Cambridge University Press
978-0-521-65320-6 - A History of the Japanese Language
Bjarke Frellesvig
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A History of the Japanese Language
Bjarke Frellesvig describes the development of the Japanese language from
its recorded beginnings until the present day as reflected by the written
sources and historical record. Beginning with a description of the oldest
attested stage of the language, Old Japanese (approximately the eighth
century AD), and then tracing the changes which occurred through the Early
Middle Japanese (800–1200), Late Middle Japanese (1200–1600) and the
Modern Japanese (1600 onwards) periods, a complete internal history of the
language is examined and discussed. This account provides a comprehensive
study of how the Japanese language has developed and adapted, providing a
much-needed resource for scholars. A History of the Japanese Language is
invaluable to all those interested in the Japanese language and also students
of language change generally.
Bjarke Frellesvig is Professor of Japanese Linguistics, Director of the
Research Centre for Japanese Language and Linguistics at the University of
Oxford, and a Fellow of Hertford College, Oxford. He is the author of A Case
Study in Diachronic Phonology: The Japanese Onbin Sound Changes (1995)
and the co-editor of Japan and Korea: Contemporary Studies (1997), Current
Issues in the History and Structure of Japanese (2007) and Proto-Japanese:
Issues and Prospects (2008).
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Bjarke Frellesvig
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A History of the
Japanese Language
Bjarke Frellesvig
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Bjarke Frellesvig
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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
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© Bjarke Frellesvig 2010
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions
of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take
place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2010
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
ISBN
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Bjarke Frellesvig
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For my children and my wife
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Bjarke Frellesvig
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Contents
List of tables, maps and figures
Acknowledgements
List of abbreviations
Introduction
page xvii
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1
Part I Old Japanese
1
Early writing in Japan and Old Japanese sources
11
1.1
11
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1.2
2
Writing
1.1.1
Introduction of writing in Japan
1.1.2
Writing in Japanese
1.1.2.1
Logographic versus phonographic writing
1.1.2.2
Adaptation of Chinese script
1.1.2.3
Logographic writing of Japanese
1.1.2.4
Phonographic writing of Japanese
1.1.2.5
Man’yǀgana
1.1.2.6
Senmyǀ-gaki
1.1.3
Problems of decipherment
1.1.3.1
Polyvalence and equivalence
1.1.4
Reading tradition
1.1.5
Rebus writing
1.1.6
Examples
Sources
1.2.1
Japanese words in foreign sources
1.2.2
Early inscriptions, wooden tablets and archival records
1.2.3
Eighth-century texts
1.2.3.1
Poetry
1.2.3.2
Prose
1.2.3.3
Others
Phonology
2.1
Kǀ-rui
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
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and otsu-rui syllables
Co1 versus Co2
Phonetic reconstruction and phonemic interpretation
Sound values
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Contents
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3
2.1.4
Phonemic interpretation
2.1.5
Neutralization
Consonants
2.2.1
Obstruents
2.2.2
Tenues versus mediae; medial voicing and prenasalization
2.2.3
Non-sibilant versus sibilant obstruents
Other allophonic variation
Phonetic transcription of a text
Syllable and word structure
Morphophonemics
2.6.1
Vowel deletion
2.6.2 Rendaku
Proto-Japanese
2.7.1
Consonants
2.7.1.1
Secondary origin of Old Japanese mediae (/b, d, g, z/)
2.7.1.2
Distribution of Old Japanese mediae and liquid
2.7.1.3
Proto-Japanese syllable final nasals
2.7.1.4
Proto-Japanese glides
2.7.2
Vowels and diphthongs
2.7.2.1
Arisaka’s Law; distribution of primary vowels
2.7.2.2
Secondary vowels and diphthongs: OJ /-wi, -e/
2.7.2.3
Mid vowel raising
2.7.2.4
Lexical distribution of /Cwo, Cye, Ce, and Cwi/
2.7.2.5
Changes between proto-Japanese and Old Japanese
Grammar
3.1
Verbs
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
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Derivatives
Auxiliary verbs
Inflected verb forms: obligatory categories
3.1.3.1
Finite verb forms
3.1.3.2
Non-finite verb forms
3.1.3.3
Nominal
Auxiliaries: optional categories
3.1.4.1
Formation on lexical verbs
3.1.4.2
Inflected forms
3.1.4.3
Respect
3.1.4.4
Voice; causative and passive
3.1.4.5
Aspect, tense, negation, and mood
3.1.4.5.1
Aspect and negation
3.1.4.5.2
Tense and mood
3.1.4.5.3
Combination
3.1.4.6
Perfective
3.1.4.6.1
Functions
3.1.4.6.2
Distribution of the variants -(i)te and
-(i)n3.1.4.7
Stative
3.1.4.7.1
Function
3.1.4.7.2
Morphological stative auxiliary: -yer3.1.4.7.3
Periphrastic stative: -(i)te ar-, -(i)tar3.1.4.7.4
Analytic progressive
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3.1.4.8
3.2
3.3
3.4
Negative
3.1.4.8.1
3.1.4.8.2
3.1.4.8.3
Analytic forms
Negative rhetorical questions
Reformation of the paradigm of the
negative
3.1.4.9
Simple and modal past
3.1.4.9.1
Functions
3.1.4.9.2
‘Perfect’
3.1.4.9.3
Speaker commitment
3.1.4.10 Conjectural and subjunctive
3.1.5
Verbal prefixes
Adjectives
3.2.1
Inflectional forms; adjectival copula
3.2.2
Core forms
3.2.2.1
Conclusive and adnominal
3.2.2.2
Nominal
3.2.2.3
Exclamatory
3.2.2.4
The infinitives
3.2.2.4.1
Infinitive-1
3.2.2.4.2
Infinitive-2
3.2.3
Analytic forms
3.2.4 Ku versus shiku adjectives
3.2.4.1
Reduplication
3.2.4.2
Jiku adjectives
Copula
3.3.1
Use of the simple inflected copula forms
3.3.2
Analytic forms
Conjugation classes and morphophonology
3.4.1
Regular verb classes
3.4.1.1
Quadrigrade verbs
3.4.1.2
Bigrade verbs
3.4.1.3
Formation of basic inflected forms
3.4.2
Irregular consonant base verbs
3.4.2.1
r-irregular
3.4.2.1.1
Grammatical uses of ar- and other
existential verbs
3.4.2.1.2
Fused forms; secondary
conjugations
3.4.2.2
n-irregular
3.4.3
Irregular vowel base verbs
3.4.3.1
Upper monograde
3.4.3.2
k-irregular and s-irregular
3.4.3.2.1
Grammatical uses of ko- and se3.4.3.3
-Kose3.4.4
Extended inflectional forms; combinatory stems
3.4.4.1
The infinitive as stem
3.4.4.2
The a- stem
3.4.4.3
The exclamatory as stem
3.4.4.4
The stative and the nominal
3.4.5
Consonant versus vowel base
morphophonology
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Contents
3.4.6
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
4
Loanwords
4.1
4.2
4.3
5
The katsuyǀkei system
3.4.6.1
Names and uses of the six katsuyǀkei
3.4.6.2
Traditional names for the verb classes
3.4.6.3
Discussion; basic paradigms
Proto-Japanese and pre-Old Japanese morphology
3.5.1
Verb classes; bigrade verbs
3.5.1.1
Diachronic classification of verbs
3.5.2
Pre-history of verb suffixes
Verb extensions
Particles
3.7.1
Case particles
3.7.1.1
Main Old Japanese case particles
3.7.1.1.1
Genitives
3.7.1.1.2
Differences between no and ga
3.7.1.2
Case marking of subject and object
3.7.1.3
Obsolete and peripheral case particles
3.7.1.4
Emerging case particles
3.7.2
Topic and focus particles
3.7.3
Restrictive particles
3.7.4
Conjunctional particles
3.7.5
Final particles
3.7.6
Interjectional particles
3.7.7
Complementizer
3.7.8
Etymology
3.7.8.1
Nominal sources
3.7.8.2
Verbal sources
3.7.8.2.1
Copula
3.7.8.2.2
Roots of other verbs
3.7.8.3
External etymology
Pronouns
3.8.1
Short versus long forms
3.8.2
Personal pronouns
3.8.2.1
Other terms of address
3.8.3
Demonstratives
3.8.4
Basic pre-Old Japanese pronominal system
3.8.5
Proto-Japanese demonstratives
Ainu
Continental loanwords: Korean, Chinese, Sanskrit
4.2.1
Korean
4.2.2
Chinese
4.2.3
Sanskrit
Phonological adaptation
Eastern Old Japanese
5.1
5.2
Phonology
Morphology
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Part II
6
Early Middle Japanese
Writing and sources
6.1
6.2
7
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157
Writing
6.1.1
Kanji-kana majiribun
6.1.2
Kana (hiragana, katakana, hentaigana)
6.1.2.1
Sei’on and daku’on
6.1.2.2
Dakuten
6.1.2.3
Handakuten
6.1.2.4
Orthographic categories; the Iroha-uta, the
Japanese ‘alphabet’
6.1.2.5
New sounds
6.1.2.5.1
Bound moras
6.1.2.5.2
Syllables with complex onsets
6.1.2.5.3
Syllable final /-t/
6.1.2.5.4
Recent Modern Japanese loanwords
6.1.3
Orthographic norms
6.1.3.1
Undoing the etymological kana-spelling
6.1.4
Sound tables
Sources
6.2.1
Prose and poetry
6.2.2
Annotated texts
6.2.3
Glossaries and dictionaries
6.2.4
Sanskrit studies
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Phonology
7.1
7.2
7.3
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Syllable structure
7.1.1
Bound moraic segments
7.1.2
Nasality
7.1.2.1
Morpheme internal position
7.1.2.2
Morpheme final position; postnasal neutralization
7.1.2.3
Word final position
7.1.2.4
Nasality harmony
7.1.3
Transcription of moraic segments
7.1.4
Sources of long syllables: the onbin sound changes
7.1.4.1
Onbin as sound changes
7.1.4.2
Syllable reduction
7.1.4.3
Nasality
7.1.4.4
Major class; consonant or vowel?
7.1.4.5
Other sources of bound moraic phonemes
The sound shape of Sino-Japanese vocabulary
7.2.1
Renjǀ
Regular segmental sound changes
7.3.1
Changes affecting OJ /p/
7.3.1.1
Merger of intervocalic /-p-/ with /-w-/
7.3.1.2
Retention of /-p-/
7.3.1.3
The Early Middle Japanese sound value of the
reflexes of initial /p-/
7.3.1.4
Summary
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Contents
7.3.2
7.4
8
Grammar
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9
Loss of labial and palatal glides
7.3.2.1
Merger of kǀ-rui and otsu-rui syllables; loss of post
consonantal /y/ before /e/ and /w/ before /i, o/
7.3.2.2
Loss of syllable initial /y/ before /e/
7.3.2.3
Loss of syllable initial /w/ before /o, i, e/
7.3.2.4
/-i, -u/ versus /-.e, -.o/
7.3.2.5
Phonemicization: /-.e, -.o/ or /-.ye, -.wo/
Prosody; ‘accent’
7.4.1
Prosodic classes
7.4.1.1
Final falling pitch: classes 2.5, 3.5b, and 1.2
7.4.1.2
Initial rising pitch: class 1.3b; classes 2.3–5b?
7.4.2
Eleventh-century prosodic classes and later changes
7.4.3
Phonological interpretation
7.4.4
Complex forms
7.4.4.1
Noun + noun compounds
7.4.4.2
Particles
7.4.4.3
Verbs and adjectives
Verbs
8.1.1
Morphological categories
8.1.2
Conjugation classes and basic paradigms
8.1.3
Verbal nouns
8.1.4
Consonant base verbs
Adjectives and copula
8.2.1
Secondary conjugations: ar- extended forms
8.2.2
Adjectival copula and negative
8.2.3
Copula
Adjectival nouns
Auxiliaries
8.4.1
Passives and causatives
8.4.2
Aspect; stative and perfective
8.4.2.1
Progressives
Modality
Derivatives
Particles
8.7.1
Genitives
8.7.2
Conjunctional particles
8.7.3
Tote, nado
Pronouns and demonstratives
8.8.1
Demonstratives and interrogatives
8.8.2
Short and long forms
Kakari-musubi
8.9.1
Uses of kakari-musubi
8.9.2
The individual kakari particles
8.9.3
The musubi predicate
8.9.4
Questions and exclamatives
The sinification of Japanese
9.1
Kanbun-kundoku
9.1.1
Kunten
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9.1.2
9.2
9.3
Part III
10
Kanbun-kundoku and writing in Japanese
9.1.2.1
Hentai kanbun; ‘kanbun’
Orthographic overdifferentiation
Kokuji
Kuntengo
The influence of kuntengo on the Japanese language
9.1.3
9.1.4
9.1.5
9.1.6
Ondoku
9.2.1
Chinese as a foreign (reading) language; Japano-Chinese
9.2.1.1
The phonetics and phonology of Japano-Chinese
9.2.1.2
Early Middle Chinese, Japano-Chinese and ongana
9.2.2
Sino-Japanese
9.2.2.1
Present-day Sino-Japanese
9.2.2.2
Syllable initial consonants
9.2.2.3
Syllable final consonants
9.2.3
Sino-Japanese loanwords
9.2.3.1
Sino-Japanese loanwords in Old Japanese
9.2.3.2
Sino-Japanese loanwords in Early Middle
Japanese
9.2.3.2.1
Numerals
9.2.3.3
Sino-Japanese loanwords in Late Middle
Japanese
9.2.3.4
Sino-Japanese loanwords, Japano-Chinese, and
Sino-Japanese
9.2.4
Sino-Japanese words arising through on-reading of a
kun-writing
The case of ⠪
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Late Middle Japanese
Sources
10.1
10.2
11
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Early Late Middle Japanese
Late Late Middle Japanese
10.2.1 Shǀmono
10.2.2 Christian sources
10.2.2.1 Texts
10.2.2.2 Grammars
10.2.2.3 Dictionaries
Phonology
11.1
11.2
11.3
Nasality and medial voicing
11.1.1 Postnasal neutralization
11.1.1.1 ‘Vmu no xita nigoru’
11.1.2 Redistribution of phonemic nasality
Loss of /w/
Fricativization of /p/; /p/ > /f/
11.3.1 Retention of /p/ after /Q/
11.3.2 Retention of /p/ after /N/
11.3.3 Alternations arising from changes of /p/
11.3.4 /p/ in expressive vocabulary
11.3.5 Phonemic split: /p/ > /f, p/
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Contents
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
12
Sino-Japanese syllable final /-t/
11.4.1 Sources of final /-t/
11.4.2 Renjǀ
Long vowels
11.5.1 Phonemic analysis
11.5.2 Sources of long vowels in Modern Japanese Sino-Japanese
Assibilation and palatalization
11.6.1 Palatalization
Final vowel deletion
Onglides
11.8.1 Diphthongal asymmetry
Grammar
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
Verb morphology
12.1.1 Inflected verb forms
12.1.1.1 Gerund
12.1.2 Loss of exclamatory, conclusive and adnominal
12.1.3 Loss and change of auxiliaries
12.1.3.1 Morphological categories
12.1.3.2 From auxiliary to flective; inflection for tense
12.1.3.3 Non-finite forms
12.1.4 Conjectural
12.1.4.1 Negative conjectural
12.1.5 Other auxiliaries
12.1.5.1 Negative
12.1.5.2 Passive and causative
12.1.5.3 New auxiliaries
12.1.6 Extensions
Adjectives and copula
12.2.1 Adjectives
12.2.2 Copula
12.2.3 Summary of the development of regular and adjectival
copula paradigms
Basic paradigms
12.3.1 Verb classes
12.3.2 Onbin stems
12.3.3 Morphophonological rules
Existential verbs; ar-, i-, or12.4.1 Loss of -ru
Pronouns and demonstratives
Syntactic changes
12.6.1 Loss of the distinction between conclusive and adnominal
12.6.1.1 Adnominal clauses
12.6.1.1.1 Complementizers
12.6.1.1.2 Tokoro-no
12.6.1.2 Loss of kakari-musubi
12.6.1.2.1 Namu and ya
12.6.1.2.2 Ka and zo
12.6.1.2.3 Koso
12.6.1.3 Nominalizations; emergence of nominalizing no
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12.6.1.4
Summary of the developments of the functions of
the Old Japanese/Early Middle Japanese adnominal
12.6.2 The genitive particles, subject marking and the emergence
of a nominative case particle
12.6.2.1 Socio-linguistic differentiation of no and ga
12.7 Honorific language
12.7.1 Exaltation
12.7.1.1 Noun exaltation
12.7.1.2 Predicate exaltation
12.7.2 Politeness
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Part IV Modern Japanese
13
Varieties of Modern Japanese
13.1
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The Edo period: Linguistic diversity and common language
13.1.1 Common language
13.1.2 The language of Edo
13.2 The Meiji period: Unification and standardization
13.2.1 Genbun’itchi
13.2.2 A national language; standardization and dialect eradication
13.3 Sources
13.3.1 Material in alphabet writing
13.4 From Late Middle Japanese to standard contemporary Modern
Japanese
14
Phonology
14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
15
Merger of /d/ and /z/ before /i, u/
Merger of /nn/ and /oo/; /nn/ > /oo/
14.2.1 /Vu/ diphthongs
Delabialization of /f/; /f/ > /h/
Loss of phonetic onglides
14.4.1 Loss of palatalization before /e/
Summary of main allophonic variation
Recent phonemic changes due to loanwords
Grammar
15.1
Verbs
15.1.1
15.1.2
Formation of the volitional
Verb classes
15.1.2.1 Levelling of vowel base verb conjugations;
merger of monograde and bigrade verbs
15.1.2.2 Merger of n-irregular and quadrigrade verbs
15.1.3 Summary of verbal conjugation classes
15.2 Adjectives and copula
15.3 Other new Modern Japanese grammatical forms
16
Eastern dialect features of the standard language
16.1 Onbin forms
16.2 Copula da
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381
382
382
384
384
385
386
386
387
387
387
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390
390
391
391
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Contents
16.3
16.4
17
The negative auxiliary
The imperative
401
402
The westernization of Japanese: Loanwords and other
borrowings
17.1
403
Vocabulary layers and hybrid words
17.1.1 Gairaigo
17.2 Pre-Meiji; from the end of Late Middle Japanese to the middle of the
nineteenth century
17.3 From the beginning of Meiji to the end of WWII (1945)
17.3.1 Loanwords from European languages
17.3.2 Loan translations; Sino-Japanese coinages
17.3.3 Influence from European languages in grammar and usage
17.4 Post-WWII
403
404
404
406
408
408
410
411
Appendix
Summary of the main regular phonemic changes between
Old Japanese and conservative Modern Japanese
413
References
Index of main grammatical forms
General index
416
425
429
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Tables, maps and figures
TABLES
Table 1.1.
Important OJ sources
23
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Table
Orthographically distinct syllables in early OJ
Transcription systems for OJ
Examples of transcribed OJ forms
Phonemic syllables in OJ
Phonetic realization of OJ obstruents
Phonemic correspondences between OJ and pJ
27
32
33
33
35
42
Inflected forms for the eight OJ verb classes
OJ auxiliaries attached to verbs from the eight
verb classes
Inflected forms of OJ auxiliaries
OJ transitional paradigm and EMJ suppletive
paradigm of the negative
Reformation of the OJ paradigm of the negative
OJ -n- perfective and negative forms of QD, LB and
UB verbs
OJ modal past and simple past auxiliaries
OJ adjectival copula forms
OJ copula forms
Formation of OJ inflected verb forms
OJ forms ordered according to formation on katsuyǀkei
Katsuyǀkei paradigms for OJ verbs
Katsuyǀkei paradigms for negative, simple past,
adjectival copula and subjunctive
Basic paradigm for OJ verbs
OJ adjectival copula and possibly related
grammatical forms
Inflected forms of OJ verb extensions
54
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
Table 3.1.
Table 3.2.
Table 3.3.
Table 3.4.
Table 3.5.
Table 3.6.
Table 3.7.
Table 3.8.
Table 3.9.
Table 3.10.
Table 3.11.
Table 3.12.
Table 3.13.
Table 3.14.
Table 3.15.
Table 3.16.
60
61
70
71
73
74
81
94
100
110
114
117
118
122
124
xvii
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Tables, maps and figures
Table 3.17. Pronominal forms of OJ
Table 3.18. OJ demonstrative forms
136
141
Table 6.1.
Table 6.2.
159
161
Table 6.3.
Table 6.4.
Kanji origins of kana
Early kana shapes
From Tsukishima (1977: 98)
Phonemic transcription of the historical kana-spelling
Important EMJ sources
Table 7.1.
Table 7.2.
Table 7.3.
Table 7.4.
Table 7.5.
EMJ sound inventory
Examples of onbin
Prosodic classes
Phonological interpretation of the EMJ pitch patterns
Prosodic shapes of EMJ basic inflected verb forms
185
193
218
221
225
Table 8.1.
Table 8.2.
Table 8.3.
Table 8.4.
Table 8.5.
Table 8.6.
Table 8.7.
176
180
EMJ inflected verb forms
Basic paradigm of EMJ vowel base verbs
Basic paradigm of EMJ CVi- and CVe- base verbs
Basic paradigm of EMJ consonant base verbs
EMJ adjectival copula forms
EMJ copula forms
Basic paradigm of EMJ secondary conjugations of
the copula, the adjectival copula and the
negative auxiliary
Table 8.8. EMJ forms of causative and passive auxiliaries
Table 8.9. Basic paradigm of the EMJ stative auxiliary -(i)tarTable 8.10. EMJ demonstrative and interrogative forms
234
238
239
246
Table 9.1.
Table 9.2.
Table 9.3.
Table 9.4.
281
282
283
289
Kanji readings
EMC syllable initial consonants
EMC syllable final consonants
Native Japanese and SJ numerals
228
228
229
231
233
233
Table 10.1. Important LMJ sources
298
Table 11.1.
Table 11.2.
LMJ sound inventory
Sources of SJ koo and yoo
305
321
Table 12.1.
Table 12.2.
Table 12.3.
Table 12.4.
LMJ inflected verb forms
Merger of EMJ conclusive and adnominal
Loss and changes of EMJ auxiliaries
Changes of EMJ auxiliaries to LMJ flectives
327
329
330
333
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Tables, maps and figures
xix
Table 12.5. Main forms of the negative at the end of the LMJ
period
Table 12.6. Late LMJ adjectival copula forms
Table 12.7. Late LMJ copula forms
Table 12.8. Development of the copula and adjectival copula
paradigms
Table 12.9. LMJ basic verb paradigms
Table 12.10. Summary of the development of the uses of ga and no
344
345
368
Table 14.1. Free moras in conservative cNJ
385
Table 15.1. Standard cNJ inflected verb forms
Table 15.2. Changes among verbal conjugation classes from
OJ to NJ
Table 15.3. cNJ adjectival copula forms
Table 15.4. cNJ copula forms
391
Table 17.1. Loanwords in use during the Taishǀ period
From Shibatani (1990: 149, table 7.5)
Table 17.2. Loanwords used in magazines
From Shibatani (1990: 148, table 7.4)
336
340
342
393
394
395
408
411
MAPS
Map 7.1
Map 16.1
Map 17.1
Distribution of prosodic systems
From Shibatani (1990: 211)
Major east–west isoglosses
From Shibatani (1990: 197)
Distribution of words for ‘pumpkin’
From Satǀ (2002: 169)
213
399
407
FIGURE
Figure 9.1
Example of Kunten system
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Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the support, both funding for research travel and
research assistance and support in the form of sabbatical leave, that I have
received in the course of writing this book from the Faculty of Oriental Studies
and Hertford College in the University of Oxford. I also want to express my
gratitude to the University’s Sasakawa Fund and John Fell Fund for their
financial support. Without the generous support of these institutions, I would
not have been able to complete this project.
A number of present and former Oxford students provided research and
editorial assistance and valuable comments on parts of the book: Madeleine
Brook, Marion Cossin, Laurence Mann, Dan Millichip, Nina Mirnig, Jenny
Moore, Cecily Nowell-Smith, Thu Phuong Nguyen, Muneto Ozaki, James
Stone-Lunde, James Webb, and Asa Yoneda. On numerous occasions Greg
Jennings and his staff at the IT department in Hertford solved hardware and
software problems for me.
Anton Antonov, Stephen Wright Horn, Kerri L. Russell, Matt Shibatani,
Antoni Üçerler, Uwano Zendǀ, and an anonymous reader offered important
comments and suggestions on earlier drafts of the book. Among the many colleagues from whom I have learned much of what is reflected in this book, I must
also in particular mention Kinsui Satoshi, Alexander Vovin, and Janick Wrona.
Janick also provided invaluable comments and suggestions for improvement on
the final draft. Above all, John Whitman has been instrumental in shaping my
views on general and specific problems in the history of the Japanese language.
John read and commented extensively and incisively on several draft versions
and much of the value this book has in its present form is due to his input.
Naturally, all insufficiencies that remain, despite the best efforts of those mentioned above and many others as well, are entirely of my own making.
I would also like to thank Andrew Winnard, Sarah Green, Joanna Garbutt
and Rosina Di Marzo of Cambridge University Press for their guidance and
help in producing the book. Anna Oxbury was an amazing copy-editor.
I am grateful to my father-in-law for the calligraphy of the Iroha-uta on the
cover of the book. Finally, for emotional and practical support through the
long process of putting together and completing this book, I have my children
and my wife to thank.
xx
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Abbreviations
SYMBOLS
.
/.../
//...//
=>
>
syllable boundary
enclose phonemes or phonemic representation
enclose underlying representation
generative rules (‘becomes in the course of derivation’)
diachronic correspondence (‘becomes through time’)
GRAMMATICAL TERMS
ABL
ACC
ACOP
ADJ
ADN
ALL
AUX
CAUS
COM
COMP
CONC
COND
CONCL
CONJ
CONT
COP
DAT
DESID
EMPH
ETOP
EVID
EXCL
FOC
ablative
accusative
adjectival copula
adjective
adnominal
allative
auxiliary
causative
comitative
complementizer
concessive
conditional
conclusive
conjectural
continuative
copula
dative
desiderative
emphatic
emphatic topic
evidential
exclamatory
focus
xxi
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GEN
GER
H
HON
HUM
IMP
INF
INT
intr.
k-irr
L
LB
LM
MPST
MVR
NCONJ
NEC
NEG
n-irr
NMLZ
NMNL
NOM
NONPST
OPT
PASS
PCONJ
PERF
POL
PRES
PROV
PST
PSTCONJ
PURP
Q
QD
RESP
r-irr
s-irr
SPST
STAT
SUBJ
Abbreviations
genitive
gerund
high (tone or pitch)
honorific
humble
imperative
infinitive
intentional
intransitive
k-irregular (ka-hen)
low (tone or pitch)
lower bigrade (shimo nidan)
lower monograde (shimo ichidan)
modal past
mid vowel raising
negative conjectural
necessitive
negative
n-irregular (na-hen)
nominalizer
nominal
nominative
nonpast
optative
passive
present conjectural
perfective
polite
presumptive
provisional
past
past conjectural
purposive
interrogative
quadrigrade (yodan)
respect
r-irregular (ra-hen)
s-irregular (sa-hen)
simple past
stative
subjunctive
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Abbreviations
TOP
tr.
UB
UM
VOL
xxiii
topic
transitive
upper bigrade (kami nidan)
upper monograde (kami ichidan)
volitional
LANGUAGES
cNJ
EMC
EMJ
EOJ
J-Ch
LMC
LMJ
MC
MJ
MK
NJ
OC
OJ
pJ
pK
SJ
Skt
contemporary Modern Japanese
Early Middle Chinese
Early Middle Japanese
Eastern Old Japanese
Japano-Chinese
Late Middle Chinese
Late Middle Japanese
Middle Chinese
Middle Japanese
Middle Korean
Modern (‘new’) Japanese
Old Chinese
Old Japanese
proto-Japanese
proto-Korean
Sino-Japanese
Sanskrit
TEXTS
Ars gr.
Arte
Arte breve
Bussoku
EN
Esopo
Feiqe
Genji
Ise
KK
Kokin
MYS
NSK
Ars grammaticae iaponicae linguae
Arte da lingoa de Iapam (page references are to Doi 1955)
Arte breve da lingoa Iapoa
Bussokuseki-ka
(Engishiki) Norito
Esopono fabulas
Feiqe monogatari
Genji monogatari
Ise monogatari
Kojiki kayǀ (songs/poems in the Kojiki)
Kokinwakashnj
Man’yǀshnj
Nihon shoki kayǀ (songs/poems in the Nihon shoki)
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Abbreviations
Ochikubo
SM
Taketori
Tosa
Vocabulario
Ochikubo monogatari
(Shoku nihongi) Senmyǀ
Taketori monogatari
Tosa nikki
Vocabulario da lingoa de Iapam
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