Veget Hist Archaeobot
DOI 10.1007/s00334-017-0633-z
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Barley grain at Uppåkra, Sweden: evidence for selection
in the Iron Age
Mikael Larsson1
Received: 24 February 2017 / Accepted: 21 August 2017
© The Author(s) 2017. This article is an open access publication
Abstract A metric analysis on hulled barley grain from the
Iron Age regional centre of Uppåkra and surrounding sites
in southern Sweden has identified a variation in the size of
the grain found on these archaeological sites. Large, highquality grain was found more frequently at Uppåkra when
compared to sites in the surrounding area, where smaller
grain was more frequent. The observed large grain found
at Uppåkra was, however, restricted to only a few house
contexts, including hall-buildings, while other contexts on
the site, such as areas dedicated to craft production, had
barley assemblages containing smaller grain, similar to
the size range found on the surrounding sites. The intrasite variation between different contexts at Uppåkra points
to a degree of sorting for larger grain and that this variation between grain assemblages was the result of selection
after the crop processing was completed. The distribution
of grain size at Uppåkra shows a pattern that indicates that
the high-quality barley grain was indented for specific individuals or households. The different contexts at Uppåkra
have together produced a record spanning the first millennium AD, representing almost the whole existence of the site.
The evidence for selection of larger grain can be seen in the
hall-buildings throughout most of the first millennium AD,
although less prominently during the Late Roman Iron Age
Communicated by K.-E. Behre.
Electronic supplementary material The online version
of this article (doi:10.1007/s00334-017-0633-z) contains
supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
* Mikael Larsson
Mikael.larsson@ark.lu.se
1
Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Lund
University, Box 188, 221 00 Lund, Sweden
(AD 200–400), while during the Migration Period (AD 400–
550) several houses on the main site Uppåkra had assemblages of large grain size. The distribution of grain size at
the regional centre Uppåkra shows a pattern that indicates
that the handling of large high-quality barley grain was part
of a spatial organization, and such organization is similar to
other functions observed on the site. The long-term record
of grain size patterns across time shows that a structure for
handling grain was already in place during the early phase of
the settlement and that it remained for centuries. This study
indicates that the affluence otherwise seen at the regional
centre Uppåkra from an abundance of high-status objects,
could also include agricultural wealth, with extensive access
to high-quality grain.
Keywords Hordeum vulgare ssp vulgare · Hulled barley ·
Crop processing · Uppåkra · Iron Age · Sweden
Introduction
Archaeological research on the Iron Age regional centre
site of Uppåkra has revealed an occupational history lasting over 1,000 years, from approximately 100 BC–AD 1000
(Hårdh 2003a; Fig. 1). This continuous habitation of a settlement is rare in northern Europe at that time and raises
questions about its social identity and how it was supplied with food. The site, located in southernmost Sweden,
is perceived to have been central in functions for trade,
religion and administration in the region (Gustin 1999;
Helgesson 2002, 2010; Hårdh 2003b; Larsson 2007). The
artifact record from Uppåkra demonstrates both a local
artisan-based economy and a well-established network of
trade and cultural contacts that expanded across the continent well beyond the local region (Hårdh 1999, 2001,
13
Vol.:(0123456789)
Veget Hist Archaeobot
Fig. 1 Location of the regional
centre Uppåkra in southern
Sweden
2010; Stjernquist 2004; Watt 2004). However, few efforts
have been made to understand the role of Uppåkra in the
agricultural society, how it organized and managed its food
supplies, and whether its affluent role had parallels concerning the handling of staple plant-based food in the area.
Recent archaeobotanical sampling at the regional centre
Uppåkra and at seven smaller surrounding sites has produced new data on crops handled in this confined area. The
sites in the surrounding area, all located within a distance
of 0.5–2.5 km from Uppåkra, are contemporary with the
main site at different times (Fig. 2). The good preservation of cultural layers at Uppåkra has in places preserved
stratigraphic records from multiple-phase houses (Larsson
and Söderberg 2012). These cultural layers, together with
several other contexts, provide an opportunity to study not
only plant remains from individual phases, but plants handled over a considerable time on the site. The individual
smaller sites in the surrounding environs of Uppåkra are,
in contrast, rather short-lived, but together they represent
the nearby hinterland for the entire Iron Age (Table 1).
Hulled barley, representing the vast majority of cereals on the investigated sites, was subjected to a metric
analysis. This study aimed to test if any variation existed
in grain size among samples of barley collected from
13
different contexts at the regional centre Uppåkra and from
the surrounding sites. Specific questions for this metric
study include:
1. If size differences in grain can be identified, is there
variability between different cereal assemblages, within
the individual sites, and/or between the regional centre
Uppåkra and surrounding sites? If so, what does this
variation reflect in terms of function and social identity?
2. Given the long habitation at the regional centre Uppåkra,
are there any indications from grain size distribution
among assemblages to suggest change or stability in the
handling of barley over time?
This study uses quantitative and spatial distribution of
hulled barley grain to examine if the economic relationship
for handling cereals at the regional centre of Uppåkra and
surrounding settlements can be explained by variation in
grain size. If grain assemblages can be characterized as
having larger or smaller grain overall, this can indicate
sorting of cereals (Hillman 1981), though it is important
to note that a difference in growing conditions can affect
grain quality, including grain size (Willcox 2004).
Veget Hist Archaeobot
Fig. 2 Sampled sites in the
surroundings of the regional
centre Uppåkra: (1) Hjärup 7:1,
(2) Hjärup 21:36, (3) Hjärup–
Åttevägenområdet, (4) Hjärup
9:8, (5) Uppåkra 12:110, (6)
Uppåkra 2:14, (7) Uppåkra 2:25
Table 1 Chronology of the Swedish Iron Age
Cultural stage
Late Iron Age
Viking Period
Vendel Period
Migration Period
Early Iron Age
Roman Iron Age
Late Roman Iron Age
Early Roman Iron Age
Pre-Roman Iron Age
Chronology
800–1050
550–800
AD 400–550
AD
AD
200–400
1–200
500–1 BC
AD
AD
and overlying chalk bedrock. The regional centre Uppåkra
was located 7 km away from the coast, with access to the
Öresund Strait from the small stream Sege å to the south.
The topographical setting is typically a flat landscape at an
elevation of 15–25 m a.s.l., while Uppåkra is situated on a
slight rise in the landscape, approximately 35 m a.s.l., making it visible from its surrounding areas.
The seven smaller sites in this study are referred to as
the ‘surrounding sites’, or the ‘surrounding area’. When a
specific site in the surrounding area is discussed, its name
and property number is stated, e.g. Uppåkra 2:25, after the
Swedish National Heritage registration system of archaeological sites. The main site is referred to as Uppåkra or the
regional centre Uppåkra.
Study area
Background
The study area is located in the province of Scania, around
the present day villages of Uppåkra and Hjärup, in southern
Sweden. The archaeological sites investigated in this study
includes the main site, the regional centre Uppåkra (55°40′N
13°10′E) and seven smaller settlements, Uppåkra 12:110,
Uppåkra 2:14, Uppåkra 2:25, Hjärup 7:1, Hjärup 9:8, Hjärup
21:36 and Åttevägenområdet, all located within a distance of
0.5–2.5 km, west and north of the regional centre.
Situated between the Öresund Strait to the west and a
ridge trending northwest-southeast to the east, the investigated area is set in the middle of a fertile agricultural area.
All sites can be found on similar soil types consisting of uniform Quaternary deposits which are dominated by clay till
Regional centre Uppåkra
An archaeological excavation program of the site began in
1996 and since then the settlement has been estimated to
cover about 40 ha (Larsson 2002, 2003). Different areas of
the settlement have been the subject of investigation, but
the primary focus has been on the central part of the site.
This central area has revealed several house structures, for
example contexts of hall-like buildings and a ceremonial
house, but also weapon deposits. Based on exceptional artifacts found within these layers of both local and foreign origin—such as glassware, a metal beaker, weapons, surgical
13
Veget Hist Archaeobot
instruments and numerous gold-figure foils, but also great
accumulations of discarded animal bone from presumed
public gatherings—it has been suggested that this area of
the site was associated with the social elite, but functioned
also as a place of communal use (Larsson 2006; Frølish
2010; Magnell et al. 2013). In particular, the abundance and
quality of the metal objects made from bronze, silver and
gold, reflect a concentration of wealth suggesting a socially
stratified community (Stjernquist 2001). Outside the central
part of the site, the artifactual record is still abundant and
investigations have uncovered many smaller houses and several areas associated with craft production (Helgesson 1998;
Lenntorp and Lindell 2000; Gabler et al. 2013; Lenntorp
2013).
Surrounding sites
Archaeological investigations of Iron Age settlements in the
surroundings of the regional centre of Uppåkra have characterized these as being ordinary, farm-based settlements lacking the material wealth seen at the regional centre (Schmidt
Sabo et al. 2011; Becker et al. 2012, p 35; Aspeborg et al.
2013, pp 127–131). Visible manifestations otherwise
observed at the main site, such as the tell-like build-up of
accumulated cultural layers, burial mounds and a ceremonial building are missing from the surrounding sites. Some
artifactual evidence suggests however that a few of these
settlements had a direct link to the leading elite at Uppåkra
through their provision of bronze casting for the wealthier
residents of the regional centre (Larsson 2003).
Crop cleaning and its effect on grain assemblages
In pre-industrial agriculture, the harvested cereal crop was
processed by threshing, raking, winnowing, pouring, flinging, sieving and hand sorting (e.g. Hillman 1981, 1984;
Jones 1984; van der Veen 1992; Viklund 1998, pp 60–63).
The aim of processing is to remove contaminants, chaff and
weed seeds, to leave clean grain. The crop processing consequently diminishes the proportion of contaminants among
the grain. Composition of assemblages from the final stages
of the crop processing will therefore be dominated by grain
with few contaminants, while those from the earlier stages
will contain mostly contaminants. Weed seeds and grain are
however removed in a selective manner during processing,
large weed seeds can be retained with similar size grains,
and those grains of small size may be lost as waste.
To understand the pre-historic composition of ancient
plant remains, different models have been used to understand
the different stages involved in cleaning the harvested crops
and how these processes affected and formed the archaeobotanical assemblages (e.g. Hillman 1973, 1981, 1984;
Dennell 1974, 1976; Hubbard 1976; Jones 1984). Hillman
13
(1984) described from ethnographic observations in Turkey
how the processing-sequence effected the composition of
the products and by-products produced at any stage of the
processing. Waste from each stage, by-products, includes
removed chaff, smaller weed seeds and small ‘tail’ grain.
The prime products are transitory as they are carried into
the next stage of processing, until the final stages when the
assemblage contains mostly ‘prime’ grain. Grain-sized weed
seeds retained with prime grain could be removed by hand
sorting. Using ethnographic studies of crop processing, the
presence or absence of by-products from the early stages of
crop processing (winnowing and coarse sieving) was suggested to be indicative in distinguishing between producer
and consumer sites (Hillman 1973, 1981, 1984; Jones 1983,
1984). On producer sites (i.e. where the grain was processed
and cleaned) there would exist remnants of by-products, in
contrast to consumer sites where we might expect to find
mostly grain which had completed the cleaning and sorting
process.
A model developed by Jones (1985), based on settlements
in central-southern England, was in direct contrast to that of
Hillman. He proposed that within producer settlements grain
would be readily wasted, leading to grain-rich assemblages.
Grain on non-producer sites would in contrast be characterized by low quantities of grain, leading to assemblages
more abundant in weed seeds and chaff. Campbell (2000)
has added to the discussion that the absence of chaff among
grain-rich assemblages, particularly on producer sites, is
indicative of chaff used as fodder. Based on the stages of
handling cereals, Stevens (2003) looked at the type of storage cereals were given at different points of their processing. He explained variation between assemblages as being a
result of the processing stage at which the crop was stored.
He differentiated between communal storage (storage for
clean or semi-clean spikelets), and household storage (storage for partially threshed ears). Models for producer and
consumer sites have, however, been seen as rather simplistic.
Because these models relate to waste from the later stages
of processing, new models have developed which pay attention to taphonomic processes involved in the formation of
charred assemblages (van der Veen 1992, pp 91–99; van der
Veen and Jones 2006).
Previous studies on grain assemblages have often been
based on botanical composition and the presence or absence
of chaff and/or weed seeds. They are good methods, but
require good preservation of chaff and weed seeds to be
correlated to past activities, and also an understanding of
the taphonomic processes (van der Veen 2007). In Sweden,
archaeobotanical assemblages from Iron Age settlements
usually contain scarce amounts of chaff. Several experiments
have shown that much of the waste from crop processing
survives differently undergoing charring (e.g. Viklund 1998,
pp 99–107; Gustafsson 2000). It is therefore problematic to
Veget Hist Archaeobot
assume that the proportions of chaff, weed seeds and grain
preserved are relative to the proportion that would have
existed in the past. Thus, the absence of chaff or weed seeds,
or a dominance of cereal grains, cannot be relied on alone
as an indication of post-harvest processing (Wilson 1984).
Another method is to study by metric analysis the size of
the grain itself from assemblages. Overall grain size in an
assemblage or variation of size between assemblages may be
indicative of specific stages in grain processing. The advantage of using metrics on grains is that they, almost regardless of size, have the same probability of surviving charring
compared to other plant remains, such as chaff and weed
seeds. However, some caution needs to be taken regarding
the dimension of the grain, as grains are easily distorted
during carbonization, which can then affect variation in size
distribution. According to Ferrio et al. (2004), the charring
process will probably affect size dimensions causing the
grain to shrink in length (up to 5%) and puff up in breadth
(up to 14%). Experiments have further demonstrated how
charring conditions affect distortion of grain depending on
the temperature, the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere
and the moisture content in and around the grain (Boardman
and Jones 1990; Gustafsson 2000).
Materials and methods
Regional centre Uppåkra
Archaeological excavations were combined with archaeobotanical sampling during four field seasons (2010–2013)
at Uppåkra (Lenntorp 2009; Söderberg and Piltz-Williams
2012; Söderberg et al. 2014). The investigations focused
partly on a house-sequence in the central part of the site
(Fig. 3a; Table 2 [1–7]). This sequence, representing cultural layers from a multi-phase building, spans over one
millennium (approximately 100 BC–AD 1000), and has in
places formed stratigraphic records of about 2 m. From
the house-sequence, four stratigraphic profiles—105776,
92518, 93609, 87033 (context 1, 2, 3, 4)—were sampled for
archaeobotanical material and radiocarbon dating using a
contiguous sampling method (Pearsall 1989). The purpose
of this sampling was to study plants handled across time.
From the house-sequence, additional samples were collected
during the excavation of varying layers belonging to three
different houses: House 23 (context 5, 6), House 24 (context
6) and House 22 (context 7). This series of house-phases is
commonly referred to as the “hall-buildings” (Larsson and
Söderberg 2012).
Outside the central part of the site (Fig. 3b; Table 2
[8–15]), three other areas were investigated: a house
layer of House-phase 4 (context 9); an activity area with
hearth features at Trench B (context 14); and another
Fig. 3 a–b Sampling contexts at Upppåkra: a from the sequence of
houses—hall-buildings, located in the central part of Uppåkra (1–7),
b from other areas on the site (8–15)
house-sequence—stratigraphic profile 110342 (context 11).
In addition, unprocessed soil samples from four previous
investigations at the site were available for processing and
analysis, and were included in this study. These included
an oven feature (context 8) and layers from three houses:
Bårhuset (context 10), Pithouse 1 (context 12) and House
11 (context 13) (Ohlsson 1968; Lenntorp and Lindell 2000;
Larsson and Lenntorp 2004).
Surrounding sites
Excavation of seven sites in a confined area, west and north
of the regional centre Uppåkra, provided archaeobotanical
material for the present study (Fig. 2). All sites are interpreted to have been small farm-based settlements (Regnell 1998; Schmidt Sabo et al. 2011; Becker 2012; Becker
et al. 2012; Bolander 2012a, b; Aspeborg et al. 2013).
13
Veget Hist Archaeobot
Table 2 Samples of measurements of barley grain from the regional centre Uppåkra and surrounding sites with individual site chronology and
corresponding period
Site
Main sitea
Regional centre
Uppåkra
Site chronology
Sampled context
ca 100 BC–AD 1000 Profile 105776 (house
sequence)
Profile 92518 (house
sequence)
Profile 96069 (house
sequence)
Profile 87033 (house
sequence)
House Vifot (house
sequence)
House 23 (house
sequence)
House 23 (house
sequence)
House 24 (house
sequence)
House 22 (house
sequence)
Oven area (oven)
House-phase 4 (house
layer)
Bårhuset (house layer)
Profile 110342 (house
layers)
Pithouse 1 (house
layer)
House 11 (house layer)
Trench B (hearths)
Artisian area (house
layers)
Surrounding sitesb
Hjärup 7:1
ca AD 400–550
House, pits
Pit
Hjärup 21:36
ca AD 600–800
Pits
Åttevägenområdet
ca AD 1–400
Pit, hearth
Hjärup 9:8
ca AD 900–1000
House
Uppåkra 12:110
ca AD 1–300
House, pithouse
Uppåkra 2:14
ca AD 1–200
Houses, pit
Uppåkra 2:25
ca AD 1–400
Total number of samples used in Hordeum measurments
Regional center
Uppåkra
Surrounding sites
a
Location refers to sampled contexts in Fig. 3a, b
b
Locations refers to sampled sites and contexts in Fig. 2
13
Loc. Early
RIA
(1–200)
Late RIA Migra(200–400) tion Period
(400–550)
Vendel
Period
(550–800)
Viking
Period
(800–1050)
1
6
4
4
–
–
2
7
3
4
–
–
3
–
1
–
–
–
4
9
–
–
–
–
5
–
–
1
–
–
5
–
–
–
5
–
6
–
–
–
3
–
6
–
–
9
–
–
7
–
–
–
–
1
8
9
–
–
–
1
–
–
2
–
–
–
10
11
–
3
–
1
4
5
–
–
–
–
12
–
–
2
–
–
13
14
15
–
6
2
–
–
–
3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
–
–
3
–
1
2
4
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
5
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
–
–
–
33
10
32
10
1
10
2
5
1
2
Veget Hist Archaeobot
Archaeobotanical samples were mostly collected from postholes of long-houses, pits, ovens and hearth features.
Sample treatment and analysis
Soil samples of around 1–2 l were processed by flotation and
sieved manually over a 0.4 mm mesh. With a few exceptions,
only charred plant material was preserved and botanical
remains were identified using a modern reference collection
at the Geology Department of Lund University and at the
Swedish National Heritage Board, UV-Syd, Lund. Relevant
reference literature was also consulted (Cappers et al. 2006;
Jacomet 2006).
Radiocarbon dating
Samples of charred Hordeum vulgare ssp vulgare caryopses
from stratigraphic profiles and other contexts at Uppåkra
underwent AMS radiocarbon dating. Results were calibrated
using OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey (2005). From sites in the
surrounding area, 14C dates were obtained from archaeological reports of Runcis (1998), Schmidt Sabo et al. (2011),
Becker (2012), Becker et al. (2012), Bolander (2012a, b)
and Aspeborg et al. (2013).
Metric analysis
A metric analysis was used to investigate the size variation,
specifically the length (L) and breadth (B), of hulled barley
(H. vulgare ssp vulgare) grain (caryopses). The aim was to
establish whether it was possible to identify a size variation
in grains and, if so, to distinguish different size distributions
between assemblages and between sites. The metric analysis
was undertaken on 86 samples of grain from 15 contexts
within the regional centre Uppåkra site: seven contexts in the
central part of the site (57 samples) and eight contexts from
different areas of the site (29 samples). 20 samples of grain
were analysed from seven sites in the surrounding area. The
length and breadth of grains were measured using a digital
live-link camera through a microscope with magnification
6.3–63. The quantity of preserved complete charred barley
grains available for metric analysis varied between contexts.
The number of grains measured for each sample population
aimed, however, to be as alike as possible, to make samples
in the study comparable. In 86 samples 20–40 grains were
measured, but smaller samples, less than 20 grains constituted 20 samples. Only whole grains were measured. When
samples were taken from large assemblages (i.e. those containing hundreds or thousands of grains), a sample splitter
was used to avoid any bias.
The median (Md) was calculated for each sample and for
L and B separately. The inter-quartile range (IQR), using
the first (Q1) and third quartile (Q3), was used to measure
dispersion around the median value. The min–max value is
included to show the full range of each sample. Mean values
were calculated from all individual measurements of grain to
compare the results of the regional centre with those of the
surrounding sites. A T-test was used to test for differences
between the entire distributions of the two data sets (the
main site Uppåkra and surrounding sites).
Results
Chronology
Radiocarbon dates from the regional centre Uppåkra have
produced chronologies with the earliest occupational layer
dating from the 1st century BC continuing up to around AD
1000 (ESM 1). The younger phases of the settlement (AD
650–900s) are represented mostly by fragments of cultural
layers, due to impacts from modern agriculture. Sites in the
surrounding area produced dates within the time-span of
approximately AD 1–1000.
The chronology of the house-sequences represented in
the stratigraphic profiles show occupational layers between
approximately 100 BC–AD 650. Individual layers from the
house-sequences (stratigraphic profiles 105776, 92518,
93609, 87033, 110342) are described according to the type
of cultural layer: floor layer (constructed from clay); floor
deposit (accumulation of habitation debris); building collapse (mixed debris from house-fires, such as ash, wood
charcoal and burnt daub); intermittent layers of fill and levelling; thin lenses of various deposited composition. Until
excavations investigate the layers that are represented in the
stratigraphic profiles, covering larger surfaces, identification
to type of cultural layer and how they relate to each other
is preliminary at this stage. Due to larger excavations of
layers belonging to the later phases of the house-sequence
(hall-buildings), identification of individual houses and their
corresponding time periods are provided for three houses:
House 24 (AD 400–550), House 23 (AD 550–800) and House
22 (AD 800–1050).
Cereal composition
Archaeobotanical data on crop plants from the stratigraphic
profiles and other areas investigated at the regional centre
for this study are presented in ESM 2. Results from the surrounding sites are available in excavation reports by Schmidt
Sabo et al. (2011), Becker (2012), Becker et al. (2012),
Bolander (2012a, b) and Aspeborg et al. (2013).
From the present study and previous archaeobotanical
investigations at the regional centre Uppåkra (Hjelmqvist
1955; Regnell 2001; Larsson 2015), hulled barley largely
dominated the cereal composition followed by smaller
13
Veget Hist Archaeobot
quantities of emmer wheat, bread wheat, oat, rye, naked
barley and broomcorn millet. The large quantity of barley
is partly due to finds containing thousands of grains, i.e. the
house-sequence of hall-buildings (context 1–7), Bårhuset
(context 10), Pithouse 1 (context 12) and House 11 (context
13), all located in the central area of the main site. However,
barley grain is also highly represented in most sampled features across the site. This range of cereals corresponds with
the cereal compositions found at the sites in the surrounding
area and, typically, elsewhere in Iron Age southern Scandinavia (Grabowski 2011). Based on the relative proportion of
grain quantity found at individual sites, the archaeobotanical
archive from some of the surrounding sites indicates that
farmers had a focus on cereal production, particularly barley
and/or wheat. Grains of oat, rye and broomcorn millet were
also found secondarily. Both at the main site of Uppåkra
and on surrounding sites, cereal crops were almost entirely
represented by grain, whereas chaff was scarce.
Grain size
Results from the metric analysis (2,705 grains from 106
samples) of the H. vulgare ssp vulgare assemblages are presented by median values of each sample in Fig. 4. Analyses
of individual samples are presented in ESM 3.
The metric analysis of grain populations in the study area
shows how both the regional centre Uppåkra and the surrounding sites have contexts with similar grain sizes. However, an intra-site study of the sample populations from the
regional centre Uppåkra shows a variation among sampled
grain assemblages in which a predominantly larger grain
size is identified at only a few contexts. This is the case with
samples from the hall-buildings where a tendency for assemblages to have larger grain size was observed. This tendency
for handling large grain in the hall-buildings can be seen
throughout most of the first millennium AD, while it is less
evident from samples dating to the Late Roman Iron Age
(AD 200–400). During the Migration period (AD 400–550),
three other house contexts (context 10, 12, 13) show sample
populations containing larger size grain. Other features on
the main site, i.e. around the oven area (context 8), Housephase 4 (context 9), profile 110342 (context 11), Trench B
(context 14) and in the artisan area (context 15), had sample
populations containing mostly smaller grain.
The sample populations with smaller grain at the main
site of Uppåkra corresponded to contexts from the surrounding sites, which also had smaller grain. Six of the surrounding sites had overall sample populations with a small grain
size from comparable contexts: households, pit and hearth
features. Only Hjärup 9:8 differed from the other surrounding sites in that it had a few sample populations with larger
grain, which were taken from hearth and oven features.
13
Fig. 4 Measurements of barley grain presented by median values
for all sample populations in the study area, separated by context
and time periods. Circles represent samples from the regional centre
Uppåkra, and crosses those from the surrounding sites
A comparison of the metric data shows that from the main
site of Uppåkra the mean grain size (both length and breadth)
is larger overall compared to those from the surrounding
sites collectively (Fig. 5). Mean values for grain length
(5.83 mm) and breadth (2.83 mm) at Uppåkra are larger
compared to the length (5.22 mm) and breadth (2.66 mm)
at the surrounding sites (Fig. 6). The total distributions
Veget Hist Archaeobot
Fig. 6 Size distribution for length and breadth respectively: a size
distribution of all metric data from the study area; b size distribution
from all contexts at the regional centre Uppåkra; c size distributions
from all surrounding sites
Fig. 5 Measurements of barley grain presented for median and
inter-quartile values of all sample populations in the study, separated
by context and time periods. Black represents the regional centre
Uppåkra, and red represents the surrounding sites (ERIA includes
Uppåkra 2:25, Uppåkra 2:14, Uppåkra 12:110, Åttevägenområdet;
LRIA includes Uppåkra 2:25; MP includes Hjärup 7:1; VP-VIK
includes Hjärup 21:36, Uppåkra 9:8)
of the two data sets are significantly different (p < 0.001).
The standard deviation for both the length (0.729) and the
breadth (0.433) at Uppåkra is smaller compared to the length
(0.796) and breadth (0.488) at the surrounding sites.
Discussion
Barley grain size and contextual variation
Hulled barley was largely the principal cereal crop in Scandinavian Iron Age society and it is not unique to the finds
from the investigated sites in this study (Robinson et al.
2009; Grabowski 2011). It reflects foremost the great economic value of this crop; it was consumed in the forms of
food and beer, while on the farm other uses of the cereal
included the straw and chaff for bedding, and fodder for
livestock (Viklund 1998, pp 92, 142–148). Even with farreaching contacts from trade, basic food consumption of
staple produce at the regional centre Uppåkra was still in
13
Veget Hist Archaeobot
accordance to local tradition. The metric analyses presented
in this study show, however, that barley assemblages vary in
regards to overall size distribution—some assemblages have
a composition of large grain whilst others have a small grain
size—and that this difference observed in grain size related
to contextual difference.
Roman Iron Age (AD 1–400)
Different contexts within the main site of Uppåkra containing barley show a noticeable variation in grain size. Larger
grain size was found in different phases of the hall-buildings.
Based on the stratigraphic continuity of the hall-buildings
(about one millennium), the sheer size of the buildings, the
artifacts found within the house layers, and its placement
besides a ceremonial house (also made up of a sequence
of house layers dating to AD 200s–900s), the hall-buildings
are believed to have been a residence for high ranking individuals (Larsson 2011). The location of the hall-buildings
is thought to be the central part of the settlement—a part
that is also thought to have functioned as a communal area
for administrative and religious uses (Larsson 2011). Cereal
remains from the hall-buildings show not only a strong dominance of barley, but also a tendency for large grain, a pattern
that is observed already during the early phase of the housesequence, the Early Roman Iron Age.
In contrast to the hall-buildings, other contexts on the
settlement dating to the Roman Iron Age show a tendency
for handling smaller grain. These contexts include areas with
several hearth features and pithouses linked to craft production: Trench B (context 14) and an artisan area (context
15). A partially excavated layer from House-phase 4 was,
judging from the scarce and rather ordinary artifacts found
within it, thought to be a regular household (Söderberg and
Piltz Williams 2012). Contextual information from profile
110342 is less understood, but the sampled layers are interpreted as representing house-phases (Söderberg et al. 2014).
Grain size from the aforementioned contexts was of small to
medium size, with the exception of large grain found in one
sample from a hearth at Trench B.
Four of the surrounding sites (Uppåkra 2:25, Uppåkra
12:110, Uppåkra 2:14, Åttevägenområdet) investigated
near to the regional centre Uppåkra were established
around the transition from the pre-Roman Iron Age to the
Early Roman Iron Age. Samples from these sites were
taken from similar contexts: households, pits, and hearth
features linked to farmsteads, in which grain assemblages
had a tendency to a smaller size of grain. One exception
was a sample of large grain observed from Uppåkra 2:25.
This came from a pit feature (a refuse pit) close to a household which had previously reported finds of charred seed
conglomerates of flax and gold of pleasure (Larsson 2013).
This unusual archaeobotanical assemblage (of flax and
13
gold of pleasure) was interpreted as the remains from oil
extraction. However, it is unclear why large cereal grain
was also found in this context.
From the Late Roman Iron Age, samples are too few to
draw any conclusions between the main site Uppåkra and
the surrounding sites. Nonetheless, variation in grain size
is evident on the main site itself. A variation can be seen
in that some households handled smaller sized grain while
grain from the hall-buildings, although somewhat varied,
contained a tendency for a large grain size. Large grain size
was, however, less evident during the Late Roman Iron Age.
Migration Period (AD 400–550)
The difference in grain size is not as apparent between contexts on the main site in the following Migration Period.
Grain from the hall-buildings, although somewhat scattered
in regards to size, continues to show a tendency to be large
in size overall. But during this time period, large grain is
seen also in several other house contexts on the site. These
contexts are located in an area just northeast of the hallbuildings, thought to be smaller households with associated
activity areas of a more ordinary character (Lenntorp 2009).
One of these houses, Bårhuset (context 10), partially excavated in 1968, exposed cultural deposits from three consecutive house-phases, all very rich in remains of charred hulled
barley grain (Ohlsson 1968). Embedded in one of these layers were the remains of ceramic shards from a large storage
vessel (Stjernquist et al. 1968). Only grain from one of these
layers was available for the metric analysis, but nonetheless,
the layer revealed only grains of a large size. The abundance
of grain in the sequential layers of Bårhuset, the large grain
size, the overall absence of weed seeds and chaff, and the
contextual relationship of the grain to a large ceramic container in one house-phase, found at the site may indicate that
the cereals were stored. Because three consecutive grainrich layers were observed, it is possible that for some time
this house was designated for the storage and/or handling of
high-quality grain.
Samples from profile 110342 (context 11) typically show
a medium-small size range in three consecutive house layers from the early Migration Period, followed by large grain
in two succeeding house layers. Grain assemblages of both
smaller and larger grain was found in layers from two other
houses, slightly northeast of the hall-buildings, Pithouse 1
(context 12) and House 11 (context 13).
The samples from the main site show that during the
Migration Period, an increased number of houses contain
large sized grain. In contrast, smaller grain remains the typical size range in the surrounding area, and is evident from
households and pit features linked to farmsteads belonging
to Hjärup 7:1.
Veget Hist Archaeobot
Vendel Period–Viking Period (AD 550–1050)
Contexts from the later centuries at the regional centre
Uppåkra are few, but the trend for large grain remains in
the hall-buildings. On the western side of the site, remains
from several oven features were found in an area indicating use for several centuries, dating from the Roman Iron
Age to at least the Vendel Period. Through the absence of
by-products usually found in smelting contexts, these lowtemperature ovens are thought to have functioned as an area
designated to bread baking (Regnell 2001). Samples from
one of the ovens (dating to the AD 600s) showed the presence
of medium grain size.
From the surrounding sites, grain from Hjärup 21:36,
dating to the Vendel Period, is of a small size range, while
hearth and oven features connected to a somewhat wealthier
farmstead at Hjärup 9:8, dating to the Viking Period, showed
a large grain size (Schmidt Sabo et al. 2011).
In summary, the distribution of grain size shows a variation across time and space in the study area. Large-sized
grain is well represented from the house-sequence of hallbuildings, indicating a tendency for handling larger grain for
most of the first millennium AD, although less evidently during the Late Roman Iron Age. During the Migration Period,
larger grain is seen in several smaller houses on the main
site. From the surrounding sites, only Uppåkra 2:25 and
Hjärup 9:8, during the Early Roman Iron Age and Viking
Period respectively, show contexts with large grain.
Difference in observed grain size
There are two possible explanation for the difference in grain
size observed in the study area. Environmental factors is one
explanation, another is selection for high-quality grain after
the crop processing was completed.
Environmental factors
The observed differences in grain size may be the outcome
of environmental factors reflecting different conditions in
the field, depending on variation in soil and fertility. Modern
experiments have investigated how environmental variation
affects grain quality (weight and size) (Ellis and Marshall
1998; Bingham et al. 2007). These studies have shown the
importance of pre- and post-anthesis environmental conditions, that is, the effect that air temperature, moisture levels and nutritional input have on determining grain size.
Conditions such as under-ripeness (disease, malnutrition,
or premature harvesting) are other factors affecting grain
size (Hubbard and Azm 1990). The sites in this study share
similar environmental conditions, and Quaternary deposits
of clay till are rather uniform in the study area. Any difference in soil fertility would primarily reflect agricultural
management, or access to manure.
In the 1930s, the provincial sugar mill company made a
comprehensive survey of phosphate levels of the Scanian
soil (Arrhenius 1934). Because phosphate is mostly formed
by urine and manure, the amount of phosphate in the soil
shows not only the most appropriate land for sugar beet cultivation, but it also provides a picture of past human occupation. Uppåkra proved to be, by far, the most phosphate rich
area in Scania. This is in part probably due to Uppåkra being
a confined habitation area which was continually lived in
over a long time. But considering the rich material wealth
documented at Uppåkra, it is possible that its prosperity
had parallels in agrarian capital, for example, ownership
of animals and greater access to manure. According to this
line of reasoning, the large grain size at the regional centre
may reflect agricultural wealth of its farmers holding wellmanured fertile soils.
Selection for high‑quality grain
The variation in grain size was alternatively due to selection for high-quality grain after crop processing was completed. No definite groups of grain measurements could
be distinguished in the material presented in this study,
i.e. assemblages containing only by-products with smaller
tail grain or only products of larger prime grain, nor were
samples containing rich remains of chaff recovered. A clear
distinction should not be expected, however, as archaeological samples may represent a mix of different products and
by-products that were originally separated. Furthermore,
ethnographical studies by Hillman (1981, 1984) of botanical compositions of processed grain, observed that, regardless of how thoroughly grain was sieved, some small tail
grain that could theoretically pass through the sieve would
be retained amongst the prime grain after the sieving process was completed. Dimension of grains from the same
sample may therefore include measures of both prime grain
and tail grain, whilst product composition from the later
stages of crop processing will progressively be dominated
by prime grain. Additionally, the type of sorting and the
mechanism for doing so in the study area is still unclear. It
is unknown whether a type of sieve was used, allowing for
vertical or horizontal separation of grain size (Jones 1996).
Alternatively, grain size could have been separated by flinging, that is by weight; heavier grain landing further from
the person throwing the uncleaned grain, leaving the lowest
weight class, the tail and mid-grain range, closer to the person (Viklund 1998, pp 60–73).
Measurements of grain from individual samples contained instead a range of grain sizes, and this indicates that
the measurements of barley in this study represent prime
13
Veget Hist Archaeobot
grain. According to Hillman (1984), the composition of
prime grain could be any grain retained from the last stages
of crop processing, and could include a range of grain sizes,
but predominantly grains larger than the tail grain, since
most of the tail grain was removed along with chaff and
small seed weeds during the earlier stages of crop processing. If flinging was used, it would similarly separate the
grain into sub-groups of different quality by weight.
Though many sample populations from the regional centre Uppåkra and from the surrounding sites contained prime
grain of various size, a few contexts at the main site had,
however, sample populations containing lager-sized grain.
This included the house-sequence of hall-buildings which
showed an overall tendency across time for handling large
grain, but also samples from several house contexts dating
to the Migration Period, which contained grain averages
above the mean values of the main site (L 5.83 mm and
B 2.83 mm) and the surrounding sites (L 5.22 mm and B
2.66 mm). Furthermore, the sample populations with largesized grain coincided with grain rich assemblages (ESM
2). The grain dimensions from this study can be compared
to measurements of hulled barley at other Scandinavian
Iron Age sites (Table 3). The mean value of the samples
from the regional centre Uppåkra was comparable to grain
dimensions from Ullandhaug, but from the sites Vallhagar,
Trogsta, Overbygård and Gammel Lejre mean values was
smaller in comparison. The breadth was, however, greater in
some samples from the comparative sites. Alteration that can
occur during carbonization of grain can primary causes the
length to shrink and the breadth to widen as the grain may
puff up (Ferrio et al. 2004). Because the length is smaller in
the three comparative sites, it is likely that, in combination
with greater breadth, this may be due to the grain slightly
puffed up during carbonization.
The measurements from Overbygård is of particular interest, as the context, an underground granary, stored a range of
crops, including hulled barley. Separate grain assemblages of
processed and unprocessed barley had, however, mean diameter values below that seen at the regional centre Uppåkra.
In contrast, at Eketorp a grain deposit in a house, containing approximately 100,000 grains, and the grain-rich find
from Sorte Muld showed similarities in grain dimensions
to the assemblages with larger grains at the regional centre
Uppåkra. These contexts, all deposits of large quantities of
grain, are indicative of stored grain, but the mean diameter
of the grain points to different stages in the crop process
before storage. The processed grain at Overbygård is likely
prime grain, whilst the assemblages containing larger grain
at the regional centre Uppåkra, Eketorp and Sorte Muld,
indicate that selection for large, high-quality grain took
place.
Additional information supporting the observed differences in grain size as being the outcome of selection for
high-quality grain is provided by the overall mean values,
which are higher in grain assemblages from Uppåkra than
from surrounding sites. Tentatively, this could reflect more
favourable growing conditions for Uppåkra. Though growing conditions could have been advantageous for cereal producers at Uppåkra, the intra-site variation between different
contexts at the main site indicates a later stage in handling
grain. After completion of crop processing a selection by
sieving took place to select the largest grain to go to specific
individuals or households at the main site. The rest of the
prime grain, smaller but still prime, was used elsewhere.
Table 3 Mean measurements of hulled barley from Scandinavian Iron Age sites
Country
Site
Context
Period
n
Length (mm)
Breadth (mm)
Reference
Sweden
Vallhager
Eketorp II
Trogsta
Overbygård
House
Ringfort/house
House
Granary
MP
MP
LRIA/MP
ERIA
50
100
85
50a
5.50
6.42
5.54
4.8
2.28
3.13
3.14
2.9
Helbæk (1955)
Helbæk (1976)
Wennberg (1986)
Henriksen and
Robinson
(1996)
Granary
Granary
Granary
Granary
Great hall
Pithouse
House
House
ERIA
ERIA
ERIA
ERIA
VIK
VIK
MP
MP
31a
29a
42b
17b
14
25
–
50
4.3
4.2
4.1
4.2
5.1
5.2
6.3
5.8
2.5
2.4
2.2
2.4
2.8
3.1
2.73
2.73
Danmark
Gammel Lejre
Norway
Sorte Muld
Ullandhaug
a
Processed grain
b
Unprocessed grain
13
Robinson (1991)
Helbæk (1976)
Rindal (2011)
Veget Hist Archaeobot
Sorting of cereal grain probably had the intention of selecting and using the best prime grain. This would support the
interpretation of the observed variation in grain size in the
study area as being due to selection for high-quality grain
after crop processing was completed.
porridge/gruel and beer, and the lowest quality for bread
(Viklund 1998, p 105).
Whether high-quality grain in the study area was intended
for beer production, seeding, or for other consumption, is not
possible to say. The absence of sprouted grain and beer additives in the investigated contexts, however, speaks in favour
of the grains being used for seeding or other consumption.
Grain size and function at the regional centre Uppåkra
Spatial organization of food supplies
The observed variation in grain size between contexts in the
regional centre Uppåkra raises the question of whether grain
was separated and used for different purposes. Selection for
large high-quality grain could have been intended for several
functions, malting in preparation to make beer, seeding or
other forms of consumption.
Crop processing traditionally aims to clean the harvested
crop from impurities, but can, after the crop processing is
complete, include separation of the processed grain to be
used for specific purposes. When grain is selected for beer
brewing, in modern times as well as in documentation from
the medieval period in Scandinavia, a high grain quality is
sought, including grain of similar size, preferably large, as
this benefits the malting process (Olaus 1555, pp 13, 26;
Lee et al. 1989). Uniform grain size is desirable because it
allows for an even germination rate, and larger grains have
more starch to be converted into sugar during the brewing
process (Burger and LaBerge 1985). It is therefore reasonable to think that the larger grain size of barley found, i.e. in
the hall-buildings and Bårhuset, was intention for making
beer. However, other indications of beer brewing, such as
bog myrtle (Myrica gale) or hops (Humulus hupulus), well
known as flavouring and preservative agents in beer (Behre
1999), were not found in any of the house-phases. Nor was
there evidence of germinated grain. It can be suggested,
therefore, that grain was collected and stored in the buildings, but if it was intended for beer production, this activity
took place elsewhere.
Another explanation for the consistent representation
of large grain size is the intention of seeding. The importance of selecting high-quality grain aimed for sowing was
already emphasized by Roman writers on agriculture (e.g.
Columella, De re rustica tr. 2009, 2.9.11–12). Uniform grain
size permits even seeding, and large grains contain more
starch protein in their endosperm, important for fast-growing plants. The seedlings that can withstand early growing
season stress produce more extensive root systems and are
better able to tolerate low levels of disease (Ransom 2015).
Barley grain intended for everyday consumption, such
as for porridge/gruel, soup and bread, probably used mixed
prime grain sizes for these purposes. From ethnographic
sources, however, this grain could have been divided into
further types and stored separately. In terms of human
consumption, in historic times the best grain was used for
Archaeological investigations at the regional centre Uppåkra
have over the years revealed a settlement with an extraordinary site-continuity: 1,100 years (Larsson and Söderberg
2012). Several contexts located in the central part of the
settlement, having had a variety of functions (including a
ceremonial house, hall-like residence buildings, several
multi-phase houses, weapon deposits and different workshop
areas for craft production), all show continuity over time,
both with respect to how they were used and to their fixed
location in the settlement. Together they illustrate spatial
organization for specific functions at Uppåkra.
This apparently stable structure also parallels how crops
were handled at the site. The overall grain size pattern from
the study area indicates that some houses in the regional
centre Uppåkra were dedicated to collecting and handling
barley, including high-quality grain, particularly the hallbuildings and Bårhuset, while various sizes of grain was
primarily found in more ordinary contexts at Uppåkra and
on the surrounding sites. Furthermore, sample populations
with large grain size, which coincided with the large quantity
of barley grain recovered from floor layers, interpreted as
being from burnt down houses in the centre of the settlement (Larsson and Söderberg 2012), likely do not represent
accumulated spill from daily activities, but rather indicates
houses having grain stores set ablaze. The fixed location
of these houses on the site, and the continuity of handling
barley grain, indicates grain storage or that activities in processing grain can be linked to these houses, and this points
to an aspect of how the management of grain was part of a
spatial organization at Uppåkra.
Staple food is an important foundation to any given
society regardless of size. At larger settlements, such as
the regional centre Uppåkra, which was presumably a
hierarchical society in which some inhabitants, such as
artisans and the social elite, were less involved in agrarian
production, maintaining food supplies must have been of
particular importance. It is conceivable that in the central
area of the main site, perceived to have been the residence
of the social elite (Larsson and Söderberg 2012), individuals of high rank not only demanded access to the finest
grain quality, but also had control of agricultural produce.
This, judging from the assemblages of large grain size
observed in some house contexts from Uppåkra, while
13
Veget Hist Archaeobot
mostly absent from house contexts on the surrounding
sites, suggests that Uppåkra had greater access to highquality grain.
Research using strontium isotope analysis of zooarchaeological material from the regional centre Uppåkra
has shown parallels to the variation of barley grain size
assemblages observed in this study (Price 2013). The
isotopic study indicated local values for pigs and sheep/
goats at the main site Uppåkra, while some cattle had
non-local values. The occurrence of non-local values of
cattle was explained by the importing of animals to the
site. In another zooarchaeological study from the regional
centre Uppåkra, Magnell et al. (2013) observed an intrasite variation in the consumption of meat. In the central
area of the site, around the hall-buildings and the ceremonial house, consumption of pork and beef was greater than
compared with a southern area on the site that was associated with houses for craft production. Osteological studies from three of the surrounding sites (Uppåkra 12:110,
Uppåkra 2:25, Hjärup 7:1) found the meat-rich parts of
animals to be significantly underrepresented among the
remains of bone, regardless of species. It was argued that
meat-rich parts had been “exported” elsewhere, perhaps
as food supplies to Uppåkra (Bolander 2012b; Cardell
in; Becker et al. 2012; Cardell in; Aspeborg et al. 2013).
Since taphonomic aspects of these osteological assemblages were not discussed, some caution is needed, however, when explaining the movement of animal products,
as factors concerning preservation and reduction processes may have affected the bone assemblages on the
aforementioned sites.
Even if Uppåkra is perceived as a major centre in the
region (e.g. Helgesson 2002), and perhaps also a consumer
site per se, it probably carried on some agrarian production, but was still dependent on surrounding farms for food
supplies. The spatial pattern of grain size across the study
area not only indicates that Uppåkra had greater access to
high-quality grain, but that economic relationships may
have existed between Uppåkra and surrounding settlements, in which grain was transported from the periphery
to the regional centre. To be resilient and to provide sustainability over time, a system for handling produce, and
perhaps also production of food, can be seen as a central
constituent for the wealth and longevity of a settlement. A
system for production, storing and redistributing grain for
consumption and propagation would have been important
to secure lucrative crop production for the area, and to
reduce the hardship and social unrest from starvation during periods of food crises caused by crop failure (Erdkamp
2009, pp 281–283). The distribution of agrarian produce
in the study area, of both grain and from bone material,
suggests the regional centre had some principal control in
the area over food supplies.
13
Conclusions
This metric study on hulled barley has observed a difference in grain size in the study area. Hulled barley assemblages with smaller grain size characterize several contexts at the regional centre Uppåkra, and are comparable
to grain size found on the surrounding sites. Large grain
size was identified foremost in some house contexts in the
central part of Uppåkra, an area with communal spaces
and buildings, and was associated with the social elite.
In this area, a tendency for handling large grain can be
traced in a sequence of hall-buildings during most of the
first millennium AD, while it is less noticeable during the
Late Roman Iron Age (AD 200–400). During the Migration Period ( AD 400–550), several houses in the central
part of Uppåkra show handling of larger sized-grain. The
observed difference in grain size between contexts points
to a selection for larger grain taking place after crop processing was completed.
The overall distribution of larger and smaller grain in the
study area and across time indicates that high-quality grain
was primarily handled at designated contexts at the regional
centre Uppåkra. This possibly reflects a demand by Uppåkra
for barley grain, including high-quality grain that was consistent over time. Given the powerful status and administrative role Uppåkra is believed to have had in the region
(e.g. Helgesson 2002), it is conceivable that Uppåkra also
had a role in accessing agrarian production among farmers
by collecting, storing and redistributing grain in the agricultural community. Tentatively, the role of Uppåkra as a
regional centre could thus be linked to economic relations
in agricultural production and produce with nearby farming
settlements.
Acknowledgements I wish to thank Per Lagerås and Lars Larsson
for valuable discussions and comments on the manuscript; Henrik Phil
for help with illustrations; and Anna Lindgren for statistical advice. I
would also like to thank Göran Bergkvist from the Swedish University
of Agricultural Sciences for fruitful discussions. Berit Wallenbergs
Stiftelse is gratefully acknowledged for financial support of radiocarbon dating.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.
References
Arrhenius O (1934) Fosfathalten i skånska jordar. Sveriges Geologiska
Undersökningar. Ser C 383. Årsbok 28. Sveriges Geologiska
Undersökning, Stockholm
Veget Hist Archaeobot
Aspeborg H, Becker N, Anglert M et al (2013) Stora Uppåkra 2:25
Basdokumentation. UV Rapp 61
Becker N (2012) Stora Uppåkra 2:14. Ensamgård från äldre järnåldern.
UV Rapp 94
Becker N, Cardell A, Brorsson T, Larsson M (2012) Stora Uppåkra
12:110. Äldre järnåldersbebyggelse i centralplatsens omland. UV
Rapp 51
Behre K-E (1999) The history of beer additives in Europe: a review.
Veget Hist Archaeobot 8:35–48
Bingham IJ, Blake J, Foulkes MJ, Spink J (2007) Is barley yield in the
UK sink limited? II: Factors affecting potential grain size. Field
Crops Res 101:212–220
Boardman S, Jones J (1990) Experiments on the effects of charring on
cereal plant components. J Archaeol Sci 17:1–11
Bolander A (2012a) Åttevägenområdet, Hjärup. UV Rapp 10
Bolander A (2012b) Hjärup 7:1 och 22:1. Boplats och grav i Uppåkras
omland. UV Rapp 2
Bronk Ramsey C (2005) OxCal v3. 10. http://c14.arch.ox.ac.uk/oxcal3/
oxcal.htm
Burger WC, LaBerge DE (1985) Malting and brewing quality in barley.
In: Rasmusson DC (ed) Barley. Argonomy Monograph 26. ASA,
CSSA, and SSSA, Madison, pp 367–401
Campbell G (2000) Plant utilization: the evidence from charred plant
remains. In: Cunliffe B (ed) The Danebury environs programme.
The prehistory of a Wessex landscape, vol I: Introduction. English Heritage and Oxford University Committee for Archaeology,
Monograph 4. English Heritage, London, pp 45–59
Cappers RTJ, Bekker RM, Jans JEA (2006) Digitale Zandenatlas van
Nederland. Barkhuis Publishing, Groningen
Columella LJM (tr. 2009) De re rustica = Tolv böcker om lantbruk: en
tvåtusenårig romersk lantbrukslära. Translation by S. Hedberg.
Skogs- och Lantbrukshistoriska meddelanden 43. Kungl. Skogsoch Lantbruksakademien, Stockholm
Dennell RW (1974) Botanical evidence for prehistoric crop processing
activities. J Archaeol Sci 1:275–284
Dennell RW (1976) The economic importance of plant resources represented on archaeological sites. J Archaeol Sci 3:229–247
Ellis RP, Marshall B (1998) Growth, yield and grain quality of barley
(Hordeum vulgare L.) in response to nitrogen uptake. J Exp Bot
49:1,021–1,029
Erdkamp P (2009) The grain market in the Roman Empire: a social,
political and economic study. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge
Ferrio JP, Alonsob N, Voltasa J, Arausc JL (2004) Estimating grain
weight in archaeological cereal crops: a quantitative approach
for comparison with current conditions. J Archaeol Sci
31:1,635–1,642
Frølish A (2010) Lægekunst i Uppåkra. In: Hårdh B (ed) Från romartida skapeller till senvikingatida urnesspännen. Uppåkrastudier
11. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 61. Almqvist &
Wiksell, Lund, pp 45–82
Gabler M, Trinks I, Neubauer W, Nau E, Zitz T, Hinterleitner A,
Thorén H (2013) First large-scale geophysical archaeological
prospection at Uppåkra. In: Hård B, Larsson L (eds) Folk, fä och
fynd. Uppåkrastudier 12. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series
in 8 64. Institutionen för Arkeologi och Antikens Historia, Lund,
pp 191–207
Grabowski G (2011) Changes in the cultivation during the Iron Age in
southern Sweden: a compilation and interpretation of the archaeobotanical material. Veget Hist Archaeobot 20:479–494
Gustafsson S (2000) Carbonized cereal grains and weed seeds in
prehistoric houses: an experimental perspective. J Archaeol Sci
27:65–70
Gustin I (1999) Vikter och varuutbyte i Uppåkra. In: Larsson L
(ed) Fynden i centrum—Keramik, glas, metal från Uppåkra.
Uppåkrastudier 2. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 30.
Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund, pp 243–270
Hårdh B (1999) Näbbfibulan—ett Vendeltida vardagsspänne. In: Larsson L (ed) Fynden i centrum–Keramik, glas, metal från Uppåkra.
Uppåkrastudier 2. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 30.
Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund, pp 145–175
Hårdh B (2001) Produktion och spridning. Näbbfibulor i Skåne. In:
Hårdh B (ed) Uppåkra - Centrum och sammanhang. Uppåkrastudier 3. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia. series in 8 34. Almqvist
& Wiksell, Lund, pp 187–204
Hårdh B (2003a) Uppåkra i folkvandringstiden. In: Hårdh B (ed) Fler
fynd i centrum. Materialstudier i och kring Uppåkra. Uppåkrastudier 9. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 45. Almqvist
& Wiksell, Lund, pp 41–80
Hårdh B (2003b) The contacts of the central place. In: Larsson L,
Hårdh B (eds) Centrality—regionality. The social structure of
southern Sweden during the Iron Age. Uppåkrastudier 7. Acta
Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 40. Almqvist & Wiksell,
Lund, pp 27–66
Hårdh B (2010) Viking Age Uppåkra. In: Hårdh B (ed) Från romartida skalpeller till senvikingatid urnesspännen. Uppåkrastudier
11. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 61. Almqvist &
Wiksell, Lund, pp 247–316
Helbæk H (1955) The botany of the Vallhagar Iron Age field. In: Stenberger M (ed) Vallhagar, a Migration Period site on Gotland, Sweden. Ejnar Munksgaards forlag, Copenhagen, pp 653–699
Helbæk H (1976) Agronomic practices in Migration Period Eketorp.
In: Näsman U, Weraeus E (eds) Eketorp: fortification and settlement on Öland/Sweden: the setting. KVHAA, Stockholm,
pp 115–127
Helgesson B (1998) Seminarieuppgifter för studenter vid Arkeologiska
institutionen, Rapport Uppåkra. Lunds universitet, Lund p 1
Helgesson B (2002) Järnålderns Skåne – Samhälle, centra och regioner.
Uppåkrastudier 5. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 38.
Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund
Helgesson B (2010) Krigarna från Uppåkra. In: Hårdh B (ed) Från
romartida skalpeller till senvikingatida urnesspännen. Uppåkrastudier 11. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 61. Almqvist
& Wiksell, Lund, pp 83–126
Henriksen PS, Robinson DE (1996) Early Iron Age agriculture: archaeobotanical evidence from an underground granary at Overbygård
in northern Jutland, Denmark. Veget Hist Archaeobot 5:1–11
Hillman GC (1973) Crop husbandry and food production: modern models for the interpretation of plant remains. Anatol Stud
23:241–244
Hillman GC (1981) Reconstructing crop husbandry practices from
charred remains of crops. In: Mercer R (ed) Farming practice
in British prehistory. University Press, Edinburgh, pp 123–161
Hillman GC. In: Van Zeist W (1984) Interpretation of archaeological plant remains: the application of ethnographic models from
Turkey. In: Casparie WA (ed) Plants and ancient man: studies in
palaeoethnobotany. Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 1–41
Hjelmqvist H (1955) Die älteste Geschichte der Kulturpflanzen in
Schweden. Opera Botanica 3. Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund
Hubbard RNLB (1976) On the strength of the evidence for prehistoric
crop processing activities. J Archaeol Sci 3:251–265
Hubbard RNLB, Al Azm A (1990) Quantifying preservation and distortion in carbonized seeds; and investigating the history of friké
production. J Archaeol Sci 17:103–106
Jacomet S (2006) Identification of cereal remains from archaeological sites, 2nd edn. Archaeological Lab, IPAS, Basel University.
https://ipna.unibas.ch/archbot/pdf/Cereal_Id_Manual_engl.pdf
Jones GEM (1983) The use of ethnographic and ecological models in
the interpretation of archaeological plant remains: case studies
from Greece. Dissertation, University of Cambridge
13
Veget Hist Archaeobot
Jones GEM (1984) Interpretation of archaeological plant remains:
ethnographic models from Greece. In: Van Zeist W, Casparie
WA (eds) Plants and ancient man: studies in palaeoethnobotany.
Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 43–61
Jones M (1985) Archaeobotany beyond subsistence reconstruction.
In: Barker G, Gamble C (eds) Beyond domestication in prehistoric Europe. Academic Press, London, pp 107–128
Jones GEM (1996) An ethnoarchaeological investigation of the effect
of cereal grain sieving. Circaea 12:177–182
Larsson L (2002) Uppåkra—research on a central place. Recent
excavations and results. In: Hårdh B, Larsson L (eds) Central
places in the Migration and Merovingian periods. Papers from
the 52nd Sachsensymposium. Uppåkrastudier 6. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 39. Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund,
pp 19–30
Larsson L (2003) The Uppåkra project: preconditions, performances
and prospects. In: Larsson L, Hårdh B (eds) Centrality—regionality. The social structure of southern Sweden during the Iron Age.
Uppåkrastudier 7. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 40.
Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund, pp 3–26
Larsson L (2006) Hall, harg eller hof. Ett kulthus i Uppåkra. In: Anglert
M, Artursson M, Svanberg F (eds) Kulthus och dödshus. Det ritualiserade rummets teori och praktik. Riksantikvarieämbetet, Lund,
pp 143–152
Larsson L (2007) The Iron Age ritual building at Uppåkra, southern
Sweden. Antiquity 81:11–25
Larsson L (2011) A ceremonial building as a ‘home of the gods’?
Central buildings in the regional center of Uppåkra. In: Schriften
des Archäologischen Landesmuseums 6. Wachholtz, Neumünster,
pp 189–206
Larsson M (2013) Cultivation and processing of Linum usitatissimum
and Camelina sativa in southern Scandinavia during the Roman
Iron Age. Veget Hist Archaeobot 22:509–520
Larsson M (2015) Agrarian plant economy at Uppåkra and the surrounding area: archaeobotanical studies of an Iron Age regional
center. Lund University, Lund
Larsson L, Lenntorp KM (2004) The enigmatic house. In: Larsson
L (ed) Continuity for Centuries—A ceremonial building and its
context at Uppåkra, southern Sweden. Uppåkrastudier 10. Acta
archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 48. Almqvist & Wiksell,
Lund, pp 3–48
Larsson L, Söderberg B (2012) Bland mordbrännare och flygande smeder: en sekvens av hallbyggnader i Uppåkra. Ale 4:1–15
Lee SH, Scott WR, Love BG (1989) Sources of screenings in malting
barley in relation to the pattern of tillering. Proc Agron Soc N Z
19:43–54
Lenntorp KM (2009) Rapport arkeologisk undersökning Stora Uppåkra
8:3 Fornlämning 5
Lenntorp KM (2013) Ur det förgångna, Uppåkra 2000. In: Hård B,
Larsson L (eds) Folk, fä och fynd. Uppåkrastudier 12. Acta
archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 64. Almqvist & Wiksell,
Lund, pp 177–190
Lenntorp KM, Lindell M (2000) Rapport. Arkeologisk förundersökning lilla Uppåkra 4:1 och 8:1, Fornlämning 5
Magnell O, Boethius A, Thilderqvist J (2013) Fest i Uppåkra. En studie
av konsumtion och djurhållning baserd på djurben från cermonihus och vapendepå. In: Hårdh B, Larsson L (eds) Folk, fä och
fynd. Uppåkrastudier 12. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series
in 8 64. Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund, pp 85–132
Ohlsson T (1968) Aktuellt om antikvariskt, Uppåkra. Ale 1968:2
Olaus M [1555] (2010) Historia om de nordiska folken. Gidlunds,
Hedemora
Pearsall DA (1989) Paleoethnobotany: a handbook of procedures. Academic Press, San Diego
Price D (2013) Human mobility at Uppåkra: A preliminary report on
isotopic proveniencing. In: Hårdh B, Larsson L (eds) Folk, fä och
13
fynd. Uppåkrastudier 12. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series
in 8 64. Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund, pp 163–176
Ransom J (2015) Selecting high-quality seed of cereal grains—A500.
NDSU Extension service
Regnell M (1998) Hjärup 21:36: arkeobotanisk analys. Bilaga till UV
Syd rapport p 1
Regnell M (2001) Gård, åker och äng—den centrala platsens triviala
bas. In: Larsson L (ed) Uppåkra—centrum i analys och rapport.
Uppåkrastudier 4. Acta archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 28.
Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund, pp 113–122
Rindal B (2011) Plant remains from the Ullandhaug, an iron age farm
site from the migration period in southwest Norway. AmS-Varia
53:53–63
Robinson D (1991) Plant remains from the late Iron Age/Early Viking
Age settlement at Gammel Lejre. J Dan Archaeol 10:191–198
Robinson ER, Mikkelsen PH, Malmros C (2009) Agerbrug, driftsformer og planteressourcer i jernalder og vikingetid (500 f.Kr.–
1100 e.Kr.). In: Odgaard B, Rømer RJ (eds) Danske landbrugslandskaber gennem 2000 år: Fra digevoldinger till støtteordninger.
Aarhus Universitetsforlag, Gylling, pp 117–143
Runcis J (1998) Gravar och boplatser i Hjärup- från äldre och yngre
järnåldern. Skåne, Uppåkra socken, Hjärup 21:36, RAÄ 29, särskild arkeologisk undersökning
Schmidt Sabo K, Brorsson T, Larsson M (2011) Hjärup 9:8: en
vikingatida storgård samt äldre och yngre lämningar. UV Syd
Rapp 2011:113
Söderberg B, Piltz Williams B (2012) Arkeologisk undersökning
Uppåkra 2011. Forsknings- och seminarieundersökningar. Skåne,
Staffanstorps kommun, Uppåkra socken., Stora Uppåkra 8:3 och
8:4, RAÄ 5
Söderberg B, Piltz Williams B, Bolander A (2014) Uppåkra 2014. Forsknings- och seminarieundersökningar. Institutionen för arkeologi
och antikens historia. Lunds universitet, Lund
Stevens JC (2003) An investigation of agricultural consumption and
production: models for prehistoric and Roman Britain. Environ
Archaeol 8:61–76
Stjernquist B (2001) Offerplatsen och samhällsstrukturen. In: Hårdh
B (ed) Uppåkra - Centrum och sammanhang. Uppåkrastudier 3.
Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, series in 8 34. Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund, pp 3–28
Stjernquist B (2004) A glass beaker with cut decoration, found at
Uppåkra. In: Larsson L (ed) Continuity for centuries—a ceremonial building and its context at Uppåkra, southern Sweden.
Uppåkrastudier 10. Acta archaeologica Lundensia, series in 848.
Almqvist & Wiksell, Lund, pp 153–166
Stjernquist B, Petré R, Ohlsson T (1968) Rapport över undersökningar
vid Kyrkogården i Uppåkra, i samband med uppförande av bårhus.
LUHM 82411:83,085–83,090
Van der Veen M (1992) Crop husbandry regimes: An archaeobotanical
study of farming in northern England 1000 BC- AD 500. In: Sheffield Archaeological monographs 3. Collis Publication, University
of Sheffield, Sheffield
Van der Veen M (2007) Formation processes of desiccated and carbonized plant remains—the identification of routine practice. J
Archaeol Sci 34:968–990
Van der Veen M, Jones G (2006) A re-analysis of agricultural production and consumption: implications for understanding the British
Iron Age. Veget Hist Archaeobot 15:217–228
Viklund K (1998) Cereals, weeds and crop processing in Iron Age
Sweden. Archaeology and Environment 14. Dissertation, University of Umeå
Watt M (2004) The gold-figure foils (“Guldgubbar”) from Uppåkra.
In: Larsson L (ed) Continuity for centuries—a ceremonial building and its context at Uppåkra, southern Sweden. Uppåkrastudier
10. Acta Archaeologica Lundensia. series in 8 48. Almqvist &
Wiksell, Lund, pp 167–222
Veget Hist Archaeobot
Wennberg B (1986) Iron Age agriculture at Trogsta, north Sweden
(Järnåldersbruk I Trogsta, Hälsingland). Fornvännen 81:254–262
Willcox G (2004) Measuring grain size and identifying Near Eastern cereal domestication: evidence from the Euphrates valley. J
Archaeol Sci 31:145–150
Wilson DG. In: Van Zeist W (1984) The carbonisation of weed seeds
and their representation in macrofossil assemblages. In: Casparie
WA (ed) Plants and ancient man: Studies in paleoethnobotany.
Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 201–206
13