohamed
Figure 4 illustrates the resulting graphic representation of the data that
produced the four quadrants. The information gained from the plotting of
the results reveals the weaknesses and strengths of Penang as a
destination.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Demographic and Travelling Characteristics of Respondents
As shown in Table 2, the respondents consisted of 55.3% male and
44.7% female. The international visitors are mainly from ASEAN
(23.9%), Europe (18.9%) and Eastern Asia (14.1%). The biggest age
group is youth respondents aged 18 to 35 years old (63.5%). Married
travellers were more numerous than single travellers. The majority of
respondents obtained tertiary education and above (89.3%) and work as
white-collar. More than half of the respondents received a monthly
income between MYR 5,000 and MYR 50,000.
The respondents visited Penang mainly for leisure or holiday (52.4%)
(Table 3). The respondents obtained their information prior to travel from
many sources. Most of them trusted the internet (31.1%) rather than
relying on word-of-mouth from friends and relatives (22.8%) and their
own past experience (15.2%). The survey discovered that the majority of
respondents were first time travellers (68.2%) and travelled independently
to Penang (79.7%) mainly with spouse (26.5%), family members (22.8%)
or friends (22.7%). Only 18.6% were travelling alone. The average
number of persons travelling together was 3 people. They spent an
average of 14.76 days at destinations, although the majority stayed 3-7
days (54.7%). Hotels and resorts (49.4%) continue to be the most
preferred type of accommodation. Whereas budget lodgings like motel,
inn, chalet, guest house and hostel constituted 20.7% of accommodation
choice. Public transport (60.9%) such as taxi and bus is the most
frequently used options for respondents to move within a destination. A
smaller number (3.5%) rode trishaw during their visit. On average, the
respondents spent over MYR 2,636.48 ranging from MYR 80.00 to MYR
40,000.00. The main items they purchased were local foods, beverages or
fruits (42.0%), followed by clothes, bags, shoes or watches (27.5%) and
souvenirs at tourist bazaars (20.4%).
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Table 2. Demographic characteristics of the survey respondents
Region of residence
ASEAN
Europe
Eastern Asia
Western Asia
Americas
Oceania
Southern Asia
Africa
Central Asia
%
23.9
18.9
14.1
12.5
9.5
7.6
7.4
5.8
0.3
Gender
Male
Female
55.3
44.7
Age
18 – 35 years old
36 – 54 years old
> 55 years old
63.5
31.2
5.3
Marital status
Married
Single
Divorcee/Widowed
53.2
44.1
2.8
Occupation
Professional
Non-working
Technician & associate professional
Legislator, senior official & manager
Service worker & shop sales worker
Clerical worker
Craft & related trades worker
Plant & machine-operator & assembler
Skilled agricultural & fishery worker
%
34.7
27.2
19.0
8.1
4.8
3.8
1.2
0.6
0.5
Monthly income (in MYR)
< 5,000
5,001 – 10,000
10,001 – 50,000
50,001 – 100,000
> 100,001
42.7
23.4
29.3
2.3
2.3
Education level
Higher degree
Tertiary education
Secondary education
Primary education
No formal education
45.1
44.2
9.1
1.0
0.6
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Shida Irwana Omar, Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Badaruddin Mohamed
Table 3. Travelling pattern of the survey respondents
Purpose of visit
Leisure/Recreation/holidays
Visit friends/relatives (VFR)
Education/study/teaching
Business/professional
Health treatment
Honeymoon
Convention/conference
Shopping
Incentive travel
Government affairs
Sporting tournament/event
Religion/pilgrimages
Length of stay
1- 2 days
3 -7 days
8 – 14 days
15 – 30 days
31 – 60 days
> 60 days
Accommodation
Hotel/Resort
Motel/inn/chalet/hostel
Friend or relative’s house
Timeshare/apartment
Rest house/bungalow/villa
Homestay
Cruise ship
Campsite
Transportation
Public transport
Rented vehicle
Personal vehicle
Company vehicle
Trishaw
Walking
28
%
52.4
12.7
10.3
10.0
3.9
3.7
2.2
1.4
1.4
0.9
0.6
0.5
20.1
54.7
11.0
6.7
1.9
5.6
49.4
20.7
14.3
5.7
3.7
3.5
1.5
1.2
60.9
17.4
13.4
3.9
3.5
0.9
Source of information
Internet
Word-of-mouth
Past experience
Magazine/guide book
Travel agency/tour company
Television/radio
Government tourist office
Airlines directly
Expo/exhibition/tourism fair
In-flight information systems
Others (GPS, university etc.)
%
31.1
22.8
15.2
13.6
5.8
5.3
2.1
1.6
1.3
1.0
0.2
No. of visit to Penang
First time
More than 1 time
68.2
31.8
Trip mode
FIT
On package
79.7
20.3
Travelling party
Spouse/Partner
Family/relatives
Friend(s)
Travelling alone
Business associate(s)
Tour group member
Travellers met along the way
Incentive group
26.5
22.8
22.7
18.6
6.9
1.9
0.4
0.2
Expenses (in MYR)
< 500
501 – 1,000
1,001 – 5,000
5,001 – 10,000
> 10,000
22.0
21.2
46.3
7.4
3.1
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Importance–Performance Analysis Grid
Table 4 illustrates the mean scores of the 12 destination attributes of
Penang perceived by international visitors in relation to Importance and
Performance. The data were then plotted onto the IPA grid presentation
(Figure 4). In Figure 4, the X-axis represents the perceptions of
Performance score relating to international visitors’ experience of
Penang’s products and services. The Y-axis represents the relative scores
of Importance items on the same attributes. The mean Importance rating
for the pooled data was 3.77 and the mean Performance rating was 3.67.
The mean Importance and Performance ratings derived from our data
provided the grid crashers presentation on which the four quadrants were
identified. As shown in Figure 4, six attributes identified in Keep up the
Good Work quadrant, one in the Possible Overkill quadrant and five in
the Low Priority quadrant. The following provides some meaningful
insights about the ‘quadrant’ presentation.
Table 4. Twelve features of the importance-performance analysis
No
1
2
Attribute
Image of destination
Variety of tourism
attractions
3 Cultural/historical
uniqueness
4 Value for money
5 Safety and security
6 Accessibility to destination
7 Friendliness of the people
8 Availability of information
9 Ease of communication
10 Cleanliness of destination
11 Accommodation services
12 Local transport services
Total
Central line
a
b
Mean
Mean
Difference
Importance Performance
3.92
3.88
-0.04
3.87
3.75
-0.12
3.71
3.74
0.03
3.82
4.05
3.88
3.77
3.67
3.46
3.68
3.76
3.60
45.19
3.77
3.74
3.88
3.70
3.82
3.57
3.60
3.37
3.64
3.29
43.98
3.67
-0.08
-0.17
-0.18
0.05
-0.1
0.14
-0.31
-0.12
-0.31
-1.21
a Mean scale: 1 - not at all important to 5 - extremely important
b Mean scale: 1 - poor to 5 - excellent
29
Shida Irwana Omar, Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Badaruddin Mohamed
Figure 4. Importance-performance analysis grid of Penang
attributes perceived by international travellers
First Quadrant: Concentrate Here
The analysis did not identify any attributes as being highly important
with relatively low performance. One possible explanation is that most
respondents simply perceived that all attributes presented to them were
important and the performance was relatively satisfactory.
Second Quadrant: Keep Up The Good Work
Six attributes were identified in this second quadrant. The findings
indicated that these attributes are perceived as high importance by the
respondents and at the same time their performance was very good. So,
the destination marketers should keep up the good work with regard to
these attributes. In other words, ‘safety and security’, ‘image of
destination’, ‘variety of tourism attractions’, ‘value for money’,
‘friendliness of people’ and, ‘accessibility to the destination’ were the
major strengths of Penang that marketers should continue to emphasize.
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The two attributes that obtained the highest performance scores namely
‘safety and security’ (mean=3.88; SD=0.825) and ‘image of destination’
(mean=3.88; SD=0.786), mirror that Penang prides itself as a safe
destination to visit by international visitors.
Third Quadrant: Low Priority
The third quadrant was called ‘Low Priority’ because the attributes
identified in this area were considered lower in both importance and
performance. Five attributes fell into this category including
‘accommodation services’, ‘availability of information’, ‘ease of
communication’, ‘cleanliness of destination’ and ‘local transport
services’. Although the result showed that international visitors did not
perceive these items important, this does not mean that destination
managers and marketers should reduce their efforts to improve such
services. On the contrary, these service categories are often considered as
the essential facilities or basic needs to tourists.
Fourth Quadrant: Possible Overkill
Only one item was placed in the category of low importance and high
performance, i.e. ‘cultural/historical uniqueness’. Destination marketers
need to strategically consider the aspect of cultural and historical
distinctiveness. As George Town has been listed as a World Heritage Site,
Penang has received well deserved recognition for its cultural and
historical products. Therefore, this attribute need not be overemphasized
and further investment to enhance this element needs to be considered
carefully.
CONCLUSION
This paper examined international visitors’ perceived importance and
performance of twelve of Penang’s destination attributes using an
Importance-Performance Analysis (IPA). The main group of respondents
were young, educated, independent and first-time type group of visitors
who came for leisure and preferred to stay at the hotels and resorts as well
as relying on internet resources and word-of-mouth as their main sources
of information. Only 5.3% of the respondents were senior travellers (more
than 55 years old). The results showed that overall, respondents were
fairly satisfied with their experience of Penang Island. In particular, their
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Shida Irwana Omar, Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh & Badaruddin Mohamed
satisfaction measurements of 12 destination attributes were presented in
the IPA grid.
The IPA grids have shown that ‘safety and security’, ‘image of
destination’, ‘variety of tourism attractions’, ‘value for money’,
‘friendliness of people’ and, ‘accessibility to the destination’ fell into
Keep Up the Good Work quadrant; ‘accommodation services’,
‘availability of information’, ‘ease of communication’, ‘cleanliness of
destination’ and ‘local transport services’ in the Low Priority quadrant;
and ‘cultural/historical uniqueness’ in Possible Overkill quadrant. No
attribute has been identified in the Concentrate Here quadrant. The
respondents considered ‘safety and security’ as the most important item in
determining Penang as their holiday destination prior to the trip. Knowing
how visitors perceived the quality of services and facilities is the means
by which Penang can position itself and differentiate itself from
competitors and at the same time be able to prioritise tasks, allocate
resources and develop tailor-made marketing tactics and strategies for
their market segments.
The use of IPA has contributed both to the literature and the tourism
sector in Penang. IPA is an effective way for management to identify
what problems exists and why (Chu and Choi, 2000), and at the same
time, the results provide valuable insights to tourism players in
strategizing their marketing programs pertaining to services and product,
to meet and better satisfy the international visitors’ requirements and
expectations. However, there are a few areas regarding two possible
applications of IPA that should be tackled in future research. The
suggestions include applying the IPA technique to assess the perceptions
of different categories of visitors in Penang such as male and female
tourists, Asian and Western tourists, business and leisure tourists, firsttime and repeat tourists as well as youth and senior travellers. Analysing
the perceptions of quality for different market segments can better assist
managers and marketers to address and develop specific needs and
tourism packages of a particular segment. As this study only focused on
international travellers, it suggested that future research examines
domestic travellers to identify the important performance analysis factors
that influence their decision to visit and revisit Penang Island.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to extend their appreciation to the following
institutions that made this study and paper possible:
• Penang Global Tourism for granting the research grant called
Penang International Travellers Survey 2012 [Grant No. U527].
• Universiti Sains Malaysia for granting the Research University
Grant called Tourism Capacity and Impact Studies [Grant No.
1001/PTS/8660011].
SUBMITTED: SEP 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: FEB 2015
ACCEPTED: MAR 2015
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Shida Irwana Omar (irwanizar@gmail.com) is a research officer at
Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Sustainable Tourism Research Cluster,
Penang, Malaysia.
Ala`a Nimer Abukhalifeh (dr.abukhalifeh@gmail.com) is a PhD
candidate at Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), School of Housing,
Building and Planning, Penang, Malaysia.
Badaruddin Mohamed (drbada@gmail.com) is a professor at Universiti
Sains Malaysia (USM), School of Housing, Building and Planning,
Penang, Malaysia.
36
TOURISMOS: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF TOURISM
Volume 10, Number 1, Spring-Summer 2015, pp. 37-62
UDC: 338.48+640(050)
APPRAISAL OF FAMILY-FRIENDLY TOURISM IN
MALAYSIA
A.Habibah 1
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
J. Hamzah
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
A.C Er
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
A.Buang
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
S. Selvadurai
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Family tourism is a growing market even though it is understudied and
unexplored in Malaysia. Given the rising purchasing power and quality of life
among families, and little work has been done on exploring these family friendly
policies and their implementations, this article aims to uncover to what extent that
family-friendly policies are implemented in Malaysia. This article utilised a
descriptive method with qualitative data from historical writings, tourism reports
and research findings concerning the participation of family tourists. This study
revealed that the policies and implementations of family tourism are of different
level of concern among various stakeholders. At the national level, families are
encouraged at both explicit and implicit initiatives, while at the tourism providers
families characters are commoditised as tourism products. The changing demand
of families received attentions from the tourism providers as well as from the
governmental agencies. The setting up of a comprehensive guideline on familyfriendly destination should stand as a competitive edge in promoting family
tourism.
Keywords: family-friendly destination, family tourism, vacationing, caring,
tourism providers, commoditization
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
37
A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
INTRODUCTION
Tourism is competitive in nature and is changing rapidly in both the
developed and developing countries. Due to these circumstances of the
changing taste among new tourists and the increase in quality of life, both
the private and public tourism destinations and providers have
responsively and innovatively attended to product development and the
needs of these market segments (Cook, 1996; Beirne, 1999; Decrop &
Snelders, 2004; Yeoman, 2012). One of these growing segments is family
tourism, and it has been argued that providing a family-friendly
destination will guarantee their visitations (Bert & Lehto, 2008; Coates,
1996; Cook, 1996). Moreover, as the family tourists are changing
dramatically in terms of their travel demand, style and taste (Cohen &
Harris, 1998), a holistic understanding of what constitutes a friendly
tourism destination is therefore pertinent (Bert and Lehto, 2008; Kang et
al., 2003; Goldscheisder, 2000). This trend is apparently creating
competing destinations including those in the United States, United
Kingdom, Australia, Singapore and Thailand (Kang et al., 2003; Beioley,
2004; Gardyn, 2001, Beirne, 1999; Boylu & Terzioğlu, 2010; Yeoman,
2012). However, among family vacation sites and destinations that are
popular, one of the selling points in marketing and branding of the
tourism site or destination is still having a friendly destination.
In Malaysia, family tourism is a growing market for both the
domestic and international segments. However, both the domestic and
international tourism providers still lack a clear practice in meeting the
needs of the family market. In terms of the domestic market, factors of
increased quality time, changing of family characteristics and spending
abilities and habits have provided a strong basis for a better approach in
conceptualizing and designing a family-friendly tourism destination. On
the other hand, in terms of the international market, the family market in
Malaysia has been interpreted as tourists who are mostly ‘of the Middle
East origins’ (Mohd Yusoff & Abdullah, 2011; Ariffin & Hasim, 2009).
This situation reveals that very little attempt has been made in exploring
family tourism and that no attempt has been made to uncover the real
meaning of family-friendly policy and implementation.
To date, no comprehensive study has been explicitly conducted on
this matter in Malaysia; hence, there exists confusion over what tourismfriendly destination should be among those in the tourism businesses and
tourism governance. For this reason, there is an urgency to examine and
uncover what is of importance in family tourism since the family-friendly
policy and practices in Malaysia are crucial and are definitely supported
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Volume 10, Number 1, Spring 2015, pp. 37-62
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by a strong basis. Even though tourism has been significantly contributing
to the country’s economy through the large percentage of income
generated from international tourists as well as ranked fourth as the
source of national income, attempts toward strengthening the country’s
capability in harnessing the potentials of family tourism is still far from
making it the key strategies in the tourism development policies.
Although there were several domestic tourism surveys carried out in
the 1980s and early 1990s (Tourism Development Corporation 1988,
1991), it is only quite recently that domestic tourism has been extensively
researched; among others these studies involved the profiling of domestic
tourism (Badaruddin & Omar 2005; Foong–Peng, 1997), domestic tourist
and lifestyle (Gilbert & Abdullah, 2004; Biro Rundingan UKM, 1998)
and vacation among urban Malay families (Habibah, 2007) and family
vacation history (Habibah & Hamzah, 2012). However, tourism is one of
the key sectors that are spearheading the country in achieving high
economic growth through high yield tourism spending. In fact, tourism is
one of the key sectors in the economic transformation plan toward
achieving a developed nation in 2020. Yet, the family orientation policy
seems to be understated and has only been emphasized recently in which
it is generally stated as a fun family destination for domestic tourists, or
more specifically to attract and cater for the growing international markets
(Malaysia, 2010).
Taking into consideration that tourism-friendly destination has now
become the selling point, it can be claimed that Malaysian tourism
providers have yet to take full advantage of this niche. Therefore, this
study aims to identify the family-friendly policies at three levels of
implementations, namely at the national level, the tourism production
system level and the consuming family unit level.
LITERATURE REVIEW OF FAMILY-FRIENDLY TOURISM
Conceptualizing the family tourism
There is no one complete and mutually agreed definition of family
tourism among practitioners and tourism scholars (Kelly, 1999; Gardyn,
2001; Chesworth, 2003; Rugh, 2008; Schänzel, 2010). Taking into
account that family tourism is mostly positioned in tourism studies
compared to family studies, the following perspectives should become the
basis in reconceptualising family tourism.
Family tourism from the perspective of the family tourists is simply a
travel with several members or all the members of a family unit to a
39
A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
chosen destination. Even though the relevancy of this definition has been
challenged as the characteristics of families have changed in the last two
decades, the following characteristics should however, become the tenet
of family tourism (Brown, 1995). Although the purpose of family travel
varies, it is mainly concerned with social bonding, inter-generation
interest and family reunion (Yeoman, 2012; Schänzel, 2010; Kluin &
Lehto, 2012). The changing concept of family means that recent family
tourism is no longer a travel of the nuclear family. It currently extends
beyond the nature of family units and to certain circumstances it is
bounded to the definition of a family commonly applied in the country. In
recent developments, studies on family tourism have highlighted the
importance of exogenous and endogenous factors, including changes in
travelling mode and increase of quality of life (Cook & Cleary, 1983;
Maken, 1992; Gilbert & Abdullah, 1996).
On the other hand, family tourism from the perspective of tourism
providers means provision of facilities for the family at the destination or
at the tourism providers’ premises. As such, most providers will ensure
the provision of family facilities in the context of their services, their
business premises, and at the site or destination (Brey & Lehto, 2008). A
hotel or resort for example, will ensure that the family room, stay, food,
and services fit the needs of the family during their vacation. The
shopping sector on the other hand, will facilitate the shopping experiences
of the family members and ensure all their needs and those of interrelated
services such as dining, baby-care and mother’s feeding room are
provided under one roof. Theme parks will definitely be designed to
transform the concept of ‘family fun’, ‘play’ and ‘togetherness’ at their
modern re (created) leisure-scape.
Family tourism is not a new agenda in developed countries
(Krippendorf, 1987; Goodrich, 2000; Yeoman, 2012; Obrador, 2012).
Drawing upon the voluminous amount of literature in the early 50s and
60s until recently, four major themes can be summarized. The first is the
decision making of family tourism, which mostly focuses on the
processes of decision making. The majority of the studies have
operationally viewed family decision making as being one of three
categories: husband-dominant, wife-dominant, or joint decision between
husband and wife (Blood & Wolfe, 1960; Nichols & Snepenger, 1988).
The second stage concentrates on the family tourism dynamics according
to the life cycle of the family (Consenza & Davis, 1981; Fodness, 1992;
Belch & Willis, 2002; Bojanic, 1992, Bialeschki & Michener, 1994),
while the third theme tends to look into the production of more
specialized products for family tourism, including theme parks, zoo
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resort, sport, and cruise vacation (Brown, 1995; Milman, 1997; Carpenter,
1999; Lockstone & Baum, 2008). Studies grouped under the fourth theme
tends to concentrate on the role of family tourism in generating value
chain for the economy, either locally or regionally, and quality of life
(Gilbert & Abdullah, 2004; Brey & Lehto, 2008; Schänzel, 2010),
including the Visit Family and Friend (VFR) and Visit Relatives and
Friends (VRF) in their home country or country of origin (Cohen &
Harris, 1998; Moscardo et al., 2000). Studies that add to the importance
of family segmentation according to vacation decision making (Kang et
al., 2009; Moscardo et al., 1996), impacts of year-round holidays on
family vacation (Preecy, 2012) and decision making and women as well
as spouses roles are still expanding (Belch & Willis, 2002; Bronner & de
Hoog, 2008; Chen et al 2009, Obrador, 2012; Barlés-Arizón et al.,
2013; Kozak, 2010).
Family tourist
The family is a fundamental building block in a society, a business
and consumerism, and therefore, unravelling their characteristics and
needs to spur family tourism is essential. Several initiatives in
typologising the family tourist can be tracked in developed nations (Rugh,
2008, Southall, 2010; Gardner, 1995). Historically, in the 1930s or in the
golden age, Rugh (2008) categorized the American family tourists into
four, comprising of the ‘heritage travel’, ‘vacation out West’, ‘back to
nature’ and ‘resting in the countryside’. Mintel (2009) on the other hand
identified seven categories that ranged from single to silver haired
families, in which their demand on family-friendly facilities and services
is central to most of these segments. Yeoman (2012) asserts that as family
characteristics have changed, so has the behaviour of the family tourists.
Besides the conventional role of the husband-wife or father-mother on
vacation, travels with kids are growing significantly (Cullingford, 1995;
Thornton, Shaw & William, 1997; Lohmann & Danielsson, 2004). The
intergenerational vacation is seemingly dominating the Visit Family and
Friend (VFR) segment while the concept of fatherhood is also attracting
the family tourist (Moscardo et al., 2000, Seaton & Palmer, 1997; Poel,
Masurel & Nijkamp, 2004; Schänze & Smith, 2012). Above all, several
recent studies, as shown in Table 1, have revealed that the family tourists
or the family market are those tourists who undertake travelling with all
the members or only selected members of the family unit or families, with
the purpose of vacation and fulfilling the family’s leisure needs at either
domestic or international destinations.
41
A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
Table 1. Definition of Family Tourist
Scholars
Gonzales
and
Molina,
2009
Locality
and
segments
Spanish
family
tourist
Mintel
(2009)
U.S family
travel
market
Yeoman
(2012)
Australian
family
holiday
segment
Lohmann
&
Danielsson
(2004)
Carr
(2012)
German
family
Global
trend
Asia
Pacific
42
Family tourist characteristics
The second largest segment of Spanish tourist. Travel in
private vehicles compared to using the coach or train. The sun
and sea is the most important motivation even though VFR
accounts for a large percentage of the trips.
Private
residences are preferred, followed by apartments (25.1%).
The majority travelled in family groups, followed by couples.
The family leisure market is challenged by demographic
trends including a rise in single-parent families, and rising
socioeconomic inequalities. There is a growing demand for
grandparent/ grandchildren and multi-generational family
leisure. Leisure products for younger families are likely to
experience greater growth.
Family holidays are opportunities for ‘quality family time’,
allow bonding, and ensure happiness and togetherness of the
family, away from the distractions of everyday life. The
reasons families go on holiday differ from those of the
general holidaying individuals. Family holidays are less about
an escape or break ‘from’ home routines and more about
spending time ‘with’ the family (including extended family),
doing novel activities and creating positive memories. For
children, family holidays involve social fun, (re) connecting
people and social practices.
Family is the “new” trend affecting tourism.
One-child
family and seniors travelling with children create implications
for product design.
Family and multigenerational travels are the luxury that
consumers are seeking for. Top reasons for travels are
“seeking authentic experiences in new destinations,” “rest
and relaxation” and “personal enrichment”. Luxury travel
utilizes storytelling in its marketing campaigns.
Asia Pacific Family Travel 2012 survey found that families
on vacation spend even more than they already do. Survey of
key cities in seven Asia Pacific markets estimated that 44
million people travel on family holidays every year –
chalking up an annual spending of US$29 billion. 51 million
trips are made each year of which the length of stay for
domestic in comparison to international family travel is 4
days and 8 days respectively.
TOURISMOS: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF TOURISM
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Ariffin and
Hasim
(2009)
Arab
Family
tourist.
Arab tourists usually travel in the family group of 14 to 21
members; Demand demand a very high level of service in
their travel experiences. They prefer five-star hotels and high
quality service apartments especially with inter-connecting
rooms to ensure allow convenient access to their younger
family members. Collectivism (“we” not “I”) – belonging to
family and friendship group are very crucial. Parents are
highly influential in most decision making.
Source: Gonzales and Molina, 2009; Mintel, 2009; Yeoman, 2012; Lohmann & Danielsson,
2004; Carr, 2012, Ariffin and Hasim (2009).
Even though the literature on family tourism emphasizes on the
family members’ characteristics, as part of tourism studies, one cannot
overlook the categorization of tourists that is often referred to, especially
the conventional Cohen’s typology in the tourism bubble and Plog’s
motivational studies. In Malaysia, the market segmentation divides
tourists into five groups, namely “the Satisfiers”, “the Dreamers”, “the
Indoors”, “the Achievers” and “the Escapists” with five major motives of
pleasure travel which are “nature”, “culture”, “budget”, “adventure” and
“freedom” respectively (Abd Aziz & Ariffin, 2009). These labels provide
a general idea of lifestyle and travel motivations of pleasure tourists.
However, this classification fails to distinguish where family tourists lie
as the key player in pleasure travel.
Family-friendly destination, policies and implementation in
tourism
According to the United States market studies, family-friendly
destination is quite a recent phenomenon. In translating this concept into
the premises or localities of tourism, many tourism businesses are being
inspired to create their environment in favour of the family tourists. Based
on the existing practices undertaken in several selective markets, for
example Singapore, the UK and other tourism sub-sectors, a familyfriendly destination comprises of facilities that meet and satisfy each of
the family members’ needs. Table 3 shows some of the criteria chosen to
represent a family-friendly destination. One significant practice is the
priority given to the growing kids as the determinant of travel. Apart
from children, family-friendly destination comprises of facilities centred
on family safety and leisure. Meanwhile, family-friendly theme parks are
moving toward the concept of engaging family tourists with animals and
education. This is indeed an important change because considerable
attention is given to the individual’s time, parent’s vacation time and
43
A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
environmentally-friendly practices.
Similar to family-friendly destinations, family-friendly policies and
implementations are rarely established explicitly in tourism studies even
though these practices have been employed and accomplished implicitly.
However, recent studies on shopping, accommodation, gastronomy and
theme parks demonstrate the stakeholders’ commitments in fulfilling the
family’s needs during vacation. Some examples are presented below:
i) In Singapore, since family-friendly destination is considered a
newly growing concept, the three levels of tourism providers,
namely the government, business community and the public are
given full responsibility to refurbish their premises or areas of
public interest. The industries and business entities are encouraged
to establish family-friendly environment according to the Code on
Barrier Free Accessibility in Buildings, especially in meeting the
needs of families with children. These guidelines include the
provision of family rooms, diaper changing stations, childfriendly toilets, children’s play areas, lockers for prams and other
heavy belongings, pram and child buggy rental facilities, flexible
arrangement of tables and chairs in eating places, and the
provision of baby chairs in eating places (Anon, 2012).
ii) Another example is the establishment of Family Tourism
Destination (FTD) in Salou of Catalonia. The family-friendly
practices are managed as follows: firstly, a special FTD seal of
approval is given to municipalities and tourist areas in recognition
of their especially family-oriented facilities and high quality
services. This requires them to offer family-friendly
accommodation and catering facilities, and to have a wide range of
entertainment and leisure options. The introduction of the FTD
brand is a gradual process. During the first year, the municipality
or area has a minimum of 15% of its tourist facilities certified as
Family Tourism Destinations, rising to 35% over the years.
Secondly, safety, communication and family-friendliness are
aspects of concern in both the public and private space including
tourist accommodation. A wide range of services for children can
be found, ranging from high chairs, nappy changing areas,
babysitting services, nurseries, beach play areas, children’s water
sport equipment for hire, adventure sports for all ages to activities
for children to discover the culture and history of the municipality
and the parks, children’s guide to the municipality, as well as easy
access to information and tourist offices (Banyeres, 2008).
Thus, based on the above mentioned literatures, the authors in this
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study have identified several components that may determine the extent of
family-friendly policy and implementation in tourism which can be seen
at the three levels, namely the national level, the tourism business
initiatives and the family tourist.
METHODS
Data collection and analysis
Utilising a qualitative method, this study was conducted in three
phases. Phase one drew upon the existing literatures on family tourism,
especially from tourism scholars and experts on family studies. Based on
the literature on family tourism, the authors focused on several aspects of
family-friendly components comprising the family as the key actor,
diversity of family attractions, cultural factors, pricing, accessibility,
image, political stability, safety and health. These have assisted the
authors to identify the family-friendly entities in both the tangible and
intangible products as well as family experiences.
The second phase of this study focused on family tourism and
tourism studies in the Malaysian context. In deriving ‘who are the actors’,
‘what elements are they representing’ and ‘where are the localities of the
activities/experience’, sources of data were divided into several
categories, which included the documents of national plans such as the
Five Year Plans as well as tourism documents produced by the Ministry of
Tourism and Tourism Malaysia. The five year plan documents in fact,
provided an overview at the national, local and industrial level. The
authors also looked into various reports on domestic tourists and
recreational activities.
Taking into account that family tourists and family tourism are often
discussed as part of the social-dimensions of tourist profiling in the
Malaysian context, hence the third phase involved the analysis of the
descriptive illustration of the family tourists while they had their vacation.
Specifically, the domestic tourists’ survey by Tourism Malaysia was used
to gauge the patterns of family tourism.
Based on the above mentioned phases, and particularly with the data
collected, this study used the qualitative method to examine the familyfriendly initiatives at the three institutional levels of family tourism and
family tourists which were i) the national level, ii) the tourism providers
and iii) the family as the tourist. All of these procedures provided
evidence of the family-friendly policies and implementations in the
Malaysian context.
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A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The family-friendly initiatives were examined at three institutional
levels of family tourism and family tourists, namely i) the national
tourism organization, ii) the tourism providers and iii) the family as the
tourist.
Institutionalization of family tourism at the national level
Being regarded as a consumer-oriented product that is in favour of
the family segment, family characteristics and images should be ideally
represented and portrayed in family tourism. Hence, in attracting both
the international and domestic tourists, needs of the family play an
integral part at all levels of production, be it at the policy, planning or
product development stage which covers the promotion, marketing and
services that it has to provide. Is this scenario visibly taking place in the
country’s tourism development so far?
At the national level, tourism is governed by the Ministry of Tourism
who is responsible for the policy, infrastructure improvement,
beautification, environmental protection and new investment, and in
providing promotion both locally and internationally. Besides the
Ministry, several ministries also lend their hand in organising tourism
related events, especially the Ministry of Women, Family and Community
Development and Ministry of Culture, Arts and Heritage. However, after
more than 40 years of being involved in tourism since hosting the PATA
meeting in 1972, the country’s tourism policy, planning and development
are still considered to be at the periphery of the development stage. At this
juncture, it seems uncertain whether tourism has been successfully
implemented, especially in terms of domestic tourism. Looking at the
tourism policy, it appears that the international tourist market has been
given more priority instead, with the majority of the policies being an
"elite driven policy," as Richter (1999: 42) asserts:
… Tourism policy in most countries has been an elite-driven policy,
chosen by the powerful for political and economic advantage on both
personal and regimen levels. It is characteristically at the beginning a
chosen policy, something governments choose to embark upon, not
something forced on them…
Domestic tourism was not given much attention in the early decades
of the country’s participation in the 1970s and 1980s. However, during
those two decades, masses of families were significantly involved in
domestic tourism, flocking into a cluster of tourist areas such as beaches,
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hill stations and cities for a short break or holidays. Additionally, during
those days, most of the travels were influenced by leisure and escape from
work as well as visiting friends and relatives. Even though accessibility to
destinations was moderate, many still pursued it with personal
transportation.
It was in fact only during the Visit Malaysia Year 1990 that more
efforts were introduced to ensure continuous progression in domestic
tourism. Following this, even though the Seventh and Eighth Malaysia
Plan had introduced customer and tactical-based product development,
family-friendly tourism was not listed as one of the key products. Instead,
the senior citizen, student, honeymooners, shopping tourism, Malaysia
my second home and theme park tourist segments were given wide
coverage and promotion (Malaysia 2003, 359-361; Malaysia 2006, 201203). From such scenario, it can be summed up that family tourism is yet
to be infused in tourism Malaysia only generally, not at the exclusion
dimensions as what have been stressed in other products in the
international promotion and marketing wise. Spatially, more destinations
are dispersed in the West Coast compared to the east coast of Peninsular
Malaysia and East Malaysia (Mohd Shahwahid et al., 1991). Even
though the National Tourism Master Plan was launched in 1975 and has
been implemented since then, family tourism was not exclusively focused
on as the key actors of the tourism market.
Nevertheless, in the present-day era, vigorous efforts were made in
portraying the significance of family on vacation or holidaying together
with family members in particular at the national level, especially when
these activities are associated with fostering a caring family, as well as
community and societal bonding. Promotions not only focused on urban
citizens in major cities such as Kuala Lumpur and Johor Bahru, but were
also extended to the medium sized towns and tourist destinations
including Seremban, Melaka, Shah Alam and Genting Highlands
(Habibah, 2007; MATTA 2014).
However, the underlying reasons for the enhancement of promotions
in Cuti-cuti Malaysia in the four major segments, including those
classified as the inactive family segment was quite misleading, and this
occurred because of the limitation in understanding what matters in
family tourism. The intensification of promotion among the Malay
families was mainly with the aim of enhancing ‘the correct ways of
spending holidays’ rather than only ‘spending vacation as balik kampung
(going back to their home town)’. The families are encouraged to travel,
share and experience many activities as well as consume the facilities at
tourism destinations. In fact, in one of the Tourism Ministry initiatives in
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A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
Cuti-cuti Malaysia, a similar emphasis was made:
Planned holidays among families and friends are a necessity in life,
he said when launching the "Cuti Cuti Malaysia Train"…."Go on
holidays with your families and friends so that your productivity will
increase, your quality of life will improve and last but not least you can
strengthen that special link… By touring the country and shopping
together with the family, you will be helping the country also in promoting
domestic tourism…
(Utusan Express 31 October 2000)
Although it is not a conflicting issue, it still indicates disagreements
in understanding, practices and interests between families, business or
tourism providers and the government. Meanwhile, the various different
ministries and agencies including the Ministry of Women, Family and
Community Development and Ministry of Culture, Art and Heritage
(recent name-Ministry of Tourism and Culture) are lending their hands in
organizing programmes that encourage and promote tourism. Some of
these programmes are the ‘Domestic Tourism Campaign’,‘Happy Family’
and 1Malaysia that demonstrated family tourism coexists with other
programmes, strategies and national aspiration (Anon, 2004; Habibah,
2007).
Of recent Visit Malaysia 2014, through Cuti-cuti Malaysia, all
segments including families are encouraged to take part in tourism
activities. With almost every state offers wide ranges of tourism products
throughout the year, families’ choices remain intact with the lifestyle,
school holidays and spending capability as well as the rising cost of
living.
Commoditization of families as tourism product
The private sector, in general, is likely to initiate a more familyoriented tourism compared to the public sector whose initiatives normally
emphasise on all products and segments. Historically, the role of the
private sector can be seen in the early 1960s. These recent days, the
modern economic sector has created a leisure-based market demandsupply which includes a working system that separates the formal
working hours, break hours and paid-day-off. Through the International
Labour Law and National Labour Law, each employee in the public or
private sector is eligible for paid-vacation-leave. The regulation indicates
the complexity of the production system which allows the intervention of
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tourism providers at various levels and sectors. However, besides
providing vacation opportunities for the employees, it also has widened
the segmentation in the marketplace in terms of accommodation,
landscape, food, music, home, leisure activities and sports.
Marketing mechanism
As a consumer-oriented product, competitive pricing and
accessibility to marketing channels to all family segments, regardless of
their region, race, socioeconomic and cultural background are some of the
key conditions for family tourism business expansion. In simple words,
all family segments have an equal opportunity to consume family tourism
and therefore, tourism providers at all levels should attempt these
markets.
In Malaysia, marketing tourism is undertaken at various stages and
mechanisms. At the national level, most of the strategic and direct
marketing programmes are implemented by the government or the related
stakeholders. Through Tourism Malaysia, the marketing network and
promotion maintains its priority in developing the international tourist
sector compared to the domestic sector. This can be seen in the
programmes that are strategically aimed at increasing the number of
tourism offices abroad from 30 to 40, compared to the tourist information
centres in the country, which is not only small in numbers but limited in
its facilities and located only in major destinations. Nevertheless, at the
state level, the pro-active roles are reflected in the domestic marketing
campaigns. This initiative was in fact a shift from the conventional
campaign for international markets often organised in the 1970s, 1980s
and early 1990s (Malaysia, 1995).
At the core of the private sector marketing, tactical approaches are
more preferred as these allow widening of the market segmentation.
However, family segmentation is not explicitly portrayed. Among the
travel agencies for example, packaging of the product to the urban
population and international markets is significantly attempted. Data
derived from 1970 to 2000 implied that more sales were focused on the
overseas market, and these were mostly operating in major cities. It was
only in the early 2000 that marketing was widened and strategically
included all segments of the population to fly for domestic destination.
Packaging of the cheapest travel mode was due to mass marketing, in
which MATTA, MAS, AirAsia and FireFly were among the providers
who have materialised to increase domestic tourists or travellers
(Habibah, 2007). This has directly reduced discrimination and segregation
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A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
between the elites and the masses, and between the major and remote
destinations. Based on these channels, not only the major urban centres Kuala Lumpur, Johor Bahru and Georgetown are given access to potential
segments, similar promotional campaigns in secondary cities - Ipoh and
Kuantan and surrounding towns are capable of capturing the family
segment as well.
Another successful strategy is the Matta International Travel Fair
(MITF), which was first organized in 1991. During the MITF 1991, only
9,000 visitors attended the fair, while during the MITF 2005 and 2006, the
crowds reached up to 60,000 and 90,000 visitors respectively. While the
MITF22 was organised in Kuala Lumpur, similar smaller exhibitions were
conducted in other destinations, namely in Sabah, Perak and Sarawak,
thus, providing more chances for families at different levels of
accessibility to consume or engage in family tourism. In fact, visitors
attending the Matta Mach and Matta September 2013 reached to a higher
volume and exceed the organiser’s estimation, 100, 118 and 120,000
visitors respectively (Matta 2013), and family tours are among the
popular package deals for both domestic and international market sold.
Added to this, smart partnerships between the aviation, transportation and
communication agencies in packaging family-oriented packages also
provided family tourists a wide range of choices; some of the smart
partnerships included collaborative network between Air Asia and Pos
Malaysia, and networking between PLUS Highways with some of the
theme parks (Habibah, 2007).
Other than encouraging vacation, creating the family image is also
crucial in dealing with what families want when they are at the
destinations. This is clearly demonstrated in some of the private
initiatives. ‘Jalan-jalan cari makan’, ‘destinasi pelancongan’ and
‘Breakaway Destination’ are some of the initiatives that encouraged the
local family to vacate locally - nationwide, while the Discovery Channel
and Travel Channel approached families toward their participation in
international travels (Shazryn, 2007). By using media approaches, these
domestic and international family images are directing vacationers to
choose both local and international destinations.
The recent trend is the use of websites and tourism portals which are
often operationalised in improving channels as well as dimensions of
product image. Based on the promotional network analysis, efforts in
creating and improving family vacation images in this country are still far
behind in comparison to the initiatives taken by developed countries.
Family images can be viewed from various perspectives especially ‘who
should be there’, and ‘what facilities’ or ‘which activities fit and are
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enjoyed the most’ by family vacationers. To date, there is no single local
website that provides comprehensive knowledge regarding family
vacation activities in Malaysia. In contrast, international tourism website
agencies such as ‘Expedia.com’, ‘travel with kids’, ‘Family Travel
Engine’ and ‘all travelling kids family vacations’ provide comprehensive
information and knowledge on family tourism. Added to this, various
segments with respect to family life cycle, needs, motivations and
experiences as well as tips for success are also well informed in these
sites.
In fact, an initiative of a German private TV to record a holidaythemed family vacation, Nature Adventure in Sarawak clearly shows that
the international agency is promoting family vacation more than the local
agencies. It was only in conjunction with Visit Malaysia Year 2007 that
one of the television reality show Cuti Cuti Famili recorded the fun and
uniqueness of family vacation, thus paving the involvements of local
family as a host in order to develop a family vacation image in promoting
tourism in Malaysia. From the marketing wise of the private-led
initiatives, families began to be dealt exclusively as a prospective tourist
segment.
Of recent development, this country is hosting a Visit Malaysia Year
2014 (VMY 2014) with the theme “Celebrating 1Malaysia Truly Asia” to
reflect the diversity in unity of all Malaysians. Being considered as a
national mission, every family has multi-facet roles to play; as users/
users/tourists, frontline, organiser and host of the country. Simply, with
more than 200 events/tourism products available in 2014, families remain
key player and determinant in tourism development at the national level.
They are expected to participate actively at any national, state and local
events, hence, making the enjoyment of hosting mega events more fruitful
in terms of generating income and creating businesses.
Initiatives of the tourism sub-sectors
This study also carried out an overview of the initiatives by tourism
sub-sectors in providing what has been commoditised as family tourism.
Taking into consideration that accommodation or the hotel sector,
shopping and food, and gastronomic tourism are among the highest
spending sectors in tourism receipts, this study explored how these subsectors generate innovative commoditisation of ‘family faces’, for both
the domestic as well as the international markets.
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A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
Table 2. Diversifying family needs in the accommodation sector
Facilities or Services
Commoditisation of family segment
Rooms – Various types
•
•
•
Baby needs
needs
Baby sitters
and
Kids
Swimming pool for kids
and family
Kids club and games for
family
Restaurant, café, breakfast
and menu.
Leisure and Recreation
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Guest Room/ Family areas
Kids’ games indoor and
outdoor
Golf
Decoration
•
•
•
•
•
Various offer from time to time and season to season.
Extra charge according to season, peak and super peak
season.
Family room, available for family with small kids at
least 2 adults and 2 children.
Children’s bed available with extra charge
Charge with services provided, and services provided
apart from the room.
Free with parent guardian.
Only in house guests can use these facilities while
visitors of the guest are not allowed.
Need entry fees or member fees during stay in.
Facilities and game room – indoor and outdoor
provided, some are free of charge with only some
facilities requiring a small fee – bicycle, kayak and
woodball.
Complimentary in family room, breakfast provided for
two adults and two kids.
Family areas and kids' menu in selective café and
restaurant. Kids’ hour.
Food for kids and kids’ areas. Charges on perusal.
Family leisure and Family recreation – Karaoke for
family.
Play with pets, Rabbit Park, birding, flora and fauna,
bicycle and horse riding provided where a small fee is
charged.
Children’s program – cartoons.
Provided in family room, normally in resort and
holiday villas.
Not provided in room, only at games or kids’ room.
Kids’ TV channels not provided to all.
Provided to members only.
Does not provide decoration concept for children, only
in international hotels that collaborate with
international providers of kids’ games in this initiative,
such as Barbie.
Source: Habibah 200
The hotel sector is one of the examples where innovative initiatives
in packaging to the family tourists are generated. Simply put, families are
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commodities in various forms of sales and packages and these can be seen
in Table 2 and Figure 1. Ranging from the conventional room offerings –
family room, family hours, family games both indoors and outdoors, the
recent offerings are more innovative that transcend the family’s needs for
family food, family day and family gatherings. In fact, customer oriented
services tackle the keen interests and needs of the family members
especially the children and the elderly, generating substantial amounts of
business during peak seasons (Ben, 2004). However, the local news still
reported that family segments have only received little attention from the
hoteliers as mentioned below:
Many hotels make the mistake of not offering more than the staple
television or swimming pool for their guests’ recreation. So, a hotel with
more varied diversions – such as children’s playground, telematches and
volleyball games – will certainly draw repeat visitors. Managing a resort
or hotel recreation programme requires loads of energy and creativity,...
Immediate focus … is to make the Children’s Programme the regional
market leader. The resort also offers facilities such as water sports, tennis,
basketball, archery, volleyball and scheduled games and lessons such as
aerobics, water aerobics, cooking and carving classes, tai chi and yoga
(The Star 2003, 12 January).
Various special occasions related to families such as celebrating a
family member’s birthday, anniversary, mother’s day, father’s day as well
as family day are commodities as family products available in the
accommodation sector. The accommodation or hotel sector does indeed
create suitable menus in meeting the needs of the celebration of ethnic
festivals such as Makan Besar which is normally practiced during the
Chinese New Year and the Breaking of Fast during the Ramadan month
(Yip, 2004). Therefore, whatever opportunities of social fabrications of
the modern family lifestyles can be translated into family tourism be they
the economy or the five star hotel offerings. Moreover, taking the special
incentive of RM3, 000 spending for such activities, intensification of
family day among corporate and business organisations have helped to
double the demand of family tourists as the guest of the hotel sector.
Shopping is another proactive sector accommodating the family’s
needs in tourism. During the early years of tourism development in the
country (in the 1970s), shopping malls are not considered as tourism
products. However, as tourism began to flourish, and is defined as an
amalgam of activities including shopping, it is therefore unsurprising that
many shopping malls have explored into providing family enjoyment, fun
and experiences. In the late 1990s especially, shopping is themed in the
promotional campaigns for both domestic and international markets.
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A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
Destination, Rooms and Incentive Packages for
Family Guest
Types of facilities
Offers
Golf for family
Leisure and
playground for
Organised indoor
and outdoor leisure
activities leisure
Kids’ Menu
Familiy needs in
Hotel sector
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Rooms and
Family package
Facilities and
amenities used
by families
Playground
Children’s club
Kids and babies’
needs
Kids’ menu
Baby sitting
New experiences
Baby sitting and
child care
Chidren’s club
Figure 1. Commoditisation of Family Tourism
Source: Habibah, 2007
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Due to the increase in the number of families favouring shopping as a
major activity during vacation, many premises and outlets have
intensified their indoor ambiances with family facilities, catering to
family needs and characteristics, including baby’s changing room and
baby sitters facilities. Besides the seasonal offerings to all members of
families, they also collaborate with other sectors, i.e. transportation, hotels
as well as theme parks in packaging family tourism experiences.The
current trend is the offering of free holiday packages from megashopping malls as a way of showing their appreciation to the family
shoppers and caring business entity.
The theme parks, normally perceived as postmodern tourism
development also adopted a customer-oriented approach in designing
their landscape exclusively for family fun and recreation. Although this
sector is considered a late comer in the Malaysian tourism landscape,
almost every state currently offers theme parks for family fun and
excitement as their unique selling point. The promotional campaigns often
demonstrate the unforgettable moments of family members having fun at
the water parks, indoor games as well as the enduring adventure
experiences. In fact, theme parks promote the caring and social bonding
that attract most urban families.
THE CONSUMING FAMILY
One significant factor that influences the rising number of family
tourists is the changing lifestyles of the Malaysian families. As the
country is heading toward becoming a high income nation, families with
increasing household income tend to acquire higher purchasing power. In
short, the rising number of families with purchasing power have helped to
move these families toward purchasing of non-basic goods and services
especially leisure and tour packages. The existence of dual family income
in the country where mothers are now playing significant role in family
spending has also impacted the family holiday’s consumption. The
mothers often do not determine the choices of vacation, but now their
influence is often extended to what and where to spend and the length of
stay. More importantly, while earlier motives for vacation seem to be
linked to escaping from the home environment, the recent trend of
consuming families is associated with ‘home away from home’. This
theme has eventually had more impact on the comfort, safety and leisure
of the family.
In addition, women's involvement in the formal employment sector
has boosted the leisure needs among dual-income families. Their
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A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
involvements have not only contributed to the rising of the women,
mother and family’s purchasing power, but it has also increased the desire
of having quality time with family members. Realizing the changes in
lifestyle and the desire of the mothers to have a "break" from the
household routine without sacrificing the needs of the family, the
entrepreneurs are seen to provide a variety of vacation products according
to the current needs of the family.
Furthermore, the changing style of purchasing power because of the
extensive usage of credit cards has also influenced vacation purchases
among those in the family segment.
It is estimated that by 2013,
household income will increase to RM47, 400.00 with the high and
middle income group serving as the most important consumer groups
particularly in transportation, communication, recreational and
educational expenses. Recreational expenditure is forecasted to increase
to 6.4 percent of household spending, compared with 5.8 percent a decade
earlier. This certainly enhances the families’ ability to go for a vacation,
locally or abroad.
CONCLUSION
This study revealed that the family-friendly policies and its
implementations in Malaysia were dealt with at the three institutional
levels of tourism, namely the national, the state and private-led tourism
providers and the consuming families. Although diverse approaches have
been attempted in the commoditization of family tourism, as yet there is
no guideline, framework and indicators on what signifies a familyfriendly destination. In terms of implementation, the family-friendly
concept has been interpreted and developed to increase the number of
family tourists.
At the national level, family tourism was linked with the national
policies, aiming at achieving social and caring society. At the tourism
providers’ level, initiatives were associated with being friendly and caring
to the families to ensure the market’s sustainability. Although
commoditisation of family characters in tourism landscape emerged in
many of the postmodern products, especially in term theme parks and
accommodation sector. At the family level, however, family vacation is
consumed because of the extensive promotional campaigns from both the
national and private entities as well as the increasing awareness on the
need to take more vacations to have better family quality time.
Therefore, at these three tiers of policies and implementation,
interpretation of what signifies family-friendly destination depends on the
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mechanism, creativity and knowledge of the stakeholders be they the
governance, tourism providers or the family unit itself. In conclusion, it
is timely to establish a guideline of family-friendly destination with
serious consideration of these three levels of family tourism system. This
is to ensure family tourism sustainable, and more important, every family
has her/his basic needs of the high income citizenry.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This research is financially supported by the following research grants, UKMDIPM-087-2011, Young Scholar Grant, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, and
Research Development Grant, Tourism Product Development in Malaysia, Faculty
of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.
SUBMITTED: JUN 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: DEC 2014
ACCEPTED: JAN 2015
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
A.Habibah (ha@ukm.my) is a Senior Lecturer at the School of Social,
Development and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences and
Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia.
J. Hamzah (hi@ukm.my) is an Associate Professor at the School of
Social, Development and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Social
Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600,
Malaysia.
A.C Er (eveer@ukm.my) is an Associate Professor at the School of
Social, Development and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Social
Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600,
Malaysia.
A.Buang (amriah@ukm.my) is a Senior Professor at the School of Social,
Development and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences and
Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia.
61
A.Habibah, J. Hamzah, A.C Er,, A.Buang & S. Selvadurai
S. Selvadurai (sivap@ukm.my) is an Associate Professor at the School of
Social, Development and Environmental Studies, Faculty of Social
Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600,
Malaysia.
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SATISFACTION FORMATION AND TYPOLOGY OF
BAR CUSTOMERS
Angelos Pantouvakis 1
University of Piraeus
Christos Patsiouras
University of Piraeus
The main purposes of this study is to identify the service features that determine
overall customer satisfaction in the entertainment industry and to suggest a
satisfaction-based typology of bar customers depending on their loyalty status.
The research questions were examined using a sample of 1,263 multinational bar
customers in Greece. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis coupled with
cluster analysis were used to examine the extent to which elements of satisfaction
may be identified and combined with loyalty rankings to segment the bar market’s
customers. The results showed support for both hypotheses and confirmed that
interactive and physical elements are antecedents of customer satisfaction.
Moreover, results found that bar customers may be segmented into four distinct
groups (enthusiastic, apathetic, peripheral and kinetic). The bar managers may
better address their customers’ requirements by choosing whether to invest in
refurbishing the establishment or better train their personnel to maximise patron
satisfaction and loyalty.
Keywords: service features, satisfaction, loyalty, bars
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
Entertainment has long been recognised as a consistent part of
everyday life. It has been constantly growing, providing economic,
cultural and social benefits on community cohesions (Jiwa et al., 2009;
Tutenges, 2013). Nightlife is also considered a part of a typical country
tourist package as many travelers may select or evaluate, among other
criteria, a destination because of its availability of bars or clubs, their
operating hours, the provided quality, etc. (Narayan et al., 2008).
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
63
Angelos Pantouvakis & Christos Patsiouras
However, the existing service marketing literature provided limited
insight into consumer behavior and attitudes regarding various
entertainment venues and the factors that influence customer satisfaction
and loyalty. The main body of literature neglects the bar sector in general
and the extant theory, in this area, is rather thin, especially in the field of
customer loyalty and retention. One possible explanation may be that the
switching costs in bars are very low and the impact of cost on customers’
satisfaction elasticity is very low (Lee et al., 2001). However, it is
reasonable to assume that a high level of satisfaction is strongly correlated
with increased customer loyalty.
Motivated by this lack of findings, the current research focus on
nightclubs and bars, stressing the need for a new instrument that will be
closely positioned to meet bar customer needs and expectations and try to
investigate service features, taking into consideration particularities that
result from the nature of the bars. Moreover, it is focused on the
measurement and ranking of the importance of these service features in
the overall customer satisfaction. Finally, it suggests a satisfaction-based
typology of bar customers based on loyalty rankings.
The following part of the paper presents the theoretical background.
In the next section, the research methodology is reported. A discussion of
the findings and the managerial implications comprised the following
section. The paper completed with survey conclusions.
THE
TRIAD:
SERVICE
SATISFACTION - LOYALTY
FEATURES
-
CUSTOMER
Many models have been developed to measure service quality. The
most widely acknowledged model is the American five-dimension
SERVQUAL (Parasuraman et al., 1988). However, SERVQUAL’s
applicability to different service industries has been questioned in terms
of the number and the nature of its dimensions (Jabnoun and Khalifa,
2005). Thus, the development of industry-specific measures was proposed
(Dabholkar et al., 1996) and numerous studies in different service sectors
have sought to develop industry-specific service-quality scales (Ladhari,
2009). Accordingly, in the sector of hedonic services, researchers used a
modified or adapted version of SERVQUAL or developed new
instruments for the measurement of service quality.
Specifically, the results of a survey conducted within the hospitality
industry of North Cyprus supported the notion that service quality
consists of two dimensions — tangibles and intangibles (Nadiri and
Hussain, 2005). Blešić et al. (2011) measured service quality in spa hotels
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and revealed quality problems, such as inappropriate arrangement of
facilities and equipment, age of facilities in general, lack of understanding
of contemporary demand trends, the unaccomplished process of hotel
privatization, uniformity of tourism offers and lack of market research
related to hotel services consumers. In addition, Akbaba (2006) created a
questionnaire with 29 questions to measure service quality in Turkish
business hotels. He identified four dimensions – tangibles, adequacy in
service supply, understanding and caring, assurance and convenience.
Soriano (2002), using a large sample of Spanish restaurants (N=3.872),
evaluated their food quality, their service quality, their atmosphere quality
and their price/quality ratio. Stevens et al. (1995) used SERVQUAL as a
basis to create a service quality measure named DINESERV, which
focused on measuring the level of employee service and restaurant
atmosphere. Their instrument consists of 29 questions divided into five
determinants (tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, empathy),
enriching the tangibility dimension with more items (ten instead of four).
Khan (2003) examined service quality expectations in ecotourism, using
an adapted version of SERVQUAL dubbed ECOSERV. She used six
dimensions
(tangibles,
ecotangibles,
reliability,
assurance,
responsiveness, and empathy) and noticed that ecotourists had generally
lower expectations than those of other consumers in other contexts.
From the aforementioned brief literature review and taking into
consideration the expanded review in this matter by Ladhari (2008; 2009),
it can be supported that the number and nature of the dimensions in the
context of hedonic services varied from two to ten, depending on the
service context (hotel, restaurant, tourism, etc). Similarly, the
measurement of service features in bars is too different to implement by
merely adapting the existing instruments. For example, a fundamental
difference of this service industry is that consumers will often use some
affective criteria to evaluate service, in addition to the traditional service
quality measures. Specifically, they mainly visit a bar for enjoyment
purposes and evaluate it in terms of how much pleasure they have
received. Hence, arousal will be more pronounced in the quality
evaluation (Jiang and Wang, 2006). Thus, to gain a better understanding
of the factors that lead to consumer choices, satisfaction, and loyalty
behaviors, this study needs to go beyond the traditional SERVQUAL and
develop a bar industry service-quality scale.
Another issue that employs researchers is the relationship between
service quality and customer satisfaction. Some researchers consider the
concepts of service quality and customer satisfaction to be synonymous
(Oliva et al., 1992) whereas others have found notable distinctions
65
Angelos Pantouvakis & Christos Patsiouras
between them (Sureshchandar et al., 2002). Different opinions have also
been expressed about the antecedents of service quality and customer
satisfaction (Cronin and Taylor, 1994, Ting, 2004). Recent approaches
argue for the benefit of merging the two heavily debated service elements
into one (Gronroos, 2001) stating that service quality dimensions should
be measured alongside customer satisfaction. Quality, as such, should not
be measured, because research indicates that the technical and functional
features directly influence perceived customer satisfaction. The two-factor
model of service quality (physical and interactive features) as well as the
direct relationship of these two features with customer satisfaction was
recently confirmed (Pantouvakis and Bouranta, 2013).
Customer loyalty was viewed as the strength of the relationship
between an individual’s relative attitude toward an entity and subsequent
repeat patronage (Dick and Basu, 1994). More recently, loyalty has been
conceived as the revealed customers’ behavior, which is mainly defined
with reference to the pattern of past purchases. Customer buying is
performed through trial and error by choosing the brand that provides a
satisfactory experience without devoting time, trouble and effort to search
for an alternative, except when the usual brand is unavailable (Ehrenberg
et al., 2004). At times, loyalty is described not as a behavior but as a
strong attitudinal commitment to a brand (Mellens et al., 1996), taking the
form of a consistently favourable set of stated beliefs — e.g., to like, feel
committed to, recommend, and have positive feelings toward the brand
purchased (Dick and Basu, 1994). It is assumed that it is more profitable
to retain existing customers than to attract new customers, and it is
commonly assumed that customer satisfaction serves as a particularly
important antecedent of customer retention and thus long-term customer
relationships through loyalty (Chatzigeorgiou et al., 2009). Loureiro and
Gonzalez (2008) also indicated that satisfaction is related to loyalty
through trust.
METHODOLOGY
Hypotheses formation
It has been supported that environment quality and interaction
dimensions tend to be important in hedonic service consumption (Nguyen
et al., 2012). In addition, as it has been mentioned, recent studies also
supported the superiority of the two-dimensional instruments
(Pantouvakis and Bouranta, 2013, Pantouvakis, 2010). Hence, this survey
focused on these two service features.
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According to Joseph-Mathews et al. (2009), one fringe benefit that
many service providers have focused on is the physical environment
which has become an opportunity to aid in the affective gratification
consumers actively seek out in a hedonic service. In the bar sector,
Grayson and McNeill (2009: 519) highlighted the importance of
environment, supported that “bars tend to sell a similar range of products,
they differentiate themselves from competitors by manipulating elements
of their environment to create a unique atmosphere”. In addition, Skinner
et al. (2005) found that the bar exterior is the most important factor for
customers in deciding whether to enter such a bar for the first time.
Grayson and McNeill (2009) initiated that atmosphere cues such as
music, lighting, layout (crowding, waiting queue, knowledge) have the
ability to creative positive emotions and behaviors of customers. Caldwell
and Hibbert (2002) examined the effect of music as one atmospheric
element that affected restaurant patron behavior and Pons et al. (2006)
focused on crowding as a positive aspect of social environments that can
enhance consumer enjoyment. The quality and variety of drinks, which is
the tangible good exchanged, is also a deciding factor for many guests
when they pick a bar to visit (Lashley and Rowson, 2000).
Such hedonic services offer also an intangible experience that related
“to the nature of interaction between the service firm and its customers
and the process by which the core service is delivered” (Bell et al., 2005:
172). Interactive features refer to the interface communication between
the customer and the first-line employee of a firm, which take time during
the moment of thruth (Bouranta et al., 2009). Consumer behavior in bars
is thus shaped in part by the exchange between the customer and the
environment in which the provision of the service takes place.
Following the previously presented contentions, it is logical to
assume that:
H1: Physical and Interactive features best describe overall customer
satisfaction in the bar industry
According to Blešić et al. (2011), identification of consumer
segments plays an important role in proper positioning within the market
since the different segments, which share dissimilar characteristics of
consumers, require different treatment. It is proposed that new and loyal
customers should be treated as distinct segments (Mittal and Katrichis,
2000). The link between satisfaction and loyalty has been used
extensively to segment different markets or characterise customer types.
Specifically, Ehrenberg and Scriven (1999) found three segments that best
describe the loyalty status of customers to a brand: the monogamous
(100% loyal), the promiscuous (no loyalty to any brand) and the
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Angelos Pantouvakis & Christos Patsiouras
polygamous (loyal to a portfolio of brands in a product category), with the
latter being the majority. Jones and Sasser (1995) presented a very
intuitive classification of an individual’s link between satisfaction and
loyalty. They were classified into four different groups: loyalist/apostle
(high satisfaction-high loyalty), defector/terrorist (low satisfaction-low
loyalty), mercenary (high satisfaction-low loyalty), and hostage (low
satisfaction-high loyalty). Similarly, Rowley (2005) identified four
segments of loyal customer (captive, convenience-seekers, contented and
committed), explaining the customer typical behaviors and attitudes
associated with each category. Santos et al. (2013) presented a market
segmentation of a Portuguese social tourism program, based, among other
characteristics, seniors’ loyalty. They found three groups: the passive
seniors, the socio-cultural seniors, and the active seniors. Another study,
in the hotel industry, suggested a taxonomic framework that categorizes
loyalty program members into four classes. Class members differ with
respect to the attitudes they hold, the behaviors they exhibit, and the
motivations they have for maintaining membership in the program
(Hansen et al., 2010).
Using the two service features from H1, the second hypothesis was
formed:
H2: The bar customers may be segmented into a number of groups
according to their level of overall satisfaction and loyalty
The questionnaire and the sample
The questionnaire consisted of 20 items split into three survey
instruments that measure service features, overall satisfaction and loyalty.
The physical features are represented in the current research instrument
through eleven items, focusing on bar decoration, ambience and comfort.
It is analogous to Bitner’s (1992) spatial layout, signs and artefacts, music
(Kubacki, 2008; Minor et al., 2004), cleanliness (Barber and Scarcelli,
2010), and quality and variety of drinks (Knowles and Howley, 2000).
Measurements of the personnel’s attitudes and skills (helpfulness,
friendliness, politeness and efficiency) are also considered essential for
the provision of bar (Guerrier and Abib, 2001; Nickson et al., 2005) and
they have been included in the present survey’s research instrument
through four relevant items.
Two items investigating a) the overall perceived satisfaction from the
venue, and b) the overall satisfaction received from the total offering were
included in the survey’s instrument as a control for overall satisfactionrelated variables.
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A further item investigating the price - satisfaction relationship was
used as a simplified indicator of the value that the customer receives as a
function of the perceived price. In the bar sector, researchers have
proposed that bars may find areas of competitive advantage like
reputation, customer satisfaction and atmosphere other than in price
promotions, since customers are not price-sensitive (Hobbs and Rowley,
2008).
Following the previously explained contentions regarding stated or
revealed approaches to loyalty, this study subscribes to an attitude-driven
behavior. Two main items of customer loyalty were investigated:
customer recommendation and customer repurchase intention (Boulding
et al., 1993).
All instrument items, except for demographical characteristics, were
answered on a seven-point psychometric Likert scale (anchored on 1 –
“strongly disagree” through 7 – “strongly agree”). Three distinct versions
of the same questionnaire in Greek, English and German were produced
to enable a range of nationals to answer it in face-to-face 15-minute
interviews. This structure questionnaire was introduced over a one-month
period (July) in three tourist cities of northern Crete (Heraclion,
Rethymnon and Chania), which is known for its active nightlife.
Respondents were patrons in 100 bars in these cities and were
approached by especially trained interviewers during selected times of a
day throughout this month-long period. Respondents belong to more than
30 nationalities, with the majority (54%) being Greek. As far as the
demographic characteristics of the sample were concerned, respondents
were split reasonably evenly between males (53.9 percent) and females
(46.1 percent). Customers ranged in age between 25 or less (56.2%) to 45
(4.6%).
ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
The service feature items exhibit satisfactory reliability and rather
strong item-to-total correlations (Table 1). Their score are at 5.07
(SD=0.86). The highest score appears in relation to cleanliness, ambience
and quality of drink/food and the lowest one in relation to price of
drink/food, appearance of the personnel and their knowledge about
drink/food. Moreover, the three overall satisfaction items also show
satisfactory reliability, very high item-to-total correlations and mean
overall satisfaction score at 4.97 (SD=1.14), not statistically different
from that measured through the 15 service feature items described above
69
Angelos Pantouvakis & Christos Patsiouras
(p<0.01). The two loyalty items also exhibit satisfactory reliability and
strong item-to-total correlations.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of measurement instruments
(N=1,263)
No.
Service features Inventory (independent items)
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q9
The friendly behavior of the personnel
The way my order is delivered
The helpfulness of the personnel
The politeness of the personnel
The ambience in the bar
The quality of drink and/or food offered
The variety of drink and/or food offered
The price of drink and/or food offered
The personnel’s knowledge about the drink and/or food
offered
The way the personnel looks / is dressed
The speed of service
The decoration / style of the bar
The comfort / relaxation I feel in the bar
The music played in the bar
The cleanness of the bathrooms / toilets
Mean and SD, 15 independent items
Cronbach a
Q10
Q11
Q12
Q13
Q14
Q15
q1
q2
q3
L1
L2
Mean / SD (1)
Item/total
correlation
0.636
0.608
0.680
0.656
0.631
0.648
0.568
0.487
0.533
5.03
4.81
5.15
5.21
5.38
5.36
5.07
4.69
4.80
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
1.33
1.25
1.29
1.30
1.24
1.34
1.31
1.46
1.33
4.74
4.95
5.12
5.16
5.14
5.43
5.07
/
/
/
/
/
/
/
1.47
1.38
1.38
1.23
1.52
1.45
0.86
0.895
0.476
0.613
0.542
0.513
0.437
0.550
Overall Customer Satisfaction (dependent items)
Mean / SD (2)
The overall opinion I have about this bar is…
The overall opinion I have about the quality of service in
this bar is…
The overall opinion I have about the relation of quality and
price in this bar is…
Mean and SD, 3 dependent items
Cronbach a
5.06 / 1.29
5.06 / 1.28
Item/total
correlation
0.700
0.728
4.79 / 1.39
0.627
Loyalty
Mean / SD (3)
I would recommend this bar
I would come again to this bar
Mean and SD, 2 loyalty items
Cronbach a
5.23 / 1.47
5.33 / 1.46
5.28 / 1.47
4.97 / 1.14
0.826
Item/total
correlation
0.290
0.333
0.798
1: “How satisfied are you with…?”, 7-point Likert scale, 1: “not at all satisfied” to 7:
“absolutely satisfied”
2: “Based on my experience…”, 7-point Semantic scale, 1: “very bad” to 7: “very good”
3: “Express your degree of agreement with the following statements”, 7-point Likert scale,
1: “strongly disagree” to 7: “strongly agree”
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A combination of Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and
Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was conducted while the instrument
was under development. Two factors based on eleven out of fifteen initial
items emerged from EFA with the Principal Components estimation
method, Varimax rotation and 60.95% cumulative variance explained.
Based on the item loadings, the two factors are labelled: a) Factor 1:
interactive, incorporating items related to the interaction between
customers and personnel (items Q3, Q1, Q4 and Q2, Cronbach α: 0.866);
and b) Factor 2: physical, incorporating items related to the technical or
functional part of the service quality (items Q12, Q14, Q13, Q15, Q7, Q6
and Q5, Cronbach α: 0.812). Finally, EFA justified the existence of a unidimensional overall satisfaction factor (Cronbach α: 0.826).
Figure 1. Structural Equation Model of Customer Satisfaction
(Standardised Solution), N=1,263
CFA was then performed for the factor pattern suggested by EFA
(Figure 1), assuming that the eleven items repeat EFA’s factorial
structure. The observed variables were slightly non-normal with kurtosis
under 1, which has been reduced by normalizing the distribution of the
variables before CFA. The estimation method of CFA model parameters
was Maximum Likelihood, which usually produces quite robust findings
also against the violation of the normality assumption. The hypothesised
71
Angelos Pantouvakis & Christos Patsiouras
model was clearly accepted (chi-Square [74]: 154.75, p<0.001, CFI: 0.96,
NNFI: 0.95, RMSEA: 0.029).
A satisfaction-based segmentation task was implemented as a final
stage of the analysis. The variables used as grouping criteria were the two
factors that emerged through CFA. After initial implementation of
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis, the k-means procedure was employed
based on hierarchical clusters’ centroids with the option of identifying
three to seven clusters. The four-cluster solution was finally selected
(Pearson correlation between hierarchical and k-means procedures 0.789,
p<0.01) and justified through Discriminant analysis (Wilk’s Lamda 0.752,
chi-square [2] = 358.6, p<0.01, 88.3% of original grouped cases correctly
classified, see Figure 2). Statistically significant differences among the
four clusters (Table 2) were established using chi-square and one-way
Dancan and Scheffe post-hoc ANOVA tests.
DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS
In relation to its objectives, the present work first identified and
confirmed that two service features determine overall customer
satisfaction in the bar industry, in line with a substantial part of the
literature: the physical features, related to the service offering in the bar
per se and the environment in which the service is provided; and the
interactive features, related to the interaction between customer and
personnel. Thus, hypothesis H1 is justified. Quality of drink/food offered
and cleanness appeared to have stronger impact than other items on the
physical features (Figure 1). Moreover, personnel efficiency (the way an
order is being delivered) emerged as the strongest component of the
interactive features.
The sample’s mean score in the interactive is lower than that in the
physical features (4.66 and 4.98 respectively; see Table 2). Regarding the
importance ranking of the two service features, both have a very strong
and almost equal influence upon the overall satisfaction factor. Moreover,
sample’s overall satisfaction score measured through the relevant
dependent construct is found at 4.78. The above satisfaction scores at the
middle, neither dissatisfied nor satisfied, increment of the 1-7 scale
indicate that the sample possibly constitutes more than one type of bar
customer in relation to their satisfaction levels and justify the subsequent
implementation of cluster analysis.
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Table 2. Customer Clusters’ Satisfaction Mean Scores and Profile,
N=1,263, %
Variable
description
Clustering factors
Factor 1:
INTERACTIVE
Factor 2:
PHYSICAL
Mean
score /
factor
Si
g.
Cluster 1
(22.09%):
very
satisfied
4.66
*
6.30 (1)
4.98
6.20
Cluster 2
(15.99%):
indifferen
t
Cluster 3
(52.65%):
average
satisfied
Cluster 4
(9.26%):
dissatisfied
4.40
5.11
2.85
3.98
5.36
4.38
*
Dependent factor
Factor 3:
OVERALL
4.78
*
4.02
5.09
3.77
5.84
SATISFACT.
Loyalty items
I would recommend
this restaurant / bar
4.89
*
4.16
5.39
3.82
6.19 (2)
I would come again
in this restaurant /
5.07
*
4.48
5.43
4.24
6.15
bar
Age
Sample
24 or <
53.4
51.6
53.1
47.0
61.4
25-34
26.8
25.1
24.3
26.4
37.6
35-44
10.8
**
8.4
11.2
10.3
11.8
45-54
7.7
5.0
8.1
2.6
10.4
55 or >
1.3
1.1
1.0
1.2
2.6
*: Duncan and Scheffe Post-hoc ANOVA paired tests, p<0.01
**: Chi square tests, p<0.05
1: End-points: 1= “not at all satisfied”, 2= “dissatisfied”, 3= “rather dissatisfied”, 4=
“neither…nor…”, 5= “rather satisfied”, 6= “satisfied”, 7= “absolutely satisfied”
2: End-points: 1= “strongly disagree”, 2= “disagree”, 3= “rather disagree”, 4=
“neither…nor…”, 5= “rather agree”, 6= “agree”, 7= “strongly agree”
Indeed, and in relation to the second objective of the survey, cluster
analysis identified the existence of four distinct customer types, justifying
hypothesis H2. Cluster 4 exhibits the lowest interactive score, the secondlower physical score and the lowest overall satisfaction score. Its
members also show the lowest loyalty scores. In terms of age, cluster 4
includes a percentage substantially higher than the sample’s average
percentage of customers in the 25-34-year age group. Based on the abovedescribed profile, cluster 4 members are dissatisfied and disloyal patrons
that are ready to move and can therefore be named as the “kinetic” bar
customers. Cluster 2 exhibits the second-lowest interactive score (at the
“neither dissatisfied nor satisfied” increment, the lowest physical score (at
the “rather not satisfied” increment) and the second-lowest overall
73
Angelos Pantouvakis & Christos Patsiouras
satisfaction score (at the “neither dissatisfied nor satisfied” increment). It
shows the second-lowest loyalty scores and includes a percentage higher
than the sample’s average percentage of customers in the 24 years or
lower age group. Thus, cluster 2 members can thus be named the
“apathetic” bar customers.
Canonical Discriminant Functions
Ward Method
6
1
2
3
4
4
Group Centroid
Function 2
2
4
3
1
0
2
-2
-4
-6
-10,0
-7,5
-5,0
-2,5
0,0
2,5
5,0
Function 1
Figure 2. Discriminant Analysis Results, All-groups Scattered Plot,
N=1,263 (*)
*: Function 1 = interactive satisfaction and function 2 = physical satisfaction.
Scales of function 1 and 2 are equivalent to 1-7 scales of the two satisfaction factors
Key: Group 1=very satisfied, group 2=indifferent, group 3=average satisfied, group
4=dissatisfied
Cluster 3 exhibits the second-highest interactive score, the secondhighest physical score and the second-highest overall satisfaction score.
The latter is not statistically different from the average satisfaction
measured through the initial 3 overall satisfaction items (p<0.01). It also
shows the second-highest loyalty scores. In terms of age, it closely
follows the distribution of the overall sample. Cluster 3 members can be
named the “peripheral” bar customers. Finally, cluster 1 exhibits a higher
interactive score, the highest physical score and the highest overall
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satisfaction score. It also shows the highest loyalty scores and includes a
percentage higher than the sample’s average percentage of customers in
the 35-44 and 45-54 years of age groups. Hence, cluster 1 members can
be named the “enthusiastic” bar customers. The implications for the bar
industry of the above-described satisfaction typology of customers are
substantial. First, it is crucial to consider that the lower satisfaction scores
at the overall sample level as well as for more than 60% of the sample
(clusters 3 and 4) are found in relation to the interactive features. Thus,
customer-personnel interaction and elements like personnel politeness,
friendliness and helpfulness are not only satisfaction parameters as
important as the overall service offering (e.g. quality and variety of
drinks) and the service provision environment (e.g. ambience, music,
style, comfort), but also the main reason behind the dissatisfaction or the
rather modest satisfaction expressed by the majority of the sample.
An additional finding with substantial implications is the direct
relation that exists between all types of overall satisfaction and customer
loyalty. Indeed, as customer satisfaction increases from the dissatisfied to
the very satisfied clusters, so does their loyalty, whereas Pearson
correlation between the overall satisfaction factor and the two loyalty
items is very high (0.866 and 0.880 respectively, p<0.01). This fact leads
to the conclusion that, despite the very low switching costs in bars and the
impact of cost on customers’ satisfaction elasticity, overall customer
satisfaction always functions as a prerequisite for customer retention.
CONCLUSION
The present survey, using an international sample of 1,263
multinational customers of 100 bars in northern Crete in Greece,
identified two service features, determined overall satisfaction and
provided their relevant satisfaction scores. Customers used physical
environment and employee services as key components of their
experience. Previous studies in hedonic services have led to the same
conclusion, the two dimension perspective. Specifically, the use of a twofactor structure (tangibles and intangibles) is recommended by Reimer
and Kuehn (2005), who tested their model in two service industries (retail
banking and restaurants). A survey by Nadiri and Hussain (2005)
assessed the hospitality industry in North Cyprus and supported the
notion that service quality consists of two dimensions (tangibles and
intangibles). Previous studies in the tourism field have led to the same
75
Angelos Pantouvakis & Christos Patsiouras
conclusion — that the service quality has two dimensions (Ekinci et al.,
2003; Karatepe and Avci, 2002).
It has been argued that in order for companies to succeed, service
encounters should be customized. Thus, this paper discriminated among
four types of customers based on their satisfaction scores (enthusiastic,
apathetic, peripheral and kinetic). The importance of the interactive
features in shaping moderate or low satisfaction and the strong correlation
between satisfaction and loyalty are among the most important
implications of the present work for the bar industry.
Finally, a very interesting extension of the present survey will be the
inclusion of loyalty as a distinct component of the satisfaction model and
the analysis of its role as a direct outcome of the quality-satisfaction dyad,
together with the price considerations of the average customer in bars.
Thus the bar managers may better address their customers’ requirements
by choosing whether to invest in refurbishing the establishment or better
train their personnel to maximise patron satisfaction and loyalty (Pratten,
2004).
As with any research, this study has certain limitations that should be
taken into consideration when interpreting the results. First and foremost,
the study was restricted to one sector only, so that a verification of the
findings in other hedonic services is desirable. In addition, all of the
constructs were measured at one point in time, essentially from a static
perspective. It may be worthwhile to study the proposed hypothesis over
time in order to take into account the dynamics of personal values and
consumer perceptions.
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SUBMITTED: MAR 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: SEP 2014
ACCEPTED: OCT 2015
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Angelos Pantouvakis (angelos@pantouvakis.eu) Department of
Maritime Studies, University of Piraeus, 21 Grigoriou Lampraki and
Distomou Street, 185 32, Piraeus, Greece.
Christos Patsiouras (chris_patsiouras@yahoo.gr) Department of
Maritime Studies, University of Piraeus, 21 Grigoriou Lampraki and
Distomou Street, 185 32, Piraeus, Greece.
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EVALUATING TOURIST SATISFACTION IN
ACCORDANCE TO TOUR GUIDES PERFORMANCE:
HERITAGE GUIDED TOURS IN EGYPT
Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy 1
Alexandria University
Tourism is one of the top priorities for many countries, because of its contribution
to economy in terms of foreign exchange earnings, creation of employment
opportunities and promoting international understanding. Furthermore, Cultural
heritage tourism has become an increasingly important factor for tourist
destinations, and cultural tourist as the one who is interested in experiencing the
culture of the destination spends money, time and other resources on a trip or
visit to receive an experience that provides psychological benefits. Happy and
satisfied customers are more likely to return and more likely to say positive things
about the service they have experienced. If tour guiding service is a core
component of heritage tour, then the tour guides (TGs) as being a frontline
employee in the tourism industry play an important role in shaping tourist
experience in a destination. This study evaluates the relationship between tour
guide (TG) performance and tourist’s satisfaction in terms of psychological,
spiritual and practical content during heritage guided tours in Egypt. A
questionnaire was distributed among 200 tourists of different nationalities.
Results derived from the respondents showed that (TG) performance affects
tourist experience. For a satisfied tourist transmits his/her positive experience
(word of mouth) to third persons as well as repeating his/her visit. Finally the
study ends up by a set of recommendations for TGs to consistently emphasize a
creative approach in order to maintain high standards of TG performance.
Keywords: Heritage, Guided tours, Tourist Satisfaction, Tourist experience,
Word of mouth, Repeating visit.
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries in the world as being
one of the top priorities for many countries, for its contribution to
economy in terms of foreign exchange earnings, creation of employment
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
81
Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy
opportunities and promoting international understanding (Rajeev &
Shyju, 2008). Due to World Travel and Tourism council (WTTC) report
in 2012, Travel and Tourism contributed to GDP in USD 194.9bn (7.7%
of GDP), and supported 4,411,000 jobs equivalent to 6.8% of total
employment (www.wttc.org). For this purpose Tourism was designed to
meet a very different set of leisure needs (Falk, 2009).
Visiting cultural heritage sites has become a powerful tourist
attractions (Laws, 1998), for heritage is not only about what occurred
during the past, It is about the present generation who continues to cherish
and to learn about vibrant and glorious history, culture and past
civilization and cultural traditions that people proudly preserve (Chai,
2011). Therefore cultural heritage tourism carries both tangible and
intangible values; tangible as sites, structure, as well as natural features
and land scape that have cultural significance, while intangible refers to
social practices and rituals that define the identity of a society
(Dimitriyadis et al, 2012). In the broadest sense cultural assets can attract
tourism to specific destination, and tourism can bring new and fresh
resources to the cultural section and the entire region (Alberti et al, 2012),
also become major force in economic and urban revitalization (Alzua et
al, 1998).
Furthermore, Cultural heritage tourism has gained an increasing
importance at different levels of the economy and that regions may build
their competitiveness leveraging their cultural heritage (Alberti et al,
2012).
Christou (2005) signified that cultural heritage tourist as one who
experience historic sites, monuments, and buildings; visits museums and
galleries; attends concerts and the performing arts, and interested in
experiencing the culture of the destination spends money, time and other
resources on a trip or a visit, to receive an experience that provides mainly
psychological benefits, so the experience the tourists derive from
interacting with the service is an important factor. And heritage
interpretation according to Coccossis (2005) is an important part of any
visitor management plan. In order to be highly effective, a variety of
measures for site interpretation should be chosen with the intention of
making the visit as enjoyable and informative as possible in contrast to
the needs of different categories of visitors. In the sense tour guiding
service is a core component of any package tour as tour guide (TG) is a
frontline employee in the tourism industry who plays an important role in
shaping tourist experience in a destination. (Huang et al., 2010).
According to the World Federation of Tourist Guides Association
(WFTGA) a tour guide is the person who guides visitors in the language
82
of their choice and interprets the cultural and natural heritage of an area,
and who normally possesses an area-specific qualification usually issued
and/or recognized by the appropriate authority (WFTGA, 2003). While
Heung (2008) defined TG as one who bears different roles throughout the
journey, including information giver, instructor, motivator, ambassador,
entertainer and leader. Instrumentally, TG monitors the itinerary. On the
other hand, a TG serves the role of motivator and entertainer with the
responsibility to stimulate tourists’ positive feelings and create a warm
atmosphere during the tour, as tourists require a large amount of
information to understand tourism spots (Fang Jin-yun, 2008).
While Gale & Beeftink (2005) referred to the importance of TGs’
knowledge, skill, and ability on participants’ satisfaction as they create
special moments for their groups and make ordinary moments of itinerary
extraordinary, also as being in a continuous and intense contact with the
tour participants. Therefore they are responsible for achieving customer
satisfaction throughout the tour’s entire duration.
Based on the previous information, this study was undertaken to
evaluate TGs performance on heritage guided tours in Egypt and its
reflection on creating visitor satisfaction, positive word of mouth and
repeat visitation. In essence, this means presenting descriptive statistics
based on the opinion of the respondents to determine: TG performance in
terms of interpretation skills, personal attributes, interpersonal skills, and
emergency handling ability in accordance to government regulations and
safety policy, and to evaluate its effect on tourist experience.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Satisfaction relates to visitor’s experience, so tourist satisfaction is
defined as the quality of visitors’ experience and the psychological
outcome derived from interaction with different service facets in a
destination (Huang et al., 2010). Ellis & Vogelsong (2002) stated that past
travel experiences significantly influence future destination selection, and
tourist satisfaction is significantly related to customer loyalty, repeat
visitation, and positive social communication. Therefore tourists
experience has an impact on tourism demand that influence tourist
destination (Rajeev & Shyju, 2008).
Being able to offer an attractive tourist destination indicates having a
deep understanding of the motives that leads a tourist to choose one
particular destination among all alternatives. Furthermore, the activities
performed during the stay at the holiday destination and the experiences
during these activities are clear source of satisfaction for the tourist
83
Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy
(Armario, 2008). This means that customer satisfaction influences the
choice of a destination, the consumption of products and services and the
decision to return, for this reason customer satisfaction is increasingly
becoming a corporate goal, and more and more companies strive for
quality in their product or service (Esu & Arrey, 2009).
Interpretation service creates visitor satisfaction, positive word of
mouth reports and repeat visitation, as interpretation translates an expert’s
technical account into a message in the language of the visitor, relating
the context to his/ her everyday life and experiences and involving
visitors in the explorative learning and entertainment process
(Papathanasiou-Zuhrt et al, 2005).
Armario (2008) asserted that the level of tourist satisfaction is crucial
for business success in tourism management, and so Kozak (2001) has
mentioned that customer satisfaction been dominated by measurement of
guest satisfaction with tourism services, taking into consideration the
expectations generated before and during the trip, as well as the tourist’s
perception of the service received (Armario, 2008).
Consequently customer satisfaction as a feeling or an attitude of a
customer towards a service after it has been used (Esu & Arrey, 2009),
often subjects upon levels of individual effort and expectation (Ellis &
Vogelsong, 2002). As happy and satisfied customers are more likely to
return and more likely to say positive things about the service they have
experienced (Christou, 2005).
Understanding what drives satisfaction for a tourist has become one
of the most relevant areas of research for the tourism industry, for
satisfied tourist tend to transmit their positive experience to others and to
repeat their visit (Armario, 2008). Hence visitor satisfaction is the goal
that both private and public heritage tourism organizations strive to
achieve (Christou, 2005). Then again TGs as Heung (2008) mentioned are
important to the tourist’s perception of the whole tour, for TGs primary
responsibilities are to lead the tour, solve problems and assure customer
satisfaction during the journey.
Additionally TGs can enrich the visitor’s experience thus their
knowledge and skills are very important. So they need to be carefully
selected, trained, motivated, monitored and regularly evaluated
(Coccossis, 2005).
As previously mentioned satisfaction is always associated with
service quality, so TGs quality service to tourists is essential to the
success of the tour also critical to the overall image of the destination they
represent. End result TGs are highly responsible for achieving tourist
84
satisfaction (Huang et al., 2010) as being a critical service feature in
package tours (Heung, 2008).
STUDY HYPOTHESES
The study aims at testing the following hypotheses:
H1: TGs performances affect tourist experience.
H2: TGs performances influence the success of the heritage guided tours
in Egypt.
H3: TGs performances influence visitor overall satisfaction.
H4: TGs performances affect word of mouth and repeat visitation.
STUDY METHODOLOGY
The study is an analytical study divided into two main sections. The
reviews of literature discuss the role of TG on heritage guided tours, and
its importance to formulate tourist experience. In addition how TGs
performance influence visitor satisfaction, which direct word of mouth
and repeat visitation. The literature study was based on journal articles,
books, and similar studies, the internet played a role in this study. The
data was collected from a questionnaire distributed among a random
sample of tourists. The questionnaire was divided into three parts; the first
part was concerned with measuring the performance of the TGs in forty
three statements. The second part concluded ten statements focusing on
the effect of TG on tour experience. While the third part revealed tourists
personal information, and consisting of eleven statements to know the
demographic features of a sample of tourists visiting Egypt on heritage
guided tours. The respondents were required to answer according the
Likert scale that ranges from (1) to (5), as (1) matches strongly disagree/
very unsatisfactory answer, while (5) matches strongly agree/ very
satisfactory answer. The questionnaire was mainly based on the study
developed on previous studies, the review of literature therein and the
researcher view. Face validity and reliability of the questionnaire was
applied through two experts; one in the field of tour guiding and one
academic. The questionnaire was reviewed according to the remarks
given.
Respondents were requested to fill the questionnaire in aspect to their
tour experience in accordance to TG performance. Two hundred selfadministered questionnaires were distributed by the researcher on tourists
during their guided tours in Egypt. It took about twelve months to
complete distribution around the years 2010 and 2012, due to continued
85
Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy
tensions in Egypt during the year 2011, but international tourist arrivals in
the Middle East were estimated at 52 million in 2012 with a rebound
(+18%) to Egypt (www.unwto.org). The distribution produced 150
questionnaires representing a response rate of 75%.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The profile of the respondents highlighted specific characteristics
related to gender, marital status, age, educational background and
nationality. The results revealed that male tourists are almost equal to
female ones equivalent to 53.3% and 46.7% respectively. A percentage of
31.3% were single in contrast to 66.7% married. Most of the studied
sample were young travellers as 39.3% their ages range between 18 to 28
and 20.7% their ages range between 29 to 39, while 40% of the
respondents were distributed by 12% for the ones between 40 – 49, 2.7%
for 50 – 60 and 1.3% for above 60.
The studied sample showed that 85.3% with a frequent number of
128 respondents visited Egypt for leisure reasons, this increasing
popularity of Egypt as a tourism destination was obvious among the
European tourists, with Russian tourists accounting for the largest share
of arrivals at 24% followed by the British travellers with 16.7%. Also the
rates of the other nationalities were for European tourists as Italians,
Germans, Danish, French, Greeks, Belgium, Bulgarians, Croatians and
Icelandic tourists participated by 14%, 13.3%, 8.7%, 6%, 4.7%, 4%, 4%,
3.3% and 1.3% correspondingly. Future expectations indicates that
international tourist arrivals to increase at a healthy rate of over 12% with
Europe as the primary source of tourism for Egypt
(www.researchandmarkets.com).
Table (1) showed the results regarding the evaluation of the
importance of the aspects of TGs performance during guided tours.
According to the results collected from the respondents; the statements
S1- S9 and S40 - S43 with a positive mean that ranges between (4.3 –
4.5) and (4.4 – 4.5) illuminated that TGs demonstrated an excellent level
of interpretation skills in terms of giving full knowledge of the destination
in reference to heritage site locations, historical and geographical
background, paying attention to details, humanities and customs related to
these heritage sites, in addition to tailoring content to fit different
audiences in timely manner.
86
F
%
F
%
F
%
F
%
F
%
1
0.7
4
2.7
4
2.7
64
42.7
77
51.3
4.4
1
0.7
3
2.0
-
-
65
43.3
81
54.0
4.5
1
0.7
2
1.3
4
2.7
67
44.7
76
50.7
4.4
2
1
1.3
0.7
4
1
2.7
0.7
5
1
3.3
0.7
74
74
49.3
49.3
65
73
43.3
48.7
4.3
4.4
1
0.7
5
3.3
1
0.7
82
54.7
61
40.7
4.3
1
2
0.7
1.3
4
4
2.7
2.7
-
-
75
78
50.0
52.0
70
66
46.7
44.0
4.4
4.3
1
0.7
4
2.7
2
1.3
74
49.3
69
46.0
4.4
-
-
2
1.3
-
-
42
28.0
106
70.7
4.7
1
0.7
3
2.0
2
1.3
53
35.3
91
60.7
4.5
-
-
3
2.0
-
-
55
36.7
92
61.3
4.6
2
1.3
4
2.7
6
4.0
60
40.0
78
52.0
4.4
1
0.7
2
1.3
2
1.3
57
38.0
88
58.7
4.5
-
-
2
1.3
-
-
54
36.0
94
62.7
4.6
1
0.7
4
2.7
-
-
94
62.7
51
34.0
4.3
-
-
3
2.0
3
2.0
83
55.3
61
40.7
4.3
1
0.7
3
2.0
1
0.7
84
56.0
61
40.7
4.3
1
0.7
4
2.7
1
0.7
85
56.7
59
39.3
4.3
2
1.3
4
2.7
-
-
91
60.7
53
35.3
4.3
Mean
Agree
4
Strongly
agree
5
Not sure
3
1. She/he gave full knowledge
of the destination.
2. She/he clearly explained the
locations and layouts of heritage
sites.
3. The information offered is
sufficiently detailed to enjoy the
attraction.
4. She/he paid attention to detail.
5. She/he understood history,
geography and the humanity of
historical interest.
6. She/he demonstrated interest
and enthusiasm.
7. She/he was punctual.
8. She/he showed good time
management skills.
9. She/he modified the content
to fit different audiences.
10. She/he treated people with
respect.
11. She/he generated friendly
atmosphere.
12. She/he appeared neat and
tidy.
13. She/he enjoyed serving
people.
14. She/he was a good team
player.
15. She/he demonstrated good
moral, conduct, and honesty.
16. She/he exhibited selfdisciplined.
17. She/he actively conserved
the environment.
18. She/he interacted well with
the visitors.
19. She/he helped visitors with
realistic visiting experience.
20. She/he accommodated
visitors’ special needs.
Disagree
2
Aspects of Tour Guide
performances
Strongly
disagree
1
Table 1. Aspects of tour guide (TG) performance
87
Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy
21. She/he continuously asked
for feedback on the tour.
22. She/he showed interest in
our customs, life style, etc.
23. She/he changed in
presentation styles.
24. She/he handled obstacles in
quick and skillful fashion.
25. She/he generated an
atmosphere full of vividness.
26. She/he welcomed mentoring
trainee guides.
27. She/he showed appropriate
use of oral and body language.
28. She/he spoke in a good/clear
accent.
29. She/he showed good
communication skills.
30. She/he responded to
emergency situations rapidly.
31. She/he could perform first
aid in emergency.
32. She/he maintained the safety
of oneself and tourists.
33. She/he informed us of safety
policies.
34. She/he showed leadership
skills during the tour.
35. She/he handled repetitive
situation in a know-how fashion.
36. She/he had quick response in
unforeseen situations.
37. She/he was self-confident
and open-minded.
38. She/he perceived strong
problem solving abilities.
39. She/he could understand
differences among us and
respond accordingly.
40. Her/his way of escorting the
tour gave the impression that
she/he is well trained.
41. She/he used to brief us on
daily itinerary.
42. She/he informed us about
destination’s customs.
43. She/he gave information
about forbidden and limited
behaviors at the attraction.
88
1
0.7
3
2.0
3
2.0
85
56.7
58
38.7
4.3
2
1.3
2
1.3
2
1.3
92
61.3
52
34.7
4.3
1
0.7
5
3.3
-
-
90
60.0
54
36.0
4.3
1
0.7
2
1.3
3
2.0
89
59.3
55
36.7
4.3
1
0.7
5
3.3
-
-
85
56.7
59
39.3
4.3
-
-
2
1.3
6
4.0
86
57.3
56
37.3
4.3
-
-
-
-
-
-
68
45.3
82
54.7
4.5
-
-
-
-
-
-
71
47.3
79
52.7
4.5
-
-
3
2.0
3
2.0
70
46.7
74
49.3
4.4
-
-
2
1.3
5
3.3
78
52.0
65
43.3
4.3
-
-
2
1.3
6
4.0
77
51.3
64
42.7
4.4
-
-
-
-
4
2.7
78
52.0
68
45.3
4.4
-
-
-
-
5
3.3
72
48.0
73
48.7
4.5
1
0.7
2
1.3
2
1.3
58
38.7
87
58.0
4.5
1
0.7
1
0.7
3
2.0
61
40.7
84
56.0
4.5
2
1.3
1
0.7
13
8.7
77
51.3
57
38.0
4.2
-
-
3
2.0
3
2.0
62
41.3
82
54.7
4.5
1
0.7
2
1.3
6
4.0
47
31.3
94
62.7
4.5
-
-
5
3.3
2
1.3
60
40.0
83
55.3
4.5
-
-
4
2.7
2
1.3
66
44.0
78
52.0
4.5
-
-
-
-
3
2.0
74
49.3
73
48.7
4.5
-
-
5
3.3
-
-
73
48.7
72
48.0
4.4
-
-
5
3.3
-
-
71
47.3
74
49.3
4.4
The statements from S10 to S20 with a positive mean that ranges
between (4.3 – 4.7) were concerned with the TGs personal attributes,
according to respondents TGs accompanied them showed what job
required; from being dedicated as illustrated by the mean (4.4) and (4.5)
for S13 and S14 respectively, also persistence and having the ability to
deal tactfully with tourist as asserted by the respondents in S18 and S19,
for 56% agreed and 40.7% strongly agreed in S18 on TGs interacted well
with the visitors while in S19 56.7% agreed and 39.3% strongly agreed on
TGs helping visitors with realistic visiting experience. Also respondents
stated that their TGs were able to put people at ease by being friendly in
S11with a positive mean (4.5), polite in S10 with a positive mean (4.7),
outgoing in S12 and S15with a positive mean (4.6), helpful in S20 with
(4.3) mean, and responsible in S16 and S17with (4.3) mean.
According to the respondents TGs showed their concern to selfdevelopment by showing skills of leadership during the tour as mentioned
in S34 with a positive mean of (4.5). As for S24, S36 and S38 with a
mean (4.3), (4.2) and (4.5) correspondingly respondents agreed that their
TGs handled obstacles and unforeseen situation in quick and skillful
fashion, also handled repetitive situation in a know-how fashion, in
addition to problem solving abilities. They pointed out that TGs asked for
continuous feedback in S21 with a positive mean of (4.3). Apart from the
previous the respondents appreciated that TGs had cross-culture
awareness as mentioned in S22 with a positive mean (4.3) for being
interested in tourists’ customs and lifestyles, also respondents in S39 with
a mean of (4.5) specified their understanding of the differences among
his/her clients. Furthermore, respondents emphasized that their TGs in
S25 with a mean of (4.3) generated an atmosphere full of vividness.
Additionally, respondents mentioned in S23 that TGs focused on
changing presentation styles with a mean (4.3), and showed good
communication skills in S29 with a positive mean of (4.4) by the
appropriate use of oral and body language as asserted in S27, and the
good/clear accent followed in S28 with a positive mean of (4.5).
The respondents agreed on TGs demonstrating emergency handling
ability by responding to emergency situations in S30 with a positive mean
(4.3), performing first aid in case of emergency in S31 with positive mean
(4.4), maintaining of oneself and his/her clients in S32 with a mean (4.4),
and informing his/her clients of safety policies in S33with a positive mean
(4.5).
89
Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy
F
%
F
%
F
%
F
%
F
%
1
2
0.7
1.3
4
3
2.7
2.0
-
-
45
47
30.0
31.3
100
98
66.7
65.3
4.6
4.6
-
-
4
1
5
2.7
0.7
3.3
2
1
1.3
0.7
81
56
84
54.0
37.3
56.0
63
93
60
42.0
62.0
40.0
4.4
4.6
4.3
2
-
1.3
-
7
2
4
4
4
4
4.7
1.3
2.7
2.7
2.7
2.7
8
7
2
1
1
1
5.3
4.7
1.3
0.7
0.7
0.7
94
97
94
85
82
83
62.7
64.7
62.7
56.7
54.7
55.3
39
44
50
60
63
62
26.0
29.3
33.3
40.0
42.0
41.3
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.3
4.4
4.4
-
-
4
2.7
-
-
54
36.0
92
61.3
4.6
-
-
3
4
2.0
2.7
1
1
0.7
0.7
46
48
30.7
32.0
100
97
66.7
64.7
4.6
4.6
Mean
satisfactory
4
Very satisfactory
5
Not sure
3
1. The quality of this tour.
2. The guide influence on your
experience.
3. The information provided by
the tour guide in accordance
to your expectations in
relation to the following:
•
Egyptian customs
•
History
•
Geography (e.g.
pattern of city
development)
•
Current events
•
Shopping
•
Recreation facilities
•
Special sites
•
Landmarks
4. The tour guide's attempts to
encourage social interaction
with your fellow
passengers.
5. The ease of understanding
information presented by
the guide.
6. The guides’ presentation.
7. The overall satisfaction level
of this visiting experience.
Unsatisfactory
2
Effect of Tour Guide on Tour
experience
Very unsatisfactory
1
Table 2. Effect of TG performance on Tour experience
Table (2) revealed the respondents opinion regarding TGs
performance in terms of meetings their expectations in relation to
Egyptian customs, history, geography, current events, shopping,
recreation facilities, special sites and landmarks with a positive mean that
ranges between 4.1 and 4.6 for the sub-statements of S3, in addition to
TGs capability of developing the information in a professional manner as
stated by the respondents in S5 and S6 with a positive mean of 4.6, Also
90
TGs encouraged social interaction with the respondents fellow passengers
as in S4 with a mean 4.4.
According to the respondents 96.7% were satisfied and very satisfied
with the quality of their tour as stated in S1. Also they affirmed that TGs
had a satisfactory influence on their experience in S2 with a positive mean
4.6. S7 concluded that the respondents were overall satisfied with their
visiting experience with a mean 4.6.
Strongly
agree
5
F
%
F
%
F
%
F
%
F
%
2
1.3
2
1.3
7
4.7
65
43.3
74
49.3
4.4
1
0.7
5
3.3
7
4.7
44
29.3
93
62.0
4.5
-
-
4
2.7
6
4.0
43
28.7
97
64.7
4.6
Mean
Agree
4
1. I feel at home
in this tourist
destination.
2. I will revisit
this tourist
destination
again.
3. I will
recommend
this tourist
destination
to my friends
and relatives.
Not sure
3
Statements
Strongly
disagree
1
Disagree
2
Table 3. Tourist response in relation to their satisfaction with
TGs Performance
And in table (3), S1 showed that 92.6% of the respondents agreed
and strongly agreed that they feel at home in Egypt, also they agreed and
strongly agreed in S2 and S3 with a positive mean of 4.4 and 4.6
respectively on repeat visitation and word of mouth recommendation.
Regarding the previous results, table (1) showed that 51.3% of the
respondents with frequent number of 77 agreed and 44.7% with a frequent
number of 67 strongly agreed on the skills acquired by TGs (TGs
performance), that explains the importance of interpretation as being
relevant to tourism and recreation, for interpretation is a key to ensuring
the quality of a tourist experience (Alzua et al, 1998), for it is known that
91
Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy
information on its own is not interpretation. Interpretation is an art,
whether the materials being presented are scientific, historical,
architectural or environmental and the chief aim of interpretation is not
instruction, but provocation. So interpretation aims to present a whole
rather than a part (Sigala, 2005).
In accordance to the fact that increasing numbers of people view
cultural sites as an opportunity to promote a free choice of learning
experience (Alzua et al, 1998), most heritage tourists are accompanied by
guides to provide them with information to help them enjoy their visit
(Laws, 1998), respondents in S3 affirmed by the positive mean of (4.4)
that the information offered by their TGs is sufficiently detailed to enjoy
the attraction. Also heritage interpretation as mentioned by
Papathanasiou-Zuhrt (2005) is a multidisciplinary process of message
communication, aiming to reveal effectively to visitors a place’s natural
and cultural wealth, S1 and S2 with a positive mean of (4.4) and (4.5)
respectively stated that TGs gave full knowledge of the destination.
Furthermore, acted as mediators between the site and the visitor to make
these two realities come together as one (Falk, 2009).
As both leaders and hosts, TGs accept the challenges of creating a
harmonious and cohesive atmosphere in which people can be
comfortable, learn, and enjoy themselves (Ponds, 1993: 123), which
required a basic understanding of human nature through the positive mean
of (4.4) in S9, an attitude of respect as in S10 with positive mean of (4.7),
willingness to serve, and interest in people as in S6 with positive mean of
(4.3). In addition TGs as public speakers, they must possess the ability to
communicate in an engaging way in order to formulate the images that
they should project to travelers (Ponds, 1993: 137) that was asserted by
the positive mean of (4.4) in S29.
As for table (2), the results emphasized the effect of TGs on tour
experience for 96.7% of the respondents with a frequent number of 145
were satisfied and very satisfied with their TGs performance, which
proved that TGs play an important role during the tour as the tourists may
rely on the tour guide to ensure what core services is performed (Heung,
2008), also proved that business ethics is important to meet expectations
of all customers (Ayob et al., 2009).
Table (3) showed that 62% with a frequent number of 93strongly
agreed, and 30% with a frequent number 46 agreed on the positive
influence of TGs̛ performance on their future destination decision, Ellis &
Vogelsong (2002) mentioned that quality service leaves a positive
impression on visitors, for Tourists’ satisfaction with their holiday
experiences at a destination as stated by Kozak (2001) is important to the
92
decision – making. Furthermore many tourists tend to gather information
by word of mouth (Furutani & Fujita, 2005). It is significant that the
studied sample showed that 84% of the respondents had visited Egypt
more than 4 times.
Table 4. Correlation between different items of the study.
Tourist
Satisfaction in
Aspects of tour guide
Aspects of tour
Effect of Tour
accordance to
guide
Guide on Tour
TG
performance
Experience
Performance
Pearson Correlation
1
0.724
0.568
Pearson Correlation
0.724
1
0.649
Pearson Correlation
0.568
0.649
1
performance
Effect of Tour Guide on
Tour Experience
Tourist response in
relation to their
satisfaction with TGs
Performance
Subsequently the study revealed that there was a highly significant
association between the three items of the study as shown in table (4) as
each item is positively related to the other according to Pearson’s
correlation.
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Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy
Table 5. Cronbach's alpha of different items of the study
Cronbach's alpha
Aspects of tour guide performance
0.898
Effect of Tour Guide on Tour Experience
0.921
Tourist response in relation to their satisfaction with
TGs Performance
0.907
Also there was a high level of stability and reliability among the three
items of the study according Cronbach's alpha as shown in table (5).
Figure 1. Effect of TG on tour experience in accordance to TG
performance
94
Accordingly visits to heritage sites are influenced by individual prior
experience, and TGs can excite one member with a different level of
interest, knowledge, and understanding (Laws, 1998) as shown in
figure(1) that demonstrated a high significant association between effects
of TG on tour experience in accordance to aspects of TG performance.
Nevertheless positive past experiences contribute to future tourism
decision (Gale & Beeftink, 2005), and figure (2) and (3) showed that there
was a high significant association between Tourist response in relation to
their satisfaction with TG performance in accordance to aspects of TG
performance, and Tourist response in relation to their satisfaction with TG
performance in accordance to effect of TG on tour experience.
Tourist response in relation to their satisfaction with TGs Performance
Figure 2. Tourist response in accordance to TG performance
95
Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy
Tourist response in relation to their satisfaction with TGs Performance
Figure 3. Tourist response in accordance to tour experience
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Visits to Egypt rose from 1.5 million in 1982 to 14 million in 2010,
as Egypt has no competitors because of its unique cultural heritage
tourism resources (planbleu.org). Although inbound tourists during the
year 2011 to Egypt were 9,497,000 partly explained by mass arrivals of
Palestinians and Libyans in comparing to the 14,051,000 tourists that
arrived during the year 2010 (wdi.worldbank.org). There were good signs
of recovery that occurred in October 2012 by a growth rate of +18%
compared to the 37% decline seen in the previous year
(www.euromonitor.com).
Despite global economic uncertainty one billion tourists had travelled
the world in 2012, this development of tourists’ destinations to be
96
considered as a central theme in the tourism literature (Henderson, 2006)
for the outstanding value of cultural and natural heritage sites to
humanity.
In essence a TG is a key cluster for long-term success of region as
he/she should communicate well with tourists providing visitors with a
unique experience to create a certain level of satisfaction. Therefor there
is a definite relationship among tourist satisfaction, intention to return and
positive word of mouth communication and TG quality service.
In order to perform a high level of quality TG service it is
recommended to implement:
1. A score monitoring system on TG practice.
2. Policies to regulate TG practices and ensure TG performance.
3. Provide training programs to develop TG skills in order to
acquire a creative approach to offer more reasons for repeat
visitation.
4. A flow chart on two phases before service and after service.
Also Travel agencies should place great significance on TG
performance as this dimension is a key feature for agency reputation and
customer word of mouth, Therefor they should pay particular attention to
the recruitment and selection of TG and offer programs that help their
staff to develop a professional attitude.
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SUBMITTED: JAN 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: JUL 2014
ACCEPTED: SEP 2014
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Omneya Khairy El-sharkawy is an Assistant Professor at the
Alexandria University, Guiding department, Faculty of Tourism and
Hotels.
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TRAINING OR VACATION? THE ACADEMIC
CONFERENCE TOURISM
Cleopatra Veloutsou 1
University of Glasgow Business School
Chrysovalantis Chreppas
The current study concentrates on factors affecting the intentions of academics
attending an academic conference. It highlights the importance of academic
conferences and academic conference tourism and discusses meetings, the
convention industry and also their utility in the career development of academics.
Through qualitative research and a review of the literature on conference tourism
push and pull motivation factors are suggested. The power of these factors to
predict the intention to attend an academic conference is examined through
quantitative research and regression analysis. The results indicate that ‘pull’
factors are better predictors of the intention to attend an academic conference
than motivational ‘push’ factors.
Keywords: Conference Tourism, Academic development, Push Factors, Pull
Factors
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
Tourism is indeed one of the sectors which can provide lots of
revenue, for some areas or even nations. It can take many forms. It is
recognized that it should be targeted in an appropriate manner
(Campiranon & Arcodia, 2007). Convention tourism and the management
of Meetings, Incentives, Conventions, and Exhibitions (MICE) events in
general, is an area that is increasingly attracting interest from place
marketers. Academics are recently reporting the attempts of certain areas
to increase the inflow of tourists through this avenue, as well as the
difficulties relating to co-ordination of the various interested parties in
doing so (Priporas, 2005; McCartney, 2008). The offer that delegates
purchase comprises of the event itself and the associated accommodation,
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
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Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
transport and sometimes excursions/touring before or after the event
(Smith & Garnham, 2006). It is a tourism sub-sector that is growing in
some economies, and is a trend identified over a decade ago (Hing,
McCabe, Lewis & Leiper, 1998). In the literature there is some discussion
on the need to develop the appropriate standards in the MICE events to
meet the needs of participants/visitors (de Lara & Har, 2008), but very
little attention on what the visitors actually want (Yoo & Chon, 2008) and
how their desires affect their behaviour.
Conference tourism though has received relatively little research
attention (Oppermann and Chon, 1997; Zelinsky, 1994; Zhang, Leung
and Qu, 2007), despite the economic impact of conventions and
conferences and their social role to promote knowledge and training. This
is partially explained by the difficulty to monitor and measure the
economic significance of MICE events due to differences in definitions of
the meeting and convention sector and non-standardized industry data
collection (Carlsen, 2005). However, research on the importance of
conferences and conference tourism for professional career development
is also sparse. More research studies are needed to understand the
relationship between conference participation and career development,
especially in the case of academic careers, where the role of conference
attendance has an atypical importance. Although there is not an extensive
body of literature focusing on academic careers, existing research studies
argue that the academic career system has unique features in comparison
with traditional career models (Baruch and Hall, 2004; Kaulisch and
Enders, 2005). In addition, the dominant trends in academia today seem
to change the academic profession and specify certain requirements and
routes for the career development of academics. Successively, these
career development requirements and routes highlight the important role
of academic conferences and conference tourism for the academic staff,
as well as for the academia as a whole.
The existing literature in the field of convention participation
includes some models of the conference participation decision-making
process (Oppermann and Chon, 1997; Zhang, Leung and Qu, 2007; Lee
and Back, 2007), which provide research insights on the factors affecting
conference participation behaviour. However, there are many calls for a
more detailed analysis of the factors affecting participation intentions and
their relative influence on intentions (Zhang, Leung and Qu, 2007,
Oppermann and Chon, 1997; Lee and Back, 2007; Lee and Back 2005).
Lee and Back (2005) assert that “existing studies tend to focus on simply
identifying motivational and inhibiting factors from similar association
meetings, which resulted in similar findings” and that “extensive
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empirical research is needed to identify motivating and prohibiting
factors for different types of respondents and association meetings” (p.
418). This study is of interest to associations that organize conventions,
the policy makers and the tourism industry itself, because an individual
has a wide range of choice of different conventions where participation is
voluntary (Hiller 1995).
Specifically, in the case of academic conference participation, an
analysis of the factors affecting participation intentions is still lacking.
Academics may not differ from other professionals if we consider that
they also go through a professional career with certain qualification
requirements, certain employment and working conditions and several
changing work roles. However, academic careers possess certain
characteristics that differentiate them from careers in other organizations
(Kaulisch and Enders, 2005). The dynamics and complexity of the
academic career (Kaulish and Enders, 2005) is mostly due to the multiple
roles and functions of the academic staff, which are further transformed
by the relative changes and trends in the higher education system during
the last two decades (Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 1998).
This paper aims to unfold the reasons that academics choose to
participate to conferences. It fists outlines the importance of conferences
in the career of academics. The paper continues by discussing reasons that
tourists visit certain locations. It then outlines the two phases of this
research project, which are followed by the results of the study.
Conclusions are offered, and management implications are explored and
directions for future research are also suggested.
THE ACADEMIC PROFESSION AND CAREER: THE ROLE OF
ACADEMIC RESEARCH
Academic careers appear to be complex and dynamic (Kaulisch and
Enders, 2005; McInnis, 2007). The complexity is generated from the
multiple roles of academics as teachers, researchers and academic
administrators (Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 1998; de Janasz and Sullivan,
2004) and also from the changing conditions of the academic “job
market”.
Although most of the existing literature on academic work and career
focuses on the academic role of teaching, it is commonly accepted that the
academic work also includes the functions of research and administration
(Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 1998; McInnis, 2007; de Janasz and Sullivan,
2004). The literature on teaching in higher education includes guides on
teaching and also discusses some of the aspects of tutoring, supervision,
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assessment, use of technology and student learning (Blaxter, Hughes and
Tight, 1998). On the other hand, research appears to be an important
academic performance indicator (Bowen, 2005) and plays a very critical
role in terms of reputation, prestige and promotion (Bowen, 2005;
Armstrong and Sperry, 1995). Finally, administration and management,
such as deans of departments, faculties and committees, are undoubtedly
another role within academic life (Blaxter, Hughes and Tight, 1998).
Manifestly, the share of academic time between these three roles varies
according to seniority and permanence of position (Blaxter, Hughes and
Tight, 1998). However, performance in these three areas generally defines
a successful career in academia (de Janasz and Sullivan, 2004).
Today, progressively universities world-wide increase their research
and publication requirements for tenure (Bowen, 2005). Further, a large
proportion of ‘PhD-holders’ cannot obtain tenure-track jobs inside the
academia, which suggests the existence of growing competition and
unemployment within the academic ‘job market’. In this competitive
academic arena, academics should possess more than good teaching
skills. They must develop competencies that enhance their prestige and
reputation beyond their host institution (de Janasz and Sullivan, 2004).
Academic performance can be evaluated in different ways within the
academia. However, it has recently been argued that the criteria for
promotion, focuses more on research and publication rather than on
teaching evaluation (Forster, 2001; Richardson and McKenna, 2003). The
allocation criteria for academics are connected to their performance in
terms of publication, conference proceedings, research funds and activity
(Kaulisch and Enders, 2005; Baruch and Hall, 2004). Academic
publishing is necessary in order for research work to be peer reviewed and
become available to a wider audience. Further, academic writing and
publishing does not only constitute the last stage of the research process.
They could be considered as an important and separate role of academics,
considering that the presentation and communication of the research work
to the academic community requires additional skills and efforts (Blaxter,
Hughes and Tight, 1998). This consideration highlights the importance of
academic conferences, where academics have the opportunity to present
and communicate their work, seek feedback and create valuable
professional networks. Bowen (2005) suggests that academics should
keep a “steady stream of research flowing” (p.635) and invest money and
time to attend academic conferences, even if their host institution has
limited funding to support them. They “should manage their own research
career and not let their academic program manage it for them” (Bowen,
2005, p.636).
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The knowledge production within the academia is done within
disciplines and specialties (Kaulisch and Enders, 2005) and is strongly
related with the work and progress of academics all over the world
(Gläser, 2001). This global nature of academia suggests that academics
tend to be much more informed about the international situation, such as
research studies, research methods, teaching methods, trends and
innovations, within their academic field than about the situation in other
academic fields within their own institution (Kaulisch and Enders, 2005).
Thus, the knowledge production within the academia is based on
established and “informal” networks (informal social interaction) across
institutions and academics.
Networking with other faculty is important for an academic. This, in
order to be informed on the innovations in his/her field and eventual
involvement in research projects and professional associations (de Janasz
and Sullivan, 2004). The establishment of professional networks with
colleagues inside and outside the host institution helps academics to be
aware of new developments and trends in their field. Without these
contacts and information, their research work would stay behind national
academic and/or single institution boundaries. Through networks,
academics have the possibility to exchange knowledge with their
colleagues. Consequently, involvement in research projects and
professional associations enhances their reputation, skills and academic
performance (Richardson and McKenna, 2003). The networking ability
and involvement in research projects and/or obtaining resources for said
projects is considered not only an asset but a necessary skill for academics
today (de Janasz and Sullivan, 2004).
THE NEED TO ATTEND ACADEMIC CONFERENCES
Conference tourism has an important economic impact on local and
national economies. It also encompasses other sectors of the economy
including hotels, retail trade, facilities providers, catering, services
providers, translators and trasportation, and its impact is measured by the
number of jobs, personal income (salaries) and business income (profits)
created (Randall and Warf, 1996). Conference organizers’ and delegates’
expenditures generate new income in the host region, which stimulates
the local economy. Further, international and prestigious conferences
attract international delegates and accelerate tourism activity, which is not
limited to the host city. On the other hand, academic conference
participation is very important for all professionals working within the
academic discipline. It is necessary for academic career development,
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Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
intellectual stimulation and personal development. It also provides
conference participants with a vacation opportunity and a chance for
“escape”, relaxation and social interaction.
An academic conference is a type of professional conference, which
“serves” the academic profession. Further, Bauman (1998) used the
characterization “tourists” to describe a new cultural elite – a
cosmopolitan group of intensive travellers - which consists of academics,
researchers and experts (Høyer and Næss, 2001). Trips to attend
conferences are part of the modern tourism industry and the considerable
recorded mobility of conference attendees establishes the concept of
conference tourism (Høyer and Næss, 2001). In turn, the term “academic
conference tourism” used in this study particularly refers to academic
scholarly conferences and their attendance by academics and researchers.
The characteristics and operation of academic conferences are first
described to provide an overall image and operation framework of these
events. These characteristics highlight the unique contribution of these
conferences to the career development of their delegates. The given
vacation opportunity related to the attendance of academic conferences is
a feature that will be separately noted. This opportunity highlights
additional influencing factors for conference participation intentions of
academics, which will be discussed in the next chapter of this study.
The knowledge production within academia is done within
disciplines and specialties (Kaulisch and Enders, 2005) and is strongly
related to the work and progress of academics world wide (Gläser, 2001).
Considering the competitive academic “job-market” and the need for
personal competences and career development, academics should be well
informed on the international situation, such as. research studies, research
methods, teaching methods, trends and innovations, within their academic
discipline (Kaulisch and Enders, 2005). On the other hand, prestige and
reputation are a major point of differentiation for academics and
constitute an indirect indicator of academic performance (Kaulisch and
Enders, 2005). Reputation relies on scholarly productivity, which in turn
relies on research activity and the availability of resources for it (Latour
and Woolgar, 1979). The integrated characteristics of academic
conferences serve the needs of academic career development. Academic
conferences are a “showcase” of recent research and communicate the
scientific knowledge across the academia (Ravn, 2007, p.213). Academics
stay in touch with recent research activity and teaching methods. They
advance their own skills and transfer the new knowledge to their host
institution. The participation in an academic conference and the
publication of a paper presented in the conference proceedings and books
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enriches the curriculum vitae of an academic and permits more
qualifications for promotion and grants (Ravn, 2007). Therefore,
academic conference attendance creates value both for the individual
academic and the host institution.
RESEARCH FOCUS
Understanding the factors affecting conference participation
intentions is very important considering the large and growing economic
activity within the conventions industry (Var, Cesario and Mauser, 1985;
Lee and Back, 2005). Conference participants spend more money than
leisure tourists (Zhang, Leung and Qu, 2007; Randall and Warf, 1996)
and bring multi-economic benefits to the host destination (Oppermann
and Chon, 1997). They are considered as opinion leaders who can give a
positive image to the host destination through word-of-mouth promotion
(Zhang, Leung and Qu, 2007). They are also likely to re-visit the host
destination as tourists (Braun and Rungeling, 1992). Repeat visits and
word of mouth promotion of the host destination increase the regional and
national tourism activity (Lee and Back, 2005). Further, understanding
the factors affecting conference participation helps conference organizers
and associations to improve the quality of their services and therefore,
maximize the number of delegates attending. A small number of attendees
is “embarrassing to both the (convention) planner and the agency” (Var,
Cesario and Mauser, 1985, p.197) and reduces the attractiveness of the
particular convention.
There is previous research which suggested that there are certain
factors that can be motivating participants to attend conventions and
conferences.
• Destination stimulus, which is related to the country or the
specific city of visit (Boo Hoh and Jones, 2008). Many
researchers suggest that the location is a factor in choosing a
convention (Oppermann and Chon, 1997; Jago and Deery, 2005;
Zhang, Leung and Qu, 2007; Yoo and Chon, 2008), or even
examined the role of the attraction of the city as a stand alone
factor (Kang, Suh and Jo, 2005; Boo Hoh and Jones, 2008). The
destination attraction includes the cultural, shopping or
sightseeing opportunities (Beck and Lalopa, 2001) and
participants often add a day before or after to enjoy their visit to
the conference venue (Davidson, 2003). Career-oriented travel is
a valuable experience of “working holiday”, which provides the
travellers (conference participants) with new career
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competences, “broadens their minds” and makes them
multicultural (Inkson and Myers, 2003).
• Professional and social networking opportunities is often on the
top of the list of the reasons that an individual may attend a
conference (Ngamsom and Beck, 2000; Beck and Lalopa, 2001;
Yoo and Chon, 2008). Clearly participants want to meet other
participants. The participation in an academic conference is
connected with a series of other benefits for the delegates.
Except for the scientific-related part of the conference, the
pre/post conference activities and social event provided by the
organizer are very worthy to mention (Jago and Deery, 2005).
These ‘get-together’ activities include lunches, dinners, and
events during the conference, or before and after the formal
program (Høyer and Næss, 2001).
• The association that is organising the conference as well as the
perceived quality of the conference (Oppermann and Chon,
1997; Zhang, Leung and Qu, 2007).
• Educational opportunities is a factor that is perceived as very
important when an individual is deciding to attend a conference
(Beck and Lalopa, 2001; Yoo and Chon, 2008)
• Safety and health situation (Yoo and Chon, 2008), including the
safety that conference participants will feel that they get from the
physical features of the service they are consuming from the
totality of the offer. Their considerations involve not only the
conference venue but also the hotel, the airlines, the food and
other possible services they will be getting (Jago and Deery,
2005; Hilliard and Baloglu, 2008).
• Travelability (Yoo and Chon, 2008) and the opportunity to travel
(Ngamsom and Beck, 2000) are also mentioned as reasons to go
to a conference. In the case of oversea conferences, delegates
have the opportunity to visit a foreign destination, attend local
events, “meet” a new culture and local people, sightsee and
“escape” from daily routines (Høyer and Næss, 2001).
• Personal factors can also be influencing the choice of attending a
conference (Oppermann and Chon, 1997; Zhang, Leung and Qu,
2007)
Some research in convention and meeting management focuses on
conventions in general and not academic conferences explicitelly (Boo
Hoh and Jones, 2008; Yoo and Chon, 2008) and sometimes is targeting
meeting planners, rather than conference attendees (Kang, Suh and Jo,
2005).Academics may not differ from other professionals if we consider
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that they also go through a professional career with certain qualification
requirements, certain employment and working conditions and several
changing work roles. However, academic careers possess certain
characteristics that differentiate them from careers in other organizations
(Kaulisch and Enders, 2005). However, the need for the development of
an Academic Conference Participation (ACP) Model is justified by the
unique contribution of academic conferences to the career development of
academics. Furthermore, there are calls from researchers in the field of
convention participation for empirical testing to verify the predictive
power of the proposed models (Lee and Back, 2005). In the case of
academic conferences, the factors affecting participation highlight the
needs and priorities of academics while engaging in this process. They
highlight behaviours and routes, which are dominant and followed by the
majority of academics for their career development. This reflection is
absent in all the previous convention participation studies. More
generally, the majority of studies in convention and meeting tourism
concentrate on meeting planners and their convention site selection
decisions (Zhang, Leung and Qu., 2007; Oppermann and Chon, 1997).
Both, academic conferences and academics pose different
characteristics in comparison with other professional conferences and
delegates. Academic conferences are a “showcase” of recent research and
give academics the opportunity to communicate their scientific work
across the academia (Ravn, 2007, p.213). They create value for
academics, enrich their curriculum vitae and give them more
qualifications for promotion and grants (Ravn, 2007). Ravn (2007) asserts
that these characteristics and benefits of academic conferences are absent
at other professional conferences where, typically, presenters are invited
experts and delegates have only a little time for discussion and
contribution. In turn, these invited experts are being remunerated to make
their presentation and they benefit little professionally from this process.
Further, academic conference participants have different needs and
priorities while engaging in this participation process, since their
participation to conferences is necessary for the career development of
academics today. Consequently, academic conference participation
intentions may be affected by additional factors, which are not present in
existing convention participation models.
The research on general tourism has attempted to identify the drivers
of choice of visitors for a long time. In the literature, one of the most well
accepted reasons on influencing people to travel for pleasure revolves
around the theory of “Push” and “Pull” motivation (e.g. Yuan and
McDonad, 1990; Uysal and Jurowski, 1994; Oh, Uysal and Weaver,
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Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
1995; Turnbull and Usal, 1995; Baloglu and Uyssal 1996; Jang and Cai,
2002; Kim and Lee, 2002; Kozak, 2002; Bogari, Crowther, and Marr
2003; Yoon and Uysal, 2005).
Klenosky (2002: 385) argues that: "Push factors refer to the specific
forces in our lives that lead to the decision to take a vacation (i.e., to
travel outside of our normal daily environment". Most Push factors are
origin-related and involve socio-psychological concerns and intrinsic
desires such as the need for escape, relaxation, health and fitness,
adventure, prestige, and social interaction (Crompton, 1979; Iso-Ahola,
1982; Yan and McDonad, 1990; Usal and Jurowski, 1993; Fodness, 1994;
Uysal and Hagan, 1994; Cha, McCcleary and Uysal, 1995; Oh, Uysal and
Weaver, 1995; Turnbull and Usal, 1995; Baloglu and Uysal, 1996;
Hanqin and Lam, 1999; Jang and Cai, 2002; Kim and Lee, 2002; Kozak
2002; Bogari, Crowther and Marr, 2003; Bansal and Eiselt, 2004; Yoon
and Uysal, 2005). On the other hand, Pull factors give hints about what
external attributes draw tourists to visit particular places (Sirrakaya and
McLellan, 1997; You, O'Leary, Morrison and Hong, 2000; Klenosky,
2002). They have frequently involved intangibles and other resources
such as the availability of recreational facilities, historical values and
destination image. They emerge as a result of the attractiveness of the
selected area (Yuan and McDonald, 1990; Uysal and Hagan, 1993;
Klenosky, 2002) and are characterized in terms of the features or
attractions of the destination itself, such as sunshine, beaches, sports
facilities, and cheap airfares (Crompton, 1979; Iso-Ahola 1982; Yan and
McDonad, 1990; Usal and Jurowski, 1994; Oh, Uysal. and Weaver, 1995;
Turnbull and Usal, 1995; Balogul and Uysal, 1996; Sirrakaya and
McLellan, 1997; Hanqin and Lam, 1999; Jang and Cai, 2002; Kim and
Lee, 2002; Klenosky, 2002; Kozak 2002; Bogar, Crowther and Marr,
2003; Yoon and Uysal, 2005).
In principle, this theory relative to tourist motives, assumes that
people travel and select destinations according to different ‘Push’ and
‘Pull’ variables. This is a two-step process, involving “Push” factors,
which prompt someone to leave his/her home, and “Pull” factors, which
draw a person to travel to a particular place.
Although the Push and Pull factors have been presented in the
tourism literature over thirty years ago (Crompton, 1979; Iso-Ahola,
1982), and since then they have been established and extensively used,
their suitability and the potential dimensions they might have in
convention tourism in general and in conference tourism in particular
have not been investigated extensively and by using many multi-item
possible dimensions (Beck and Lalopa, 2001). Some of the papers
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published in the area of convention and meeting management are
conceptual (Davidson, 2003) and some exploratory and qualitative (Jago
and Deery, 2005). Until recently, most of the published research that uses
quantitative data only reported descriptive statistics (Lee and Back,
2005b). Some of the existing research only deals with the development of
a scale and did not really attempt to link the components of this scale with
the actual or indented behaviour participants (Beck and Lalopa, 2001;
Yoo and Chon, 2008). The minority of the papers published in the area of
convention and meeting management collected data from attendees (Lee
and Back, 2005b). A number of the published academic papers are using
data collected from participants of a specific conference or/and from
members of a given preselected association (Ngamsom and Beck, 2000;
Beck and Lalopa, 2001) or approached participants as they were attending
a specific convention (Boo, Hoh and Jones, 2008; Hilliard and Baloglu,
2008). These participants are likely to express views influenced from the
reputation of the association and the conference, as well as from any
specific incidents that were taking place during the conference.
This study is designed to fill this research gap, aiming to statistically
examine the influence of the proposed factors on meeting participation
intentions from the perspective of academics as potential meeting
academic attendees. It is suggested that organizers of academic
conferences should consider unique factors which may affect the
participation intentions of academics. These influencing factors may not
appear between attendees of other professional conferences/conventions.
Again, the consideration of these unique factors will allow conference
organizers to provide academics with improved and competitive services
and achieve a higher turnout in terms of participants’ satisfaction and
future participation.
Figure 1. Conference Participation Factors
Push
Factors
Pull
Factors
Intention
to participate
to a
conference
111
Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
Therefore, this study has two main objectives: to explore whether
Push and Pull factors exist in Conference Tourism and to investigate the
relevant influence of the Pull and Push factors in the choice of a scientific
conference (Figure 1).
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Since there was very limited information on the potential push and
pull factors that might influence academics in their selection of a
conference, a two stage approach was employed for this study. For the
initial identification of the push and pull factors, the first stage of the
research, long interviews were conducted (McCracken, 1988). Previous
research has also attempted to identify push and pull factors in the
tourism industry through unstructured interviews with visitors of a
tourism attraction (Johns and Gyimóthy, 2003). In this case, the
interviews were based on a topic guide with open-ended questions, but
the emphasis was on the interviewee’s point of view. The interviews were
tape recorded, in order to have the data in its natural form (Ritchie and
Lewis, 2003). The twelve participants for the long interviews were
recruited purposively (Miles and Heberman, 1994). A mixture of people
who possessed different experiences in participating in academic
conferences but who were exposed to a research-led environment were
chosen to be the informants, as well as people with less exposure to a
research led environment. Five academics and three PhD students from
the research-led University in the UK as well as four academics from a
non research-led university in the UK (New University) were the subjects
of this initial study. The academics were from different academic levels
and experience bases. The interviews lasted from 30 to 45 minutes each.
The interviews were transcribed and the content analyzed. Two different
researchers were involved in this stage, in order to validate the findings of
the qualitative stage. The interviews helped in the recognition of potential
push and pull factors. Furthermore, items were developed based on the
information collected from the qualitative second stage and formed a
good portion the item pool. Additional items were also taken from
relevant literature of tourism. The totality of the generated items was then
given to 3 experts, in order to secure face and content validity. The
drafted questionnaire was then distributed to a convenience sample of 50
academics and PhD students for a pre-test.
The final instrument used for the quantitative data collection was a
structured questionnaire with Likert-type 5-point scales (1 = Strongly
Disagree, 5 = Strongly Agree). Considering the fact that the case of
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academic conferences and academics as delegates had not been
researched before, appropriate measures were not available for most of
the constructs. In this exploratory study nine push and ten pull factors
were included. No existing construct was used in its totality to measure
any of the dimensions. The items included in the final instrument are
presented in the appendix. The only existing scale planned to be used was
the Lee and Back (2007) scale for conference participation intention.
However, the three items of the scale were so highly inter-correlated we
decided to use a single item to describe the construct, since the other two
did not really provided any additional information.
The last incident method was used to collect the data. Respondents
were asked to answer the questionnaire having in mind the last call for
papers they remembered receiving. This specific request was selected as
researchers did not want to have bias towards conferences that
respondents were planning to attend. To ensure a considerable number of
completed questionnaires, both online survey and paper survey was used.
The paper format was distributed in the three Universities based in
Glasgow Scotland. In the online survey, the questionnaire was sent as an
attachment to academics in various positions working in Universities
across the UK. The e-mail was send through a university e-mail account.
Although it is not the most common data collection method in convention
and meeting management research (Lee and Back, 2005b) contacting the
sample through an e-mail is a tactic that has been used when it is
attempted to approach academics working in many organisations (Kang,
Suh and Jo, 2005). In total 800 questionnaires to potential conference
attendees in various business disciplines were distributed and 242 usable
questionnaires were returned. The characteristics of the sample are
detailed on table 1. Responses from potential conference participants who
had never participated in a conference were eliminated from the sample.
113
Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
Table 1. The Demographic Characteristics of the Sample
Frequency
Percent
Gender
Female
94
38.84%
Male
146
60.33%
n/a
2
0.83%
Position
PhD student
68
28.10%
Associate Lecturer
4
1.65%
Lecturer
32
13.22%
Senior Lecturer
50
20.66%
Principal Lecturer
8
3.31%
Reader
4
1.65%
Professor
58
23.97%
Research Assistant
4
1.65%
Research Associate
2
0.83%
Research Fellow
8
3.31%
Scientific Collaborator
2
0.83%
Visiting Staff
2
0.83%
TOTAL
242
100.00%
FINDINGS
The data was first cleaned. All the multi-item scales used in the study
can be considered reliable since the dimensions of the measured multi
items constructs had alpha reliability coefficients very close in excess of
.70, or high and positive Pearson correlation (Table 2). The
intercorelations of the items used in each scale with more than 2 items
were also less than .45 and they were adding information in the scale.
Therefore it can be argued that all items were indeed measuring the same
construct. The correlations between the study variables reported on table
3, were proven in some occasions significant in a .05 level, but they were
not considered to be problematic. The stronger correlation in this data set
was proven to be one between a push factor (time availability) and a pull
factor (previous experience), which were not considered linked on a
theoretical basis.
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Table 2. Reliability of the Study Variables
no of
Reliability
items
Analysis
PUSH FACTORS
Professional Advancement Factors
Career Development
Paper Presentation and Publication
Personal Contacts
Personal Factors
Escape
Interaction with Academics
Desire to learn
Time Availability
Family influence
Word of Mouth
PULL FACTORS
Locational Factors
Climate
Accommodation, Transport
Desire to Travel to the destination
Sightseeing & Social Events
Distance
Academic Conference Factors
Previous Experience
Pre/Post Activities
Conference Reputation
Funding
CONFERENCE PARTICIPATION INTEREST
mean
2
4
4
0.80
0.75
0.75
#
3
2
3
3
1
3
0.79
0.40
0.68
0.80
*
0.85
*
3
3
1
2
1
0.85
0.88
*
*
0.39
#
3
3
5
1
1
0.81
0.85
0.74
*
*
*
*
*
#
*
*
.
115
sd
3.38
3.41
3.63
0.91
0.82
0.77
2.92
2.64
3.56
3.98
2.19
3.05
1.01
0.85
0.70
0.86
1.07
1.00
2.18
3.49
2.86
2.73
3.44
0.94
1.14
1.20
0.95
1.15
3.72
2.48
3.59
3.88
3.59
0.96
0.90
0.79
1.05
1.23
Table 3. Correlation of the Study Variables
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
PUSH FACTORS
1.
Career Development
0.62 * 0.49 * 0.00
-0.11
0.47 * 0.40 * 0.11
0.39 * 0.56 * 0.19 * -0.01
0.07
0.06
-0.11
-0.16 * 0.29 * -0.04
0.05
0.35 * 0.33 * -0.08
0.30 * 0.38 * 0.29 * 0.27 * 0.02
0.12
-0.05
0.10
0.40 * 0.21 * 0.43 *
0.16 * 0.15
0.32 * 0.39 * 0.13
0.47 * 0.39 * 0.25 * 0.31 * -0.04
0.12
0.14
0.15
0.40 * 0.19 * 0.34 *
2.
Paper Presentation and Publication
0.67 * -0.02
3.
Personal Contacts
1.00
4.
Escape
5.
6.
7.
Interaction with Academics
Desire to learn
Time Availability
8.
Family influence
9.
Word of Mouth
1.00
0.37 * -0.14 # -0.08
1.00
0.23 * 0.05
0.00
0.40 * 0.35 * 0.57 * 0.32 * -0.24 * 0.44 * 0.09
0.35 * -0.19 *
0.27 * 0.24 * 0.29 * 0.33 * 0.06
0.20 * 0.15 #
0.04
-0.15 # 0.16 * 0.20 * -0.05
1.00
0.11
-0.12
1.00
0.32 * 0.31 * 0.82 * 0.27 * 0.08
1.00
0.14
0.27 * -0.02
-0.14
0.09
0.22 * -0.11
-0.19 * -0.04
0.46 * 0.00
-0.08
0.28 * -0.14
0.20 *
0.50 * -0.35 * 0.17 * -0.01
0.22 *
0.24 * 0.33 * 0.43 * 0.14 # 0.32 * 0.21 * 0.23 * -0.06
1.00
0.40 *
-0.09
0.22 * 0.14 #
0.31 * 0.17 * 0.23 * 0.09
0.13 # 0.16 * 0.22 * 0.25 * 0.17 * 0.20 *
1.00
0.09
PULL FACTORS
10.
Previous Experience
11.
Climate
12.
Accommodation, Transport
13.
Desire to Travel to the destination
14.
Sightseeing & Social Events
15.
Distance
16.
Pre/Post Activities
17.
Conference Reputation
18.
19.
Funding
I will make an effort to attend this
academic conference
* sing .01
# sign. 0.05
0.37 * 0.10
1.00
0.03
0.29 * -0.30 * 0.24 * -0.07
0.34 *
0.44 * 0.55 * 0.57 * -0.07
0.28 * 0.11
1.00
0.32 * 0.13 # 0.51 * -0.05
0.36 * 0.25 * -0.02
1.00
0.23 * 0.18 *
0.65 * -0.39 * 0.30 * -0.07
0.32 * -0.02
1.00
-0.21 * 0.35 * 0.01
0.09
0.13 #
1.00
0.05
0.30 *
-0.31 * -0.02
1.00
0.29 * 0.26 * -0.16 *
1.00
-0.06
0.03
1.00
-0.05
1.00
When the regression analysis was performed, only some of the
proposed relationships were not proved to be statistically significant
(Table 3), and therefore a revised model was developed, where the links
among variables not statistically significant at the .05 level were deleted
with stepwise regression. Both sets of results are reported. The regression
analysis in the revised model showed respectable explanatory power,
since the adjusted R2 was .47 (Table 3). Although the variables are intercorrelated, regression analysis can be performed in this data set, since the
degree of multi-collinearity is not considered as problematic. All variance
inflation factor (VIF) values are below 10, the benchmark suggested by
Neter, Wesserman and Kutner (1990) and all tolerance values are greater
than 0.02.
Three of the push factors were proven to be significant in the revised
model. The best predictors seem to be; time availability and the
probability for publication. If academics do not have time, or if they feel
that their work is not going to be published to an expected extent, they are
less willing to attend a conference. Some role is also played by the
perception that a conference presentation might help in career
development.
In total six pull factors were significant in the revised model. The
most important of them is the distance of the trip. Other factors that were
linked with the destination were also important. Academics want to be
able to see the area and participate in social events during the conference.
The difficulties they anticipate encountering during the trip were a factor
that does not motivate conference selection. Surprisingly, the conference
reputation has a negative link with the intention to participate. This could
be due to the fact that academics prefer smaller conferences in which they
can interact. They also base their intention to participate on previous
experience from the same conference. The availability of funding for the
conference is also a significant factor for determining participation
intentions.
Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
Table 4. Predictors of Conference Participation
Full model
Stand
Revised model
Stand
Beta t
tolerance VIF Beta t
tolerance VIF
PUSH FACTORS
Career Development
Paper Presentation and
Publication
Personal Contacts
0.26 3.09 *
0.31 3.24 0.21 2.83 *
0.42 2.41
0.43 4.67 *
0.27 3.67 0.50 7.09 *
0.47 2.14
0.10 1.19
0.31 3.22
-0.18 -2.43 #
0.41 2.46
0.15 2.32 #
0.55 1.82
Desire to learn
-0.14 -2.13 #
0.52 1.93
Time Availability
-0.54 -4.87 *
0.19 5.35 -0.57 -5.73 *
Escape
Interaction with Academics
Family influence
0.03 0.46
0.51 1.98
Word of Mouth
-0.04 -0.60
0.53 1.89
0.24 4.18
PULL FACTORS
Previous Experience
0.32 2.93 *
0.19 5.17 0.38 3.80 *
Climate
0.08 1.00
0.34 2.92
0.47 2.13 -0.14 -2.18 #
0.23 4.26
Accommodation, Transport
Desire to Travel to the
destination
-0.18 -2.58 #
0.59 1.70
0.06 0.65
0.23 4.39
Sightseeing & Social Events
0.14 1.84
0.41 2.47 0.17 3.23 *
0.85 1.18
Distance (DT1)
0.46 6.39 *
0.43 2.31 0.54 8.74 *
0.60 1.66
Pre/Post Activities
-0.09 -1.10
0.35 2.83
Conference Reputation
-0.14 -2.21 #
0.58 1.71 -0.21 -3.95 *
0.79 1.27
Funding
-0.08 -1.19
0.50 1.99 -0.11 -1.86 #
0.65 1.53
Adjusted R2
0.48
0.47
F
* sing .01
# sign. 0.05
12.92
23.35
DISCUSSION
The current study is an initial investigation and effort to combine
convention and meetings literature and the literature on career
development. It contributes to the further study of both convention
participation and career development by highlighting their relationship.
This reflection is absent in all the previous convention participation
studies. Considering calls of previous researchers for the need of
“extensive empirical research….to identify motivating and prohibiting
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factors for different types of respondents and association meetings” (Lee
and Back, 2005, p.418) the current study introduces an Academic
Conference Participation (ACP) Model to identify factors affecting
participation intentions of academics as potential attendees. Moreover, the
study went further to statistically test the proposed model, as opposed to
previous theoretical studies in the field of convention participation
(Zhang, Leung and Qu, 2007; Oppermann and Chon, 1997) and to
propose a refined model, which shows the relative significance of the
proposed influencing factors. This effort aimed at providing the basis for
further research to clarify and enrich its results. In the methodological part
of the study, the use of different data collection methods also provides
useful information on their advantages and disadvantages.
The results of this study can be useful for convention industry
practitioners. Understanding the factors affecting conference participation
helps conference organizers and associations to improve the quality of
their services and maximize the number of delegates attending. Especially
in the case of academic conferences, organizers should consider unique
factors that may affect the participation intentions of academics. These
influencing factors may not appear between attendees of other
professional conferences/conventions. Considering the results of the
study, the “need for career development” appears to be a facilitator in
conference participation. On the other hand, “networking opportunities”,
the importance of “paper presentation / publication” and opportunities of
“knowledge and learning” appear as not to be expected by academics
during their conference participation. This fact may indicate a negative
“image” of academic conferences. In this case, conference organizers
should create conferences that promote knowledge exchange, professional
contacts and incorporate friendly networking activity (Ravn, 2007).
Previous “personal experience” appears to play an important role for
future participation. Therefore, conference organizers should carefully
“build” a favourable image and reputation for their conferences.
Furthermore, three location factors are included in the anticipated
model. The “image of the conference host destination”, the “sightseeing
opportunities” and “accommodation / transportation cost” in the host
destination influence participation intentions of potential attendees. This
suggests that the development of conference tourism does not only rely on
the individual efforts of conference organizers and associations. Local and
national authorities and tourism organizations have a share of
responsibility in attracting overseas delegates by developing a favourable
host destination image and providing suitable conditions for conference
and conventions in terms of facilities, such as conference centers and
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Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
convention centers transportation and accommodation. Conventions and
meetings make a major contribution to the growth of local and national
economies (Lee and Back, 2005). As indicated earlier, “the average
conference delegate spends approximately 2.0 to 2.5 times the amount
spent by recreational (leisure) tourists on a daily basis.” (Randall and
Warf, 1996) and repeat visits and word of mouth promotion of the host
destination promote the growth of regional and national tourism activity
(Lee and Back, 2005).
LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE
RESEARCH
One can not ignore that the selected domain (academic conferences)
can be considered as restricted. Academic conferences are an individual
type of professional conference and a niche market within the convention
and meeting industry. Therefore, generalizing the proposed model and the
results of this study to describe behaviours regarding the participation in
other professional conferences would not be appropriate. In addition,
different national academic systems and regulations in the academic
profession may differentiate the perceptions of academics regarding
conference participation. Moreover, different funding regulations for the
attendance of academic conferences inside academic institutions may also
play an important role in conference participation of academics.
In the methodological part of the study, the limitations are related to
the selected data collection method and its aspects. In the case of the
online survey, the questionnaire was sent via e-mail to the respondents.
Further, the questionnaire was an attached word file and not an embedded
questionnaire (in which the questions are to be found in the body of the email). Bryman (2004) asserts that the embedded questionnaire requires
less computer expertise, it is easier for the respondent to return to the
researcher and it can achieve higher response rate in comparison with the
attached questionnaire. On the other hand, in the case of the attached
questionnaire, the researcher has to deal with the fact that many
respondents would be not willing to open the attachment because of
concerns about viruses and Internet threats (Bryman, 2004). Moreover,
Bryman (2004) asserts that e-mail surveys have lower response rates in
comparison with postal questionnaire surveys and “respondents may find
it difficult to believe that their replies really are confidential and will be
treated anonymously” (p.485). Further, the length of questionnaire (64
Likert-type scale statements) together with the multiple “mouse pointclicks” required to complete it made the participation in the research time120
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consuming for the individual respondent. Alternatively, the study could
have used a web survey, in which the respondents would be directed to
the website of the research in which the questionnaire could be found and
completed.
As indicated earlier in the presentation of the questionnaire, a
highlighted note in the questionnaire introduction asks the respondent to
think about the last “Call for Papers” that they received to participate in
an academic conference before indicating the level of their agreement
with each one of the questionnaire statements. However, the feedback
from a number of respondents indicates that the last “Call for Papers” as a
reference to complete the questionnaire was problematic. The bulk of
“Call for Papers” received by an individual academic during a particular
season makes it difficult for some respondents to think about the last one
of them to guide their thinking. Further, many of the received “Call for
Papers” pertain to irrelevant conferences and they are not taken into
account by the recipient. Therefore, it would be more appropriate for the
research questionnaire to ask the respondent to think about the last “Call
for Papers” regarding a conference relevant to their field of interest.
Although the paper contributes to the introduction of an academic
conference participation model, it examined mainly academics from UK
universities. For model generalization purposes, further studies with
respect to different academic systems characteristics must be conducted.
Further, this study may be viewed as a first step in a series of studies that
will hopefully lead to a more quantitative approach and generalized basis
for the examination of convention participation. This paper generates calls
not only for further research studies in the field of convention
participation, but also for future studies to explore the importance of
conferences for professional career development. Although the majority
of convention research studies focuses on the economic impact of
convention industry on the local and national economy, the important role
of this industry in the emerging ‘knowledge society’ should not be
neglected. Future research studies should explore the role of conferences
and conference industry on the career development of attendees and more
generally the promotion of knowledge and education.
Further, “academe is a growing sector with importance beyond its
physical size” (Baruch and Hall, 2004, p.258). However, the existing
literature on academic work and career is still limited. We need to further
study how the academic profession changes and which are the new
requirements and routes for the career development of academics.
Academic careers are located both in “traditional” and “new” careers
(Richardson and McKenna, 2003; Kaulisch and Enders, 2005) and their
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Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
examination provides useful insights for the majority of professional
careers, both in the public and private sector. The findings of this study
are preliminary and should be treated as such. Considering the limitations
of the current study, future research is needed to re-examine and confirm
or revise the proposed model and results. Different strategies and
combination of data collection procedures can be used to achieve higher
response rates thereby leading to more robust models. Many of the factors
suggested by the relevant literature as influencing conference
participation intentions were found to be non-influencable, when
empirically tested. Further research could identify how non-influencable
factors of the attendees’ participation intentions could become
influencable and possible additional factors affecting conference
participation intentions should be identified by using both quantitative
and qualitative research methods.
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APPENDIX
Push Factors:
PROFESSIONAL ADVANCEMENT FACTORS
Career Development (CD)
• Participating in this academic conference is likely to help me
advance my academic career.
• Presenting my research paper in this academic conference is likely to
help me advance my academic career.
Paper Presentation / Publication (PPP)
• I am looking forward to see my work included to this conference’s
proceedings.
• It is very important for me to present my research paper in this
academic conference.
• I am looking for feedback about my research work after my
presentation
• Special issues of academic journals associated with this academic
conference are an important parameter for me.
Professional Contacts (PC)
• I am likely to meet potential research partners by participating in this
academic conference.
• I expect to strengthen my professional relationships with academic
colleagues by participating in this academic conference.
• Participating in this academic conference is a way to support the
association and its members.
• By participating in this conference I feel as a member of the
academic community.
PERSONAL FACTORS
Escape (E)
• This conference’s host destination is likely to be a good place for me
to relax.
• Participating in this academic conference is a way to escape from
ordinary life.
• A trip to this conference’s host destination is likely to enhance my
feeling of well-being.
Interaction with Academics (DL)
• I am likely to meet many participants with different interests and life
styles by participating in this academic conference
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Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
•
Participating in this academic conference gives me the opportunity to
meet local academics
Desire to Learn (DL)
• I feel that I will learn the trends in my field by participating in this
academic conference.
• I am likely to learn new skills by attending this academic conference.
• Participating in academic conferences keeps me up with changes in
my academic field.
Time Availability (TA)
• I do not have time available to participate in this academic
conference.
• I do have other priorities of my academic job during the period of the
conference.
• I am busy with my university / social obligations during the period of
this conference.
Word of Mouth Influence (WMI)
• Other academic and association’s members have a good opinion
about this conference.
• Other academics that previously attended this conference did have a
good experience there.
• Other academics have a good opinion about this conference /
association.
Pull Factors:
LOCATIONAL FACTORS
Climate ©
• I like the climate in this conference’s host destination.
• Temperature in this conference’s host destination is important good
for me.
• I am very concerned about the weather in this conference’s host
destination.
Accommodation / Transportation Cost/Facilities (ATCF)
• I will seek information about the travelling / transportation cost of
my participation in this academic conference.
• Before I decide to attend this academic conference I have to consider
the availability of accommodation / hotel facilities in the host
destination.
• I will try to learn about the quality and cost of accommodation in this
conference host destination.
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Destination Attraction
• I have a desire to travel to this conference host destination.
Sightseeing / Social Events Opportunities (SEO)
• Sightseeing in this conference host destination is good.
• I have a desire to attend social events in this academic conference
destination.
Distance of Trip (DT)
• The distance of the trip to this conference host destination is an
important issue for me.
ACADEMIC CONFERENCE FACTORS
Previous Experience (PE)
• I have good experiences from this association’s conferences.
• I have good experiences from this particular conference.
• I have good experiences from this host destination.
Pre / Post Activities (PPA)
• I can participate in pre / post conference activities which I
particularly enjoy in this academic conference.
• Quality of the pre / post conference activities is important for me.
• I will check for the pre / post conference activities before I decide to
attend this academic conference.
Conference Reputation (CI)
• The identity of this conference organizer is important for me.
• The identity of the conference association is important for me.
• I seek information about the prestige of this conference.
• I take into account the quality of papers presented in this
association’s conferences.
• I try to learn about the host location / facilities of this academic
conference.
Funding / Registration Cost (FRC)
• Availability of academic funding is is an important issue for me
PARTICIPATION INTENTION:
• I will make an effort to attend this academic conference
129
Cleopatra Veloutsou & Chrisovalantis Chreppas
SUBMITTED: MAR 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: JUL 2014
ACCEPTED: AUG 2014
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Cleopatra Veloutsou (Cleopatra.Veloutsou@glasgow.ac.uk) is a Senior
Lecturer in Marketing in the Adam Smith Business School of the
University of Glasgow, The Gilbert Scott Building, G12 8 QQ Glasgow.
Chrysovalantis Chreppas holds an MSc in Management Research
Methods and has worked for the Athens Institute of Education and
Research (ATINER).
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THE ENRICHMENT OF TOUR OPERATORS’
PRODUCT BY INCORPORATING SUSTAINABLE
ELEMENTS. A TOURISM AND TRAVEL MARKETING
APPROACH
Ourania Vitouladiti 1
Technological Educational Institute of Athens
The tour operators offering their services in established and traditional tourism
destinations for a long time face the issue of the lack of sustainable elements in
their holiday packages and their focus is mostly on the classic 3S model.
However, either their target markets or the needs of destinations for sustainable
approaches push for the enrichment of the offered packages. Therefore, this paper
studies the potential for enrichment of classical tour packages by incorporating
components of the destinations natural and cultural resources. To recognize these
elements research has been conducted on the impressiveness of natural and
cultural resources. The results indicate not only the potential for product
enrichment with unused, till now, elements but also suggest the creation of new
packages for targeted markets. Facts that are positive for both the tour operators
and the prosperity of the destination.
Keywords: tour operators, holiday package, tourism destination, natural and
physical resources, sustainability
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
For several countries and regions tourism stands as the only or as the
most significant, means to achieve economic development (Bramwell and
Lane, 1993). However, the importance of this activity and its sensitivity
to a variety of external and internal influences demands a more
considerate and sustainable approach to its development.
Several studies have supported the significance of tourism to
employment and economic development (Rebollo & Baidal, 2003; Tapper
& Font, 2005; Wijk and Persoon, 2006). However, even more scholars
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
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Ourania Vitouladiti
have indicated that tourism development is also associated with negative
effects, especially environmental and social ones. Issues like depletion of
resources, pollution, waste generation and alterations or destruction of
local cultures (Wijk and Persoon, 2006; Sigala, 2008; Chheang, 2009;
Gronau and Kaufmann, 2009) have been addressed.
According to a number of studies, it is the mass tourism activities that
are considered responsible for generating the most severe negative
impacts of tourism. However, mass tourism is a reality of our time that
will continue to expand, meaning that the challenge of sustainable tourism
is to find ways to ascribe sustainable attributes to mass tourism activities
(Swarbrooke, 1999). For destinations that have followed the model of
mass tourism development it is technically impossible to revert to a
thoroughly sustainable model. For these destinations sustainability is
associated with the protection of the environment, the use of green energy
solutions and the general upgrading of its tourism supply, giving
emphasis to the historical and cultural resources of the destination. As
Clarke (1997) indicates no tourism activity is inherently sustainable, but
all tourism activities should strive for sustainability.
As Sigala (2008) suggests, sustainable practices should be
incorporated in all tourism enterprises since the image the tourist forms
for a tour and a destination is holistic and the tour operator packages rely
on the high level of service of all the involved providers.
As Trivun et al., point out (2008, p.175) the tour operators “create
final product to be offered to market, transforming attractions and
services into products with tailored personality. Specialization in this field
of travel has changed the structure of travel industry and hospitality”. The
creation of the product includes actions related to the tour operator’s
choice of the destination and selection of holiday package components. It
is important for tour operators to choose destinations that have product
components which are attractive to their clientele.
As Cooper et al indicate (1993) the attractions generate the visit to a
destination, while the other support services and facilities are also
essential for tourism, but would not exist without the attractions. This is
because demand for tourism products and services derives from those
tourists drawn to the area by the attractions and the resources. It is the
attractions and the resources of a destination, whether these are manmade
features, natural features or cultural resources, or even events, that
provide the initial motivation to visit. Traditionally, resources have been a
neglected sector for the tourist industry due to their variety and
fragmented ownership pattern.
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However, the tourism package for mature and established
destinations is limited to classic representations of the 3S model, with
basic sightseeing options.
It must be noted that even though all inclusive package tours are at a
rise (ABTA, 2014) and price appears to be the most significant choice
criterion for a destination, probably due to the economic crisis, an attempt
to distinguish a destination from its competition and give it an aura of
uniqueness remains imperative.
A growing demand for more environmentally and culturally sensitive
holiday experiences arises. Many tourists, nowadays, expect sustainability
practices to be integrated into their holiday which means that tour
operators must comply accordingly to remain competitive (Font and
Cochrane, 2005).
Especially, the natural and cultural resources or attractions of a
destination are the basis for an effort to offer products with sustainable
elements. The incorporation of such elements into package tours is in
compliance with the expressed wants and desires of the tourists and will
support the destination’s effort to promote features others than the 3S and
achieve more sustainable forms of tourism.
This study taking into consideration the above will try to demonstrate
that a mass tourism destination, focused on the classical sea, sand and sun
model of tourism, can be proved much more impressive and interesting to
the visitor, concerning both its natural and cultural resources than it was
expected. The holiday package “consumption” can be proved valuable for
the destination and give information for the enrichment of the tour
operators product based on the elements that visitors found most
impressive.
TOUR OPERATORS – TOURISM SYSTEM AND THE
NECESSITY FOR SUSTAINABLE APPROACHES
Tour operators, in the past, have not been associated with
environmental and social sensitivities. However, they claim that they are
not the ones who cause conspicuous large-scale damage to the
environment (Miller, 2001). Their position being that they are simply
intermediaries between customers and service providers and that the
environmental and social impacts to the destinations are the responsibility
of the local authorities and the various local enterprises and providers.
These self-perceptions as well as profit maximization motives and
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Ourania Vitouladiti
managerial opinions, are most likely the reason they have been fairly slow
to respond to the need for sustainable approaches.
Due to their key position in the tourism system, and their control or
effect on the distribution channels and the creation of specific package
tours, tour operators are the main link between the various service
providers and target markets. They affect business operations, operational
management and strategies such as pricing, product policies and
promotional activities. Globalization and the various trends for vertical,
horizontal and diagonal integration have led to massive global enterprises
that have a great potential to influence purchase decisions and travel
trends (Aguilo et al., 2001; Baloglu and Mangaloglu, 2001; Cavlek, 2002;
Medina-Munoz et al., 2003; Seales and Stein, 2012).
Due to the above, together with the aggressive competition, they are
often considered responsible for many of the undesirable effects of
tourism development and lack of sustainable approaches to the planning
of their packages (Bianchi, 2004; Bastakis et al., 2004; Budeanu, 2005;
Dodds and Kuehne, 2010).
Even though, as Mason (2003) states, tour operators have a
reputation for being associated with negative impacts and creating
problems, they are however, especially the large-scale ones with great
economic power, in an ideal position to facilitate the dissemination of
sustainable policies and attitudes through the entire tourism industry
(Tepelus, 2005; Wijk and Persoon, 2006; Font et al., 2008). In fact, many
studies indicate that tour operators are in many ways the key to achieving
more sustainable forms of tourism (Swarbrooke, 1999; Wijk and Persoon,
2006; Frey and George, 2010) and managing the expressed travel trends.
It is evident that in order to deal with the negative effects of tourism,
the sector requires new tools and methods that minimize harm while
allowing the development and management of tourism activities in ways
that contribute to sustainable development (Tepelus, 2005).
However, as the literature suggests, most authors and researchers
have concentrated on more sustainable practices in regards to the
environment, energy consumption, waste management and infrastructure
development. Few studies have focused in an attempt to provide
information regarding the actual product offered by the destination,
through the tour operators and how it could be enriched and expanded to
contain elements that will be in accordance with the new demands of
tourists for sustainable approaches. The incorporation of elements such
as the historical areas, the picturesque villages, historical towns, the
variety of physical environment, the mountains and hills, the countryside,
etc will offer the opportunity to the visitors to know another aspect of the
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product and satisfy their search for environmental and cultural
components. At the same time this approach will offer the opportunity to
the tour operators to differentiate their product and comply with the
expressed needs and wants of their clientele.
This study aims to showcase the areas in which tour operators could
guide their efforts in expanding and enriching their product for an already
established destination, which has reached the mature phase in its product
life cycle, using the proposals of the clientele. Specifically, it will attempt
to assess the resources of a destination in terms of the impression they
impact to the visitor. Considering that the creation and promotion of new
tour packages present certain risks, it is the job of the tour operators’
marketing department to try and find ways to minimize them. One
possible way is to use the assessment of the visitors themselves regarding
the destination’s resources, in terms of impressiveness and bet on the best
possible options.
The destination examined, which is the island of Corfu, is a typical,
insular Mediterranean destination, known mostly for mass tourism
packages, with the demand for its product managed mainly by foreign
tour operators. Hence it is typical of most Mediterranean destinations
where tourism packages promote the beaches and entertainment facilities
ignoring other elements that could enrich the product offered. It is a place
that apart from its beaches and entertainment facilities has a rich history
and impressive cultural past as well as a variety of natural beauty, green
environment, picturesque villages and physical resources. However, it is a
fact that these are seldom if ever mentioned or promoted in the various
package tours to the destination. The majority of the tourism packages
offered to its target market are limited to the classic representations of the
3S model, with basic sightseeing options.
The study tries to establish whether a destinations’ history, cultural
past, natural beauty, green environment, picturesque villages and physical
resources can be used in expanding and enriching its product.
The destination under consideration shows fluctuations in arrivals, an
element that can be associated to a variety of reasons, among them and
most likely the saturation of the product and the interchangeability with
other similar destinations. An issue that is common knowledge for mass
tourism destinations.
Therefore, an effort to enrich the product with cultural and natural
elements could be worthwhile. Such an effort can be achieved through
research that will attempt to measure the impression that these resources
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have on the visitors, trying to select the most impressive ones to be used
in a future product planning.
This study will try to support that a mass tourism destination
applying the 3S model can enrich its offer by relying in its natural and
cultural resources, since these have yet to be exploited by marketing to
the extent of their capabilities. However, considering the limited financial
means of destinations and the reticence of tour operators planning
departments to invest in new products, the careful selection of such
resources is necessary. Research in the opinions of the existing clientele
that looks for their proposals to enrich the product is the best method to
assure the most effective allocation of the available budgets.
For a tour operator to consider the enrichment of its product and the
expansion of its offer some basic practical business requirements must be
fulfilled. Requirements that can operate as a stimulus and propel them to
design new products. The most important requirement is the possibility to
expand their customer base and achieve profits.
In order to meet this requirement a multitude of information and data
must be obtained and analyzed. These information and data include the
following:
- The destination’s existing offer and resources
- The offer and resources should be evaluated as impressive and
worthwhile by the prospective visitors in order to be taken into
consideration for a future purchase decision
- The tour operator should have already identified the evolving
needs and wants of the target markets and be willing to enrich its
product to meet them.
- The tour operator should apply proper market research methods
to ensure communication with its clientele and the recognition of
their needs.
For the design of this research the above considerations where taken
into account for the construction of a research instrument, a structured
questionnaire, destined to the actual visitor. This questionnaire through its
content and structure converted into variables all the above points
allowing the testing of specific hypotheses.
The most effective way to answer the issues mentioned is the creation
of a research instrument that will transform specific questions into
research variables. These questions will ask initially the opinion of the
destination’s visitors regarding their expectations for the physical and
cultural resources and subsequently their evaluations of the same
resources after the “consumption” of the chosen package tour. The
recording of the difference between the evaluation and the expectation
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will reveal not only the assessment of the resources but most importantly
the measurement of their impressiveness. This element could be
considered the guideline for the exploitation and incorporation of these
features to enrich the tourism packages of tour operators.
Firstly, we will examine if there are demographic groups, at both
phases of expectation and evaluation, which operate as differentiating
factors, so as to examine the existence of possible target groups’
characteristics and focus on them. Consequently, the differences between
evaluation and expectation for every element of the natural and cultural
resources and demographic group will be examined.
FORMATION OF THE HYPOTHESES
Therefore, the following sets of hypotheses will be developed and
tested.
st
A. 1 set of hypotheses
The general statement of the hypotheses is:
H0: There are no significant differences among the several
demographic categories concerning the expectation about the natural and
cultural resources’ impressiveness
VS
H1: There are significant differences among the several demographic
categories concerning the expectation about the natural and cultural
resources’ impressiveness
The expectations about the natural and cultural resources’
impressiveness consist of 9 variables and concern the several
demographic categories, so the above general statement of hypotheses is
divided into an equal number of partial hypotheses (see table 1)
H0: There are no significant differences among the several
demographic categories concerning the evaluation of the natural and
cultural resources’ impressiveness
VS
H1: There are significant differences among the several demographic
categories concerning the evaluation of the natural and cultural resources’
impressiveness
The evaluation of the natural and cultural resources’ impressiveness
consists of 9 variables and concerns the several demographic categories,
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so the above general statement of hypotheses is divided into an equal
number of partial hypotheses (see table 2).
B. 2nd set of hypotheses
The general statement of the hypotheses is:
H0: There are no significant differences between evaluation and
expectation within the demographic categories regarding the
impressiveness of the natural and cultural resources
VS
H1: There are significant differences between evaluation and
expectation within the demographic categories regarding the
impressiveness of the natural and cultural resources
For every one of the 9 variables we calculate the difference
D=evaluation – expectation and for every difference we test the
hypotheses
H0: D=0
versus the alternative
H1: D≠0 at the level of significance, α=0, 05, p≤ 0, 05 (see table 3)
For the testing of the hypotheses, ANOVA analysis and descriptive
statistics (paired samples t-test differences) were implemented.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The case study was a mature insular Mediterranean destination and
the sample was international first-time visitors. Most of them had booked
the package tour from a tour operator. They were chosen by random
sampling (from the entire island’s visiting population) that gave a reliable
sample of 375 respondents (e=5%). All the demographic categories were
almost equally represented. The research tool was a dual questionnaire
where the first section was completed upon check-in and the last before
check-out. The first section allowed us to identify the visitors’
expectations for the destination’s natural and cultural resources
impressiveness while the second one displayed their evaluation for them
after the “consumption” of the holiday package.
The questions used a 5-point rating scale that allowed the
measurement of impressiveness concerning the natural and cultural
resources, 1 being “very unimpressive”, 2 “quite unimpressive”, 3
“neither impressive, nor unimpressive”, 4 “quite impressive” and 5 “very
impressive”.
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FINDINGS
Comments on the expectation
According to the results of ANOVA analysis and regarding the
expectations about the impressiveness of the natural and cultural
resources it is observed that all the demographic characteristics are
differentiating factors. Among them the least differentiating one is the
education level, while income and age level are the most differentiating
ones. Differences are not observed for the sea and fields.
From a careful observation of the below tables results that the
expectations have high ratings for all the resources. All the demographic
groups demonstrate high expectations about the impressiveness of the
resources sea and mountain and hills. The lower income levels
demonstrate higher expectations for the resources under consideration. It
appears that they have more expectations from their destination choice
since they are the ones seeking the more value for their money. The
higher level of education has greater expectations about the
impressiveness of the physical environment.
Table 1. Expectations about the Natural and Cultural resources’
impressiveness *
Island’s
capital
Villages
Historical
areas
Beaches
Physical
environment
The sea
Mountains
and Hills
Countryside
Fields
Total
under
34
Age
3554
3,78
3,77
3,73
3,69
3,78
Education level
Income level
2000040000+
40000
55+
Secondary
Professional
University
under
20000
3,69
3,93
3,82
3,71
3,82
3,87
3,70
3,78
3,63
3,69
3,87
3,80
3,63
3,75
3,83
3,63
3,76
3,51
3,75
3,78
3,76
3,62
3,69
3,79
3,68
3,55
3,79
3,81
3,73
3,81
3,78
3,74
3,96
3,64
3,73
3,84
3,93
3,81
3,81
3,86
3,71
3,97
3,93
3,78
3,81
4,25
4,25
4,25
4,25
4,23
4,21
4,32
4,31
4,19
4,28
4,23
4,27
4,23
4,19
4,25
4,13
4,32
4,35
4,18
4,13
3,91
3,27
3,85
3,37
3,91
3,23
3,97
3,23
3,96
3,26
3,82
3,22
3,95
3,33
3,98
3,31
3,85
3,21
3,92
3,29
*The significant differences among the ages, level of education and income are highlighted
in bold lettering and are the differences which support the respective alternative hypotheses
H1 (1st SET of hypotheses) regarding the expectations (ANOVA analysis).
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Comments on the evaluation
According to the results of ANOVA analysis and regarding the
evaluations for the impressiveness, the level of education is not a
differentiating factor. The level of income, in this case appears to be the
more differentiating factor, similarly as with expectations. In accordance
with the expectations, the lower incomes have the higher evaluation for
the impressiveness of the natural resources.
The lower levels of education consider “quite” and “very” impressive
the island capital city, the physical environment, the sea, the mountains
and hills and the countryside.
Table 2. Evaluations of the Natural and Cultural resources’
impressiveness *
Island’s
capital
Villages
Historical
areas
Beaches
Physical
environment
The sea
Mountains
and Hills
Countryside
Fields
Total
under
34
Age
3554
4,03
4,02
3,81
3,79
Education level
Income level
2000040000+
40000
55+
Secondary
Professional
University
under
20000
3,93
4,19
4,04
3,99
4,05
4,19
3,92
3,96
3,75
3,78
3,90
3,81
3,79
3,82
3,93
3,73
3,73
3,64
3,77
3,96
3,80
3,82
3,75
3,88
3,78
3,67
3,73
3,74
3,75
3,68
3,71
3,83
3,62
3,94
3,55
3,70
3,87
4,03
3,83
3,80
3,79
3,83
4,03
4,00
3,81
3,78
4,35
4,29
4,39
4,33
4,27
4,37
4,42
4,41
4,32
4,29
4,35
4,37
4,31
4,41
4,34
4,30
4,43
4,43
4,28
4,37
3,98
3,94
3,96 4,05
4,03
3,92
3,99
4,07
3,90
3,24
3,19
3,26 3,25
3,29
3,24
3,18
3,33
3,11
*The significant differences among the ages, level of education and income are highlighted
in bold lettering and are the differences which support the respective alternative hypotheses
H1 (1st SET of hypotheses) regarding the evaluation. (ANOVA analysis).
3,98
3,34
Comments on
expectation
the
difference
between
evaluation
and
Significant differences are observed for the 5 from the 9 resources
examined and there are all positive regarding the total size of the sample.
There are alterations for every variable and are all positive apart from this
of the beaches. For the purposes of statistical accuracy we will focus
mostly on the variables that present statistically significant differences.
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Table 3. Significant differences between expectations and
evaluations of the Natural and Cultural resources’ impressiveness *
Island’s
capital
Villages
Historical
areas
Beaches
Physical
environment
The sea
Mountains
and Hills
Countryside
Fields
Total
under
34
Age
3554
0,24
0,26
0,08
0,11
0,10
Education level
Income level
2000040000+
40000
55+
Secondary
Professional
University
under
20000
0,22
0,28
0,23
0,26
0,24
0,31
0,22
0,08
0,06
0,01
0,18
0,06
0,10
0,10
0,01
0,13
0,02
0,20
0,05
0,20
0,05
0,10
0,10
0,12
0,05
-0,05
0,06
-0,10
0,06
-0,12
-0,02
-0,09
-0,04
0,03
0,10
0,02
-0,06
0,12
0,05
0,07
0,03
-0,02
0,10
0,04
0,14
0,05
0,01
0,07
0,04
0,15
0,10
0,10
0,13
0,01
0,12
0,10
0,07
0,22
0,09
0,17
0,11
0,08
0,10
0,24
0,07
0,02
0,18
0,09
0,05
0,07
0,06
0,10
0,04
0,09
0,05
0,06
-0,18
0,03
0,04
0,02
0,03
-0,15
0,01
-0,10
0,06
*The significant differences are highlighted in bold and are the differences which support
the respective alternative hypotheses H1 (2st SET of hypotheses) regarding the differences
between evaluation and expectations for every variable and demographic category.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
A general finding is that both expectations and evaluations of the
natural and cultural resources of the island received quite high ratings.
• With a significant difference from the others the sea and
mountains and hills are set apart.
• At the end of the vacations, evaluations are more positive for five
characteristics (island’s capital, villages, historical areas, sea,
mountains and hills).
• The age groups, the level of education and income are factors
which seem to differentiate significantly the answers for varying
resources.
• However, these demographic characteristics do not influence the
change (increase or decrease) of the ratings between expectation
and evaluation.
• The demographic characteristics operate as differentiating factors
mostly at the expectations phase.
• The higher ages give more positive evaluations for the island’s
capital, historical areas and mountains and hills.
• More modifications are observed for the older ages while the
most of them are observed into the education level professional,
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regarding the phase of the comparison between expectation and
evaluation.
• While education is the least differentiating factor at both phases
separately, at their comparison the category of professional
education is influenced positively for 5 out of the 9 elements of
the resources, meaning more than the other educational levels or
demographic criteria.
• Medium income respondents and professional level of education
ones give lower ratings at both phases in relation to the other
levels of the specific demographic characteristics. Statistically
significant differences are observed more often to the medium
incomes.
• Despite the fact that the observed differences between
expectations and evaluations are not statistically significant, it
must be noted that the resources of beaches present negative
modification for the majority of respondents.
In general (a) the resources are considered impressive at both phases,
expectation and evaluation, (b) the more positive evaluations concern the
island capital, the sea and the mountains and hills, which impress all the
respondents without exception and (c) the evaluations for the
impressiveness of the cultural resources, meaning the island capital,
villages, historical areas etc. have high ratings.
CONCLUSIONS
AND
SUGGESTIONS
OPERATORS’ MARKETING
FOR
TOUR
From the above analysis several significant conclusions are derived.
First of all the main selling point of the island, specifically the beaches,
receives lower evaluation ratings for its impressiveness. A finding that
demonstrates the need to preserve the destination’s main selling element
but also to enrich the product.
The findings are in accordance with the literature review that
supports the need to enrich the product and to preserve the natural and
cultural resources of a destination. Visitors describe the most significant,
but underused, resources of the island as very impressive and specifically
more impressive than they expected. Combining this element with the
average responses regarding a basic element of the 3S model, the beaches,
supports the statement that destination marketers and tour operators alike
should attempt to enrich the product, promoting more unique elements
associated with the specific destination.
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The findings indicate that tour packages can be differentiated to fit
the needs of several groups. For example, higher age respondents are
more impressed with the resources and therefore they could be
approached with packages containing more sightseeing and cultural
options. The results indicate that there is a more sustainable future for
mass market destinations that involves the enrichment of its stale 3S
model and the preservation of their natural and cultural resources.
The existing clientele of the destination could serve as the basis for
the future target markets, essentially we want to achieve repeat visits and
loyal customers. A large percentage of the destination's future clientele
could come from the existing markets, in terms of demographic
characteristics, that would purchase tour packages that incorporate and
promote the destination’s unused features. Considering that maintaining
the existing clientele requires less expenses than to approach new target
markets, it is in the tour operators and destinations managers interest to
enrich their product.
Also, the findings suggest that the opportunity arises for tour
operators to approach new clienteles by designing new packages.
Meaning that apart from maintaining the existing clientele through the
enrichment of the product they can also expand their clientele by
designing packages based mostly on environmental and cultural elements.
The high expectation and evaluation rates achieved for “mountains and
hills”, especially for the groups of older ages, professional education and
higher incomes could lead to the creation of eco friendly holiday
packages offering bird watching, hiking and other country based
activities, as well culture based programs. Additionally, the variable
“villages” displayed statistically significant positive differences for the
total sample of the respondents, supporting the above opinion. Such
packages, introducing alternative forms of tourism, can reduce the
seasonality problem of the traditional destinations.
Additionally, the above suggestions would help tour operators to
maintain their classic target markets, while at the same time comply with
the new trends in tourism and demonstrate their environmental and
sustainable sensitivities, disproving the general assumptions to the
opposite. While local stakeholders clearly share the responsibility, most
tour operators realize that their position as intermediaries, working closely
with both tourists and tourism service suppliers allows them to shape the
tourism product of a destination and the policies applied regarding the
environment and sustainability (Swarbrooke, 1999; Budeanu, 2005; Font
and Cochrane, 2005).
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However, the achievement of the above goals requires a series of
prerequisites in matters of personnel training, product management and
marketing, cooperation with local providers and suppliers and cooperation
with local authorities and organizations. As Badeley and Font (2011)
note, the application of more sustainable practices often stumbles on
communication problems between the tour operators and their
requirements from local suppliers and more often than not on the low cost
approach tour operators have, that passes the cost of sustainability to local
suppliers. On the case study, Ionian Eco Villagers, analyzed by Sigala
(2013), networking and collaboration between individuals, teams,
enterprises, associations and national or regional organizations emerged
as essential for the successful application of sustainable and alternative
tourism activities. An additional and welcome future development would
be increased professionalism in the management of attractions and
resources.
However, it is the responsibility of the tour operators’ product
development department as well as the local authorities to record the
impression of the natural and cultural resources, through research, and
make them worthy of a visit by incorporating them into tour packages and
making the necessary promotional actions, respectively.
In any case the training of the personnel on sustainability issues is
imperative. Their training should focus on the selection of destinations
which have the potential to offer the components that can minimize the
environmental, economic and cultural impacts and on the incorporation of
ecological and cultural elements into the holiday package which will be in
accordance with the target –markets’ demand. Font and Cochrane (2005)
explain that the management of sustainable holiday packages necessitates
the assessment of the various components of a tour (accommodation,
transport services, excursions, natural and cultural resources), in order to
determine their potential environmental, social and economic effects,
minimize the negative and maximize positive effects to the environment,
the local communities and the destination’s economy in general.
TOI (Tour Operators Initiative, 2003) suggests that tour operators can
support suppliers in their efforts to be more sustainable by raising their
awareness on sustainability issues and providing feedback on
performance so that they can learn where and how to make
improvements. Additionally, they can offer technical support for
sustainability actions and create incentives for high performance using
contractual procedures to enforce the requirements.
From the above it is clear that the enrichment of the tour operators’
product and the application of sustainable elements in their packages is
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not just an ethical issue but also a sound business decision. Future
research is necessary in order to expand on the issue and test the
application of the findings in various destinations and resources.
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SUBMITTED: JUN 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: DEC 2014
ACCEPTED: JAN 2015
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Ourania
Vitouladiti
(ouraniavitouladiti@gmail.com
& ranivito@teiath.gr & ranivito@hol.gr) is an Assistant Professor in
Tourism Marketing at the Technological Educational Institute of Athens,
Faculty of Management and Economics, Department of Business
Administration-Tourism and Hospitality Management.
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PERCEIVED ORGANIZATIONAL TRUST AS AN
ANTECEDENT OF ORGANIZATIONAL
CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR: FINDINGS FROM
LODGING ENTERPRISES IN TURKEY
Ozgur Devrim Yilmaz 1
Dokuz Eylul University
Two concepts that have just made their way into research on management of
tourism enterprises are perceived organizational trust (POT) and organizational
citizenship behaviour (OCB). Trust and citizenship behaviours of employees have
become a central variable in regard to the well-being of organizations. Although
the studies of these subjects have increased markedly in the past decade little
effort has spotlighted on the relationship between POT and OCB from the point of
tourism sector. Therefore in this study the relationship between POT and OCB is
examined in Turkey with 412 participants. The analyses found support for 7
hypotheses, including support for a strong relationship between POT and OCB.
Contrary to expectations, there were no significant differences between some
dimensions of OCB and POT. By the help of findings it is expected to contribute to
the theoretical studies in the field of tourism.
Keywords: Perceived Organizational Trust,
Behaviour, Tourism Sector, Lodging Enterprises.
Organizational Citizenship
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) is obviously an
applicable concept for tourism sector, especially for lodging enterprises.
To begin with, as Van Dyne and LePine (1998) suggested helping is
beneficial for all organizations since roles are generally interdependent
and employee cooperation facilitates overall performance. This argument
is valid especially in lodging enterprises which are commonly
characterized by high levels of interdependence in most functional areas.
Secondly, the importance of managing human resources which can
help to increase competitiveness of organizations has also become a vital
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
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Ozgur Devrim Yilmaz
feature in the success of tourism enterprises. As is known human
resources play a significant role in tourism sector and this is as well the
answer of the question “why human resources demand special attention?”
The primary reason for this importance is that the services are
perceived as inseparable from their providers (Nadiri and Tanova, 2010).
Previous researchers have shown that OCB could influence customer
loyalty due to improved employee-customer interaction (Bell and
Menguc, 2002; Suh and Yoon, 2003; Armario et.al, 2004). Moreover
Waltz and Niehoff (1996) found support for their hypothesis (in their
study of 34 limited-menu restaurants) that OCB is positively related to
organizational performance. Bienstock, et.al, (2003) examined 49 fastfood restaurants and found that OCB was positively related to the extent
to which service was delivered according to organizational standards.
Additionally similar results were found in studies of Stamper and Van
Dyne (2001; 2003) which examined the relationships between OCB and
organizational culture in family and chain-owned restaurants.
With the help of previous researches it can easily be understood that
OCB are valuable and beneficial work behaviours from an organizational
perspective. But what can organizations such as hotels do to build a
work environment that elicits OCB? The antecedents of OCB may be
numerous some of which can be listed as job satisfaction (Williams
and Anderson, 1992), employee mood (William and Wong, 1999),
organizational justice (Moorman, Blakely and Niehoff, 1998; Konovsky
and Pugh, 1994).
In this study perceived organizational trust (POT) had been chosen as
an antecedent of OCB since it is assumed that there exist a very strong
relationship between POT and OCB. Since OCB is likely to make
enhanced personal and professional outcomes possible, trustworthy
managers may be more likely to encourage their subordinates to engage in
citizenship behaviours that help them to achieve organizational goals
(Podsakoff, Whiting, Podsakoff and Blume, 2009). Thus, OCB may
possibly emerge from employee trust.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Organizational trust
Trust is an extremely vital component of the organization and the
term has been the focal point of quite a few studies on organizational
theory (Pillai et al, 1991; Mayer, et al, 1995; Brockner et al, 1997; Lane
and Bachmann, 1998; Dirks, 2000; Dirks and Ferrin, 2001; Ugboro,
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2003). Furthermore early organizational scholars such as Argyris, Likert
and McGregor professed trust to be an important hallmark of effective
organizations (Dirks and Ferrin, 2001). Moreover in the studies related
with trust the term is typically linked to risk taking, positive expectations
and vulnerability.
There are several definitions related to the subject of trust in the
literature. For ex. Rousseau et al. (1998:395) defined trust as “a
psychological state comprising the intention to accept vulnerability based
upon positive expectations of the intentions or behaviour of another”.
Mayer, et al. on the other hand (1995:712) identified trust broadly as “the
motivation of a party to be open to to the actions of another party based
on the expectation that the other will perform a particular action
important to the trustor, irrespective of the ability to monitor or control
that other party”. While there are many definitions of trust in the
literature Tschannen-Moran (2001) suggested that there exist no less than
five components of trust gathered from the literature which are
benevolence, reliability, competency, honesty and openness.
In view of the fact that the organizations are also formed by
individuals the definition and dimensions of organizational trust are
extremely similar to interpersonal trust. For ex. Cook and Wall (1980)
define organizational trust as “the extent to which one is willing to ascribe
good intentions to and have confidence in the words and actions of other
people”.
According to Dirks and Ferrin (2001) the existence of trust between
members of an organization can contribute to the increased efficiency of
various organizational tasks. Moreover it is also suggested that trust is
beneficial because it facilitates the effects of other determinants
on desired outcome.
Studies of trust in organizations generally presented trust as a
variable that influences or is influenced by one or more organizational
variables and trust has been demonstrated to be an important predictor of
organizational outcomes such as OCB (Konovsky and Pugh, 1994; Van
Dyne et al., 2000; Wong et al, 2006), employee commitment Brocker et
al., 1997; Pillai et al., 1991; Ugboro, 2003), and other workplace
attitudes, behaviours and performance issues (Jones and George, 1998;
Mayer et al., 1995).
Then again it is remarkable that in the studies concerning
organizational trust a variety of dimensions have been used. Doesn't
matter what the dimensions are, it can be easily understood from the
previous researches that employees are more satisfied with their work if
they sense that management can be trusted to do what is necessary. This
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Ozgur Devrim Yilmaz
outcome should direct managers towards exercising the ways to increase
the level perceived trust of their employees.
Organizational citizenship behaviour
Current researches show that successful organizations derive benefit
from employees who do more than their daily duties (Podsakoff et al.,
2009) and these behaviours are essential for organizations since it
helps the accomplishment of organizational goals (Fisher, McPhail and
Menghetti, 2010).
Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) can be defined as
individual behaviours that are discretionary and not rewarded directly by
the organization (Organ, 1990; Podsakoff and MacKenzie, 1997;
Turnipseed and Rassuli, 2005; Organ, Podsakoff and MacKenzie, 2006;
Chiang and Hsiesh, 2012). In other words employees who show OCB
not only do their obligations but also initiate voluntary actions beyond
their work roles which mean they are helping others without waiting
for any rewards, doing a better job, making an effort above and beyond
formal requirements, and filling the gap between procedures and
regulations. According to Organ (1988) this definition of OCB reflects a
“good soldier syndrome”.
By reviewing the relevant literature of OCB it can be easily seen that
there exist a lack of consensus about the dimensions. Furthermore
researchers consider that OCB is a multidimensional construct and OCBs
can be divided into two main groups as affiliative and challenging OCB
(Williams and Nadin, 2012). The literature mostly examines the affiliative
OCB (Bettencourt, 2004). Choi (2007) lists affiliative dimensions as
helping behaviour, sportsmanship, loyalty, self-development and civic
virtue. Although OCB can take several forms, five main dimensions have
been generally suggested and established in the literature (Organ, 1988;
Podsakoff et al, 1990; Niehoff and Moorman, 1993; Konovsky and
Organ, 1996; Allison, Voss and Dryer, 2001) as altruism, civic virtue,
courtesy, sportsmanship and conscientiousness. Altruism can be defined
shortly as behaviours that have the effect of helping other individuals. An
employee who is readily helping a customer to handle a problem
(Podsakoff et al, 1990) can be given as an example for altruism. Civic
virtue can be defined as keeping oneself informed on matters that affect
the organization whereas courtesy includes actions aimed at preventing
work-related problems with others from occurring (Organ, 1988). On the
other hand the negative activities which employees avoid from doing even
though he/she has right to do so are considered under the sportsmanship
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dimension (Organ, 1990). Lastly the behaviour that goes beyond the
minimum role requirements such as punctuality (Organ, 1988) is a
specific definition of conscientiousness.
Last but not the least Podsakoof et al, (2000) emphasized that OCB
contributes to organizational performance by increasing worker or
managerial activity, enabling the organization to adapt effectively to
environmental changes, strengthening the organization’s ability to retain
the best employees and releasing resources.
Although previous researches suggested several consequences of the
effect of POT and OCB separately on different organizational issues,
there are considerably few researches dealing with the effect of POT on
OCB. Moreover, neither of these researches is from tourism domain.
Researches examining the main effects of trust on OCB are listed in Table
1.
Table 1. Researches associated with the effects POT on OCB
Year
Author(s)
Thesis Related to POT and OCB
1990 Podsakoff, et al.
Trust in leader mediates the relationship
between leader behaviour and OCB.
1991 Pillai, Schrieseim Trust in leader mediates the relationship
and Williams
between leader behaviour and OCB.
1994 Konovsky and Pugh Trust in manager mediates the relationship
between justice and OCB.
1994 Deluga
Trust building by leader has positive effect
on OCB.
1995 McAllister
Trust in co-worker has positive effect on
OCB.
1996 Robinson
Trust in organization has positive effect on
OCB.
METHODOLOGY
Scale and data analysis
To date, many different instruments have been used to study the trust
concept. Rotter (1967) developed a personal trust scale which was
purely based on the definition of trust and failed to address the
relationship of trust with other organizational factors. Bromiley &
Cummings (1993) developed their trust inventory that aims to measure
the overall feeling of trust of a group in an organization but failed to
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consider the group members’ positive or negative impact on respondent.
These instruments also failed to report adequate psychometric property
and validity testing data.
Several sources from the literature were used in preparing the
questionnaire for the current research. The survey instrument used in the
study was composed of three main parts. The first part had 18 questions
which were related to perceived organizational trust (POT). POT was
measured by using 12 items developed by Nyhan and Marlowe (1997). In
their study, Nyhan and Marlowe used measures of trust in two different
dimensions as managerial and organizational trust. Moreover 8 items
developed by Cook and Wall (1980) were also added to the research scale
as interpersonal trust. Consequently in recent study different measures
were taken into account and perception of trust was identified as having
three main dimensions as (a) trust to the manager, (b) trust of the
organization and (c) interpersonal trust.
The second part included 24 questions that related to organizational
citizenship behaviour (OCB). For the measurement of OCB, 24 items
developed by Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Moorman and Fetter (1990) were
chosen. OCB was identified as having five dimensions as (a) altruism,
(b) courtesy, (c) sportsmanship, (d) conscientiousness and (e) civic
virtue.
In the study, the reliability of POT as a whole was measured to be
0.92 and the reliability of three different trust dimensions were 0.95 for
trust to the manager, 0.82 for trust of the organization and 0.86 for
interpersonal trust. On the other side the reliability of OCB was measured
to be 0.82. The reliability of each OCB dimensions were also measured as
following; 0.80 for altruism, 0.81 for courtesy, 0.77 for sportsmanship,
0.86 for conscientiousness and 0.94 for civic virtue.
POT and OCB items used a 5-point Likert-type scale that ranged
from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”. The last part was made up
of 6 demographic questions including; gender, age, education,
department, work experience and gender of the manager. Gender and
gender of the manager questions were coded as dichotomous variables (1:
female and 2: male) and other questions were measured using a 5-point
scale. In order to ensure its adequacy, the pre-test questionnaire was
subjected to a random sample of 50 hotel employees.
Data analyses for this study comprised descriptive analyses,
factor analysis, correlation analyses and regression analyses. The
collected data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science
(SPSS). The study as well tested the hypothesized relationships utilizing
several tests.
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Sample and data collection
The data used in this article was collected from 15 national and
international chain hotels in Istanbul, Ankara and Izmir -the three biggest
cities in Turkey- that agreed to collaborate in this study. The survey
universe was consist of hotel employees from four different departments
(front-office, housekeeping, food and beverage, guest-relations) as all
chain hotels commonly have the same nature of departmentalization. The
logic behind including employees from different departments into the
research is the fact that the interactions between the employees and
supervisors, managers and co-workers seem to change according to
departmental differences. It is expected that this hypothesis will be proven
throughout the data.
Due to the lack of consistent data regarding the size of the target
population (the exact total number of hotel employees) it was considered
to be statistically infinite. The questionnaire was provided by human
resource departments of the hotels to the employees. The employees were
also informed about the study’s purpose in this process.
The research was conducted with the permission of hotel managers;
however it was impossible to collect data from all employees working in
selected hotels. From each participating hotel approximately 35-40
questionnaires were collected. Out of 800 questionnaires
distributed to hotels, 412 of them returned thus the response rate was
calculated as 51,5%.
Research Model and Hypotheses
To validate the constructs, the research model was estimated with
the factor analysis in which all measurement items were loaded on their
expected constructs. Depending on these results the research model was
designed as shown in Figure 1.
In this study it is aimed to find out the relationship between perceived
organizational trust levels (POT) and organizational citizenship behaviour
(OCB). In this context hypotheses were developed as following:
H1: POT is positively related to overall OCB.
H2: Interpersonal trust is positively related to the dimensions of OCB.
H2a: Interpersonal trust is positively related to altruism.
H2b: Interpersonal trust is positively related to courtesy.
H2c: Interpersonal trust is positively related to sportsmanship.
H2d: Interpersonal trust is positively related to conscientiousness.
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H2e: Interpersonal trust is positively related to civic virtue.
H 3 : Trust to the manager is positively related to the dimensions of
OCB.
H 3a : Trust to the manager is positively related to altruism.
H3b: Trust to the manager is positively related to courtesy.
H3c: Trust to the manager is positively related to sportsmanship.
H3d: Trust to the manager is positively related to
conscientiousness.
H3e: Trust to the manager is positively related to civic virtue.
H 4 : Trust of the organization is positively related to the dimensions
of OCB.
H 4a : Trust of the organization is positively related to altruism.
H4b: Trust of the organization is positively related to courtesy.
H4c: Trust of the organization is positively related to
sportsmanship.
H4d: Trust of the organization is positively related to
conscientiousness.
H4e: Trust of the organization is positively related to civic
virtue.
H 5 : There is a relationship between demographic characteristics
and POT.
H5a: There is a relationship between gender and POT.
H5b: There is a relationship between gender of the manager and
POT.
H5c: There is a relationship between age and POT.
H5d: There is a relationship between department and POT.
H5e: There is a relationship between work experience and POT.
H5f: There is a relationship between education and POT.
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Figure 1. The Research Model
FINDINGS
Among the 412 respondents, 264 respondents (64%) were female and
148 respondents (36%) were male. 36% of the respondents were aged
between 32-37 years. Education levels were fairly high, with over 48%
having university degrees or above. The majority (41%) of the
respondents had average work experience of 1-5 years. At the same time
92 respondents were from the front office department, 196 were from
food and beverage department, 80 were from housekeeping and 44 were
from guest-relations department. 194 respondents were working with a
female manager whereas 218 were working with a male manager.
In testing model for factor analysis all factor loadings were
significant (p<0.001). The reliability ranged from 0.72 to 0.95 and the
factor loadings of each item on rotated component matrix are
demonstrated in Table 2.
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Table 2. Results of factor analysis
Primarily a correlation analysis was conducted to detect any
significant difference between POT and OCB. Table 3 contains the results
of the correlation analysis. The findings of the current study suggested
that a strong positive correlation was found between the independent and
dependant variables (r=.645 and p<01). As the results of the study
supported the hypothesized relationship between POT and OCB, H1 was
accepted.
Afterwards H2 was examined through the correlation analysis to
reveal the relationship between interpersonal trust and different
dimensions of OCB. A positive correlation was found only between
interpersonal trust and sportsmanship (r=0,246 and p=0,001). Other OCB
dimensions (altruism, courtesy, conscientious and civic virtue) were not
related to interpersonal trust. Eventually H2c was supported for
sportsmanship and other dimensions of OCB (H2a, H2b, H2d and H2e)
were rejected.
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The same analysis is carried out to find the relationship between trust
to manager and OCB dimensions. A positive correlation was found
between trust to manager and civic virtue (r=0,164 and p=0,005). H3e
was supported for civic virtue whereas it is rejected for other dimensions
(H3a, H3b, H3c and H3e).
Table 3. Correlations among the study variables
Moreover a positive correlation was found between trust of the
organization and sportsmanship (r=0,170 and p=0,020). H4c
was supported for sportsmanship and H4a, H4b, H4d, H4e were rejected.
On the other hand T Test and Anova Test were conducted to
analyze the significant differences in participants’ perceptions of
organizational trust according to their demographic characteristics such as
gender, age, education level, work experience, department and gender of
the manager. T Test was applied to analyze the difference in participants’
POT in relation to their gender and gender of their managers. Anova
Test was conducted to see the difference in participants’ POT in
relation to their age, education level, work experience and departments.
The results can be observed in Table 4 for T Test and Table 5 for Anova
Test.
T test results demonstrated that there is no significant difference
between POT and gender (p=0,227) and POT and gender of the
participants’ manager (p=0,672). H5a and H5b were rejected.
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Table 4. T Test results for difference in participants POT in relation
to gender and gender of their manager
Gender
POT
Gender
of
manager
POT
Female
Male
the
Female
Male
N
Mean
264
148
N
3,7218
3,8114
Mean
194
218
3,7506
3,7559
Std.
Deviation
,72249
,65618
Std.
Deviation
,70232
,70025
t
P
-,837
-,861
t
,227
-,051
-,065
,672
P
Table 5. Anova Test results for difference in participants’ POT in
relation to age, education level, department and work experience
According to Anova Test results a difference was detected between
POT and age of the participants (F=2,268 and p=0,000). The Tukey Test
was also carried out to analyze the differences between groups. The
figures suggested that those who were between 32-37 ages have the
highest perception of trust levels than other age groups (H 5c was
supported). Another test conducted for any difference in the participants’
POT according to their department suggested that those who have worked
in front office and guest relations have higher POT that those who have
worked in food & beverage and housekeeping departments (F=1,432 and
p=0,000). So H 5d was supported. A further difference was detected
between POT and the participants’ work experience. The results showed
that those who have 6-10 years of experience have the highest level of
POT (F=1,511 and p=0,000) which means H5e was supported. No
significant difference was detected between POT and education level of
the participants (H5f was rejected).
Moreover the R2 values were used in order to find out what
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percentage of total change in the dependent variable was due to the
independent variable dimensions. The determination factor was found to
be r2: 0,622 which showed that 62% of OCB were dependent on POT. All
three dimensions of POT were affecting OCB of the participants in the
regression analysis and their Beta (β) levels were as follows: trust to
manager (p=0,000 and β=0,474), trust of organization (p=0,001 and
β=0,371) and interpersonal trust (p=0,001 and β=0,173).
CONCLUSION
The main objective of this study was to find out the relation and
interaction between perceived organizational trust (POT) and
organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) of employees at lodging
enterprises. In this context, the regression analysis results suggested that
employees’ POT would have a positive impact on their OCB levels.
Therefore existing research carried out in the context of the lodging
enterprises seems to support the existence of a relationship between POT
and OCB. In terms of demographic characteristics, no links had been
established between gender and POT and gender of the manager and
POT, whereas significant differences had been found between agedepartment-work experience and POT. The results implied that hotel
employees who perceived high levels of trust to manager, trust of
organization and interpersonal trust were more willing to perform
citizenship activities.
Interdependence is an obligation while working together since people
must mostly depend on others to achieve organizational goals. Therefore,
managers need to have a better understanding of the role of perceived
organizational trust (POT) and its consequences in the lodging
enterprises. Since OCB has positive outcomes for employees and the
organization itself, lodging enterprises’ managers should pay more
attention to increase the levels of POT which could also raise the levels of
OCB of employees and in this way decrease undesirable negative
behaviours.
Consequently, there were several limitations in this study. First is the
absence of mediating variables (such as perceived organizational support
or justice, turnover intentions) that could help to explain particularly why
POT affects OCB in lodging enterprises. Secondly, since all data for the
current study were collected from one country, the results may not be
generalizable to other employees in different countries. Future studies
may test if the inclusion of any mediators in the model changes or not, the
relative importance of the relationship between POT and OCB.
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SUBMITTED: JAN 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: JUN 2014
ACCEPTED: JUL 2014
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Ozgur Devrim Yilmaz (devrim.yilmaz@deu.edu.tr) is an assistant
professor at Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Business, Department of
Tourism Management, Kaynaklar Tinaztepe Campus / Izmir – Turkey.
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TOURISM MARKET RESEARCH IN SPANISH
HIGHER EDUCATION: ETYMOLOGICAL ISSUES
Jesús Manuel López-Bonilla 1
University of Seville
Luis Miguel López-Bonilla
University of Seville
Tourism market research appears to have increased its academic presence with
the introduction of the new university degree in Tourism in Spain. The term
tourism market research is widely accepted. However, there is some controversy
regarding the use of the terms of market research and commercial research. In
some cases, conceptual differences are posed between the two terminologies,
while in other cases, a greater equity is advocated. We try to understand the basis
of these differences, concluding that the two terminologies have their own
limitations, so it would be advisable to use a more appropriate and enlightening
term..
Keywords: marketing, tourism market research, commercial research
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
In 1996 tourism degree studies were included in the Spanish higher
education (HE) system, introducing a new period for training
professionals in the sector and opening up new possibilities for research
development in the tourism field (Cervera-Taulet & Ruiz-Molina, 2008).
Following to Munar and Montaño (2009), when the Bologna Declaration
was signed in 1999, Spain’s HE system had three levels: the first level
had 3 year programmes entitled diplomaturas, degrees that did not
provide access to any upper HE level. All tourism studies in Spain
belonged to this level. The second level, licenciado, had 5 to 6 year
programmes and provided access to doctoral level. No tourism degree
was offered at this level. The final level was that of doctorate. No
doctoral degree in tourism was offered.
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
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Luis Miguel López-Bonilla & Jesús Manuel López-Bonilla
In Spanish Higher Education, Tourism Market Research has been an
optional subject in the Curricula of the Tourism Diploma (diplomatura).
The adoption of the European Higher Education Area seems to boost the
participation of this subject in the new Tourism Degree. Specifically, the
White Paper of the Tourism Degree, developed by the National Agency
for Quality Assurance and Accreditation (ANECA, 2004), proposes ten
knowledge scopes that represent different academic approaches to
tourism. A knowledge scope devoted to areas that may tackle the social or
market research is indicated among them.
The subject Tourism Market Research has been given as a
compulsory subject for the first time in the University of Seville in
academic year 2011-2012. It is a compulsory subject because it must be
taken by all the students registered in the Degree. It is a third year subject
of the Tourism Degree and consists of 6 ECTS. The teachers of that
subject are the authors of this paper. However, this subject is not included
in every curriculum of those Spanish universities imparting the Tourism
Degree. For instance, among the nine public universities of Andalusia,
this subject is taught only in the universities of Cordoba, Malaga and
Seville. That is, the subject is imparted in three of the eight universities
that currently offer the Tourism Degree. The subject is compulsory in the
three universities mentioned. In Spain, the subject is present in the
curricula of less than half of the universities. We believe this subject
should have a greater academic participation in Andalusia and Spain due
to the transcendence of tourism in our country and the need for training
the students and enhancing their interest in tourism research.
Tourism Market Research belongs to marketing discipline (defined in
Spain, more specifically, as the area for commercialization and market
research). The concept of tourism market research may be widely
accepted by the academic community, but the term or nomenclature from
which it comes reveals its inaccurate use. The linguistic root of that term
in marketing literature is market research, although the term commercial
research is also used. In tourism, when it is required to generalize, it may
be more accurate to use the term tourism market research rather than
tourism commercial research or commercial research in tourism.
However, when this process of generalization is limited, the expression
commercial research of a tourism business is perfectly valid. There is no
doubt that the words commercial and tourism do not really match and
require a greater linguistic distance in order to make them clearly
understandable.
Obviously, the terms tourism research or research in tourism are
misused for identifying the tourism market research. In this case, research
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is referenced broadly, comprising any disciplinary or operation scope.
The concept of social research in tourism also shows the same dilemma,
although in a more restricted manner, since this type of tourism research
refers to any discipline in the field of social sciences.
To this point, the question arises whether the term tourism market
research is accepted in the academic community, especially due to
resonance or appearance, or it is possible to spread its acceptance mainly
for conceptual reasons. In this sense, this paper is focused on the
etymology of tourism market research. That is, we intend to explore the
origins of the term in order to explain, from a greater conceptual
background, the reasons by which the terminology used may be accepted
or rejected.
This study is an exercise of theoretical reflection, structured in the
following epigraphs. First, we try to highlight the semantic divergence
about the terms market research and commercial research. The following
epigraph is focused on justifying the reasons of this divergence. And
finally, in conclusion, we try to provide solutions that bring the different
academic postulates closer.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
As previously mentioned, the term tourism market research seems to
have some consistence in the academic scope versus other similar terms,
but we believe it is justified only by matters of form and not background.
This is obvious considering the lack of consensus between the
implementation of market and commercial research. In Spain at least,
controversy raised between authors, researchers and specialists in the
field, which is based on the different ways of understanding these two
terms. This way, marketing literature in Spain frequently points out the
dichotomy of identifying or not both terms as synonyms. Commercial
research is proposed to include market research, but it is also accepted
that both terms are concepts that cover the same or almost the same.
As we said, many prestigious Spanish authors, both academics and
professionals, have shown their differences about equalizing the terms
market research and commercial research. On the one hand, some
authors claim that the concept of commercial research is wider than
market research, as the last is focused only on knowing the target market
(e.g., Miquel, Bigné, Cuenca, Miquel & Lévy, 1999; Pedret, Sagnier &
Camp, 2000; Díez & Landa, 2002; Santesmases, 2004; García, 2005). So,
for instance, Pedret et al. (2000) state that commercial research comprises
the study of any problem or chance, no matter if a market is investigated
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or not. In this case, performing a competition study could be an example,
but there is no doubt that the market is the aspect organizations study the
most.
On the other hand, some authors consider that commercial and
market research are identical terms (e.g., Ortega, 1990; Ferré, 2003;
Fernández, 2004; Trespalacios, Vázquez & Bello, 2005; López-Bonilla &
López-Bonilla, 2012). In this case, it is stated that the concept of market is
wider than that of target market. It must be highlighted that Trespalacios
et al. (2005) defend the greater preponderance of the term market
research, since, as they indicate, it is the original concept and it is
generally used at an international scale.
These are the two positions clearly adopted in the marketing
literature in Spain. The balance either favors the equality of both terms or
gives more importance to commercial research. A third possibility is not
arguable, as so would be that the concept of market research was wider
than that of commercial research. Interestingly, a study performed by
Landa et al. (2001) indicate that there are a slightly higher percentage of
Andalusian managers who believe that market research is conceptually
more encompassing than commercial research.
And why would we not think that market research may not be wider
than commercial research? To do this, we can consider the differences
between the words “market” and “commercial”. As we know, the market
is the main core of attention of any organization in the development of a
marketing activity in today´s world. Thereby, if an organization performs
a study on its competitors, it is probable that the competitors analyzed are
those who supply the same market to which that organization is directed
to or intends so. If so, all “commercial” studies end up in the ocean of
“market”. For instance, competitors or distributors are not studied
separately without connecting them to the main body that is the current
market or organization potential. In short, as Ferré (2003) suggests, the
aim of market research is to obtain factual data about the market in any of
its aspects.
Following to Butazzi (1970) and Ortega (1990), this divergence in
the terminology used is greatly due to language. Interestingly, both
authors hold opposing stances regarding the duality presented in the
previous epigraph. So, for instance, Butazzi (1970) states that market
research is a pointlessly restrictive expression that, according to the strict
meaning of the word, it may refer only to market study.
The word marketing was admitted in our official vocabulary not long
ago. In the nineties of the XX century, this word was still understood by
the Royal Academy of Spanish Language as a voice of English origin that
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was translated to our language as mercadotecnia. Besides, the marketing
subject was initially gathered in the university curricula with the term
mercado (market), which was later replaced by mercadotecnia until the
term marketing was consolidated these days, as it is incorporated with
more emphasis in the current undergraduate and postgraduate curricula.
As we know, the concept of marketing developed from the AngloSaxon, especially from the United States. But the apparent confusion we
may have in our language does not seem to exist in the Anglo-Saxon
countries. However, the Anglo-Saxon handbooks of marketing have been
translated from a clear orientation toward the use of the terminology
market research. This is evidenced by the Spanish titles of books from
prominent North American authors like Malhotra and Burger (1997),
Aaker and Day (1989), Kinnear and Taylor (1989), Malhotra (1997),
Zikmund (1998) and Hair, Bush and Ortinau (2004). All these books
include the English words Market Research in their original titles.
Besides, the contents thereof are not limited exclusively to studies of the
target market.
To this point, the question arises about which came first, commercial
or market research. Which was the first term adopted? Where was it
adopted? Perhaps looking over the history we may search for answers in
greater depth. Sánchez, Mollá and Calderón (1999) performed an
interesting study on the evolution and conceptual development of
commercial or market research. Ten evolution stages are established in
this study, which are divided in decades regarding the most relevant
attributes. We believe other stages focused on the evolution of the
terminology used could be added, in line with these stages of the
development of the subject content. This way, we will establish four
evolution stages, which are origin, transition, determination and
reinforcement. In Table 1 we intended to summarize the main events that
describe these four stages, marking them chronologically.
The origin of this concept appears in the 1910s. Specifically, Charles
Coolidge Parlin was one of the pioneers as he first created, around 1911, a
research department at the Curtis Publishing Company, which was known
as the Commercial Research Division. Around the same time, Professor
Duncan, from the University of Chicago, wrote the first important
handbook about the subject, whose title was Commercial Research: an
Outline of Working Principles. The transition stage of the terminology
began in the 1920s. The concept of market as a key element for analysis
grew in this decade. One of the main contributions in this period was
brought by White in 1921, through his book Market Analysis: its
Principles and Methods. In the 1930s, more important contributions were
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brought by different authors, like Lazarsfeld in 1934 with his book: The
Psychological Aspect of Marketing Research and Brown in 1937 with his
book: Market Research and Analysis.
Table 1. Evolution stages of market research
STAGE
PERIOD
MILESTONE
Charles Coolidge Parlin (Curtis Publishing
Company) creates a research department known
as Commercial Research Division
Origin
1910s
Transition
1920s
Determination
1930s
Reinforcement
1970s
Prf. Duncan (University of Chicago) publishes a
handbook named Commercial Research: An
Outline of Working Principles
The idea of market as a key concept (White, in
1921, and others authors)
The American Marketing Association (AMA) is
created in 1937.
Introduction of statistical methodologies
The concept of marketing widens (Kotler, in
1967, and others authors)
Source: own elaboration
Now, the determination stage may be located from the introduction of
statistical methodologies in the academic literature, at the end of the
1930s. In this stage, a remarked milestone is the founding of the
American Marketing Association (AMA), which represents a symbol in
the development of the scientific literature used in marketing. With this
endeavor, the Association published in 1937 a handbook named The
Technique of Marketing Research, in which various relevant authors
participate, like Wheeler, Balzari and Lazarsfeld. This period of
determination may be justified also through the ideas of Zaltman and
Burger (1980), who state that in the 1940s a subtle but important change
occurred in the concept, which evolves from the term market research
toward marketing research. The meaning of this change is justified by the
greater research activity in the management environment, which is
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directly related to the decision-making of the organization. This idea may
be inspired on the book of Blankenship and Heidingfiels, 1947, named
Market and Marketing Analysis, in which they distinguish market
analysis from marketing analysis.
Last, a reinforcement stage must be highlighted from the boost and
widening of the concept of marketing in the 1970s. Obviously, all the
American authors mentioned before belong to this time (Zaltman &
Burger, 1980; Aaker & Day, 1989; Kinnear & Taylor, 1989; Malhotra,
1997; Zikmund, 1998; Hair et al., 2004). However, there is no doubt that
Philip Kotler should be included among the main spreading authors.
Kotler´s book: Marketing Management in 1967, as well as its successive
editions, has become a classic in the marketing literature and also the
most influential book in this subject, as confirmed by Professor Cruz in
the prologue of the most recent Spanish edition (Kotler, Cámara, Grande
& Cruz, 2003).
But the evolution of the terminology has its foundation in the United
States, and not so much in Europe. In the European continent, the
proliferation of studies and organizations related to the subject is
appreciable from the Second World War. It is odd how in countries like
France, Holland, Great Britain or Italy professional institutes and
organizations appear, with the word market highlighted in their initials as
the main element. However, the European Society for Opinion and
Marketing Research Association (ESOMAR) was created in 1948, as an
organization that protected the codes of ethics in applied research. It is
possible that in Europe, as well as in other countries out of North
America, the term market research may have developed in a special
manner due to a slower evolution of the concept of marketing, mainly, as
we observed in the stages previously mentioned.
The term commercial research seems to be more characteristic of
Spain and its language. The use of this terminology may avoid confusion
regarding the application areas involved in such research. However, the
term commercial research is not so precise, especially considering the
conceptual evolution of marketing. Since the 1970s, the concept of
marketing involves a number of fundamental transformations, one of
them being the growth of marketing activity toward all types of
organizations, both lucrative and non-lucrative. In this sense, commercial
research is more likely to be related to business organizations, while
social sectors should also be considered.
Spanish and Spanish American authors do not have to adopt exactly
the same words the Anglo-Saxon do in the theoretical or practical
development of the subject. Of course we can use our own terminology,
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but it is not advisable to put our own obstacles when moving forward in
knowledge. It makes no sense that we create our own terminology
attempting to facilitate comprehension and then the opposite happens,
entering this dilemma. We know that market is the most relevant concept
in marketing literature. However, the term market is not enough to
assemble the whole concept of marketing, and this last term is already
recognized in our language since not too many years. However, the term
market research has taken deep root in the academic and professional
tradition and keeps its linguistic strength. But, is it beginning to be
obsolete? Or is it necessary to define its borderlines in more detail?
CONCLUSIONS
From the analysis of the history evolution of commercial research
and market research, we have extracted a semantic evolution of the
terminology, in which we observed four stages. Obviously, these stages
make more sense in the country where the concept of marketing
originated and developed. At the first stage the terminology appears and
the term marketing has no validity. In the second stage, known as
“transition stage”, the concept market is emphasized. The third stage,
known as “determination stage”, involves the differentiation of the terms
market and marketing, being the last the most relevant. And finally, in the
fourth, “reinforcement stage”, the terminology adopted must match the
current dimensions of the concept of marketing. As we observed, these
four stages are clearly distinguished in the United States but not in
Europe. Perhaps in Europe, in general, the stages of “determination” and
“reinforcement” are not definitely closed yet. Perhaps, as Tribe (2006a,
2006b) argues, tourism knowledge is still in a pre-paradigmatic stage.
Taking stock of this, we detected two clear directions in Spain
regarding the use of the terminologies market research and commercial
research. One of them could be called translator´s tendency, and it is
based on the belief that market research is the prevailing concept. The
other direction, which could be called adapter´s tendency, is based on the
belief that commercial research is wider than market research. However,
both directions show certain limitations.
Almost all authors, Spanish and non-Spanish, agree that the most
commonly accepted definition of market research or commercial
research is the one provided by the American Marketing Association
(AMA) in 1987, which is the function that links the consumer, the client
and the public to marketing managers through information. This is only
the first part of the definition, but it is enough to appreciate that it
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highlights the connection between two poles, which are the organization
and its market. Therefore, all the information that an organization tries to
obtain in order to make its marketing decisions comes from the market,
directly or indirectly.
With certain doses of eclecticism, it may be assumed - taking a
sentence of Suárez (1996) - that the terms commercial research and
market research are close to being synonyms. Thus, we could think that it
is not necessary to be so purist about the use of the language. Or maybe it
is in this case? Thereby, we can go further in our will to reach a semantic
consensus, guided by the words of Pedret et al. (2000), who estate that the
concept of commercial research is as wide as the concept of marketing
could be.
In this way, we have already adopted in Spain other terms with
similar linguistic structures that suggest that the use of the adjective
“commercial” is weak compared to the noun “marketing”; for instance,
the concept of “plan de marketing” (marketing plan), “dirección de
marketing” (marketing management), “sistema de información de
marketing” (marketing information system) or “entorno de marketing”
(marketing environment). Can we say that a marketing plan is wider than
a commercial plan? And that marketing management includes commercial
management? And that the marketing environment is greater than the
commercial environment? At least, it seems to be. Confirming these
conceptual differences is not enough for better understanding marketing,
but they must also be appreciable at a glance.
On the other hand, an example of the formal differences between
commercial research and market research appears in the area of tourism.
In this case, the term tourism market research is clearly used in the
presence of other similar terms due to the sound or aesthetics of the
language.
The terminologies commercial research and market research present
some deficiencies, as we intended to show. Thus, should we compare and
decide which of the two terms shows greater deficiencies? It is not
necessary; as neither of them is a precise term and this should be enough
for us to adopt an eclectic attitude as we commented above: they are close
to being synonyms. Or, they could rather start being synonyms in the
Spanish marketing literature in the near future.
Collaboration between Anglo-Saxon and Spanish authors, from
Latin-American or other countries, could be a good way of reaching a
linguistic consensus, as it occurs in the book of Kotler et al. (2003). But,
being purist about the use of the language, the most precise term would be
marketing research or tourism marketing research. This terminology is
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not widespread yet in the Spanish-speaking world, although it has been
already used previously in the translation of some handbook (e.g., Dillon,
Madden & Firtle, 1996) or in the work of some renowned Spanish author
(e.g., Luque, 1997). In short, the use of this terminology may remove all
the deficiencies observed in the terms commercial research and market
research.
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SUBMITTED: SEP 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: DEC 2014
ACCEPTED: FEB 2015
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Jesús Manuel López-Bonilla (lopezbon@us.es.) is an Associate
Professor in the Business Administration and Marketing Department at
the University of Seville, Ramón y Cajal, nº 1 – 41018 Seville, Spain.
Luis Miguel López-Bonilla is an Associate Professor in the Business
Administration and Marketing Department at the University of Seville,
Ramón y Cajal, nº 1 – 41018 Seville, Spain.
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PUBLIC PERCEPTION ON PROMOTING
SUSTAINABLE ECOTOURISM AT GUNUNG RENG
AREA, JELI DISTRICT, KELANTAN, MALAYSIA
Nor Fadilah M.A. 1
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
Menti Saysa H.
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
Nur Amalina A.K.
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
Amal Najihah M.N.
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
Dony Adriansyah N.
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
Gunung Reng area is one of interesting places in the state of Kelantan, Malaysia.
It is located in Batu Melintang sub-district, along the East-West Expressway in
Jeli district in the northwestern corner of Kelantan. Though the local people
designated Gunung Reng as a ‘gunung’ (the Malay word for ‘mount’), it is not a
mount in the true definition but it is actually a mogote hill towering above the flat
alluvial topography. This study is to discuss the public perception on promoting
sustainable ecotourism at this area. This study was carried out by distributing 30
questionnaires to different respondents which consist of local government staff,
local communities and visitors (foreign and domestic) to see their perception on
the attitude, awareness, and the way to conserve this ecotourism sites.
Keyword: Public perception, sustainable ecotourism, attitude, awareness,
conservation, Gunung Reng, Jeli District, Kelantan.
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
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Nor Fadilah M.A., Menti Saysa H., Nur Amalina A.K., Amal Najihah M.N. & Dony
Adriansyah N.
INTRODUCTION
Tourism has developed greatly to become one of the world’s
important economic phenomena (Marzuki et. al., 2011). One of the
tourism forms which has been growing rapidly over the last decades is
ecotourism. There are actually various definitions of ecotourism. The first
broadly accepted and valid definition was established by The
International Ecotourism Society (TIES, 1990) that defined ecotourism as
“responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and
improves the well-being of local people.”
Ecotourism is a sub-component of the field of sustainable tourism.
Ecotourism began as an idea that many hoped could contribute to the
conservation of natural resources worldwide. The prime motivation in
ecotourism is the observation and appreciation of natural features and
related cultural assets (Wood, 2002). Cristina (2004) stated that several
objectives of ecotourism are learning, studying or participating in
activities that do not bring negative effects to the environment; whilst
protecting and empowering the local community socially and
economically.
Gunung Reng has been gazetted as a recreational park in Kelantan,
Malaysia. It is famous for its beautiful scene and myth. This study is to
explain the public perception mainly on the attitude, awareness, and the
best way to conserve this ecotourism spot.
ECOTOURISM IN MALAYSIA AND KELANTAN
Malaysia is rich of natural and cultural assets that are beneficial for
tourism, especially ecotourism. Malaysia has been listed as one of the
twelve mega-biologically diverse countries in the world, which has at
least 15,000 species of flowering plants, 286 species of mammals,
150,000 species of invertebrates and 4,000 species of fishes in addition to
the countless micro-organisms. Malaysian tropical rainforest is millions
of years old and covering 60 per cent of the land mass. Malaysia offer
tourists to experience more activities related to the nature such as hiking,
jungle tracking, bird and bat watching and caving (Lehan, 2008).
According Marker et. al. (2008), Malaysian government has been
pursuing ecotourism since the mid-nineties. The development of
government policies on ecotourism is set up in the following policies:
1. The National Ecotourism Plan 1995, which identifies 52
potential sites for ecotourism in Malaysia and suggests that
Malaysia has a great potential for ecotourism. It further
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identifies a number of policies that the government can
undertake to strengthen the industry.
2. Seventh Malaysia Plan 1996-2000, which intends to let the
private sector implement the bulk of the National Ecotourism
Plan.
3. Eight Malaysia Plan 2001-2005, for which the government
stepped up its efforts in ecotourism. It wanted to provide policy
guidelines for sustainable development, make sure that products
offered match the changing demand and by promoting Malaysia
as an ecotourism destination.
4. Ninth Malaysia Plan 2006-2010, under which the government
seems to increase its efforts on ecotourism and sustainable
travel. The government also plans to upgrade and make more
ecotourism activities and facilities available.
5. Government promotion, by which the government promotes
Malaysia as an ecotourism destination.
The state of Kelantan has a lot to offer for ecotourism as it has many
natural resources and features like flora and fauna diversity, hills, caves,
waterfalls, and dense jungles. Although ecotourism have some advantages
for conservation and development of natural heritages, but lack of the
attention on tourism development, lack of the experience on ecotourism
planning and finance problem are amongst the significant constraints for
ecotourism development in Kelantan (Adriansyah et al, 2013).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials of the research include map, photographs and literatures
related to ecotourism and the study area. Methods comprise field
observation and questionnaire survey. Field observation has been done
several times to see the actual situation and condition of the study area.
Questionnaire survey was carried out by distributing 30 questionnaires to
different respondents which consist of local government staff, local
communities and visitors (foreign and domestic) to see their perception
on the attitude, awareness, and the way to conserve this site for the
purpose of promoting sustainable ecotourism.
GUNUNG RENG AS AN ECOTOURISM SITE
Gunung Reng (GPS reading of coordinate: 5043’0”N, 101044’38” E)
is located in Batu Melintang sub-district, along the East-West Expressway
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Adriansyah N.
in Jeli district in the northwestern corner of Kelantan, Malaysia, or near
Kelantan – Perak state border and Malaysia – Thailand international
border (Figure 1). Though the local people designated it as a ‘gunung’
(the Malay word for ‘mount’), it is not a mount in the true definition but it
is actually a mogote hill towering above the flat alluvial topography
(Figure 2).
Figure 1. Location map of Gunung Reng area, Jeli District, state of
Kelantan, Malaysia.
Its beautiful landscape and some unique features that occur in the
area attract visitors to come there. This hill is composed of
metamorphosed limestone (marble) sitting on the intrusive body (granitic
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rocks) and surrounded by quarternary alluvial deposits. The hill possesses
some caves, where the main cave (Figure 3) go through the top of the hill.
There are some interesting features inside the cave, such as stalagtite and
stalagmite (Figure 4). The caves are the places or habitats for bats and
doves. Another attraction of the area is the Pergau River (the main and the
largest river in the district of Jeli) flowing through the south of the hill
which significantly beautify the area.
Figure 2. Gunung Reng area (camera facing northwest)
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Nor Fadilah M.A., Menti Saysa H., Nur Amalina A.K., Amal Najihah M.N. & Dony
Adriansyah N.
Figure 3. The main cave of Gunung Reng (camera facing north)
Figure 4. Some unique features (decorations) inside the cave such
as stalagtite and stalagmite (this photograph was taken from inside
the main cave facing outside or the mouth of the cave, camera
facing south).
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This recreational area is also equipped by the authority with some
infrastructures such as mosque, community hall, playground, parking lot,
public toilets and food stalls (Figure 5). Because of its spectacular natural
beauty and uniqueness, it is proper that Gunung Reng become the icon of
tourism in Jeli District.
Figure 5. Some facilities and infrastructures provided by the
authority to support the tourism activities in Gunung Reng area,
such as mosque, community hall, playground, parking lot and food
stalls.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
A total of 30 questionnaires were distributed randomly to three
different categories of respondents, they are local government staff (5
respondents), local communities (8 respondents) and visitors (17
respondents) in Gunung Reng and its surrounding areas. The
questionnaire was designed to study on attitude, awareness and the best
way to conserve the site. The results of the survey are presented in the
following tables (table 1 to table 9).
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Attitude
Table 1. The survey of public attitudes in the ecotourism site of
Gunung Reng from the category of local government staff (S).
Question
Frequency
Mean, M
Percentage of
Respondents (%)
Littering
0
0
0
-Yes
5
1
100
-No
0
0
0
-Not sure
Vandalism
activity observed
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
4
1
0
0.8
0.2
0
80
20
0
4
0.8
80
1
0
0.2
0
20
0
Follow the rules
-Yes
4
0.8
80
-No
-Not sure
0
1
0
0.2
0
20
Clean up the site
after doing
activity
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
N (S) = 5, N=Total number of respondents, S=local government staff;
Mean, M = Σ (X) / N
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Table 2. The survey of public attitudes in the ecotourism site of
Gunung Reng from the category of local community (C).
Question
Frequency
Mean,M
Percentages of
Respondents (%)
Littering
1
0.125
12.5
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
5
2
0.625
0.25
62.5
25
Vandalism
activity
observed
-Yes
-No
4
0.50
50
2
0.25
25
-Not sure
2
0.25
25
6
0.75
75
2
0
0.25
0
25
0
5
0.625
62.5
2
1
0.25
0.125
25
12.5
Clean up the
site after doing
activity
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
Follow the
rules
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
N (C) = 8, N=Total number of respondents, C=local community;
Mean, M = Σ (X) / N
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Table 3. The survey of public attitudes in the ecotourism site of
Gunung Reng from the category of tourist (T).
Question
Frequency
Mean, M
Percentage of
Respondents (%)
Littering
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
2
13
2
0.117
0.764
0.117
11.7
76.4
11.7
Vandalism activity
observed
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
11
5
1
0.647
0.294
0.059
64.7
29.4
5.9
Clean up the site
after doing activity
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
14
1
2
0.824
0.059
0.117
82.4
5.9
11.7
Follow the rules
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
12
2
3
0.705
0.117
0.176
70.5
11.7
17.6
N (T) = 17, N=Total number of respondents, T= tourist;
Mean, M = Σ (X) / N
The attitude of the local government staff, local community, and
tourists at Gunung Reng is considerably good. Based on the questionnaire
survey, almost all respondents are tending to show their good attitude in
several aspects, for example, they choose not to litter the rubbish
everywhere (total 23 out of 30 respondents). For the vandalism activity,
most of respondents (total 19 out of 30) observed the vandalism activity
at the Gunung Reng, especially at the wall of the hill. There are
observable vandalism activities that can be seen clearly and it may affect
the tourist perception and affect tourist attraction to the place (Figure 6).
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The local staff, local community and tourists tend to clean up the sites
after doing the activity at Gunung Reng area (total 24 out of 30). Some
activities usually done by the visitors, such as camping and recreation
with family and friends. Last but not least, almost all respondents want to
follow the rule regulated in the area (total 21 out of 30).
Figure 6. Vandalism observed in the wall of Gunung Reng hill.
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Nor Fadilah M.A., Menti Saysa H., Nur Amalina A.K., Amal Najihah M.N. & Dony
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Awareness
Table 4. The survey of public awareness in the ecotourism site of
Gunung Reng from the category of local government staff (S).
Question
Frequency
Mean, M Percentage of
respondent
Importance of ethics
5
1
100
-Yes
0
0
0
-No
0
0
0
-Not sure
Implemented activities will rise
awareness
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
5
0
0
1
0
0
100
0
0
The most appropriate way to
implement
public
awareness*
-Newspaper
-Advertisement
-Internet / webpage
-Social media
2
4
0
3
0.4
0.8
0
0.6
40
80
0
60
*Multiple responses permitted
N (S) = 5, N=Total number of respondents, S=local government staff;
Mean, M = Σ (X) / N
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Table 5. The survey of public awareness in the ecotourism site of
Gunung Reng from the category of local community (C).
Question
Frequency
Mean, M Percentage of
respondent
Importance of ethics
7
0.875
87.5
-Yes
1
0.125
12.5
-No
0
0
0
-Not sure
Implemented activities will rise
awareness
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
8
0
0
1
0
0
100
0
0
The most appropriate way to
implement public awareness*
-Newspaper
-Advertisement
-Internet / webpage
-Social media
4
6
6
3
0.5
0.75
0.75
0.375
50
75
75
37.5
*Multiple responses permitted
N (C) = 8, N=Total number of respondents, C=local community;
Mean, M = Σ (X) / N
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Table 6. The survey of public awareness in the ecotourism site of
Gunung Reng from the category of tourist (T).
Question
Frequency
Mean, M Percentage of
respondent
Importance of ethics
16
0.941
94.1
-Yes
1
0.059
5.9
-No
0
0
0
-Not sure
Implemented activities will rise
awareness
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
11
3
3
0.647
0.176
0.176
64.7
17.6
17.6
The most appropriate way to
implement
public
awareness*
-Newspaper
-Advertisement
-Internet / webpage
-Social media
6
8
5
5
0.353
0.471
0.294
0.294
35.3
47.1
29.4
29.4
*Multiple responses permitted
N (T) = 17, N=Total number of respondents, T= tourist;
Mean, M = Σ (X) / N
The level of awareness among local staf, local community and
tourists are high respectively. This is because majority of respondents
(total 28 out of 30) assumed that ethics are important when they visit a
tourism site.
Almost all respondents (total 24 out of 30) believe that activities
carried out at Gunung Reng area are able to encourage the awareness how
they should behave in the area. From the survey, we can also know that
majority of respondents (total 18 out of 30) believe that the most
appropriate way to promote the public awareness to conserve the Gunung
Reng area is by advertisement. This is because most people think that
media such as television and radio are accessible for all people.
Alternative media as the effective ways to implement public awarenes are
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newspaper (total 12 out of 30), internet/website (total 11 out of 30) and
social media (total also 11 out of 30).
Conservation efforts
Table 7. The survey of conservation efforts in the ecotourism site
of Gunung Reng from the category of local government staff (S).
Question
Frequenc
Mean, M
Percentage of
y
Respondents
(%)
This place needs conservation
4
0.8
80
-Yes
-No
0
0
0
-Not sure
1
0.2
20
The authority cares and
concerns the effects of tourism
on an environment
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
The most suitable way to
conserve this place
-Monitoring program by the
authority
-Campaign for clean
-Educational program for local
community
The kind of attraction that
invite you to the site
-Historical Value
-Nature Landscape
-Sports Events
The improvement in the future
-Price
2
3
0
0.4
0.6
0
40
60
0
2
0.4
40
2
1
0.4
0.2
40
20
3
2
0
0.6
0.4
0
60
40
0
0
0
0
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Adriansyah N.
-Accommodation
-Activity
-Buffer Zones
-Policy and Act
2
2
0
1
0.4
0.4
0
0.2
40
40
0
20
N (S) = 5, N=Total number of respondents, S=local government staff;
Mean, M = Σ (X) / N
Table 8. The survey of conservation efforts in the ecotourism site
of Gunung Reng from the category of local community (C).
Question
Frequenc
Mean, M
Percentage of
y
Respondents
(%)
This place needs conservation
-Yes
8
1
100
-No
0
0
0
-Not sure
0
0
0
The authority cares and
concerns the effects of tourism
on an environment
-Yes
-No
-Not sure
The most suitable way to
conserve this place
-Monitoring program by the
authority
-Campaign for clean
-Educational program for local
community
The kind of attraction that
invite you to the site
-Historical Value
-Nature Landscape
-Sports Events
194
3
2
3
0.375
0.25
0.375
37.5
25
37.5
3
4
1
0.375
0.5
0.125
37.5
50
12.5
4
3
1
0.5
0.375
0.125
50
37.5
12.5
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The improvement in the future
-Price
-Accommodation
-Activity
-Buffer Zones
-Policy and Act
0
3
3
1
1
0
0.375
0.375
0.125
0.125
0
37.5
37.5
12.5
12.5
N (C) = 8, N=Total number of respondents, C=local community;
Mean, M = Σ (X) / N
Table 9. The survey of conservation efforts in the ecotourism site
of Gunung Reng from the category of tourist (T).
Question
Frequenc
Mean, M
Percentage of
y
Respondents
(%)
This place needs conservation
-Yes
14
0.823
82.3
-No
0
0
0
-Not sure
3
0.176
17.6
The authority cares and
concerns the effects of tourism
on an environment
6
0.35
35
-Yes
6
0.35
35
-No
5
0.30
30
-Not sure
The most suitable way to
conserve this place
-Monitoring program by the
authority
-Campaign for clean
-Educational program for local
community
The kind of attraction that
invite you to the site
-Historical Value
-Nature Landscape
-Sports Events
3
0.176
17.6
8
6
0.47
0.353
47
35.3
9
8
0
0.53
0.47
0
53
47
0
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Adriansyah N.
The improvement in the future
-Price
-Accommodation
-Activity
-Buffer Zones
-Policy and Act
1
5
3
2
6
0.059
0.30
0.176
0.118
0.35
5.9
30
17.6
11.8
35
N (T) = 17, N=Total number of respondents, T= tourist;
Mean, M = Σ (X) / N
From the survey conducted, it shows that most respondents (total 26
out of 30 respondents) agreed that this site needs conservation. They think
that because of its natural features, flora and fauna, so this site should be
conserved for sustainable development. Some respondents (total 11 out of
30) agreed that the authority cares and concerns about the effect of
tourism on an environment. Some others (also total 11 out of 30) are
disagree and the rest said that they are not sure with the situation.
The most suitable way to conserve the site according to the survey is
by the campaign for the clean (total 14 out of 30). This campaign is
important to protect the site and all its features from dirtiness and
destruction, so it will conserve the site as the sustainable tourism
destination. Other alternative ways for conservation of the area which
were suggested by other respondents are through monitoring programmes
by the authority (total 8 out of 30) and educational programmes for the
local community (also total 8 out of 30).
There are some reasons why people want to come to the area. Based
on the survey to the respondents, the first reason is its historical value
(total 16 out of 30). The second reason is that people want to enjoy its
nature landscape (total 13 out of 30). Another reason why this area is so
attractive is the potential for sport activity here such as swimming and
rafting (total only 1 out of 30).
Some efforts are needed to be done for the improvement of this area
in the future. From the survey, we can know that the first choice of
improvement is ‘accommodation’ (chosen by total 10 out of 30
respondents). It is followed by the improvement in term of ‘activity’ (total
8 respondents), ‘policy and act’ (total 8 respondents), ‘buffer zones’ (total
3 respondents), and ‘price’ (total only 1 respondent).
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CONCLUSION
In general, we can conclude that public’s attitude and awareness on
Gunung Reng area are considerably good. Most of people whom we
surveyed (consist of local government staff, local community and
tourists) show their support to conserve this place for the future benefits.
Only few respondents show the negative response in conserving this area.
This is probably due to lack of information on the importance of
ecotourism site.
This site needs conservation efforts by promoting sustainable
ecotourism such as the campaign for cleaning the site, monitoring
programmes by the authority and educational programmes for the local
community.
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M.F. (2013). Identification of Natural Resources and Features for
Ecotourism Purposes in the Kelantan Delta Area, Malaysia.
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Cristina, C. (2004). Community Planning and Involvement. In: Lindberg, K.,
Wood, M.E.,
and Engeldrum,
D.(eds).
Ecotourism:
A
Guide for Planners and Managers, 2nd ed. Bennington: Ecotourism
Society.
Lehan,
S.R.
(2008).
Ecotourism
in
Malaysia.
http://corporate.tourism.gov.my/images/media/features/Ecotourism%20Oc
t%202008. pdf [2 April 2013].
Marker, M.A., Blanco, A., Lokanathan, S. & Verma, A. (2008). Ecotourism in
Malaysia. Project for PP5279: Clusters and National Competitiveness,
Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy.
Marzuki, A., Hussin A. A., Mohamed, B., Othman, A. G. and Som, A. P.M.
(2011). Assessment of Nature-Based Tourism in South Kelantan, Malaysia.
Tourismos: An International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism.
Volume 6, Number 1, pp. 281-295.
The International Ecotourism Society (TIES). (1990).
What is Ecotourism?
http://www.ecotourism.org/what-isecotourism [1 August 2012].
Wood, M.E. (2002). Ecotourism: Principles,
practices & policies for
sustainability. Paris: United Nations Environment Programme. 32 p.
197
Nor Fadilah M.A., Menti Saysa H., Nur Amalina A.K., Amal Najihah M.N. & Dony
Adriansyah N.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Universiti Malaysia Kelantan (UMK) for giving us a fund
to run this small project under the short-term grant scheme no.
R/SGJP/A03.00/00642A.001/2011/000061. We also appreciate some local
government staff, local community and tourists in Gunung Reng area for their
cooperation to become our respondents.
SUBMITTED: MAR 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: OCT 2014
ACCEPTED: JAN 2015
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Nor Fadilah M.A., Faculty of Earth Science, Universiti Malaysia
Kelantan (UMK) Jeli Campus, Locked Bag No. 100, 17600 Jeli,
Kelantan, Malaysia.
Menti Saysa H., Faculty of Earth Science, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
(UMK) Jeli Campus, Locked Bag No. 100, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan,
Malaysia.
Nur Amalina A.K., Faculty of Earth Science, Universiti Malaysia
Kelantan (UMK) Jeli Campus, Locked Bag No. 100, 17600 Jeli,
Kelantan, Malaysia.
Amal Najihah M.N., Faculty of Earth Science, Universiti Malaysia
Kelantan (UMK) Jeli Campus, Locked Bag No. 100, 17600 Jeli,
Kelantan, Malaysia.
Dony Adriansyah N. (dony@ukm.edu.my) Faculty of Earth Science,
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan (UMK) Jeli Campus, Locked Bag No. 100,
17600 Jeli, Kelantan, Malaysia.
198
APPENDIX
Table A-1. Type of respondents based on gender on survey of
public perception on promoting sustainable ecotourism in Gunung
Reng area, Jeli, Kelantan, Malaysia.
Gender
No. of respondent
20
15
10
5
0
Local
community
Tourist
Staff
Female
0
7
3
Male
8
10
2
Table A-2. Type of respondents based on ages.
Ages
Respondents
15
10
5
Ages
0
0-10
11-20
21-30
Age categories
31-40
40 above
Nor Fadilah M.A., Menti Saysa H., Nur Amalina A.K., Amal Najihah M.N. & Dony
Adriansyah N.
Table A-3. Type of transportation used by respondents to visit the
site
Transportation
No. of Respondent
20
15
10
Transportation
5
0
Car
Motorcycle
Type of vehicle
Occupation
Students
33%
Government
17%
Private
37%
Not working
13%
Figure A-1. Pie chart of respondents’ occupations.
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Accomodation
Campsite
15%
Toilet
18%
Playground
33%
Food stall
34%
Figure A-2. Accommodation that provided at the site based on
respondents’ votes.
.
Questionnaire
Title: Public Perception on Promoting Sustainable
Ecotourism in Gunung Reng Area, Jeli District, Kelantan,
Malaysia.
Survey for mini project of subject of Tourism and Natural
Resources Management (ENT 3174). All results are confidential.
Objective: To study the impact of public’s attitudes and
awareness for promoting sustainable ecotourism in Gunung Reng area
from the perception of local government staff, local community and
tourists in conservation of the area.
201
Nor Fadilah M.A., Menti Saysa H., Nur Amalina A.K., Amal Najihah M.N. & Dony
Adriansyah N.
Part A: General Information
1. Gender: M
F
2. Age: _________
Privat
e
Government
4. Occupation:
3. Nationality / State: ________________
Not working
Student
Educational Trip
5. Purpose of visitation:
Hiking Jungle Trekking
Research/Work
Nature/Wildlife Observation
Leisure/Holiday
Business
7. How do you know about this
6. How many times have you visited before? ____
Ye
s
Will you visit again?
place?
No
* If no, why?
_________________________________________
____(hour/day/week/month/y
8. Duration of visitation: ear)
Brochure/Magazine/Newspaper
Media (TV, radio, etc)
Internet
Friends
9. Types of accommodation during visitation:
Chalet
Campsite
Others: __________________
10. Number of people during visitation: _______
Family
With:
Friends
11. Transportation used:
Car
202
Motorcycle
Taxi
Others: ___________________
Bu
s
Others: _______________
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Part B: Analysis of public’s attitudes and awareness in conservation
and management for promoting sustainable ecotourism in Gunung
Reng area, Jeli District, Kelantan, Malaysia.
a.
Yes
sure
b. No
c.
Not
1.
Do you throw rubbish everywhere if you couldn’t find suitable place
for throwing it?
a. b. c.
2. Do you think ethical manner is important during the visit to Gunung
Reng area?
a. b. c.
3. Have you ever seen vandalism attitudes at this area?
a. b. c.
4. Do you want to clean up this place after doing some activities
(camping, picnic, etc...)?
a. b. c.
5. Does this place need conservation?
a. b. c.
6. In your opinion, does the activity in Gunung Reng area give
awareness to the tourists?
a.
b. c.
7. Do you follow any rule and regulation that provided by the
administration?
a. b. c.
8. Do you think that the authority care and concern the effects of
tourism on an environment?
a. b. c.
9. Level of satisfaction during the visit:
High
Medium
Low
10. What is the most suitable way to conserve this place?
Monitoring programme by the authority
Educational programme for local community
Campaign for clean
11. Which is the best way to promote the public awareness to conserve
this place?
Newspaper Advertisement
Internet/website
Social/Network
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Nor Fadilah M.A., Menti Saysa H., Nur Amalina A.K., Amal Najihah M.N. & Dony
Adriansyah N.
12. What kind of attraction that invite you to this site?
Historical Value Nature Landscape
Sporting events
Nightlife Mountain Climate
13. Improvement in the future:
Price
Accommodation Activity
Promotion
Buffer Zones Cleanliness Policy and Act
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ACHIEVING AUTHENTICITY THROUGH ETHNIC
TOURISM, A CONSUMER PERSPECTIVE
Nashwa M. Talaat 1
Sadat City University
Ethnic tourism is considered a unique type of tourism since it enables the tourist
to experience and learn about other cultures through their traditions, customs
lifestyle and practice. Authenticity is an important concept in ethnic tourism
studies. This article examines tourists' participation in ethnic attractions and
products, and the levels of satisfaction with their experiences based upon
empirical research conducted in number of Nubian villages which still exist north
of the Dam. Field research was done through visiting, interviewing some of the
local people and observing their lifestyle. A survey of 600 visitors to Nubian
villages was also conducted, only 560 questionnaires were valid to analysis out of
which 89.2% was international and 10.8% was domestic. The study finds out that
authenticity is a major concern among international tourists. Although it was the
first experience for large number of tourists but they have different reasons for
getting through this experience.
Keywords:
ethnic tourism, authenticity, Nubian heritage
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
The tourism industry has been affected by globalization. This new
phenomena paved the way towards new dimensions in the tourism
industry, as well as the appreciation of past cultures and traditions.
Obviously, this made tourist destinations try to diversify their supply and
offer new types and techniques to fulfill these demands. Ethnic tourism is
considered a unique type of tourism since it enables the tourist to
experience and learn about other cultures through their traditions, customs
lifestyle and practice. Authenticity is an important concept in ethnic
tourism studies as well as a critical issue in tourism practice.
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
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Nashwa M. Talaat
LITERATURE REVIEW
Ethnic tourism
Ethnic tourism is "travel motivated by search for the first hand,
authentic and sometimes intimate contact with people whose ethnic and
/or cultural background is different from the tourists" (Sanyal, 2011).
Ethnic tourism is considered a unique type that enables the tourist to
experience the practices of another culture, and may include
performances, presentations and attractions portraying presented by small,
often isolated indigenous communities. Ethnic tourism is related to the
more popularly known nature or eco-tourism. In which people visit a
region, usually in a third world country, in order to enjoy its natural
beauty. Nature tourism can also imply social awareness because it
"creates an understanding of cultural and natural history, while
safeguarding the integrity of the ecosystem and producing economic
benefits that encourage conservation" (Anderson, 1994).
These traditional groups of people live in a unique blend with the
environment; they interact and depend upon it. Because of the ethnic
groups' dependence on the environment, it is difficult to separate ethnic
tourism from the landscape in which it occurs. For the visitor it is an
enjoyment of the environment and the experience of the primitive, simple,
ethnic tourism. From the visitor's point of view, ethnic tourism is "travel
motivated by the search for the firsthand, authentic and sometimes
intimate contact with people whose ethnic and/or cultural background is
different from the tourists" (Anderson, 1994). Ethnic tourists are also
motivated by the desire to see some of the "endangered" cultures which
may rapidly disappear through absorption into the nation's majority. The
visitor's experience usually includes opportunities to see and take pictures
of people in their traditional dress, observe their living environment and
purchase local handmade products.
Features of the ethnic tourists
Tourists do differ in terms of the experience they seek in ethnic
tourism situations. Some may see personal ethnic contact as difficult or
uncomfortable, while others find great pleasure in such experience. Ethnic
tourist needs the product to be "real." It must originate from the proper
source, it must be authentic, not packaged (Shopping For Culture &
Bringing It Home, n.d). The travelers of ethnic tourism are divided in to
four groups. The first group includes people that are mostly interested in
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having personal contact with ethnic people and are likely to participate in
tourism programs that offer such opportunity to experience the primitive,
simple and unique way of life. The second group is the passive culture
learning group, they are interested in ethnic tourism but prefer
experiences that focus on cultural learning rather than personal contact.
The third group is more interested in participating in traditional activities;
it is called the Ethnic product and activities group. The fourth group is
called the low ethnic tourism group, they are most likely to visit the
tourism attraction as part of a tour or because someone else in their social
gathering wanted to visit. They are interested in ethnic tourism
experiences (Anderson, 1994).
Ethnic tourism in Egypt
Egypt’s population is fairly homogeneous, with around 98% being
Arabic speakers Other ethnic groups include Berbers, Nubians, Bedouins,
and Beja (1%), and a small number of Europeans such as Greek,
Armenian, French, and Italian (Defence language institute foreign
language centre, 2007). In considering the case of the Egyptian Nubian, it
is important to first explain who are they as a people and where do they
live. In general the Nubians are a group of Egyptian people that are
unique and different in their cultures and beliefs. They are an indigenous
group who adopted their lives and culture with the natural environment
that surrounds them. Nubia is located in southern Egypt and northern
Sudan. It was divided into two main regions: Lower Nubia and Upper
Nubia. Lower Nubia was the northern region extending nearly 400 km
from the First Nile Cataract to the area around Semna and the Second
Cataract (southern Egypt). Upper Nubia extended upriver along the Nile
to the Sixth Cataract and Khartoum (central Sudan) (Redford, 2001,
Ancient Nubia Press Kit, 2006).
The modern inhabitants of southern Egypt and Sudan still refer to
themselves as Nubians. They speak the Nubian language as well as
Arabic.Their native villages extended along the Nile River from the first
cataract at Aswan south into the Sudan through the region known as
Dongola (Fernea, 1973).The Nubian people are a major ethnic group that
has resettled along the Nile in Upper (southern) Egypt after being
dislocated by the construction of the Aswan High Dam. Linguistically,
they can be divided into two groups, which are the Kenuz, who speak a
dialect of Matoki , and the Fadicca, who speak a dialect called Fadicca .(
Poole, n.d) .In the 1960's, a dam was constructed at Aswan, to provide
electricity for all of Egypt and push the country into the 21st century. It
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Nashwa M. Talaat
created the largest ever man-made lake which permanently flooded
ancient temples and tombs as well as hundreds of modern villages in
Nubia In doing so; forty-six villages were moved to Kom Ombo. One
hundred thousand people were moved to a new location, no longer on the
Nile River. It was the end of Nubia (Rizk, 2005). Today, few struggling
villages, with just a few hundred residents, remain, while the others have
been changed. These villages sit just below the High Dam. Its people live
in their traditional, brightly colored domed concrete and rock houses.
They have kept their language alive after and support their families by
selling Nubian handmade products to the tourists who arrive each day to
capture a shot or a picture of a civilization which is diminishing.
Lifestyle and traditions
Nubians have distinct traditions, architecture, and languages. Nubia
contains dozens of sites of archaeological interest, including temples, as
well as fortresses and tombs. In old Nubia, men migrated to the big cities
to find work, while the women farmed the land, cared for the animals, and
did household tasks Today, since the land is located far from their homes,
men do most of the fieldwork while the women work at the home. Some
women have also found employment as schoolteachers, public service
workers, and seamstresses (Pik, n.d).
The typical Nubian house is very spacious, with several large rooms.
In the center of each home is an open courtyard. The Nubian house begins
with guest’s sitting room which has a door that opens directly to the
street. The house is furnished with number of wooden benches and
decorated with palm leaves plates and mats hung on the wall. Also
baskets made of palm leaves are hung from the ceiling for keeping food
away from animals and insects. Most of the Nubian houses are painted
white with lime from outside and decorated by drawings of elements from
the nature like fish and, palm trees (Higazy, n.d).The front of the house is
painted with colorful geometric patterns. Most of the paintings and
decorations on the homes have religious implication they also hang
mummified fish and crocodiles and other animals on their doors so as to
drive away evil spirit or protect them against the evil eye. The colorful
designs are a distinctive and admired feature of Nubian culture.
A Nubian wedding ceremony often lasts for 40 days, with a long
series of ceremonies According to traditions; the groom has to present
several gifts, particularly garments for the bride, her mother and
sisters. During the wedding ceremony the groom is well-dressed, holding
a sword and a belt. The social status of a Nubian is judged by the wealth
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of land and waterwheels he owns, as well as his noble descent.
Performance of prayers, for a Nubian, is evidence to his vividness and an
object of pride to his tribe. A Nubian woman normally bears lots of
jewelry, all over her body and adorns herself also with tattoos. The
Nubian woman is known for her remarkable use of henna and perfumes
(Nubian Traditions, n.d.).
Tourism as a tool of preservation of ethnic cultures
Ethnic tourism brings a lot of positive results to local people; it also
has a negative side as well ( Wu, 2000) .Tourism has proven to be one of
the main industries in building the economy in many developing
countries. Tourism has traditionally influenced the economic activity of
ethnic groups in a wide variety of ways (Willett, 2007).Therefore tourism
with its preserved, conserved and sustainable concept can help preserve
the Nubian culture as well as develop the economy of these indigenous
tribes that live in south of Egypt.
Modernization can be the cause of diminishing the art, handicrafts,
housing, clothes, festivals, ceremonies and lifestyles. But with planned
sustainable tourism we can implement measures for the conservation of
indigenous Nubian culture through their appropriate utilization as tourist
resources. Restricting the number of tourists entering the Nubian area to
safeguard the identity of the people and prevent cultural conflict can be
achieved through the small scale projects of tourism. Sustainable heritage
conservation depends upon the commitment and involvement of local
communities. It also needs to promote local community stewardship of
the heritage as well as providing socio-economic benefits for local
communities (Engelhardt and Lane, 2007). From an environmental and
economic perspective, if local people are not involved, the resources on
which tourism depends will be destroyed and the investment will be lost
over time (Brandon, 1996).
Ethnic tourism planning approach
Planning is a decision making process aimed to guide future actions
and solve afterward problems. It is a dynamic process that determines
goals, set systematic considerations, and alternative actions to achieve
prospective goals. And since tourism is an industry with constant and
rapid changes, tourism planning has moved from the narrow-minded and
rigid concerns to more comprehensive, flexible, responsive, systematic
and participatory approaches (Blowers, 1993). Tourism can serve as an
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Nashwa M. Talaat
agent for socio-cultural development through creating better opportunities
for local people, to gain and become a part in the tourism development in
their localities. In this case the planning process should be shifted in the
direction of preserving the cultural heritage. This plan should be
incorporated within the overall development plan for Aswan governorate.
Significantly, this part of the land is well gifted with natural resources. It
possesses the natural beauty of unique landscape, archaeological sites,
and distinctive historic and cultural background. It has been noted by the
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) that communities located near
major attraction sites, such as natural parks, reserves, archaeological and
historic sites, should have the opportunity to participate in tourism. Since
these communities can provide hotels, restaurants, shops for souvenirs,
transportation and guide services as well as other tourist facilities and
services.
One of the successful projects that were established during the last
century for preserving the Nubian culture is the Nubian museum. The
Museum was built on vertical cliff land and surrounded by Natural
Botanical Garden that enables it to make a full scale design for the Nile
River from its origins in Ethiopia and Sudan to Egypt. According to the
Wikipedia (n.d) the total area of the museum is 50,000 square meters:
7,000 owed for the building, and 43,000 for the grounds. The architecture
and design of the Museum and the enclosure walls are intended to induce
traditional Nubian village architecture, as it was along the Nubian Nile
before the region was flooded by Lake Nasser. The Nubian Museum is
part of a wider policy of the Supreme Council of Antiquities. The
museum contains three thousand items that was found in the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
missions representing the history of the area from the prehistoric,
Pharaonic, Roman, Coptic and Islamic ages, and also examples of the
daily life and traditions of the Nubian people, who lost their homes for the
continued progress and welfare of the Egyptian nation. The museum also
plays the role of the ‘community museum’ through its education section,
which organizes school trips around the museum itself and also to
neighboring temples (Alamuddin, 2001). The educational department
provides various activities for school children such as Pottery workshops,
basketry, costume making of different periods represented in the museum,
theatres performances in which the children can act small plays and
Journal writing workshop that enables children to create a magazine
relating their visit to the museum or on any other particular theme they
are studying. More over Small exhibitions of the children's achievements
are organized annually in the education department (Nubia museum, n.d).
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The museum also hosts cultural events that are organized by the Ministry
of Culture and recently organized by the Egyptian Opera House for the
Nubian artists in the outdoor amphitheatre (Alamuddin, 2001).
METHODOLOGY
A mixed methodology was used which incorporates both quantitative
and qualitative methodologies. Mixing these methods enabled us to
collect more data and to reach specific conclusions through data analysis.
The methodology depended on:
• In-depth interviews with local people who live in some of
Nubian villages.
• Questionnaires were formed and distributed for tourists to gather
the data needed with regard reasons for visiting Nubian villages
within our cultural tourists’ programs and their satisfaction and
assessment of the visit.
Field research was done through visiting a number of Nubian villages
which still exist north of the Dam, interviewing some of the local people
and observing their lifestyle. A survey of visitors to Nubian villages was
conducted. Researcher was seeking the following information from the
survey.
Socio-demographic information, plus general information about their
visit, sources of information, reasons for visit, previous experience with
ethnic tourism products in other countries and overall satisfaction with the
Nubian experience.
RESULTS
The sample of visitors was surveyed 600 tourists only 560
questionnaires were valid to analysis. The survey showed that most of the
tourists visiting Nubian villages are in the age interval 25-34.
Table 1. Respondent profile (Age & sex)
16-24
25-34
35-45
45+
Male, n
21
126
49
77
Female, n
105
105
63
14
Total, n
126
231
112
91
Percentage 22.5
41.25
20
16.25
Total
273
287
560
100
48.75% are males while 51.25% are females. 448(80%) of visitors
are in groups, and 112 (20 %) are individuals. Domestic visitors are very
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Nashwa M. Talaat
few compared to the international ones. Large number of the sample 495
(88.4%) was international visitors mostly from North America and
Europe while 65 (11.6%) was domestic tourists, 258 (46.07%) of the
sample had passed through this experience before, while this experience
was the first experience for 302 (53.93%) of the sample. While
213(38.03%) of the sample knew about the experience from friends,
235(41.9%) of them knew about it from their own previous visit and
112(20%) from their tourist guide while none of them knew about it from
the tour operators in their countries. The survey results were used to
group tourists into four main groups as follows:
• Ethnic tourism connection group represents 213 tourists
(38.03%)
• Passive cultural learning 145 tourists (25.89%)
• Ethnic products and activities 106 tourists (18.9%)
• Low ethnic interest 96 tourists (17.1%)
Factors which were used to determine different groups of ethnic
tourists are the points of interest or reasons for visiting Nubian villages
and participating in ethnic tourism attractions were:
• Interest in contact with ethnic people
• Interest in learning about ethnic cultures
• Participation in activities
• Interest in visiting Aboriginal communities in region
The largest group, the Ethnic Tourism Group (38.03%), is most
interested in having personal contact with ethnic people and are likely
participants in tourism tours which offer such opportunities. The Passive
Cultural Learning Group (25.89%) is interested in ethnic tourism but
prefers experiences that focus on cultural learning rather than personal
contact. The Ethnic Products and Activities group (18.9%) are more
interested in participating in traditional activities than in learning about
ethnic cultures or having a personal contact with them. The Low Ethnic
Tourism group (17.1%) are most likely to visit an indigenous tourism
attraction as part of a tour or because someone else in their party wanted
to visit.
However, all four groups showed a high to very high level of
satisfaction in their visit to Nubian villages and were also interested in
further ethnic tourism experiences. Even those with little interest in ethnic
tourism products and personal contact with indigenous people reported
having an authentic and pleasant experience. One reason for most visitors
reporting a high level of satisfaction was due to the very authentic nature
of the Nubian village.
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Mann-whitney test
This test was used to identify the if there is a difference in answers of
the sample that depends on the sex of the individual or if the answers are
affected by the individuals sex.
Table 2. Significant difference between the answers of
males or females.
Mean Rank
Z
Sig. (P.Value)
Male
Female
7.5
5.1
0.457
0.648
The above table (2) shows that P.value equales0.648 which is greater
than level of significance 5%, this means that there is no significant
difference between the answers of males or females.
The same test was used to determine if there is a significant
difference in the answers of the domestic and international tourists.
Table 3. Significant difference between the answers of domestic
visitors and international visitors
Mean Rank
Z
Sig. (P.Value)
Domestic
International
visitors
visitors
8.84
1.16
0.4640.048
As shown in table 3 P.Value equals (0.048 ) which is less than
5%. This means that there is a significant difference between the answers
of the domestic and international tourists.
Spearmans rho
This test was used to determine if there is a correlation between the
Factors which were used to determine different groups of ethnic tourists
which are the points of interest or reasons for visiting Nubian villages and
tourist experience.
Table 4. Correlation between the factors which were used to
determine different groups of ethnic tourists and visitor experience
Pearson Correlation Factor
P.Value
+ 0.821
0.021
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Nashwa M. Talaat
As shown in the above table pearson correlation factor equals
(+0.821) which means that there is a strong positive correlation between
the factors which were used to determine different groups of ethnic
tourists and visitor experience (as one increases, the other also increases).
We can observe also that P.value equals (0.021) which is less than
5%, this means that there is a strong correlation between the above
variables.
Chi Square
This test was used to determine if there is a correlation between visitors
in groups and different groups of ethnic tourists
Table 5. Correlation between visitors in groups and different
groups of ethnic tourists
Pearson Chi Square
Sig. (P.Value)
.089
0.765
As shown in table 5 P.Valus equals (0.765) which is more than 5%,
this means that the two variables are independent and there is no
correlation between them.
By interviewing some of the local people, they said that they mostly
welcome the tourists to visit their villages and enter their houses. All
family members participate in welcoming the guests in their houses in
several ways. They prepare food and drinks for the tourists and sell
traditional handcrafts for them. Some of the house owners have small
crocodiles in their house kept in basins. These crocodiles get the attention
and interest of the visitors. Tourist represents Dollars for them, as their
income depends mainly on tourism. International tourists spend more per
visit in the Nubian village than domestic tourists who are mainly students.
One negative impact was detected during the visit which is the diminished
role of the new, well educated generation in these traditional activities the
matter that may threaten the sustainability of this type of tourism.
CONCLUSION
Ethnic tourism is a tool of authenticity. Here the tourist departs from
the traditional tourism type that sells programs away from experience,
feelings and interaction. It enables the tourist to practice interpersonal
and environmental relations immerse and taste the local culture and
traditions of the local community. The Nubian community is one of
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these cultures that attract the tourists very much due to its unique and
distinct traditions and architecture. The study finds out that most of the
tourists were interested in seeing the culture, traditions and way of life of
such people in their local area. Although a large number of the tourists
knew nothing about the Nubian Culture before coming to Egypt, they
have different reasons for getting in contact which such people. All
tourists showed a high level of satisfaction in their visit to Nubian villages
and were also interested in further ethnic tourism experiences. Tourism
brings a lot of positive results to local people; it also has a negative side
as well. Modernization can be the cause of diminishing of art, handicrafts,
housing, clothes, festivals, ceremonies and lifestyles. But with planned
sustainable tourism we can succeed in the conservation of indigenous
Nubian culture, through applying and increasing the role of the local
people. Also we can stimulate the values, traditions and arts of the past to
sustain them through time. From the field study we can conclude that
there is no significant difference between the answers of males or
females while there is a significant difference between the answers of the
domestic and international tourists. We can conclude also that there is a
strong centrifugal correlation between the factors which were used to
determine different groups of ethnic tourists and visitor experience which
means that the previous experience of the tourist plays a very important
role in his commitment to ethnic tourism
RECOMMENDATIONS
Corporation should be maintained between the governorate and the
Egyptian Tourism Authority. Sustainability of ethnic communities can be
achieved through the small scale projects of tourism. Through ethnic
tourism we can increase the role of the local community residents
especially the well educated new generations, by involving them in the
tourism industry and the sustainable development of the area. They
should also be provided socio-economic benefits to ensure their
commitment. By time this will preserve the authenticity of traditions and
lifestyle as well as enrich and enhance the feel of loyalty and nationalism.
Also tourists from different nationalities will integrate through this culture
to widen their knowledge and ability to interact with other nations.
Recommendations for the governorate
•
Ensure the involvement of the communities and their benefit out
of tourism.
215
Nashwa M. Talaat
•
•
•
•
•
•
Minority-made products and community-based businesses
should be facilitated in order to give tourists an authentic
experience and improve the economic gains for local
communities
Plane and develop the Nubian villages in a sustainable manner.
Cultural resources in Nubian villages should be managed,
protected and maintained for the benefit of all interested parties
within the community.
Limiting the number of tourists entering the Nubian villages to
safeguard the identity of the people and prevent cultural conflict.
Land use planning and development projects for tourism should
include effective protection and sustainable utilization of cultural
resources.
Minimize negative and socio cultural interference of host
communities.
Recommendations for the Egyptian Tourism Authority
•
•
•
Perform Press coverage and special campaigns to promote and
high light the Nubian traditions and events worldwide.
Spread knowledge about local environment and cultural heritage
through guides.
Promote heritage conservation and environmental sustainability.
REFERENCES
Alamuddin, H. (2001). Technical review summary, Nubian Museum.
http://www.akdn.org/architecture/pdf/1447_Egy.pdf . Accessed the 8th of
October 2011, at 14:55.
Ancient Nubia Press Kit (2006). Nubia: a fact sheet The Museum of the Oriental
Institute, the University of Chicago
Anderson, A. (1994). Ethnic Tourism in the Sierra Tarahumara:A Comparison of
Two Raramuri Ejidos,thesis, The University of Texas, Austin.
http://www.planeta.com/ecotravel/mexico/chihuahua/anderson/anderson.ht
ml Accessed the 9th of September 2011, at 19:30.
Blowers, A. (1993). Planning for a sustainable environment. Earthscan, Londres
Brandon, K. (1996). Ecotourism and Conservation: A Review of Key Issues.
World Bank Environment Department. Paper No. 033. Washington. DC:
World Bank.
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Defence language institute foreign language centre (2007). Egypt perspective, An
Orientation Guide, Educational technology department, curriculum
development division.
Engelhardt, R., Lane, B. (2007). Protecting Indigenous Cultures within a Tourism
Environment: A rights-based approach empowering local stakeholders,
University of Hawai’i at Manoa School of Travel Industry Management.
Fernea, R. (1973). Nubians in Egypt: Peaceful People. Austin, University of
Texas Press.
Higazy, Z. (n.d). Arts and Handicrafts. In J. N. Brown (Ed.) Egyptian Folk
Arts,130-134, Alahram press, Kalyoub, Egypt
Nubia Museum. http://www.numibia.net/nubia/education.htm. Accessed the 8th of
October 2010, at 11:35.
Nubian Traditions. http://touregypt.net/historicalessays/nubiaf1.htm. Accessed
the 13th of September 2011, at 14:55.
The
Nubians
and
the
Dam.
http://carbon.cudenver.edu/stclink/aswan2/culture2.html.
Accessed the
13th of September 2011, at 14:55.
Poole,M. (N.D). The Honest Bawab: Contradictions In The Construction Of A
Nubian
Identity
In
Egypt.
http://inhouse.lau.edu.lb/bima/papers/Maurita.pdf#search='bawab%20egyp
t'. Accessed the 13th of May 2012, at 16:30.
Redford, D. (ed.) (2001). Nubia, The Oxford encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt,
Oxford University Press p.551
Rizk, N. (2005). synopsis of “memories of utopia, Cultural Event Discussion
Notes, united states-Egypt friendship society.
Shopping
For
Culture
&
Bringing
It
Home.
http://legacy.lclark.edu/~soan314/tourism-shopping.html. Accessed the
23rd of May 2012, at 14:55.
Sanyal,
A.
(2011).
Tourism
Management.
http://anandasanyal.blogspot.com/2009/06/ethnic-tourism-is-travelmotivated-by.html. Accessed the 23rd of September 2012, at 14:55.
Wikipedia (n.d). Nubian Museum. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nubian_Museum.
Accessed the 08th of October 2011, at 16:55.
Willett, B. (2007). Ethnic Tourism And Indigenous Activism: Power And Social
Change In Quetzaltenango, Guatemala, thesis, D.Pil., University of Iowa,
USA.
Wu, X. (2000). Ethnic Tourism -- A Helicopter from "Huge Graveyard" to
Paradise?Social impacts of ethnic tourism development on the minority
communities in Guizhou Province, Southwest China, Hmong Studies
Journal, Vol. 3, Winter, pp.1-33.
SUBMITTED: MAR 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: OCT 2014
ACCEPTED: DEC 2014
217
Nashwa M. Talaat
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Nashwa M. Talaat (drnashwa_talaat@yahoo.com) is Associate professor
at Sadat City University, Department of Tourism Studies, Sadat
City,Menofia, Egypt.
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TOURISM VERSUS THE VISITOR ECONOMY AND
THE SHIFTING LANDSCAPE OF DESTINATION
MANAGEMENT
Deyan Hristov 1
University of Bedfordshire
This paper attempts to explore the emerging concept of the visitor economy, by
linking it to recent changes in tourism governance on a destination level,
influenced by complex global and regional politico-economic factors. A regional
outlook reflecting on England as an exemplar of a shifting destination
management is introduced and provides the basis of investigation. Particular
attention is given to the new model of destination management in England and its
prospective role in realising the benefits of the emerging visitor economy.
Secondary data sources in the form of destination management strategies and
industry reports have been explored and informed the discussion of the two
evolving concepts – destination management on a local level and the multifaceted
visitor economy. Outcomes of the analysis suggest that further enquiry into the
blurred visitor economy concept is imperative, particularly in times of
organisational restructuring, changing destination management priorities and
increased competition..
Keywords: Visitor economy; Destination Management Organisations; Economic
impacts, England
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
In its 2009 Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report, the World
Economic Forum held in Geneva, Switzerland recognised tourism as
being a critical economic sector worldwide, despite the current difficulties
of political and economic nature driving change in the industry (World
Economic Forum, 2009). In the United Kingdom, tourism has been an
important for the economy of England, which is the single largest nation
within the UK and major recipient of tourism and visitor-related activities
(Penrose, 2011). In this sense, a 2009 study completed by Deloitte,
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
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Deyan Hristov
revealed that UK tourism delivers a significant direct contribution to the
economy - £52bn or 3.7 per cent of the GDP, with a total direct and
indirect contribution to the visitor economy of £114bn or 8.2 per cent
(Kyriakidis et al., 2009). The latter implied that contemporary tourism
aims to capture direct, indirect, as well as induced contribution and bring
attention to the raising importance of visitors within a destination. Thus,
start making use of a new approach to understanding the wider benefits of
the industry, namely the visitor economy.
A few years later, during the 2012 and 2013 Visitor Economy
Forums held in London, this new approach was seen as a fundamental to
England - the most successful tourism destination in the United Kingdom
with direct and indirect contribution of £97bn, employing over 2m people
and supporting thousands of businesses (VisitEngland, 2013). In addition
to that, the visitor economy in England had a strong, interdependent
relationship with a range of economic sectors, including transport, retail,
sports, museums and arts (VisitEngland, 2013). Indeed, the visitor
economy was seen as one of the fastest growing sectors of England’s
economy (McEvoy et al., 2006) yet, being relatively unexplored.
Recent cuts in government funding for tourism and the introduction
of the new 2011 UK Government’s Tourism Policy, however, led to
restructuring of the landscape of the sector’s governance in England
(Coles, Dinan and Hutchison, 2012). A consequence of that was a
transformation of regional tourism bodies and their supporting
governmental structures. The introduction of refocused, local as opposed
to regional, tourism bodies was seen as an indication of adopting a more
inclusive approach to destinations, taking into consideration local
communities, businesses, and organisations, which are not directly
involved in the delivery of solely tourism products and services. They,
however, have been having an important tourism-supporting role for
England (Penrose, 2011). Clearly these indirect, supportive determinants
can be linked to the emerging visitor economy concept.
As the United Kingdom has a strong domestic supply chain,
opportunities for absorbing indirect economic benefits are genuinely
higher (Kyriakidis et al., 2009). It is then vital for new destination
management structures to capture this opportunity and realise the broader
impacts of tourism. Often, tourism and the visitor economy have been
used interchangeably. They, however, reflect on two different concepts.
Consequently, the objectives of this paper are:
A) To shed light on the two contrasting concepts being at the centre
of discourse, namely tourism and the visitor economy;
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B) To examine the evolving relationship between the emerging
visitor economy and the changing landscape of destination management
in regional frameworks.
THE CHANGING TOURISM AND ITS PLACE IN THE VISITOR
ECONOMY
Tourism is a contemporary phenomenon (Buhalis, 2000; Urry, 2002;
Ritchie and Crouch, 2003; Cooper and Hall, 2008), which has been
attracting great attention by both scholars and practitioners. Traditionally,
tourism can be linked to those sectors, which directly service and engage
with tourists, such as attractions, airlines, hotels (Balding et al., 2012). A
plethora of definitions reflecting upon the concept of tourism is available
and probably the most accepted one is that of the United Nations World
Tourism Organisation (UNWTO). In a classic definition of the concept of
tourism, the then World Tourism Organisation (WTO) argued, that:
“Tourism comprises the activities of persons travelling to and staying
in places outside their usual environment for not more than one
consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to
the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited”
(WTO, 1995: 1).
The latest definition of tourism by the now United Nations World
Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), however, reflected a more holistic,
inclusive approach to the way tourism should be seen, thus being:
“... social, cultural and economic phenomenon which entails the
movement of people to countries or places outside their usual
environment for personal or business/professional purposes. These
people are called visitors (which may be either tourists or excursionists;
residents or non-residents) and tourism has to do with their activities,
some of which imply tourism expenditure ... as such, tourism has
implications on the economy ... wide spectrum of stakeholders are
involved or affected by tourism” (UNWTO, 2010: 1).
The former definition reflects a generic interpretation of tourism
emphasising on the traveller, residing outside his/her usual working and
living environment. Whereas the latter definition provided by the
UNWTO encompasses a much more integrated approach to the industry
and its scope, taking into consideration impacts of socio-cultural,
environmental and economic dimensions as a consequence of the
movement of people.
In other words, if the classic statement drew attention to the activity
of being a tourist, the latest one emphasised on and aimed to capture the
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impacts of this activity. Thus tourism industry was presented as a driver
of economic development. Attention was importantly given to the
emerging view that all tourists are now labelled as visitors (although
significant part of them captured tourists). Issues of stakeholder inclusion
and collaboration were also identified as important. This is so as
nowadays, the industry comprises of a large number of predominantly
Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs).
The blurred concept of the visitor economy, in contrast, lacks general
definition. A few scholars, practitioners and industry organisations have
attempted to define the term (Reddy, 2006; Kyriakidis et al., 2009;
McEvoy et al., 2006; Balding et al., 2012; VisitEngland, 2013). At the
core of the visitor economy lays the economic activity of visitors (Reddy,
2006). This should capture all visitors within a destination – whether
tourists or not (Cheshire East Council, 2011). It takes into account all the
elements that make for a successful visitor destination, namely the broad
range of factors attracting tourists (natural and built attractions; culture
and heritage), the tourism-supporting infrastructure that helps shape the
sense of place and improves accessibility, as well as the services that cater
for the needs of visitors (and residents) - all being vital for the broader
visitor economy (Reddy, 2006). Arguably, the new concept is much
broader than ‘tourism and events’ (Balding et al., 2012), and encapsulates
an extensive portfolio of businesses – predominantly SMEs (OECD,
2012) that benefit from direct and indirect economic activity.
Kyriakidis et al. (2009) asserted that the visitor economy captures
two key components. The core component reflects the direct contribution
of tourism, thus being the value generated by the provision of tourismrelated services and products (Kyriakidis et al., 2009). This element can
be linked to the well-established concept of Tourism Satellite Accounts
(TSA), provided by the UNWTO and recognised as the international
standard to measure direct economic effects of tourism within an
economy (Kemp and Nijhowne, 2004) and subsequently, put it against
other industries, and even economies (EUROSTAT, 2002). The second
broader element, in contrast, takes into account indirect contribution from
other sectors of the economy – reliant on, or supporting tourism activity
(Kyriakidis et al., 2009). In addition to that, the impact of capital
investment and collective government expenditure, which is linked to the
visitor economy, is also being incorporated in this wider concept (Balding
et al., 2012). Balding et al. (2012) have attempted to provide a definition
of the visitor economy, which:
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“... takes into account broader economic activity than has been
historically defined as tourism and events. It encompasses the direct and
indirect contributions to the economy resulting from a visitor travelling
outside their usual environment for holiday, leisure and events and
festivals, business, conventions and exhibitions, education, to visit friends
and relatives and for employment ... in other words, the full value chain of
the visitor economy is being accounted for “ (Balding et al., 2012: 6).
The latter implied that the visitor economy goes well beyond
impacting solely tourism-related organisations. It is accountable for
regeneration through enhancing the image of a destination, turning a
location into a commodity and subsequently, attracting commercial
investment from outside the tourism industry (Bull, 2013; Cheshire East
Council, 2011). The latter being one of many examples of how the visitor
economy can impact the wider business environment.
In a regional perspective, the visitor economy is of paramount
importance to some of England’s nine regions. An example here is
England’s Northwest, where day visits make up 90 per cent of the
regional visitor economy (McEvoy et al., 2006), and Cheshire East,
where day visitors account for 84 per cent (Cheshire East Council, 2011)
of all tourism and visitor receipts. Hence a more inclusive approach to the
underpinned concept and its various components is needed, particularly in
destinations where day visitors dominate as opposed to tourists staying
overnight. As outlined above, the term visitor economy does not have an
accepted, universal definition, despite the fact that it has been widely used
by business, governmental and third sector organisations in recent years
(Reddy, 2006).
Having explored key interpretations of tourism and the visitor
economy, it can be concluded that they are two different, but
complementary concepts. If tourism takes into account planned journeys
involving overnight stay (McEvoy et al., 2006), the visitor economy adds
to it by capturing the impact of visitors (including tourists staying
overnight) over the local economy. Visitor contribution outreach direct,
tourism-specific products and services as factoring in indirect, tourismsupportive determinants and agents, such as other sectors of the economy
and the multiple parties through the tourism supply chain.
It can be argued, in addition, that the visitor economy reflects the
recent transition in the way destinations are managed, particularly in the
case of England where the new model of destination management
(Penrose, 2011) was intended to bring together local communities,
businesses and authorities to realise the benefits of visitor and tourism
activity. Shifting destination management practices were intended to
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deliver wider impacts being not just a result of tourists and tourism
activity, but taking onboard visitors and indirect, supporting products and
services. The changing landscape of tourism management in England thus
reflects the broader concept of the visitor economy – subject to discussion
in the following sections.
CURRENT SHIFTS IN DESTINATION MANAGEMENT
As in the case of the visitor economy, there is a considerable debate
of what constitutes destination management (Harrill, 2009; Laesser and
Beritelli, 2013) and what the functions of respective organisations,
namely Destination Management Organisations (DMOs) are nowadays. It
has been a common practice that the concept of DMO is more related to
destination marketing, as opposed to management (Laesser and Beritelli,
2013). At times, destination marketing bodies may, however, undertake
management duties under their remit. The latter creates a confusion of
what the concept of destination management actually implies.
Destination management, as defined by UNWTO (2007) aimed to
capture all the elements that make up a destination, such as attractions,
amenities, transport and accessibility, marketing and pricing in a coordinated manner. A key responsibility of destination management then is
to take strategic approach to connect these often very separate and
different entities for a more efficient and effective management of the
destination (Harrill, 2009). Duplication of resources and efforts, with
respect to promotion, services, training, business support and others can
be avoided through joined up destination management (UNWTO, 2007).
Management and planning gaps that have not been addressed before could
also be identified (Pike, 2004).
In other words, destination management seeks to balance interests
among stakeholders in a defined physical area of tourism activity (Laesser
and Beritelli, 2013), representing public, private and non-for-profit
organisations (Polese and Minguzzi, 2009). The 2013 St Gallen
Consensus on Destination Management provided a contemporary, more
process-based interpretation of what the concept of destination
management should incorporate:
“Tourism destination management essentially equates to
management processes that aim to attract visitors (tourists and same day
travellers; ‘wallets’ and thus revenues), and allocate time and money in a
specific geographic space (as defined by the visitors)” (Laesser and
Beritelli, 2013: 47).
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Two important notes should be made here drawing on the above
interpretation of destination management. At first, St Gallen’s definition
reflects the shift in understanding and perceiving destination
management, that is, management within an area of tourism activity,
which importantly takes into account tourists, as well as day visitors –
encompassing the broader visitor economy, as opposed to limiting it to
the tourism industry solely.
Here, an emphasis is placed upon tourists, as well as same day
travellers (or visitors). Tourists, defined as visitors who spend at least one
night in a destination, but no more than one consecutive year (WTO,
1995) can be closely related to the notion of tourism. It can be argued that
they directly contribute to the tourism industry. Same day travellers, in
contrast, may be appropriately said to be aligned to the wider visitor
economy. In this sense, all tourists are visitors, but not all visitors are
tourists (Reddy, 2006; UNWTO, 2010). As previously outlined, the
visitor economy also takes into account indirect contribution to tourism
through supportive services and products, along with direct impacts over
the tourism sector.
Secondly, Laesser and Beritelli (2013) brought attention to
geographic spaces reflecting tourism areas defined by visitors. This is a
key important, prevailing issue when considering today’s management of
destinations in England. Area of tourism activity is an idea that highlights
the shift in the definition of tourism spaces, neglecting bureaucratic and
administrative boundaries in favour of functional tourism territories. This
statement is very much aligned to what the latest tourism policy in the UK
advocates. Thus destination management should take into consideration
functional tourism localities as defined by visitors and visitor activity
(Penrose, 2011). Such definition of a tourism space can also be attached
to the visitor economy concept as it takes into consideration wider set of
individuals and organisations having an impact and being impacted by the
industry, both directly and indirectly (Reddy, 2006), as opposed to
abiding by existing arbitrary boundaries (Penrose, 2011).
Destination management has, in most cases been administered on
either regional or local level (OECD, 2012). This certainly is the case of
England where Regional Tourist Boards (RTBs) focused on regional scale
tourism management and planning, are currently undergoing a
transformation towards becoming DMOs (Hristov, 2013). The reshaped
tourism management bodies are expected to carry out destination
management and planning duties on a local level – in areas, where
tourism and visitor activity occurs (Kennell and Chaperon, 2013).
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Deyan Hristov
The limited in many aspects concept of tourism and the emerging
widespread visitor economy raises important questions. What will happen
with the concept of tourism and, particularly now, when emerging
destination management practices aim to adopt a more holistic, inclusive
approach to English destinations. Will other English destinations follow
the steps of Northwest in admitting the rapidly increasing importance of
the visitor economy, and overlook the tourism as an industry? Are
traditional models of destination management able to persuade the
interests of all stakeholders within a destination? These are some of the
questions deserving further attention.
ENGLISH TOURIST BOARDS
English Regional Tourist Boards (RTBs) reflected a popular and
widely used structure of a public tourism body, which had a regional
scope of operation. RTBs were concerned primarily with the selling of
places – England’s destinations. These bodies were closely linked to the
regionalisation of tourism in England, which was among the key
objectives of the previous Labour Government (1997-2010) and reflected
traditional DMO functions.
Figure 1. Traditional DMO Priorities and Objectives (Source: Pike,
2004; Harrill, 2009).
RTBs played an important role in the delivery of national
government policy aspirations for tourism in England (Coles, Dinan and
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Hutchison, 2012). These tourism bodies had existed since the
Development of Tourism Act of 1969 and in early stages they were
expected to lead on regional tourism strategy and its implementation
(Coles, Dinan and Hutchison, 2012). RTBs had to work with Local
Authorities (LAs), not just because they covered arbitrary boundaries with
authorities (Coles, Dinan and Hutchison, 2012), but because they
provided advice and expertise, shaped and delivered the destination
brand, and targeted the right groups of visitors through appropriate
promotional activity (Reddy, 2006). In addition, Tourist Boards had a role
as a key interface with tourism industry businesses, particularly with
those in the hospitality provision sub-sector (Reddy, 2006).
Due to their limited scope of operation, mainly focusing on
marketing, promotion and information provision, former RTBs could be
closely linked to tourism, as opposed to the visitor economy (see Figure
1), as the visitor economy takes into consideration the wider business
environment, along with the multifaceted impact areas of tourism and
visitor activity. Thus change in the way tourism in England was governed
was called for.
CHANGING OPERATIONAL ENVIRONMENT AND PRIORITIES
Today’s rapidly changing operational context requires change on an
organisational level and various scholars and organisations have indicated
that the landscape of tourism administration is altering and this process of
transformation is a consequence of large to small scale influences taking
place in local, regional, national, and even international contexts
(Morgan, 2012; Cooper and Hall, 2008; Harrill, 2009; Laesser and
Beritelli, 2013; Fyall, Fletcher and Spyriadis, 2009; Coles, Dinan and
Hutchison, 2012; Bramwell, 2011; Kozak and Baloglu, 2011; UNWTO,
2010; Longjit and Pearce, 2013; OECD, 2013).
The recent changes in the English model of tourism governance can
be well explained with the Global-Local Nexus (Milne and Ateljevic,
2001), which is a concept that attempts to formulate and theorise the
complex links between the tourism and processes of economic
development and failure. Spatially, the framework captures the way geopolitical and global forces of economic change influence sub-national
levels, such as regions and localities (Milne and Ateljevic, 2001). Applied
in the context of England (Figure 2), it can be noted that on top is
positioned the global economic downturn of 2008 having a direct impact
on the UK Government cuts in funding, which subsequently affected
public spending for tourism in England.
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Deyan Hristov
Figure 2. Global-Local Nexus in the Context of England (Adapted
from Milne and Ateljevic, 2001)
The 2010 Coalition Government’s neo-liberal agenda (as shown on
Figure 2), which aimed to minimise the role and influence of the state in
order to make the tourism industry more competitive is another key driver
of change on regional and local level in England. Both events that took
place on global and national levels influenced the restructuring of tourism
governance in England implying a shift away from regions and
emphasising on the less-visible localities (destinations).
Along with external, generic political and economic drivers of
change, recent factors influencing shifts in the way tourism is managed
and planned, lay within the industry itself. In its Practical Guide to
Tourism Destination Management, UNWTO (2007) highlighted that
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tourism governance is undergoing a transformation from traditional
public sector model, historically delivering government policy, to one of a
more corporate nature emphasising efficiency, return on investments, and
the role of the market and partnerships between public, private and third
sector entities.
Undoubtedly, one of the key catalysts of change is the increased
international competition among destinations. Reddy (2006) indicated
that the intensification of international competition challenged all
countries when it comes to sustaining and enhancing their status as
tourism destinations. The increased demand for active destination
management is thus being emphasised. Drivers of change suggest that a
more holistic approach to destination management is vital. An approach,
that is not limited to capturing solely the voice of sectoral businesses and
non-for-profit organisations. Instead, demanding increased responsibility
and involvement of the wider set of advocates and beneficiaries of
tourism. Forming a destination management consortium involving public
sector, private sector, non-profit organisations and local residents is
imperative (Kozak and Baloglu, 2012). In this sense, Morgan (2012)
concluded that:
“Tomorrow’s successful tourism destinations ... will be places which
engage issues of social responsibility, ethical practice and sustainable
ways of living and build strong partnerships between civil society,
government and business” (Morgan, 2012: 9).
Clearly, elements of the visitor economy are to take important role in
destination management and planning, and this is to happen in the nottoo-distant future. Destination management and respective organisations
started to play a critical role in managing economic, environmental and
social resources of a destination (Kozak and Baloglu, 2012), and they are
to be responsible for implementing sustainable development strategies.
Such strategies aim to capture not only tourists and related services and
attractions but local community regeneration and well-being by
improving transport infrastructure and accessibility, creating employment
opportunities and attracting inward investment (following the integration
of a wider set of tourism-chain businesses).
FROM TOP DOWN TO BOTTOM UP: MARKETING TOURISM
VERSUS MANAGING THE VISITOR ECONOMY
In the context of England, the transformation of destination
management arrangements was seen as a transformation of Tourist
Boards (Dinan, Coles and Hutchison, 2012). Whereas RTBs were mainly
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involved in the provision of tourist information and had marketing and
promotion functions, contemporary DMOs were expected to achieve
more than simply enhance destination image and increase industry
profitability. Nowadays, the notion of DMOs reflects a much more
versatile approach to destinations (Laesser and Beritelli, 2013).
Traditional scope of DMO operations, such as national and international
destination marketing and promotion is now moving towards the locality
– focusing on local planning and decision-making, impact on
communities and local economic regeneration, greater voice and
responsibilities of businesses. Increasingly, the role of newly-established
DMOs then is to assist in the development and maintenance of industry
partnerships and facilitate the planning and delivery of destination
management (Morgan, 2012). And what is more, the notion of DMO
implies strong emphasis on management of a destination and hence
seeking to fulfil wider economic and community objectives. Bringing
inward investment, creating employment opportunities and contributing
to community regeneration projects are just a few to name (see Figure 3),
which go along with traditional DMO objectives, such as enhancing
destination image, marketing the portfolio of products and increasing
industry revenue.
Local Authorities are to remain an essential player in developing
tourism on a local level, regardless of the structure of new destination
management models (Fyall, Fletcher and Spyriadis, 2009). In this sense,
the synergy between newly-formed DMOs and LAs is crucial. Providing
an input into shaping the visitor economy should become a core interest
for LAs (Fyall, Fletcher and Spyriadis, 2009). Local Authorities may then
be represented on the board of every destination management body. The
far more common approach projecting tourism as peripheral activity,
which focuses on attracting tourists through marketing activities and
information provision is gradually moving out of focus, in favour of the
visitor economy (Reddy, 2006).
It is therefore clear that the role of contemporary DMOs expands
towards assuming greater leadership and having a strong voice in issues
that go well beyond meeting traditional marketing and promotional goals.
Goals, which have previously been associated solely with the tourism
sector. Newly-reconstituted DMOs in England are intended to work
towards developing a comprehensive agenda for tourism – capturing the
wider set of organisations and hence considering the impact of the visitor
economy within a destination. The emerging notion of the visitor
economy advocates that visitor service sectors cannot be viewed in
isolation (Balding et al., 2012). Visitors are to offer many far-flowing,
230
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multi-scale benefits and contribute to the broader economy (Balding et al.,
2012), in this case employment, inward investment, infrastructure
development, community regeneration and wellbeing, urban renewal
alike. The more inclusive visitor economy (Reddy, 2006) inevitably
implies wider participation from both public and private entities. The role
of today’s destination management then is to link stakeholders in the
loose, chaotic environment they operate in and help them realise and take
advantage of the broader impacts of the visitor economy.
Figure 3. Contemporary DMO Priorities and Objectives (Source:
Pike, 2004; Harrill, 2009; Fyall, Fletcher and Spyriadis, 2010;
Laesser and Beritelli, 2013).
Notwithstanding, a broader enquiry into the extent and impact of the
visitor economy is required. The visitor economy can be used to define
the space, in which public, private and third sector organisations operate –
the destination (Reddy, 2006). There is a need for an in-depth, further
enquiry into the underpinned concept - its scope, elements, impacts on
different levels of the value chain, particularly in the context of changing
destination management. The latter is valid for England, where the new
destination management model is to a high degree intended to capture
elements of the visitor economy (Hristov, 2013). If visitor economy is to
prove its wider contribution to local economies and other sectors, it has to
be measured – as with the TSA framework estimating direct impacts of
231
Deyan Hristov
tourism. Hence, further research should be pointed towards developing
such framework - still challenging for today’s destination managers,
scholars and industry practitioners.
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Ritchie, J. R. B. and Crouch, G. I. (2003). The Competitive Destination: A
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UNWTO. (1995). Concepts, Definitions, and Classifications for Tourism
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Https://custom.cvent.com/01664CE00C344F7BA62E39C4CFE91FA8/file
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2013, at 21:02.
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SUBMITTED: SEP 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: JAN 2015
ACCEPTED: MAR 2015
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Deyan Hristov (deyan.hristov@beds.ac.uk) is a Graduate Academic
Assistant and Senior Fellow of the Junior Research Institute for Tourism
(jRIT) at the University of Bedfordshire Business School, United
Kingdom, 35A Cardiff Road, Luton, Bedfordshire, United Kingdom, LU1
1PP.
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TOURISMOS: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF TOURISM
Volume 10, Number 1, Spring-Summer 2015, pp. 235-253
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SECOND HOME TOURISM AND SUSTAINABLE
RURAL DEVELOPMENT
S. Zahra Mirani 1
Maziar University of Royan
Banafsheh M. Farahani
Maziar University of Royan
Second home tourism is one of the patterns of tourism development
especially in rural and mountainous areas that is obtained through
ownership of second homes (bungalows or holiday homes). World's
economic, social and cultural developments after the Second World War,
with improving communication and transportation, increased leisure
time. The possibility of allocating some part of revenue for unnecessary
affaires caused the spread of rural tourism and consequently the
popularity of second homes in the western world and many other
countries. This paper introduced the second homes, their emergence and
spread in all around the world, their geographical and spatial analysis
and the importance of rural development, and then it investigated the role
of second home tourism in rural development and their tourism
development implications in all the environmental, economic, and social
aspects. At last Sustainable development of rural tourism strategies was
examined.
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Keywords: Second Homes, Second Home Tourism, Sustainable Rural
Development
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
Economical, social and culture changes over the past century,
especially in the context of increasing population, urbanization,
development of communication and transportation, increased leisure time
and social welfare which led to the development of tourism in rural areas
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© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
235
S. Zahra Mirani & Banafsheh M. Farahani
or rural tourism. However, rural tourism as a social activity emerged in
the mid-18th century in England and Europe. Moreover, prior to that, the
rural areas were used for leisure activities, but was limited to nobles,
courtiers and special classes (Sharpley, 1997: 47), some rural tourism
activities are along with accommodation and lodge in rural areas, mostly
these presence in the rural areas are in the shape of camping, caravaning,
second homes, rental private homes, guest house and hotels. Staying at
the second homes is the most common form of rural tourism activities and
therefore today the formation and expansion of second homes is the most
important outcome of tourism development in rural areas (Rezvani,
2006). Rural tourism development in an organized manner began from
Europe in the late nineteenth century. It seems that rural tourism has
originated from mountainous areas of Germany or the coastal areas of
France (Yutaka, 1998: 42).
Second home tourism is one of the patterns of tourism development,
particularly in rural and mountainous areas that through the development
of second home ownership (country houses or holiday homes) will be
achieved. Despite the relatively high background of the formation of
second homes in rural areas, recently second home tourism is
experiencing a resurgence, which is mostly due to the new patterns of
economic production and consumption (Williams and Hall, 2000: 23). In
addition, this process is a reaction against the rural crisis, which is the
result of expanding agricultural, restructuring (Dieter, 2002: 243). In
some countries the ownership of second homes is considered as inevitable
part of a new life and that's why the majority of rural tourism destinations
are comprised by internal tourism (Aleskogius, 1993).
Since tourism has an interaction with natural environment and socioeconomic activities, it can have positive or negative effects and
consequences in these areas. Therefore, understanding the effects and
consequences of tourism in the first stage and management of these
effects in the second stage can enhance the positive consequences of
tourism on rural areas to the possible maximum extent and to minimize its
negative consequences. In this paper, it has tried to investigate the role of
second homes and the effects and consequences of expanding their
tourism in the ecological, economical and social dimensions and examine
the sustainable development strategies for rural tourism.
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THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS
Second home
There is no single definition of second home; in the dictionary of
human geography in this case second homes are the houses that are
purchased by households living elsewhere or are rented for a long time.
Such homes are usually located in rural areas and are used for
entertainment purposes and have names such as weekend homes or
holiday homes (Johnston, 1988: 423). Institute for Social Innovation in
America is defined second homes as homes that will be occupied less than
91 days in any calendar year. However, second homes or holiday, are
houses that are built or purchased by urban dwellers in different areas,
including rural areas and on certain days, such as holidays and summer
are used mainly with the aim of leisure and entertainment (Rezvani,
2002).
Rural development
Common understanding about the concept of development suggests
that the basic purpose of development is growth and excellence in all
aspects of human societies and hence understanding the circumstances of
human societies and knowing their needs and requirements in the physical
and spiritual dimensions is considered as one of the key steps in the path
of progress and development. Since villages and people, living there has
their own conditions, facilities and problems, thus, necessity and
justification of rural development will become revealed. In the definition
of rural development, it has come that; it is a comprehensive and
sustainable process that in it's framework ability of rural communities in
the material and spiritual needs, and effective control over the forces
shaping the local settlement system (ecological, social, economic and
institutional) will grow (Shahbazi, 1997: 11).
Sustainable development
An endogenous, systematic and balanced development will propound
a systematic insight in all fields. On the other side, sustainable
development is an evolutionary state of developmental programs that with
a holistic view and emphasizes to a systematic insight tries to follow a
balancing approach (Latifi, 2001: 139).
237
S. Zahra Mirani & Banafsheh M. Farahani
Rural tourism
Rural tourism has many forms, so it is difficult to provide an
accurate and comprehensive definition for it. In fact, rural tourism is one
of the concepts and forms of sustainable development in which existing
resources of rural areas are used. This kind of development has the least
damaging effect or even lack of such effects. It makes growing interests
in rural areas through enhancing productivity in rural areas, creating jobs,
reforming the income distribution, rural-only environment and indigenous
culture, attracting the participation of local people and providing
convenient ways of reconciling traditional values and beliefs with modern
day (Khayati, 2003: 28).
THE EMERGENCE AND SPREAD OF SECOND HOMES IN THE
WORLD
Second home tourism is one of the patterns of tourism development
especially in rural and mountainous areas that is obtained through
ownership of second homes (Williams & Hall, 2000: 23). In addition, this
process is expanding as a reaction against the rural crisis which is the
result of agricultural restructuring (Dieter, 2002: 243). In some countries,
the ownership of second homes is considered as inevitable part of life and
therefore, the majority of rural tourism destinations are domestic tourism
(Aleskogius, 1993). The history of second homes is dated back to the
ancient Egypt and the Roman Empire (Rezvani, 2003). The occupation of
these houses was limited to small and prosperous part of society.
Aristocracy and bourgeoisie in England, France, Sweden and other
European countries from the seventeenth century onwards led to a retreat
from the city to the countryside on weekends. After World War II, the
nature of limited life of second homes has dramatically changed because
these houses have been purchased by a growing number of middleincome households and they have a growing community of more affluent
groups (Fesharaki, 1996: 161). Various factors influence on the
development of second homes but the possibility to allocate a portion of
peoples' income to the not necessary works, adequate time and ease of
mobility due to improved public and private transport, have played a
decisive role. In general, the same factors that have contributed to the
development of rural tourism have also contributed to the development of
second homes (Pacion, 1985: 184). In this regard, the migration of rural
people to the cities and their temporary return to their villages to meet
relatives and friends for leisure or vacation at homes that were given to
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them by inheritance or they have attempted to build, have played an
important role in the development of second homes.
Table 1. Urban Repulsive and Attractive Factors of Second
Homes
Urban Repulsive
Rural Attractive Factors
Incentives of
Factors
Providing Second
Homes in Village
Physical and
Healthy environment
Physical and mental
mental fatigue
rest and refresh
Urban cold and
Pristine and natural space
Refuge to the lap of
built environment
and architectural harmony
nature
with the environment
Types of pollution
Clean Air
Achieving health
(air, noise, heat,
and wellness
etc.)
Superficial and
intimate and profound
Experience the
formal social
connections and face to
rustic sincerity
relationships
face encounters
Crowding and
Solitude and Silence
Relaxation
congestion
Life with pressure
Lack of Stress
Enjoying scenic
and stress
landscape
Monotony and
Diversity
Escape from the
boredom
monotony
Luxurious life
Simple and insignificant
Search for
life
simplicity
search for seeking
Environment and different
Opportunity to
diversity and
patterns of life
identify, Achieving
different
new knowledge and
experiences
experiences
Superficial,
Supply of land and second
Response to the
materialistic and
homes
need of boast and
secular values
follow the
behavioral mode of
the rich
Source: Sharpley and Gee, 1996
In addition, the phenomenon of reverse migration to rural areas that
was started in the world from early 1800s has been an underlying factor to
increase these homes in rural areas (Rezvani, 2003). The main
239
S. Zahra Mirani & Banafsheh M. Farahani
motivations for urban residents to own second homes is mainly for
recreation in rural areas, tend to invest personal savings for housing,
provide a place to relax and recreation, and finally ease of housing
ownership in rural areas.
Second home tourists mostly want to satisfy several requirements
simultaneously and this action usually has not just one incentive. Due to
that, individuals and communities can change over time; this fact should
also be noted that their motives can change over time (Gee, 1996: 220).
One of the ways to detect the tourism incentives is paying attention to the
hierarchical model of motivation. Pierce describes this model in this way
that the behavior of tourists in trip follows a motivational hierarchy.
Hierarchy of travel motivations such as Maslow's needs hierarchy
resembles a ladder with steps or several levels. If the specific needs of
each step or level were removed, a broad category of psychological needs
and motivations will be achieved. When the time passes and every step of
needs is achieved, peoples' motivation for tourism can change (Ibid: 223).
In general, the major purposes of the provision of second homes in rural
areas can be seen in Table1.
RURAL TOURISM AND SECOND HOMES
In general, phenomenon of second homes can be affected by factors
that promote rural tourism development. The growth of this phenomenon
in rural areas started mainly after World War II and was affected by the
rise of income and financial ability, necessity to enjoy leisure time and
facilitate in relocation due to the improvement of the transport network.
The formation of this phenomenon in Iran has older history and more
specifically dating back to the Qajar period (1785 to 1925). Even some
villages in the north of the country are familiar with this phenomenon
from long time ago (Amar, 2006. On the other hand, "the technology to
establish and build a second residence in rural areas can be used as
incentives for investment, an agent to satisfy the needs, gaining social
dignity and prestige and a location for the provision of retirement days"
(Sharieh, 1993: 235). In this regard, the temporary migration of rural
people to the cities and their return to the villages for leisure and visiting
relatives and friends or spending holidays in homes that belongs to them
through inheritance, have had an effective role in the spread of second
homes. Moreover, the phenomenon of counter- urbanization and reverse
migration to rural areas which in the world started in the early 1800s is
the underlying cause of increasing these homes in the villages (Rezvani,
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2002).In this regard the convenience of home ownership in rural areas is
effective.
Table2. Potential impacts of second homes expansion in rural
areas
Description Positive Consequences
Negative Consequences
Economical -Increase investment
- Reduction of the
Impacts
- Create Jobs associated with productive capacity,
the construction and legal
particularly in the
professions
agricultural sector
- Real estate speculation
and undesirable effects on
housing and land prices
(Increasing of false price)
- Failure to invest because
of the imbalance between
supply and demand
Social
- Social revitalization and
- Promoting foreign norms
Impacts
recovery of rural life
and behaviors to the rural
- Entrance of social positive
community
flows from cities
- Polarization of biological
pattern (native or Nonnative)
Physical
- Renovation of construction - Changes in the rural
impacts
and improvement of the
landscape and urbanization
body of village
of residence
- Improvement of
- Disruption of traditional
communication networks
structure and
and increase the spatial
homogenization of the
communications
construction
- Institutionalization of
suitable biological pattern
especially in the field of
hygienic disposal of Garbage
Source: (Amar, 2006)
Formation and development of second homes in rural areas is done
in different ways including the conversion of rural houses to second
homes, construction of second homes on private land acquisition, and
development of this phenomenon by construction companies (Rezvani,
2003: 183). In addition to the above methods, participatory manner
241
S. Zahra Mirani & Banafsheh M. Farahani
(buying a house jointly and rotating use of it during the year), which is
common in North America, is one of the new methods of second homes
development. In Iran, the use of rustic houses as second homes and the
provision of land for houses construction are more seasonal. Nevertheless,
almost all touristic areas of the country are witnessing the formation and
development of this phenomenon in rural lands (Amar, 2006). The
growing demand of second home tourists and boom in land villas
speculation activities besides the weakness of the agricultural sector in the
process of production, income and employment is caused the rapid and
extensive supply of agricultural lands and orchards from the local
community to the seductive million demands of second home tourists
(Ghadami et al, 2010).
On the other hand, the geographical diversity has caused that
studying effects of this phenomenon in terms of a common model become
difficult. Changing in form, role and function of villages is the most
obvious effect of this phenomenon; besides, it should be said that the
environmental impacts caused by loading out of the capacity of the
atmosphere as a result of this phenomenon is significant. From the other
aspect the problem of land ownership, formal rules and governing
customary structures on land use change, the reduced production capacity
particularly in the agricultural sector, disruption of traditional structure
and heterogeneity of construction in rural areas are among the most
important concerns and challenges of this phenomenon in rural areas. The
potential impacts of second homes expansion in rural areas are shown in
Table 2.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND SPATIAL ANALYSIS OF
SECOND HOMES
Expansion of secondary residences continuously and in all countries
is ongoing. The world's countries with various degrees of development
and having a good touristic condition have experienced an increase in this
observable fact. The luxurious residences in Florida and California in
North America, and residential space called the ‘Dacha’ around the
periphery of Moscow and the Black Sea, the rustic cottage in sub-Saharan
Africa are all clear evidence of the generality of this phenomenon
(Sharieh, 1994: 235). In 1970, there were about 1.32 million second
homes in France that in 1982, this amount reached 2.3 million units. From
the current amount, about 1,300,000 of second homes are in rural areas.
Kapok (1977) had estimated the number of second homes in Western
Europe about 3 million units. Regatz estimated the same amount for
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America and Baker (1973) estimated 500 thousand units for Canada
(Pacion, 1985: 184).
Initial attempts to spatial analysis and explain of the second homes is
performed with more emphasis on natural factors. Jacobs (1972) in his
studies concluded that the distribution of second homes in North Wales is
affect by property prices, the degree of urbanization, attracting migrates,
quality of agricultural land and easy access to urban centers. Quality of
the environment, local climate, and scenic landscape from second homes
and access to water sights (lake, ocean, and river) is also important. In
addition, the existing settlement pattern, access to land and planning
policies play a decisive role in the development of effective distribution
of second homes.
Another determining factor in the location of second homes is the
distance between the main residence and second homes. The descriptive
model of second homes developmental pattern in the city of Lyon in
France shows that the ultimate limit of second homes development
around the city is in a radius of up to one hour. In this regard, in the
period of horse and carriage this radius was of 15km that in the 1950s, it
became 65 km and in the current situation with regard to the development
of transportation facilities, this radius has reached to more than 90
kilometers. The frictional effect of distance is the basis of the model
proposed by Regatz (1977: 181) about the distribution of second homes
(Figure 1); Thus with strengthening suburban living in summer, the
population density in the central city will be decreased and second homes
will be added. The situation gets reversed in the winter.
Besides these factors, suitable geographical conditions for optimal
site selection and establishment of second homes are very effective;
because tourists pay attention to special geographical conditions for the
establishment of their second homes (Fesharaki, 1996: 167). In this regard
Sharieh believes that the location of secondary residences have special
and distinctive geographic conditions. The three special scopes of
secondary residences are sunny villages, coastal villages and mountainous
villages (Sharieh, 1994: 237). In this regard, balsent believes that there is
a close relationship between climate and site selection of touristic homes.
Accordingly, the areas can be separated based on the "Bioclimatic"
conditions such as amplifier, retractor, sunny days, the amount and
distribution of rainfall etc. (Deru, 1995: 409). Thus, the pattern of second
homes distribution is in a close relationship with access networks, special
geographical conditions, and population displacement system between
urban and rural areas and even the differences in the planning policies,
243
S. Zahra Mirani & Banafsheh M. Farahani
particularly in relation to land use, land ownership and rural development
strategies (Fesharaki, 1996).
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Central City
Countryside
Secondary center
Exterior countryside
Rural areas
150 miles away from the city center
Figure 1. Hypothetical model for the distribution of population by the seasons of the year
Permanent residence - ordinary
Permanent residence - summer
Summer residence
Source: Regatz (1977, 182)
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TOURISM IMPACTS ON RURAL AREAS
Due to the nature of tourism activities and its close relationship and
interaction with the various economic, social and cultural activities, its
effects can be very broad, especially on the local environment and the
host communities will have profound effects.
As mentiond beore, socio-cultural impacts of tourism can be positive
or negative. Once tourism is growing, the positive and important sociocultural impacts of tourism in local communities are consists of selfsufficiency and strengthening local economy, greater respect for the local
community and their culture, reinvestment of tourism revenue in cultural
resources, strengthening and continuation of cultural traditions, increasing
levels of understanding and tolerance between cultures, especially
through music, art and craft supplies, domestic life, housing and other
experiences of rural life (Rezvani & Safaii, 2005).
Negative impacts of tourism on local communities could include the
deprivation of welfare benefits for host community, demand for scarce
resources such as water, and too much dependence of host community to
tourism, tourist inappropriate behavior and lack of cultural sensitivity
(WTO, 2002: 126).
Planning for sustainable tourism is one of the topics discussed
among researchers and tourism operators. In general, the goal of planning
and management of rural tourism is making balance between demand and
its functionality in order to reduce tension and without the reduction of
the resources of the village, be used in the best way (Pigram, 1993: 171).
Now this question arises that how this balance will be achieved. Fagnes
(1991) stated that the development of rural tourism has some common
roles and features that can be used for planning and management, thus it
can be stated that:
• All local jobs which are related to tourism are not directly useful
for local communities, especially when some people outside of
the village are interested in developing tourism and do some
activities and compete with each other;
• Visitors expectations in rural areas is not lower than tourists of
urban or coastal areas, and therefore they demand different kinds
of attractions and facilities of good quality;
• Tourism can be an effective way to reform and revitalize the
rural areas;
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•
Each of tourism policies in this area should be coordinated with
broader policies;
• Tourism can be used as an instrument or a justification for the
improvement of public, infrastructural, and transportation
services in rural areas; and from the regional aspect the most
important form of tourism development, is the model which is
based on the regional and inter-regional cooperation.
Second homes tourism as well as other rural tourism patterns can
have numerous effects on rural areas. In some cases, these effects are
beneficial. For example, the old houses in rural areas may be restored or
converted into new housing that in addition to beautify of the countryside,
it will provide temporary or permanent employment for rural people, raise
revenue for local stores and provide other facilities. However, the
development of second homes can have a negative impact on rural areas.
In this respect, Wall and Smith (1982: 136) argue that the spread of
second homes can damage the rural environment by disrupting the visual
beauty of the countryside and the destruction of vegetation. In their
opinion, in the way of development of second homes in rural areas, there
has been little attention to the beauty and balance of them (Mathieson &
Wall, 1982: 29). In addition, the social impacts of second home
ownership should also be noted; in particular they are:
• Spread of second homes will reduce the possibility of building
accommodation for local people. This matter is more common
in places where planning policies will limit the construction of
new housing;
• Increasing demand to buy second homes in rural areas will
highly increase the price of these homes that local people can
not afford to buy;
• Youth due to settlement problems in local communities will
migrate to cities and thus the social structure of rural
communities will be disrupted and the influx of non-rural rich
people to the rural areas can lead to anger local people and fade
their culture; although many studies have shown that second
home owners are trying to adapt themselves with the local
communities.
Thus, one of the problems that rural tourism planners are faced is
making balance between the demands of wealthy urban residents to buy
or build second homes in rural areas and the needs of local communities
in the field of house providing (Rezvani & Safaii, 2005).
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S. Zahra Mirani & Banafsheh M. Farahani
TOURISM AND RURAL SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Rural tourism significantly expanded since1950s. Initially, in the
1960s and 1970s, the economic aspects of rural tourism for local
communities were considered. After that, the development of rural
tourism was raised as a tool for the development of rural communities.
Nowadays various economical, socio-cultural and environmental aspects
of rural tourism are considered. Three perspectives in the field of the
relationship between tourism and rural development are discussed. In
table 3, these three perspectives and goals, as well as the effects and
consequences associated with them are discussed.
Since the rural areas are vulnerable and susceptible sources to
environmental, social and economic changes, in particular, experience has
shown that wherever tourism extended spontaneously, accidentally and
without planning and effective management, caused adverse
consequences and in long-term its problems is more than benefits
(Sharpley, 1997: 73). Some consequences like environmental pollution,
degradation of water resources, flooding, soil erosion and degradation of
forests and pastures are the effects, which were seen during the past two
decades. That is why over the past few years the concept of sustainable
tourism has progressed to the extent to be able to respond to threats of the
fragile tourism.
Sustainable tourism development is a development in which balance
and equilibrium, maintaining values quality of morals and economic
principles and economic benefits have been seen all together and a
supreme effort will done that a balanced and comprehensive development
be replaced to purely economic development. In this view, the
development of tourism, using available resources in a way that while
respond to the economic, social, cultural needs and legal norms and
expectations of tourists, can provide unity, cultural identity,
environmental health, economical balance and well-being of local people
(Alvani, 1993: 10).
Therefore, the development of tourism in rural areas on one hand can
play an important role in the diversification of the rural economy and
provide the underlying context for rural sustainable development. On the
other hand, it can be considered as a means to stimulate national
economic growth (through the idea of overcoming under development
and improve the living standards of the local population) (Sharifzadeh &
Moradnezhad, 2002: 53). However, if rural tourism and second home
ownership be planned and managed in an appropriate way, it can be a
stimuli or creator of a developed process for achieving sustainable
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development in rural areas and sustainability of local communities in all
subdirectories of economic, social, cultural and tourism industry (Rezvani
& Safaii, 2005).
Due to the different perspectives and ideas in the field of rural
tourism, it can be stated that rural tourism by providing new opportunities
for many rural areas as a means will revitalize rural communities and lead
to the development of these areas and can keep these settlements stable.
Nevertheless, from the other hand its unplanned development can cause
social and environmental damages in rural settlements. Of course, this
matter that which patterns of rural tourism such as second home
ownership, renting second homes, staying in residential centers etc. has
greater role in the sustainable development of rural areas, depends on
local conditions and facilities, as well as how to plan and manage tourism
in each area (ibid).
Table 3. Three perspectives in the field of the relationship
between tourism and rural development
Approach to the
Goals
Effects and
development of
Consequences
rural tourism
Rural tourism as a
- Solving rural
- Stable population
strategy for rural
underdevelopment
- Solve the
development
- Reducing migration
unemployment
- Final Solution to Rural
problem
Development
- Increasing the
proliferation
- Reduce the negative
coefficient of
effects and exploit the
revenue
positive effects
- Utilization of
- Contribute to the
worthless
development of other
documentary
sectors of the rural
resources
economy
249
S. Zahra Mirani & Banafsheh M. Farahani
Rural tourism as a
policy to reform
rural habitations
Rural tourism as a
tool for sustainable
development
- Creating alternative
economy for farming in
villages which have no
agricultural land
- Diversification of rural
economical activities
- To encourage
investment in the nonagricultural sector
- Increasing demand for
local products
- The demand for
improving quality of life
- Equitable distribution of
incomes
- Creating alternative
employment for
settlements whose
activity has been closed
- Minimizing cultural and
environmental damage
- Preparation of rural
economic development in
the long term
- Satisfying visitors
- Creating moneymaking
opportunities for local
residents
- Increasing the Increase
quality of life
- Increasing the level of
people's participation
- Creating nonagricultural
employment
- Reducing migration
- Diversification of
the rural economy
- Importance to
indigenous
production
- Increasing quality
of life
- Changing social
attitudes of rural
community
- Creating alternative
employment
- Increasing the
community
participation in
tourism and rural
development
- Protecting of
natural and cultural
resources
- Converting the
development cycle
from local to
international
Source: Roknoddin Eftekhari and Ghaderi, 2002
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Second home tourism is one of the patterns of tourism development
especially in rural and mountainous areas that is obtained through
ownership of second homes (bungalows or holiday homes). In this paper,
after introducing second homes and their emergence and spread in the
world, as well as their geographical and spatial analysis and the
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importance of rural development, it investigated the role of second home
tourism in rural development. It also explores the effects and
consequences of their tourism expansion in all economical, socio-cultural
and environmental aspects and strategies for the sustainable development
of rural tourism. Rural tourism as an economic activity, while has a
favorable impact on income and employment in a region, has other
implications and consequences. Second homes are one of the effects and
consequences of tourism in the context of the physical system and the
structure of those residences that receive tourists and their temporary stay
for enjoyment of the rural landscapes and favorable conditions of villages.
However, in Iran and in its mountainous areas in the north, the effect and
influence of second homes expansion is very old, but in recent decades
under the influence of communication networks improvement and
obtaining general recognition about capabilities of these areas beside the
saturation of plains and coastal zones, its growth rate is more. As
mentioned, if rural tourism and second home ownership be plan and
manage in an appropriate way, it can be considered as a stimuli or creator
of a developed process for achieving sustainable development in rural
areas and sustainability of local communities in all subdirectories of
economic, social, cultural and tourism industry. Rural tourism is as a part
of the tourism market and a source of employment and income, and it can
be considered as an important tool for socio-economic and ecological
development for the local communities. In order to eliminate the negative
effects of second homes tourism in rural areas, it is also needed that, rural
tourism planners try to make balance between the demands of wealthy
urban residents to buy or build second homes in rural areas and needs of
local communities in the provision of housing. They also need to try to
avoid the destruction of old structure and body of villages and their
beautiful and pristine environment and provide fields of employment in
rural areas through entrepreneurship for local residents to contribute to the
economy of the local people.
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seyed mehdi. (1993). Necessary Mechanisms for Sustainable
Development of Tourism, Selected Proceedings of the Second Meeting of
Tourism (Culture and Development), Ministry of Islamic Culture and
Guidance. (In Persian)
Amar, Teymur. (2006). Analysis of the spread of second homes in rural areas: A
Case Study of city Khorgam roudbar, a geographical perspective quarterly,
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Fesharaki, Paridokht. (1996). Rural Geography, Islamic Azad University Press.
(In Persian)
Ghadami, Mostafa. Aghili Firuzjaii, Naser. & Moradnezhad, Rahim. (2000). Study
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Studies and Research, the first year, NO.3. (In Persian)
Gee, Chuck Y. (1996). International Tourism: A Global Perspective, Translated
into Persian by: A. Parsayan and S.M. A'arabi, Tehran, Cultural Research
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Khayati, Mehdi. (2003). Rural tourism and its impact on rural communities (case
study of Thailand), Jahad Magazine, No. 257, p28. (In Persian)
Latifi, GH, (2001), The Role and Importance Cultural Development in Sustainable
Urban Development, Politics-Economics Magazine, No.199-200. (In
Persian)
Rezvani, Mohamadreza. (2002). Analyzing the process of establishment and
development of second homes in rural areas, Geographical Research
Quarterly, No. 45, pp. 73-59. (In Persian)
Rezvani, Mohamadreza. (2003). Analyzing the process of establishment and
development of second homes in rural areas of north of Tehran province,
Geographical Research Quarterly, No. 45. (In Persian)
Rezvani, Mohamadreza, & Safaii, Javad. (2005). Second home tourism and its
impact on rural areas; opportunities and threats, Geographical Research,
No. 54, pp. 121-109. (In Persian)
Roknodin Eftekhari, Abdolreza & Ghaderi, Esmail. (2002). The role of rural
tourism in rural development, Modarres Journal, Volume VI, Issue II, pp.
40-23. (In Persian)
Shahbazi, Esmail. (1997). Rural Promotion and Development,Tehran University.
(In Persian)
Sharieh, Jean-Bernard. (1994). Cities and villages, translated by Sirus Sahami,
Mashhad: Nika Publications. (in Persian)
Sharifzadeh, Abolghasem, Moradinezhad, Homaun. (2002). Sustainable
Development and Rural Tourism, Socio-economic monthly magazine of
Jahad, No. 251-250, p 53. (In Persian)
Traveling and Tourism Organization. (2002). National Plan for Tourism
Development, Traveling and Tourism Organization. (In Persian)
Aleskogius, H. (1993). Recreation cultural life and Tourism, National Altas of
Sweden, Stockholm: SNAG.
Dieter, K. Muler. (2002). Second home Ownership and sustainable Development
in Northern Sweden, Tourism and Hospitality Research, vol.3 No.4,
ABI/INFORM Global, pp.343-355.
Johnston, R.J. (1988). Dictionary of Human Geography, Second edition,
Blackwell, Oxford.
Mathieson, A. and Wall, G. (1982), Tourism: Economic, Physical and Social
Impact, Harlow, Longman.
Pacion, M. (1985). Rural Geography, Harpper and Row Publishers.
Pigram, J. (1993). Planning for Tourism in Rural Areas, Routledge, London.
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Regatz, R.L. (1977). Vacation homes in rural area, Oxford, Rergamon.
Sharpley, R and J. (1977). An Introduction to Rural Tourism, International
Thomson Business Press, UK.
Wall and Smith. (1982). Tourism Alternatives: Potential and Problems in the
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William, A.M. & Hall, C.M. (2000). Tourism and Migration: New relationships
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Yutaka, Arahi. (1998). Rural Tourism in Japan, The regeneration of rural
communities Tokyo, Japan.
SUBMITTED: AUG 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: JAN 2015
ACCEPTED: FEB 2015
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
S. Zahra Mirani (s.zahramirani@yahoo.com) is MA student of tourism
management in Maziar University of Royan, Mazandaran, Iran.
Banafsheh M. Farahani (banafsheh.farahani@gmail.com) is an
Assistant Professor in Maziar and Iran Azad University, Mazandaran,
Iran.
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THE IMPACT OF SANCTIONS ON DESTINATION
IMAGE TOURISM OF IRAN
Hamid Akbarnataj 1
Maziar University
Mohammad Mirtaghyian
Maziar University
In current situation where Iran is struggling to get through consecutive sanctions,
developing tourism industry and attracting foreign tourist and also the use of the
exchange rate and low values of Rial can be a viable solution strategy. Iran can
be a cheap destination for countries with high currency value which can be a
successful factor in attracting tourism from other countries. Placed among the
first ten countries with cultural and natural attractions, distinct hospitality and
delivering cheaper services compared to other destinations are the main factors
which can be used in creating a destination brand for Iran. On this basis, relying
on real advantage of its unique attractions is much better than creating artificial
spaces and short-term booms. The present study investigated the brand image of
tourism in Iran, before and after the sanctions. Data are gathered using 5-point
Likert scale in a questionnaire and results in the analysis and conclusions are
presented.
Keywords: destination image, sanctions, tourism image of Iran, impact of
sanction
JEL Classification: L83, M1, O1
INTRODUCTION
With a new wave of increasing political, military and oil sanctions
against Iran by the Western countries; fundamental need is increasingly
felt to deal with this anti Iranian’s campaign. One of the fundamental
approaches and basic methods to deal with these sanctions in improving
economic situation in a conflict between Iran and the West is using the
great potential of Iranian Tourism in the world. Sanctions and limitations
© University of the Aegean. Print ISSN: 1790-8418, Online ISSN: 1792-6521
255
Hamid Akbarnataj & Mohammad Mirtaghyian
have created a prosperous opportunity for Iranian tourism. Volatility in
exchange rates is one of the effects of sanctions and the international
tourism demand is also directly affected by changes in exchange
rate;(Mason, 2012) hence, the real exchange rate in Iran could result in an
increase in incoming tourists and tourism revenue for Iran (Feshari,
Taghipour, Valadbeigi, & Ghamari, 2012). Note that Iran has potential
elements like architecture, myths, language, mythological history,
politics, culture, values and religion in the area of tourism which can be
used is creating brand and brand design. The increase in exchange rate in
Iran consequently resulted in the less demand for foreign trips which have
changed Iran into a cheap destination. With regard to this issue it can be
planned to attract more foreign tourist to Iran.
DEFINITION
Destination image
Nowadays, due to the strong competition among destinations,
creating a positive image of the destination to achieve a competitive
advantage is important (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). Destination image is
defined as the sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions that a tourist holds
about a destination (Crompton, 1979), and it is viewed as a
multidimensional construct composed of three primary dimensions, i.e.
cognitive, affective, and conative (Beerli & Martin, 2004; Prayag, 2007).
The cognitive component involves beliefs and knowledge about the
physical attributes of a destination, while the affective one refers to the
appraisal of the affective quality of feelings toward the attributes and the
surrounding environment (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999). The conative
component is considered analogous to behavior, and evolves from
cognitive and affective images (Beerli & Martin, 2004; Prayag, 2007). In
other words, destination image involves subjective knowledge of a
destination (i.e., whether it is expensive, exotic, urban, cold, or
developed) (Ekinci, 2003). Moreover, most researchers agree with the
importance of destination image as a decisive factor in a visitor’
destination choice (Mayo, 1975).
Tourism marketing experts (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999; Berger &
Mitchell, 1989) consider that destination image is a concept made up of
two components, tangible and intangible. Nevertheless, the last
dimension, affectivity, is not a correct measurement for certain studies
(Echtner & Ritchie, 1991), since many only contemplate the cognitive
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component, as it is summarized in (Pike, 2002) study, where just six of
the 142 researches which has been analyzed include the affective element.
Elements of Country Image
In order to understand country image, we revisit the definitions of the
country image and its components. “Country image is a set of beliefs and
perceptions that people have about a given country. Further, country
image is constituted of history, geography, art, music, citizens, and
attributes.” Arguably, media and entertainment industry are cited to be
significant vehicles in constructing cues of a country image (Kotler,
2009). In instance, entertainment industry (Hollywood) in the US has
significantly assisted in painting US image with the nation’s image as
being perceived today. Noteworthy, most of movies or media messages,
assisted by well-organized campaigns substantially enhance American
brand. The image builders attach, wealth, power and prestige “American
dream” in promotion activity. In practice some of these “messages” are
reflection of the reality that suffices in the US, orchestrated by media. All
these messages are significant aspects in showcasing a country
internationally. Mismanaging image branding can hamper this process
(Kim & Richardson, 2003).
Notably, image is confused with stereotype, according to (Kotler &
Gertner, 2002) stereotype is broad image that is held by group of people
that is considerably distorted with simplicity and that interpreted with
either positive or negative attitude toward the place. Moreover, it is
argued that image process is more on individual point of view and not
from a group of people (Kotler & Gertner, 2002).
Elements Influencing Country Brand Image
To improve a country’s image, creating new positive brand
association is easier than trying to refute an old image (Kotler & Gertner,
2002). If a country doesn’t have a specific image or needs to change its
negative image, it is better to make a new country brand association with
the positive image. According to the Kotler and Gertner, the brand image
of a country results from its history, geography, art, music, celebrities,
proclamations, and other features. Specifically, the media and
entertainment industry are important elements that shape people’s
perceptions of a specific place. Product categories such as perfumes,
electronics, automobiles, wines, and software are also considered as
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Hamid Akbarnataj & Mohammad Mirtaghyian
strong influences on a country brand. Hosting sports events such as the
Olympics and the FIFA World Cup is important in building a strong
country brand, also countries participating in international sports event
also can build country brands (Jun & Lee, 2007). In addition, societal ills
such as AIDS, political riots, civil rights violations, environmental
problems, racial conflicts, economic dilemmas, poverty, and crime rates
can all be elements that influence country brand (Kotler & Gertner, 2002).
A specific place such as country can be strongly or relatively associated
with some of these elements and its brand image can be built on them.
Sanctions
Sanctions and embargoes are political trade restrictions put in place
against target countries with the aim of maintaining or restoring
international peace and security. Sanctions may include various forms of
trade barriers and restrictions, some of its kind are economic, financial
and political transactions.
Sanctions against Iran
The employment of economic sanctions against Iran dates back to the
post-1979 Revolution (Mueller & Mueller, 1999). Starting as bans on the
import of Iranian crude oil into the United States (US), sanctions later
developed into the banning of all imports of Iranian refined and non-oil
products, followed by an embargo of US exports in the 1980s.
The United States imposed sanctions against Iran and expanded them
in 1995 to include firms dealing with the Iranian government (Zirulnick,
2011). In 2006, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 1696 and
imposed sanctions after Iran refused to suspend its enrichment program.
U.S. sanctions initially targeted investments in oil, gas and
petrochemicals, exports of refined petroleum products, and business
dealings with the Iranian Republican Guard Corps. This encompasses
banking and insurance transactions (including with the Central Bank of
Iran), shipping, web-hosting services for commercial endeavors, and
domain name registration services (Nations, 2006).
METHODOLOGY
This research is of practical type and according to the purpose of the
research it is of case descriptive. It is descriptive because part of this
current research deals with describing tourism condition and economic
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situation of Iran and it is a case study because in case studies the
investigation is aimed at studying the features and complexity of a case
(Yin, 2009). The method in the current research is in experimental survey.
Statistical data of this research is formed according to the 62 foreign
tourists who traveled Iran before and after sanctions. The use of multiple
tools and resources in research particularly in case studies increases the
power of research (Yin, 2009), therefore in this survey the necessary data
are gathered by 1) documents and evidence 2) questionnaire. The
questionnaire study was conducted internet based which was published in
a domain and asked to be filled out and it is composed of two parts, the
first part measures the variables dealing with before sanctions and the
second part measure after the sanctions. 5-point Likert scale is used in
questionnaire which 1 is strongly disagree and 5 is strongly agree. To
analyze the reliability Cronbach’s alpha is used which is shown is Table 1
(before sanctions) and Table 2 (after the sanctions) respectively.
Table 1. Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the questionnaire
items in the survey, the first part, Before Sanctions
Part
Part 1
Before
sanctions
Factors
Cronbach’s
alpha
Index
0.786
Attractive natural
attractions
Distinctive history and
heritage
Vintage building
Interesting
museums/exhibits
Tempting/colorful
culture
Adequate publicizing
A good cultural
experience
Colorful nightlife
activities for children
Safe and secure
environment
Pleasant weather
Friendly and helpful
local people
price for food and
accommodation
price for attractions
1 - My
perception of
Iran is that
Iran offered
Cronbach’s
alpha
0.778
0.789
0.785
0.789
0.786
0.782
0.775
0.792
0.788
0.785
0.787
0.783
0.780
0.792
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Hamid Akbarnataj & Mohammad Mirtaghyian
2- We would
like you to
rate how you
feel about Iran
as a vacation
destination
3- Please
describe your
overall image
of Iran as a
tourist
destination
0.785
0.778
and activities
Good bargain shopping
Wide selection of
restaurants
Quality infrastructure
Attractive natural
attractions
Good network of
tourist information
Pleasant
Exciting
Arousing
Relaxing
Favorable
Enjoyable
Fun
Iran offers nothing
favorable overall image
positive opinion about
Iran
local people in Iran are
friendly
Iran has a unique
image
Iran is popular
0.781
0.797
0.789
0.784
0.776
0.780
0.785
0.789
0.784
0.786
0.775
0.786
0.775
0.779
0.777
0.780
0.778
0.772
Table 2. Cronbach's alpha coefficient of the questionnaire
items in the survey, the second part, After the Sanctions
0T
0T
0T
0T
0T
0T
0T
part
factors
Part 2
after
sanctions
1 - My
perception of
Iran is that
Iran offered
0T
0T
Cronbach's
alpha
0.779
260
0T
0T
0T
0T
0T
0T
0T
0T
index
Attractive natural
attractions
Distinctive history and
heritage
Vintage building
Interesting
museums/exhibits
Tempting/colorful
culture
Adequate publicizing
A good cultural
experience
Colorful nightlife
Cronbach's
alpha
0.773
0.780
0.778
0.776
0.771
0.774
0.760
0.773
TOURISMOS: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF TOURISM
Volume 10, Number 1, Spring-Summer 2015, pp. 255-266
UDC: 338.48+640(050)
2- We would
like you to
rate how you
feel about Iran
as a vacation
destination
3- Please
describe your
overall image
of Iran as a
tourist
destination
0.777
0.785
activities for children
Safe and secure
environment
Pleasant weather
Friendly and helpful
local people
price for food and
accommodation
price for attractions and
activities
Good bargain shopping
Wide selection of
restaurants
Quality infrastructure
Attractive natural
attractions
Good network of tourist
information
Pleasant
Exciting
Arousing
Relaxing
Favorable
Enjoyable
Fun
Iran offers nothing
favorable overall image
positive opinion about
Iran
local people in Iran are
friendly
Iran has a unique image
Iran is popular
0.781
0.792
0.780
0.783
0.787
0.785
0.780
0.779
0.775
0.786
0.787
0.784
0.789
0.773
0.760
0.774
0.771
0.784
0.792
0.787
0.789
0.782
0.775
0.783
ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS
Descriptive analysis of the respondents based on demographic
characteristics is shown in table 3.
Considering that the questionnaire was designed in two parts: before
and after the sanctions; therefore the analysis of the findings must also be
done in two parts which is presented in Table 4 (Before sanctions) and
Table 5 (After the sanctions) respectively.
261
Hamid Akbarnataj & Mohammad Mirtaghyian
Table 3. Respondent’s demographic descriptive analysis
according to demographic characteristics
0T
Demographic
characteristic
Sex
Age
Education
Description based
on
Male
Female
18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55 or more
High school
B.A or B.S
M.A or M.S
Ph.d
frequently
Frequently percent
24
38
8
23
14
15
2
3
13
26
20
39
61
13
37
23
24
3
5
21
42
32
Table 4. Results of the part in Before Sanctions
Part
Factors
Index
Part 1
before
sanctions
1 - My
perception
of Iran is
that Iran
offered
Attractive natural
attractions
Distinctive history
and heritage
Vintage building
Interesting
museums/exhibits
Tempting/colorful
culture
Adequate
publicizing
A good cultural
experience
Colorful nightlife
activities for
children
Safe and secure
environment
Pleasant weather
Friendly and
helpful local
people
price for food and
accommodation
price for attractions
and activities
262
Strongly
disagree
0(0%) **
disagree
Neutral
agree
0(0)
0(0)
47(76)
Strongly
agree
15(24)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
10(16)
52(84)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
14(23)
12(19)
36(58)
50(81)
12(19)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
13(21)
49(79)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
53(85)
9(15)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
11(18)
51(82)
58(94)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
4(6)
2(3)
0(0)
49(79)
0(0)
11(18)
0(0)
0(0)
49(79)
6(10)
7(11)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
4(6)
0(0)
55(89)
8(13)
3(5)
54(87)
0(0)
0(0)
45(74)
11(18)
6(10)
0(0)
0(0)
49(79)
7(11)
6(10)
TOURISMOS: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF TOURISM
Volume 10, Number 1, Spring-Summer 2015, pp. 255-266
UDC: 338.48+640(050)
2- We
would like
you to rate
how you
feel about
Iran as a
vacation
destination
3- Please
describe
your
overall
image of
Iran as a
tourist
destination
Good bargain
shopping
Wide selection of
restaurants
Quality
infrastructure
Good network of
tourist information
Pleasant
Exciting
Arousing
Relaxing
Favorable
Enjoyable
Fun
2(3)
60(97)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
4(6)
9(15)
36(58)
7(11)
6(10)
0(0)
4(6)
44(71)
11(18)
3(5)
0(0)
2(3)
40(65)
15(24)
5(8)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
9(15)
6(10)
49(79)
11(18)
46(74)
5(8)
55(89)
53(85)
56(90)
13(21)
51(82)
16(26)
57(92)
7(11)
Iran offers nothing
62(100)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
favorable overall
0(0)
3(5)
45(74)
11(18)
image
positive opinion
0(0)
0(0)
15(24)
44(71)
about Iran
local people in Iran
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
4(6)
are friendly
Iran has a unique
0(0)
0(0)
12(19)
39(63)
image
I think Iran is
0(0)
2(4)
9(15)
50(81)
popular
** Attention: The earlier number refers to the number of respondents and the one in
parenthesis refers to the percent.
0(0)
3(5)
3(5)
58(94)
11(18)
0(0)
Table 5. Results of the part in After Sanctions
Part
Factors
Index
Part 1
before
sanctions
1 - My
perception
of Iran is
that Iran
offered
Attractive natural
attractions
Distinctive history
and heritage
Vintage building
Interesting
museums/exhibits
Tempting/colorful
culture
Adequate
publicizing
A good cultural
experience
Colorful nightlife
activities for
children
Strongly
disagree
0(0%) **
disagree
Neutral
agree
0(0)
0(0)
47(44)
Strongly
agree
35(56)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
6(10)
56(90)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
14(23)
10(16)
36(58)
52(84)
12(19)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
12(19)
50(81)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
15(24)
45(74)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
6(10)
56(90)
58(94)
0(0)
2(3)
0(0)
2(3)
0(0)
0(0)
49(79)
0(0)
13(21)
263
Hamid Akbarnataj & Mohammad Mirtaghyian
0(0)
0(0)
12(19)
10(16)
40(65)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
3(5)
0(0)
57(92)
8(13)
2(3)
54(87)
0(0)
0(0)
36(58)
8(13)
18(29)
0(0)
0(0)
49(79)
7(11)
6(10)
2(3)
60(97)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
4(6)
9(15)
36(58)
7(11)
6(10)
0(0)
4(6)
44(71)
11(18)
3(5)
0(0)
0(0)
40(65)
17(27)
5(8)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
9(15)
6(10)
49(79)
11(18)
46(74)
5(8)
18(29)
53(85)
56(90)
13(21)
51(82)
16(26)
57(92)
44(71)
Iran offers nothing
62(100)
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
favorable overall
0(0)
0(0)
34(55)
19(31)
image
positive opinion
0(0)
0(0)
10(16)
44(71)
about Iran
local people in Iran
0(0)
0(0)
0(0)
2(3)
are friendly
Iran has a unique
0(0)
0(0)
10(16)
35(56)
image
I think Iran is
0(0)
3(5)
4(6)
55(89)
popular
** Attention: The earlier number refers to the number of respondents and the one in
parenthesis refers to the percent.
0(0)
9(14)
2- We
would like
you to rate
how you
feel about
Iran as a
vacation
destination
3- Please
describe
your
overall
image of
Iran as a
tourist
destination
Safe and secure
environment
Pleasant weather
Friendly and
helpful local
people
price for food and
accommodation
price for
attractions and
activities
Good bargain
shopping
Wide selection of
restaurants
Quality
infrastructure
Good network of
tourist information
Pleasant
Exciting
Arousing
Relaxing
Favorable
Enjoyable
Fun
8(13)
60(97)
17(27)
RESULT & CONCLUSION
Though a variety of options are proposed by Iranian policy makers,
politicians and scholars to get through these sanctions imposed on Iran
but tourism industry is the only part which enjoys great potential and a
good domestic and also foreign demand. Without government
intervention to inject capital by itself tourism industry leads to income
264
0(0)
TOURISMOS: AN INTERNATIONAL MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL OF TOURISM
Volume 10, Number 1, Spring-Summer 2015, pp. 255-266
UDC: 338.48+640(050)
distribution in local communities. Survey findings indicate that increased
volatility in the exchange rate has caused the Iranian currency to be lower
compared to world currencies for other countries which make Iran an
affordable destination for foreign tourists. On the other hand, domestic
tourism who intended to travel to other countries is diverted to domestic
flights due to exchange rate changes and definitely this will result in cash
flow. According to the foreign tourist, being hospitable with cheap service
prices can be influencing factors in formation of valid national identity
and brand during sanctions. Given that, Iran has enjoyed a remarkable
tourism growth rate which was 12.7 in attracting tourism in recent years
according to the UNWTO (WTO, 2010); while the world could not get
further than 3.2. It can be deduced that sanctions and limitations brought
prosperous opportunities for Iran and according to the survey analysis
sanctions didn’t affected tourism destination brand of Iran.
REFERENCES
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Annals of Tourism Research, 26(4), 868-897.
Beerli, A., & Martin, J. D. (2004). Factors influencing destination image. Annals
of Tourism Research, 31(3), 657-681.
Berger, I. E., & Mitchell, A. A. (1989). The effect of advertising on attitude
accessibility, attitude confidence, and the attitude-behavior relationship.
Journal of Consumer Research, 269-279.
Crompton, J. L. (1979). An assessment of the image of Mexico as a vacation
destination and the influence of geographical location upon that image.
Journal of Travel Research, 17(4), 18-23.
Echtner, C. M., & Ritchie, J. B. (1991). The meaning and measurement of
destination image. Journal of tourism studies, 2(2), 2-12.
Feshari, M., Taghipour, A. A., Valadbeigi, M., & Ghamari, N. (2012). Effective
tax rate on foreign income and the Middle East tourism North Africa
(dynamic panel data approach). Journal of Economic Modeling, 4(16), 7186.
Jun, J. W., & Lee, H. M. (2007). Enhancing global-scale visibility and familiarity:
The impact of World Baseball Classic on participating countries. Place
Branding and Public Diplomacy, 3(1), 42-52.
Kim, H., & Richardson, S. L. (2003). Motion picture impacts on destination
images. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(1), 216-237.
Kotler, P. (2009). Marketing management: Pearson Education India.
Kotler, P., & Gertner, D. (2002). Country as brand, product, and beyond: A place
marketing and brand management perspective. The Journal of Brand
Management, 9(4), 249-261.
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Hamid Akbarnataj & Mohammad Mirtaghyian
Mason, P. (2012). Tourism impacts, planning and management: Routledge.
Mayo, E. (1975). Tourism and the national parks: A psychographic and attitudinal
study. Journal of Travel Research, 14(1), 14-21.
Mueller, J., & Mueller, K. (1999). Sanctions of mass destruction. Foreign Aff., 78,
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Nations, U. (2006). Security Council demands Iran suspend uranium enrichment
by 31 August, or face possible economic, diplomatic sanctions.
Pike, S. (2002). Destination image analysis—a review of 142 papers from 1973 to
2000. Tourism management, 23(5), 541-549.
Prayag, G. (2007). Exploring the relationship between destination image and
brand personality of a tourist destination: An application of projective
techniques. Journal of Travel & Tourism Research, 2(Fall), 111-130.
WTO. (2010). from http://www.UNWTO.org
Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research: Design and methods (Vol. 5): Sage.
Zirulnick, A. (2011). Sanction Qaddafi? How 5 nations have reacted to sanctions:
Iran [Press release]
SUBMITTED: APR 2014
REVISION SUBMITTED: OCT 2014
ACCEPTED: JAN 2015
REFEREED ANONYMOUSLY
Hamid Akbarnataj (h.nattaj84@yahoo.com) is a M.A Student in
Tourism Management, Maziar University, Mazandaran, Iran.
Mohammad Mirtaghyian (mohammad.miri999@yahoo.com) is a M.A
Student in Tourism Management, Maziar University, Mazandaran, Iran.
266
TOURISMOS
An International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism
AIMS & SCOPE
TOURISMOS is an international, multi-disciplinary, refereed (peerreviewed) journal aiming to promote and enhance research in all fields of
tourism, including travel, hospitality and leisure. The journal is published
by the University of the Aegean (in Greece), and is intended for readers in
the scholarly community who deal with different tourism sectors, both at
macro and at micro level, as well as professionals in the industry.
TOURISMOS provides a platform for debate and dissemination of
research findings, new research areas and techniques, conceptual
developments, and articles with practical application to any tourism
segment. Besides research papers, the journal welcomes book reviews,
conference reports, case studies, research notes and commentaries.
TOURISMOS aims at:
•
•
Disseminating and promoting research, good practice and
innovation in all aspects of tourism to its prime audience
including educators, researchers, post-graduate students, policy
makers, and industry practitioners.
Encouraging
international
scientific
cooperation
and
understanding, and enhancing multi-disciplinary research across
all tourism sectors.
The scope of the journal is international and all papers submitted are
subject to strict blind peer review by its Editorial Board and by other
anonymous international reviewers. The journal features conceptual and
empirical papers, and editorial policy is to invite the submission of
manuscripts from academics, researchers, post-graduate students, policymakers and industry practitioners. The Editorial Board will be looking
particularly for articles about new trends and developments within
different sectors of tourism, and the application of new ideas and
developments that are likely to affect tourism, travel, hospitality and
leisure in the future. TOURISMOS also welcomes submission of
manuscripts in areas that may not be directly tourism-related but cover a
topic that is of interest to researchers, educators, policy-makers and
practitioners in various fields of tourism.
The material published in TOURISMOS covers all scientific, conceptual
and applied disciplines related to tourism, travel, hospitality and leisure,
including: economics, management, planning and development,
marketing, human resources, sociology, psychology, geography,
information and communication technologies, transportation, service
quality, finance, food and beverage, and education. Manuscripts published
in TOURISMOS should not have been published previously in any
copyright form (print or electronic/online). The general criteria for the
acceptance of articles are:
• Contribution to the promotion of scientific knowledge in the
greater multi-disciplinary field of tourism.
• Adequate and relevant literature review.
• Scientifically valid and reliable methodology.
• Clarity of writing.
• Acceptable quality of English language.
TOURISMOS is published twice per year (in Spring and in Autumn).
Each issue includes the following sections: editorial, research papers,
research notes, case studies, book reviews, conference reports, industry
viewpoints, and forthcoming events.
JOURNAL SECTIONS
Editorial
The Editorial addresses issues of contemporary interest and provides a
detailed introduction and commentary to the articles in the current issue.
The editorial may be written by the Editor, or by any other member(s) of
the Editorial Board. When appropriate, a “Guest Editorial” may be
presented. However, TOURISMOS does not accept unsolicited editorials.
Research Papers
For the Research Papers section, TOURISMOS invites full-length
manuscripts (not longer than 6000 words and not shorter than 4000
words) from a variety of disciplines; these papers may be either empirical
or conceptual, and will be subject to strict blind peer review (by at least
three anonymous referees). The decision for the final acceptance of the
paper will be taken unanimously by the Editor and by the Associate
268
Editors. The manuscripts submitted should provide original and/or
innovative ideas or approaches or findings that eventually push the
frontiers of knowledge. Purely descriptive accounts are not considered
suitable for this section. Each paper should have the following structure:
a) abstract, b) introduction (including an overall presentation of the issue
to be examined and the aims and objectives of the paper), c) main body
(including, where appropriate, the review of literature, the development of
hypotheses and/or models, research methodology, presentation of
findings, and analysis and discussion), d) conclusions (including also,
where appropriate, recommendations, practical implications, limitations,
and suggestions for further research), e) bibliography, f)
acknowledgements, and g) appendices.
Case Studies
Case Studies should be not longer than 3500 words and not shorter than
2500; these articles should be focusing on the detailed and critical
presentation/review of real-life cases from the greater tourism sector, and
must include - where appropriate - relevant references and bibliography.
Case Studies should aim at disseminating information and/or good
practices, combined with critical analysis of real examples. Purely
descriptive accounts may be considered suitable for this section, provided
that are well-justified and of interest to the readers of TOURISMOS. Each
article should have the following structure: a) abstract, b) introduction
(including an overall presentation of the case to be examined and the aims
and objectives of the article), c) main body (including, where appropriate,
the review of literature, the presentation of the case study, the critical
review of the case and relevant discussion), d) conclusions (including
also, where appropriate, recommendations, practical implications, and
suggestions for further study), e) bibliography, f) acknowledgements, and
g) appendices. All Case Studies are subject to blind peer review (by at
least one anonymous referee). The decision for the final acceptance of the
article will be taken unanimously by the Editor and by the Associate
Editor.
Research Notes
Research Notes should be not longer than 2000 words and not shorter
than 1000; these papers may be either empirical or conceptual, and will be
subject to blind peer review (by at least two anonymous referees). The
decision for the final acceptance of the paper will be taken unanimously
by the Editor and by the Associate Editors. The manuscripts submitted
may present research-in-progress or my focus on the conceptual
269
development of models and approaches that have not been proven yet
through primary research. In all cases, the papers should provide original
ideas, approaches or preliminary findings that are open to discussion.
Purely descriptive accounts may be considered suitable for this section,
provided that are well-justified and of interest to the readers of
TOURISMOS. Each paper should have the following structure: a)
abstract, b) introduction (including an overall presentation of the issue to
be examined and the aims and objectives of the paper), c) main body
(including, where appropriate, the review of literature, the development of
hypotheses and/or models, research methodology, presentation of
findings, and analysis and discussion), d) conclusions (including also,
where appropriate, recommendations, practical implications, limitations,
and suggestions for further research), e) bibliography, f)
acknowledgements, and g) appendices.
Book Reviews
Book Reviews should be not longer than 1500 words and not shorter than
1000; these articles aim at presenting and critically reviewing books from
the greater field of tourism. Most reviews should focus on new
publications, but older books are also welcome for presentation. Book
Reviews are not subject to blind peer review; the decision for the final
acceptance of the article will be taken unanimously by the Editor and by
the Book Reviews Editor. Where appropriate, these articles may include
references and bibliography. Books to be reviewed may be assigned to
potential authors by the Book Reviews Editor, though TOURISMOS is
also open to unsolicited suggestions for book reviews from interested
parties.
Conference Reports
Conference Reports should be not longer than 2000 words and not shorter
than 1000; these articles aim at presenting and critically reviewing
conferences from the greater field of tourism. Most reports should focus
on recent conferences (i.e., conferences that took place not before than
three months from the date of manuscript submission), but older
conferences are also welcome for presentation if appropriate. Conference
Reports are not subject to blind peer review; the decision for the final
acceptance of the article will be taken unanimously by the Editor and by
the Conference Reports Editor. Where appropriate, these articles may
include references and bibliography. Conference reports may be assigned
to potential authors by the Conference Reports Editor, though
270
TOURISMOS is also open to unsolicited suggestions for reports from
interested parties.
Industry Viewpoints
Industry Viewpoints should be not longer than 1500 words and not
shorter than 500; these articles may have a “commentary” form, and aim
at presenting and discussing ideas, views and suggestions by practitioners
(industry professionals, tourism planners, policy makers, other tourism
stakeholders, etc.). Through these articles, TOURISMOS provides a
platform for the exchange of ideas and for developing closer links
between academics and practitioners. Most viewpoints should focus on
contemporary issues, but other issues are also welcome for presentation if
appropriate. Industry Viewpoints are not subject to blind peer review; the
decision for the final acceptance of the article will be taken unanimously
by the Editor and by the Associate Editors. These articles may be
assigned to potential authors by the editor, though TOURISMOS is also
open to unsolicited contributions from interested parties.
Forthcoming Events
Forthcoming Events should be not longer than 500 words; these articles
may have the form of a “call of papers”, related to a forthcoming
conference or a special issue of a journal. Alternatively, forthcoming
events may have the form of a press release informing readers of
TOURISMOS about an event (conference or other) related to the tourism,
travel, hospitality or leisure sectors. These articles should not aim at
promoting sales of any products or services. The decision for the final
acceptance of the article will be taken by the Editor.
271
272
TOURISMOS
An International Multidisciplinary Journal of Tourism
NOTES FOR CONTRIBUTORS
Manuscript Submission Procedure
Manuscripts should be written as understandably and concisely as
possible with clarity and meaningfulness. Submission of a manuscript to
TOURISMOS represents a certification on the part of the author(s) that it
is an original work and has not been copyrighted elsewhere; manuscripts
that are eventually published may not be reproduced in any other
publication (print or electronic), as their copyright has been transferred to
TOURISMOS. Submissions are accepted only in electronic form; authors
are requested to submit one copy of each manuscript by email attachment.
All manuscripts should be emailed to the Editor-in-Chief (Prof. Paris
Tsartas, at ptsar@aegean.gr) and to the Editor (Prof. Evangelos Christou,
at e.christou@aegean,gr), and depending on the nature of the manuscript
submissions should also be emailed as follows:
• Conference reports should be emailed directly to the Conference
Reports
Editor
(Dr.
Vasiliki
Galani-Moutafi),
at
v.moutafi@sa.aegean.gr.
• Book reviews should be emailed directly to the Book Reviews
Editor (Dr. Marianna Sigala), at m.sigala@aegean.gr.
• Full papers and all other types of manuscripts should be emailed
directly to the Editor (Prof. Evangelos Christou), at
e.christou@aegean.gr.
Feedback regarding the submission of a manuscript (including the
reviewers’ comments) will be provided to the author(s) within six weeks
of the receipt of the manuscript. Submission of a manuscript will be held
to imply that it contains original unpublished work not being considered
for publication elsewhere at the same time. Each author of a manuscript
accepted for publication will receive three complimentary copies of the
issue, and will also have to sign a “transfer of copyright” form. If
appropriate, author(s) can correct first proofs. Manuscripts submitted to
TOURISMOS, accepted for publication or not, cannot be returned to the
author(s).
273
Manuscript Length
Research Papers should be not longer than 6000 words and not shorter
than 4000. Research Notes should be not longer than 2000 words and not
shorter than 1000. Case Studies should be not longer than 3500 words and
not shorter than 2500. Book Reviews should be not longer than 1500
words and not shorter than 1000. Conference Reports should be not
longer than 2000 words and not shorter than 1000. Industry Viewpoints
should be not longer than 1500 words and not shorter than 500.
Forthcoming Events should be not longer than 500 words. Manuscripts
that do not fully conform to the above word limits (according to the type
of the article) will be automatically rejected and should not be entered
into the reviewing process.
Manuscript Style & Preparation
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All submissions (research papers, research notes, case studies, book
reviews, conference reports, industry viewpoints, and forthcoming
events) must have a title of no more than 12 words.
Manuscripts should be double-line spaced, and have at least 2,5 cm
(one-inch) margin on all four sides. Pages should be numbered
consecutively.
The use of footnotes within the text is discouraged – use endnotes
instead. Endnotes should be kept to a minimum, be used to provide
additional comments and discussion, and should be numbered
consecutively in the text and typed on a separate page at the end of
the article.
Quotations must be taken accurately from the original source.
Alterations to the quotations must be noted. Quotation marks (“ ”)
are to be used to denote direct quotes. Inverted commas (‘ ‘) should
denote a quote within a quotation. If the quotation is less than 3 lines,
then it should be included in the main text enclosed in quotation
marks. If the quotation is more than 3 lines, then it should be
separated from the main text and indented.
The name(s) of any sponsor(s) of the research contained in the
manuscript, or any other acknowledgements, should appear at the
very end of the manuscript.
Tables, figures and illustrations are to be included in the text and to
be numbered consecutively (in Arabic numbers). Each table, figure or
illustration must have a title.
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The text should be organized under appropriate section headings,
which, ideally, should not be more than 500-700 words apart.
The main body of the text should be written in Times New Roman
letters, font size 12.
Section headings should be written in Arial letters, font size 12, and
should be marked as follows: primary headings should be centred and
typed in bold capitals and underlined; secondary headings should be
typed with italic bold capital letters; other headings should be typed
in capital letters. Authors are urged to write as concisely as possible,
but not at the expense of clarity.
The preferred software for submission is Microsoft Word.
Authors submitting papers for publication should specify which
section of the journal they wish their paper to be considered for:
research papers, research notes, case studies, book reviews,
conference reports, industry viewpoints, and forthcoming events.
Author(s) are responsible for preparing manuscripts which are clearly
written in acceptable, scholarly English, and which contain no errors
of spelling, grammar, or punctuation. Neither the Editorial Board nor
the Publisher is responsible for correcting errors of spelling or
grammar.
Where acronyms are used, their full expression should be given
initially.
Authors are asked to ensure that there are no libellous implications in
their work.
Manuscript Presentation
For submission, manuscripts of research papers, research notes and case
studies should be arranged in the following order of presentation:
• First page: title, subtitle (if required), author’s name and surname,
affiliation, full postal address, telephone and fax numbers, and e-mail
address. Respective names, affiliations and addresses of co-author(s)
should be clearly indicated. Also, include an abstract of not more
than 150 words and up to 6 keywords that identify article content.
Also include a short biography of the author (about 50 words); in the
case of co-author(s), the same details should also be included. All
correspondence will be sent to the first named author, unless
otherwise indicated.
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Second page: title, an abstract of not more than 150 words and up to
6 keywords that identify article content. Do not include the author(s)
details, affiliation(s), and biographies in this page.
Subsequent pages: the paper should begin on the third page and
should not subsequently reveal the title or authors. In these pages
should be included the main body of text (including tables, figures
and illustrations); list of references; appendixes; and endnotes
(numbered consecutively).
The author(s) should ensure that their names cannot be identified
anywhere in the text.
Referencing Style
In the text, references should be cited with parentheses using the “author,
date” style - for example for single citations (Ford, 2004), or for multiple
citations (Isaac, 1998; Jackson, 2003). Page numbers for specific points or
direct quotations must be given (i.e., Ford, 2004: 312-313). The
Reference list, placed at the end of the manuscript, must be typed in
alphabetical order of authors. The specific format is:
• For journal papers: Tribe, J. (2002). The philosophic practitioner.
Annals of Tourism Research, Vol.29, No.2, pp.338-357.
• For books and monographs: Teare, R. & Ingram, H. (1993).
Strategic Management: A Resource-Based Approach for the
Hospitality and Tourism Industries. London, Cassell.
• For chapters in edited books: Sigala, M. and Christou, E. (2002). Use
of Internet for enhancing tourism and hospitality education: lessons
from Europe. In K.W. Wober, A.J. Frew and M. Hitz (Eds.)
Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism, Wien:
Springer-Verlag.
• For papers presented in conferences: Ford, B. (2004). Adoption of
innovations on hospitality. Paper presented at the 22nd EuroCHRIE
Conference. Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey: 3-7 November
2004.
• For unpublished works: Gregoriades, M. (2004). The impact of trust
in brand loyalty, Unpublished PhD Tourismos. Chios, Greece:
University of the Aegean.
• For Internet sources (if you know the author): Johns, D. (2003) The
power
of
branding
in
tourism.
Ηttp://www.tourismabstracts.org/marketing/papers-authors/id3456.
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Accessed the 12th of January 2005, at 14:55. (note: always state
clearly the full URL of your source).
For Internet sources (if you do not know the author): Tourism supply
and demand. Ηttp://www.tourismabstracts.org/marketing/papersauthors/id3456. Accessed the 30th of January 2004, at 12:35. (note:
always state clearly the full URL of your source).
For reports: Edelstein, L. G. & Benini, C. (1994). Meetings and
Conventions. Meetings market report (August), 60-82.
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