Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig describes the development of the Japanese language from its recorded beginnings until the present day as reflected by the written sources and historical record. Beginning with a description of the oldest attested stage of the language, Old Japanese (approximately the eighth century AD), and then tracing the changes which occurred through the Early Middle Japanese (800–1200), Late Middle Japanese (1200–1600) and the Modern Japanese (1600 onwards) periods, a complete internal history of the language is examined and discussed. This account provides a comprehensive study of how the Japanese language has developed and adapted, providing a much-needed resource for scholars. A History of the Japanese Language is invaluable to all those interested in the Japanese language and also students of language change generally. Bjarke Frellesvig is Professor of Japanese Linguistics, Director of the Research Centre for Japanese Language and Linguistics at the University of Oxford, and a Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. He is the author of A Case Study in Diachronic Phonology: The Japanese Onbin Sound Changes (1995) and the co-editor of Japan and Korea: Contemporary Studies (1997), Current Issues in the History and Structure of Japanese (2007) and Proto-Japanese: Issues and Prospects (2008). © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521653206 © Bjarke Frellesvig 2010 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2010 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library ISBN 978-0-521-65320-6 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information For my children and my wife © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information Contents List of tables, maps and figures Acknowledgements List of abbreviations Introduction page xvii xx xxi 1 Part I Old Japanese 1 Early writing in Japan and Old Japanese sources 11 1.1 11 11 12 12 12 13 14 14 16 17 17 18 18 18 20 20 21 22 23 24 25 1.2 2 Writing 1.1.1 Introduction of writing in Japan 1.1.2 Writing in Japanese 1.1.2.1 Logographic versus phonographic writing 1.1.2.2 Adaptation of Chinese script 1.1.2.3 Logographic writing of Japanese 1.1.2.4 Phonographic writing of Japanese 1.1.2.5 Man’yǀgana 1.1.2.6 Senmyǀ-gaki 1.1.3 Problems of decipherment 1.1.3.1 Polyvalence and equivalence 1.1.4 Reading tradition 1.1.5 Rebus writing 1.1.6 Examples Sources 1.2.1 Japanese words in foreign sources 1.2.2 Early inscriptions, wooden tablets and archival records 1.2.3 Eighth-century texts 1.2.3.1 Poetry 1.2.3.2 Prose 1.2.3.3 Others Phonology 2.1 Kǀ-rui 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 26 and otsu-rui syllables Co1 versus Co2 Phonetic reconstruction and phonemic interpretation Sound values 26 30 30 31 vii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information viii Contents 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 3 2.1.4 Phonemic interpretation 2.1.5 Neutralization Consonants 2.2.1 Obstruents 2.2.2 Tenues versus mediae; medial voicing and prenasalization 2.2.3 Non-sibilant versus sibilant obstruents Other allophonic variation Phonetic transcription of a text Syllable and word structure Morphophonemics 2.6.1 Vowel deletion 2.6.2 Rendaku Proto-Japanese 2.7.1 Consonants 2.7.1.1 Secondary origin of Old Japanese mediae (/b, d, g, z/) 2.7.1.2 Distribution of Old Japanese mediae and liquid 2.7.1.3 Proto-Japanese syllable final nasals 2.7.1.4 Proto-Japanese glides 2.7.2 Vowels and diphthongs 2.7.2.1 Arisaka’s Law; distribution of primary vowels 2.7.2.2 Secondary vowels and diphthongs: OJ /-wi, -e/ 2.7.2.3 Mid vowel raising 2.7.2.4 Lexical distribution of /Cwo, Cye, Ce, and Cwi/ 2.7.2.5 Changes between proto-Japanese and Old Japanese Grammar 3.1 Verbs 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 31 33 34 34 34 36 38 38 39 39 39 40 41 42 42 43 43 43 44 44 44 47 49 49 51 Derivatives Auxiliary verbs Inflected verb forms: obligatory categories 3.1.3.1 Finite verb forms 3.1.3.2 Non-finite verb forms 3.1.3.3 Nominal Auxiliaries: optional categories 3.1.4.1 Formation on lexical verbs 3.1.4.2 Inflected forms 3.1.4.3 Respect 3.1.4.4 Voice; causative and passive 3.1.4.5 Aspect, tense, negation, and mood 3.1.4.5.1 Aspect and negation 3.1.4.5.2 Tense and mood 3.1.4.5.3 Combination 3.1.4.6 Perfective 3.1.4.6.1 Functions 3.1.4.6.2 Distribution of the variants -(i)te and -(i)n3.1.4.7 Stative 3.1.4.7.1 Function 3.1.4.7.2 Morphological stative auxiliary: -yer3.1.4.7.3 Periphrastic stative: -(i)te ar-, -(i)tar3.1.4.7.4 Analytic progressive © in this web service Cambridge University Press 51 52 52 53 53 56 57 58 59 59 62 63 64 65 65 65 66 66 67 68 68 68 69 69 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information Contents ix 3.1.4.8 3.2 3.3 3.4 Negative 3.1.4.8.1 3.1.4.8.2 3.1.4.8.3 Analytic forms Negative rhetorical questions Reformation of the paradigm of the negative 3.1.4.9 Simple and modal past 3.1.4.9.1 Functions 3.1.4.9.2 ‘Perfect’ 3.1.4.9.3 Speaker commitment 3.1.4.10 Conjectural and subjunctive 3.1.5 Verbal prefixes Adjectives 3.2.1 Inflectional forms; adjectival copula 3.2.2 Core forms 3.2.2.1 Conclusive and adnominal 3.2.2.2 Nominal 3.2.2.3 Exclamatory 3.2.2.4 The infinitives 3.2.2.4.1 Infinitive-1 3.2.2.4.2 Infinitive-2 3.2.3 Analytic forms 3.2.4 Ku versus shiku adjectives 3.2.4.1 Reduplication 3.2.4.2 Jiku adjectives Copula 3.3.1 Use of the simple inflected copula forms 3.3.2 Analytic forms Conjugation classes and morphophonology 3.4.1 Regular verb classes 3.4.1.1 Quadrigrade verbs 3.4.1.2 Bigrade verbs 3.4.1.3 Formation of basic inflected forms 3.4.2 Irregular consonant base verbs 3.4.2.1 r-irregular 3.4.2.1.1 Grammatical uses of ar- and other existential verbs 3.4.2.1.2 Fused forms; secondary conjugations 3.4.2.2 n-irregular 3.4.3 Irregular vowel base verbs 3.4.3.1 Upper monograde 3.4.3.2 k-irregular and s-irregular 3.4.3.2.1 Grammatical uses of ko- and se3.4.3.3 -Kose3.4.4 Extended inflectional forms; combinatory stems 3.4.4.1 The infinitive as stem 3.4.4.2 The a- stem 3.4.4.3 The exclamatory as stem 3.4.4.4 The stative and the nominal 3.4.5 Consonant versus vowel base morphophonology © in this web service Cambridge University Press 69 70 70 71 72 72 74 76 78 79 79 80 82 83 84 84 85 85 86 90 90 92 93 93 94 95 96 97 97 97 99 101 101 103 104 105 106 106 107 108 108 109 109 111 112 113 113 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information x Contents 3.4.6 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4 Loanwords 4.1 4.2 4.3 5 The katsuyǀkei system 3.4.6.1 Names and uses of the six katsuyǀkei 3.4.6.2 Traditional names for the verb classes 3.4.6.3 Discussion; basic paradigms Proto-Japanese and pre-Old Japanese morphology 3.5.1 Verb classes; bigrade verbs 3.5.1.1 Diachronic classification of verbs 3.5.2 Pre-history of verb suffixes Verb extensions Particles 3.7.1 Case particles 3.7.1.1 Main Old Japanese case particles 3.7.1.1.1 Genitives 3.7.1.1.2 Differences between no and ga 3.7.1.2 Case marking of subject and object 3.7.1.3 Obsolete and peripheral case particles 3.7.1.4 Emerging case particles 3.7.2 Topic and focus particles 3.7.3 Restrictive particles 3.7.4 Conjunctional particles 3.7.5 Final particles 3.7.6 Interjectional particles 3.7.7 Complementizer 3.7.8 Etymology 3.7.8.1 Nominal sources 3.7.8.2 Verbal sources 3.7.8.2.1 Copula 3.7.8.2.2 Roots of other verbs 3.7.8.3 External etymology Pronouns 3.8.1 Short versus long forms 3.8.2 Personal pronouns 3.8.2.1 Other terms of address 3.8.3 Demonstratives 3.8.4 Basic pre-Old Japanese pronominal system 3.8.5 Proto-Japanese demonstratives Ainu Continental loanwords: Korean, Chinese, Sanskrit 4.2.1 Korean 4.2.2 Chinese 4.2.3 Sanskrit Phonological adaptation Eastern Old Japanese 5.1 5.2 Phonology Morphology © in this web service Cambridge University Press 114 115 115 116 118 118 119 120 123 124 125 126 126 128 129 131 132 132 132 133 133 133 134 134 134 135 135 135 135 136 136 138 139 139 142 142 144 145 146 147 147 148 150 151 152 152 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information Contents Part II 6 Early Middle Japanese Writing and sources 6.1 6.2 7 xi 157 Writing 6.1.1 Kanji-kana majiribun 6.1.2 Kana (hiragana, katakana, hentaigana) 6.1.2.1 Sei’on and daku’on 6.1.2.2 Dakuten 6.1.2.3 Handakuten 6.1.2.4 Orthographic categories; the Iroha-uta, the Japanese ‘alphabet’ 6.1.2.5 New sounds 6.1.2.5.1 Bound moras 6.1.2.5.2 Syllables with complex onsets 6.1.2.5.3 Syllable final /-t/ 6.1.2.5.4 Recent Modern Japanese loanwords 6.1.3 Orthographic norms 6.1.3.1 Undoing the etymological kana-spelling 6.1.4 Sound tables Sources 6.2.1 Prose and poetry 6.2.2 Annotated texts 6.2.3 Glossaries and dictionaries 6.2.4 Sanskrit studies 157 157 158 162 163 165 165 169 169 170 170 170 171 175 177 178 179 181 182 183 Phonology 7.1 7.2 7.3 184 Syllable structure 7.1.1 Bound moraic segments 7.1.2 Nasality 7.1.2.1 Morpheme internal position 7.1.2.2 Morpheme final position; postnasal neutralization 7.1.2.3 Word final position 7.1.2.4 Nasality harmony 7.1.3 Transcription of moraic segments 7.1.4 Sources of long syllables: the onbin sound changes 7.1.4.1 Onbin as sound changes 7.1.4.2 Syllable reduction 7.1.4.3 Nasality 7.1.4.4 Major class; consonant or vowel? 7.1.4.5 Other sources of bound moraic phonemes The sound shape of Sino-Japanese vocabulary 7.2.1 Renjǀ Regular segmental sound changes 7.3.1 Changes affecting OJ /p/ 7.3.1.1 Merger of intervocalic /-p-/ with /-w-/ 7.3.1.2 Retention of /-p-/ 7.3.1.3 The Early Middle Japanese sound value of the reflexes of initial /p-/ 7.3.1.4 Summary © in this web service Cambridge University Press 185 187 188 188 189 190 190 191 191 195 196 197 199 199 199 200 201 201 202 203 204 205 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information xii Contents 7.3.2 7.4 8 Grammar 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 9 Loss of labial and palatal glides 7.3.2.1 Merger of kǀ-rui and otsu-rui syllables; loss of post consonantal /y/ before /e/ and /w/ before /i, o/ 7.3.2.2 Loss of syllable initial /y/ before /e/ 7.3.2.3 Loss of syllable initial /w/ before /o, i, e/ 7.3.2.4 /-i, -u/ versus /-.e, -.o/ 7.3.2.5 Phonemicization: /-.e, -.o/ or /-.ye, -.wo/ Prosody; ‘accent’ 7.4.1 Prosodic classes 7.4.1.1 Final falling pitch: classes 2.5, 3.5b, and 1.2 7.4.1.2 Initial rising pitch: class 1.3b; classes 2.3–5b? 7.4.2 Eleventh-century prosodic classes and later changes 7.4.3 Phonological interpretation 7.4.4 Complex forms 7.4.4.1 Noun + noun compounds 7.4.4.2 Particles 7.4.4.3 Verbs and adjectives Verbs 8.1.1 Morphological categories 8.1.2 Conjugation classes and basic paradigms 8.1.3 Verbal nouns 8.1.4 Consonant base verbs Adjectives and copula 8.2.1 Secondary conjugations: ar- extended forms 8.2.2 Adjectival copula and negative 8.2.3 Copula Adjectival nouns Auxiliaries 8.4.1 Passives and causatives 8.4.2 Aspect; stative and perfective 8.4.2.1 Progressives Modality Derivatives Particles 8.7.1 Genitives 8.7.2 Conjunctional particles 8.7.3 Tote, nado Pronouns and demonstratives 8.8.1 Demonstratives and interrogatives 8.8.2 Short and long forms Kakari-musubi 8.9.1 Uses of kakari-musubi 8.9.2 The individual kakari particles 8.9.3 The musubi predicate 8.9.4 Questions and exclamatives The sinification of Japanese 9.1 Kanbun-kundoku 9.1.1 Kunten © in this web service Cambridge University Press 205 206 206 206 207 208 210 212 215 216 217 219 222 222 223 224 227 227 227 227 229 230 232 233 233 234 235 236 236 238 240 240 242 242 243 244 245 245 246 247 247 251 251 255 256 258 258 259 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information Contents 9.1.2 9.2 9.3 Part III 10 Kanbun-kundoku and writing in Japanese 9.1.2.1 Hentai kanbun; ‘kanbun’ Orthographic overdifferentiation Kokuji Kuntengo The influence of kuntengo on the Japanese language 9.1.3 9.1.4 9.1.5 9.1.6 Ondoku 9.2.1 Chinese as a foreign (reading) language; Japano-Chinese 9.2.1.1 The phonetics and phonology of Japano-Chinese 9.2.1.2 Early Middle Chinese, Japano-Chinese and ongana 9.2.2 Sino-Japanese 9.2.2.1 Present-day Sino-Japanese 9.2.2.2 Syllable initial consonants 9.2.2.3 Syllable final consonants 9.2.3 Sino-Japanese loanwords 9.2.3.1 Sino-Japanese loanwords in Old Japanese 9.2.3.2 Sino-Japanese loanwords in Early Middle Japanese 9.2.3.2.1 Numerals 9.2.3.3 Sino-Japanese loanwords in Late Middle Japanese 9.2.3.4 Sino-Japanese loanwords, Japano-Chinese, and Sino-Japanese 9.2.4 Sino-Japanese words arising through on-reading of a kun-writing The case of ⠪ 263 266 268 268 268 270 274 274 277 277 278 280 282 282 284 284 286 289 290 290 291 292 Late Middle Japanese Sources 10.1 10.2 11 xiii Early Late Middle Japanese Late Late Middle Japanese 10.2.1 Shǀmono 10.2.2 Christian sources 10.2.2.1 Texts 10.2.2.2 Grammars 10.2.2.3 Dictionaries Phonology 11.1 11.2 11.3 Nasality and medial voicing 11.1.1 Postnasal neutralization 11.1.1.1 ‘Vmu no xita nigoru’ 11.1.2 Redistribution of phonemic nasality Loss of /w/ Fricativization of /p/; /p/ > /f/ 11.3.1 Retention of /p/ after /Q/ 11.3.2 Retention of /p/ after /N/ 11.3.3 Alternations arising from changes of /p/ 11.3.4 /p/ in expressive vocabulary 11.3.5 Phonemic split: /p/ > /f, p/ © in this web service Cambridge University Press 297 297 299 299 299 301 302 302 304 306 307 308 309 310 311 313 314 314 315 316 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information xiv Contents 11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 12 Sino-Japanese syllable final /-t/ 11.4.1 Sources of final /-t/ 11.4.2 Renjǀ Long vowels 11.5.1 Phonemic analysis 11.5.2 Sources of long vowels in Modern Japanese Sino-Japanese Assibilation and palatalization 11.6.1 Palatalization Final vowel deletion Onglides 11.8.1 Diphthongal asymmetry Grammar 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 Verb morphology 12.1.1 Inflected verb forms 12.1.1.1 Gerund 12.1.2 Loss of exclamatory, conclusive and adnominal 12.1.3 Loss and change of auxiliaries 12.1.3.1 Morphological categories 12.1.3.2 From auxiliary to flective; inflection for tense 12.1.3.3 Non-finite forms 12.1.4 Conjectural 12.1.4.1 Negative conjectural 12.1.5 Other auxiliaries 12.1.5.1 Negative 12.1.5.2 Passive and causative 12.1.5.3 New auxiliaries 12.1.6 Extensions Adjectives and copula 12.2.1 Adjectives 12.2.2 Copula 12.2.3 Summary of the development of regular and adjectival copula paradigms Basic paradigms 12.3.1 Verb classes 12.3.2 Onbin stems 12.3.3 Morphophonological rules Existential verbs; ar-, i-, or12.4.1 Loss of -ru Pronouns and demonstratives Syntactic changes 12.6.1 Loss of the distinction between conclusive and adnominal 12.6.1.1 Adnominal clauses 12.6.1.1.1 Complementizers 12.6.1.1.2 Tokoro-no 12.6.1.2 Loss of kakari-musubi 12.6.1.2.1 Namu and ya 12.6.1.2.2 Ka and zo 12.6.1.2.3 Koso 12.6.1.3 Nominalizations; emergence of nominalizing no © in this web service Cambridge University Press 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 322 323 323 324 326 326 326 327 328 330 331 332 332 334 335 336 336 337 337 339 339 340 341 343 344 346 347 348 350 353 353 354 354 355 355 358 358 359 359 361 362 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information Contents xv 12.6.1.4 Summary of the developments of the functions of the Old Japanese/Early Middle Japanese adnominal 12.6.2 The genitive particles, subject marking and the emergence of a nominative case particle 12.6.2.1 Socio-linguistic differentiation of no and ga 12.7 Honorific language 12.7.1 Exaltation 12.7.1.1 Noun exaltation 12.7.1.2 Predicate exaltation 12.7.2 Politeness 365 366 367 369 369 370 371 372 Part IV Modern Japanese 13 Varieties of Modern Japanese 13.1 377 The Edo period: Linguistic diversity and common language 13.1.1 Common language 13.1.2 The language of Edo 13.2 The Meiji period: Unification and standardization 13.2.1 Genbun’itchi 13.2.2 A national language; standardization and dialect eradication 13.3 Sources 13.3.1 Material in alphabet writing 13.4 From Late Middle Japanese to standard contemporary Modern Japanese 14 Phonology 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 15 Merger of /d/ and /z/ before /i, u/ Merger of /nn/ and /oo/; /nn/ > /oo/ 14.2.1 /Vu/ diphthongs Delabialization of /f/; /f/ > /h/ Loss of phonetic onglides 14.4.1 Loss of palatalization before /e/ Summary of main allophonic variation Recent phonemic changes due to loanwords Grammar 15.1 Verbs 15.1.1 15.1.2 Formation of the volitional Verb classes 15.1.2.1 Levelling of vowel base verb conjugations; merger of monograde and bigrade verbs 15.1.2.2 Merger of n-irregular and quadrigrade verbs 15.1.3 Summary of verbal conjugation classes 15.2 Adjectives and copula 15.3 Other new Modern Japanese grammatical forms 16 Eastern dialect features of the standard language 16.1 Onbin forms 16.2 Copula da © in this web service Cambridge University Press 377 377 378 379 379 380 381 382 382 384 384 385 386 386 387 387 387 388 390 390 390 391 391 392 392 393 395 397 398 400 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information xvi Contents 16.3 16.4 17 The negative auxiliary The imperative 401 402 The westernization of Japanese: Loanwords and other borrowings 17.1 403 Vocabulary layers and hybrid words 17.1.1 Gairaigo 17.2 Pre-Meiji; from the end of Late Middle Japanese to the middle of the nineteenth century 17.3 From the beginning of Meiji to the end of WWII (1945) 17.3.1 Loanwords from European languages 17.3.2 Loan translations; Sino-Japanese coinages 17.3.3 Influence from European languages in grammar and usage 17.4 Post-WWII 403 404 404 406 408 408 410 411 Appendix Summary of the main regular phonemic changes between Old Japanese and conservative Modern Japanese 413 References Index of main grammatical forms General index 416 425 429 © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information Tables, maps and figures TABLES Table 1.1. Important OJ sources 23 Table Table Table Table Table Table Orthographically distinct syllables in early OJ Transcription systems for OJ Examples of transcribed OJ forms Phonemic syllables in OJ Phonetic realization of OJ obstruents Phonemic correspondences between OJ and pJ 27 32 33 33 35 42 Inflected forms for the eight OJ verb classes OJ auxiliaries attached to verbs from the eight verb classes Inflected forms of OJ auxiliaries OJ transitional paradigm and EMJ suppletive paradigm of the negative Reformation of the OJ paradigm of the negative OJ -n- perfective and negative forms of QD, LB and UB verbs OJ modal past and simple past auxiliaries OJ adjectival copula forms OJ copula forms Formation of OJ inflected verb forms OJ forms ordered according to formation on katsuyǀkei Katsuyǀkei paradigms for OJ verbs Katsuyǀkei paradigms for negative, simple past, adjectival copula and subjunctive Basic paradigm for OJ verbs OJ adjectival copula and possibly related grammatical forms Inflected forms of OJ verb extensions 54 2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.4. 2.5. 2.6. Table 3.1. Table 3.2. Table 3.3. Table 3.4. Table 3.5. Table 3.6. Table 3.7. Table 3.8. Table 3.9. Table 3.10. Table 3.11. Table 3.12. Table 3.13. Table 3.14. Table 3.15. Table 3.16. 60 61 70 71 73 74 81 94 100 110 114 117 118 122 124 xvii © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information xviii Tables, maps and figures Table 3.17. Pronominal forms of OJ Table 3.18. OJ demonstrative forms 136 141 Table 6.1. Table 6.2. 159 161 Table 6.3. Table 6.4. Kanji origins of kana Early kana shapes From Tsukishima (1977: 98) Phonemic transcription of the historical kana-spelling Important EMJ sources Table 7.1. Table 7.2. Table 7.3. Table 7.4. Table 7.5. EMJ sound inventory Examples of onbin Prosodic classes Phonological interpretation of the EMJ pitch patterns Prosodic shapes of EMJ basic inflected verb forms 185 193 218 221 225 Table 8.1. Table 8.2. Table 8.3. Table 8.4. Table 8.5. Table 8.6. Table 8.7. 176 180 EMJ inflected verb forms Basic paradigm of EMJ vowel base verbs Basic paradigm of EMJ CVi- and CVe- base verbs Basic paradigm of EMJ consonant base verbs EMJ adjectival copula forms EMJ copula forms Basic paradigm of EMJ secondary conjugations of the copula, the adjectival copula and the negative auxiliary Table 8.8. EMJ forms of causative and passive auxiliaries Table 8.9. Basic paradigm of the EMJ stative auxiliary -(i)tarTable 8.10. EMJ demonstrative and interrogative forms 234 238 239 246 Table 9.1. Table 9.2. Table 9.3. Table 9.4. 281 282 283 289 Kanji readings EMC syllable initial consonants EMC syllable final consonants Native Japanese and SJ numerals 228 228 229 231 233 233 Table 10.1. Important LMJ sources 298 Table 11.1. Table 11.2. LMJ sound inventory Sources of SJ koo and yoo 305 321 Table 12.1. Table 12.2. Table 12.3. Table 12.4. LMJ inflected verb forms Merger of EMJ conclusive and adnominal Loss and changes of EMJ auxiliaries Changes of EMJ auxiliaries to LMJ flectives 327 329 330 333 © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information Tables, maps and figures xix Table 12.5. Main forms of the negative at the end of the LMJ period Table 12.6. Late LMJ adjectival copula forms Table 12.7. Late LMJ copula forms Table 12.8. Development of the copula and adjectival copula paradigms Table 12.9. LMJ basic verb paradigms Table 12.10. Summary of the development of the uses of ga and no 344 345 368 Table 14.1. Free moras in conservative cNJ 385 Table 15.1. Standard cNJ inflected verb forms Table 15.2. Changes among verbal conjugation classes from OJ to NJ Table 15.3. cNJ adjectival copula forms Table 15.4. cNJ copula forms 391 Table 17.1. Loanwords in use during the Taishǀ period From Shibatani (1990: 149, table 7.5) Table 17.2. Loanwords used in magazines From Shibatani (1990: 148, table 7.4) 336 340 342 393 394 395 408 411 MAPS Map 7.1 Map 16.1 Map 17.1 Distribution of prosodic systems From Shibatani (1990: 211) Major east–west isoglosses From Shibatani (1990: 197) Distribution of words for ‘pumpkin’ From Satǀ (2002: 169) 213 399 407 FIGURE Figure 9.1 Example of Kunten system © in this web service Cambridge University Press 260 www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the support, both funding for research travel and research assistance and support in the form of sabbatical leave, that I have received in the course of writing this book from the Faculty of Oriental Studies and Hertford College in the University of Oxford. I also want to express my gratitude to the University’s Sasakawa Fund and John Fell Fund for their financial support. Without the generous support of these institutions, I would not have been able to complete this project. A number of present and former Oxford students provided research and editorial assistance and valuable comments on parts of the book: Madeleine Brook, Marion Cossin, Laurence Mann, Dan Millichip, Nina Mirnig, Jenny Moore, Cecily Nowell-Smith, Thu Phuong Nguyen, Muneto Ozaki, James Stone-Lunde, James Webb, and Asa Yoneda. On numerous occasions Greg Jennings and his staff at the IT department in Hertford solved hardware and software problems for me. Anton Antonov, Stephen Wright Horn, Kerri L. Russell, Matt Shibatani, Antoni Üçerler, Uwano Zendǀ, and an anonymous reader offered important comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of the book. Among the many colleagues from whom I have learned much of what is reflected in this book, I must also in particular mention Kinsui Satoshi, Alexander Vovin, and Janick Wrona. Janick also provided invaluable comments and suggestions for improvement on the final draft. Above all, John Whitman has been instrumental in shaping my views on general and specific problems in the history of the Japanese language. John read and commented extensively and incisively on several draft versions and much of the value this book has in its present form is due to his input. Naturally, all insufficiencies that remain, despite the best efforts of those mentioned above and many others as well, are entirely of my own making. I would also like to thank Andrew Winnard, Sarah Green, Joanna Garbutt and Rosina Di Marzo of Cambridge University Press for their guidance and help in producing the book. Anna Oxbury was an amazing copy-editor. I am grateful to my father-in-law for the calligraphy of the Iroha-uta on the cover of the book. Finally, for emotional and practical support through the long process of putting together and completing this book, I have my children and my wife to thank. xx © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information Abbreviations SYMBOLS . /.../ //...// => > syllable boundary enclose phonemes or phonemic representation enclose underlying representation generative rules (‘becomes in the course of derivation’) diachronic correspondence (‘becomes through time’) GRAMMATICAL TERMS ABL ACC ACOP ADJ ADN ALL AUX CAUS COM COMP CONC COND CONCL CONJ CONT COP DAT DESID EMPH ETOP EVID EXCL FOC ablative accusative adjectival copula adjective adnominal allative auxiliary causative comitative complementizer concessive conditional conclusive conjectural continuative copula dative desiderative emphatic emphatic topic evidential exclamatory focus xxi © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information xxii GEN GER H HON HUM IMP INF INT intr. k-irr L LB LM MPST MVR NCONJ NEC NEG n-irr NMLZ NMNL NOM NONPST OPT PASS PCONJ PERF POL PRES PROV PST PSTCONJ PURP Q QD RESP r-irr s-irr SPST STAT SUBJ Abbreviations genitive gerund high (tone or pitch) honorific humble imperative infinitive intentional intransitive k-irregular (ka-hen) low (tone or pitch) lower bigrade (shimo nidan) lower monograde (shimo ichidan) modal past mid vowel raising negative conjectural necessitive negative n-irregular (na-hen) nominalizer nominal nominative nonpast optative passive present conjectural perfective polite presumptive provisional past past conjectural purposive interrogative quadrigrade (yodan) respect r-irregular (ra-hen) s-irregular (sa-hen) simple past stative subjunctive © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information Abbreviations TOP tr. UB UM VOL xxiii topic transitive upper bigrade (kami nidan) upper monograde (kami ichidan) volitional LANGUAGES cNJ EMC EMJ EOJ J-Ch LMC LMJ MC MJ MK NJ OC OJ pJ pK SJ Skt contemporary Modern Japanese Early Middle Chinese Early Middle Japanese Eastern Old Japanese Japano-Chinese Late Middle Chinese Late Middle Japanese Middle Chinese Middle Japanese Middle Korean Modern (‘new’) Japanese Old Chinese Old Japanese proto-Japanese proto-Korean Sino-Japanese Sanskrit TEXTS Ars gr. Arte Arte breve Bussoku EN Esopo Feiqe Genji Ise KK Kokin MYS NSK Ars grammaticae iaponicae linguae Arte da lingoa de Iapam (page references are to Doi 1955) Arte breve da lingoa Iapoa Bussokuseki-ka (Engishiki) Norito Esopono fabulas Feiqe monogatari Genji monogatari Ise monogatari Kojiki kayǀ (songs/poems in the Kojiki) Kokinwakashnj Man’yǀshnj Nihon shoki kayǀ (songs/poems in the Nihon shoki) © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language Bjarke Frellesvig Frontmatter More information xxiv Abbreviations Ochikubo SM Taketori Tosa Vocabulario Ochikubo monogatari (Shoku nihongi) Senmyǀ Taketori monogatari Tosa nikki Vocabulario da lingoa de Iapam © in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org