LITERARY MEANING IN VOICE AS EXPLICATURE

AUDIO POETICS LITERARY MEANING IN VOICE AS EXPLICATURE Joseph K. Thiong’o Kimingichi Wabende Wanjiku M. Kabira Helga Schroeder © 2021 Joseph Thiong’o, Kimingichi Wabende, Wanjiku M. Kabira and Helga Schroeder. All rights reserved except for quotations of fully acknowledged short passages for the purpose of criticism, review, or research. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or means but for purposes of citation without prior written permission from the authors. Citation: Audio Poetics: Literary Meaning in Voice as Explicature. Joseph Thiong’o, Kimingichi Wabende, Wanjiku M. Kabira & Helga Schroeder. University of Nairobi, 2021. ii Acknowledgements This work was possible following the guidance and supervision, encouragement, and support of my supervisors Dr. Kimingichi Wabende, Prof. Wanjiku M. Kabira, and Prof. Helga Schroeder, to whom I am and will forever be very grateful. iii Table of Contents Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... iii Abstract ......................................................................................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................................... 1 Background to the Study ............................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................... 1 Background History of Bongo Flava Music ............................................................................................. 2 Artists’ Biography at a Glance .................................................................................................................. 6 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................................................... 7 Objectives of the Study ............................................................................................................................. 7 Hypotheses ................................................................................................................................................ 7 Research Questions ................................................................................................................................... 7 Justification ............................................................................................................................................... 8 Scope and Limitations............................................................................................................................. 10 Literature Review.................................................................................................................................... 10 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................................................... 28 Relevance Theory ............................................................................................................................... 29 The Communicators’ Mental Context................................................................................................. 30 The Principle of Relevance for Communication ................................................................................. 30 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................................................... 33 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................................ 34 Research Methodology ............................................................................................................................... 34 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 34 The Relevance of the Methodology Employed in this Research ............................................................ 35 Sampling Method .................................................................................................................................... 36 iv Data Collection Methods ........................................................................................................................ 36 Sorting and Organization of Collected Data ........................................................................................... 39 Data Analysis and Criticism Procedure .................................................................................................. 40 Coding ..................................................................................................................................................... 43 Application of Types of Coding.......................................................................................................... 43 Steps Employed in Data Analysis and Interpretation ............................................................................. 43 Overview of the Method ......................................................................................................................... 44 Method of Examining Meaning Listeners Attach to the Text— (Cognitive Effect)........................... 44 Analysis............................................................................................................................................... 44 Criticism Procedure ............................................................................................................................ 45 Application of Relevance Theory in the Analysis of Literary Meanings Discernible in Sound in Songs ................................................................................................................................................... 46 Summary of Data Analysis Procedure .................................................................................................... 46 Possible Research Challenges ................................................................................................................. 47 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................................................ 47 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 49 Meaning Encompassed in Stylistic Choices at the Lexical Level ............................................................... 49 Summary of the Main Message in the Main Songs that Formed the Basis of the Research ................... 50 Pii Pii................................................................................................................................................... 50 ‘Rita’ ................................................................................................................................................... 51 ‘Nikifa Kesho’ .................................................................................................................................... 52 Stylistic Criticism of Meaning Encompassed in Appropriation of Styles at Lexical Level.................... 53 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................................... 73 CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................................... 76 Field Data Analysis ..................................................................................................................................... 76 v The relevance of the oral nuances in the voice of the artist in selected songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw ........................................................................................................................................................ 76 Results ..................................................................................................................................................... 76 A Critical Review of Interview with the Sound Technician/Music Producer Haroub Msingala ............ 78 Critical Review of Interview Responses from Literature Students at the University of Dar es Salaam . 91 First Respondent ................................................................................................................................. 91 Second Respondent ............................................................................................................................. 98 Third Respondent .............................................................................................................................. 101 A Critical Review of Responses to the Interview Questions from Literature Students at the University of Dar es Salaam ................................................................................................................................... 102 Question One .................................................................................................................................... 105 Question Two .................................................................................................................................... 108 Question Three .................................................................................................................................. 112 Question Four.................................................................................................................................... 119 Question Five .................................................................................................................................... 124 Question Six ...................................................................................................................................... 127 Question Seven ................................................................................................................................. 132 Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 135 CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................................... 136 Summary of the Key Findings Conclusions and Recommendations ........................................................ 136 Introduction: What the Research Set Out to Do.................................................................................... 136 Research Findings ................................................................................................................................. 137 Major Factors That Determine the Meaning Listeners Infer from the Voice of the Artist ............... 137 The Artist and the Nature of One’s Voice ........................................................................................ 138 The message of the Song .................................................................................................................. 141 The Target Audience a Singer aims at Addressing ........................................................................... 144 vi Culture............................................................................................................................................... 154 The Subsumed Character in a Song .................................................................................................. 159 Ideologies .......................................................................................................................................... 161 Other Results and Observations ............................................................................................................ 170 Observations and Discussions ........................................................................................................... 170 Observation on Interdisciplinary Nature of the Research ................................................................. 171 Observation on Methods and Methodology ...................................................................................... 172 Challenges Faced During Data Collection and Interpretation .......................................................... 172 Observations on Methodology .......................................................................................................... 172 Solution Adopted in Data Analysis and Interpretation ..................................................................... 174 Interviewees ...................................................................................................................................... 176 Challenges Faced During Data Analysis Stage ................................................................................. 176 Research Equipment ......................................................................................................................... 178 How These Potential Explanations and Findings Can Be Tested ......................................................... 178 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 189 Possible Application of Research Findings .......................................................................................... 195 Recommendation ...................................................................................................................................... 195 WORKS CITED ....................................................................................................................................... 196 Discography .............................................................................................................................................. 202 1. Binadamu Wabaya-Diamond - https://youtu.be/hSDilTuo2Gg Nov 2012. .................................. 202 INVERVIEW RESEARCHER THIONG’O JOSEPH AND HAROUB MSINGALA BONGO FLAVA MUSIC PRODUCER AND DISCO JOCKEY......................................................................................... 205 APPENDIX 2 ............................................................................................................................................ 223 GROUP INTERVIEW OF STUDENTS AND LECTURERS IN DAR ES SALAAM UNIVERSITY .. 223 INTERVIEW CARRIED OUT ON 16 MAY 2016 .................................................................................. 223 APPENDIX 3 ............................................................................................................................................ 233 vii QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................................................................................................. 233 APPENDIX 4 ............................................................................................................................................ 263 INTERVIEW PHOTOS ............................................................................................................................ 263 APPENDIX 5 ............................................................................................................................................ 264 DATA VERIFICATION QUESTIONNAIRE ......................................................................................... 264 APPENDIX 6 ............................................................................................................................................ 285 SONGS TRANSCRIPTIONS ................................................................................................................... 285 APPENDIX 7 ............................................................................................................................................ 290 LINKS TO THE AUDIO-VISUAL SITES OF THE SONGS ................................................................. 290 APPENDIX 8 ............................................................................................................................................ 291 Sonic Experience ...................................................................................................................................... 291 APPENDIX 9 ............................................................................................................................................ 310 Contribution of this Research to Existing Research Methodology and Criticism of Meaning implied in Audio Texts ..................... 310 Key Observations on Pitch of a Song and the Effect it has on Meaning Based on the effect the melody / tune of a song has with reference to the Voice of the Artist .................... 310 Stylistic Features Expressed in Lexical Choices in Bongo Flava Bear Literary Implied in the Use of Figures of Speech Meaning Which Is ................................ 313 APPENDICIES 10 MP3 VERSSION OF THE THREE MAIN SONGS ................................................ 318 viii ix Abstract This research explores the literary meaning encompassed in songs as a sub-genre of literature. It examines selected Bongo Flava songs that are chosen based on the assumption that Bongo Flava artists use language stylistically when writing the songs and in their style of performance. The objectives of the research were to explore literary meaning encompassed in the stylistic use of language at the lexical level and in the manner of singing. The design of the study was fieldworkbased research, with interviews and questionnaires being the mode of inquiry. Data was drawn from a population of over 200 participants comprised of students of literature, theatre and performance, and music as well as music producers, sound technicians, and fans of Bongo Flava songs. The population was sampled from the University of Nairobi, the University of Dar es Salaam, Kenyatta University, and Egerton University. Data was gathered in response to the stylistic use of language, both in the lexical choices and the voice of the artist. The collected data was presented in descriptive, coded, and interpretative formats after full transcription to reveal how literary scholars infer implied meaning in a song’s lexical choices and the voice of the artist. This was envisioned to provide a simple method that can be used to critique literary meaning, which listeners discern “through the ear” as a result of listening to the audio song. This was because there appeared to be an aesthetic manner of word rendition that the artists employ to present several layers of meaning during the performance, some of which could be construed as explicit or implied. The research was governed by Relevance theory in the examination of how artists and listeners infer explicit and implied meaning from the song text and an artist's style of singing. Focusing on stylistic features employed in the songs lexical choices and the oral performance as evidenced in the voice techniques of the artist helped in underpinning the different features literary scholars operationalize when inferring meaning from a song. The results of the research indicate that literary scholars can identify styles in the lexical choices in songs but face difficulty in identifying stylistic features encompassed in the voice of the artist and in critiquing the relevance of these oral stylistic techniques to the meaning implied in a song. It is this gap in the field of literary criticism that this research set out to fill. This followed the observation that the majority of respondents only used adjectives to describe the emotions a song creates. The research revealed that the emotions a song elicits in the listener are sonic features that result from the listening experience one employs, based on cultural experience and oral aesthetic linguistic competence that x inform the inference-making process. The research as a result recommends the need to include criticism of sonic features and oral nuances encompassed in voice--in the literary curriculum—in order to equip learners with critical skills that can be employed to critique the meaning encompassed in oral texts, theatre and performance, film criticism, and performed oral literature genres such as songs and oral poetry. xi CHAPTER ONE Background to the Study How do we deal with oral genres in a world where new technologies have become available to more and more people? (Merolla Daniela vii qtd in Wasamba, 2013). Oral genres in Africa are alive and dynamic. Technology too, is not at a standstill. It is changing rapidly and altering the way verbal art is composed, performed, documented and conveyed to a wider audience. For various reasons, Africa is lagging behind in multimedia research and documentation of oral genres. The lack of proportionate presence of African oral genres in the global digital map is caused by, among other factors, the slow pace of adoption of multimedia research and documentation. (“Multimedia Research”) Basing the onset of the research on Peter Wasamba’s observation this research seeks to explore methods and criticism procedures that can be employed in the criticism of songs at stylistic level. Firstly, at lyrical level and secondly, at voice level. It is hereby premised that a song bears literary meaning as a result of the stylistic choices a composer employs in one’s choice of words and in addition, as a result of the manner of voice appropriation during performance. What remains at large however, is how the meaning a singer implies in their voice can be critiqued from a literary perspective. This is because such meaning is discerned through the ear not as a result of reading music scoresheet but as a result of the cultural experiences a listener brings to the listening experience. Introduction This research takes advantage of the current advancements in music production and song performance technology to explore the literary meaning that results from the styles the Bongo Flava artists employ when writing and performing their songs. The key focus of the research is to interrogate and explore how the meaning Bongo Flava musicians imply in their manner of singing can be critiqued from a literary perspective. The research examines styles at the lyrical level and styles encompassed in the voice of the artist, which the singer appropriates as oral performance techniques. The research focuses on selected Bongo Flava songs by Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz. The research operates on two premises; firstly, that the selected Bongo Flava artists use language artistically in their songs, which consequently enriches the meaning listeners infer from the songs. Secondly, that the selected artists appropriate singing techniques that function to pass on nuanced 1 meanings. This results from how the singer intones their words and enunciates lines in a song. The voice of the artist, in this context, the research hypothesizes, functions as an implicature thereby suggesting meaning that the listeners identify with as a result of their cultural backgrounds. The research thus operates on the hypothesis that the selected Bongo Flava artistes employ oral literary, performance, and linguistic contexts to bring new meanings to a song. This arguably enriches the literary meaning discernible in the songs that are the subjects of this research. The voices in a song, the research argues, function to imply meanings that can be construed to be poetic when examined in the context of the nuances informing the linguistic mannerisms of the cultural-linguistic practices of a given language and its respective sound aesthetic practices. The research thus endeavours to examine the role styles at lyrical and voice level play in a song to inform interpretations that literary scholars bring into the song interpretation from a stylistic perspective. This is because criticism of voice as a research endeavour could lead to insights in criticism of literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist as well as analysis of oral poetry, theatre performance, and film criticism. This research, therefore, analyses elements of voice as the performance that yield implied meaning in oral texts. The research focuses on songs by Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw (both Tanzanian musicians) because of the literary nature and stylistic salience that inform voice appropriation and sound production that characterises the quality of composition as well as the rendition of most of their songs. This is evidenced in the phonological features that define the voice quality in the oral performances of the songs, the audio features that accompany the lyrical message, and the audio styles as aesthetic discourses. Background History of Bongo Flava Music The beginning of Tanzanian hip-hop, along with a genre known as Bongo Flavour (also known as Bongo Flava, or Fleva, according to the Swahili spelling), can be traced back as early as the 1990s (Suriano 1). This music, characterized by the use of Swahili lyrics (with a few English and slang words), is also referred to as the ‘music of the new generation’ (muziki wa kizazi kipya). Bongo Flava and Hip-Hop are not only music genres but also cultural expressions necessary to understand a substantial part of contemporary Tanzanian youths (Suriano 1). In addition, as Michael observes, Bongo Flava articulates youths’ attitudes, lifestyles, needs, and aspirations in addition to a 2 divergence of concerns depending on historical moments, and socio-economic conditions (qtd in Suriano 1-2). These shifting social narratives, surrounding Bongo Flava and hip-hop are indicative of a new moment in cultural production. It is a site where excess signifiers produce narratives of subjugation, festivity, and drunken fantasy mixed. What is most interesting is how these new narratives can explain the transformation of Tanzanian culture during the millennial moment under neo-liberalism. Bongo Flava/hip-hop has been a site of political subjugation and opposition, a route towards economic prosperity and intense competition, and a mediation of local and global cultural values. These contradictions are reflective of a cultural doubling: musical expression as representative of an imagined national culture and musical expression as representative of a transforming capitalist economic culture. (Michael 3) Bongo Flava it can thus be inferred emerged from class social discourses arguably as a voice of the subaltern. Additionally, as Nganyagwa notes, the early meaning of the term “Bongo Flavour” was “hip-hop” (that is, a foreign genre) with a local, Tanzanian flavour (qtd in Suriano, 2006:3). Always carrying lyrics in Swahili, with a few slang and English terms, Bongo Flavour encompasses many genres, which partly originated in other countries, such as rap and R&B (for the US), zouk (from the Antilles), dancehall, and raga (from Jamaica). These foreign influences are combined with local rhythms and tastes, and the result is Bongo Flavour, a new, very commercial genre characterized by the sound of a keyboard. Suriano continues to observe that: “this genre is continuously changing and the issue of which styles Bongo Flavour includes is still an unresolved debate in Tanzania. Many Tanzanian 'pure' hip-hop artists argue that Tanzanian hip-hop is no longer part of the Bongo Flavour genre. “In its early inception, Bongo Flava copied Western Rap music. The first artistes rhymed in English. These were children from rich families in Tanzania. Saleh Jaber released the first rap album in Swahili, “King of Swahili rap”, in 1991 (Suriano 4). Saleh Jaber is one of the pioneering hip-hop artists in Tanzania. He was born in Dar es Salaam at a time when there was a growing interest in western music among the youths in Dar es Salaam. Besides aping Western artists such as Vanilla Ice, who is popularly known for the song “Ice Ice 3 Baby,” Jaber introduced Swahili rap music arguably as a way of domesticating western music in the local language. Around this time, 1991, there were other artistes such as Juma Nature, Mr II, and groups such as Kwanza Unit and X Plastaz. Although many of these artists were trying to appropriate Western English Rap music, Tanzania hosted a Hip Hop competition in 1991, known as “Yo Rap Bonanza.” Many of the artists who took part performed Western hip-hop music. However, unlike the other artists, Jaber performed his song in Swahili, but appropriated Vanilla Ice’s melody for the song “Ice Ice Baby.” He won the competition. It is from this appropriation that it can be said Bongo Flava may have sprung as a result of hip-hop artists trying to adopt western music and fit Swahili words to western-oriented melodies. With time, the experiment with Western music and the local Swalihi language slowly evolved by adopting Taraab music on the one hand and western melody on the other. Consequently, a hybridization of Taraab and Western music led to the emergence of the Bongo Flava. Within the appropriation, Bongo Flava adopted the classical poetic features of Taraab music but raised the tempo to fit Western music genres. Retention of the poetic nature of Taraab music, on the one hand, and the appropriation of Western music tempo, on the other hand, led to what grew to be known as Bongo Flava. In 1999, Bongo music evolved into fully-fledged Kiswahili and artists started to concentrate on more serious lyrics, unlike before. The young singers not only commented on social issues but also adapted Kiswahili’s poetry mashairi in the composition of the songs. It is claimed that it received more media attention than other genres such as Taarab (sung Swahili poetry), and ‘traditional’ music and dances (ngoma). These artists took advantage of the media to popularise the music genre, which not only served as a form of entertainment but also became a source of income. Bongo Flavour and hip-hop allow the articulation of contemporary youth identities (Suriano 7). The young artists took advantage of “new techniques of music diffusion mean that even youths from urban slums can use quite cheap recording technologies to express themselves” (Suriano 8). It is observed, “Bongo Flavour and hip-hop artists do not play any musical instruments [live performance]. Rather, producers record their voices to a pre-recorded backing track.” (Suriano 8) Suriano acknowledges that lyrics generally express contemporary local problems, such as unemployment and poverty, as well as hopes and expectations about family life. Other songs provide a commentary on love and sexual relations in the era of HIV and AIDS. 4 Research on Bongo Flava, however, has tended to focus on the message conveyed in the songs’ lyrics, for example, themes such as love, heartbreak, and politics, to mention a few. This research has, however, not encountered any research on Bongo Flava that focused on analysing the literary meaning encompassed and implied in the voice of the artist, on the one hand, and literary criticism implied in the melody and lyrics of Bongo Flava songs, on the other hand. Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw use Bongo Flava music to comment on life experiences in Tanzanian society. Most importantly, they package their music in poetic forms, both in lyrics and melody. The research thus examines the role voice as an audio text plays in informing, creating, implying, and thereby defining the literary meaning that can be envisaged in songs. Although there are many young Tanzanian artists singing Bongo Flava songs today, Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw’s songs seem to possess unique characteristics that bear literary value due to their stylistic use of language. The two artistes garnish their songs with a variety of styles, both in performance techniques and in their lyrics. Consequently, their songs are not only very symbolic from an artistic perspective but also address sensitive issues in society, especially that affect the common people. Themes such as poverty, racism, and love that most people in the country relate with thus not only reflect the Tanzanian real-life but also reveal the coping mechanisms most people adopt as they go about their daily lives. Apart from the explicit message, the subsumed characters, personas, and implied audiences of their songs reveal motifs that can be said to characterise the thoughts of most Tanzanian youths. It is from this spectacle that this research seeks to investigate how thematic concerns and artistic use of language in their songs can reveal implied meanings on the one hand and critical perspectives about life and society in East Africa on the other hand. 5 Artists’ Biography at a Glance NAME: Diamond Platnumz official name - Naseeb Abdul Juma Issack. ORIGIN: He is a Tanzanian from Kigoma District. EDUCATION: Tandale West Primary School (1996-2002) DISTRICT: Kigoma Tanzania RELIGION: Moslem MUSIC CAREER: 2006 –To date DATE OF BIRTH: October 2, 1989 CHILDREN: Latifah Dangote, Naseeb Junior, Prince Nillan, Dylan Abdul Naseeb PROFESSION: Singer, songwriter, composer, and dancer VOICE: Tenor 3 MUSIC GENRE: Bongo Flava MUSIC ALBUM: A Boy from Tandale, Best Songs of Tanzania 2017 AWARDS: MTV Europe Music Award for Best African Act among many other awards. STUDIO: Wasafi Records WEBSITE: www.diamondplatnumz.com OTHER ACHIEVEMENTS: Wasafi TV na Radio yake launched in February 2018. CHARITY: December 2019 finances the construction of a mosque at Kigoma. NAME: Marlaw official name - Lawrence Marima Madole ORIGIN: Tanzania Marlaw official name - Lawrence Marima Madole COUNTRY: Tanzanian SONGS: “Bembeleza'' “Rita” “Pii Pii” among others. YEAR OF BIRTH: 1984 SINGING CAREER: It is reported that Marlaw developed an interest in singing early in life and would sing in church and started writing songs and performing in secondary school. 6 Statement of the Problem This research seeks to investigate language use in selected Bongo Flava songs. Language use bears relevance from a literary perspective based on the inferences listeners are likely to make at the lyrical level and in the voice of the artist. The research seeks to find out the role stylistic features play at lyrical and voice levels in conflating layers of meaning. We further explore how the infusion of oral nuances during oral performance help in the passing of implied meaning through the appropriation of artistic choices of singing as poetic cadence and as an ideological practice. Coming from a country with a strong influence of Swahili culture and its classical poetry traditionally known as Tenzi, the study aims to discover how this literary heritage enriches Bongo Flava songs and the thematic concerns the artists articulate. There is a need, therefore, to investigate the artistic choices singers employ to account for their contribution to the articulation of thematic concerns in their songs. Objectives of the Study This study will be guided by the following objectives: i. To examine the stylistic features employed in selected songs by Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw; ii. To examine the relevance of the oral nuances in the voice of the artist in selected songs by Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. Hypotheses i. Stylistic features in the lyrics of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw’s songs bear literary significance. ii. The infusion of oral nuances during an oral performance in the voice of the artist in selected songs by Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw bears literary significance. Research Questions i. Why do Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw use language stylistically? ii. Why do Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw use oral nuances in their voices? 7 Justification The research is justified on grounds that it adds to existing knowledge in the criticism of songs as a literary genre. In addition, the research paves the way for criticism of sound in theatre and performance, performed poetry, and film criticism. This proposition can be arrived at after examining how previous studies on stylistics in songs can be enriched by examining the meanings implied in the voice techniques which artists employ in oral performance to convey implied meaning. The research endeavours to provide a criticism procedure that could be employed to critique literary meanings encompassed in the voice of an artist. This can be examined by analysing how listeners infer meaning from songs. The research offers a concrete process through which the literary meanings encompassed in audio texts in songs could be analysed—as literary texts—to enrich the implied meanings of a song. The research was inspired by a question from a literature student during oral literature fieldwork, who asked, “What do we call that thing in a song that affects someone’s emotions?” Furthermore, the application of the research would be critical because it could provide approaches for extending criticism of sound in film, theatre, and performing arts. The findings of the research can be employed to advance the analysis of utterances in songs. Future research in literature could benefit from the study by adopting the method employed in the research to explicate literary meaning implied in audio texts, for instance in film criticism. This can aid in the explication of meaning subsumed in audio texts. Investigation of interpretations (associated with the appreciation of popular music) could consequently bring to bear the effects of the appropriations of voice form cognitive frames through which song appreciation as acts of practicing thinking defines aesthetics frames on which meaning in voice could be advanced on the one hand. On the other hand, the research accounts for these practices as the very means and processes through which meaning subsumed in sound in popular songs can be brought to bear. The research focuses on the songs of Diamond Platnumz because they are poetic in their implied message. However, this is not to assume that other Bongo Flava Artists’ songs are not rich in their artistic choices; the frequency with which the two selected artists appropriate styles is outstanding compared to other Bongo Flava artists. Notably, the consistency with which this is evidenced in their songs is also outstanding. Although there are many other Bongo Flava musicians, the songs of the two artists are therefore adequate in the representation of almost all the major thematic 8 concerns that other Bongo Flava artists articulate in their songs. Such themes and implied meanings are inherent in the melodic structure of their songs as well as in the stylistic use of language that they employ when writing their lyrics. The research focuses on the voices of the artists to bring to bear literary meaning that is discernible in the songs. Voice production techniques are examined to show how they shape meanings permeated in the voice of the artist because of this influence on the interpretation of meaning in a song. This necessitates the examination of how the song melodic structures inform implied meaning discernible in the songs. Arguably, appropriation of oral nuances and implied meanings may not only be found in Diamond Platnumz songs since it is a common practice in Swahili poetry. However, the explicit manner in which the artist’s appropriate voice conflates meaning makes his songs worth studying because they can be examined with the least effort, especially when it comes to examining how Literature students discern meaning in oral texts. The researcher thus settled on the artist because the messages in his songs are easily accessible not only to the researcher but also to undergraduate students. This is because the researcher seeks to interview undergraduate students as the main respondents during data collection. After all, the study aims to contribute to the already existing knowledge of songs as a sub-genre of literature. The researcher thinks that most literature students at the undergraduate level, as well as music students, would not have a lot of difficulties discussing songs by Diamond Platnumz because they have simple, straightforward lyrics as well as simple melodies. The artistic expressions that define how the artist appropriates style at the lyrical level and in his manner of singing can, however, be said to conflate layers of meanings. The research, in addition, focuses on the songs of Marlaw because they are not only narratological in nature but also because he draws his messages from real-life situations. His songs, therefore, are appropriate for this study because they are a reflection of Tanzanian society. The research seeks to examine how the voice of the artist and the melodies infused in the songs affect and influence the messages conveyed in the songs. 9 Scope and Limitations The research focuses on the songs of two Tanzanian Bongo Flava artistes. Namely, Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. Bongo Flava is a music genre practised in Tanzania and has an audience in East Africa as well as in other parts of the world where Kiswahili is spoken. The literary aspects that define the appropriation of stylistic choices at a lexical level as well as voice as a stylistic feature—as an element of the form in the songs—of the two artists greatly inform the choice of the artists who are purposively sampled. Thus far, Diamond Platnumz has sung over seventy songs, while Marlaw has sung over thirty songs. The research focuses on the analysis of the stylistic choices at the lexical level, in addition to oral performance singing techniques as styles. This encompasses analysis of stylistic features at a lexical level and the voice of the artist. This is intended to underscore how the meaning audiences attach to a song based on the manner of rendition, harmonies, and intonation features inform the inferences listeners make out while listening to a song. The research, thus, focuses on song composition and writing techniques as well as voice production techniques that the technicians apply while mixing, editing, and mastering the songs. Literature Review This section reviews existing literature on songs as oral-literary texts. It provides a basis through which the voice in the songs can be examined to bring to bear the literary meaning embodied in songs as literary texts and as oral performances. The reviewed literature focuses on the literature on song as presented in oral literature texts, popular songs, sound technology, poetic forms of digital technology, and digital technology. This is because different scholars and professionals in these areas have written about the role songs play in each of these contexts. Reviewing the literature in these areas aids in contextualizing the study in this field of research. This is important in understanding the relationship the research has with the already existing literature on songs. In addition, this helps in identifying existing gaps that the research can fill about the objectives of the research. As the section shows, oral literature studies on songs tend to focus on the analysis of messages (words) that are transcribed in print text and the lexical meaning conveyed through the message after the song transcription. Although there is already existing literature on the role style plays in songs upon transcription, to pass meaning, the role the voice of the artist as a stylized form of expression, capable of conveying implied meaning in a song plays to enrich the verbal message 10 need further research. The literature reviewed here comes to the observation that the (tune) melody of an artist’s voice in a song contributes to the implied meanings discernible in a song as evidenced in the voice of the artist. It is on this basis that the research endeavours to examine implied meaning in the song's transcribed text and the voice of the artist in the selected songs by Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. As Miall observes, “the sound of poetry is often held to be expressive” (Miall 56). In this context, the sounds /i/ or /p/ sounds are examined if they connote smallness or brightness. Does /g/ connote heaviness, and /u/ darkness? This is the hypothesis of phonetic symbolism, the proposal that specific phonemes encode innate meaning, whether visual, spatial, or kinaesthetic (Miall 56). Based on this argument by Miall, this research argues that the meaning of the voice of the artist in a song can be examined in the same context as phonotexts. The most familiar form of sound meaning is onomatopoeic in this context. This is the imitation of a natural sound by a word form: for example, “the words hiss, miaow, or crack each appears to embody phoneme clusters that sound similar to the event they name” (Miall, 56). Bredin, as Miall notes, suggests that “onomatopoeia is not a trivial and incidental phenomenon of usage, but answers to a deep-seated need that lies at the heart of the linguistic consciousness (qtd. in Miall 56). Based on Miall’s arguments and assertions, it is thus probable that examining meaning at the audio level based on the voice of an artist can open up vistas through which implied meanings can be explored. In a related argument, Stanley Fish in an essay on stylistics as Miall observes objects to any form of stylistics arising from “the desire for an instant and automatic interpretive procedure based on an inventory of fixed relationships between observable data and meanings” (qtd. in Miall 56). Fish does not, however, deny the existence of formal properties; he argues that we come to them within a framework of meaning already in place: “[M]eanings are not extracted but made and made not by encoded forms but by interpretive strategies that call forms into being” (qtd. in Miall 56). This implies that it is the listening experience, therefore, that the listener brings to a song or a listening experience that determines the meaning one can infer from songs. This research expounds on this observation to account for how listeners infer implied meaning in songs. In addition, the research discusses such listening and inferential meanings to show their relevance in literary criticism. This is because, as Newman observes “Hearers do make consistent judgments about phonetic meanings under several conditions” (qtd. in Miall 56). Analysis of several literary texts shows arrays of 11 phonetic features that appear to be consistent with their tone (qtd. in Miall 56). There lacks, however, an integrative framework in which to relate such findings; such a perspective is required to examine to what extent systematic sound differences occur in literary texts, and, if so, whether readers are sensitive to them (Miall 56-57). It is this acknowledgement of a gap in how such meanings are inferred through the ear as Miall observes that this research seeks to contribute to the existing knowledge. This is because it is an old fact that listeners can make out meaning in aura texts, but the procedure through which such meaning can be of literary relevance in songs is what this research endeavours to examine. In addition, in different research carried out by Tarte R. D., nonsense words were paired with tones of different pitches and judged using semantic differential scales (qtd. in Miall 58). In both studies, a high level of consistency was found in the subjects' judgments. They suggest that the sound frequency of vowels is the critical factor in judgments of phonetic symbolism (qtd. in Miall 58). On this proposition, this research borrows this suggestion to argue that tone, stress, and intonations in the voice of an artist in a song operate within the structural linguistic rules of a language to express meaning. The voice of the artist in a song in this context can be examined to unravel the role it plays in meaning creation as an implicature. In this context, the research probes the literary meaning inherent in the melody in Bongo Flava Songs. The manner of word articulation and enunciation is hereby suggested to convey meaning as a result of alignments of the voice of the artist to the linguistic structures of a particular language. This does not happen in a vacuum because such oral performances can be said to bear meaning that is informed and that is entrenched in a given people’s culture. As Wanjiku Kabira and Karega Mutahi observe, “Songs in Gikuyu community play different functions…their categories reveal the philosophy and aesthetics that is subsumed in the songs” (20). As it is observed in this case, there is a role aesthetics in songs can be said to play in the signification of meaning. This study expands on the literary significance that can be discerned from the appropriation and usage of styles in Bongo Flava songs to see how such appropriations function to suggest meaning, whether explicit or implicit. It is on this observation, therefore, that this research argues that the voice of the artist, compositional techniques, and the timbre variations of the artist's voice reveal significant meaning that is poetic and is subsumed in a song's melody. Poetic elements in the songs, as well as the role melodic devices play in the songs, can thus reveal 12 Gikuyu wisdom and philosophies discernible in Gikuyu traditional songs. Kabira and Waita further state that a “song is one component the oral artist (Wanjira) avidly exploits to make her narratives captivating and complete” (51). This implies that as an oral artist, the nature of the role the voice of the artist plays in influencing how the audience interprets messages inherent in the narratives calls us to examine features of the voice of an artist and to account for the role they play in shaping meaning during an oral narrative session. In a similar study, Ciarunji Chesaina observes that “irony plays an important role to convey implied meanings in songs ( 1997: 14-15). This study contends that the irony in the message may depend not only on the styles but also on the manner in which the verbal expression is defined. The role sound plays in necessitating meaning in songs could thus be examined by analysing how audiences interpret meaning in audio (aural texts). This can be accomplished by analysing the contexts in which meaning in audio texts is based. The song is perhaps the most powerful genre of oral literature because of its versatility and communicability. It is distinguished from the oral narrative not only by its mode of performance and use of verse but also by its extensive use of imagery and symbolic language (Chesaina 14-15). The aspect of symbolism in this context can be extended to include the symbolic meaning conveyed in audio texts as a result of the sound texture of the melody in question, which (Miall 57) refers to as the phenomenon of phonetic symbolism. This observation can be extended to the role sound plays in a song. Oral nuances play a role in bringing certain meanings to bear in the song as a result of how sound is appropriated. Voice impacts meaning in oral texts, especially in African languages, as a result of their tonal features. The audio features in musical accompaniments play a role in the necessitation of meaning in African songs as Karin Barber argues below: The most obvious reason for giving serious attention to the popular arts is their sheer undeniable assertive presence as social facts arguably mean they exist freely in almost every facet of society. They loudly proclaim their importance in the lives of large numbers of African people. They are everywhere. They flourish without encouragement or recognition from official cultural bodies, and sometimes in defiance of them. People too poor to contemplate spending money on luxuries do spend it on popular arts, sustaining them and constantly infusing them with new life. (Barber 1) 13 The power of song in Africa, according to Barber, does not only rely on the message the lyrics convey but also on the effect that results from the impact the song melody has on audiences. This, as a result, is the basis of this research. The research provides an understanding of how musical sounds in songs impact the literary meaning in the Bongo Flava. Similarly, as Mwikali Kieti observes, among the Kamba, imagery, and allusions portray social critique ideas in songs (6). This research expands Kieti’s position by arguing that there exists a close relationship between the stylistic use of language to convey the messages in a song as social criticism and the accompanying oral nuances, which can be said to metonymically suggest social criticism of the society in question. This research argues that artists, in this regard, appropriate embellished language for aesthetic purposes such as entertainment, on the one hand, and to conceal the intended meaning by use of euphemism, on the other hand. Euphemism, in this context, is a practice of aesthetics intended to defamiliarize meaning for proverbial purposes. This research argues that to discern the meaning that is subsumed in a song, there is a need for an examination of the process through which listeners discern implied meaning when listening to a song. It is on this premise, therefore, that this research endeavours to interview students of literature , music , theatre and performance , as well as music producers to analyse their responses to how they tend to infer meaning in songs, texts, and audio. These responses can aid in underscoring how listeners with a literary background infer meaning in the lyrics and melody of the artist’s voice. Consequently, the findings of such research can aid in showing how listeners infer meaning in audio texts. These observations, in addition, can be used to expand the current criticism procedures of songs as literary texts by providing a means through which implied meaning in audio form in songs can be critiqued from a literary perspective. Kieti’s take in this context is important as far as this research is concerned because it paves the way into the possible contexts within which this research contextualizes meaning in songs as oral aesthetic discourses that bear literary relevance. As a result, examining how literature students attach meaning to audio texts can help to highlight the process(es) by which audio features can be examined to underpin the meaning they suggest in a song. However, as Tsur points out on the question of whether the sounds of a word convey meaning, “an extensive literature is devoted to the topic, although much of it is ad hoc, arbitrary, 14 or skeptical” (qtd. in Miall 56). This observation suggests that there is still a gap(s) in defining how the meaning perceived through the ear can be brought to bear from a literary standpoint. It is on this observation, therefore, that this research defines its validity, on the understanding that it can make a significant contribution to the already existing literature on song criticism. The research in this context examines the melody in the voice of the artist as a responsive tool that functions in songs to convey implied meaning. This research, therefore, seeks to operationalize the argument that songs bear literary meaning and, in addition, makes the proposition that probably, the meaning listeners discern in a song operates within that culture, cultural-linguistic, and aesthetic sensibilities. In this regard, members of a given society use oral nuances implied in their spoken language to constitute meaning, which they can all infer as a result of their shared knowledge of what a given manner of expression means in a given context. The written word, however, this research argues, cannot convey the meaning that is lost in transcription. I, therefore, agree with Kabira on the observation that “the written word cannot convey the vivid and varied scenes and atmosphere which is often evoked by the spoken word and enactments, especially when the performing artist is a skilled one” ("The Oral Artist" v). It is on this observation that this research thus seeks to interrogate how such meaning, which is conveyed via the voice of the artist, can be critiqued. The concept of skill referred to in this case encompasses an artist’s acumen to employ one’s voice aesthetically to imply meaning in the minds of the audiences through one’s ability to employ a variety of vocal and aesthetic features. Modern music production techniques operate on similar principles to accentuate meanings that are permeated throughout audio texts. This can be evidenced in the shaping of graphic equalizers, for instance, which is done to ensure that the voice brings out the expected message. This applies not only in song production but also in radio broadcasting, where sound technicians use graphic equalizers to refine the voice quality of a broadcaster to disambiguate the meaning listeners are likely to infer as they listen to the voice of a broadcaster. This research, therefore, agrees with Kabira on the observation that, “critics of oral literature should study the development of the art and the ever-changing role of the artist about his society in the same way as literary critics study the growth of other genres, such as drama, poetry, and the novel” (Kabira 1). It is hereby thus argued that this observation can be realized by examining the studio techniques which sound technicians operationalize during song production 15 to shape meanings plausible in the song’s audio text, and by interviewing sound technicians to underscore the process through which they create implied meaning in songs, which listeners infer in the voice of the artist. In related work, Naomi Kipuri observes that in the Maasai community, songs performed during rituals are also composed spontaneously as the occasion demands. Kipuri goes ahead and observes that “songs and poetry embody a people’s philosophy, beliefs, values and sometimes, their historical development (223).” Agreeing with Kipuri in these observations, this research confirms that the philosophical essence discernible in songs is thus embodied in the song’s melodic structure. This is because such impromptu performances do not happen in a vacuum but instead operationalize a people’s cultural episteme and cultural sensibilities. There is therefore certainly a close relationship that ties the manner of performance with the ensuing themes that define performance. It is on this observation, therefore, that this research can beg the question of the implicatures in Bongo Flava songs as literary artifices. This research, therefore, seeks to address aspects of voice that artists appropriate to convey the meaning that can be construed to bear literary value. Such meaning, the research argues, bears aural aesthetics and audio structural features, which are very key in conveying the intended meaning. However, how implied meaning can be critiqued defines the gap this research seeks to fill. This is because different thematic concerns could inform shifts in an artist's voice and the entire song's melodic structure. There is thus a relationship that exists between the message in a song and its melodic structure. It can thus be argued that it applies not only to songs but to almost all forms of utterances and oral genres. This research thus agrees with Dan Ben-Amos in the observation that “folklore genres define communication systems, each with its internal logical consistency, each based upon distinct social-historical experiences and cognitive categories” (215). The literary value of such communications is thus what this research seeks to interrogate by drawing data from the selected Bongo Flava songs. Additionally, as Ruth Finnegan notes, “song is the most common form of poetry in Sub-Saharan Africa. Songs appear in an almost unlimited number of contexts” (242). Finnegan recognises the fact that of all genres of literature, song defines almost every aspect of a peoples’ life and daily activities as compared to other literary genres. The aesthetic value and the implied meanings in 16 songs can thus not be wished away or be reduced to the explicit meaning, which is underscored when a song is transcribed. The manner of singing in this regard can be said to bear serious undertones in terms of the meaning artists imply in their voices and which the listeners can infer by drawing from the wealth that defines and characterise a people’s oral cultural expressions not only as artistic forms but, in addition, as semantic frames through which meaning is permeated from the artist to the listeners. The songs in this context are sung orally and, in most cases, to the accompaniment of musical instruments. The meaning the voice of the artist implies calls for its examination as an expressive audio text. Finnegan classifies the songs into various categories of oral poetry that embody varying sound structures within which the message in the song is conveyed. The audience, in this case, not only responds to the lyrics but also to the melody during song interpretation. Studies on how fans interpret sound in a song—as a carrier of implied literary meanings— so far have not been attempted. With this in mind, this research concurs with Pauline Mahugu in the observation that “investigation into the Agikuyu songs of independence reveals that artists use language to convey double meaning aimed at passing coded messages in songs” (78). The literary nature of the meaning conveyed in a song’s lyrics, for this reason, relies to a given extent on audio nuances to convey the implied meaning. However, the audio aesthetic features in songs, which arguably contribute to the constitution of multiple levels of meaning through which the songs’ explicit and implied meanings can be discerned, so far define a lacuna. This is because although Mahugu makes this salient observation, her study on Mau Mau songs does not provide a window through which the voice of the artist in songs can be accounted for in terms of the role it plays in the creation of double meanings. This research conceives the meanings implied in the voice of the artist beyond the double voices. This is because it is probable that the meanings conveyed, in this case, are multiple and not necessarily twin as Mahugu looks at it. This research, therefore, begs the question, what features in the voice of the artist does the artist appropriate to necessitate the varying levels of meaning discernible in an artist’s voice? To what extent does the manner of arrangement influence the meaning construable in a song? Voice in this context operates within a cognitive structural frame that both the artists and the audiences 17 operationalize during the process of implying and inferring meaning in songs. An analysis of techniques informing the manner of voice placement on the one hand, and an examination of how listeners infer implied meanings, on the other hand, can help explain how certain voice audio features influence the meaning the voice insinuates. Listeners are often not able to infer such nuanced meanings as they listen to a song. The voice of the artist and the sound of musical instruments, in this context, operate within linguistic frames which as forms of techniques function to cause the implied meaning the audio quality suggests. In similar research on songs, Joseph Muleka observes that “the performer of Abakhayo oral poetry often applies certain poetic elements, and every element used bears its special significance. The oral artist selects and uses words and expressions that call for special interpretation… He/she weaves the language around symbolism, imagery, and allusions drawn from people's immediate experience” (95). This research agrees with this observation by Muleka and it is on this same proposition that this research seeks to interrogate the role stylistic features play in Bongo Flava. I addition, this research expands the same proposition to argue that the voice of the artist operates within aesthetic frames to insinuate meaning. In this context, the role aesthetic features in the voice of the artist play to effect implied meaning in songs. In addition, this research argues that the effect this has on the audience, as a result of aesthetic features in the voice of the singer informs how the voice function to convey literary meaning from a cultural aesthetic dimension. This in addition operates within cognitive and communicative frames of a given people’s oral literature within which the artist and the audiences identify with nuanced meanings in a song. The research, therefore, examines voice as communicative agents whose manner of appropriation functions to code meaning. This is because sound features bear literary relevance. As Muleka underscores for instance, “audio features idiophones and interjections seem to be lacking but after a close look, one realizes that they make a lot of sense in the poem” (Muleka100). This research, therefore, contributes in line with Muleka’s study by examining possible meanings encompassed in Bongo Flava, which results from the use of stylistic features. Turning to drama, theatre and performance, this research agrees with Kimingichi Wabende on the observation that, “dramatization of performances in the current stage vis a vis the traditional narration that took place by the fireside is a culmination of many factors brought into play; these include: playwright/script, performer, space, audience, director, and makeup, sound and lighting” 18 (95). This research endeavours to make additional knowledge in this area by focusing on the voice of the artist. This is because sound in theatre and performance plays a significant role in the creation of meaning. This results from a variety of oral voice feature that an artist may appropriate to insinuate the expected meaning. How oral artists vary their voices during the performance, for instance, from a drama, poetic, song, and performance perspective reveals that certain audio dynamics necessitate the creation of meaning that rely on voice techniques an artiste employs during the performance. As Kimingichi observes, “Context and its relevance to meaning creation as a social function enhance the meanings in performance” (72). This, therefore, implies that meaning cannot be divorced from the ensuing context. The same applies to how an artist intones the words, lines, and phrases when singing, to enunciate the expected meaning. It is in this context that this research examines how thematic concerns influence the tonal variations, which an artist employs when singing to make a particular meaning manifest. The message in a song influences how the artist intones the words when singing to create the expected mood and feelings, one expects the audience to bring the listening experience. This can be said to be a communicative technique employed to disambiguate meaning. With this in mind, this research explores the role different voice features play in a song to signify meaning on the one hand, and on the other hand, how listeners engage such features in the process of listening to a song to infer meaning. This is in the view that such audio features encompassed in the voice of an artist can be examined to account for the effect they play to signify meaning in Bongo Flava. Advancing this proposition, therefore, this research is of the view that voice in performed arts may be conceived to be metaphorical. As Jan Vansina observes: All art is metaphor and form. Verbal arts such as poetry, songs, sayings, proverbs, and tales conform to this rule. They express the experience of contemporary situations or events, morals to be drawn from such occurrences or situations, to express emotions associated with them. (11) In this context, in can be premised that the metaphorical nature of voice in performed arts in this account operates within cultural practices of orality, and oral aesthetics as cultural practices. The artist and the listeners in this regard can imply and infer meaning permeated in oral performed texts based on their shared knowledge. This view is in agreement with George Lakoff’s view that “the locus of metaphor is thought, not the language, metaphor is a major and indispensable part of 19 our ordinary, conventional way of conceptualizing the world, and everyday behaviour reflects the metaphorical understanding of experience” (1). How listeners conceive implied meanings when listening to songs, consequently, operates within cognitive frames as encyclopaedic entries. In this regard, the song evokes particular thoughts and feelings, which the listener thereby associates with the message in the song one is listening to. The messages encompassed in the voice of the artist as themes in this view can be examined to underpin the meaning of the voice of the artist and the style of singing infuses in a song. Tone, intonations, and stress markers, to mention a few functions insinuate the implied meaning. With a cursory look at Bongo Flava songs, the research notes can be said to bear metaphorical meanings that remain subsumed in the song’s melodic structure, the voice of the artist as well as in the stylistic features that an artist uses to express one’s message artistically. This is what this research expects to interrogate as a begging of the question. This attempt is in line with Kariuki Gakuo’s concerns that “popular songs-as a sub-genre of songs-has not been studied exhaustively, and researched on” (129). This research agrees with Gakuo on the observation that thus far although research on the literary meanings implied in the lyrics of popular songs has been carried out, on the one hand, there is still a gap when it comes to the examination of thematic concerns permeated via the voice of the artist, on the other hand. Although it may be argued that the above concerns may engender musicology, when it comes to the methodology which can be used to examine implied meanings invoice of the artist and the melody of a song, this research opines that this assumption does not necessarily follow. This is because the issue of method can be viewed from a disciplinary perspective. Therefore, although there seems to be a musicological method through which implied meanings in the melody and the voice of an artist can be explored, such a method from a literary perspective could be lacking, or needs to be underpinned. Thi is because literary scholars who have no musicological background infer implied meanings in the voice of an artist when listening to a song and can identify with implied meaning based on their ability to appreciate oral contextual information that is permeated through tone, intonation, and oral nuances. The procedure of criticism that literary scholars apply either consciously or unconsciously needs to be interrogated by way of interviewing literature scholars and using a questionnaire for instance so that the information that would emerge from such data can be used to underpin the process which can be employed to critique literary meaning 20 discernible in songs, which is brought to bear as a result of how one listens to a song and infer implied meanings which the artist imply with one's tonal voice. Additionally, Gakuo, in his criticism of Joseph Kamaru’s songs, argues that they, “depict a society estranged from its culture and traditions, a society wallowing in materialism and individualism, social vices rise to the exploitation, oppression, and dehumanization of man” (Gakuo 129). The role stylistic features play to inform the creation of these meanings, at the lyrical and audio level in Kamaru’s songs to lead to this interpretation would beg the question if the melody in the songs influences the meaning Gakuo is alluding to. This research, therefore, borrows this concept from Gakuo’s to interrogate the message conveyed in the song lyrics, which is suggested in the voice of the artist as well as in the lyrics. It is thus hereby surmised, the implied meanings a song in this case can elicit to a given extent depends on the nuances suggested in a song's melodic structure as well as in the stylistic use of language. This may inform how listeners interpret meaning in a song as a result of the meaning the song conveys in the message as well as in the melody. Listening to Kamaru’s songs based on Gakuo’s observation reveals a palpability of meaning that remains subsumed in the sounding of the melody which arguably remains unexamined. This research, therefore, endeavours to explore similar propositions in Bongo Flava to underpin the meaning that listeners infer as a result of the stylistic appropriation of Language at the message and voice level. In related research on popular songs, as Kiura Kariuki observes, "Newton Kariuki exploits satire in songs, to interrogate social follies, wickedness and exposes them to ridicule” (25). He further avers that the artist uses tone to convey satire (25). Based on this observation, it is thus clear that artists may use stylistic features in songs to achieve one purpose or another. It may thus be permissible to examine the role such similar stylistic devices play in Bongo Flava. Equally important, in this regard is the acknowledgement that literary concepts that inform aesthetic criticism of meaning implied in a song’s audio text could thus lead to additional ways through which meaning encompassed in songs can be examined from a literary perspective. The application of tone to express satire as Kiura notes may call into question the various features of audio discourse that give rise to a given interpretation of tone. This research thus makes use of questionnaires and interviews to interrogate various aspects of audio features that give the tone and voice of the artist the potential to pass meaning. Interpretation of meaning encompassed in 21 voice texts can be surmised operates within a backdrop of social-cultural audio sensibilities but which the audience may not always consciously be aware of. It is such social-cultural knowledge that listeners rely upon when inferring implied meanings when listening to a song. Interpretation of the implied meaning, for this reason, is a product of a thought process, which operates within a structure that governs the attribution of meaning based on features discernible in a sound. The research thus investigates features in the voice of the artist, which are in operation in a melody and which affect and influence the effect a song bears as evidenced in the comments audiences make regarding the meaning they can infer from a song as they attribute meaning to audio features in the voice of an artist. As Aaron Rosenberg observes, “song is one of the most widely communicated forms of verbal art on the continent. Popular songs are dynamic and widespread and permeate the lives of people throughout Eastern Africa” (99). In this analysis Rosenberg questions if songs are merely superficial entertainments for their immediate audiences or if they operate on deeper aesthetic and intellectual levels for the songwriters and audience members in their respective communities (99). In addition, he goes ahead and probes if songs convey information that may be key to understanding the people who produce these lyrical traditions. It is on similar grounds therefore that this research expects to contribute by interrogating the role style plays at the lyrical and audio level to permeate meaning that may result from the deeper aesthetics Rosenberg alludes to. Most importantly, this observation thus warrants the necessity of this research since it seems there exists a relationship between the message in a song's lyrics and how the artists and sound technicians appropriate sound in most East African songs during song production and performance. The melody in the voice in this case appears to operate for instance, within an aesthetic milieu to signify aspects of meaning that can be said to be subsumed in the philosophical spirit that governs voice in songs as a form of cultural expressions which are appropriated to articulate particular thematic concerns. The meaning a song conveys in its audio form, therefore, and which is lost upon transcription can be examined by underpinning sound features in a song that fans react to when they listen to a song. Examination of practices of listening within which music fans operate and the relevance they draw from a song, in this case, can help underpin the meaning attributed to different sonic features in music genres. 22 Besides voice and lyrics as key aspects of songs, responding to the current development in music dissemination and archival technologies, Mbugua Wa Mungai observes that: A key argument is that visual recording is a critical aspect of ongoing transformative cultural innovation in which the VCD form has come to impact significantly on popular musician’s ability to influence viewers' self/other perceptions. Popular music could thus be seen as an arena for the struggle to establish new centers of individual perception(s). (101) The ability to influence viewers and to shape new sensibilities of self and the other to an extent can be said to rely on melody and images. The impact popular music images have on fans, therefore, can be evidenced in the prevailing codes of dressing, manner of speech, and performance which fans imitate from popular artists. The impact audio aesthetic features in songs can thus have as evidenced in Bongo Flava, however, has not been examined despite the ostensibly rich poetic Swahili tradition that informs modes of song composition that most Bongo Flava artists employ. In addition to the rich Swahili tradition within which Bongo Flava song composition techniques are grounded, the fusion of modern digital technology in the melody in Bongo Flava may not have been researched fully to underpin the effect voice and singing techniques can have in necessitating the creation of meaning. As evidenced in the videos of most popular songs, the mode of dressing for most popular artists currently indicates a blending of both African and western dressing styles. This crossbreed in cladding is also reflected in the songs instrumentation, manner of performance, and thematic concerns, and thus this portrays popular music as a complex discourse that emerges as a result of the interaction of different cultures that leads to the hybridization of artistic components that make up the popular music as a literary discourse (Kuria and Kiambi 93). The oral text is thus becoming transformed as society becomes transformed by information and communication technology. This affects the way the Oral text is stored, transmitted, studied, and consumed (Kuria and Kiambi 95). However, according to Evan Mwangi, Hip-hop music appears at pains to define itself as different from the Western art forms with which it is hastily associated by instantiating localized forms and creating a different locution (5). Such pains as Mwangi observes could be resulting from the dire need to localize western hip-hop music into local forms. Bongo Flava resulted from such 23 experimentation of blending local dialects with western musical forms. Consequently, thematic concerns encompassed in the genre as a result of this blending can purportedly lead to the emergence of previously unexplored themes articulated in these songs as ideological practices. This research is therefore relevant based on the extent to which it can lead to criticism of implied meaning invoice of the artist as a new vista from a literary criticism perspective. This is because as the literature reviewed in this section shows there could be some congruence between what each of these scholars’ purport and the music in the songs, they are all alluding to from a thematic perspective. Although as it appears none so far has addressed the role of the voice in insinuating meaning in songs, this may not be taken to mean that such possibility does not exist. Notably, the role popular music production technology in East Africa plays in the creation of meaning can aid in the examination of literary meaning in oral texts. This is because modern computer technology on sound production avails the literary critic skills and equipment which can be exploited in an endeavour to examine fine sound details which have a significant impact on the meaning songs have on audiences. As Thiong’o observes, “The sound of musical instruments in songs of John De Mathew reflects and emphasizes the mood conveyed in the verbal text” (Thiong’o, 2009: 123). Advancing on this assertion, this research argues that in addition to articulating the message expressed in verbal messages, the voice of the artist creates the mood and listeners associate with the message in a song. In this regard, the meaning that results from the voice of the artist can be examined as dramatic techniques to bring to bear the implied meanings that listeners construe from the application of oral performance techniques evidenced in the voice of the artist. Technology in this context can aid the modern artist not only to diversify and enhance criticism of themes and styles found in Popular Songs on the one hand but on the other hand, it can provide the critic with tools that can be employed to critique the meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist besides the messages in a song. In the process, technology endows the artists with additional creativity which song producers and sound technicians exploit to create or disambiguate the intended meaning as communicative ostensions by refining the voice of an artist during song production. Consequently, this impacts meanings both at audio and lyrical levels. This research, therefore, endeavours to critique the meaning implied in the voice texts of songs by examining how audio features in songs contribute to the literal meaning. 24 A critique of the impact the listening process has on audiences based on the manner of performance can lead to the underpinning of aesthetic ideologies within which the artist and the target audiences operate. This can be based on the responses and comments the listeners make about a given song in response to the voice of the artist. Notably, previous studies on songs may have not accounted for such meaning, and indeed this study is based on existing literature on songs because it addresses the role of voice in songs to enrich literary criticism of songs by interrogating the meaning of the voice, melody and performance techniques. Such meaning, however, expressed in the transcribed text can be enriched by analysing the audio song particularly because listeners respond to songs by listening to their audio forms. Most importantly, as Rosenberg observes, "popular culture is understood as a site for struggle, a place for the negotiation of races, gender, nation, and other identities and the play of power” (Rosenberg, 2008:101). This research agrees with Rosenberg on this assertion and as a result, examines the probable themes that emanate from song performance as cultural practices. As Rosenberg observes, for instance, there is a need therefore to account for thematic concerns such as race, gender, nation, and identities that the Bongo Flava artists could be articulated in their songs (101). This view is cognizant of the fact that artists compose songs that serve as social commentaries, in addition to political themes as well as gender relations as may be evidenced in love songs in Bongo. This view thus concurs with Mwenda Ntarangwi on the observation that, “Cultural traditions within Hip-Hop help in understanding its role as a platform to discuss and construct African Identity” (40). The literary criticism this research addresses are thus cognizant of Rosenberg and Ntarangwi’s postulation and, therefore, addresses the dilemma David Mikali raises as to whether “the essence of the local popular music lies in the sound or in the lyrics” (qtd in Nyairo 176). In extension of Mikali’s concerns, this research analyses literary meaning permeated in the voice to underpin how voice practices can lead to the creation of poetic forms which thus far have not been examined in songs. Furthermore, as Walter Ong observes, “all sound, and especially oral utterance, which comes from inside living organisms, is dynamic” (32). In emphasis on Ong’s assertion, Wasamba observes that “the dynamic process that informs sound production is expressive in nature. The oral genres in Africa are alive, dynamic and responsive to developments in information technology” ("Oral Literature Scholarship" 2). Most importantly, it is these concerns that define the basis of this 25 research. This is because the role of digital technology in song production in this view defines ways of constituting meaning on the one hand and may on the other hand presage new ways of not only practicing oral literature but also can inspire new ways in which meaning in songs can be critiqued. Notably, the oral literary practices informing sound production in this context, not only give way to the creation of new songs and the emergence of new song genres as in the case of Bongo Flava but also define new ideological practices which are however permeated in society by the appropriation of the performance space as music, song, and dance performances. It is thus important to interrogate the meanings and discourses that characterize popular music as cultural practices operating within a given ideology. As Eduardo Kac observes, “poetry is a profound engagement with language” (10). The same can be said of Bongo Flava. In addition, Kac goes on to observe that “practices in media poetics transform technology into an instrument of the imagination” (10). As a result, it can be surmised that the practice transcends poetry and poetic practices to envisage previously unforeseen meanings, which can be conceived by examining the contexts informing the purposeful processes that characterize song production, editing, mixing, and performance. It is this frame of mind therefore that defines this research. This is because Bongo Flava is a good example of how digital texts produce new contexts within which literary meaning can be read in songs. This results in the genre's ability to insinuate implied meaning as a result of how the music appropriates the Swahili contexts that define and characterize discourse, tone, and expressions of the Subaltern. Consequently, as Talan Memmott observes, “the ability to cause thinking is an essential part of digital poetics and rhetoric, and it is here that literary hypermedia finds its greatest potential” (303). Indeed, the extent to which digital poetics in song enunciate and imitate how the target audience identify with the message in songs can be said to tie performance to the context and reality that informs the creation of Bongo Flava songs this is because almost all of them are based on a real-life situation. This makes the songs a vital tool for critiquing society based on what and how the Bongo Flava artists reflect the society in their songs. In particular, as Jean-François Augoyard and Henry Torgue note, “people working in sonic effects for film know this very well; they select useful sounds for the effect on the audience rather than for a realistic reference to the recorded scene” (23). As a result, sound in this context serves as an aspect of form to influence the interpretation of meaning not only in film but also arguably in songs. In film criticism, for instance, the term mise-en-scene is a traditional theatre term used to illustrate the performative effects on viewers experiencing video installation works (Sone 6). 26 Spinelli on the same account observes that "Modernist experiments in audio poetry that involved recording and editing technology constitute a critical mass onto which it is possible to graft a new digital poetics. Hardly is it radical today to observe that poetry is inseparable from how it is produced and distributed or transmitted” (Spinelli 100). Similarly, as Kofi Agawu observes, “music resembles myth, animates religious ritual, and facilitates movement and dance. It is an agent in music drama and plays catalytic if not constitution other forms of visual narrative.” (15). It is within this frame of mind that this research seeks to explicate voice as a referent in Bongo Flava, wherein this context voice can be perceived as a metaphor that serves as an image of the reality that inspired the composition. This is because, as Richard Sieburth observes, “linguistic use of overtones in language functions to define literary meaning in poetry” (69). As earlier noted, phonological features in the voice of the artist can be viewed from this context. However, so far commentaries on songs from a music perspective have been limited to the description of a piece of music without necessarily explicating the metaphorical significance implied in the voice. Roland Barthes, however, writes, “it would be necessary to look at more or less the whole of music criticism,” (180). In this regard, wholeness from a literary perspective can encompass the contextual meaning implied in manner of voice usage during singing in order to make particular meaning manifest. As David Machin argues, “A song or soundtrack might be described through adjectives such as ‘romantic’, ‘aggressive’ or ‘soulful’. But these terms point more to the effect of the music rather than to exactly what it is in the music that communicates these meanings” (1). In addition, Machin observes “As analysts vague terms are not satisfactory since they do not address meanings that are created that can be drawn out by more systematic analysis. Analysis of music and sound can reveal forms and structures that may be missed by the casual listener (1).” It is in this view thus that this research engages the listeners to discern how singing styles are likely to provoke the meaning listeners to construe in the voice of the artist. In conclusion, the results of this research seeks to pave the way towards a greater appreciation of localized forms of popular music as literary discourses. This is because, the emerging sound in popular songs, as a poetic discursive practice begs the question of redefinition of East African popular songs as poetic and literary artistic works. Particularly, popular music practices appear to presage artistic episteme as evidenced in the different popular music genres. However, there does 27 not exist a literary canon based on established theoretical epistemologies that define a canon that can aid in the explication of literary and linguistic meanings envisaged in East African popular songs. Different popular music genres emerge as a result, of varying ways in which they appropriate sound technology. Some of these include Kapuka, Genge, Gipuka, Bongo Flava, and Luganda. Syncretism therefore can be said to reign characteristic of African popular art, its most central and positive stylistic imperative. This research thus concurs with Barber that: If what is referred to as popular arts escapes the conventional canons of both indigenoustraditional and European forms, it is not to enter, in some unimaginable way, a wholly different aesthetic universe, but rather to operate in a kind of no-mans-land between the two, selecting and combining elements from each for their purposes. (12) It is thus hereby argued that literary foundations in which East African traditional songs are founded, inform and inspire popular song composition practices on the one hand, while on the other hand, current global music production practices seemingly, destabilize the traditional ways in which the musicians and sound technicians appropriate voices during song production. The latter creates an epistemological dilemma for the popular music critic because the sound aesthetic practices evidenced in popular songs operate in ways that have not been so far studied from a literary perspective. This is because, thus far, criticism practices of meaning encompassed in songs chiefly focus on the message, not the meaning implied in the voice of the artists. The research observes that the current methods of sound appropriation in song production are oriented by oral literature aesthetic practices, and this thus influences the meaning discernible in songs. However, the practices of sound aesthetics that technicians operationalize have not been studied from a literary context. Popular artists, however, address pertinent gender concerns in the songs but so far it is not clear if listeners react to popular musical sound the same way, or if their responses to music are affected or influenced by gender, age, race, culture, social class, to mention but a few factors that could influence song composition, performance, and interpretation. Notably, it is thus important to engage respondents of both genders, in the examination of the possible meanings the voice of the artist elicits in the listeners. Theoretical Framework 28 This research will be guided by the principles of Relevance Theory.. Utterances and almost all manner of voice usage are expressive in nature. Voice modulation and manner of words enunciation can suggest to the listener a variety of meanings that the speaker does not state verbatim with the spoken word. The oral expressivity in this context is contextual, symbolic, and metaphorical. Such metaphors, however, implied in the voice are dependent on the listener's ability to contextualize the words of the speaker by drawing from the cultural wealth that defines the purposes that warrant a given manner of expression. How an artist intones words in this context can be construed to bear implied meaning which listeners can listen to as a result of how one construes the intended meaning. Speakers in this context for instance can express; joy, excitement, romance, happiness, irony, sarcasm, bitterness, anger, and discontentment to list but a few communicative ostensions without necessarily stating this verbatim—as evidenced in the meaning a listener can infer from a speaker's voice. It is in this regard therefore that this research employs relevance theory to examine the meaning the two artists express in their oral expressive techniques as evidenced in their respective styles of singing. As Helga Schröder observes, the textual message that is expressed verbatim in relevance theory is referred to as inferential communication. The implied nuance is suggested in the manner of expression which the speaker expects the listener to infer based on the manner of expression, for instance, the tone that may disambiguate a polite request from a command in a statement such as— shut that door—vs shut that door! —based on tone and manner of utterance is referred to as ostensive communication. Context, manner of utterance, the relationship between the speaker and the listener, culture, and the knowledge shared between the listener and the speaker all determine the meaning (cognitive effects) permeated between the singer and the listener as in the case of this research (4). Relevance Theory Relevance Theory is a cognitive-pragmatic model for interpreting and understanding utterances. The model proposes that understanding and comprehension are directed and channeled by the innate principle of relevance. This principle works like a filter in the mind of communicators so that only the information that is selected by that principle leads to understanding. The relevance filter is guided by the mental context of the communicators. Relevance is a psychological 29 mechanism that works based on cost and benefit in the mind of communicators. What this means exactly is explained in the section below. The Communicators’ Mental Context The idea of context is essential for the theory. Deirdre Wilson & Dan Sperber define it as follows: “Context is a psychological construct, a subset of the hearer's assumptions about the world” (qtd in Schroeder15). Context is thus some kind of encyclopedia about the world which contains the values and norms of a society, personal belief systems, and cultural norms; in short, it is all the knowledge that the communicators will have stored in their minds at the time they enter a conversation (qtd in Schroeder, see also Blakemore, 1992: 16-22), and (qtd in Schroeder, Gutt, 2000: 27) for more on this notion). The next sub-section talks about how the notion of context is related to the principle of relevance, the cognitive effects, and processing effort. In relevance theoretic terms, an input is relevant to an individual when its processing in a context of available assumptions yields a POSITIVE COGNITIVE EFFECT. A positive cognitive effect is a worthwhile difference to the individual’s representation of the world – a true conclusion, for example. False conclusions are not worth having. They are cognitive effects, but not positive ones (Sperber & Wilson 1995:1-2). The Principle of Relevance for Communication The principle of relevance relevant to this study covers the cognitive part of communication: Cognitive Principle of Relevance Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance (qtd in Schroeder, Wilson & Sperber 2004: 610). Underlying the principle as defined here are two components: an informative component and an intentional one. The informative component communicates the content of the message while the intentional one transmits the intention of the speaker. The information process between two interlocutors works as follows: the message transmitted by the speaker is monitored against the context of the hearer. The mind of the hearer starts to work and look into the encyclopedic entries, the socio-cultural norms, and the knowledge of the world. This means that the mind searches all mental representations for understanding. The technical term for mind-searching devices is cognitive effects. In relevance-theoretical terms, the informative 30 component is called “inferential communication” and the intentional component is ostensive communication The latter consists of the verbal and non-verbal cues that a speaker builds into his or her message so that the hearer understands the content and the intention of the speaker’s message. Cognitive effects try to integrate the content of the information represented by the utterance into the existing mental representations of the hearer. If the message meets some shared context, that is, some older knowledge, then the understanding is high, which means that the message has reached relevance for the hearer. Consequently, the information is integrated into his mental lexicon. However, if there is no shared background knowledge between the speaker and the hearer, then little or no understanding takes place. As a result, the new information is either rejected or misinterpreted, but not stored in the mind of the speaker. Or it is only preserved as misunderstood or distorted information. FIGURE 1. COGNITIVE PROCESS THROUGH WHICH LISTENERS PROCESS MEANING IN AUDIO TEXTS PRODUCTION MENTAL EPRESENTATION CULTURAL ASSUPMTION CULTURE The processing of information between the speaker and the hearer also works on a cost-benefit basis. That is, while searching for optimal relevance, the mind tries to be as economical as possible. The greater the effort the mind makes to invest, the fewer the cognitive effects that are found, and 31 the less relevant is the message. However, if the processing requires little effort because there are many shared assumptions between the interlocutors, the message will contain a great number of cognitive effects and thus have much relevance. The processing effort is a device of the mind which helps to understand utterances. As Patrick Kihara and Helga Schröder note, “the humorous effect of mchongoano is achieved after the hearer has recognized the intended insult of the joke that is created through the incongruity of events and situations”(1). Consequently, quoting (Wilson & Sperber 615) they argue that the comprehension procedure follows the following steps: (a) Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about explicit content via decoding, disambiguation, reference resolution, and other pragmatic enrichment processes. (b) Constructing an appropriate hypothesis about the intended contextual assumptions. (c) Construct an appropriate hypothesis about the intended contextual implications. (Schroeder and Kihara, 2012:66) Arguably, the above procedure is relevant in this study following the relevance it has to this study. This research therefore agrees with Schröder that “the processing of information between the speaker and the hearer also works on a cost-benefit basis. That is, while searching for optimal relevance, the mind tries to be as economical as possible” (45). The same can be said to apply when inferring meaning implied in utterances. This is because the listener deduces the meaning most evident based on the cultural knowledge one associates with the oral nuances. In the context of this research notably, carrying out interviews and using questionnaires can aid in underpinning the explicit and implicit message permeated in Bongo Flava songs based on how artists appropriate the voice during performance. 32 Conceptual Framework As shown in the framework below, the arrow indicates the process through which a listener processes the meaning one infers in a song during the listening process. Upon hearing the artist's voice and the message one is articulating, as argued in Relevance theory, these are the stages through which a listener's mind attaches meaning to the message in the song. Voice as of the meaning informative implied in the text Meaning meaning encompassed in Relevance Based on Cognitive Effect. I.e. the based on: stylistic use of the knowledge that words that defines the cultural emerge as a meanings the artist result of how and the audiences the listener can decode and meaning the voice of the artist Artist’s Voice / Resulting Filtering process Language Audience listener based on cultural attaches to the context voice of the Lexical message and artist and the Tune & message in the Message makes encode in the song Sonic Effect inferences based on cultural present in Meaning contexts the voice of encompassed in determining the lyrics based on Filtering process the manner of of the meaning expression. Voice as implied in the stylistic use of manner of ostensive lexical message the voice expression and communication based on cultural (Audio word articulation. context Aesthetic the artist Texts) is Evidenced in the effects the song has on the listener. e.g. phonotanie, Anamnesis. 33 CHAPTER TWO Research Methodology Introduction The previous chapter reviewed relevant literature on songs as an oral literature sub-genre, and in addition, it gave a background review of Bongo Flava songs. The chapter also reviewed the theory and the research used in the explication of the collected data. Notably, the chapter attempted to establish the gap that this research seeks to fill by adding to our understanding of how stylistic features in song inform, define, and characterise multiple layers within which implied meaning can be discerned. This chapter discusses in detail the steps the research employs in the collection of data and examination of meaning that result from a stylistic appreciation of meaning expressed in lyrical choices and the voice of the artist. The research operationalises criticism procedures that literature scholars appear to employ when inferring meaning from the lyrics of a song and the voice of the artist as one listens to a song. Notably, the research operates on the premise that there is a critical procedure that literature students employ, whether consciously or unconsciously, to infer implied meaning when listening to songs. Purposive sampling was employed in the selection of the two artists. The research chiefly critiques three songs, namely, “Pii Pii”, “Rita” by Marlaw and “Nikifa Kesho” by Diamond Platnumz, to avoid unnecessary duplication and overlay of details. This is following the observation that out of Marlaw’s ten songs and Diamond Platnumz forty songs collected, these three address themes such as love, poverty, death, marriage, and relationships between couples, as well as filial and parental love. The three songs are thus decided upon on the observation that their analysis can reflect the major concerns articulated in most of the other songs. However, to buttress the analysis and to crosscheck the observations underscored in the three songs, the research reviews a few of the other songs, though not in detail where applicable. This is influenced by the research objectives and hypotheses. This is because the researcher has observed that the two artists use language artistically both at lyrical and oral performance levels. The research thus begged the question of the literary relevance this can have on the relevance of the implied meaning which the artists expect to convey on the one hand, and on the other hand, 34 which becomes manifest in the songs as literary discourses. To examine the literary meaning implied in the artistic use of language, the research employs relevance theory to examine how stylistic use of language influences the meaning listeners infer from a song as a result of the artistic manner in which the artist uses language. This is important because it aids in examining the meaning the artists convey as a result of how they use figures of speech such as repetition, metaphors, and metonymy, to mention a few. It is hereby argued that this usage of language artistically bears literary value. This sets the basis of chapter three, which examines the literary meaning that is encompassed in the choices of words the artist appropriates when writing the song. Upon identification and discussion of the relevance of artistic features the artists employ when writing the song, Chapter Two lays the foundation for the succeeding chapters where the research seeks to examine the relevance of artistic features which the artists employ in their oral (audio) voice. In chapter four, the research examines the relevance of the aural and audio features encompassed in the voice of the artist and their relevance in conveying implied meanings which the artists expect the listeners to infer based on their wealth of cultural linguistics, as a resource through which members of a given culture exploit to conflate meaning in oral speeches. It is thus the intention of the research to examine the value of orally expressed texts in Bongo Flava songs since it is surmised that this is one of the avenues through which the artists convey implied meaning. The research thus seeks to examine the resultant meanings that possibly emerge from how the artists use oral nuances in their voices and for what purpose. The Relevance of the Methodology Employed in this Research The research methodology employed is relevant because while it aids in contributing to the existing knowledge by examining how listeners infer meaning from a song's artistic features, it can help future researchers apply similar methods applied in this research to critique literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist. This is a rarely explored area of criticism in literature. Analysing the meaning listeners hear through the ear and which could bear literary relevance, in addition, can aid in criticism of meaning implied in performance, as evidenced in the voice of the artist from a literary perspective as well as in film criticism. This is because the sound and background voices in a film contribute to the meaning the audience infers from what they are watching. 35 Sampling Method The research applies purposive sampling in the selection of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. This is because, as evidenced by a cursory look at their songs, the two artists employ language artistically at lyrical and vocal levels to ostensibly convey explicit and implied meaning in their songs. The researcher initially sampled ten songs by Marlaw based on the effective application of sound techniques employed in the songs to build on the poetic, dramatic, and narratological aspects that define his songs. The researcher later narrowed it down to three songs to avoid duplication of information. This was because the researcher noticed after transcribing several songs that in all the collected songs the artists employed similar styles, and therefore there was an emerging motif of purpose and intention that could inform the employment of artistic choices in Bongo Flava songs. The research afterwards focused on two main songs by Marlaw and one song by Diamond Platnumz. The last three songs that the research focused on bear stylistic features that were also common in almost all the other songs and, in addition, encompassed the stylistic features that could form a defining basis for the role of artistic uses of language in Bongo Flava, and in addition, the artistic use of voice bears the audio images which the research seeks to examine in order to underpin the role that oral features in the voice of an artist play to convey implied meaning. The songs are thus examined in order to account for the role sound features play in the songs in creating dramatic effects and implied literary meanings. The research first sampled thirty-six songs by Diamond Platnumz. The selection of songs is influenced by the poetic effect that informs their composition on both the lyrical and audio levels. This is evidenced in the artistic features in the songs and the voice of the artist. It is opined that sound production techniques are employed to enrich the literary meaning discernible in the songs. The choice of the songs, in addition, is arrived at because of the prominence of the respective features, which define the focus of the research; the researcher chose songs that bear outstanding features with respect to the research objectives. The songs were chosen because they bear standing features that can aid in the examination, analysis, and verification of the different variables under analysis which each objective focused on. Data Collection Methods 36 The research uses interviews and questionnaires to collect data that can inform how Bongo Flava music fans infer meaning from the songs. Interviews as a method of data collection in this regard can aid in underpinning the meaning respondents attach to the message in a song as well as the voice of the artist. The method is appropriate in this context since it gives the respondent an allowance to express themselves fully, on the one hand. Although the method is appropriate in this context, sometimes the interviewees can digress and veer away from the topic. Questionnaires are thus employed, on the other hand, in order to aid the respondents to focus chiefly on the objectives and hypotheses of the research. Besides, criticism of artistic features employed in the lyrics and observations of studio procedures employed during song production, the research carries out individual and group interviews with song producers of the two artistes and sound technicians in order to underpin how various technical procedures employed in songs at post-production level inform the final quality of the sounds which listeners identify with when listening to a song. The research seeks explanations from the studio technicians on the implicatures implied in the effects of various sound production techniques. The responses from sound technicians consequently inform the premise within which a sound technician works on a given sound variable to create the intended meaning, which the researcher analyses to account for how the various sound production techniques inform the literary meaning discernible in songs. The researcher also interviewed selected fans of Bongo Flava. The research samples university students pursuing English and Literature, Theatre and Performing Arts, and Kiswahili who are in their final year. The academic background in the area of study, level, and expressive ability of one's ideas are factors that informed the choice of students for the research interviews. The researcher picked students with linguistic competence and repertoire that aid one to express oneself in the academic setup that defines the basis of this research. The researcher, in addition, interviewed Bongo Flava sound technicians/sound engineers and students of literature from Dar es Salaam University who have a cultural background in Bongo Flava music and Swahili cultural tradition. This group aims to examine the methods employed by Bongo Flava music fans who have a Swahili cultural background and a literature foundation to infer implied meaning in Bongo Flava songs. 37 The researcher, in addition, looked forward to interviewing Theatre and Performing Arts from the University of Nairobi. This group aims was to examine how students grounded in Theatre and Performance may infer implied meaning as they listen to the audio songs they play back. It was surmised that from the act of listening to the process of attaching meaning to an audio song, the relevance listeners attach to a song can bear a literary significance. The researcher, in addition, looked forward to carrying out a classroom discussion with a class of oral literature students from the University of Nairobi. This group discussion aim was to establish how students of oral literature critique meanings implied in songs as a literary genre to underpin how their criticism practice can aid the research in underscoring meanings implied in the voice of the artist from an audiencesensitive perspective since this is intended to be research in literature as an academic discipline. This may also help to conceptualize how future literature studies can enrich the meaning expressed in lyrical texts with the meaning artists imply through the use of voice. In addition, the researcher interviewed a class of students pursuing a Bachelor of Music at Kenyatta University. This group aims examined whether there are musicological basics that literature—as a discipline—can apply to enrich criticism of meaning implied in the voice of the artist. This, it is assumed, would augment the meaning oral literature students attach to the artistic use of language, hence enriching the wealth of literary criticism that can be generated from the analysis of songs at lyrical and audio levels. Finally, the research findings are tested using fourth-year English and Literature students. The purpose of this group is to crosscheck and verify the findings of the research. In addition, the responses of music fans are to guide in cross-checking if the assumptions sound technicians operationalise during song production and the interpretations music fans apply when listening to songs define a communicative code that could thus be underpinned. As postulated in Relevance Theory, this can help underpin the role different voice production techniques play in constituting literary meaning in songs. Interviewing the students, in addition, serves to verify the hypothesis, analysis, and findings of the research. The researcher will play to the students song samples that bear the different voice effects to assist them in identifying the variables they consider when underpinning meaning in songs when they listen to a song. Once the students have mastered the textures of the voice features, the researcher will ask them to record their responses with regard to how the voice features influenced their interpretation of surface and implied meanings in the songs. 38 In summary, therefore, the research looks forward to sampling students from four main universities: the University of Nairobi, Kenyatta University, Egerton University, and the University of Dar-es-salaam. This is because Kenyatta University has a rich foundation in literary culture and performing arts, which is beneficial to the research on the understanding that the students selected are familiar with sound features common in theatre and performance. Students pursuing literature, theatre, and performance from the University of Nairobi are selected because it is easier for them to understand the research questions and thereby provide reliable responses as a result of the experience they've had in their school of theatre and performing arts. Students pursuing Bachelors degree in Kiswahili literature at the University of Dar-es-salaam the research assumes is reliable in the examination of the audio nuances in the songs and thus helps understand how the audio and oral literature context of Swahili culture and tradition in Tanzania informs meaning creation in the songs. Sorting and Organization of Collected Data The research employs Johnny Saldaña’s description of a code, category, and theme in this context. After the identification of key ideas as codes, the research organizes the emerging ideas as categories. These are major similarities that characterize the similarities between the responses the respondents attach to the meaning they discern from the songs. Upon examination of the various responses different respondents attach to the song as descriptions, the research establishes the most common explanations different respondents attach to the song texts. These similar explanations form the codes. Consequently, the research classifies the emerging codes based on their relevance to the objectives of the research. The research, afterwards, expounds on the meaning the respondents attach to various categories. Consequently, this is examined as themes based on the relevance the respondents attach to the song text and voice of the artist, as evidenced in the explanations they give during data collection as their responses to the meaning they infer from the song. This is based on the significance the respondents attach to the data. This research identifies these explanations as themes. A theme, in this context, is understood as the central meaning the listeners attach to a song text. According to Lydia DeSantis and Doris Ugarriza, "a theme is an abstract entity that brings meaning and identity to a recurrent experience and its variant manifestations. As such, a theme captures and unifies the nature or basis of the experience into a meaningful whole” (362). A theme in this context brings meaning and identity to a recurrent 39 pattern and its various manifestations; themes develop from the patterns. Sorting and Organization of Collected Data: Follow the following steps in summary: Data Classification and identification of categories Themes Data Analysis and Criticism Procedure Although Relevance Theory employs the terms inferential communication and ostensive communication to refer to lexical meaning and intended meaning, respectively, the two terms can be viewed as codes. In this context, a code can be understood as something capable of signifying a particular meaning based on the significance the receiver/interpreter of the code attaches to a given concept. The message in the text of the song and the manner of articulation in this regard bear significance, which results from the oral nuances a listener can attach to a given lexical message based on the manner of rendition, articulation, expression, or enunciation. This research accordingly adopts Saldaña’s explanation of the term code and uses it in the underpinning of underlying significance which listeners can attach to an utterance based on the lexical meaning or manner of expression one can infer from a song's text or manner of enunciation. This is because the concept of a form in this regard helps the researcher in this regard to classify the meanings interviewees attach to the songs based on the research question. From a relevance theory perspective, the adoption of the meaning implied in texts as codes in this context helps the research move from general to specific. The song, in this regard, in a text, the process through which the listener attaches meaning, in this case, moves from the general message conveyed in the song to specific meaning and significance, which the listener infers by applying contextual information and cultural knowledge, which one appropriates to deduce the implied meaning in the song. The research applies data coding methods for qualitative researchers prescribed by Saldana. He observes that “a code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute to a portion of language-based or visual data” (3). This approach was important in this research since it aided in underscoring salient meaning that could be deciphered from the text of the song as well as from the voice of the artist based on context. This was important because the researcher could filter the main concerns that seem to inform and characterize the meaning the respondents infer from the songs based on their shared values, which determine the encyclopaedic entries one 40 (listeners) appropriates when making meaning out of the voice of the artists in Bongo Fava songs. The manner of utterance in this case bears implied meaning, which the artist conveys to the listeners as voiced concerns. The manner of intoning words in this context, or enunciations in this regard, is premised to carry the artist's expectation to share with the listener a particular meaning that comes about as a result of the style of singing one employs. Consequently, from the emotions, mood, and attitude that the voice of the artist evokes in the listeners, one can underpin thematic concerns that are encompassed in the voice of the artist. The manner of singing in this context appropriates cultural sensibilities that define how members of a given culture identify with the themes the artist articulates in this case. In this case, underscoring of mood, for example, that may result from a singing style, can serve as a pointer to a salient theme that the speaker is attaching to the ensuing situation. An utterance like "shut that door!" cannot be reduced to the simple description of shouting or exclamation but can also be deduced to suggest power discourses between the speaker and the person being addressed. The manner of utterance, thus, in this regard, can be construed as a theme, based on the premise that it pre-empts, in this case, the possibility of relationships between subjects. Upon identification of the manner of utterance as a code, therefore, the research examines the meanings that can ensue as a result of the experiences listeners bring to the listening experiences based on their shared cultural knowledge of the cultural knowledge that they share with the artist. The research then examines such themes to uncover the possible meanings that could lead to the purpose as to why the artist appears to be addressing such themes, as evidenced in the meanings the interviewees attach to the messages in the selected songs. The research has, in this regard, gained from DeSantis and Ugarriza’s explanation of a theme as; “a theme is an abstract entity that brings meaning and identity to a recurrent experience and its variant manifestations. As such, a theme captures and unifies the nature or basis of the experience into a meaningful whole” (362). Based on the objectives of the research, therefore, this approach is important in aiding the research to bring to bear meanings which are conveyed in Bongo Flava, and which remain masked by the surface of the song's melody, which serves the entertainment value besides the serious message that remains encompassed in the song as evidenced in the message and manner of utterance. While paying attention to the relevance listeners attach to the message in the songs, based on the lexical meaning and manner of singing, most importantly will be the exploration of why such meanings are relevant from the respondent’s perspective. To do this successfully, the research is 41 guided by Emerson et al. in their advice on a probable number of questions that one can consider during the coding of field notes in the following order: What are people doing? What are they trying to accomplish? How, exactly, do they do this? What specific meanings and/or strategies do they use? How do members talk about, characterize, and understand what is going on? What assumptions are they making? What do I see going on here? What did I learn from these notes? Why did I include them? (qtd in Saldaña 21-22). Such questions are important in guiding the interrogation of the relevance respondents attach to the songs. In the context of this research and theoretical framework, the research, in addition, appropriates Lofland et al.’s features such as cognitive aspects or meanings (e.g., ideologies, rules, self-concepts, identities); emotional aspects or feelings (e.g., sympathy); hierarchical aspects or inequalities (e.g., racial inequality, battered women, high school cliques). (qtd. in Saldaña15). In addition, as Lofland advises: If you are working with multiple participants in a study, it may help to code one participant’s data first, then progress to the second participant’s data. You might find that the second data set will influence and affect your recoding of the first participant’s data, and the consequent coding of the remaining participants’ data (qtd in Saldaña, 2013, 22). The research makes use of this method since the data deals with several respondents in their responses to the various research questions. Finally, on coding, the research adopts Saldaña’s guide in precoding procedure since this aids in underscoring salient features that characterize the relevance of the information the respondents give as reactions to the research questions. As Saldaña observes, “Descriptive, narrative passages of field notes are logged in regular font. Quotations, things are spoken by participants, are logged in bold font. OC: Observer’s Comments, such as the researcher’s subjective impressions or analytic jottings, are set in italics” (Saldaña 20). In this view, the research brings to the reader's attention the immediate observations that the researcher makes with regard to the responses of each participant. This is because, in Saldaña's words, “coding is not a precise science; it is primarily an interpretive act” (Saldaña 4). 42 Coding According to Saldaña “a code in qualitative inquiry is most often a word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute to a portion of language-based or visual data" (4). However, he adds that coding is not a precise science; it is primarily an interpretive act” (Saldaña, 2013:4). Application of Types of Coding “Coding in qualitative research, a process of analysis that allows for the reduction and classification of the generated data. (256)”. In addition, as Rossman & Rallis, 2012 observe, the process of coding involves organizing data, bracketing chunks (or text or image segments) and writing a word representing a category in the margins. (qtd in Creswell 2014: 247). Moreover, the process of data analysis engenders accounting for what the research respondents say (Auerbach, Carl, and Louise B. Silverstein, 2003:7). This research thus employs the following types of data coding, as explained by Saldaña: Descriptive coding—the use of narratives based on data summarizes the data using sentences (which helps to maintain the meaning intended by the speaker). In Vivo coding—use of single words to identify themes in the data, words, and short phrases from the respondent's language. Emotion Coding: the use of descriptive emotion words by the respondents or researchers and their inferences (Saldaña 59). Steps Employed in Data Analysis and Interpretation The research employs the following method and procedure in data analysis and interpretation; identification of codes from data; linking data to an indication; from the indication to all the data relating to that indication; seeking patterns in the data; underscoring emerging patterns as motifs; and finally, observing emerging patterns as cognitive effects, that is, meaning listeners attach to the message of the song the voice of the artist based on context. Patterns and trends are links that reveal something significant about the research question. The patterns assist in the development of themes. Themes in this context are the theoretical constructs supported by the data. This leads to the identification of the themes. The themes reflect the significance of a pattern within the data in relation to the research question. Therefore, data is coded for themes. To move from code to theme, 43 categorize data to help in narrowing down and identification of the motifs. A code, in this context, is a descriptor of a data segment that assigns meaning. The researcher can then identify CODE, then underscore the theme resulting from a given code, and examine the relevance of the themes based on the research question. Organizing codes to examine emerging categories can be done as shown below. In this case, a theme captures and combines the nature or basis of experience into a meaningful whole. Overview of the Method Method of Examining Meaning Listeners Attach to the Text— (Cognitive Effect) The research employs the following procedure: identification of stylistic features in songs; examination of the purpose of usage using relevance theory; a critique of the significance of the style based on the relevance the respondents attach to the style under examination; drawing evidence from the collected data as the revelation of the expectations of the artist and the audience; and finally, making deductions and conclusions based on respondent's responses. This involves an examination of the process through which audio texts and oral texts create meaning in the listeners' minds, which the listeners infer as a result of applying given encyclopedic entries (cultural linguistic experiences that bear particular meanings). The voice in this context is examined as triggering emotions and consequential emotions, which lead to the effect the voice has on the listener, thereby creating the significance one attaches to the audio text. Triggering emotions in this case caused the feelings a speaker responds to, and consequential emotions that define products of the feelings (audience) are mentioned as responses to how they react to the triggers. Analysis This involves uncovering patterns in data and, consequently, the interpretation process involves uncovering meaning and or multiple meanings the listeners infer from data based on the inferences that characterize the relevance they attach to the lexical meaning and manner of expression—as an artist's ability to convey one's intentions as evidenced in the communicative ostensions such as tone and mood that define how one uses their voice when singing particular lines and phrases of the song. In this context, the manner of utterance/rendition as a performance technique is 44 contextualized in the cultural manner in which the artist, as well as the audience, identify with nuances in oral expressions as implicatures. Criticism Procedure The criticism procedure involves the following steps: one, providing evidence of multiple meanings present in data by identifying the relevant themes that support the purported meaning. Two, interrogation of the song that comes out after the studio production as a reflection of the ideal song that was in the artist's mind, which can never be a 100% emergence of the song in the mind. Three, examination of the song as a cultural product that reflects the multiple meanings that reflect the shared experiences between the artist and the target audience. Four, the meaning results are examined by questioning the meaning and value the audience and the artist ascribes to a song, testing the hypothesis. Five, the researcher observes the following emerging meaning from the data collection: the hypothesis may change appropriately as data may demand. This may result from making findings that are different from the initial objectives and hypothesis. In this case, the research may or may not yield different results from the expectations of the researcher. The research operationalised the observation that expressive choices informing the style of singing in songs follow intended ostensive communication practices that the artiste intends to favour in one's choice of expression style as a practice of disambiguation. Every form of expression, in this case, is a response to some unstated premise or situation. Each form responds to the situation by particularizing assumptions and presuppositions of which the singer is aware will inform the interpretation of meaning which the listeners will arrive at as a result of the inferences they will draw based on the semantic associations they make in relation to their understanding of what particular expressive choices stand for when employed within a given context. The choice of lyrics and manner of expression reveal a condition to which the singer is likely to be reacting or. As a result, it reveals authorial judgment(s) about conditions influencing the artist's life. The choice of expression is thus a form of framing meaning and a way of constituting meaning in return. The analysis procedure employed thus involves interrogating the questions: why is the singer expressing the intended message the way it is being expressed? How does the application of voice production techniques enhance the intended meaning? The research, in addition, examines the 45 phonological features of voice in order to explain how the audio features enhanced by technology contribute to the implied meanings conveyed in the songs. It functions to achieve implied meaning. The same way human beings vary their voices when talking in order to shape how the message one communicates is interpreted, is the same way the melody of a song shapes the message embodied in the lyrics. People vary their voices when talking depending on the context. It is in the same way that a song adapts and appropriates different sound patterns to define semantic contexts within which meaning in a song is constituted. A manner of expression, which relies on how one uses their voice, may reveal characters of sound which convey meanings. These meanings exist as a result of how sound is appropriated. The research examines the different ways in which the music production process shapes the voice of the artist and the sounds of musical instruments in order to give them a definitive character that is capable of communicating meaning. Application of Relevance Theory in the Analysis of Literary Meanings Discernible in Sound in Songs The research employs the following procedure in the application of the theoretical framework after data coding and classification of collected data: Explication of possible underlying relevance in forming inferences listeners make from the message and voice of the artist. This is based on the role of context, culture, and the production process in constituting the cognitive effects (meaning—listeners attach to the text) following the listening experience one brings to the song as encyclopaedic entries. NB. The researcher uses bold in this regard for saliency. Method The research employs the following steps in critiquing explicit and implied meaning in the song's texts and the voice of the artist: Firstly, identification of the message expressed in the song's lexical text. Secondly, the identification of particular oral nuances that are intended to influence a given interpretation based on the inference a listener would attach to a given manner of expression. Thirdly, an analysis of how these nuances influence possible meanings which listeners derive from the manner of expression as implicatures. Fourthly, a criticism of the inferential meaning based on the evidence a respondent will attach to a given expression. The research at this level underpins the exact words the respondents use to explain the relevance one attaches to the message in the song. Summary of Data Analysis Procedure 46 In summary, the research employs the following procedure in the analysis of the data: Firstly, coding data is followed by establishing categories; thirdly, classifying categories; fourthly, establishing themes emerging from each category; and fifthly, underscoring and discussing possible meaning that results from the identified themes. Finally, the research makes final findings and conclusions. Lastly, this is followed by making recommendations based on the findings and conclusions of the research. Possible Research Challenges Lack of cooperation on the part of the sound technicians is a likely limitation the research can face since the sound technicians, the research target to interview, can refuse or become adamant about freely parting with information with regard to the production techniques they employ during song production. To mitigate this, the researcher will create a working relationship with the producers to build their confidence and trust that the research is an academic endeavour that may not harm their work or the music industry in any way. In addition, the researcher identified a neutral sound engineer who was consulted to shed light on the responses from the sound technicians in case there is a need to seek further clarification on responses after data collection. In addition, the researcher familiarised himself with the basics of the processes involved in song production. This is vital for data analysis and verification. Ethical Considerations This research adheres to the guidelines on ethical considerations of research. This is ensured by the understanding that all the data and information to be collected in this study will be reported as freely and honestly as possible. The researcher has sought a permit before going to the field for data collection. In addition, the research ensures that all respondents will be treated with dignity and respect during and after the research. In cases where privacy and confidentiality of information are required, the researcher avers to treat the respondents as such. Moreover, the researcher endeavours to do a full transcription of the collected data to report the collected data as honestly as possible. It is hereby observed that other than for the purposes of the PhD research study, there is no ulterior motive to be met by this research. Additionally, the researcher acknowledges, through in-text citations or in the references as required, the works of other scholars as honestly as possible, to avoid plagiarism 47 The next chapter examines possible meanings that could emerge from the application of styles in Bongo Flava songs. It is premised that although artists may use language artistically to embellish a song for entertainment purposes, such stylistic use of language can consequently have a significant impact on the constitution of implied meanings that come about as a result of the application of styles such as figures of speech. As the next chapter thus shows, the application of styles in Bongo Flava songs bears literary meaning, which results from an artist’s endeavour to conflate meaning. The Bongo Flava artists, in this case, as the chapter shows, employ language artistically when writing the lyrics of their songs. It can thus be premised that this employment of artistic devices contributes to the ability of a song to convey multiple layers of meaning because the song-writing techniques in Bongo Flava hinge on a very rich culture of Swahili poetic tradition, popularly known as Tenzi. 48 CHAPTER THREE Meaning Encompassed in Stylistic Choices at the Lexical Level This chapter examines literary meaning encompassed in the stylistic use of language based on the choices of words the artists use in the songs "Pii Pii," "Rita" by Marlaw, and the song "Nikita Kesho" by Diamond Platnumz. The chapter examines literary meanings that result from how the artist uses language artistically at a lyrical level in order to craft the message one wants to convey. It is in this context that it is surmised that the two artists use embellished language for a variety of reasons. As the chapter demonstrates, these include, to name a few, entertainment, eliciting emotions, and conflating meanings. This chapter is important because it embeds the research in the known and accepted stylistic criticism practices employed in literary studies and the appreciation of texts. In addition, the findings of the chapter serve as a stepping stone through which the research establishes connections and relationships between the literary meaning conveyed in the stylistic use of language on the one hand and the stylistic choices implied in the voice of the artist discussed in the next chapters. Moreover, this chapter helps in bringing out the implied meanings that Bongo Flava artists conflate and suggest in how they appropriate language artistically. This is because despite Bongo Flava being too figurative in nature, highly stylistic, and poetic—what may be construed as mere artistic use of language for embellishment purposes, as the chapter shows, this artistic use of language not only serves an entertainment value but, in addition, functions to convey very serious meanings, themes, and messages which the artist veil in one's ostensible use of figures of speech. The surface meaning bears entertainment value, as the chapter shows, functions as a masking technique. This is because it defamiliarizes the serious meaning implied in the songs, as the criticism of these features reveals in this chapter. The act of defamiliarization in this context is itself a practice of literary style euphemic in style of expression intended to convey sensitive meanings in a slightly mild way for the sake of the sensitivity of the audience based on the cognitive and emotional effect unveiled language could have on the consequential effects on the audience, as the chapter shows. Finally, the chapter defines an entry point into the next chapter, which explores explicit and implied meaning in the voice of the artist. As it will be seen, the next chapters build on the stylistic appreciation discussed in this chapter in order to explore the literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist. 49 Summary of the Main Message in the Main Songs that Formed the Basis of the Research This section discusses, in brief, the main message addressed in each of the three songs. This is important because, one, it aids in clarifying the main thematic concerns each of the songs addresses. In addition, it helps in setting the basis upon which the artists employ language artistically. As the chapter shows, this is important since it helps in showing the relationship between the message in the song and how language is employed artistically to enrich the implied meaning that results from the application of a variety of styles. In all the songs collected, it was observed that the two artists majorly address themes such as love, death, relationships, poverty, and mostly the many challenges young people contend with day-to-day in Tanzania. As the chapter shows, the styles employed in these songs bear a direct relationship to the main message the artist addresses. It is important from a literary perspective, therefore, to investigate the literary relevance of the artistic use of language in Bongo Flava songs in conflating meaning implied in the song. This is because of the value and relevance this has on song appreciation practices not only as mere artifices but also as means through which a given class of people in society voice their concerns and reveal ideological practices that define their society. Pii Pii "Pii pii" is a love song. The title of the song is derived from the hooting of cars. The persona is complaining that it has been a long time since he has been at home. He has been away from home for a long time, and has already informed his lover of his arrival, which is delayed by traffic. The song is an expression of the impatience with which he is not able to wait for the traffic to ease. As a result, he says that he will drive on the wrong side of the road even if he is accused. He is ready to defend his action. This can be treated as hyperbole, which is meant or intended to show the listener the great love he has for his lover and his great desire to get home. As evidenced in other songs by Marlaw, the motif of love defines the major concerns of his messages. This was observed in the songs ‘Rita’, ‘Sorry Sana’, ‘Busu la Pinky’ (Pink Kiss), and ‘Mbayuwayu’, to mention a few. Towards the end of the song ‘Rita’, where the artist says that the song is a true story, Marlaw bases his songs on real-life experiences. It is therefore important to examine how the appropriation 50 of stylistic choices functions in Bongo Flava, not only to embellish the language but also to convey implied meaning that defines the reality of many Tanzanians. ‘Rita’ The song "Rita" is a social commentary and a depiction of racial animosity between Africans and Asians in Tanzania. This is seen as an enmity that grows as a result of conflicts that result from the desire to integrate and the need to retain racial purity, on the other hand. The conflict in the song revolves around love, where the persona (who is an African) mourns the death of his lover, Rita, who dies in mysterious circumstances after visiting her Asian family. It can thus be seen that the motif of love could be said to be a major issue the young men in Tanzania contend with, which often leads to unforeseen tragedies. "Rita" can, therefore, be said to be a dirge. In this song, the persona addresses his deceased lover, Rita, and therefore it can be said to be an elegy. The persona complains that the antagonism that bedevilled their relationship was a result of their racial difference. While the persona is Tanzanian, Rita is Asian. As a result, her family members happen to dislike the persona and have attempted to shoot him twice without success. Finally, they chase Rita away from their home upon the realization that she is pregnant. She goes and lives with the persona, and later she gives birth. Her siblings call her and request that she go home. When she arrives, she calls her persona, only to discover that her brothers are preventing her from returning to their home. She complains about the phone and says, "If you knew, I could not have come alone." Finally, she boards a bus to return to her lover's home, and the bus conductor confirms to the persona that she is on her way. Unfortunately, while the persona is waiting for her at the bus terminus, the bus arrives only for the conductor to discover that she has died while on her seat. The persona takes the child and results in him taking alcohol as he mourns her death. The song can thus be said to be a tragedy since a love story has ended on a sad note. The circumstances surrounding the cause of Rita's death are, however, not expounded in the song, nor what followed after. This surprise ending leaves the listener guessing what may have caused the death, for example, was it suicide or food poisoning? We shall never live to know. Towards the end of the song, Marlaw says, "true story." This is to inform the listener not to treat the song as mere fiction, arguably to emphasize to the listener to tie the unfolding in the song with the reality that may be defining the relationship between Africans and Asians, which may go unreported. In this 51 disclosure, the song "Rita" serves to unwrap the racial antagonism between Africans and Asians in Tanzania. The themes of love, pain, loss, attempted assassination, and death thus emerges as serious concerns through which the artist invites the Tanzanian community to re-examine the social relationship between races. The song, in this context, serves as a rhetorical question, which leaves the listener and the entire Tanzanian community pondering the issues the artist addresses because the song does not provide a solution or a response. The persona, however, recounts that after Rita's death, he has resorted to taking alcohol. This can be envisaged as frustrations and anguish that bedevil members of society as they contend with the hard reality that characterizes their everyday life. Such can be construed as venting one's frustrations as a result of facing situations that are beyond one's power or one's control on the one hand. On the other hand, the persona and Rita as characters in the song can be construed as metaphors, reflecting victimizations that most people in Tanzania face as a result of their race. As depicted in the song, such racial evils deprive the affected characters of their right to self-determination. As it will be seen in the next chapter, the complaint tone and mood in the artist's voice thus is an articulation of the painful reality on the one hand and a beseeching for racial unity and transcendence on the other hand. ‘Nikifa Kesho’ ‘Nikifa Kesho’ is a song about death. In this song, the persona expresses his worry as to whether his music fans and close friends will mourn him on the day he will die. This invites the listener to question the theme of love versus hypocrisy among friends. In addition, the artist tackles the theme of love by mentioning the mother, whom he is supposedly addressing in one of the sections of the song. He tells the mother (a subsumed addressee in the song) that upon his death, no one should tell the mother that the persona fathered her child. This is because those he sought relationships rejected him for one reason or another. As evidenced in almost all other songs by Diamond Platnumz, such as ‘Nataka Kulewa’ (I want to get drunk), and ‘Lala Salama’ (sleep well), the theme of love defines a major concern that defines his songs. The song ‘Nikifa Kesho’ (If I die tomorrow) can be said to be a dirge. This is because the persona is contemplating what will happen on the day he dies. He questions and worries in what appears to be a monologue where his friends will mourn him when he dies. He is worried about whether 52 people will continue listening to his songs. In addition, he expresses his helplessness that upon his death he will not have anything of his own, nor will he be able to control anything. He takes the opportunity to tell the mother that upon his death, she should know that he has not sired a child with anyone, so there should be no one who should ever presume or cheat the mother that she has his child. He complains bitterly that upon his death he does not have anyone to be buried with, which means he is not yet married, and he expresses his pain that those he could have married have refused. And that those he could have sired refused and said they would spoil their youthful beauty by giving birth. Towards the end of the song, he expresses his sadness that they broke his heart when they rejected his marriage proposal, and lastly, he worries and wonders who will encourage the mother not to cry on the day he dies. He is sad that upon his death, even his mother will not be there for him. Stylistic Criticism of Meaning Encompassed in Appropriation of Styles at Lexical Level The three songs ‘Pii pii,’ ‘Rita’ and ‘Nikifa Kesho’ incidentally all start with interjections. Ahh ahh eiy eiy (eiy eiy), ooh, and Aaai, respectively. The use of these utterances as oral techniques functions to capture the listener's attention. From an oral literary perspective, what effect does this have on listeners of coaxing? One's attention as a result of the manner of utterance can be said to serve as onomatopoeia. This is because these interjections imitate the emotions that characterize how the persona appears to identify with the respective theme of each song as it unfolds. In this regard, these oral devices can be said to function as foregrounding devices, whereupon they attract the listener and, in addition, prepare one psychologically and emotionally for the ensuing theme. This is because the three utterances invoke in the reader the respective mood the artist wants the listener to adopt as one listens to the song. The song "Pii Pii", has a mood of excitement, only for the song to unfold into a love song. In the song "Rita" and the song "Nikifa Kesho", this has a sad effect, which arguably prepares the listener for the dirgeic message in the two songs. The onomatopoeic effect in this context can be said to serve a function as a foreshadow since it psychologically prepares the listener for the respective mood that characterises each of the songs as the song unfolds. These observations are arrived at as a result of the immediate effect these techniques have on the listener based on a cultural 53 foregrounding of expected interpretation based on their day-to-day language usage. As a performance technique, the device in this case, in addition, functions to set induction and the respective mood that defines the situation the person is going through or experiencing. It thus psychologically sets the scene in the mind of the listener. The artists, in this regard, can be said to operationalize their cultural-linguistic repertoire in their expectations of the listening experiences the listeners will attach to this manner of expression. Ostensibly, the filtration of the expected message, as well as the implied meaning, becomes and defines the verisimilitude and psychological state within which the artists and the listeners treat the ensuing meanings conveyed in the songs. The resultant meanings in this context can be construed as the cognitive effects the songs are expected to have on the audience as a result of their manner and style of utterance. Although this can be said to be a performance technique intended to contextualize the song within the mood and attitude most people would associate with the message in each song, that is, love, excitement, and sadness, respectively, one can, on the other hand, beg the question why or what may have been the artist's intentions and expectations in employing the device. If the artist used this device because of their knowledge of the emotional effects this can have on the emotions and mood of the listener, the performance in this regard could be construed as an act of power practice and the oral performance technique as a tool, method, or means through which the artist can control how audiences identify with the message in a song. On the assumption that there are several people (listeners) who will unconsciously get swayed by the mood set by the device, one can thus argue that the artist and manner of performance, although they may be expressions of self and therefore representations of subjectivities, on the other hand, can be argued to operationalize ideological practices of a given class of people, which ostensibly could be part of the target audience. Such subjectivities in this context bear relevance based on the understanding that they define the artists' and their targeted audiences' way of interpreting a facet of their everyday life. One can also ask why the two artists begin their songs with interjections. Is it a style of expression in Bongo culture? Or is it just a coincidence? Should it be that it is an artistic expression common with Bongo Flava artists and their fans, then the onomatopoeia in this regard can serve as a discourse marker defining social discourses and hence an artistic text defining people's identity? In this case, one would ask, "why the appeal to pity?" On the understanding that in all the three songs, the persona is expressing situations of helplessness, it can be argued that the 54 appeal to pity is an act that manifests through the song by intention or accident, and it seems to reveal the helplessness of those represented by the artist, and those who identify with the expression in this manner and their respective ways of reacting to situations. In addition, the onomatopoeia in this context can be said to function as a reflection of the coping mechanism through which the persona and those who go through similar situations use the song and the performance space as a site through which they reflect on their reality, themselves, and their manner of coping and articulating situations. In this regard, onomatopoeia is not only a sign for defining oneself and one's mode of expression, but it can also be linked to the underlying conditions that inform, define, and influence such expressions. The utterances in this regard can reveal the power structure in society within which the powerless users of such expression voice their status in society by using emotive lexical choices, such as onomatopoeia. The appropriations of onomatopoeia in this context serve to reveal the social status and the identity of a given class, as evidenced in their manner of expression to draw attention. Consequently, these expressions as signs of helplessness can thus be said to be motifs of the powerless in society and their negotiation techniques as they beg for society to listen to their challenges and problems in life. This inference can be based not only on the lexical choice but also on the manner of utterance, as evidenced in the ensuing undertones, as the next chapter will show. This is because the voice and the nuances of pity which are implied in the manner of utterance have a similar filtration effect on the listener, thus creating the image of pain and suffering. The persona's enactment of the implied pain in this context can thus be read as metaphors of pain and suffering on the one hand, and the act of their enunciation as an invitation to engage society in a discourse about some of the challenges that affect the members of the society whom he represents on the other hand. The appropriation of onomatopoeia in this context, therefore, qualifies not only as an enactment of voice to represent the sound that defines an occurrence or an experience but also qualifies as a cinematographic device through which the artist draws the listeners' attention by using voice and performance to colour thematic experiences of the persona in the listeners' mind. Furthermore, the two artists use catenations in their word usage and utterance. Catenation refers to the oral technique of enjoining words while speaking into a single continuous sentence without 55 pausing. Marlaw employs this device in the song "pii pii" in the manner in which he sings the following lines. Ninataka niwahi kufika Nija inajam sasa wapi nitapita Nimekaa karibia saa sita Sasa kukaa nimechoka ooh baby Sijamwona long time now, When examined in the context of the message and the effect it has on the listeners, the device functions to draw the listener's attention towards the persona's impatience. It serves, in addition, to make the persona's desire to get home quickly appear real in the minds of the listeners with the least effort. As a performance technique, therefore, the style helps the listener to visualize the urgency with which the persona is yearning to get home to his lover since he has been away since last month. The device in this regard serves for dramatic effect and consequently creates a sense of entertainment as the listener empathizes with the persona. However, the dramatic effect does not last; the enactment of urgency simulated in this context on the flipside serves to reveal the hastiness and the emotional manner in which the young in society react to situations. Although there is an aspect of entertainment, the theme of love and longing, romance and longing to be with one's lover, on the one hand, such enactment of speech and manner of utterance reflects the argumentations one has with oneself since this is a monologue. The catenation in this monologue can thus be said to reveal the weaknesses of thought and reason that define how most young men in Tanzania react to the situation. This can be construed, on the other hand, as a revelation of an aspect of narcissism since it is all self-centred on the persona's reaction to his goals and expectations. In this regard, catenation reflects not only a style of expression but, in addition, a propensity for the weakness of thoughts and logical reason as one contends with situations that may call for one to be patient, give way to others, or even be cordial and accommodative in how one articulates one's desires against those of others. This can be underscored on the premise that such a manner of expression defines an argumentation practice since the persona is reacting to a given situation that calls for his self-justification. Ultimately, the manner of speech as style in this regard not only 56 serves as a dramatic technique for entertainment and rhetorical value but on the other hand, reveals negotiation techniques—as practices of the self—which members of the class represented by the persona engage in as they go about their life. The monologue, in this regard, is an artistic expression intended to inform the listener of what is going on in the persona's mind. This begs the question of the persona's impatience with himself as he expresses his inner desire to return home to his lover. Furthermore, the hurrying and impatience in this context can be interpreted as reflecting the haste and impatience that characterize the speed with which the youth or young members of society want things to happen in life. The mention of traffic jams and the manner of word articulation in this regard serves to draw the mise-en-scene that defines the situation the persona is experiencing. Although it is not mentioned in the song whether other drivers are also impatient, the device, in this case, begs the question as to whether this is real and how members of society ought to treat and react to situations that call for one's patience. It can, however, be argued that the artist in this regard is making fun of youthful follies where lack of patience is portrayed negatively since it can lead to one's weak judgment. This can lead to one's suffering, as seen later in the song, where the artist says he does not care, he is driving on the wrong side of the road, and should this lead to a case, he does not care. The speed and haste in the manner of speech in this context can be said to signify and symbolize the haste with which the young at times respond to the situation and, on the other hand, would want things to happen in life. The use of the style as a speech practice can be said to reflect the youth's pride and arrogance when dealing with situations that require a better and more mature approach to social matter. Although the catenations in the song can superficially be meant to show how the persona is in love and hence how he is missing to get home to his lover, it does not necessarily follow that one must treat moments of one's undertakings in life with haste and arrogance that leads one to break the law. The artist, in this context, does not make concessions nor apologies for the usage of the style until the song comes to its end. This can be said to reflect the unapologetic and arrogant attitude with which the young employ the same attitude in how they react to situations. Diamond Platnumz uses the same device when singing the lines, "Ni swali ngumu sana" (it is a difficult question), "Lakini nauliza sababu ipo siku itafika" (but I am asking because a day will come). 57 However, unlike Marlaw in the song "Pii Pii", the use of catenation, in this case, can be said to be employed for argumentation purposes. In this case, the co-joining of words serves as the act of justifying why he is asking what will happen when he dies. The lines and manner of articulation can be said to function to mirror the self-introspection process through which the artist not only engages with the text and the message in the song but also his ability to justify his argument based on how other people are likely to react to the message of the song. Arguably, death is a contentious topic that most people prefer not to engage in, especially when it comes to facing the fact that they will die one day. The application of the device in this context reveals how language usage in Bongo Flava may be appropriated to picture internal dialogues where the persona, as well as the expected audience, engage as they reflect on prevailing realities of their lives where death is a silenced reality which the artist, as well as the intended audience, reflects on at one time or the other. The device in this context can be said to unveil rhetorical questions which characterize one's inner thoughts as one contemplates what will happen upon one's death. The listeners, in this regard, are expected to empathize with the persona. But putting themselves in the persona's position, the device achieves its intended cognitive effect because it helps in eliciting the mood and emotions the artist is expecting the listeners to bring to the song as they contemplate the message the singer is addressing. It can, therefore, be argued that catenation, as an oral technique, functions to augment subjective positions within which the speaker or an artist wishes to defend one argument and make a point regarding an ensuing message or the theme of a song. Consequently, it is an attempt to win the listeners to consider the artist's perspective or standpoint on a given topic. Therefore, the device can be said to be self-serving and, in this context, an act of pre-empting the speaker's or singer's ability to contend with the fact that there is a possibility that the listeners are likely to hold a different view with regards to the issue one is addressing and how one appears to be addressing the prevailing concerns. If, for instance, the artist uses this device in fear or cognizant of the fact that there's a possibility of the listeners holding a different view or interpretation of issues from that of the artist, the use of the device, in this case, can be said to operationalize discourse of power relations between the artist and the expected audiences, and hence the possibility of competing perspectives on given thematic concerns and how different members of society would react to them. Thus, it can therefore be observed that catenation in song and oral performance is a technique 58 employed when an artist is advocating for a contentious position, with regard to an issue, and in addition, that the technique is used as a rhetorical technique for justification, on a contentious issue, or position which the artist holds as a hypothetical proposition of a given possible situation. Moreover, the device can be underpinned as a rhetorical technique that both artists employ to win the listener's reasoning to justify the position the artist is favouring in this context. This can be construed as an argumentation process that is intended to conceal the ‘so what?’ question. This is because, in both songs, the artists appropriate the device in order to influence the relevance the listener will ostensibly attach to the song. Thus, the artist expects the listener to justify the position the persona in both songs is holding. So far, it can be noted that stylistic devices in these songs function to lessen the formality that would have otherwise characterized official language. This, however, is not only a euphemism but, in addition, can be construed as a litote, which modulates the effect of formal discourse in favour of conversational discourse with the subsumed addressee of the persona. Besides the styles mentioned above, Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz employ code-switching in their songs, as we shall see below. Code-switching refers to the introduction of a statement or word that is in a different language from the language one has been using in a piece of communication. This is evidenced in the song "Pii Pii" by Marlaw and the song "Nikifa Kesho" by Diamond Platnumz. In the song "Pii Pii", this is evidenced in the use of the words. "Oh baby, a long time now." In the song "Nikifa Kesho", this is evidenced in the line... "Nani atambia mama asi cry" (who will tell my mother not to cry?). Based on the context of usage and as evidenced in the ensuing message, code-switching as a style is used in the two songs to lessen the weight of their meaning if the artist expressed the same words in Kiswahili, this is on the understanding that the target audience uses Kiswahili as their native language, the following expressions: Oh baby – mpenzi wangu Longtime now - muda mrefu sasa asicry – asilie Swahili speakers will agree that the English version lessens the serious meaning expressed in these phrases when uttered in their first language. The vernacular in this regard would have had a very emphatic effect on how the listeners would have inferred the message implied in each of the above 59 statements. In this regard, it can thus be argued that the use of code-switching in Swahili Bongo Flava songs functions as a euphemism. In this case, it reduces the semantic effect of the implied meaning and hence makes the meaning less sensitive. It is thus a form of understating and, hence, can be said to have a litotic effect on the message. In addition, the shift of code from Swahili to English can therefore be said to have an aesthetic function, whose purpose is to entertain the listener. Although the artist in both songs addresses serious issues, the switch of language from Kiswahili to English can thus be described as a performance, songwriting, and composing technique used to infuse entertainment value into a song. This is because it reduces the formality that characterizes the main language. The choice of code-switching as a stylistic practice, therefore, can be said to prevent the artist's sensitivity to the message one is addressing by empathizing with the position of the listeners as they identify with the song. In this context, it can be said to be an act of putting oneself in another person's position based on shared cultural values, shared knowledge, and awareness of the cognitive effect a choice of code can have on others. It can thus be concluded that the Bongo Flava artists are sensitive to culture and adhere to norms that govern lexical choices in their song composition techniques. The code-switching in this case can be said to be an act of accommodating others where the artist becomes sensitive to the impact or affect the choice of discourse can have on the audience as they listen to the song. Apart from the above devices, alliteration is another common device that is appropriated in these songs. This device is evidenced in the song "Pii Pii" in the following line: "Nimeshafika ameshapika, amekasirika." Although this could be construed as a form of wordplay based on the ensuring situation in the songs, where in this case it can be said to bear entertainment value, the device bears emphatic undertones, which thus function to emphasize the message in the line. In this case, the listener is convinced to believe in what the artist is saying. Consequently, the device aids in shaping the truth in fiction, and the dramatic enactment of the scene is thus vivified in the mind of the listener. It can thus be said to bear aesthetic and dramatic functions, as evidenced in this song. This is because it colours the playful context of the ensuing message in the line, as the artist observes that: Nimeshafika - I have arrived 60 Ameshapika, - She has cooked. Amekasirika - She is angry The device in this regard is expected to colour in the listener’s mind the picture of impatience with which the persona’s lover is also longing for his arrival, thereby making the listener laugh at the emotional situation of the persona and his fiancée. Repetition, in addition, is a major device appropriated in these songs. The device is prominent in the songs "Pii Pii" and "Rita," as evidenced by the number of times the artist repeats the words "Pii Pii" and the words "Oh Rita" in each song, respectively. Although it is commonly held that repetition is employed as a device for emphasis, it appears to have the same effect in how it has been used in these two songs. Upon interrogation of the purpose of the emphasis, one can argue that the artist probably wants to convince the audience beyond reasonable doubt of his position with regard to the ensuing message. In this case, the device aids in defining the truth in fiction on the one hand, while on the other hand, it can be said to pre-empt the artist's desire to control the mindset of the audience as one thinks about the message the artist is addressing. In this regard, repetition as a composition technique is a form of power practice that is intended to convince the listener with the least effort. This is because the listener in this case is likely to buy the artist's standpoint regarding the ensuing theme without giving any serious attention to the message the artist is presenting. This thus serves to remove doubts from the listener's mind. Repetition, therefore, in this case, can be said to have a rhetorical purpose, which is, however, implied rather than stated in its manner of application in Bongo Flava songs. Elegy is another device common in these songs. An elegy is a direct address to a person who is not present. This device is employed in all three songs, but it is most prominent in the song "Rita" in the following lines respectively. Ona mikono yangu mitupu - See my bear hands Imezoea kukushika wee - that has been used to holding you Hata nyumbani kwangu haupo umepotea - you are not even in my house; you have disappeared Sikuoni Kwame ooh Rita - I cannot see you Rita 61 Rita wewe unajua jinsi gani mimi na wewe tulivyo pendana extent – Rita you know the to which we loved each other Jitoa sadaka kimapenzi ilimradi tusijetengana – sacrificing my life that we may never part Ilawe unajua ni yako familia – but you know it’s your family Damu yangu ya Bongo si ya Asia – My African blood is not Asian Konda akasema si wewe, ila tu ni mwili wako – the conductor said, you are not the one but it’s your plain body The persona most often addresses someone who is deceased, as evidenced by the song's title as a dirge. It can be argued that any act of decision-making involves an act of power practice. Either by way of exercising power over another or by yielding to the exercise of power over oneself by another. On the understanding that the persona is well aware that "Rita", the addressee, is dead, it can be surmised that an elegy in this context is an act of protesting against death as a reality. The persona is thus not only addressing the dead but, in addition, can be said to be contesting death as a reality that has befallen the addressee. This, on the one hand, can be a narrative technique, as evidenced in this case, which consequently enables the narrator/artist to simulate the reality one wishes to enact or to represent to the audience, thus performing the first-hand experience of the characters and the performance space as a site through which the performer simulates a slice of real-life for the purpose of reflection and introspection with the audience. Consequently, this has a vivifying effect that makes the audience empathize with the experiences the character is going through. As a result, an elegy in this regard succeeds in bringing out the pain and remorse that define dirges, as the persona mourns the deceased. The elegy in this context helps the audience share in the experiences of the character as well as the persona. On the understanding that the persona is well aware that the addressee is dead, in addition to serving the purpose of mocking death and protesting against it, it can be argued that an elegy is an opportunity to celebrate the deceased. This is because the persona invokes the relevance of the dead in their own life, as evidenced in this case. Although it has a diegetic effect, elegy can thus be concluded to serve to restore the memory of the dead in the minds of the living by making the dead part of the living. It is therefore an act of refusing to let go and, instead of retaining the relevance of the dead as if they were still living. 62 This device, in addition, is present in the song "Nikifa kesho", as evidenced in the following lines: "Oh mama, mwanao me sina hata mtoto moja wakusingiziwa, hivi nikiondoka wasidanganye hao..." As evidenced in these lines, the persona opts to address the mother directly in this song, who is, however, absent in the rest of the song. Although the persona has been expressing his worry in the previous lines as to what will happen when he dies and in which he appears to be engaged in a monologue or soliloquy, addressing the mother directly in the lines above creates a sense of immediacy. It appears to give the persona's words credence and reliability on the understanding that the lines that follow express his loss, pain, and agony that those with whom he could have fathered a child rejected him. In this context, an elegy can be said to be rhetorical practice intended for vividness and as an omniscient narrative technique for pre-empting to the listener the private thought that defines the persona's position regarding a given ensuing issue that the song addresses. In this regard, the audience is convinced to agree with the persona without questioning or doubting the character's words and assertions. This can be said to be a power control technique whereupon one (the audience) is invited to believe the artist without the invitation of doubt. It can therefore be said to be a device employed by the artist so as to have control of the mind of the audience as far as interpretation and accepting the ensuring message is concerned. Often, the persona in both songs can be seen to apply the device to articulate the reality the persona is going through. It can thus be argued that the use of elegy functions to define and make the truth of fiction appear as realistic as possible. Consequently, this aids the relevance the listener attaches to the thematic concerns the artist addresses. Therefore, the device aids the listener in empathizing with the personas in both songs as they lament the sad situations of death addressed in them. Ultimately, this yields the intended cognitive effect the artist would have expected the song to have on the audience as they empathize with the persona. Although soliloquy is always treated on the pretext that the character is talking to themselves, the character always wishes to share what is on his mind with the audience. This can thus be said to be a technique through which the character pre-empts one’s thoughts about the world. The device may not be untied, however, from the ensuing message, that the character is addressing. In this case, although it can be argued that the device aids in letting the audience know what is going on in the character's mind, it can be questioned why the character wishes to share one's private thoughts with the audience. Facing the fact that one will die one day can be a disturbing reality occupying the persona’s mind in the case of the song "Nikifa Kesho." It can thus be argued that it 63 is possible to have an internal fear, conflict, or disturbance that one addresses and to some extent mollifies nurses by speaking out. In this regard, the fear and worry of what will happen to his songs, his fame, himself, and his mother appear to define the serious concerns that appear to disturb the persona in this case. It can thus be surmised that soliloquy as a technique and as a narrative style serves to share one’s internal worries with the rest of the world, most probably because of the therapeutic effect this act of opening up can have on one's psychological stability. Soliloquy in this regard not only serves to pre-empt the persona's mind but, in addition, foregrounds the themes one is addressing. Death and hypocrisy as themes that characterize the persona's doubts are emphasized in this context as possible questions the artist has been reflecting on regarding how his music fans, friends, and mother will react to and treat his demise. Arguably, if the persona in this context is airing his concerns as a reflection and reaction to situations he has witnessed in real life, then soliloquy can be said to be a device through which an artist may critique situations that happen in every reality. The pretence and assumption that one is talking to oneself, in addition, can be construed as a rhetorical practice that serves the persona with an expressive technique that avoids using an accusatory tone or a pointing finger at the members of society, despite the social evils one addresses in the song. Even though soliloquy is a window through which the audience can peer into a character's private thoughts, it can be presumed, therefore, to represent aspects of a character's subjectivity and inability to transcend beyond the inner conflict one is having with oneself. It can thus be said to be a reflection of what a character does not have power over and that the act of pre-empting oneself is a feat to ease oneself by pouring out one's inner fears to the world, not necessarily that anyone will solve the ensuing internal conflict for the character, but as an appeal to pity that the world may infer the expectations of the character and hence come to their aid in what one could be implying, as they (the audience) empathize with the persona. The audience in this context is likely to infer that the persona is fearing that he will be forgotten upon his death and that people will ultimately reject or stop playing his songs. Consequently, those who may be affected emotionally may be aroused by the appeal to pity and, in this case, continue playing the persona songs. Although it is assumed to be an act through which the audience accesses the private thoughts and the private world of a character, a soliloquy, as it appears, is a process through which the character gains access to the audience's private mind and hence engages the audience in a psychological 64 discourse of negotiating meaning and relevance. By doing so, the character or persona gains access to and possibly partial influence over the decision an audience can make after hearing the character's private thoughts. It is thus a skewed way through which the character or persona can control and influence the audience's mind, thoughts, and decisions. This is because the character presents the concerns in a rhetorical manner such that one is already implying to the audience one's wishful thinking. In this case, it can be assumed that the artist is appealing to the world to continue remembering him now and even after his death. Soliloquy can therefore be said to bear narcissistic intentions, which remain concealed in the unstated intentions and expectations that infer its application in artistic discourses. This is because the artist does not tell the audience why he is indirectly beseeching them to empathize with his situation upon his death. The device, therefore, is said to be self-serving and its moral goodness is dependent on the intentions it is expected to achieve. Upon close examination of the writing techniques, both artists employ when writing their songs, rhyme and partial rhyme, as evidenced in their songs, are major devices both artists employ, probably for a variety of reasons. This device is found in the song "Nikifa Kesho" in the following section: Na nyimbo zangu kutosokia Oh vipi wasafi watanililia Je ndugu marafiki watahudhuria Hata mamangu nita mkimbia Although it is commonly assumed that rhyme is employed for musicality in a song or a poem, it can be surmised from the effect of the rhyme in the above lines that, in addition to playing a role in maintaining a musical effect, rhyme has a foregrounding effect. This is because it makes the explicit and implied meaning prominent when the musicality has a direct relationship to the theme of the song. In this case, the Swahili word for cry is lia. The act of crying or mourning is thus emphasized by the rhyme /ia/, which cognitively creates in the listener's mind a mournful effect. In this regard, it can be argued that rhyme plays a significant role in maintaining rhythm on the one hand and, on the other hand, by foregrounding the central message in a text. It can, therefore, be said to be a foregrounding technique, employed in order to emphasize the central concerns. This 65 is based on the cultural nuances and the semantic associations the artist and the audience associate with the effect the rhyme brings to the ensuing message. This observation can be compared and constructed in the song "Pii Pii", which also has partial rhyme in the following section: Na kuomba mpenzi ungoojee (a) Nimechoka na kuja tulee (b) Na kuomba mpenzi ungojee (a) Nimechoka na kuja tulee (b) Huruma nionee (c) This is a type of rhyme scheme known as the Harrisham rhyme. It consists of a babab pattern. In song composition, it is employed in order to bring out the conflict in a song. As it has been employed in this case, it can be surmised that the rhyme functions to capture the ensuring misunderstanding there is between the persona and his lover. He thus uses the rhyme to create for the audience the state of disagreement that has resulted as a consequence of his overstaying before he gets home. The lover has already prepared the food, but she has become impatient until she hangs up the phone. The persona, on the other hand, is trying to convince her that he is held up in traffic, yet she seems not to understand. As a result of vivifying the conflict in the song, emanating from the misunderstanding between the characters, the ABAB rhyme can be said to have an entertainment value which it brings to the text by emphasizing the ensuing drama in the mind of the audience. In addition, both artists employ rhetorical questions for a variety of reasons. This device is employed in the song "Nikifa Kesho", as evidenced in the following lines: Ai, oh vipi Ameneke atanililia Je Wasanii wenzangu wataniimbia …………………………… Je ndugu rafiki wata hudhuria Au nitakapo kufa sina change 66 These rhetorical questions get the audience to ponder the serious concerns the persona has about how people will enact his death, especially those closest to him as well as his music fans. This question can be said to have a coercive effect since it puts the addressee on defence, yet one is not given room to respond. Thematically, these questions appear to attack the hypocrisy that could be veiled in the guise of friendship, yet upon his death, it happens that those closest to the persona would not mourn him or even attend his funeral. On the other hand, the questions thus create a string of introspective effects since they call one to interrogate oneself concerning how one will react based on one's relationship with the artist. The effect of the question on the target audience can be said to reveal the silences that define human relations between the speaker and the listener. In this context, the questions can be said to be a persuasive technique intended to influence the listener to act in line with the implied request the persona is suggesting. The artist or persona appears to assert his entitlement in the lives of others, assuming that the target addressee must mourn him. The device seems to reveal the narcissistic tendencies of the persona and not necessarily the sign of mourning the dead. This argument can be evidenced in the proceeding line where the artist asks, “Au nitakapo kufa sina changu.” It can be presumed that one of the expectations he wishes to own or to be entitled to upon his death is that of being mourned by his friends, family members, fellow artists, and his music fans. Although mourning has a cultural significance in most cultures, the artist appears to be concerned with himself in this song and not necessarily the moral good of one's death to others. This can be supported by his observations that should he die, his mother should know he has not sired a child with anyone and that those with whom he could have sired children hurt him by rejecting his proposals. It can thus be argued that although rhetorical questions most often than not have been examined in the context of the effect and influence they have on the audience, on the other hand, they can reveal a lot about the character and expectations of the person who uses them. Besides these stylistic devices, the carry-on line is also a common technique in Bongo Flava songs. A carry-on line is a line where the singer does not complete the message at the end of the line but instead continues to the next line. This device is evidenced in the song "Nikifa Kesho" as shown in the following lines: 67 Au litafutika jina langu Na nyimbo zangu kutosikia Towards the end of the first line, the being communicated is not complete because it creates a ‘so what?’ effect in the mind of the listener, which is then completed by what is communicated in the proceeding line. The carryon line, as evidenced in this line, not only serves to convey complex thoughts but, in addition, can serve as a means of defining an argument. This is because it is upon the idea conveyed in the carryon line that the artist builds the proceeding lines and inquiry as to whether he will be mourned upon his death. As an argumentation technique, it can thus be argued as to whether the persona is raising the argument as a reaction or response to some unstated facts, which can be informing the intention of coming up with the song. The carry-on line in this regard can mirror or signal the situation the artist is reacting to. This can be in a real-life situation or in the simulated reality of the song. In either of these cases, the enjambment vivifies the drama taking place in the song. In addition, it serves as a hook or a cliff-hanger because it creates a desire for the listener to continue paying attention in order to know what will happen next. The device, in addition, is evidenced in the song "Pii Pii" Nimeshakwambia mama nimefika tangu mchana Anajua nimeshafika, ameshapika, amekasirika Alipika tangu mchana In this case, the device functions to vivify the ensuing drama, in addition to defining the conflict between the involved characters. In so doing, it has an entertainment value since it makes the listeners look forward to the resolution as the song unfolds. In this case, the listener is interested in learning what will happen next. It can therefore be argued that an artist can use the device to set the conflict in a song or a poem since the device appears to have a rhetorical role in furthering an argument. Further, it can be observed that Marlaw uses suspense in his songs, as evidenced in the following sections of the song "Rita." This is evident after the first line in the proceeding lines: Sauti inaskika tega makini, hujui nani ina mwita Chozi lanitoka nitazamapo angani, 68 Naona sura ya Rita Ona mikono yangu mitupu Imezoea kukushika we Hata nyumbani kwangu haupo Umepotea sikuoni Kwame ooh Rita As evidenced in the song “Rita”, the creation of suspense as the song unfolds functions to hook the listener and entice one to want to learn what will happen next. As one listens to the above observations as elucidated by the persona, these lines have a cumulative effect of creating curiosity as a result of the dramatic tension this creates in the mind of the listener. Consequently, the suspense creates a psychological effect in the listener's mind where one cooperates with the artist as he tells the story. In this context, suspense can be said to have the power to influence others without coercion. It is thus a form of power practice by delegating the choice to the controlled subject-since one has the choice to continue listening or not—but at the same time, the artist has introduced a subject of interest in the mind of the listener by not revealing the whole truth or all the information to the audience. Due to the information which the listener is already aware of, one develops an interest in the topic, and hence, without the conscious awareness of how the manner of presenting the information can affect the listener, one continues to pay attention to the artist. Suspense in this context can be seen to function as bait that the artist uses to attract and maintain the audience's attention. On the one hand, it serves as a tool for entertainment because the audience develops an interest in the unfolding message amidst the desire to know what will happen. Consequently, it can be said to have a semantic effect as a mnemonic device since it triggers the audience's desire for attention and, hence, one can remember the unfolding events due to the level of concentration after the stay or song is over. Marlaw also uses suspense in the song "Pii Pii" in stanza one to set the conflict in the song. Suspense, in this case, appears to play a central role in the development of thematic concerns in literary texts. This is because, as evidenced in the song "Pii Pii", the artist uses the device to capture the gender relations between the persona and his lover as the song unfolds. The persona complains that although he has informed his lover of his arrival, she is impatient with him until she hangs up his call. Were it not for the lover hanging up his call, the ensuing conflict in the song could not have existed. The use of suspense in this context serves not only to hook the attention of the 69 audience but, in addition, the persona's intention in attracting and maintaining the audience's attention is to draw the listener's attention towards the predicament he is facing. Towards the end of the song, the audience is aware that the conflict the persona is facing is multifaceted, one, his desire to get home to his lover. Two, from the coercive nature of the lover as a force to reckon with, and three from the foreseeability of the traffic which he must contend with. Suspense is thus a device through which the artist can define the interconnectivity of the events that define conflict in a text. This is because, upon its usage, the audience is psychologically influenced to see what will come as a result of what the artist has unveiled. It can thus be said to be a rhetorical technique intended to create desire and arouse curiosity in the mind of the audience, hence submitting one's time and concentration to the text. Apart from these, there is evidence of the usage of euphemism in the songs of Diamond Platnumz. This device is employed in the song "Nikifa Kesho" in the following section: “kwenda milele pumzika... mi siku zamu nikiitwa kwa mungu…. Hivi ni kiondoka.” Euphemism as a device is used to express and articulate a topic or an issue that people treat as sensitive by using less direct and mild language due to the psychological effect the blatant treatment of the issue can have on the listeners or the audience. The persona opts for euphemism in the lines above to address the theme of his death. This is a topic and the psychological impact this can have on his dear ones may have been the reason why he may have opted to use euphemism instead of explicitly using the words: When I die and go to rest ……………………………… When it is my turn to die ………………………….. So when I die respectively. Culture and culturally shared values and norms can thus be said to influence artistic choices where an artist employs euphemism. In this regard, euphemism can be said to be a form of communication that is dictated by culture and audience sensitivity to the message. This is because ideological perspectives and reactions of others to one's message can influence the acceptability or rejection of a song based on how the artist portrays the message and hence represents the message, oneself, 70 as well as others. The veiled discourse, thus, is said to be intended to address the theme of death without necessarily violating the brittle conscience of the audience. This is because one addresses the same sensitive topic without necessarily making the audience become or feel uncomfortable with the sensitivity the topic invites. On this premise, humans are kind, as evidenced in Bongo music, and therefore, in Bongo culture, people are shy and if not fearful when it comes to matters of addressing death as a topic because it may spell one's ultimate end, despite one's desire to cling to life. This brings up the very same reality about one's death, which is a topic or a reality few like to be reminded of. In addition to these devices, personification as a technique is employed in the song "Nikifa Kesho." This is a stylistic technique where a non-human thing, animal, or concept is given human character traits. This is evidenced in the song "Nikifa Kesho" in the following line: Lakini nauliza sababu ipo siku itafika …………………………………….. In this context, a day is given the ability to be able to arrive, as if of its own volition. This has a dramatic effect on the eventuality of the occurrence of the demise of the persona. In order to vivify the personified event, in this context, it gives eminence to the actual day when he will die. The personification of the coming of this day makes the death of the persona appear as if it is a character endowed with power and the will to determine oneself. This serves to dramatize death, as some event that was waited for and has finally arrived. Consequently, the persona can be said to employ the device to express his helplessness upon the arrival of his death. As a result, audiences, music fans, and loved ones are invited to mourn his passing. Death, in this context, is recognized as an occurrence that the victim has no control over, eliciting pity from those who are left behind. There is, in addition, the employment of wordplay, as evidenced in the song “Pii Pii.” This is a stylistic device where an artist plays with different meanings of a word or words that sound the same but have different meanings. This is evidenced in the song "Pii Pii", as evidenced in the following lines: ……………………………………….. Ameshafika, ameshafika, amekasirika ………………………………………… 71 The persona can be said to employ the pun to poke fun at his lover's anger. This is because the traffic jam was completely unexpected, but when he informs the lady that he is stuck in traffic, she becomes impatient and tired of waiting until she hangs up his phone. Although the device can be said to be employed in order to create some entertainment in the song, where the audience enjoys the unique aesthetic effect that results from the words, in this context, it serves to portray gender relations and the attitude of the male persona and the lover at the same time. The device points out the boyish character of the persona, and this is evidenced in the proceeding lines, where he says he will drive on the wrong side of the road, and does not care about breaking the law even if he is arrested. On the other hand, the statement that she has cooked "ameshafika" is an acknowledgement of the kind-hearted nature of the lady as well as an appreciation of her role as a woman, where it is presumed that she has cooked for him not as an obligation but as an appreciation of his coming. However, he takes too long before arriving, and she gets annoyed. The annoyance of the lady as portrayed in this case can be construed as a gender exercise of women's freedom and liberation where the lady is presented as one who is free to express herself and acknowledge her emotions by hanging upon him. This exercise of power and authority over the male-persona is arguably what leads to his request in one of the following lines: "Huruma nionee" (have mercy on me). This act of pleading, when read against the implied meaning suggested in the pun, can thus be said to preempt the paradigm shift from the traditional gender oppression of women to gender equality where the lady is presented as equal to the man. It is as a result of this that the persona employs the pun as a light way of reflecting on the lady's anger since she is not any less a person because she is a woman. Metonymy, in addition, is another device evidenced in the song “Rita”. This is a device where an author or an artist mentions or refers to a part of something but refers to the whole. This is evidenced in the song "Rita" in these words: …………………………………... Damu yangu ya Bongo si ya Asia …………………………………… 72 The word "blood" in this context refers to his race as an African as contrasted to Rita, who is of Asian descent. It is, therefore, a light way of addressing the theme of racism without necessarily hurting the addressee or the conscience of the listeners who would find the blatant expression to bear racist undertones. The application of metonymy in this regard can be said to have a veiling effect like euphemism where it is thus applied to make sensitive topics appear less sensitive, as evidenced in this song. Culturally, euphemism and metonymy can thus be said to be employed for social decorum. Stylistic choice in songs in this context can thus be dictated by culture and not necessarily the narcissistic subjectivity of the artist. This is in cognizance of the message one is addressing. Chapter Summary This chapter has examined literary meaning encompassed in the stylistic use of lexical choices in the songs “pii pii”, “Rita” by Marlaw, and the song “Nikita Kesho” by Diamond Platnumz. The chapter attempted to connect the research to current and existing literary criticism and appreciation practices in literature. This is important because it ties the research to known and already accepted literary critiquing styles in literature as a discipline. The chapter has focused on the three songs following the observation that out of Marlaw’s ten songs and the forty songs by Diamond Platnumz collected, the three songs address the themes such as love, poverty, death, marriage, and relationships between couples, as well as filial and parental love. The three songs were thus decided upon on the observation that their analysis could reflect the major concerns articulated in most of the other songs. Besides reflecting the major concerns addressed in all the other songs, these themes conspicuously defined the major themes in these three songs. In addition, as evidenced in the above analysis, there is an overt and therefore intentional use of language stylistically in the composition and writing of the three songs. This chapter, therefore, has endeavoured to examine the literary relevance that results from using language stylistically at the lexical level. The three songs have therefore revealed, as seen in this chapter, that Bongo Flava artists employ stylistic features such as; onomatopoeia, catenation, aesthetic effect, codeswitching, alliteration, repetition, elegy, soliloquy, partial rhyme, rhetorical question, carry onenjambment, suspense, euphemism, personification, word play or pun, and metonymy, to mention 73 a few, as discussed in the chapter, not necessarily as a practice of art for art’s sake but for the significance these devices play in conflating and defamiliarizing meaning. Finally, the findings of the chapter function as a building block through which the research establishes connections and relationships between the literary meaning conveyed in the stylistic use of lexical choices on the one hand and stylistic choices implied in the voice of the artist in the proceeding chapters. This helps in defining the basis of the proceeding chapters. This is because the proceeding chapters build on the stylistic appreciation discussed in this chapter to explore literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist. As demonstrated in this chapter, Bongo Flava musicians employ stylistic elements in their song writing processes. Consequently, these devices create multiple layers of meaning, which can be deduced upon examination of the semantic role the devices play with regard to the thematic concerns that a song addresses. As evidenced in this chapter, therefore, several factors come into play in the exercise and practice of style and stylistic choices in Bongo Flava songs. These are the artist, the message, the culture, and the target audience. These four appear to define key factors which influence the choice, application, and purpose of stylistic choices in Bongo Flava songs. This is because, as the chapter shows, there are stylistic devices an artist employs to justify one's subjective perspective on given thematic concerns. There are also stylistic devices an artist employs that are determined by the nature of the message they are addressing. Stylistic choices in song composition in this regard can be said to be context and thematic-dependent. The context is determined by message, cultural shared norms, and social values that influence the stylistic choices, based on the effect and meaning the artist expects to vivify. In the process of adherence to shared values and cultural norms, as this chapter shows, an artist may unveil either consciously or unconsciously selfish and subjective intentions, which can be construed as narcissistic. Finally, as the chapter shows, stylistic choices in songs can engender power practice. In this context, the application of a given style may be influenced by one's desire and expectation to influence others. Such influence is characterized by the action one wants the recipient to take or how one expects the target audience to take upon receiving the message in the context of a given stylistic choice. Often, the likely action one (audience) is likely to take in light of a given style may involve interpretation of the implied meaning. In this case, the artist expects the audience to infer the implied meaning based on the shared knowledge that defines the listening experiences 74 the audience appropriates in their quest to understand the concerns of the artist on the one hand. On the other hand, the application of artistic choices and styles which an artist may employ is cognizant and dependent on an artist's awareness of the cultural experiences potential listeners will appropriate in their effort to infer implied and explicit meanings from a song. Stylistic choices, therefore, operationalize a simulacrum or interconnectivity of shared values that constitute and define the cooperative norms that tie the artist, the message, the audience, and their ensuing culture into a single web of semantic underpinnings that are inextricably bound by the moral good of all and desire or endeavour to ameliorate the perspectives and fates of individual subjects towards an upward transcendence that is intended to serve the common good for better mutual coexistence of all the involved as members of one big family that are defined by their shared cultural norms and values. The next chapter examines stylistic features encompassed in the voice of the artist. 75 CHAPTER FOUR Field Data Analysis The relevance of the oral nuances in the voice of the artist in selected songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw Results The previous chapter examined literary meaning as encompassed in stylistic choices at the lexical level. This chapter examines literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist as evidenced in the inferences different listeners attach to the songs. The chapter is a critique of the responses different respondents made during data collection. In addition, the chapter offers critical responses to the interviews and questionnaires, answers which the respondents gave in response to the research questions. These responses were intended to elicit reactions about how different listeners of Bongo Flava infer meaning from songs during the listening process. The chapter is thus chiefly a critique of the feedback the respondents gave in response to the interviews and questionnaires. The researcher interviewed and used questionnaires to collect the views of two Bongo Flava sound technicians and sound engineers. One of the two doubles up as a dick jokey. Interviewing the sound technicians and sound engineers was important in aiding the research in identifying how the process of song production in the studio influences and informs the infusion of implied meanings that listeners arguably infer from the voice of the artist. This interview and the questionnaire were informed by the most conspicuous oral nuances that define the voice of the artist in most Bongo Flava songs. The researcher, in this context, was reasoning that there must be a lot that goes on in the studio to inform the meaning discernible in the voice of an artist. Notably, thirteen students of literature from the Literature department of Dar es Salaam University who had a cultural background in Bongo Flava music and Swahili cultural tradition were also interviewed and filled out the research questionnaires. The data collected from these students was useful in underscoring how Swahili culture and oral literature inform the interpretation of the meaning literature students infer from the voice of the artist. This group aimed to examine the methods Bongo Flava music fans who have a Swahili cultural background and a literature foundation employ to infer implied meaning that is encompassed and implied in the voice of the artist in Bongo Flava songs. 76 The researcher also interviewed fifteen members of the Theatre and Performing Arts from the University of Nairobi. This group aimed to examine how university students grounded in theatre and performance infer implied meaning as they listen to the audio songs they play back. It was surmised that from the act of listening to the process of attaching meaning to an audio song, there must be a method that listeners employ, and which can be used to examine implied meaning in songs as audio texts. The researcher, in addition, carried out a four-hour discussion with a secondyear class of about sixty students of Oral Literature at the University of Nairobi. This group discussion aimed to establish how Oral Literature students who lack a Swahili cultural background infer meaning in Bongo Flava songs. This aided in conceptualizing how Oral Literature students infer meaning from the song text as well as from the voice of the artist. The research was of the view that such knowledge can aid future studies and, thereby, bridge the meaning expressed in the lyrical texts with the meaning artists imply using the voice. In addition, the researcher interviewed a class of thirty students pursuing a Bachelor's degree in music at Kenyatta University. This group aimed to examine whether there are musicological basic foundations, terms, and concepts that literature as a discipline can use to enrich criticism of meaning implied in the voice of the artist. This, it was assumed, could enhance the meaning oral literature students attach to the artistic use of language, thus enriching the wealth of literary criticism that can be generated from lyrical and audio analysis of songs. In addition, the research collected views of a group of theatre and performance students from the University of Nairobi regarding how sound techniques employed during song production are likely to inform the meaning theatre and performance students can infer from the audio text of a song. Finally, the research findings were tested using a class of eight fourth-year English and literature students. The purpose of this group was to crosscheck and verify the findings of the research. As Robert E. Stake observes, however, “Good research is not about good methods as much as it is about good thinking” (qtd in Saldana 187). The chapter, in light of this observation, examines the responses and implied meanings the respondents attach to the voice of the artist when listening to a song. As earlier observed, the researcher adopts Saldaña's techniques of highlighting and marking salient information as follows: "Descriptive, narrative passages of field notes are logged in regular font." Quotations, things that are spoken by participants, are logged in bold font." OC: Observer's Comments, such as the researcher's subjective impressions or analytic jottings, are set in italics 77 (20). Notably, this technique is appropriate in this research because it helps in disambiguating field notes from respondents' comments as well as the researcher's comments on a respondent's answers. This technique is thus favoured because it helps the researcher to comment on the data as the researcher interrogates the responses of each respondent. Consequently, this technique helps the researcher as well as the readers of this thesis to notice the unfolding process through which the process of data analysis leads to the finding of the research in the next chapter. In the proceeding sections, we will begin with a critical review of the views of the sound technician. This will be followed by a critical analysis of the group interview of the literature students at Dar es Salaam University, and finally by a critical review of the feedback each of the students gave concerning the questionnaire. In this chapter, therefore, · the descriptive narratives of the field notes will be in regular font. · quotations of the respondents will be in bold, and · the Observations made by the researcher in italics. · Major motifs / key features on CAPS A Critical Review of Interview with the Sound Technician/Music Producer Haroub Msingala In this section, the researcher examines the interview responses Bongo Flava sound technician, music producer, and dick jokey by the name Haroub Msingala gave in response to how the songmaking process operationalizes cultural and linguistic factors as evidenced below. The full transcription of the interview is attached under APPENDIX 1: As Valerie Janesick observes, in addition to systematic analysis, "the qualitative researcher should expect to uncover some information through informed hunches, intuition, and serendipitous occurrences that, in turn, will lead to a richer and more powerful explanation of the setting, context, and participants in any given study" (qtd in Saldana 41). With this view in mind, this research critiques the following responses to the interview questions and thereafter critiques the responses to the questionnaires to discern how Bongo music makers, on the one hand, and consumers as cultural practitioners, on the other 78 hand, reason with the music as a cultural artefact capable of conveying implied meaning. Notably, as Lindof and Taylor observe, analytic ventures are a "blend of strategic mindfulness and unexpected discovery" (qtd in Saldana 188). The researcher will, towards the end of the chapter, underscore observations and emerging facts from the data as motifs that are identified in the responses of the interviewees. This is what will have helped the research underscore any emerging patterns in relation to the objectives and hypothesis of the research. As earlier observed, the descriptive narratives of the field notes are in regular font, while the quotations of the respondents will be in bold, and the observations made by the researcher in italics. The researcher noticed that, according to the Bongo Music producers, the term beat in the field of music production is loosely employed to refer to the melody of musical instruments in a song that accompanies the voice of the artist. The beat, in this context, the researcher noticed, is a term that is employed to express meaning in a song, which is expressed as ostensive communication. In response as to whether there is a relationship between the message in a song and the voice of the artist, i.e., a relationship between the words in a song and the voice, that is, how the artist sings particular words, the interviewee noted that “some don't match, some match.” In addition, the interviewee observed that he does not know what the problem is as to why some artists' voices match the message in a song and why the voice of the artist in some songs does not match. He acknowledges the possibility of a problem such as why the voice and the message in some songs don't match. He acknowledged that he doesn't know what the issue is. There is hence the possibility of the existence of a knowledge gap. This knowledge could inform factors that determine the relationship between the voice and the message in a song. The researcher noticed that the interviewee thought that the music production process involves contextualizing the music based on the timbre of the artist's voice; “how one sounds.” The researcher considered this to be the role of culture in informing manner of expression, and thus the role of culture in shaping voice as cultural nuance... This was evidenced in the following comment: "Based on the voice and how an artist sounds, the producer advises the Artist on what to do." The advice can be inferred as expression and performance techniques that can help the artist’s voice bring out the intended meaning. The interview acknowledged that the melody that is made to accompany the lyrics is based on the voice of the artist. The music producers, 79 therefore, identify with the personality in a person's voice and hence the character and characterization that emerge in the character of one's voice. They can be argued or construed as the persona (inscribed or subsumed) in one's voice. The interviewee, in addition, observed that the choice of genre depends on the artist. In addition, the tempo of the songs, he adds, depends on the artist, but the producer can advise based on the lyrics. This is an acknowledgement that artistic choices are author-cantered and hence can be said to be determined by the artist based on the lyrics. The advice the producers give can thus be construed to be dependent on thematic concerns, according to the lyrics. There could thus be some correspondence between the message in a song and an artist’s manner of expression. Such a relationship could define aspects of the shared knowledge that define the cognitive environment within which the song operates based on the foreseeable premises the artists expect the listener to operationalize as one infers the expected message. According to the interviewee, a music producer may not necessarily compel an artist on the themes on which one can compose songs, such as politics or love, but rather based on the message one has written and the speed at which one wants to sing, such as fast or slow, but may only offer suggestions concerning the message one has written. Based on the lyrics an artist has written, the producer can advise the artist on the suitability of the tempo. The context of the advice the producer is talking about in this case can be inferred to mean how the producer thinks of the best and most probable pace at which the tempo can convey the intended message. This can thus be said to be audience-cantered, as he later observed. Thus, the manner of singing and the concerns addressed by the song, as evidenced by the style of enunciation and expression, can be said to be cantered on performance, culture, artist, and audience. This is because these are likely to be the factors that can determine how an artist may package one's message and the accompanying melody as inferential communication. The song, in this case, can be construed as a cultural discourse whereby the manner of singing can be understood as the application of a nuanced technique intended to convey the intended meaning by invoking certain culturally contextual communicative ostensions. The nuanced voice can thus be thought of as a cultural expression. This begs the question; how can this be studied and how can the literary meanings implied in an artist's voice be brought to bear? Correct enunciation can, in this case, 80 help bring out the meaning of a song. Besides tempo, the interviewee observed that the lyrics and the message an artist has written can influence the tempo, which may be suitable for a song. Offering further elaboration on the suitability of a melody that would accompany a given message, the interviewee acknowledged that "music is about the feelings." This he explained as the emotional attachment one (listeners) attaches to the message. The observation is that there is some type of message where one (the artist) doesn't need to be fast because one wants the audience to LISTEN, not to DANCE. The intention and expectations of the artist, on the one hand, and the expectations of the audience, on the other hand, are brought to bear. The style of singing can thus be thought of as an ENACTMENT of particular EMOTIONS (and hence an instance of dramatization using the voice) which is intended to convey the meaning associated with the lyrics. From a grammatical context, the voice in this case can be thought of as a modality. This, however, begs the question of whether the manner of enunciation can be examined as a style in literature and the literary appreciation of song as an oral literary genre. The intentional manner of choosing/opting for one style of expressing the intended meaning and not any other can be construed as an act of DISAMBIGUATION in semantics, and hence this can be said to be cultureoriented and message-specific. Haroub Msingala, in addition, acknowledged that THEMATIC CONCERNS determine the nuances to be worked upon during voice production. He implies that expectations are dependent on the audience; society tends to relate to the ensuing theme. The relevance one attaches to a song is contextual and culturally oriented. He acknowledged the role of MESSAGE in determining how people respond to music. The message, in this case, determines the tempo, among other composition techniques, whereupon there is music that listeners sit and listen to while there is music that attracts the listeners to respond by DANCING. The composition techniques he observed depend on the ARTIST and how one wants the audience to respond to one's music. That is to say, one may tell the producer, “I want this type of music.” In this case, the nature of the message determines the choice of BEAT, that is, the MELODY structure. The producer first listens to the song to get an idea of how it flows. Depending on the MESSAGE and the THEME of the song, he acknowledged that one can't just come up with any BEAT. Giving an example of a DIRGE, he observed that “one cannot do/create a Dance beat (Boom boom boom) but instead this would call for a SLOW melody that sustains the words to bring out the emotions of the supposed 81 melody so that people can listen and FEEL IT.” This is an acknowledgement of the role thematic concerns play in determining the PERFORMANCE, COMPOSITION, and WRITING especially depending on the EXPECTED effect the song should have on the AUDIENCES. He acknowledged the role of CONTEXT, MESSAGE, and AUDIENCE in determining the relationship between meaning, thematic concerns, performance techniques, and composition practices arguably as CULTURAL PRACTICES. He, however, took a tentative stand on the question of whether during the production stage techniques such as EQ and volume affect meaning in a song. The relative situation, in this case, can be because all songs are not the same and, therefore, the product features may vary the effect they have on the audience from song to song. "That depends" were his words. Although he had acknowledged earlier the possibility of the relationship between MESSAGE and the accompanying melody, tentatively this time could be a hint that this depends on specific features in a song. The argument "what are the prevailing conditions that can lead to production techniques having these effects on an audience and vice versa?" can therefore be advanced. For instance, how does the EQ, instance, affect MEANING in a song? Although sound technicians apply these features during song production, does it then follow that they can explain and underpin the effect these features have on meaning? The researchers' take is that, although sound technicians can easily apply these features it does not necessarily follow that they are in a position to explain the meaning that results from the production techniques. This augment can be evidenced by the long pause he took before responding to this question. Consequently, this leads to the question, so what? Giving the example of how people shake their heads as they respond to music, he acknowledged and reiterated that to match the SOUND OF THE ARTIST and THE BEAT, that is the voice of the artist and the accompanying melody, and THE MEANING, the artist should sing (ENURUCIATE) a song with accordance to the expected effect (meaning) the song is supposed to have on the listeners. This can be interpreted as acknowledging the importance of CONTEXT, MESSAGE, AUDIENCES, ARTIST, and ARTIST VOICE QUALITY in shaping composition and performance techniques. Giving an example of how people wake up, some prepare to go to work, others to school, and others to the farm, he observed that a song should “REPRESENT THE REAL SITUATION.” Arguably, this observation can be inferred to mean the LISTENING 82 EXPERIENCE members of a given culture tend to associate with the quality of a song. This can be inferred in this case as the role culture plays in determining composition and writing techniques on the one hand, and inferential meaning (as thematic concerns on the other). The voice of the artist, in this case, can be examined as a reflection of SOCIAL REALITY and CULTURAL ACTIVITIES that define a people's way of life. Arguably, the role ORAL nuances play in shaping implied meaning (based on the theme of a song) can be interrogated to bring to bear the role voice can play in shaping the meaning of songs. While listening to the voice of the artist, when he tells one "Go ahead and sing," he acknowledges that the voice of the artist is key in determining the song's voice production process. He observed that in this case, THE TEMPO of the song is a major factor based on the THEME of the song. In addition, the TONE, the MESSAGE, and the TIMBRE influence the melody accompaniment to the voice. RHYTHM is another factor that determines how the melody is created. Using the sound ta ta, ta ta, ta ta, he demonstrated how rhythm influences the flow of the melody. The voice of the artist and the manner of singing can, in their context, be thought of as an enactment of drama based on the CHARACTER the voice simulates in the mind of the AUDIENCE. The music-making process in this case can be thought of as a cultural process of enacting shared values which the listeners can identify with as reflected in the voice of the artist. These can thus be said to be the "SHARED VALUES," thematic texts and experiences that the music producers appropriate in the attempt to answer. The accompanying melody brings out the feeling and meaning signified by the TONE, TEMPO, RHYTHM, and MESSAGE. The oral nuances implied in the voice of an artist can, in this case, convey the meaning that can be inferred as a result of the cultural experience and knowledge one employs when listening to a song. This is the communication this research refers to as "ostensive communication." The CHARACTER as a thematic text, which the voice of an artist suggests can be interrogated as evidenced in one's STYLE OF SINGING and TIMBRE , that is, the texture of one's voice. The interviewees thus acknowledge what the researcher observed as the major and minor factors that determine the meaning that can result from the nature of an artist's voice and style of singing. The following are the major factors: ARTIST VOICE, MELODY (TUNE), THEMATIC CONCERNS (MESSAGE), CULTURE, CHARACTERS, TONE, TEMPO, AND RHYTHM. 83 Ostensive communication (OST) is implied in one's natural voice and the character that is simulated in the voice is dependent on culture and cultural ostensions, which define the shared knowledge between the artist and the audience. The interviewee thus acknowledged that how one sings—as a system—leads to the definition of the rhythm the producers adopt when making the best. The process of making inferences about the meaning implied in the voice is dependent on the culture and prevailing context within which both the artist and the audience define relevance drawn from the song. When making the soundtrack (beat), the interviewee observed that this starts with a demo. That is a simple (trial version) or (draft). They then take the demo throughout the intended feelings that characterize the message addressee in the lyrics. They do this by seeking positive criticism and feedback from purposively sampled members of society. This may encompass potential fans, children, old people, and club DJs. Using the analogy of cleaning a dirty shirt, he explained that the demo is then cleaned into a finished product based on the comments and the effect it had on the people. The demo, he said, is just a frame which is then finished in the context of the lyrics. He observed that part of the finishing involves balancing to ensure everything is in unison with the voice of the artist to achieve the intended expression and aural impression. The lyrics (message) thus determine how the voices of the instruments are contextualized and balanced. This can be done with reference to the explicit and implied meanings suggested by the lexical choices. The sounds of the musical instruments are thus employed to complement and qualify the expected interpretations that listeners are expected to bring to the listening experience based on the message conveyed in the lyrics. The interviewee, in addition, acknowledged the role of editing and production processes in supplying the sound (voice) that meets the context of the song's message. He also observed that in the same way you clean the beat; you must also clean the voice of the artist. This was deduced to mean a process of editing and balancing the voice for the best expression. This involves a process of contextualizing the voice to ensure it ENUNCIATES the expected nuances that bring out the intended MEANING. The control of the voice, far from the best expression, as the interviewee observed, involves TWISTING THE VOICE A LITTLE arguably, this is a process of tweaking the tone, the high pitch, the low frequencies, and regulating the intonations. THE RESEARCHER UNDERPINNED THIS AS AN ACT OF PRACTICING SEMANTICS WITH THE INTENTION OF 84 DISAMBIGUATION to tailor the voice of the artist towards the expected oral nuances/meaning. This is a process of enacting performance where, in addition, the process of applying and controlling the equalizers shapes the mood implied in the song. This can be read as MODALITY in linguistics, while from an oral literature perspective it can be seen as a process of definition of CHARACTER, which is implied in the voice of the artist. At the same time, as evidenced in the character that emerges, this can be seen as a process of DEFINING SOCIAL IDENTITY based on the type and class of characters the artist simulates, enunciates, or enacts. The fate that befalls the characters, as evidenced in the song message and manner of representation, the researcher observed, can be contextualized as a process of practising IDEOLOGY. This was because the process of balancing and tweaking the voice is formed by how most people would expect a voice of that texture to express and articulate the message in the song. The song production process can thus be seen to be informed and to be characterized by CULTURAL DISCOURSES. Moreover, the interviewee reiterated that the most important thing while mixing is to ensure the song retains the reflection of the intended reality. This includes the reality of how the artist's voice “sounds,” which is how it depicts the intended message the author addresses in the song. When editing the song, the sound technician, as the interviewee observed, “You don't need to do that and lose the reality.” Lose in this context can be inferred as the explicit and implied THEMATIC ESSENCE that defines how the ARTIST and the target AUDIENCE tend to identify with the message in the song. REALITY can stand for the SHARED KNOWLEDGE that characterizes the EXPECTATIONS of the artists and the audience, which is implied in the song as inferential communication. The context of REALITY can thus be taken to mean that MUSIC is ARTIST and CULTURE-SPECIFIC. Depending on how one sounds, the interview observed that “we can do little tricks on people that they can hear but not lose the message.” This can thus be inferred to mean that the voice in a song is message-cantered (TEXT) oriented. This relationship between voice and thematic significance in the message is core in situating implied meaning, which is discernible in an artist’s voice. The sound technicians, who should not lose reality in this context (AS CULTURAL) can be cited as actors who perform to meet the expectations of the target audience and how many can identify with the message the song addresses. The voice editing process, as envisioned by the word trick, can imply and signify the STYLE in the voice as an artistic device. Therefore, it can be said to bear literary relevance. The 85 voice of the artist in this regard can be said to involve certain experiences in the minds of the listeners based on the message. The voice is thus a SONIC TEXT that can ARTICULATE, HIGHLIGHT, IMPLY, and SUGGEST, implied thematic concerns. The message implied in the voice can be examined by interrogating how the artist's voice reflects the ensuring cultural themes which the song addresses. The voice of the artist as an agency can thus be observed as the practice of identity... The interviewee observed that the equalization process matters in the application of voice using editing tools and techniques such as equalization. This is because, if the equalization and other processes are not well done, “perfect” music will distort. That is to say pass or express some unpleasant sounds. Although the concept of distortion as expressed by the interviewee can be taken to mean unwanted sounds, this can be inferred to mean manner of expression as evidenced by the effect equalization has on the meaning discernible in audio. The researcher noted that the application of EQ to the voice can significantly affect the voice, thus changing or modifying the OST that a voice is capable of conveying. This research thus established that the equalization process functions to DISAMBIGUATE the meaning by placing the voice within the context of the message articulated in the song. Although many voice production and editing processes depend on the expected effect the sound technician wants to create in the voice, the interviewee observed that, based on how the music sounds, tempo (speed) is the most important element. This is because the style-determining speed of the songs and the melody can affect the message delivered. The researcher observed that the word "style" in this case was used to refer to genres. In this case, the researcher noted that the interviewee knew well what he was explaining but for the lack of the term "genre" in his vocabulary. It was observed that wrong expressions can lead to communication of a different meaning. This can result from poor sound production techniques. As experiments on the voice revealed, the voice equalization process is similar to voice production using speech organs. The voice control process and editing techniques, this research observed, can define CULTURAL DISCOURSES, which inform how the technicians can operationalize cultural nuances that are implied in a song. The researcher, therefore, noted that the style of singing has a relationship to the message and thematic concerns an artist creates or articulates. Phonation techniques in this case were observed to define discourses of negotiation. The types of negotiation permeated in the 86 oral text, in addition, were seen to be characterized by, CLASS IDEOLOGIES, SOCIAL IDENTITIES, GENDER PRACTICES, POWER PRACTICES, and concern for DISAMBIGUATION. The interviewee emphasized that balancing the voice, which is referred to as EQ, is very important. He emphasized, “It's very important! very.” Upon experimenting with the voice in the studio, the researcher observed that the EQ process improves and polishes expression because it makes the phonation clear and, thus, the listeners can get the words articulated clearly. As a result, the lexical message explicitly expressed becomes vivid. In addition, the researcher noted that EQ polishes the implied meaning expressed in the oral nuances. This one was dependent on the meaning that became vivid as an implicature. In this case, EQ can affect the quality of the voice by making it sound such as heavy, light, or nasal, and as such, the oral nuances infused by correct EQ become a text whose meaning can be inferred based on the context and cultural experience the listener employs when inferring implied meaning in the oral text. The interviewee observed that if one is singing, for example, “Mary I love you,” first, one needs to HAVE A STYLE. And he reemphasized that “you need to have a style of singing.” Style, in this case, can be interpreted as an artist's way of expressing meaning. How one sings can therefore, have a bearing on the meaning one ends up expressing. The interviewee reiterated that when editing the voice, the STYLE OF SINGING is key and that an artist should have a style of singing. Style in this context can be taken to mean a person's (artist's) unique way of EXPRESSING MEANING. This was inferred from the interviewee's tone. An artist's STYLE thus becomes one's unique BRAND and IDENTITY. The uniqueness that defines one's style of singing is not only communicative in nature but, in addition, can be said to be aesthetic in character. For the audience to understand and appreciate an artist's styles, they must thus operate within particular ideological standpoints and sensibilities so that the audiences can infer the meaning implied in a given style of singing. How a style of singing can signify the meaning listeners can infer inferred in the very style can thus be interrogated. The MESSAGE and MANNER OF PRESENTATION are key in this regard. The manner, in this case, can be understood as an enactment of meaning where the voice functions as a vehicle through which the expected meaning and values are passed from the artist to the 87 audience. The interviewee observed that when singing, you cannot just say, “Mary, I love you. He gave an example of a musician and mentioned Barry White, saying, the guy was like, not only singing but talking the voice was very bass, but the guy was good.” The description of the voice as BASS in this context revealed that producers can think of how one's voice sounds based on pitch and Timbre. He then followed the above observation with the comment that “... so sometimes is like it doesn't matter how you sound; what matters is the message... And the way the producer is doing things to you... mastering your voice so that the voice and the beat everything should come together.” From this, it can thus be observed that the message determines the audio production techniques. In this regard, voice and the production process can be read as "DISCOURSE MARKERS" on the one hand. On the other hand, the categorization of voice as bass can be read as style, and the respective stylistic features can thus be examined and the resultant meaning inferred when the voice is construed as a sonic text. The observation that the voice and the beat are mastered so that everything should come together can thus suggest that studio techniques can be examined as cohesive devices. In this context, the voice and the resultant nuances can be examined in terms of the respective cohesive devices in operation and the resultant meaning that comes about as a result of the respective aural devices. The cohesive techniques result from the manner of voice modulation, which functions as a modality. Listeners in this context can infer meaning implied in the oval nuances as ORAL MODAL EXPRESSIONS. The researcher asked the interviewee if he thought voice production could be taught at the university and college levels. In response, the respondent said, "yes, it is teachable, but it depends on how and what people they want." "How" in this regard can mean methodology or pedagogical practices that can be put in place concerning the expected outcome of such teaching. The statement "what people they want can be taken to mean" the target audience. The objectives of such training would be a major consideration. Therefore, expected outcomes of such recommendations, for example, a study on an examination of stylistic features implied in the voice of the artist, a performance, etc. can determine what the interviewee may have suggested. It, therefore, emerges that the AUDIENCE is a major consideration during song writing. This was in response to the inquiry about whether the audience plays a part in some of the considerations 88 when making a song. When writing a song, the interviewee, using an analogy of a finger, observed that “when you are sitting down and writing the music "…" let's say like I am talking about, ahh, my finger... I have to think wide like ehh, this is a finger, everybody has a finger...” This can be construed as the role of empathy and hence the role of contextual information that defines the shared knowledge between the artist and the audience. Such shared knowledge influences the shared values that determine the message an artist addresses on the one hand and the possible encyclopaedic entries an audience can discern while making inferences as one listens to a song. The interviewee observed that music is about feelings. He emphasized that music deals with “inner feelings, inside feelings.” Concerning feelings, one must then make considerations such as “how can I represent the experience someone has gone through? So that the message will be very touching to the listeners.” The research observed that what is construed as feelings when listening to a song involves a process of encyclopaedic entries on the part of the listeners. This is because one feels because of associating the music with some experiences. This association forms the cognitive process through which listeners infer meaning in songs. On the observation that “... when you sing about love song or whatever, you have to make sure the message will be very touching to someone.” This research observed that this is a process of contextualizing how other people are likely to relate to the message. The relationship that defines how the artist and the audience reflect and interpret a song becomes important in determining the writing and recitation-rendition processes an artist employs during rehearsals to ensure that the song has the expected EFFECT ON THE AUDIENCE. While THE TARGET AUDIENCE thus becomes prime in determining the song writing and rendition process, as evidenced in the description of how one would be sitting “listening and listening to your music”, the researcher observed, has the implication that the song has since as the interviewee acknowledged, “what you have to do is that not that just singing and singing because you have the voice to sing but you don't have the message.” The message in this regard can be understood as the MEANING expressed in the lexical choices both implied and explicit, on the one hand, and the other hand, oral nuances that result from the manner of expressing the INTENDED MEANING. On the observation that “there’s a lot of music you can listen to but just can feel it… they don't mean it.” The factors that determine performance are thus underscored as a determining factor that can define authenticity and the POWER TO CONVINCE the listener. 89 Arguably, this would have to do with the lexical choices as well as how the message is expressed. The researcher in this regard underscored this as the communicative ostensions that influence how a listener can interpret the implied message and meaning in a song. The voice and manner of performance, in this case, are observed to affect the thematic concerns that a listener can infer in an oral text. The interviewee observed that a song should have lyrics and a strong message. Unfortunately, for some artists, as the interviewee observed, the way they sound and the message are two different things. The researcher hence observed that the interviewee was thus suggesting that "the voice needs to imply or bring out the implied meaning expressed in the lyrics." The interviewee's concern, hence, about “feelings”, was conceived as the place of mood and attitude as the resultant effects a performance can have on the listeners. The voice, according to the interviewee, thus needs to IMPLY or bring out the IMPLIED MEANING. Hence, the role of emotions in oral texts as cultural nuances bears thematic significance. In this context, phonation practices can be analysed as both performance and performance techniques. The implied meanings expressed in oral nuances, according to some, reflect CULTURAL IDEOLOGIES, SOCIAL VALUES, and hence their application in a rendition can be deduced as PRACTICES OF THE SELF that value culture and social-cultural norms. PERFORMANCE and STYLES OF SINGING can thus be construed as PRACTICES OF SOCIAL IDENTITY, as well as gendered practices whose values can be underpinned by the relevance that listeners infer from a song. The VOICE and manner of rendition in this context appear to concretize the dissemination of the expected meaning suggested or implied in the text message. The interviewee observed that once the beat is ready, the artist is given the opportunity to go home and practice. In this process, it can be surmised that the rehearsal aims to contextualize the voice to suit the nature of the message. The interviewee observed that the song doesn't just happen; it must be made to sound like the message. In this regard, the song can be conceived in two basic contexts: the message and the voice. The two complement each other. Rehearsals in this case can be viewed as refining oral nuances that should characterize performances as evidence in the enunciation process. It can thus be concluded that the voice functions as a foil in its aural function as a stylistic technique. This is because it serves to mirror the concerns of the artist as evidenced 90 in the tone, intonation, and mood, which the listener uses as encyclopaedic entries when inferring the implied meaning in songs. Critical Review of Interview Responses from Literature Students at the University of Dar es Salaam This section examines free responses three of the literature students of the University of Dar es Salaam made with regard to the explicit and implied meanings that they listen to and infer from Bongo Flava’s songs. This was a class of about 40 students. But due to the limitation of time and the fact that the students were having other classes besides this session, the researcher video recorded the responses of the three students as the others were filling out the questionnaires. Although there are only three students whose comments are captured in this section, the rest of the class was busy listening to the speaker's comments. Consequently, those who did not have a chance to say anything recorded their views on the answers to the questionnaires in the section that follows this interview session. This group of respondents was identified with the help of the department of Literature and particularly the chair of the department, Dr Eliah Mwaifuge. Most importantly, this session aimed to examine the hypothesis that Bongo Flava music bears implied literary meaning on the one hand and, on the other hand, that such meaning can be implied in the voice of the artist. This was in response to the second objective, research question, and hypothesis of the research. During the group interview at the University of Dar es Salaam, the literature students reported the following with regards to Bongo Flava songs: the relationship between the lyrics and the voice of the artist. The interview helps to reveal how literary scholars infer meaning in songs as opposed to musicologists and music producers. First Respondent Giving an example of a song such as "Nataka Kulewa" (I want to get drunk), the respondent observed that the tune that is selected has to communicate something about the message and theme of the song. Not just any tune. He added that the song is about sad issues, so the tune also has to sound sad. He contrasted this with a song such as "Nana." The song "Nana" is about a happy message, and as a result, the corresponding tune expresses a mood of joy and happiness. This relates to the message of the song. The same applied to the dancing style, where the artist dances 91 "Nana" in a happy and jovial mood as compared to “Nataka kulewa.” The researcher thus observed that the literature students would easily identify with the concepts of MOOD and MANNER OF PERFORMANCE and the role the type of message plays in a song in determining the tune and manner of performance. The message in this context determined the mode of expression (singing) and performance). The MESSAGE, THE TUNE, and MANNER OF PERFORMANCE were observed to define the manner of composition and performance. Regarding the role of digital sounds in music production in Bongo Flava, the respondent observed that there are a lot of issues that have to be in digital sounds: “One of them is the voice effects of the performer.” The researcher observed that in this context, the VOICE EFFECTS can be conceived as AESTHETIC TEXTS and can thus be analyzed from a stylistic perspective to unveil the literary significance they encompass. This can be based on the literary relevance audiences attach to the voice effect. The respondent would, however, not cite such an example in Diamond Platnumz’s songs. He observed that this was because “most often his songs contain the natural sounds as opposed to some of the instances having a producer matching his feeling with that of the singer.” He observed that “there are certain digital maneuvers that are put in the beat to communicate something else.” This observation was in line with the one made earlier in a different interview by the music producer, Haroub Msingala. The respondent thus acknowledges that there is something extra that is communicated by the extra digital effects applied to the voice. This would form part of what this study would refer to as "phonic texts", which can be said to exist as explicating. Listeners can infer the implied meanings in such phonic texts based on their contextual application. As the researcher observed, many respondents knew what they were talking about but lacked the adequate vocabulary to express themselves. The researcher noticed that while the university students articulated thematic concerns with ease, they lacked adequate sound production vocabulary. Hence, they opted to use analogies, singing, gestures, tone variation, and facial expressions to explain the message implied in Bongo Flava Bongo tunes. "Communicate something else." This can be an insinuation of nuances and harmonies. The researcher arrives at this observation as a result of experimenting with different sounds in the study. The music producer in the first interview hinted at the role of tempo, timbre, and EQ, among other features, which affect the communicative nuances that can be inferred in the voice. The researcher discovered that linguistics and literature students had an 92 idea of the extra meaning discernible in voice but struggled to concretely underpin the exact meaning they could infer in a voice. The researcher observed that this was multiple challenges: one of developing or having the ability to explain the respective VOICE effects present in a voice; two of the lack of ability to pinpoint the site or source of the respective feature; and three of the ability to have the requisite vocabulary to differentiate voices (hues) shades and how their different meanings can be explained. This defined a web of semantic permeation as the relationship that characterizes morality, performance, culture, and members of a given society and their commonly shared knowledge and cognitive processes through which they can infer implied meanings in oral texts. The role of context and cultural experience was observed to influence a person's ability to infer implied meanings in oral nuances on the one hand and the ability to articulate the particular meaning on the other hand. In this regard, the researcher observed a recurrence of MOTIFS, which defined how literary scholars tended to differentiate and articulate meanings that they inferred from the artist. As the first respondent observed, “Majani na beat nzito, the beat is having an extra weight Dii Dii, as opposed to other beat…Majani na beat nzito Boko records na zislow, you can hear that kind of beat, the heavy beat, it may be communicating something extra pertaining the recording studio, and the musicality probably of the music the man is making. The producer avoids flags and tries to create sounds that identify them.” On this observation, the researcher noted that one characteristic feature of voice play is designation. The researcher noted that one characteristic feature of voice play is the designation of identity. This can be cited in the following observation: “we can talk of producers like Emanuota, the song that is produced by Emanuota is having a particular digital sound that is supposed to be the sound of the singer and you can hear it, something like water running” in the tune “there's something shwaaa that is added, that sound communicates something extra.” The expression of the sound (“shwaaa”) is onomatopoeic and idiophonic on the one hand. On the other hand, sound functions to define an aspect of the artist's SOCIAL IDENTITY. However, the interviewee did not explain further to show the use of sound as an application of a stylistic feature in literature, nor did he interrogate the relevance that would have informed the artistic choices. However, the observation that “that sound COMMUNICATES SOMETHING extra” was an indication that the respondent can detect some extra levels of meaning communicated by VOICE 93 CONTEXTS. This is what the researcher underpinned as NUANCES. The contextual information inferred in the nuances calls for one's ability to make inferences based on contextual information. If by listening to a song, one of the mental responses a listener gets is "the artist", i.e., a song by, for example, Manuota, it can then be argued that voice in this context serves to define identities and social labels that are associated with the meanings listeners attach to a person's voice based on the values one practices and propagates. This can be surmised as one of the effects a person's voice has on the outer world. The meanings associated with a person based on their actions thus form part of their identity and an aspect of how they practice being. Such values are detected by others based on shared social-cultural values. The researcher thus begged the question: what values can we discern from the voices of the two artists under examination? In addition, what examples can we cite in their songs as evidence of the observations? Moreover, how can this be studied and documented? The chief contribution this research seeks to make in literature as a discipline is to provide a means through which implied meanings in oral texts can be examined. This could be a contribution to the existing knowledge and research methodologies in oral literature, theatre, and performance. As the first speaker notes, “... the producer also plays with his sound, especially in relation to the artist in the sense that... when it comes to back-up vocals, you find that there is a message that is being highlighted.” The researcher underscored this as an expression of the role HARMONIES play not only in a song but also in ordinary oral speech. The speaker, however, did not explain further the extra or other messages, which he found, highlighted in the backup vocals. In addition, no other member of the class furthered this observation. Consequently, the researcher concluded that although the respondents could detect the possibility of extra layers of meaning permeated in the voice, they seemed to lack the capacity to explain how these meanings, which they sense, feel, and hear affect the meaning they find in a song. This could be because the literary relevance of meaning implied in harmony lines is not common in literary criticism, despite the fact that song is an oral literature genre. The interviewee, in addition, observed that there is some sort of emphasis on the message when one person sings the main melody, and another person sings the harmony. He added that the harmony, adds some extra information that is missing in the main voice. He emphasized that "you can also have suggestions of extra meanings in the sounds; someone may be singing the main 94 voice and then there is an issue of other sounds." This was a key observation in this research since the researcher was interested in underpinning how the voice relates to the message in a song. Different people talk in different keys to insinuate the meaning one expects to convey thereby affecting the oral nuances and their respective meanings. These are instantiated as aural semantic triggers, and their significance depends on the images the voice triggers in the mind of the listener. Such meaning as the researcher's model bears significance based on the meaning associated with the nuances of oral texts. As the first respondent observed, "with that kind of effect, the sound effect, you find that there is some sort of emphasizing the message as well as putting some extra information that is missing in the main voice. You can also have suggestions of extra meanings in the sound, someone may be singing the main song and then there is an issue of other sounds, which are not the main part of the main song because they are having the extra type of information." Despite this significant observation, the researcher noted that the respondents were not able to go into deep details that could underpin the meaning one infers in oral texts. Although they knew the meaning implied in the oral nuances, they could not cite audio features present in a voice that are a result of how the artist employs a variety of singing techniques. This leads to the creation of meaning that can be examined from a stylistic perspective. Such meaning can be examined under the title: Literary meaning resulting from phonation techniques in Bongo Flava Song? However, one can interrogate the naming process of such a meaning resulting from oral stylistic techniques. Can such meanings be named based on the semantic effect they have on an audience, or can they be named based on the speech organs and phonation regions responsible for their creation? Or, can they be named based on the oral speech technique one applies? This research opted for the procedure of naming the styles based on their semantic effects. This is because it is the meaning that results from the voice that was relevant to the objectives of the research. The speech organs are responsible for the creation of the voice, but it is the manner of production that shapes and differentiates the variety of meanings discernible in a text. The naming of the stylistic technique can help us describe the manner of voice usage but does not help us explain the meaning listeners infer from the voice. For example, say the artist is singing in Cmajor. This doesn't help the literary critic underpin the resultant meaning. The audio effect, as a result of the way it helps the audience infer implied meaning, is, however, of greater significance. That is the meaning that results from the manner of enunciation. This process could be classified 95 using terms and concepts employed to describe the expected effect of voice (sound) in the film as sonic texts. This research thus resulted in the mention of the phonation region and speech organs for the explanation of how different audio hues (TONE TEXTURES) come about, but chiefly focused on the meaning listeners associate with a voice as a result of their ability to infer the meaning based on the expectations of the artist and manner of enunciation. The first interviewee said, “when it comes to back up vocals, you find that there is a message that is being highlighted.” However, the respondent did not name nor describe the message that is being highlighted further. The statement can thus be treated as an indicator that although literary scholars can detect the palpability of extra meanings that can be inferred in backup voices and harmonies, there lacks an adequate method and procedure through which literary criticism of songs can bring such meanings to bear. The speaker, in addition, made the following observation: “... the producer also plays with his sounds, especially in relation to the artist, in the sense that there is a song called ahh 'Fok fok, fak fok', there is the backing of a fok (fox [mine]), as we know that ahh we usually make repetition in order to create emphasis artistically, and this is one of the cases in African poetry.” As this comment shows, the voice of an artist contributes to the shaping of identity whereupon the reasoning informing the produced reasoning as one edits an artist's voice is based on the cognitively shared knowledge that most people would tend to interpret an artist's voice, inform, define, and characterize the voice as an artistic discourse that is audio in nature, Consequently, the voice in this context can be thought of in the context of the ideological classes that define the meaning the artist and the audience associate with the voice of an artist as a result of how one articulates the message and the thematic concerns that one addresses. The categories of meaning which can be inferred from a song by different audiences thus function to define aspects of social sensibilities which function to define the SOCIAL IDENTITIES of members of a given class of people that the artist represents. Voice in this case, in addition, can be thought of from a GENDER PERSPECTIVE. This is in light of how an artist presents members of the opposite gender in how one talks or sings about them and how one presents oneself in the context of the opposite gender function to reveal gender relations in society. Example: Diamond Platnumz's portrayal of women in society, as evidenced in the oral nuances that characterize how he addresses the mother in the song "Nikita Kesho." Marlow's presentation of women in the songs Rita and Pii Pii, respectively. 96 As evidenced in the previous interview with the music producer Haroub Msingala, the natural voice of an artist, the message that one chooses to sing about, and the genre of music that one sings determine how the producer edits the voice and what aesthetic (styles) one can influence in the voice during song production. As the first speaker in the group interview intimated, the repetition of Fok Fok, fok, fok can be construed as a poetic device intended for emphasis. Although the speaker did not elaborate on what the repetition of this song emphasizes, the common can serve as a reminder to literary students to consider the messages implied in songs in the context of the artistic and stylistic features that they have been taught. The same was observed in another group interview of fourth-year literature students at Egerton University. If literature students can thus be taught a critical approach that they can use to critique literacy meaning, implied in the voice of the artist, the researcher argues, they will be able to explicate literary meaning implied in the voice of the artist. The teaching of such a critical procedure can take a stylistic approach. This can contribute to the existing teaching of stylistics in literature and literary studies. The interviewee also observed that there are many studies, some that are very advanced and some that are in someone’s bedroom, like his own studio. The sound equipment used in the production thus influences the outcome of the voice of an artist. While the use of digital equipment is used to edit an artist's voice and shape it for maximum semantic effect with regard to the message one is addressing, other studios opt for analogue machines. Consequently, this affects the outcome of the quality of one's voice. It can be argued in this context that music recording studies contribute to shaping an artist's audio sound identity on the one hand, and on the other hand, contribute to the existing social ideologies and social sensibilities. The texture of a voice that a studio crafts for an artist become one’s label, which the audiences relate to and associate with the messages and meanings an artist articulates in one's songs. In this case, therefore, voice as a text becomes not only a means through which existing ideologies are articulated but, in addition, premises through which new ideologies are propagated, as evidenced in meanings and thematic concerns which result from audio aesthetic techniques as PRACTICES OF IDEOLOGY. As the respondent observed, the sound effect results from how sound engineering has been done. As earlier observed, where the respondents happened to know what they wanted to talk about but happened to lack adequate vocabulary, terms, and concepts, the respondents stimulated a strong or used an analogy to explain the meaning implied in their voice. This was evidenced in the comment 97 below, where the term "EQUALIZATION" is what the respondent is alluding to. “And if the song is heard, someone develops an interest in that song because it is attractive, it is audible, each and everything that has been used in that song is going to be heard. And there is no collision of instruments and the vocal, there is no collision of instruments and the vocal. There is also the merging of the fancy called ‘kunata and beat'. There is also the choice of melody. A good song is the one whose message relates to the melody which the singer has chosen.” As evidenced in the previous interview with the music producer Haroub Msingala, the concern that the message in a song should relate to the accompanying melody was a RECURRENT MOTIF. The observation by the first speaker that"... failure to choose an appropriate tune or melody will result in someone not being appreciated by fans" insinuates the role of the AUDIENCE in defining the RELEVANCE OF A SONG. “The other issue is whether the artist and the voice reflect the message; I have said, ah think of love songs as opposed to sad songs...” This is another motif where the relationship between the lexical message and the accompanying melody emerges as a context that defines how literary scholars tend to think of the relevance of the melody and the voice of the artist in a song. However, there seemed to lack a clear-out method which the respondents employed to infer implied messages in the voice in the context of the song. The researcher thought that although music listeners can infer implied meaning in a song's melody, there seemed to lack a clear method through which implied meanings in the voice can be examined from a literary and linguistic premise. Second Respondent The second speaker observed that “you find love controversies, disappointments, breakups, also good endings and things like that. Therefore, THE TOPIC because PEOPLE IDENTIFY THEMSELVES WITH THE TOPIC, and they understand because they see themselves as part of the song.” While the first speaker chiefly responded to the relationship between the lexical meaning in the message and the role sound production plays in adding extra meanings to a song, the second respondent focused mainly on the lexical meanings and messages artists address in a song. This observation was very important because it re-emphasized the role the MESSAGE, the AUDIENCE, and SOCIETY play in shaping and influencing the THEMATIC CONCERNS that an artist addresses in a song. Thus, the researcher discovered that shared social values play a significant role in determining the type of messages an artist addresses. One sings 98 to capture the expectations of the audience as a result of thematic choices. In this regard, the researcher noted that the second respondent referred to the manner of singing as a technique intended to appeal to EMOTIONS. Citing the song “Rita” the respondent added that the song is a TRAGEDY since it is a love story that ends sadly with the demise of the lady. The observation that the song is a tragedy reemphasized the earlier observation that literary scholars tend to think and contextualize song interpretation in the context of the already existing knowledge and generic categories within which literary criticism is carried out. The observation that the style of singing in the song "Rita" appeals to emotions, in addition, confirmed the observations made in the first interview with the music producers. EMOTIONS thus appear as a motif that characterizes how artists, audiences, and music producers tend to infer and relate the lyrics to the style of singing. The term emotions in this regard, however, according to the researcher, is a general term which was rather employed to signal something much more than the audience can infer in a song as a result of the manner of rendition. Performance in this context defined a major motif through which the relationship between lyrics and melody in a song can be explored. Unfortunately, neither the music producers nor the literary scholars advanced the role of emotions in defining the relationship between the lyrics and thematic concerns beyond this observation. By touching his heart with one hand as he explained the point, the second respondent reaffirmed the earlier observation that audiences and literary scholars alike result in giving a story or using an analogy to explain how the voice of the artist influences how they interweave meaning in a song. The researcher underscored this as the role CONTEXT plays in shaping the meaning artists imply in their voice and which, on the other hand, the audiences can infer as NUANCES because of the CULTURALLY SHARED NORMS AND VALUES that define the relationship between the artist and the target audience and the target expectations that they all have in relation to THEMATIC CONCERNS and their respective modes of articulation. Although there was enough evidence that there appeared to be a significant relationship between the message and the style of singing in Bongo Flava, the researcher noted that the respondents did not concretely explain how the voice of the artist or the style of singing was tied to the message in a song. The researcher, therefore, concluded that although the interviewees lacked adequate technical terms that they could use to explain the implied meanings which they inferred in the 99 voice of the artist, the lack of adequate vocabulary cannot be an indicator that such knowledge does not exist. In addition to the basic themes that Bongo Flava musicians address and the informing basis, the respondent observed that, "…. The contribution of musical instruments, they modify the songs, this compilation of beats, and things like that, they modify the song and make them more modern. But I think THE ROOT IS IN THE TUNE, and the subject that they choose to represent.” Giving an example of the Nigerian songs, the speaker observed that “... East Africans understand them easily because they are just the same way as our songs. People in East Africa can dance because they are just the same way as our songs. I think that this idea of simple tune as for African songs, they are simple in tune and almost the same, and I think this is the secret Bongo Flava employs.” This was a very significant observation with regard to this research. This is because, although the respondent did not explicitly expound on the relationship between the message in a song and the role of emotions, his choice of an analogy and use of a descriptive approach using Nigerian music and the concept of simple TONE was a great pointer towards the manner of composition, song writing, thematic concerns, and the relevance the audiences draw from Bongo Flava. Drawing from the speaker's explanation, one can ask the question: what is the relationship between East Africa and West Africa songs that led to the respondent's observation that E. Africans respond to Nigerian music because it is similar to "our" music? Upon further interrogations, the researcher observed that most East African Bongo Flava songs use a similar melodic structure. The artists, in addition, as the speaker observed, address common and almost similar themes such as love, relationships, death, marriage, break-ups, and disappointments, to name a few. The "simple tone" which the respondent had referred to was thus observed to characterize the simple Bongo Flava tunes, the chord progression, and hence the common way of playing musical instruments can be said to become a CULTURAL PRACTICE through which the songs ENACT THE SITUATIONS which a given artist addresses. Consequently, the style of singing becomes a PRACTICE OF IDEOLOGY through which the Bongo Flava society chooses to address social issues. With time, the method of playing musical instruments and the resulting tunes evolved into a practice of performing meaning and enacting situations in the same way that one reacts to reallife experiences. On the understanding that simple tunes can be used to sing happy or sad songs, 100 the researcher begs the question, how does a song appeal to emotions? This is because the motif of EMOTIONS was common in how the respondents described the relationship between the message in a song and the style of singing. In this context, the singing style and playing of musical instruments as the enactment of situations and experiences can be said to bear significance and relevance, which the audience attribute to a song. This is about the respondents' observation that “...people identify themselves with the topic, and understand because they see themselves as part of the song.” In this case, the researcher observed that there must therefore be a relationship between the message in a song, the manner of singing, and the probable manner of interpretation. The researcher saw singing styles as processes of simulating situations based on how members of given situations and experiences sing. The respondent's argument that E. Africans respond to Nigerian music because their music is similar to "ours" could therefore be surmised to mean a similar way of composing songs to articulate similar thematic concerns in a similar manner of composition and performance. Upon interrogation, the researcher observed that the motif of TUNE that was common in almost all the previous respondents defined the stylistic features of Bongo Flava's song’s MELODIC PROGRESSION. The simple tune that the respondent may have alluded to becomes a form of SONIC EXPERIENCE which the artist and audience associate with the themes the artist addresses. The style of singing, hence, becomes a way of practising being, representing oneself and representing others. Consequently, this defines cultural procedures of defining and articulating GENDER PRACTICES as evidenced in songs about love, break-ups, and marriage. On the one hand, the definition and articulation of POWER RELATIONS and POWER PRACTICES on the other hand, as evidenced in songs such as "Nikamwaga Bear Yangu", which the respondent mentioned. This becomes the relevance with which the audience identifies as evidence in what the respondent may have referred to as the young Tans' ability to see themselves in the song. The song, in this case, reflects society. The message and the style of singing, as the previous respondent had noted, determine the AUDIENCE'S APPEAL. Third Respondent The respondent observed that "the message a song announces" "if they are the same with the audience's feelings they get interested." MOOD of the song and STYLE OF SINGING. The researcher reemphasized the motif of EMOTIONS in his use of the word FEELINGS to allude to the reaction a song invokes in the audience. In addition, he mentioned MOOD as a 101 consequential response that results from a song's message and manner of performance. The speaker, in addition, alluded to the possibility of genre and generic categories of Bongo Flava on the observation that Diamond and Marlaw's style is soft. They are soft in terms of weight, that is, they do not give audiences hard times trying to discover the intended meaning. The researcher noted that the respondents, in this case, identify a song's thematic concerns in terms of simple versus complex songs. In this regard, Bongo Flava appeared as a song whose message was simple and straight-forward, according to the respondent. The mention of THE INTENDED MEANING drew the researchers’ attention to the theoretical approach of the study. The observation that the songs are simple was recurrent. Since the previous speaker had made a similar observation. The speaker noted that “the simplicity of the weight is accompanied usually by the instruments; instruments also do not communicate anything hard. The simplicity of the style goes or gives interest makes the audience to enjoy since they enjoy the meaning. The extent to which the song reflects actually what is happening on the ground, the people, their society... this one now they will see themselves, in the message that is communicated… the relevance of the song, song's ability to capture the BODY with ATTENTION and the STYLE… those are the factors to be considered if one was to analyze a song.” This comment signalled the importance of the theory the researcher had opted to use for data analysis in this research. The speaker, in addition, reiterated the role of the AUDIENCE, the MESSAGE, and a song's ability to appeal to the audience based on the STYLE of PERFORMANCE. Consequently, this gives a song the ability to reflect the prevailing reality and society. The speaker, however, did not expound on how the style of singing and performance captured the mood of the audience, although this can be surmised to be what he was alluding to when he talked of the INTERESTS, that make the audience enjoy. A Critical Review of Responses to the Interview Questions from Literature Students at the University of Dar es Salaam This section examines the responses of University of Dar es Salaam literature students to the research questionnaires. This is in addition to the interview above. This section aimed to examine explicit and implied meanings that they listen to and infer from Bongo Flava songs. The researcher had foreseen that during the interviews, some respondents tend to veer from the main objective of the interview and end up giving a lot of irrelevant information in the context of the research objectives. This section, therefore, aims at tailoring the respondents’ answers precisely to the 102 objectives of the research. Due to the limitation of time and the fact that the students were having other classes besides this session, only about 16 of 40 students remained to fill out the questionnaires. We took a lot of time listening to the previous respondents during the interview, and so we ran short of time. As earlier acknowledged, this group of respondents was identified with the help of the department of Literature and particularly its chair, Dr Eliah Mwaifuge. Most importantly, this session aimed to collect precise information with regard to the research objectives in order to examine the hypothesis that Bongo Flava music bears implied literary meaning on the one hand and, on the other hand, that such meaning can be implied in the voice of the artist. This was in response to the first and second objectives, research questions, and hypotheses of the research. Consequently, the researcher collected data that was tailored toward investigating how literary scholars infer meaning from the voice and melody in a song. The researcher also wanted to look at the language and articulation that literature students would use to explain the literary significance they found in a song. The main concerns of the research in this context were based on the fact that most literature students are probably not grounded in musicology and therefore may not be able to apply knowledge based on music and musicology to explicate the meaning in a song. However, the research was strongly of the view that it does not and may not necessarily follow that because they are not trained in music, they do not infer meaning implied in the melody and the voice of the artist. What is not clear, however, is how literature students who do not have a musical background use it when discerning meaning from the voice of an artist. The responses to this section of the research were expected to provide a roadmap that clearly shows the pattern(s) that literature students and people grounded in oral literature employ when examining and inferring meaning from a song. This was, in addition, informed by the very desire to confirm the hypothesis that literary scholars can infer literary meaning from the audio text of songs. The researcher, despite the hunch, wanted to hear from the respondents how they go about inferring meaning in songs. The researcher formulated the objective of the questionnaire into seven questions, each intended to dissect various facets and assumptions that the melody and the voice of the artist bear literary meaning, especially in Bongo Flava Songs. As will be seen below, the researcher identifies the main concerns that seem to define how the respondents think about the meaning implied in the voice of the artist in CAPS. This is intended to help the reader follow the stream of thought that 103 defines the encyclopaedic entries the respondents apply as they infer meaning from the song and, most particularly, from the voice of the artist. Although the research employs relevance theory to examine implied meaning in the voice of the artist, the researcher operated on the concern that a theory and its respective tenets cannot be forced on the respondent's way of perceiving meaning in oral literature. The researcher's fidelity is therefore to report as faithfully as one can for the reader to see how the relevance listeners draw from the song emerges from the data and from the confessions of the respondents in the most natural way. The task of the researcher in the comments in each of the responses is to critique the responses to underpin the relevance that listeners accrue from the songs based on the listening process and as a result of the knowledge, the listener brings to the listening and meaning-making process as a procedure of deriving relevance. The researcher has therefore put in UPPERCASE LETTERS terms and concepts which the researcher has noticed that appear to define the elements of thought that each of the respondents appears to be operationalised, as one responds to how they infer meaning from the audio text of the song and the voice of the artist. In summary, in the following responses, one will notice the emergence of the following codes, terms or concepts as motifs: AUDIENCE, INFLUENCE, SCENE, THEME, and EMOTIONS, to mention a few. The research has, however, kept the comments to a minimum in this section since this chapter chiefly is a report of the research results. The in-depth criticism of these results will follow in the next chapter titled "discussion." This is because the prime aim of this chapter is to establish the main features that define the encyclopaedic entries that listeners appropriate and employ when inferring meaning from a song. As earlier observed, the term “cognitive effect” in relevance theory can be understood to mean the final meaning that manifests in a listener's mind as a result of imputing certain communicative factors into consideration. The factors that determine the relevance a listener attaches to an utterance are what the theory refers to as encyclopaedic entries. Although it may be permissible for listeners to infer meaning from utterances, it may not be clear, and thus the process music listeners, such as Bongo Flava fans, employ when listening to songs remains hypothetical. It is for this reason, therefore, that this chapter seeks to establish facts based on the speakers' own confessions of the most probable patterns they employ when inferring meaning as they listen to a song. Establishing such patterns that listeners employ can be important since they can aid in 104 underpinning the features that govern and determine the meaning-making process most listeners employ as they listen to a song. Such features and procedures can help in assessing the strengths and weaknesses of given conclusions which listeners arrive at in their song criticism processes. Arguably, if the strength or weakness of an argument of meaning one underscores is to be based on the process that led to how it was arrived at. The few comments in italics in this section are only to give the reader hints on key observations, which the researcher made as he transcribed and complied the data. This is because the full analysis of these results will be the key focus of the next chapter. Question One What role would you say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs? This question aimed to investigate the criticism through literary scholars, especially students, employ when inferring literary meaning in the voice of the artist. Yohana Mung'aya The voice INFLUENCES the LISTENER to FEEL the REAL SITUATION within the song, “Nataka kulewa.” THE VOICE IN THAT SONG AROUSE THE LISTENER'S EMOTIONS regarding CHEATING IN RELATIONSHIPS. Elias Godfrey “The role played by the voice of the musician is to drive out the feelings of the listeners.” For example, in the song “Kwanini,” the artist, Diamond, sings as he says, “Usione nalia, moyoni naumia” with strong feelings. These feelings are to show how an artist Diamond is pained by love. Also, in the song, “Sorry Sana" Marlaw sings with strong feelings. He sings so, due to his sorry for his lover. The motif of THEME (purpose) in this regard emerges as a major factor that determines the manner of singing, arguably to create the intended meaning in the minds of the listener.” Sagire Josephat 105 The voice of the musician plays a potential role as it makes a reflection of portrayed issue in bringing up the implied. This brings to bear the following codes as motifs: Tension, Movement (plot), Meaning, Sense, Attention, and Interest. Masanjala Tangu The musician’s voice works on creating the audience's tension and moving them with the song's meaning. The Voice captures my attention, hence interest on making sense of the song. Again, in this case, the theme appears to be a major contributing factor that influences the meaning the listener infers from a song. Ibrahim Nyeura How they sing suggest THE MEANING THEY INTEND. Their voices make the audience/listener feel pity, sad, romantic etc. However, he did not, explain how he can infer these MOODS from their voices. Ruth N. Nzegenuka Voice of any musician bring uniqueness, for example, I can identify Diamond through his voice. Consequently, this signifies the role of voice in defining social identity as a theme in this context. Zablon Peter Chacha The voice of the musician indeed plays the rule in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs because the he or she sings by using his or her voice reflects, the meanings of the song concern. Example song of Marlow known as Rita’s voice interpret implied meaning. The respondent in this case confirms one of the hypotheses of the research. However, he did not explain how he was able to infer implied meaning from the voice of the artist. The researcher in this regard observed that while most people are able to infer implied meanings in audio texts such as voice, few can explain the process through which they arrive at the meaning they infer in texts. This is probably because there seems to be a lack of such a methodology in literature and literary 106 criticism. Based on this comment, audience, theme, mood, and tension can be underpinned as motifs that characterize features of the voice of the artist, which a listener appropriates when inferring the implied meaning. Salehe Hamadi Salimu Diamond Platnumz’s song “Utanipenda” The VOICE OF THIS SONG CREATES ATTENTION to the reader about the CONTENT. For example, TENSION about economically affect related to LOVE AFFAIRS hence show SAD VOICE to INTERPRET TRUE LOVE. The researcher noted that literary scholars tend to use adjectives to describe the inferential meanings which they find implied in the voice of the artist. The voice shows content situation or event for example LOW VOICE used to console others, like her mother as a character within the song. In this context, the song bears autobiographical texts, as evidenced by this song, in which the artist not only addresses the mother as the addressee and a subsumed character in the song but also reflects a reality of his life. Although the researcher aimed at underpinning concretely how listeners infer literary relevant meanings in the voice of the artist, it was slowly emerging that although listeners can infer implied meanings in the voice of the artist, none is capable of explaining the implied meaning beyond the use of adjectives to describe mood and tone and the respective meanings conveyed based on the MESSAGE and TUNE. Makonda Mihambo The voice of the musician helps the listeners and audience understand which message the song portrays. For example, the voice determines whether the message presented is about either LOVE or HAPPINESS. This observation DISAMBIGUATES between the explicit message that is stated in the lexical choices and the message implied in the manner of rendition. We can thus construe the thematic concerns present in a song as a result of TRIGGERS and CONSEQUENCES as characteristic processes that define the process of making inferences. For example, Diamond's song "Lala Salama." The voice determines that the artist is in love, having deep love with someone, (added the respondent). Spemba Spemba E. The voice of the musician ATTRACTS ATTENTION and draws one to listen. 107 John Lameck “Note this: most Diamond songs are about love issues thus the voice is harmonized romantically.” Robbin Evince Richard The ORGANIZATION OF TONE as whole, raising and falling of Tones, used by the artists add credibility to Marlow. Although the respondent appears to have a grasp of the role of tone and INTONATION, he appears to lack a concrete way of explaining how the voice of the artist helps him infer the implied meaning in the voice of the artist. William Baraka The voice of the musician helps send the impeachable MESSAGE CLEARLY. For example, a song such as "Rita" by Marlaw IS EMOTIONAL through the voice of the singer and hence pass the INTENDED MESSAGE. This is a hint that through the voice of the artist, the respondent can infer inferential communication conveyed as ostensions in the voice of the artist. Another song is "Nikifa Kesho" by Diamond. The voice is sympathetic and hence arouses EMOTIONS AND DEEPER MEANING. The responses, however, show that respondents did not explain how they were able to arrive at the meaning they inferred from the voice of the artist. Another observation we made is that the respondents used adjectives, for example, romantic, and sad, to explain the meaning they got from the voice. This, however, needs a better explanation from a stylistic perspective since the adjectival approach is only descriptive. The variations in responses depend on the encyclopedic entries a listener attaches to the voice and the experiences a song's voice invokes in one's mind. Inferences are context-dependent and audience-specific. Question Two Do you think the way Bongo Flava artists play the musical instruments helps in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (Yes/No). Explain your answer in a few words. This question aimed to investigate how literature students appreciate the meaning conveyed or implied in the 108 voice and melody of musical instruments. These responses, the researcher thought, would assist in pinpointing the sensibilities literary scholars associate with the message in a song and the role the musical instrument plays in complementing the meaning one can discern from the voice of the artist as probed in the first question. Theme, audience, favour (entertainment), and visualization (drama) emerge as major motifs that characterize the relationship between the artist's voice, the voice of musical instruments, and the ensuing message in a song. Yohana Mung'aya Yes, the musical instruments add flavor to the musicality of the song. For example, Marlaw's song "Pii Pii" where the musical instruments and the grasping of meaning in the way the help a listener visualize his struggle on the traffic jam to head to the place of appointment. In this regard, MODALITY, MOOD, AUDIENCE, and FEELINGS can be underscored as emerging codes and as motifs. Elias Godfrey Yes, for example, in Diamond Platnum in the song "Lala Salama" the beat is drawing feelings. Since there are various musical instrumental: instruments imbedded in that draw the feelings of the listeners. EMOTIONS, MOTIVATION, AUDIENCE, and DIRECTING can be underscored as emerging codes and as motifs in this regard. Sagire Josphat The musical instruments HELP VERY MUCH as they BRING about EMOTIONS, FEELINGS and motivating the musician and the audience. Also, they help in DIRECTING the musician in track. TRIGGER, INTEREST, OST, and MESSAGE define major motifs in this regard. Masanja Tangu Yes, especially when they STRIKE TO MY SENSES. The musical instruments normally awaken MY INTEREST to know what the song communicates. The respondent, however, does 109 not explain how the instruments to aid in his understanding of what the song communicates. AUDIENCE, ATTENTION, HOOK, and LISTENERS can be cited as emerging codes and as motifs in this regard. Ibrahim Nyeura They capture the attention of the listeners hence to listen to the song. Ruth N. Nzegenuka Yes, music instruments develop FEELINGS to LISTENERS. Develop MEANING INTENDED. On the understanding that music can infuse feelings in a listener, this can be construed as an ability to yield POWER over or to the listener. The ability of music to develop meaning in this regard can be construed as an act of DISAMBIGUATION, in the sense that it can create one meaning and not another, and the song is conceived as a cultural discourse in this context. Thus, POWER PRACTICE and DISAMBIGUATION can be viewed as emerging codes or motifs. Zablon Peter Chacha Musical instruments may help in shaping the possible meaning however, it is not for all songs. For example, the song "listen" by Belle 9 Ha used musical instruments which helped in shaping the possible meaning. In this context, PROBABILITY, DISAMBIGUATION, and SHAPING MEANING emerge as part of the role the voice of musical instruments plays. The respondent did not, however, explain how musical instruments are able to do this. Salehe Hamada Salimu Yes, musical instruments are used according to the meaning. For example, in Marlow's 'Rita', the beat was very low compared to the content, that a singer was in sad situation about his wife's death. So you cannot dance. MEANING, MOOD, and SAD (ADJECTIVE) emerge as codes and as motifs defining the role musical sound partly plays in shaping meaning. Makonda Mihambo 110 Yes, the musical instruments help in shaping the possible meaning the songs, convey. For example, the Diamond songs like "Ukimuona" and “Nikita kesho", implies the contents of the songs because the way they are organized show that the artist is in such situation. Context, theme, drama (situation), and meaning can thus be seen as emerging codes or motifs in this context. Spemba Spemba E Yes, the artistes' voices most often reflect what is sung. THEME, REFLECT can thus be seen as emerging codes or motifs in this context. John Lameck Yes, the musical instruments of Bongo Flava artists are made in a way that the sound goes with the message conveyed. The music produced are romantic however not exactly compared to very known romantic songs of the Westlife. MEANING, COMPLEMENT, DESCRIPTIVE, and THEME can thus be seen as emerging codes or motifs. Robbin Evance Richard Yes, it's true that the musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings of the song conveyed for instance. Diamond as an artist the song called Mbagala there was the balance between the voice of a musician and the musical instrument used, such situation leads TO EFFECTIVELY CONVEYING of the MESSAGE. But this aspect is much dependent on a musician. It is not the factor for the whole musician. SHAPING, MEANING, BALANCING, and EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION (OST) can thus be seen as emerging codes or motifs. William Baraka No, because some song's instruments don't match with the message. For example, the song "Moyo Wangu" by Diamond. The instruments are in a partying pattern but the singer is in 111 lamentation. "Mawazo," Nikifa kesho" by Diamond. The researcher was able to observe that twelve out of the thirteen respondents affirmed that they relate the voice of musical instruments to the message in a song. They, however, did not explain step by step how they are able to infer the meaning they find embedded in the song melody of the musical instruments. Therefore, as the justification of this research suggests, this research is intended to provide a practical method through which literature students can infer, explicate, and articulate the meaning implied in the song, may it be the voice of the artist or music instrument. Question Three Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the song? Following the responses in questions one and two, this question is intended to examine if literature scholars do think of voice and melody in songs from a stylistic perspective. And if they do, the responses will help examine how they approach the criticism process of examining voice and meaning that can be implied and inferred from an artist's style of singing. Yohana Mung'aya Yes. Elias Godfrey Yes, the style of singing influence the message delivery, since the style attract certain artists to be celebrated Example: Diamond Platinum has a style of crying while singing a chorus and repetition of chorus. This style facilitates message delivery. Also, Marlow uses the words like pii pii, to show his creativity. The following codes or motifs appeared to characterize how the respondent appeared to infer meaning from the style of singing. MANNER, DELIVERY, MODE, TECHNIQUE, CRYING, REPETITION, MESSAGE, CREATIVITY. Sagire Josephat Yes, it does, the style ILLUMINATES the TASTE of the INTENDED MESSAGE, ACTING AS the TRANSFORMATION OF WORDS INTO REALITY. The following emerged as codes or 112 motifs that define how the respondents the encyclopaedic entries the respondents appropriate when inferring meaning from the song: INTENDED MESSAGE, ILLUMINATES, REALITY, TASTE. Masanja Tungu Yes, it does. Style such as that used by Diamond and Marlaw are soft-and this gives the MESSAGE and EMOTIONAL TONE of MEANING. As evidenced in this observation, the manner of singing can be tailored to favour a given manner of interpreting the expected meaning. The soft manner the respondent alludes to as opposed to hard, mild, or rough, for instance, is an adjectival description arguably of the purpose intended to shape the context within which the listener identifies with the message in the song. In this regard, it can be observed that the following emerge as codes or motifs that define how the respondents the encyclopaedic entries the respondent appropriates when inferring meaning from the song. DISAMBIGUATION, SOFT (DYNAMICS), MESSAGE, EMOTIONAL TONE. Ibrahim Nyeura Yes. This was a straight-forward ACKNOWLEDGEMENT, but the respondent did not support his claim with examples of further elaboration. Ruth N Nzegenuka It does because every artist designs HIS OWN STYLE to COMMUNICATE MESSAGE to LISTENERS. STYLE helps to IDENTIFY the ARTIST. This observation can lead to the following codes as motifs: DESIGNS HIS OWN STYLE, OST, MESSAGE, STYLE, IDENTITY. The purpose of communicating the intended message in this case is identified as a major factor that determines the style of singing. Consequently, style in this case can be identified as a factor that leads to the construction of identity. Zablon Peter Chacha In some cases, the style of singing MAY INFLUENCE THE MESSAGE CONVEYED in the songs, he or she may USE DIFFERENT STYLES OF SINGING so as to INFLUENCE THE 113 MESSAGE CONVEYED in the songs. As evidenced in this observation, the respondent is tentative, arguably meaning the style of singing may or may not fail to influence the message conveyed. Arguably, this may depend on the individual listener and the listening experience they bring to the song. The LISTENER and the CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION one brings to the song can be cited as key to a song's ability to influence the message based on the style of singing an artist employs. Generic categories as contextual information and the reason as to why an artist opts for a given style of singing may be known to the listeners, hence forming shared knowledge between the artist and the listeners. The cognitive effects that a listener will infer from a song can be informed by the shared knowledge between the listener and the artist. A listener who doesn't have the same knowledge, on the other hand, may not get the same implied meaning in this regard. Informed by CULTURAL EXPERIENCE and CONTEXTUAL INFORMATION, informing the choice of GENRE, and SUB-GENRES as STYLISTIC CHOICES, in this regard, can be said to define the style of singing as implicature chiefly employed in Bongo Flava to pass contextual information. In this context, the style of singing can be used to close out some members of society who do not share in the cognitive environment that bears the contextual information implied in the song. This can be cited as a practice of style to code meaning. The practice of coding meaning, in this case, can be said to be a practice of power over the listeners by the artist in that one has the power to control the level at which different listeners can access different layers of meanings implied in the song as encompassed in the style of singing. This may not only be specific to Bongo Flava but the same was reported in Mahugu (1990). Haroub Msingala, in addition, made a similar observation that some songs do, while others don't. The LISTENER in this context appears to be a significant factor that determines the meaning a song conveys based on the style of singing. The following motifs thus emerge as key factors that determine the ability of style to convey the message. LISTENER, OST, CONTEXT, DISAMBIGUATION. Disambiguation in this context applies in the context that a certain fraction of the target listeners may infer the purpose, informing why an artist is appropriating a certain and not the other. Stylistic choices at the performance level appear to ostensibly inform the listener that "I am suggesting this meaning, not this meaning." This is evident in most African songs where oral nuance as a style is appropriated to suggest implied meanings, which may close out those who may not understand the reason behind the appropriation of certain oral nuances in songs. As noted in Relevance Theory, CULTURE is key in determining a listener's ability to infer the meaning implied in a style of singing. If one listener 114 can see the relationship between the style of singing and the message in a song, and another listener fails to see such a relationship, the song is therefore not the problem, nor the style of singing, but the encyclopedic entries (cultural knowledge) that each listener is appropriating in their endeavour to infer implied meaning. The style of singing in this context is a site for meaning creation and the performance space is a site for meaning permeation. A good example is Marlaw, the, he sings by using different style of singing. As this respondent observed, Marlaw uses different styles, arguably to code and conflate meaning, as explained in the next chapter. Notably, some of the implied meanings in Marlaw's songs are highly political, addressing serious themes such as racism in society, in spite of the fact that the style of singing camouflages the sensitivity side of the sharp criticism of society by alluding to mild love and romance nuances that mask the implied meaning. Ultimately, appropriation of style in this context can be cited as a practice that is appropriated based on the class of people in society and their ability to infer various levels of meaning depending on their background, race, culture, and ideologies. Style in this context can be said to encompass masking techniques arguably intended to address a particular choice of audience based on the shared norms and values that the given class of audience ascribe to in their shared knowledge, which they use to infer the implied meanings conveyed in a given style of singing. In this regard style is tied to a particular meaning that it is expected to represent and that such meaning is subject-specific and particular to a given target audience. The ability of a given style of singing to include a certain class of people as the target audience on the one hand, and the ability of the same style to exclude others, can thus be construed as a practice of identity that is very subsumed and concealed, and the practice of the same on the other hand. A style of singing in this regard can be said to bear symbolic value and meanings specific to a particular context. Furthermore, it is an act of performing meaning explicitly and implying it at the same time. 115 Salehe Hamadi Salimu Yes, because you can't dance within the sound while you blaming or pleasing somebody to rescue on something but you can use this style in pleasure songs as used in Diamond's songs', Gongo la Mboto and Bum Bum respectively. As evidenced in this comment, it can be seen that style in songs is related to the PURPOSE or function an artist intends to fulfil when one sings in a given style. However, as the respondent pointed out, this does not prevent the same style from being used in a different context. As the respondent observes, the style of singing Diamond Platnumz and Mrisho employ in the song Gongo la Mboto is to appeal to the public to come to the rescue of the victims of the bomb blast that left many homeless, dead, or injured as a result of the calamity. The appeal to pity in the song is explicit, as evidenced in the mourning and crying tone in the voices of the two artists. However, as the respondent argues, the same style of singing can be used in a song that bears a different message. A style of singing can be responsive to the message in a song but not necessarily rigidly tied to only that one kind of message. The interdependence between the message and the style of singing in a song does not, however, tie or limit styles of singing to particular messages. Purpose, as the respondent observes, appears to be the chief factor that governs stylistic choices in songs. Makonda Mihambo The style of singing INFLUENCE THE MESSAGE CONVEYED in the songs in the sense that the STYLES used by the artist DETERMINES THE MESSAGE, AND THE ATTITUDE OF THE ARTIST. For example, in Marlaw's song 'Rita' shows the sorrowful situation or condition. From this comment, INFLUENCE, MESSAGE, STYLE, and ATTITUDE, emerge as major motifs that determine the meaning a style of singing can create in a song, the lyrics notwithstanding. Unfortunately, the respondent did not expound on HOW style influences the message conveyed. Giving an example of the song “Rita,” and citing SORROW, SITUATION, and CONDITION can be inferred to suggest that the style Marlaw uses in singing the song "Rita" invokes the sorrowful condition of the persona, the situation of mourning, and the condition of the persona in the minds of the listeners, although this is an interpretation of the researcher, with a view to making sense of what the respondent meant. In addition, the respondent's perception of the term message, in this regard, appears to allude to the implicature of the meaning an artist implies as a result of their 116 style of singing. This observation can be reached since it appears to suggest that the respondent is not referring to the transcribed text in this case. This is because the transcribed text can convey meaning independent of the manner of singing. The usage of the term MESSAGE in this case does not refer to the transcribed message but to the meaning that comes out as a result of the message and the style of singing. In this context, the message is thus treated as a referent pointing to perspectives that the singing style brings to bear based on the ensuing message. This observation can thus lead to the conclusion that a style of singing can be a form of DISAMBIGUATION, whereby it suggests to the listener a given meaning and interpretation, which the artist appears to expect the listener to attach to the song as one identifies with the relevance the artist expected to address. The respondent's argument thus appears to suggest that the manner of presenting the message determines the meaning a listener infers from a song. Spemba, Spemba E Yes, singing as opposed to rapping is essential element in communicating message. Example the singers in relation to love message and rapper most often are harsher. To mean singing as opposed to rapping in love songs is construed to suggest a gentle way in which the message is conveyed. MESSAGE, COMMUNICATING, and THEME can thus be cited as motifs that determine how the listener infers meaning from a song. Although it can be argued that there are love songs that are in rap form, the respondent appears to suggest that love songs could be more appealing to him as compared to rap songs because the latter are harsh. CULTURE in this regard can be cited as a major motif that determines the appreciation patterns of different music genres. What the respondent suggests may not necessarily follow based on the context that would inform the composition and performance of different songs. However, his opinion remains valid based on the context within which he is operationalizing the taste and appreciation patterns that he brings to the listening experience. The musicality in singing, in Bongo Flava music appreciation practices, can be said to be favoured more than rapping, although this is a biased sample assumption because it is only based on this comment. The mildness in singing as opposed to the harshness in rap music thus appears to suggest that the THEME, for instance, love, can influence the suitability of a style of singing. Based on this comment, one can, therefore, ask whether the process of attaching relevance to style is a practice of subjectivity, and if so, to what extent can it be reliable in underscoring meaning, on the one hand, and on the other hand, if the same practice of subjectivity 117 characterizes the mode of perception for members of a given society, what would this reveal and the purport of their shared values? If the assertion by the respondent does not necessarily follow as a fact, to what extent does such a perspective and a perception not only reveal possible weaknesses that could determine the ideological practices within which such audiences operate? The TARGET AUDIENCE and the THINKING PATTERNS that characterize their meaningmaking process, in this case, can be cited as being key in determining the implicatures an artist suggests in one's STYLE of singing. John Lameck The STYLE CHOSEN by these BONGO FLAVA ARTISTES are DIRECTLY INFLUENCING THE MESSAGE CONVEYED IN THEIR SONGS. For example, the way Diamond sings and even performs his songs which are mostly about love affairs the style of singing corresponds with the topic of his songs. Although the respondent does not support the comment with illustrations, he appears to affirmatively confirm that there is a relationship between the message in a song and the style of singing. Unlike the lexical meaning explicit in the song's text, the message Bongo Flava fans infer from the songs appears to be dependent on the style of singing an artist employs. This can be underscored as the role of aesthetics in determining implied meaning in performance. Contextual information permeated in the performance can thus be cited as critical in determining the meaning listeners infer from a song. INFLUENCE, SING, PERFORM, STYLE, CORRESPOND, and TOPIC are major motifs that characterize the features that a listener may operationalize in this context to infer implied meaning in songs. Robbin Evance Richard It's TRUE that the STYLE of SINGING MAY INFLUENCE THE MESSAGE CONVEYED ON DIFFERENT ASPECTS for example, a musician SINGS SLOWLY and adheres to the rules of RAISING and FALLING of tones. It is easy for each conveying of the message compared to those who sing LOUD and FAST it is possible for an individual to miss the intended message by the musician. Can it be true and probable at the same time? This comment asserts that it is true that style influences the message conveyed in songs. This would then invite the question, how? The respondent’s elaboration alludes to the role of prosody, which arguably forms a KEY aspect in ostensive communication. Based on the objectives of the research, it can therefore be said that the 118 congruence of the responses regarding the role of style in message permeation may no longer be a contested issue but a fact as far as Bongo Flava is concerned. The significance listeners associate with the style of singing in the inference-making process would, however, remain the central concern. That is, what is it in the rising and falling tone that serves to constitute meaning? His singing style may lead to the role of NUANCE, TONE, and INTONATION as key elements that determine implied meaning. MESSAGE, CONVEYED, ASPECTS, TEMPO, INTONATION, and DYNAMICS can thus be cited as major factors that determine the meaning listeners infer from songs. William Baraka CERTAINLY, because what one sings and wants to convey should match with the style. For example, it can be a MOURNING and GRIEF message and then you use a PARTYING or clubbing style. E.g. Marlow's song 'Rita' is a SORROWFUL MESSAGE INTENDED and its STYLE CORRELATES. SOFT VOICE. Based on this observation, the THEME of a song can be central in determining the style an artist may use when expressing a given message. MESSAGE CONVEYED, WANTS MATCH, STYLE, CULTURE, THEME, CONTEXT, EXPECTATIONS, and DYNAMICS emerge as key factors that may determine the style of singing an artist may adopt in order to convey the meaning the listener expects based on the genre of the song. A dirge in this case may not be sung in a jovial way, according to the respondent. This may be culture-specific because there could be other cultures where a "clubbing" dance mood can define a dirge as a cultural practice of mocking death. The mention of grief and the allusion to softness in love songs as compared to harsh tunes in rap music can signal that Bongo music, its style of singing, is central to the EMOTIONS the music creates in the listener. The same was observed by the music producer, Haroub Msingala. As a result, this research can investigate why Bongo music fans are EMOTIONoriented and what this reveals about their culture, identity, and ideologies. Question Four Do you think sound production techniques in Bongo Flava songs contribute to the meaning of songs and their effects on the audience? The aim of this question was to probe further if the literary scholars in the process of listening to a song's mores on Bongo Flava are able to designate meaning to production techniques and, in addition, to examine how they assign relevance to audio-aesthetic 119 features in songs. Although the term “sound production techniques” can refer to a wide range of voice and sound production techniques, the researcher wanted to focus on the areas of voice and sound production that define how literary scholars interpret, name, and explain audio features in songs. Yohana Mugaya Yes Elias Godfrey Sound production contributes much to the meaning of the songs and affects the audience. In the artist’s songs, the pleasure will use normal words but when singing the sad song, he uses the sad words. Although the question was focused on PHONOTATION and PHONOTATION TECHNIQUES and their EFFECTS ON MEANING, the respondent in this case focused on lexical choices. The researcher thought the respondents could associate voice production with nuances and enunciation practices and their effect on meaning. Sagire Josephat Yes. They do, as they accord/accompany the motion of the song and arise the tone of a particular hidden MEANING or MESSAGE. That is each tone tends to have specific issue. The respondent did not, however, elucidate how he is able to infer meaning from the tone or other sound features in songs. The researcher was of the hunch that despite the earlier observation that literary scholars think of sound and meaning from an adjectival and descriptive approach, they, in addition, tend to stop their criticism at the descriptive stage upon the description of the emotions they find represented in a song's voice or melody. In addition, the researcher is of the opinion that there must be factors of criticism that the respondents and listeners employ when they attach meaning to the text. Such factors could have formed the criticism process the listeners were employing, although they seem to be unaware of such factors. On the observation that listeners bring their personal experience to song interpretation of the meaning inferred in the voice of the artist, the researcher was thus put into the task of generating and explaining a method through which variation in interpretation can be explained without the risk of adopting a method that wouldn't address all the probable responses different critics can attach to voice in their explication of the 120 meaning implied in the audio text. The researcher's task, therefore, was to establish patterns and emerging motifs through which he thought he could aid in underpinning the criticism procedure through which listeners attach relevance to voice and music. This necessitated an examination of where emotions and tone of voice emanate, on the one hand, and how this can be studied as artistic texts with literary relevance, on the other. MESSAGE, and ISSUE emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Masanja Tungu They do, for the reason given in III above. Refer to his response to the earlier question. In his earlier observation, he had observed that styles such as those used by Diamond and Marlow are SOFT-and this gives the message an emotional tone of meaning. The researcher thought the mention of "soft" could be examined in the context of VOICE DYNAMICS. As the respondent has observed, the CONTEXT and NATURE of the message appear to control how a speaker regulates one's voice so as to express the meaning one wants to create in the listener's mind. In this regard, the choice of message (the THEME) and choice of AUDIENCE determines the manner of expression. The choice of expression one opts for can be thought of as a practice of DISAMBIGUATION wherein this is intended to help the listeners get the meaning the speaker intends or expects to convey and not any other. The responses the respondents were giving, however, appeared to point towards the consequential effects of how one uses the voice and not the manner in which such meanings are created or produced. Hence the researcher’s observation that literary critics tend to focus more on the audio effects and not the triggers responsible for the creation of the meaning they discern in audio texts. This, in addition, attracted the question: what are the possible sources of emotions in the voice of a human and in the voice of a musical instrument? 121 Ibrahim Nyeuna They make the song MORE INTERESTING hence to insist the intended messages. ENTERTAINMENT, EMPHASIS, MESSAGE, THEME & THEMATIC, and RELEVANCE emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Ruth N. Nzegenuka MEANING. Relevance emerges as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer. Zablon Peter Chacha The sound production techniques in Bongo Flava songs MAY contribute to meanings of songs once the sound production techniques are CLEAR TO THE SONG CONCERNS. The audience CAN be AFFECTED by sound production techniques when there is a low quality in sound production techniques. Unlike other previous respondents, Zablon's observation is significant because he tended to see the relevance of sound techniques in relation to the themes a given song addresses. The researcher hence wished to take this direction and question the most appropriate method by which sound productions can be studied in order to bring to bear their relevance to thematic concerns in songs, on the one hand, and on the other hand, the manner in which different sound techniques in voice can be classified, studied, and their effects on meaning underscored from a stylistic perspective. POWER PRACTICE, RELEVANCE OF TECHNIQUE TO SONGS' MEANING, and EFFECT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Salehe Hamadi Salimu Yes, sound production techniques provoke emotion of the reader in relation to the meaning for example sound used in “Je utanipendaga” SOME of the AUDIENCE CAN CRY DUE to the WAY this artist uses in this song. Unlike other songs like "Nana" "Bum bum" as well as moyo wangu which provoke the audience to sing and dance. Although this observation appears to operationalize an overgeneralization at first, it begs the question of what is provoking emotion, and whether there is any audio state that is completely free of emotions. However, the respondent may have meant to imply that the manner of voice usage and audio techniques can intensify certain 122 emotions, most likely based on the context of the message and the alignment of the sound and voice to capture and imitate the phonic implicatures members of a given community associate with a given message. The music producer Haroub Msingala had expounded on this in an earlier interview. The explication and description of the role of emotion in this context from a literary perspective can be read as PATHOS and this text's ability to invoke deep feelings as a result of the experiences and fate that befalls characters. AUDIENCE, THEME, and EFFECT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Makonda Mihambo Sound techniques in Bongo somehow attribute the hearing of the song and their effect on the audience. This was an open-ended observation where the respondent appears to suggest that the sound techniques can or may not affect or have an effect on the audience. This is thus a neutral observation. This begs the question of what context or basis sound techniques would affect meaning and vice versa. Spemba Spemba E. Yes, failure to engineer the sound may result in a fainted copy of production which will end up not being pleasant as opposed to clear-sounding music. In which music and poetry are audible. In this observation, Spemba conceptualizes the sound production process as a process of contextualizing meaning in voice. The statement “clear sounding” can be understood from a performance and rendition perspective. Performance as a process of rendition, as Spemba observes here, can lead to the musicality and poetry discernible in song. The researcher in this regard begs the question, what aspects of performance and voice production lead to musicality and poetry being audible in a song? In this regard, PRODUCTION, PERFORMANCE, AUDIOAESTHETICS, EXPECTATIONS, and CONTEXT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer. John Lameck The sound production techniques used by these Bongo Flava songs affect the AUDIENCE in the sense of ENTERTAINMENT and conveys MESSAGE about romance. Thus, other songs are 123 focusing on entertainment in terms of their melodies. MELODY. What is it in a melody that makes it ENTERTAINEOUS? What are the prevailing factors that lead to the audience's ability to get entertainment from a piece of melody—culture, sensibilities, class, social background, etc.? AUDIENCE, PURPOSE, ENTERTAINMENT, AESTHETIC VALUE, MESSAGE, ROMANCE, THEME OF LOVE, and MELODY emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Robbin Evance Richard The sound production in Bongo Flava has led to the CONVEYING of the INTENDED MESSAGE in a way that, every individual has his/her own way of interpreting the music and How an individual is EXPOSED TO SUCH KIND OF TONE (Sonic Experience)for example the tone used in the song called "Mdogo Mdogo" by Diamond Platnumz has features that many of the people in Tanzania…(Culture & cultural aesthetics) Role of shared knowledge) (Shared values in informing discourses of music creation and appreciation patterns) Ethno poetics)… they like …(Appreciation)… it, such situation leads to easy conveying of the message and affect them in (in) different (CONTEXT) ways. Unlike all other respondents, Robbin Evance Richard's observation in the above response happens to give lead to the various criticism and inferencemaking processes through which artists and audience share in the verisimilitude and simulacrum of artistic and aesthetic discourses encompassed in song as a cultural text. Thus, it is gradually becoming clear that the Artist, Audience, Message, and Aesthetic Effect define major parameters through which literary scholars infer meaning in songs. SUBJECTIVITY, AUDIENCE CENTRED, LISTENER RESPONSE, INTERPRETING, INFLUENCE MAKING PROCESS, SONIC EXPERIENCE, APPRECIATION, MESSAGE, EASY, WHY, CONVEYING, EXPECTATION AND PURPOSE, EFFECT, CONTEXT, CULTURE emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. William Baraka Not all Question Five How does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you interpret the song? The purpose of this question was to examine the relevance and inferences the 124 respondents make out of songs as a result of their listening experience and listening as an active process through which a reader comes to terms with meaning in audio texts. And if at all, they can underscore the role played by sound production features such as those mentioned by the music producer Haroub Msingala, such as EQ and distortion, to mention a few. Yohana Mung'aya Its clarity on words used. Expressivity and performance emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Elias Godfrey The digital sound technology influences the musical sound by making the voice attractive. In its attraction results to AUDIENCE listen to it carefully. AESTHETIC VALUE, ENTERTAINMENT, LISTENING, AUDIENCE, HOOK, and PURPOSE emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Sagire Josephat There are some situations in which the listener does not get clearly the meaning of spoken or sung words hence the musical sound will help in this case in informing IMPLICITLY the POSSIBLE MEANING. This was a significant observation. This is because it is in line with the theory proposed for this research and, in addition to one of the HYPOTHESES that AUDIO AESTHETIC features in songs bear relevance that can pass IMPLIED meaning. In this regard, MEANING and IMPLIED emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer. Masanja Tungu Sometimes the musical sound communicates actual words recited by the musician. RENDITION, PERFORMANCE, and ADSR emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Ibrahim Nyeura The respondent left this question blank. 125 Ruth N. Nzegenuka Digital sound's blurs or blocks the real sound of instruments. They produce artificial rhythm. What's the basis of the artificial rhythm and within which parameters does it operate? RHYTHM and ARTIFICIAL (FICTIONAL) emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Salehe Hamadi Salimu Through ATTRACTING on CONVINCING to INTERPRET the MEANING due to its technology. For example, Nana of Diamond Platnumz uses digital technology and PRODUCES EMOTIONAL BEATS that attract readers compared to the meaning hence readers FEEL COMFORTABLE to hear and dance that song. MEANING, CONVINCING, ATTRACTING, INTERPRETATION, EMOTION, BEAT (NUANCES), READER /AUDIENCE, EFFECT, CONSEQUENTIAL EFFECTS, and CONTEXT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Makonda Mihambo They influence the EMOTIONAL/FEELINGS of the ARTIST. CONTEXT, EMOTIONS, and ARTISTS emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Spemba, Spemba E BACKING of VOCAL EMPHASIZES or PUT EXTRA INFORMATION. Sound effects MAY SUGGEST EXTRA MEANING. This is a very significant observation because the researcher opted for relevance theory in this research. This was a confirmation that harmonies and backup voices can bear significance as communicative ostensions or nuances. However, the respondent did not elaborate on how such meaning can be examined in a song. HARMONIES, EXTRA MEANING, and EMPHASIS emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. 126 John Lameck The musical sound produced DEPENDS on the TUNE form the digital installment it produces. The tune mostly depends on the MOOD of the song i.e. SAD or HAPPY. The researcher examined and inferred this to mean there is a relationship between thematic concerns and the texture (timbre) of the voice of musical instruments. The researcher in this regard sought to interrogate how stylistic use of voice features in the human voice and the voice of musical instruments can be examined and resultant meaning brought to bear. If the texture of the voice can have meaning, how can such meaning be examined? And can such a meaning be construed to have or be of any literary value? If so, how can they be studied and documented? MOOD, ADJECTIVAL READING AND INTERPRETATION OF MELODY (TUNE), and THEME emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Robbin Evance Richard By interpreting the musical sound from digital sound technology, have contributed to the song INTERPRETATION basing on the technology used in music production. Nowadays the musical instruments are being HEARD CLEARLY compared with the previous years hence such music quality contributes to easy interpretation of the MESSAGE of the song by THE AUDIENCE. INTERPRETATION, MESSAGE, AUDIENCE, and CONTEXT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. William Baraka It helps to LAMINATE MORE EMOTIONAL TUNES or TUNES THAT HELP CEMENT THE MEANING e.g. "Lala Salama" by Diamond, Mawazo. EMOTIONS, TUNE, THEME, and CEMENT MEANING emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Question Six What factors would you consider while making the responses to questions 1–5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? The aim of this question was to give the respondents an open-ended space to react and give feedback 127 regarding the interpretation of meaning implied in song audio text in the context in which most listeners other than the respondent appear to construe meaning in songs based on the factors or tenets that they operationalize consciously or unconsciously. The researcher found this question essential since it would act as a control against the researcher's or respondent's biases. This was found to aid in avoiding self-serving interpretation and assumptions of how literary scholars infer meaning in voice. Yohana Mung'aya 1. Voicing 2. Musicality nature that invoices musical instruments 3. Appearance of the artist on the stage (physical) 4. Body movement when singing 5. Style on performance PERFORMANCE emerges as a major motif or code that determines the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. This was an indication that literary scholars consider meaning in songs from a performance standpoint. Elias Godfrey 1. Voice of the artist 2. Musical instruments 3. The artist himself that is how he is wearing, talking like an artist 4. The use of language like archaic words As evidenced in the order of listing the factors above, it was clear that the two respondents, Elias and Yohana, had a given preference for voice, followed by musical instruments, and other factors had followed. This confirmed one of the research hypotheses that the voices have significance; however, the two respondents did not explain how such meaning implied in voice can be examined. Sagire Josephat 1. Styles 2. Musical sound 128 3. Costumes/dressing 4. Body languages and movement STYLE emerges as a major motif or code that determines the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. The researcher was slowly observing that the respondents were confirming that musical features bear relevance, but unlike the approach thought and conceived of using music production and musicological approaches, the literary scholars appear to employ. The voice, artist, text, audience, and performance aspects articulate the relevance they discern in songs. The respondents thus refuted the researchers' assumptions of a musical and sound engineering approach to music appreciation from a literary, performance, and theatre perspective. The responses thus led to the same hypothesis but from a different perspective. This is because an interdisciplinary approach, which the researcher took at the beginning of the research, appeared not to inform how literary scholars think of meaning invoices in songs. The respondents appeared to operationalize very strict disciplinary rigidities in how they discerned meaning in audio texts. This is because, as the responses to this question show, the respondents were favoring a performance perspective approach as opposed to a musicological or sound engineering perspective. From this observation, the researcher deduced that the respondents were more comfortable responding to the questions based on their academic orientation. The academic background was thus cited as a major factor that can contribute to the meaning different people are capable of discerning in songs. In addition, academic orientation appeared to influence the manner of articulation of the menacing differences people find in songs. Masanja Tungu 1. Relevance of the song 2. Song's ability to mobilize audience's attention 3. Style used 1. This was a big coincidence since the respondent appears to have prior knowledge and experience of how the research at hand could have been operationalized. The researcher noticed that there was a common pattern that emerged as a motif (s) through which the meaning implied in songs could be examined. One way is 129 through the prominence of Relevance Theory and its respective tenets. Secondly is the role of the audience. That is the audience's experience and response to songs. 2. This would be the equivalent of Reader-Response, but in this case, talking about a Listener-Response Approach to text explication of meaning implied in audio texts. Ibrahim Nyeura 1. The Tune 2. The musical instruments 3. The subjects (topics) Ruth N. Nzegenuka Experience of people/ fans and what message they receive in these songs. From Nzegenuka's response above, the motif of CULTURE and the role culture plays in informing the interpretation of meaning in songs was prominent. The mention in songs was prominent. The mention of fans again confirmed the role AUDIENCES play in determining the meaning encompassed in a song. The role melody and musical instruments play, as mentioned by Nyeura above, is significant in that the two are or form the basis through which MESSAGE addresses the topic and defines the THEME of a song. Zablon Peter Chacha 1. Tone 2. Voice 3. Producer Salehe Hamadi Salimu 1. Use of STYLE compared to the content within the song like wear of rags ad dirt clothes in the song "utanipendaga?" emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. PERFORMANCE and FORM emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. 130 2. Use of real character compared to the meaning like Marlaw's song "pii pii" characters like cars, traffic, drivers, the way the song tells us. PROPS and COSTUMES emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. 3. Use of intonation to create meaning and attraction to the audience the way tone rise and falls like “je utanipendaga” sometimes Diamond rise up and fall hence provokes the audience's emotion. EMOTIONS, TONE, INTONATION, DRAMATIZATION, MEANING, and AUDIENCE emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer. Makonda Mihambo 1. Instruments 2. Tune 3. Voice / Producer 4. Participants – Audience Spemba Spemba E 1. Sound engineering 2. Melody chosen 3. Whether the artist's sound reflect the message i.e. think of love song sad songs as opposed to happy songs. ENGINEER, MELODY, and MOOD emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning that a listener can infer in this context. John Lameck The voice of the musician matter most to the interpretation of Bongo Flava music. VOICE emerges as a major motif or code that determines the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Robbin Evance Richard 1. The voice of the musician 2. Message of the song 131 3. How the song's and the message relate to contemporary society 4. Is the song brought about positive impacts or negative impacts? VOICE, MESSAGE, SOCIETY, and EFFECT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. William Baraka 1. Message 2. Style 3. Relevance MESSAGE, STYLE, and RELEVANCE emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Question Seven How would you explain the role the melody or tune of the song plays in shaping how Bongo Flava Music fans interpret the songs? The aim of this question was to examine how literary students can interpret and elucidate the meaning that is possibly permeated by the melody of a song. The researcher was looking forward to seeing how the respondents would apply and define the relevance of ostensive communication implied in audio texts of a melody as evidenced by the meanings the respondents would attach to song audio features. Yohana Mung'aya The respondent left this question blank. Elias Godfrey Yes, the style of the song influences the MESSAGE DELIVERY, since the STYLE ATTRACTS certain artists to be CELEBRATED. Example, Diamond Platnumz HAS A STYLE OF CRYING while singing a chorus and repetition of chorus. This message facilitates message delivery. Also, Marlaw uses the words like "Pii Pii" to show is creativity. PERFORMANCE, HARMONICS, FIGURES OF SPEECH, MESSAGE, and ONOMATOPOEIA emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. 132 Sagire Josephat It calls for attention and eventually it CAPTURES AUDIENCE or HEARER towards CONTEMPLATING… (Cognitive Effect) …THE IMPLIED MEANING. HOOK, AUDIENCE, and COGNITIVE EFFECT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Masanja Tungu Giving VIVID DESCRIPTION of FEELING that CHARACTERIZE the MUSICIAN'S WORDS. DRAMA, ENACTMENT, and IMITATION emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Ibrahim Nyeura Most of the melodies come from the environment. THEY ARE SOMEHOW FAMILIAR MELODIES but modified: therefore, they capture the attention of the LISTENERS. They are somehow SIMPLE MELODIES, unlike the western songs. CULTURE, COGNITIVE ENVIRONMENT, AUDIENCE, SHARED EXPERIENCES, and SIMPLE CHORDS emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Ruth N. Nzegenuka Melody connect feelings to music fans they get involved in the song. AUDIENCE, PERFORMANCE, FEELINGS, and PARTICIPATION emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Zablon Peter Chacha Through style of beats as used in Nana, we can interpret that song is the pleasure song hence you can dance compared to the Marlaw's 'Rita' which his MELODY REFLECTS SADNESS of the singer hence you can't dance or show happiness melody. PURPOSE, ENTERTAINMENT, and THEME emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. 133 Makonda Mihambo The respondent left this question blank. Spemba Spemba E BEST MESSAGE is communicated by BEST MELODY. TUNE AND MELODY match with the beat to complete harmonious product. MESSAGE, TUNE, MATCH, and HARMONY emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. John Lameck The MELODY used by these Bongo Flava musicians are CONNECTED CLEARLY with the ISSUES. That is when fans hear the melodies which go HAND IN HAND WITH THEIR EMOTIONS and feelings about love helping them to interpret the particular song. TUNE, MESSAGE, CONNECTED ISSUES, CONCERNS, OST, CULTURE, COGNITIVE, EFFECT, THEME, INFERENCE, and INTERPRET emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. Robbin Evance Richard Tune of the song for the Bongo Flava fans is highly considered, for instance, those songs that have a certain MELODY which AWAKEN PEOPLE'S EMOTIONS like DANCING or shaking their bodies are much more preferred compared to those that cause the majority into DEEP FEELINGS basing on their DAY-TO-DAY ACTIVITIES. COGNITIVE EFFECT, GENRES, PERFORMED, EFFECT, SOCIAL VALUES, CULTURE, and EXPERIMENT emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. William Baraka MELODY influence the MESSAGE. Message and Melody emerge as major motifs or codes that determine the meaning a listener is able to infer in this regard. 134 Summary As this chapter has demonstrated, CULTURE, MESSAGE, MELODY, SOCIETY, EMOTIONS, AUDIENCE, THEME OF THE SONG, TONE, TUNE, and ATTITUDE are among some of the major factors that define the components artists appropriate in order to make a given manifest in Bongo Flava songs. The cognitive effect (meaning) the listeners infer from the text and the melody of the song is thus tied to the emotions and cultural experiences the song is likely to invoke in the listeners. The meaning-making process, therefore, involves and is characterized by how the listener identifies with these factors as encyclopaedic entries. The manner of singing and the emotions it invokes in the listener consequently influence the meaning and the relevance a listener attaches to a song. 135 CHAPTER FIVE Summary of the Key Findings Conclusions and Recommendations Introduction: What the Research Set Out to Do This chapter addresses the following: what the research set out to do, what the research found, conclusions and recommendations. The chapter examines literary meanings that can be permeated and therefore be discerned from the voice of the artist. In addition, the chapter discusses the findings of the second objective of the research, which was to examine literary meaning implied in the voice of the artist. This was based on the premise that Bongo Flava uses styles of singing that could convey implied meaning based on how they intone their words. Most importantly, the objective of the research, in this case, was to interrogate how literary scholars, especially students of literature, infer meaning from the voice of an artist. Mainly not only to use the same criticism practices to examine the literary meaning implied in the voice in Bongo Flava songs but also to suggest a possible literary criticism procedure that can be applied to critique meaning that could be of literary essence implied in the voice of an artist in songs as literary texts. This was informed by the assumption that how Bongo Flava artists appropriate their voices as a style of singing can encompass implied meanings that are suggested in the manner of singing. Although it was permissible that listeners can infer implied meaning from the voice of an artist based on one’s manner of expressing the inherent message in a song, it was not clear how listeners grounded in literary studies go about inferring implied meaning in the voice of an artist while listening to a song. The chapter, therefore, classifies the results of the previous chapter into categories which appear to define how literary scholars and non-musicologists infer implied meaning in the oral features of the artist's voice. The chapter categorises the findings of the previous chapters into what was observed to define major motifs which listeners employ when listening to a song and the factors they employ when inferring implied meaning in a song during the performance. The researcher observed that these motifs kept resuming, as was evidenced in the responses given during data collection. On the understanding that analysis involves uncovering patterns and interpretation involves uncovering meaning in data analysis, this chapter categorized the major motifs that were observed into categories that appeared to inform the patterns that the respondents employ when 136 inferring meaning from the voice of the artists. It is these patterns that aided the researcher in defining the sub-chapters below. Arguably, it is these same patterns of inferring meaning in a song that cultural practitioners employ that the researcher was interested in their generalization not to withstand. These generalizations were arrived at following the similarity of the responses from different people, who do not even know each other, of different ages, sex, and professions gave with regard to how they interpret meaning when listening to a song. These included music producers, band members, and literature students of different nationalities (Kenyans and Tanzanians) and therefore people of different cultural backgrounds, who had been purposively sampled. This chapter also interprets the results of the previous chapter in order to uncover the meaning that respondents infer in songs using Relevance Theory. The chapter, therefore, wishes to achieve the following: show how the actual results compared with what the researcher expected; show how the results compared with the results of other researchers; explanation of any unexpected results; show how these potential explanations can be tested; and lastly, based on the results, raise questions which future research in this area can focus on in the recommendation section. Research Findings Major Factors That Determine the Meaning Listeners Infer from the Voice of the Artist This section discusses major motifs that emerged in the previous chapter, which appear to determine key features that most students grounded in literature employ when inferring meaning from a song. The term "motif" in this context is appropriated in the context of a feature that keeps recurring, hence defining a given pattern through which thematic analysis appears to operate based on the appropriation of the feature under examination by a cross-section of subjects that could be using the said motif in order to draw a particular thematic concern or relevance. A motif in this case is not just something that keeps recurring without a reason or a purpose, but instead, a repetition that reveals a certain pattern through which a given group of people identify with the very meaning purported by the recurrence of the motif in question under investigation. The following emerged as major motifs or factors that most listeners rely on while inferring meaning from the voice of the artist: the artist, the message in a song, a singer's target audience based on social class, culture, subsumed characters in a song who are addressed by the persona, and 137 particular ideologies that appear to govern and inform the meaning-making process that listeners attach to a song based on the manner of expression as evidenced in the voice of the artist. For instance, in Holger Droessler's study, which focuses on the linguistic and cultural tensions in Hip Hop culture, he uses Gsann, an artist from Arusha, to articulate his observations where he examines the global growth of hip hop in relation to its cultural adherence to a locality or group of people. He notes that when Gsaan attended the International Black Entertainment Television Hip Hop Awards in Atlanta in 2009, his audience was captivated by his performance, though he did so in Kiswahili. BET producers, however, provided an English translation of his Swahili rhymes. Droessler analyses the implications of this translation for the song. He points out that “the local and the global need not be mutually exclusive in hip hop, particularly in its everyday practice…In the same way that local hip hop artists build a community and construct social organization through the rhyming practices involved in the cipha, hip hop communities interact with each other…in ways that organize their participation in a mass-mediated, cultural movement” (2). Droessler asserts that Gsaan uses Swahili as his hip hop language to distinguish himself as an African among African American rappers and yet appeals to a global hip hop culture in the choice of his rhymes (3). The Artist and the Nature of One’s Voice Based on the responses the respondents made, it was observed that the artists and the nature of one's voice define one of the major considerations that inform and influence the meaning listeners infer in song. Firstly, if the audience is familiar with a given artist, it was observed that this previous awareness of a musician leads to the expectations that the listener always brings to the song, and the listening process is always shaped and influenced by these previously shaped sets of attitudes. This previous knowledge of the artist thus contributes to the tacit assumptions that form the encyclopaedic entries a listener employs in attaching meaning and relevance to a song. Haroub Msingala, a music producer, for instance, gave an example of a musician such as Barry White. He observed that the artist had very deep bass, but he sounded good. This is an example of how prior set attitudes inform the experiences a listener brings to a song and hence the relevance one attaches to a song. It was observed that the respondents associated the two artists, Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw, with love songs and as artists who sing about what is happening in society. It can therefore be said that the two musicians are social commentators who use music to report, comment, and 138 express particular standpoints with regard to various thematic concerns that characterize the lives of ordinary people in Tanzania, especially the youth since their songs reflect on the life experiences of young people in society. The voice of an artist in this context becomes an icon and an index, through which various meanings are symbolized. This is because, with time, the listeners grow to associate the voice of an artist with the nature of the particular meanings one sings about. This can be said to be a fallacy of association that yields affective fallacies that characterize the meanings, assumptions, and attitudes that shape a listener's interpretation of meaning in a song. The moment listeners hear the voice of the artist, the voice triggers the tacit assumptions a listener associates with the artist even before one has listened to the message in the song. Arguably, this can be cited as one of the ways through which the voice comes to shape social attitudes based on the meanings the listener associates with an artist. Consequently, the voice in this context becomes a shaper of ideology. For example, audiences have come to associate Diamond Platnumz's voice with the themes of love, relationships, and the ideologies the artist advocates for and articulates, forming those that listeners associate with his voice. This view is in line with Anders Høg Hansen’s discussion, which focuses on the role music plays in shaping the social vision of society. According to Høg Hansen, music is a powerful tool that musicians have previously used to break barriers in political systems, enlighten society and even enforce changes. This has been achieved by using music as a communicative tool in social movements. Religious institutions and social movements have been beneficiaries of this aspect of music. He compares musicians to soldiers without guns (7). Hog cites musicians such as Eyerman and Jamison, whose songs were sung or played during political upheavals in the twentieth century: “Importantly, music is as much an instrument that mobilizes for conflict or war as it is used for repair bonding or peacemaking. No revolution without singing… many songs have an afterlife or renaissance” (1). The voice, in this context, becomes a premise or a launching pad through which identity is shaped, propagated, and ideologies are rather unconsciously or consciously shaped. This is a result of the values the audience associate with the voice and with time. In this regard, the texture of an artist's voice acquires the power to signify the meaning the audience associates with the artist. 139 This signification is based on the type of messages and themes that an artist most often uses. This consequently shapes the expectations an audience brings to a song. The choice of practising expectation, which takes place in the mind of the audience, can thus be conceived as a process of disambiguation. This observation is related to and therefore agrees with Kibona Clark's examination of the conflict arising from the struggle to retain authentic hip-hop music against the commercialization of hip-hop music in Tanzania. The work observes that hip-hop artists feel there is a need to distinguish authentic hip-hop from what they refer to as "pop culture," which has gained a greater global presence and consequently marginalized authentic hip-hop. This new pop culture stems from the desire of a new generation of urban youths to form their own musical identity using Bongo Flava as well as to attract a greater international market for their music. Authentic hip-hop artists, on the other hand, see this as a dilution of hip-hop and say it has forced them to change their music "to create and utilize alternative means to develop and produce authentic hip hop" ("The Struggle for Hip Hop" 5). During the experience or act of hearing the voice of the artist, therefore, there are particular types of meaning, themes, and worldviews that form in the mind of the listener. Consciously or unconsciously, these acts of disambiguation consequently qualify as an act and practice of the ideologies the audience and the artist associate with the message one articulates in one's songs. This is largely influenced by the shared knowledge and the cultural experiences that both the artist and the audience have in common in defining the relevance they attach to a voice as a result of their shared knowledge and cultural experiences. These shape the cognitive process they employ in discerning relevance. On this premise, this research found that in this context, audiences have come to associate the voices of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw with love, romance, breakups, and the ups and downs that characterize youth's ideologies and perspectives on themes that engender love. This research is thus in agreement with David Kerr’s study, which aims at proving how symbols and signs popular with hip hop music are used by rappers to promote social and liberal ideals in contemporary Tanzania. Kerr argues that the Ujamaa concept of a national culture confined Tanzanian music to what was considered politically correct at that time. However, upon the collapse of Ujamaa, came a new popular culture that liberalized music. Kerr uses "thugs" and "gangster" images from hip hop to make his case. These images, he explains, "embody a specific form of value" (2). Kerr says that the new breed of underground rappers "employ gestures and body movements that seek to embody the masculine identity of the rapper and gangster" (17). 140 Rapping, in this sense, incorporates a lot of physical exertion through the use of the body language movements mentioned. These symbols are also similar to those of the "classical" hip hop moves, therefore giving the new rappers a sense of liberal identity. The rappers also create this gangster image in the choice of clothes they wear, especially during performances. Artists will be seen dressed in large t-shirts, boots, and baseball caps (17). Consequently, these masculinity images intend to show one who is fighting for survival through music. This is because, song composition and performance in this context become a means of earning a living for the artists. The artist, in this context, becomes an image and a metaphor through which embodiments are defined. Such embodiments permeate the listener's mind upon hearing the voice of the artist. The occurrence or hearing of the voice as one listens to a song becomes not only a process of paying attention to performance, either live or recorded but in addition, a process through which the meanings associated with the voice are enacted in the listener's mind. Hence, the listening process reawakens these significations associated with the voice, and consequently, the representation of the same ideologies through which the artist represents one's society. The voice, in this regard, not only articulates the message but, in addition, provokes certain emotions in the listener. This is an instance of pathetic fallacy and affective fallacy, which yield the meaning they do as a result of the value the artist, as well as the audience, attaches to the emotions the voice of the artist elicits. The voice of the artist, therefore, sets induction of the most probable message and theme a listener expects immediately after one hears the voice of an artist. The message of the Song Although the researcher expected straightforward answers on how listeners, that is, the interviewers and the respondents, interpret meaning from the voice of the artist, it was observed that the respondents were giving a variety of factors that inform the meaning they infer from the voice of an artist. It was observed in the results that the message of a song influences, to a great extent, the meaning listeners associate with the voice of the artist. As Haroub Msingala observed, the choice of what message to sing about is dependent on the artist. However, one's tone must bring out the meaning of the message. This observation was in line with key factors that define rehearsals during the performance as well as key features and determinants of pragmatics in linguistics. Within performance, as the interviewee observed, one cannot just sing anyhow, for example, “Mary, I love you, Mary, I love you.” Instead, one should ensure that how one sounds 141 brings out the message in the song. This, as the researcher observed, was an observation that could be examined under discourse analysis, suprasegmental, and tone, intonation, and stress markers. However, the interviewee did not concretely explain how or what features in a voice cause specific meaning to be present or absent or what features of voice or message make a song or a performance be classified as a good performance or a bad performance. Instead, he used an analogy. The interview elaborated that when one sings well, depending on the nature of the message, the listener will just be there listening and listening again. This view was in line with a similar response from one member of the Dar-Es-Salaam University who observed that when one sings well, one attracts the audience. But if one sings badly, one is not liked by the audience. The music producer observed that before they release a song, they invite ordinary people from society to comment on if the song is bringing out the intended meaning. According to the researcher, the manner of singing and voice usage depends on the commonly held values that characterize how members of the society identify with the message in the song, based on the message of the song and the thematic concerns the song is expected to elicit in the minds of the audiences. In this regard, Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz were described as artists who have a soft voice, which is suitable for the messages of love that characterize their manner of singing. As a result, it was observed that following the theme of love and the theme of death that define the main message in the songs "Pii Pii," "Rita," and "Nikifa Kesho," the listener identifies with the mood in the voice of the artist. They described this with adjectives such as happy, romantic, and sad. Consequently, the researcher observed in this regard that the mood that defines how most people identify with a particular theme or message in a song influences the manner of voice appropriation that the artist employs. Arguably, this is intended to bring out the same mood and feelings in the minds of the listeners as they infer the implied meaning or relevance of a given song. In this regard, it was observed that the same mood of strong love and affection that characterises how a young man behaves when expressing his love influenced the manner of voice usage in the song ‘Pii Pii.’ Unfortunately, the respondents did not know that this expression of love and excitement can be described as sharawaji based on the effect it is expected to have on the audience. The manner of 142 singing in the song "Rita" as a dirge and the song "Nikifa Kesho," on the other hand, is characterized by an expression of remorse. This is arguable because the two artists in these two songs are cognizant of the fact that in Swahili culture, death is treated as a bad phenomenon, arguably because it robs the loved ones on the one hand, and on the other hand, it ends one's life, while one would want to cling to life. The sadness in this context can be inferred from the mood of how the artist uses their voices in each of these two songs. While the message articulated clearly shows that the persona in the song Rita is in a state of mourning, the mood his voice causes in the listener's mind complements the message. This is because, as a form of ostensive communication, it conveys a mood of regret and remorse, which can be termed perdition based on the effect it has on the audience. While the lexical message clearly shows that the death of the lover may have caused the persona to express his pain and loss the way he does, the effect this has on the audience as a cognitive effect is a deep introspection on the evils of racism. When the audiences are thus set into a mood and state of sympathizing and empathizing with the persona, the effect of racism can directly be blamed for the perdition that the persona is going through. The voice of the artist, in this case, can thus be seen to function to vivify thematic concerns in a song. Consequently, the voice in this context aids in the illumination and articulation of social evils for the sake of amelioration. The effect this song would have on listeners could thus aid in curbing racial stereotypes, animosity, and hatred, thus leading to a better society where all live together in peace and harmony and even intermarry regardless of one's race or culture. The voice of the artist in this regard can be said to be metaphorical in the understanding that it functions to emphasize the central concerns that define the intentions and expectations of the theme an artist addresses. What may, however, fail many in their attempt to uncover the implied message in the voice of an artist is the manner of explanation of the meaning that one may infer from the manner of voice usage. This, however, can be easy. This is because it only calls for one to examine the relationship between the message in a song and the possible purpose that could be informing the manner of singing as evidenced by the mood a voice elicits. From a linguistic perspective, this can be explained as a practice of pragmatics and as a modality. From a musical perspective, the concept of mood in literature can be examined as a mode in music. The mode an artist appropriates 143 in one's style of singing can be said to bear a direct relationship with the explicit and implicit concerns that an artist ends up conveying. The Target Audience a Singer aims at Addressing Based on the results in the previous chapter, it was observed that the audience defines one of the major factors an artist considers in determining or choosing aesthetic features. Voice appropriation in this regard can be construed as a rhetoric strategy whose artistic choices cannot be made independent of the target audience. As the respondents observed, the voice of the artist serves to grasp the listener's attention. Expectation can, in this regard, be underscored as a major parameter that defines how an artist appropriates one's voice. Therefore, there are features of the voice that can be said to be audience-centred with respect to the expectations an artist wants to achieve, on the one hand, and the audience's propensity to infer the same intentions as inferential communication. The attitude that defines the immediate reaction or impression a listener infers upon hearing the artist's voice in this context was observed to be a key factor and consideration that determines the manner of enunciation in this case. The nuances associated with how the artist and the wider society react to the texture of a voice were observed to be one of the determinants that an artist considers in shaping the voice to capture the attention of the audience. Consequently, the voice can capture the audience's attention, hence making one listen to the unfolding message in a song. To achieve this, responsiveness to phonotation techniques as aesthetic practice arouses the emotions of the listener. As the respondents observed, the ability of a voice to hook the listeners' emotions is key in determining an audience's reaction to a song. Consequently, one listens intently to the message since the artist's voice hooks one to pay attention. The timbre (texture) of an artist's voice in this regard can be examined as an aural text based on the meanings it is capable of arousing in the listeners. Such arousal would be based or be dependent on the experiences the listener attaches to the song as communicative ostensions. Such communicative ostensions, it can be argued, rely on the artist and the audience’s linguistic and communicative skills, which lead to their ability to read meaning in voice based on their shared knowledge of the voice as anaphones. On the basis of the reaction the voice can have on the audience, the voice of the artist can be said to imbue rhetorical devices based on the reaction it 144 causes on the listeners on the one hand, and on the other hand, it can be said to function as allusions to the respective thematic concerns one addresses. Based on the cultural experiences, history, and ideologies the listener appropriates to infer meaning implied in the voice, the voice in this context can be seen as an enactment of experiences or an imitation of the ensuing scenes. Consequently, the audience identifies with the meaning as a result of how well the voice reflects the respective experiences the artist addresses. The artist, in this regard, is cognizant of the most probable associations the audience can draw from the voice. Consequently, the audience influences and shapes the manner of voice appropriation. As the music producer Haroub observed, giving the example of a dirge, one cannot sing a dirge the same way one would sing a dance song in a club. This is because, as opposed to a dance song where one expects the audience to do more dancing than listen to the message, in a dirge one expects the audience to be touched by the message. As a result, one listens on and on as one identifies with the message. This was evidenced in the three songs that formed the basis of this research. Where the voice created the sonic experiences, the audience associated with love and romance in the song "Pii Pii," the nuances of mourning in the song “Pii Pii,” the nuances of mourning in the song "Rita," and the nuances of self-pity in the song “Nikifa Kesho.” Arguably, the artists in all three songs envisaged the listening experiences and emotions the audience would associate with the respective themes in each of the songs. Consequently, the voice in this regard can be examined as onomatopoeia. The artist in this case may have thus considered the target audience and how they are affected by the theme of love, especially when one is held by traffic yet has been away and is longing to get home to one's lover, as evidenced in voice usage in the song “Pii Pii.” The mood of excitement and impatience that define the voice of the artist is thus in recognition of the audience and the drama the artist expects to enact. The voice, in this case, functions to draw entertainment value as the audience empathizes with the persona. The audience and how they would visualize and imagine a young man who has been away from his lover may have thus informed the artist's manner of voice appropriation. In a related study, Musa Saimon, in a discussion of gender identities, using “Niambie,” a video by Harmonize, tries to understand gender relationships in the Tanzanian community. He achieves this by analysing the participants' gender identities in the video and the perceptions that informed these gender identities. This study is predicated upon the idea that “the 145 way men and women are represented in media such as films and advertisements sometimes reflects social realities and, at other times, acts as lenses through which we view our world” (6). Saimon notes that the video involves the construction of gender identity based on a “patriarchal ideological frame of romantic male-female relationship” (17). This conclusion is arrived at by analyzing the actions and the vocabulary used by the participants in the song and what they both imply. The persona, the major male character, is presented as talented, more physically strong, caring, protective, and better than other men morally. For example, he defeats a white man in a tennis game, and he also impresses fellow artists with his singing in the studio. The female character, the video queen, on the other hand, is presented as one who is caring, richer than the persona (she drives a car and is the one who picks him up), and vulnerable. She is seen as the one who initiates the relationship as the persona does not look at her until she calls to him. She also calls him to the studio and picks him up despite the fact that it is raining. Saimon argues that this suggests the socialization of women in this society, who are taught to do everything they can to keep a man (15). This song by Harmonize can be said to reflect the theme of upward transcendence in addressing racism in society as depicted in Marlaw's song, which had been released decades before Harmonize’s song “Niambie.” In a similar study, Hadija Jilala assesses how hip-hop helps promote human rights in Tanzania and the challenges that come with this role. Jilala notes that hip-hop began in America and was used to champion the rights of the poor and neglected societies against an oppressive ruling class: “Kuanzishwa kwa muziki wa Hip-Hop nchini Marekani kulilenga kudai na kutetea haki za wanyonge ambao walikuwa ni tabaka linalokandamizwa na tabaka tawala” (Muziki wa hip-hop na Haki za Kijamii). Jilala argues that artists use their music as a weapon to speak against social evils in society. The themes covered range from politics, labour, street children, and HIV/AIDS, to politics and economic issues. Notably, the musicians illustrate the need for equitable provision of resources in a country that grapples with the effects of socialism in the past. Hip-hop criticizes the government for discriminatory policies and educates citizens about the importance of voting. They also create awareness about the importance of education in poverty eradication and emphasize the provision of free basic education. This study, therefore, shows how hip-hop artists are promoting the rights of Tanzanian citizens. Based on this commentary, it thus emerges clearly that hip hop employs direct and explicit language in its criticism of social evils. However, as evidenced in the song "Rita," Bongo Flava employs indirect criticism in its address and articulation of social and political 146 problems. Marlaw, for instance, does not state verbatim his concerns about racism; instead, he defamiliarizes the theme as an implied concern resulting from the fate of the Asian lady, Rita. Such appropriation of indirect ways of addressing sensitive issues is not only a euphemism practice but also a literary character par excellence. However, as Ntarangwi argues, hip hop is a channel through which young people echo their dissatisfaction and social concerns, especially when the ruling class, the rich, and the elderly disregard them. He further insists that the power of hip hop emanates from the globalization of the genre. Ntarangwi explains that the processes involved in the creation, production, and circulation of music stem from a global consciousness that cannot be controlled or abused by the powers or institutions within a country or community. Hip-hop artists continually engage in very difficult political and social conversations through their lyrics. They redefine hip hop by composing songs that dissociate hip hop with crime, hooliganism, and laziness. Hip-hop musicians enact positive African identities by promoting values and attitudes that convey African pride and esteem. They also seek to fulfil the aspirations of the youth and the neglected people in society. The artists use elements and figures that point to the rich African heritage they hail from. These include the use of local languages to rap, traditional musical instruments, and traditional attire (EastAfrican HipHop 140). All these efforts are the hip-hop artists' attempts to voice their identities through hiphop music. From this assertion, it thus emerges clearly that the Tanzanian youths appropriate different music genres, such as hip hop, or Bongo Flava, based on one's temperament, social attitude, judgment, and mode of approach towards solutions to social problems based on one's perspectives regarding different social problems. Bongo Flava, in this regard, can be cited to adopt a less radical and therefore more diplomatic approach in their articulation of social problems. Hiphop artists, on the other hand, appear to take a combative approach to address the issues confronting today's youth. Music in this context emerges as a negotiating tool through which the artists articulate their concerns. In this case, Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz form part of the pioneering class of Bongo Flava artists who not only shaped the diplomatic tone that characterises the genre but is also part of the musicians who championed this less combative approach as an ideological practice. As some of the respondents observed, Marlaw sings with strong feelings to bring out the implied meaning. Consequently, this moves the audience as a result of the tension the voice creates. 147 Although the respondents appear to have stopped elaborating on the dramatic effect their voice is expected to have on the audience, the researcher observed that the manner of voice appropriation concerning the audience functions to illuminate gender categories and gender relations that ensue between the persona and the purported addressee. The artist, in this regard, enacts the voice that depicts the power relations that define the relationship between how both men and women define themselves and their roles and how they define each other. For instance, the artist's choice of enunciation in the song “Pii Pii” can clearly show that the persona is addressing a person whom he regards as having the same status as himself. This is reflected in the male persona's tone and attitude toward the lady. For instance, the manner of utterance in the following lines: ……………………………… Unanikatia simu unanionea Wewe ungekuwepo ungejionea The voice of the artist in this regard has a filtration effect that depicts the semblance of a young man who is at pains to convince his lover to bear with him. This in itself is an acknowledgement of gender equality because, as opposed to the African tradition, where chauvinism and masculine hegemony may have made the artist use a male domineering voice and tone, the artist in this case employs a voice that does not regard the lady as a lesser subject based on her gender. Arguably, such oral techniques may or must have been informed by the artist's clear awareness of how the target audience, especially the young men and women of today, would have expected him to represent both the persona and his lover. Consequently, this creates an artistic audio sonic experience known as phonotonie. This is because the audio experience is defined by characterisation of a feeling of euphoria. Such a feeling induces a behaviour of renewed activity, energy, enthusiasm, and an idyllic setting that characterizes the mutual relationship between the persona and his lovers. Chances are, were it not that the artist and the audience draw their experiences from such things as reality, which informs today's society and gender sensibilities, the artist could have used his voice differently. To address the expectations of the audience in his portrayal of current gender relations, it can be said that the audience played a role in determining his voice appropriation as a form of discourse for purposes of gender portrayal. 148 The same applies to the tone the male persona uses for addressing the deceased in the song "Rita." However, a cordial and greater sense of respect features in the persona address of the mother in the song "Nikifa Kesho". As a result, the voice each gender uses when addressing each other is determined by sex relations as evidenced by age and relationships between members of the opposite sex. This can be informed by the current gender sensitivities and sensibilities in society. In a related study, Kanyi Thiong’o and David Barasa acknowledge that the way a song is sung, articulated, and performed influences its meaning. The study focuses on the application of literary criticism to songs as forms of literature. The authors use “Gongo la Mboto” by Diamond Platnumz and Mrisho Mpoto. The study analyses the suprasegmental features in the artists’ voices. This work emphasizes that the “meaning in verbal texts rely on the manner of presentation" (“Poetic Meaning Implied” 54). In addition, time and context in a song also help in understanding the meaning of a song, in addition to tone. The tempo of a song also affects the meaning that is brought out in the song. In this case study, the tempo was set at 98 beats per minute, but it was later adjusted to 40 BPM and even 120 BPM. These changes created different meanings. For example, the slow tempo allows the listeners to share in the pain associated with the bomb blast at Gongo la Mboto. The higher tempo suggests a happy mood, which would give a wrong interpretation of the intended meaning. The singers also incorporate the use of wailing and moaning as performance techniques to bring out the pain that accompanies a tragedy such as a bomb blast. These and other suprasegmental features help in understanding the intended meaning of Gongo la Mboto. In addition, the authors, in a different paper, examine the role of intonation in Bongo Flava. In this study, Thiong’o and Barasa explore how intonations influence meaning in songs. This study thus reveals that the respondents knew what they were alluding to in their descriptive reporting about Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz’s singing techniques, although they seemed to lack adequate vocabulary, background knowledge, and technical terms in their description of how the voice of the artist influences the permeation of implied meaning in songs. A critical examination of this research and similar studies by other scholars can show that while most scholars can identify with the lexical meaning articulated in Bongo Flava and hip hop music from Tanzania, few have examined the role voice plays in the permeation of implied meaning, such as irony, in the tone of an artist's voice. Although Ntarangwi analyses the structure and organization of Taarab music by focusing on its historical development, its performance, and how 149 it relates to religion and gender, this study does not explicate the poetic salience articulated in the genre’s rich harmonies, rhythms, and dance styles despite the observation that Taarab is a Swahili musical genre mostly performed in weddings, though it does not limit itself to wedding themes. The themes cover a wide range of issues, such as the beauty of Swahili women, environmental concerns, the pain of death, and even political matters. Taarab is the only Swahili musical genre that features both men and women in performance. This is not part of Swahili culture and it is against the teachings of Islam, the dominant religion among the Swahili (“A Socio-Historical and Contextual Analysis” 2). This change is an indication of changes in the social relations of the Swahili people. However, even at weddings, Ntarangwi notes that men in the audience do not dance to the Taarab music, preferring to watch as women dance. Taarab could be described as an African musical genre, though it is also associated with Arabian music. Taarab music is not as widespread as other genres. Lack of proper marketing and distribution is cited as one of the factors contributing to its lack of popularity: “The distribution network limits their market to Mombasa residents and others who know about the Mbwana Radio Service in Old Town, Mombasa” (“A Socio-Historical and Contextual Analysis” 8). Besides, much of Taarab is written in archaic Kiswahili vocabulary that is difficult to understand for many people. Taarab has also received very little research, and this also contributes to the lack of popularity surrounding this genre. The little research done is, however, sufficient to conclude that music can be used to understand the culture of its people. A cultural understanding of a given people through their music in this context would involve an in-depth analysis of the social and cultural relevance that defines the meaning a given people draw from their music, its sounds, and performances as philosophical practices. For instance, Adolescence in Tanzania, a report that examines the experiences, aspirations, fears, and dreams of adolescents in Tanzania. The report indicates that a lot of strides have been made in improving the lives of adolescents. For example, the report explains that there were more adolescents in school between the years 2004 and 2010. There was also a decline in teenage pregnancies and an increase in the use of contraceptives among sexually active teenagers during this period. The report also acknowledged that more adolescents were taking on responsibilities by becoming peer educators and were actively participating in sports, art, and environmental protection activities (2). These achievements are a result of the investments made to empower adolescents. However, the report notes that the country is still dealing with child marriages, adolescent pregnancies, and adolescent abuse and exploitation. There is, however, a lack of 150 comprehensive data on areas such as the impact of HIV/AIDS on adolescents. The report, therefore, emphasizes the need to invest in adolescents to give priority to adolescent issues that require immediate attention and to help in poverty eradication. The Creative Economy Report, however, acknowledges that a lot of efforts have been put in place to promote the economic growth of the world. Even poor economies have been able to grow their GDP, albeit at small indices. However, the report further explains that more strategic policies need to be utilized to enable countries to achieve full economic independence. According to this report, “86 out of 144 developing countries still depend on commodities for more than half of their export earnings” (5). The report asserts that there is a lot of untapped wealth in the creative industries that can be a solution to the aforementioned problem. It adds that “the interface among creativity, culture, economics and technology, as expressed in the ability to create and circulate intellectual capital, has the potential to generate income, jobs and export earnings while at the same time promoting social inclusion, cultural diversity and human development” (5). Developing countries are, however, facing challenges in an attempt to exploit creative economies. Domestic and international obstacles, lack of quality products and services in the world market, and lack of proper policies to support the creative industries are some of the challenges that hinder the maximum exploitation of the creative economy. Developing countries are encouraged to look for ways to deal with these challenges for them to leap economically. It is these same concerns that appear to encourage the Bongo Flava to come up with songs that are audience-centred in addition to addressing social issues the artists articulate. Consciously or unconsciously, these concerns are brought out in Diamond Platnumz’s song “Nikifa Kesho.” It can thus be surmised that that is why he engages the audience in rhetorical questions such as, "Will you continue playing my songs when I die?" Notably, such concerns can be tied to the value the artist envisages in his songs and the relevance this can have on society. Bill Odidi explains how East African artists are a powerful tool for enhancing integration in the region. The writer argues that artists have already made significant contributions to promoting cultural and economic integration. Odidi insists that “artists offer a perfect template for the political class in breaking down the existing barriers, overcoming mistrust and creating a powerful cultural and economic synergy” (19). He traces the development of music in East Africa from pre-colonial times, citing the music of people like Fundi Konde, Daudi Kabaka, Dr Remmy, and Fadhili 151 Williams. He also traces the musical styles that have been embraced by the different generations in East African countries. Kiswahili classics, “Twisti”, Benga, Rumba, and Lingala are mentioned as the early forms of music that were very popular in East Africa. Odidi, in addition, shows the development of the genres of music in this region. With the liberalization of many economies in this region came the creation of new genres of music that appealed to young people. Many recording studios were opened, and more and more artists fashioned their music to suit their aspirations and markets. The music industry involved many collaborations between the artists, and this popularized their music. Major corporations operating in the region also stepped in to sponsor artists directly or contract them to market their products and services. This encouraged the growth of music and earned musicians more money. Odidi analyses the ease with which these artists navigate the different countries as they perform because of their use of Kiswahili as their language of delivery. In this way, Odidi proves that the foundation for integrating the economies of East Africa is already set and that music has a central role to play in defining a common social fabric that unites the East African community beyond the country’s boundaries. In his explication of such ideological values enshrined in music, Philip Tagg argues that musical structures must be “of symbolic value... and be conceived of practical building blocks in the construction of music” (1). The study establishes links between the audio-visual associations made by participants in the research and the musical elements that informed those associations. This study comes up with four main categories of musical structures. These structures are anaphone, genre synecdoche, episodic marker, and style indicator. Anaphone is explained as “the use of existing models in the formation of sounds” (3). Anaphone is further subdivided into three categories. Synecdoche in music includes the citation of one style in another. This citation is therefore said to not only allude to that other style but also to the complete genre of which that other musical style is a subset (Tagg 10). A style indicator refers to the compositional norms that identify a particular style as such, while episodic markers point to a musical narrative in a certain way. These structures are necessary for the criticism of songs. This is because such structures play signification roles in defining the meaning listeners can infer from the song. In this regard, the style of singing, the manner of composition, the costumes, the mode of grooming, the oral nuances, and the language an artist opts to use can all be defined as major markers of ideological aspects of East African hip hop as well as Bongo Flava. 152 The spirit-informing manner of composition and performance as meaning representation reflects, therefore, the shared values the artist and the target audience embody in common. In this regard, sound or voice serves as an agent through which shared norms and values are permeated. As evidenced in the song “Pii Pii”, where we encounter a male character who is coming home after he has been away as well as in Diamond Platnumz’s song “Lala Salama”, which depicts a persona who is wishing the wife to sleep well because he is away from home, Bongo Flava songs, despite having a heavy dose of love and romance on the one hand, on the other hand, reflect the economic endeavours of the newly married youths in society and their desire to eke life by taking part in economic activities despite their poor economic backgrounds. Arguably, this is a reflection of the filtration of capitalism in Tanzania after the collapse of Ujamaa. In this context, language becomes a serious tool through which artists communicate their perceived vision for society to audiences. As Uta Reuster-Jahn observes, for instance, in a study that examines the reasons why musicians have been increasing the use of English in Bongo Flava in Tanzania. He explains that this new trend is “... indicative of a transformation of Bongo Flava towards pop, caused by changes in the domestic market on the one hand and by a growing outwardlooking market orientation on the other” ("English Versus Kiswahili" 2). Artists who want to link their music to the global hip-hop presence opt to use figures, images, and expressions that resonate with their global audience. Common expressions in English will therefore be used as a means to achieve this end. The exposure to global hip-hop music has also affected the language change in Bongo Flava in Tanzania. With the advancement of technology, social media sites provide avenues for Tanzanians to consume different varieties of music. This exposure has influenced artists to incorporate popular aspects of music from other regions into their compositions. Such an example includes “‘Naijabeats’ or ‘Afrobeats.’ Naijabeats is influencing Bongo Flava since the last few years resulting in an increased use of English as a trend towards faster beats” (“English Versus Kiswahili” 9). Also, the success of the Naijabeats on the international market encourages more use of the beats in the Tanzanian music industry to compete effectively with their Nigerian counterparts. Such reasons encourage the inclusion of more English in Bongo Flava. In a related study, Imani Sanga examines Mzungu Kichaa’s Bongo Flava music in an attempt to describe how Mzungu Kichaa constructs Tanzanian and African identities through music. Born to Danish parents, Mzungu Kichaa uses his music to show how he relates to these two identities, 153 having relocated to Tanzania in 1995. Mzungu Kichaa sings about his experiences on the African continent (early years in Zambia and later in Tanzania). He cites his travels, his musical journey, and his interactions with the people of Tanzania, who are described as very welcoming and accommodating (196). He also uses musical instruments and styles akin to those in the African context. Imani points to the Congolese guitar picking styles, Maasai chants, and Tanzanian singing styles in "Muziki wa Dansi" (197). In using the Ma language and depicting the valorous acts of the Maasai Morans, he negates the negative condescending attitudes that are associated with the Maasai and identify himself with the Morans. He is, in essence, boasting of his ability to become one of them (198). Mzungu Kichaa also collaborates with his "fellow" Tanzanian Bongo Flava artists as a way of cementing his identity in the Tanzanian hip-hop industry. Perhaps his fluent use of Kiswahili is his greatest asset in asserting his Tanzanian identity. Imani notes that "he does not only speak Kiswahili fluently but also his accent makes him sound as if Kiswahili is his first language or mother tongue" (198). This study reveals the importance of hip-hop in forming Mzungu Kichaa's identity. Culture The information and interpretation that members of a given culture can infer from a piece of communication-based on the manner of utterance are heavily influenced by shared knowledge. It was observed that the respondents brought in a lot of shared knowledge in how they inferred meaning from the voice of the musician. As the first interviewee, Haroub Msigala pointed out, one cannot simply sing; rather, the manner of singing must capture cultural nuances that members of society associate with the message being conveyed. Upon recording the voice of the artist in the studio, he acknowledged that they do a few tricks to make the voice of the artist stand out and to give one a unique identity based on the message one is singing about. This is referred to as mastering. During this process, the voice is tweaked to ensure it brings out, implies, and suggests the cultural meaning associated with the message. The process of tweaking the voice involves several steps, as the researcher witnessed in the studio work that goes on. Some of these include tuning the voice using graphic equalizers. As respondents in a different group interview observed, if the studio work is poorly done, the audience will not like the song. In this regard, the researcher observed that social values and cultural norms significantly influence the sensitivity with which audiences and music producers treat the message. This is 154 chiefly based on the feelings and emotions that the voice of the artist invokes as one articulates words. The manner of word articulation, the researcher therefore noted, is aligned to cultural values to reflect the message in the song in the same manner most people in the given society would identify with the given theme. The researcher observed that culture, in this regard, influences two aspects of the voice. These are the aesthetic and communicative values. Although most respondents only talked about the emotions and feelings with respect to how the voice brings out the message in the song, it was observed that the artists draw their manner and style of singing from common traditional tunes that have formed the cultural practice of singing lullabies in Swahili culture. As one respondent observed, "these artists employ simple tunes that have been there since time immemorial. The only thing that they do is to modify the tune a little." On the same note, the respondent observed that these artists also sing about basic issues that take place in society. This is in an attempt to raise consciousness among members of society regarding particular concerns that attract the attention of the artist and which one would invariably wish to bring to the listener's attention. However, this presents a number of challenges in terms of generality, age, and audience preferences. As Sanga observes, what appears to thwart the participation of youths in traditional dances is in contrast their ever-increasing enthusiasm for Bongo Flava in Tanzania. Sanga also proposes the changes that should be put in place to encourage young people to take part in traditional performances. Authenticity battles, administrative issues, and the exclusion of youth in dance groups are identified as the reasons why youth refrain from participating in traditional dance groups. Sanga explains that young people are wrongfully perceived as short-tempered, naïve and lacking in resilience—factors that deny them leadership roles in traditional dance groups—and this discourages them from joining dance groups. When these leadership positions are the preserve of ‘old’ people, conflicts arise between the dancers (young) and their leaders. Young dancers are also given peripheral roles such as carrying drums and helping adult dancers dress up. The young dancers can therefore earn very little money from such roles: “there is a battle between the older and younger generations concerning the issue of authenticity in traditional dances. While the younger strive for change, the older strive for retention of traditional music forms (27950).” These challenges push the youth further away from traditional dances and they venture into Bongo Flava music, which they feel suits their modern realities and preferences. 155 The researcher in this context may observe that the style of singing borrows a lot from culture and cultural values and cultural norms. Consequently, this leads to the infusion of what the researcher termed as cultural ostensions, which form the oral nuances that define the shared beliefs and the meaning and relevance attached to them. In this context, the researcher observed, for instance, that the manner of singing a dirge must bring out nuances of pain, loss, and tears that the mourner experiences as one reflects on the dead. The voice of the artist in this context must thus bring out an effect known as perdition or must create this effect in the mind of the audience. As the researcher observed, this effect results from singing as if one is crying. This crying effect results from how one configures the lips, the nose and the facial muscles. As one respondent observed, this is crying on the pitch. The researcher noted that for the voice to bring out the expected effect, such as the effect of perdition in the song "Rita," the artist sings from a part of the nose known as the lower turbinate. This creates the mournful and sad effect which the listeners will associate with the agony the persona in the song is experiencing. This was evidenced in how Marlaw sings the song ‘Rita’ especially in the following lines: Ooh Rita (Rita) x 3 Ooh Rita oh no no no Sauti inaskika tega makini Hujui nani inamwita Chozi lanitoka nitazamapo angani …………………………………… Once mikono yangu mitupu Imezoea kukushika we The researcher observed that it is in the same style of emotive talking that most native Swahili speakers contour their voices, especially when addressing the theme of death. The researcher, therefore, noted that infusing the emotions that define the thematic concerns in the manner of speech practice is chiefly governed by the tonal nuances members of society attribute to the ensuing theme or topic. The manner of articulation in this context was noted to appeal to the emotions of the listener. This is a rhetorical technique intended to draw the listener's emotions to empathize with the speaker or the persona. This performance technique, the researcher noted, alludes to an appeal to pity. This is because the artist draws the listener's emotions to emotively 156 make the listener identify with the message from the persona’s perspective. Consequently, this can be a rhetorical practice intended to cement the social fabric that unites members of society based on the fact that everyone can be affected by the same fate at one time or another. The voice of the artist in this context functions to draw nuances of introspection as one identifies with the fate of the character. The nose, it was thus observed, functions to shape and infuse the nuances of emotions in song. This results from the harmonics the air that passes through the nose creates in the voice. The voice, in this regard, not only functions as a means of articulating the immediate message in a song but also as a cultural metaphor through which archetypal meanings can be explored. One is triggered in the mind of the listener through the creation of pathos. In this regard, the cultural memories triggered by this manner of voice appropriation are allegorical. This is based on the meanings of the past experiences and the inferences they cause in the mind of the listener. These meanings can be examined by underscoring the relevance the voice of the artist invokes as a filter. Consequently, the voice ends up creating signification through the anamnesis it brings to the conscious mind of the listener. In so doing, one can associate not only the message in the song but also the manner of rendition with the life experiences and cultural images associated with the voice of the artist. Consequently, the artist, in this regard, becomes an agent through which society can reflect on its values. In the song "Rita," for example, the fate of the characters becomes an image through which society can reflect on its follies. The soft voice and manner of singing employed in the song "Rita" in this case can thus be termed a litote since it understates the social evil of racism and death. Arguably, this is because the aim of the artist, as a bard, is to present social evils with the aim of amelioration, whereupon he hopes the affected society will correct its social weaknesses of killing and condescending members of society because of their racial background. The fact that the protagonist, the persona in the song, is an African begs the question if "Rita" would have sung a similar song for Laiti if her family members had succeeded in shooting him in the two failed attempts. The sympathy and pity that the voice of the artist arouses in this context cannot be reduced to an expression of self-pity, but arguably is a reflection and an extension of discourses on the inferiority of the underprivileged in society since it is a reflection of how they are treated by the rich and the superior races in society who own guns and can therefore shoot at an African at will instead of employing more humane methods of extricating his daughter. 157 The voice of the artist in this context can be said to function as imagery whereupon it serves to reflect the social identities and class ideologies of the lower class in society. This is because the oral nuances in the voice of the artist function as implicatures through which members of this class of people can see themselves as one of the respondents observed. This observation was in line with Uta Reuster-Jahn and Gabriel Hacke’s examination of how artists use Bongo Flava as a means to achieve a better life. Their study focuses on the relationships between the artists and those they meet in the music industry and how these players influence the social mobility of the artists. They argue that the artists mostly hail from poor backgrounds and therefore use music as a means to escape poverty. This has been evidenced in Diamond Platnumz’s economic success, from a simple artist to the richest musician in East and Central Africa. Reuster-Jahn and Hacke further explain that many such artists are struggling to make a name for themselves or whose popularity is confined to the area they live in or come from. Such underground rappers face enormous challenges before they become successful. Digitalization and the expansion of technology, however, have helped transform the music industry. Production of music has become easier and people can access music at a cheaper cost. This advancement in technology, however, poses a problem for artists. Illegal copying of music is rampant, and this deprives artists of a lot of money. The music industry is also dominated by Asian producers who “dictate prices and many artists complain about being forced to sell their master copies below value” (Reuster-Jahn and Hacke, 2014: 11). Also, some private radio stations refuse to pay copyright fees, and this hinders the economic development of the artists. Despite the challenges Bongo Flava musicians face, this research observed that the genre is likely to kill other sectors of art and performance, especially as a result of how the music genre is favoured by advancement in technology and the speed at which artists take advantage of modern computer technology in music and video production. Consequently, this may lead to the extinction of drama and theatre in Tanzania. For instance, Novetha Kigombe investigates the reasons theatre groups collapse and what factors contribute to the existence and sustainability of the groups. In particular, analyses the “system structure” (3) and how it impacts the management of theatre groups. The study proves that the longevity of theatre groups is not entirely hinged on management. The social, political, economic, and technological environments are vital in sustaining a theatre group. Kigombe proposes that current organizational and group systems must be re-structured to compete effectively with the new popular culture in Bongo Flava and the film 158 industry. One of the main factors that Kigombe raises is the issue of financing theatre groups. Theatre groups finance their activities in many ways, including gate collection fees (70). This was one of the major sources of funding in the past, and it provided enough money for the groups to pay their casts as well as run the groups efficiently. However, with the entrance of film and video production as well as advanced technology that allows people to download videos and movies, very few people attend theatre shows, and these groups cannot, therefore, support themselves. Lack of committed and skilled actors, lack of rehearsal spaces and poor management policies are also some of the reasons theatre groups continue to collapse in Tanzania. The Subsumed Character in a Song The voice of the artist cannot be divorced from the character it simulates or the persona it enacts. In this context, the voice of the artist is an imagery of the respective social subjects in the real world, and in addition, the thoughts and ideas an artist articulates are a representation of a facet of the ideologies of the same people. On this understanding, this section examines the effect ideology plays in informing the aesthetic choices encompassed in the voice of the artist in the three songs under examination. The researcher noted that the respondents in the quest of informing meaning from a song can identify with the purpose of the artist in the characters one simulates. As one of the respondents observed, the persona in the song “Nikifa Kesho” uses a voice that consoles his mother—as the addressee in the song. The researcher noted that in such instances, the characters addressed by the persona are not only related to the physical world and experiences of the artist but also become agents through which the artist appropriates the song for autobiographical purposes. In this context, the characters are not only reflections of real people in the real world, but their fate defines the sites through which the artist articulates thematic concerns. In the song "Pii Pii", the address of the female character in the song not only serves the dramatic events in the song but can qualify as a disguised form of social appeal to members of the opposite sex, especially with regards to their attitude towards their male friends in society. The coercion evidenced in haste and impatience in the persona can thus be said to be emanating from the lover. The persona at some point observes that she is impatient and, as a result, she even hangs up on him when he calls. Such coercion can be construed as a form of gender harassment. 159 The artist can bring out these nuances by appropriating the frontal sinus, the ethmoid, and the sphenoid sinuses. These create the mood of complaint, which is evident in his voice, especially in the following lines: Hello, hallo, unakikatia simu Unanionea, Wewe ungekuwepo ungejionea Unafanya hivyo unakosea mama Nakuomba mpezi ungonjee Ni njiani naja niombee The intentional portrayal of the persona in this context cannot be reduced to a more enactment of a love song because it is ostensibly a reflection of a similar experience of gender harassment men could be enduring in real life from women. Thus, it is a reflection of a psychological battle, but they remain silent about it. The artist, in this regard, invites society to re-examine such sufferings which men endure insincerely in the guise of love and affection. The persona says that he will drive even on the wrong side of the road. As a result, he appears to be caving into the lady's pressure. This is thus an appropriation of character in a song to articulate the suffering and smiling that some members succumb to as a result of the power-sharing that defines the gender relationship in society. The metaphor of pain and suffering is thus evidenced in the voice of the artist as a social discourse ostensibly intended to appeal to members of society to treat one another with some level of understanding, love, patience, and humaneness. As the respondents observed, the audiences can see themselves in the songs. The voice of the artist in this regard can be construed to represent social discourses that define and permeate relationships most often in society. The character in this context is a portrayed and a reflection of gender relations in society and the manner of enactment, a mirror of psychological experiences that some members of society contend with as they contend with the behaviour orders they endure or go through. The artist, in this case, appears to be begging the question as to whether it should be the order of things or if it is a form of social ill that needs to be corrected or addressed. The voice of the artist, in this case, becomes a premise through which 160 an artist articulates and enacts the theme of social dissonance in society to bring the problem to the attention of the members of that society. The voice of the artist in this regard is a metaphor through which the artist reflects social attitudes that are prevailing in society. While the voice in the song "Pii Pii" can be said to be a form of address to social evil in society, the voice of the artist as a character and representation can be said to reflect the positive gender relations that most often exist between mother and son in society. This is because of the artist's manner of voice appropriateness, especially in the following lines: Oh nani ataambia mama asicry ………………………… Oh mama mwanao me sina hata mtoto mmoja wa kusingiziwa Hivi nikiondoka wasikundanganye hao The lines paint the theme of decorum as a result of how the singer appropriates the nasal cavity by singing from the lower turbinates. This consequently creates rich harmonics that spell the love and respect the persona has for the mother. The harmonics in this context function for aesthetics on the one hand, since they create a pictorial mental image of the character in the listener's mind and, at the same time, celebrate mothers and therefore women, especially for the role they play in the upbringing of the boy child. The imagination of his death and the pain it could cause the mother is brought out in the voice of the artist. This is because it has an effect referred to as perdition. Ideologies Ideology in this context is understood as a system of beliefs and ideals that are consciously and unconsciously at work in how a given people define value in their practice of being. From a relevance theory perspective, the ideological standpoints that form a people's collective conscience define their commonly shared knowledge, and the exercise of that knowledge defines and characterizes their cognitive environment. Consequently, their cognitive process yields the expected interpretations and assertions about their treatment of speech utterances. The meaning they attach to tone, intonation, and stress markers, in this case, forms the nuanced ostensive meanings in oral statements. As Suriano observes, for instance, Bongo Flava is influential in establishing a social identity for contemporary Tanzanian youths. Suriano explains how political 161 reforms and the collapse of Ujamaa policies in Tanzania created new freedom that promoted Western culture, including Western music. In line with this argument, hip-hop music started to gain momentum. Tanzanian hip hop is said to have been started by "young people with rich parents" (4) who were educated enough to rap in English. In recent years, however, the Bongo Flava version of hip hop, which also incorporates Kiswahili, has become more popular among young urban Tanzanians. These rappers are mainly drawn from the slums, and they move to Dar es Salaam to record their songs. Most of them typically have only completed secondary school and thus are unable to work in the formal sector (6). They, therefore, turn to music as their alternative source of revenue. The writer further asserts that because most of this genre is sung in poor areas, it is evident that the music gives these artists a platform to express themselves. A speaker and listeners can thus, in this context, infer with the least effort the implied meaning conveyed in oral statements by basing their inferences on what a given manner of utterance is expected to signify. However, rarely do members of a given community arguably question their belief systems and ideals that define the cultural norms that, for instance, they believe in, cherish and defend. For instance, in this same proposition, Reuster-Jahn’s examination of the contributions made by Bongo Flava in politics cites the 2005 General Election in Tanzania to justify his assertions that Bongo Flava was used to criticize politicians and voters as well as campaign for the ruling party, Chama Cha Mapinduzi. Reuster-Jahn also points out that the Bongo artists used this campaign opportunity to popularize themselves. He writes that "the General Elections 2005 provided an opportunity for Bongo Flava artists to speak out and comment on a subject of social and political relevance not only to the youth but the whole nation, while at the same time negotiating their image in society" (“Bongo Flava and the Electoral Campaign” 44). Such songs addressed rallying and voting issues, unlike other genres, which before 2005 criticized corruption and the government's failure to uplift the lives of ordinary citizens. The songs not only emphasized the importance of voting but also warned citizens against selling their votes (47). Thus, ReusterJahn shows how Bongo Flava was used to promote democracy in Tanzania. Besides its contributions to national politics, Bongo Flava is used in religious circles, such as churches, to attract followers. As Jenithat Kameli notes, the "Disco La Yesu" genre of music is used strategically by the Evangelical Lutheran Church for evangelisation. The study acknowledges that this genre may not be appreciated by the elderly or older people, but it resonates with young 162 people since it is similar to that which is played in discos where young people frequent. This music is described by young people as modern and very interesting, unlike traditional music, which they describe as boring and backward. The music is played very loudly and has very fast beats. It is recorded in a studio, and artists use CDs to perform their songs in crusades instead of the traditional live performance. The Evangelical Lutheran Church uses this genre of music because it has garnered a lot of airplay in Tanzania in recent years. This affects performances even in churches because gospel artists also choose music genres that appeal to a larger audience. Further, since the majority of the Evangelical Lutheran Church members are youths who also form the greatest percentage of the Tanzanian population, the church allows “the playing of electronic music instruments and equipment as well as the incorporation of disco-like dance skills... to attract, retain and convert people to the Lutheran faith” (Kameli 16). This observation is in line with facts about Marlaw’s musical career, which, according to his music biography, had its roots in the church before the artist ventured into secular music. Religion and ideological practices and doctrines can hence be cited to have influenced the making of Marlaw's aural aesthetics, as evidenced in his voice. The calmness that defines church and the religious song has found its way into his composition style and performance techniques. Such styles constitute the basis of this research in that they do not exist in a vacuum and are not art for art's sake but instead are core to the values implied in the aural nuances the artists imply in their manner of singing. The role Bongo Flava music plays in society is not only evident in Tanzania but also in Kenya. As Matthew Morin observes, for instance, NGOs play a role in music production in Nairobi. It is hereby acknowledged that Western and local cultural influences find their way into the music produced in this region. Some of the interviews he carried out revealed the criticism that artists have towards the influence of NGOs on the music industry. These artists expressed their disapproval of the ‘elite’ group of musicians who are products of NGOs: “We have what I call ‘elite’ musicians who do not sing for the normal Kenyan... But they are heavily funded to do those things... but their music is boring…which means that Kenya will never be viewed as a land of musicians” (Morin 3). However, Morin, in addition, shows that there are those artists who receive funding from NGOs to produce music that promotes “local cultural consciousness” (6). He also seeks to address these ironies by explaining that they are common in sociocultural dynamics. 163 As one of the respondents observed, these artists (Bongo Flava Artists) use simple tunes and simple melodies. In the same way as Nigerians, East Africans can easily listen to and enjoy their music. The researcher observed that, concerning this observation, almost all Bongo Flava songs use simple music chord progressions of I, V, IV, and VI. Although the respondent had not used this musicological explanation of the common voice motifs, he had come to notice that they characterized Bongo Flava. He was very right. This is in line with Birgit Englert’s exploration of what Bongo Flava is and who the underground rappers are in Tanzania. In Bongo Flava, Swahili is used as the main language of rapping, though there is frequent code-switching within the genre. This mostly involves borrowing words from English and sometimes even from Tanzanian languages. She further describes Bongo Flava as being "more Africanized" in beats as a way of popularizing the genre on the world market as a unique African form of music. Bongo Flava is also highly popular among young people, and some of the singers are "underground rappers (Birgit Englert, 2003: 73)." These are artists who sing but have not yet become successful, or are only known in their localities, or not even known. Englert notes that “though some ‘East Coasters’ sing about love and party life, most rappers especially among the ‘Undergrounds’ address more serious topics: social problems, the poor state of the educational system, HIV/AIDS, politics and corruption and especially the problems of the young generation” (81). Besides these observations, the researcher noticed that rarely does Bongo music employ very complex tunes. Most often, the musical scale is chosen based on the ability of the pitch of the music to bring out the expected mood and the manner of playing the instrument, which imitates speech mannerisms of word articulation and word enunciation. The manner of speech practised to insinuate implied contextual information is common, and the same characterizes the manner of singing. This is characterized and defined by the amount of emphasis and word stress a singer employs, as well as the manner and style of pulling or sustaining the vowels to infuse poetic and dramatic contextual information into one's utterance. These two techniques of speech practice are intentionally employed to suggest particular information in the form of oral nuances. This is because these singing techniques as cultural expressions bear significance, which in this context can be construed from an archetypal perspective of reading meaning in oral literature. 164 As Megan Browning observes, for instance, in a study that examines the importance of traditional dance and drumming in Tanzania and how they are affected by westernization and globalization. The advancement in technology, Browning argues, has contributed to the increase in the transfer of culture among different communities, which in turn affects their values, ideas, and practices. Traditional dances in Tanzania vary from one tribe to another, and even within the tribes, there are many distinct dances. These dances played different roles, including bringing people together, teaching values, and spreading messages. However, new forms of technology such as television, radio, and the internet have taken on these roles. Browning also draws readers' attention to the fact that the younger generation barely knows about these traditional dances or their importance. Instead, they are more familiar with hip hop music, which promises a more lucrative life from the money it fetches. Traditional dances do not earn as much money compared to hip hop. However, some continue to dance because they love to do so and so continue to preserve this form of culture (24). Browning concludes that although the risk of traditional dances “becoming obsolete is debatable it is important that as Tanzania continues to grow and develop, the remaining traditions such as dance and drumming should be prioritized by citizens as well as the government” (24). Bongo Flava and Taraab in this context can thus be said to define the evolution that could be taking place as a result of interactions between cultures. Thus, the hybridization of traditional music, songs, and dances has, directly and indirectly, influenced not only singing styles, but also the values that music genres ascribe and popularize. It can thus be argued that while on the one hand, Bongo Flava has its poetics informed by Swahili traditional tunes, the adoption of western voice production techniques can lead to the creation of value systems that challenge and contest Swahili traditional values directly or indirectly. For instance, Diamond Platnumz's voice techniques, such as crying on pitch, and dancing styles can be said to be influenced and to have borrowed a lot from Michael Jackson's voice and dancing mannerisms. Arguably, these forms of vocal expression that tend to appropriate femininity in tone and timbre, which are also common in Marlaw's songs can define forms of masculinity that tend to veer from the traditional masculine hegemony, which could be termed "the Okonkwo complex." As one of the respondents averred that Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw sing the soft type of Bongo Flava music, the researcher observed that the two artists employ gentle and soft word articulation 165 techniques and, in addition, sustain their vowels significantly to elicit the emotions the intended audience associate with how they relate to a given message and attach value to it. In this context, the researcher noted that the themes of love and death are highly emotive topics in Swahili culture. Consequently, the artists sing by crying on the pitch and avoid a lot of force when enunciating the consonants. This creates drama and the poetic salience that characterises the implied meaning in the songs. These singing techniques, with time, can be said to embody values the artist as well as the audience associate with the meaning implied in these singing techniques as the voices of a given class of members of society. Notably, as Clark argues, in the analysis of the role of hip hop in shaping the political and economic structures of Dar-es-Salaam and Accra. In this analysis, Kibona shows that both Tanzania and Ghana have a vibrant hip-hop culture that raises social consciousness among their people. Since both countries share a history of socialist ideals, hip hop plays a major social commentary role ( “Hip Hop as Social Commentary” 23). The lyrics in the hip hop of young artists traverse politics, economic and social spheres: “Hip Hop artists in Accra and Dar es Salaam often critically examine government leaders, though they differ slightly in how they do this. They also deconstruct social institutions and economic oppression in songs that address urban life, migration, and the perceived failure of elders to protect the youth” (“Hip Hop as Social Commentary” 24). The artists use social media tools to disseminate their music and can therefore reach a large audience. They are also able to transcend traditional barriers, which offer a lot of resistance to social and economic consciousness. Clark notes that while hip-hop artists also define themselves as hip-life artists, hip-hop artists in Tanzania completely dissociate themselves from Bongo Fava artists. This is because, in Tanzania, Bongo Flava “unlike hip-life contains very little social or political commentary” (“Hip-Hop as Social Commentary” 29). Hip-life in Ghana refers to songs sung over "High Life beats'' in the Ghanian languages. Ultimately, hip-hop artists tell stories that help their societies understand the social and political dynamics in their countries. In another study, Clark discusses the role that social media plays in promoting hip-hop music in Tanzania. She explains that the new hip-hop is similar in style, structure, and even identity to that in America. Hip-hop artists use this similarity to maintain authenticity, though they have also attempted to create a unique Tanzanian hip-hop experience in the creation of content and commentary. The artists use social media to reach their audience both locally and internationally. The use of social media has been influenced by several factors, although it is not without challenges. According to this study, artists have turned to social media to promote their music 166 instead of relying on local promoters. However, the majority of Tanzanians do not have a very active social presence. Also, the mainstream market comes with a lot of bureaucracy and does not offer a level playing field for artists. Major corporations control who is promoted and what content is “friendly” (“The Role of New and Social Media” 1117). Artists use Facebook and YouTube as their main avenues to disseminate their music. They also use social media platforms to post about their personal lives, and other artists and they also link music videos to their posts as a way of generating income. These social avenues also help them get social projects, especially if they have many followers. She further opines that “the increased use of social media has resulted in numerous projects aimed at empowering artists and developing hip-hop as both a culture and a way for artists to earn a living from their music” (“The Role of New and Social Media” 1131). Hip hop and Bongo Flava music genres as practices of youth ideologies can, therefore, in this context, show factions of youth values to which the respective fans of these music genres ascribe. In this regard, generic choices can be said to serve to define youth social identities. With regard to Bongo Flava, one might wonder why the simple melody is characterized by simple lyrics that softly articulate the attitude of most people towards the two themes characterized by the need to be gentle. The simplicity of the tunes can thus be taken to characterize the simplicity of thought that most members of society employ when addressing matters of love or death. This simplicity of discourse and tonal nuances can be a metaphor that signifies simplicity and powerlessness, which defines the reality of members of a given class. In a related study, Ingrid Erno et al. discuss the impact that Bongo Flava has created in Tanzania and the changes that have resulted from its increase in popularity. According to the study, Bongo Flava is an artistic expression of the Tanzanian mind (3). This genre has broadened its scope from offering social and political commentary to including diverse messages that target young people who have become more and more Bongo Flava enthusiasts. This popularity has also led to the commercialization of the genre, and this has attracted a lot of criticism that comes with the commodification of music. While music in Tanzania has previously been used to promote what is considered traditional morals and values, the rise in popularity of Bongo Flava seems to have brought a change to this notion. The main ideas in some of the songs touch on love, money, and even fame. This is a great diversion from the past. 167 However, the themes also point to who the target audience for the songs is and what message appeals to them. In this case, the writers argue that Bongo Flava artists are dealing with the aspirations and issues that affect young people. It is a reflection of the desires of young people to embrace their individualism and find their niche in society. The writers conclude that “while the social and political overtones of the genre are less noticeable today, Bongo Flava can still be a way for young people to speak up and negotiate their own identities as Tanzanians” (Erno et al. 4). Therefore, Bongo music can certainly be said to be the music of the subaltern. The softness of the voice and simplicity of the songs can thus be an indication of the simplicity of their minds and judgement about their predicaments in life. This simplicity is thus an expression of helplessness, probably resulting from their inability to outmanoeuvre the challenges that define their everyday experiences. On this premise, one thus notices that Bongo Flava is marked by a subsumed nuance of complaint, selflessness, and helplessness that can thus be said to reflect the turmoil that most members of the reflected class in society endure in their daily lives. However, for the artists, music, singing, dance, and performance become a way of life in order to improve their financial situation. A report by Dickson Nyariki et al. notably, examines how the creative/copyright industries in Tanzania contribute to the economic growth of the country through the revenue generated from the industries locally and internationally. Their study acknowledges the importance of copyright laws since they provide an avenue for artists to earn from copyright fees. Protection Laws also encourage investors to invest in the creative industries, thus offering employment opportunities to artists. According to the study, the copyright industry’s role in promoting economic growth in Tanzania cannot be overlooked. The study establishes that in 2009, “employee numbers for copyright-based industries were higher than those in health and social work, finance, real estate and business services, construction, transport and communication, mining and quarrying and the electricity, gas and water services” (Nyariki et al. 38). They add that in the same year, “advertising topped the other core copyright industries earning employees TZS 27.346 billion out of a total of TZS 28.272 billion” (43). These and other statistics explain how important the copyright industry is in Tanzania. Concealing the economic agenda to improve the life of the artist by the sale of music and invitations for performances, on the one hand, and the emotions that characterize how the two artists sing, on the other hand. These can be aesthetic discourses for colouring the song, are 168 metaphors of tears, which reflect the agonising situations in everyday reality and the inability of most members of society to transcend the challenges. The tears, implied in the emotions as the artist cries on the pitch, can be said to be metaphorical in that they are a reflection of the coping mechanism that finds its way into the song. Song and music, in this context, become a platform for venting one's frustrations in life whereas the performance becomes the site for self-expression. The cry in the artist's voice is thus an expression of the worry not only the persona but also a legion of members of the subaltern class endure in their everyday life. When drama characterizes the actions of the characters, the poetic salience implied in the voice is the key theme expressed in the musical note duration. This duration creates in the mind of the listener a mental picture of the mood the persona or other subjects in the song are going through. Arguably, this is meant for the audience to sympathize with and empathize with the persona and other characters in the song. This appeal to pity thus indicates discourses for seeking help or assistance from those in positions of authority or privilege in society. As the researcher observed, poverty and harsh conditions of life could thus be the basis for the emotions that characterize the wail and pain that define perdition as a sonic motif in most Bongo Flava songs. Perdition as a sonic explicature in this context functions to reflect the state of suffering, pain, worry, helplessness, and craving for help for most of the members of this class. It is therefore a metaphor for the social tribulations of a given class on the one hand and a call for social dialogue for those in power to address the plight of the affected. The tone in Bongo Flava is thus not only an artifice but also a discourse marker that designates class ideology. In this context, the voice of the artist simulates gender relations, power structures, and social identities and is employed to disambiguate meaning to facilitate ease of interpretation or inference of the implied meaning. Voice, as a gender discourse, is sensitive to thematic concerns, age differences between the speaker and the addressee, for example., mother, girlfriend, relationship to a male speaker, and finally, sex differences. Male speakers employ a tone imbued with cordial regard when addressing members of the opposite sex. This was reported by the respondents either directly or by implication, and it is also confirmed in the quality of voice Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz use when addressing the audience and the subsumed female characters in their songs: "Pii Pii"—girl friend, "Rita"—wife, and "Nikifa Kesho"—mother. This is in line with Eisenberg's analysis of the songs and tracks produced by Kenyan youths in Mombasa 169 and the distinctive qualities that differentiate this music from that in other parts of Kenya, especially in Nairobi, where most Kenyan artists are based or produce their work from. While "Mombasani" artists aim to create music that is easily identified as coastal hip hop, the cultural identity conflict of the Swahili (a major identity factor in Mombasa) still affects the production and perception of Mombasani music. Andrew Eisenberg explains that the Swahili people are perceived as “neither completely African nor by extension Kenyan” (556). Swahili artists, therefore, not only struggle to establish an identity for themselves but also grapple with creating music that distinguishes them from other Mombasani artists who are careful to avoid being associated with the Swahili culture. Mombasani musicians prefer to present themselves as part of modern Mombasa, which is reflected in their music videos, which rarely feature Old Town or Swahili culture. However, they use Mombasa slang which is different from the more popular use of Sheng in Nairobi. The use of the term Mombasani is also very purposeful as it “references an urban Kenyan experience unique to the Coast” (Eisennberg 560). However, this Mombasa identity is inclusive as it portrays the idea "of being and not of or from" Mombasa. It, therefore “rests upon a conceptual opposition to the Swahili Coast and its subjects” (561). Consequently, Swahili artists are left out of this identity. Generic choices in this regard thus become forms of designating and practising identity. Other Results and Observations This section discusses other results and observations that the researcher did not envisage. Observations and Discussions Although the researcher had a pre-set mind and assumption on how the voice in songs affects the conveyance of meaning in songs, the responses from the students of literature presented very different findings. This is because, as observed in the previous chapters, the specialisation of disciplines such as music, literature, and linguistics influences how the audience tends to draw meaning from the audio (voice) text of songs. The interdisciplinary nature of this research thus unveiled the possibility of rigidity, which informs how scholars tend to infer meaning in the voice of a text. The researcher noted, therefore, that each category of scholars tends to gravitate towards their major discipline. Arguably, this could be informed by the fact that this choice is based on their area of competence. 170 The researcher, therefore, failed in his earlier assumption of the possibility of a universal way in which meaning can be inferred from the sound. He thus observed that the ability to infer meaning in song voice is discipline-sensitive and this is influenced by the experience and competence the listener brings to a song. There is, therefore, no one way of discerning implied meaning in the voices of a song's melody. Within literary studies and literary criticism, culture, context, artist, message, audience, character implied in the song, and people’s ideological standpoints are among the major tenets that literary scholars operationalize when underpinning thematic concerns and their respective relevance in songs. Acquiring knowledge and skills in different disciplines, the researcher observed, leads to a multifaceted ability and skills that one can apply to infer and articulate meanings encompassed in audio texts. Observation on Interdisciplinary Nature of the Research It was observed that it was very difficult for the researcher to make the respondents think of meaning in the context of a different discipline other than the one they have specialized in, for example, literature students were biased towards describing meanings in songs in the context of stylistic use of lexical choices in texts. Music students, on the other hand, favoured a musicological approach that was characterized by a description of the melody from a musical notion with little effort to tie the description to implied meaning discernible in the voice of the artist. Notably, the researcher observed that this is a discrepancy in literary criticism, especially of oral literature texts, that could result from relying on stylistic criticism techniques that do not advance how meaning is implied in the voice as an audio text can be critiqued from a literary perspective. The researcher thought that besides teaching oral literature in class from a theoretical perspective, performances and voice labs can be made mainstream in the teaching of Orature as a performed art form as opposed to oral literature, which is the transcribed version of the oral work of art. In addition, borrowing sonic terms used to describe the effect different voices have on the audience can be adopted to form part of the major terms and concepts that critiques can use to discuss the meanings one may infer in a voice as an audio text. Moreover, the sound engineers/sound technicians, on the other hand, could contextualize how the sound production machines, such as sound mixers, are controlled to shape the expected meaning in the voice but appeared to face difficulties in explaining why they do what they do. They were, 171 however, conversant in the sensitivity of the audiences and how the final sound quality brought out the expected meaning based on the message in the lyrics. Observation on Methods and Methodology After experimenting with the voice from a stylistic perspective in literature, music, and sound production perspectives, the researcher noticed that there are very many methods through which the knowledge that the researchers expected to contribute does not and cannot work. This is because the knowledge sought after by this research seems to take an interdisciplinary approach. This is composed of knowledge and background in literature, linguistics, music, anthropology, and sound production. Such an all-rounded person can or could adequately handle the extremes and convergences within which meaning conveyed in voice is passed from one person to another. The research thus acknowledges Wasamba’s assertion that oral literature is multidisciplinary in nature (Contemporary Oral Literature 33). The researcher observed that owing to already set traditions that appear to govern research practices in different disciplines such as literature, linguistics, music, anthropology, and sound engineering, there is an extent to which disciplines face rigidity and cannot be completely merged or mixed. On the other hand, there is an extent to which genres, as well as disciplines, cannot merge. The only merging the researcher observed can only happen if the processes of mixing contextualize the sought merging in the context of the already set disciplinary practices within a given discipline as a school of thought. Challenges Faced During Data Collection and Interpretation a. Methodology b. Interviewees c. Data Analysis d. Interpretation of Results e. Research Equipment - (lost mobile phone) Observations on Methodology Between 2014 and 2016, the researcher encountered several failures since many of the data collection methods employed at this time failed. This was attributed to the interdisciplinary nature 172 of the research. At the inception stage, the researcher employed a sound engineering approach in the formulation of research questions for the questionnaires and data interpretation. This questionnaire was presented to theatre and performance students and music major students. The students could not, however, give feedback that could have been relied upon since they were not able to contextualize and see the relationship between the sound engineering technical terms and concepts and their relevance in literature as sound devices. The literature students, unfortunately, were not able to understand these terms since, as many observed in their oral responses, they had not been taught these terms in any of their literature classes. The researcher revised the questionnaire and replaced the technical terms with musical terms and concepts. Once again, the terms and concepts appeared strange, and as a result, the literary scholars (students) could not understand the research questions from a musicological perspective. Therefore, the researcher had to recast the questions in descriptive ordinary language, which appeared accommodative to the target audience. The researcher, in addition, noted that he was taking a lot for granted and had to accept the emerging reality that although he was familiar with technical terms in music, literature, and sound production, the same was not the case with students who had majored in these disciplines. To mitigate this challenge, the researcher dropped the subjective approach, which was rather selfserving, and instead experimented with a conversational approach to data collection. Consequently, the researcher opted for interviews and focus group interviews to tailor the intended research and data collected toward the competencies of the respondents. Following the responses the interviewees gave, this method proved fruitful because the researcher could recast and reframe the questions and, in addition, seek clarification from the respondents. Consequently, the researcher was able to make inferences and cross-check information and facts from the interviewees. While interviewing Kenyan scholars, the researcher observed that the respondents lacked first-hand experience of Swahili culture as opposed to Tanzanian students. The researcher thus faced a big problem as a result of the assumption that he could have gotten the responses with regards to cultural influence and effect from respondents whose cultures were different from Swahili and Bongo Flava. 173 The Tanzanian students, however, were much at home with the music and the extent to which the artists draw from the Swahili culture. Consequently, the researcher was able to gain a lot in terms of insights from the students who had a Swahili cultural background. Unfortunately, because 100% of these respondents would respond to questions on thematic concerns and songwriting, only a few were able to explain the technical aspects of voice as well as oral nuances. Apart from the sound technicians and a few others who had prior experience in the studio, the rest were not able to explain the relevance that they discerned in a song as a result of sound production techniques. Furthermore, the sound technician possessed the necessary vocabulary, but they were unable to explain the literary significance that informs the applications of artistic choices in the voice of instruments and the voice of the artist. As a result, the researcher noted and observed that a researcher cannot design any research methodology independent of the knowledge and experiences of the target respondent. Solution Adopted in Data Analysis and Interpretation The researcher sought to identify major motifs that were recurring in the descriptions and explanations the respondents used to describe how they inferred meaning in the song. These formed the codes which the researcher employed to investigate and critique how listeners attach meaning to oral expressions. In this context, code was defined as a word or phrase used to connect to the idea and meaning associated with a given impression. The researcher sought to identify patterns in the collected data. And to observe the evolving patterns. This was on the understanding that evolving trends in research reveal meanings that reveal something significant in relation to the research questions. Consequently, the emerging patterns allowed the researcher to come up with themes. The theme, in this case, means a theoretical construct that can be supported by the ensuing data. Consequently, this leads to the identification of themes. Themes in this regard reflect the essence of a pattern within the data in the context of the research question. A code, in this case, was understood as a form of description of the data segment that assigns meaning. The codes were then to be categorized, and it was these categories that were to produce the themes. This was conceptualized as follows: CODE Description of a segment of data that assigns meaning. 174 Category Category Derived from codes and more conceptual and abstract Theme Theme Theme Theme A theoretical construct that explains similarities or differences between codes. A theme, in this case, was understood as an entity that brings meaning and identity to a given pattern and its various expressions. Themes, in this regard, developed from the patterns. The researcher employed in part the following methods of coding: a) Descriptive coding: narratives based on data. Summarizes the data using sentences (which aids in retaining the meaning intended by the speaker). b) In Vivo coding: Uses single words to identify themes in the data, words, and short phrases from respondents' language. c) Emotion Coding: Uses descriptive emotion words from the respondents or researcher and their inferences. Following the effect the codes have on meaning, this was treated as a trigger. Such are the feelings that the voice of the artist causes and consequential emotions, which are the emotions, feelings, and meanings that the listener experiences. 175 This can be summarized as follows: From data to categories and from categories to themes. The relevant meaning is attached to the data. This was based on the understanding that analysis involves uncovering patterns in data and interpretation involves uncovering meaning and multiple meanings. The researcher then endeavoured to provide evidence of multiple meanings present in the data by identifying the relevant themes that support the purported meaning. The song, in this context, was construed as a cultural product that reflects the multiple discourses that reflect the shared experiences between the artist and the target audiences. The meaning results can be examined by questioning the meaning and value that the audience and the artist ascribe to a song test the hypothesis and changing the hypothesis appropriately as data may demand. Interviewees The researcher had a challenge with interviewees. While some understood the cultural affect their day-to-day life experience has on their music appreciation habits, many knew but few had adequate vocabulary with which to express themselves. Many results in giving a story in the hope that what they want to communicate will emerge from the context of the story or analogy. Consequently, the researcher had to readjust the data interpretation procedure to focus more on making inferences. Challenges Faced During Data Analysis Stage One of the challenges faced during data analysis was the verification of the information the respondents gave in relation to their interpretation of the meaning that they inferred in the voice. While it was easy to underpin figures of speech in lexical text such as imagery, metaphors, and alliteration, to mention a few, the respondents used adjectives such as nice, sad, romantic, etc. to describe the effect the voice of the artist had on them as the listener. It was, however, challenging, in the beginning, to decipher how this could be measured, analysed, and documented. The researcher consequently had to revise the tools of analysis set earlier in the research to incorporate sound production tools such as graphic equalizers. The aim of using these tools was to assess how the trajectory of voice led to the meaning the respondents had described using adjectival terms. This process was laborious and time-consuming. In addition, the researcher 176 observed that the tweaking of graphic equalizers has a significant effect on the voice of the artist. This led to another challenge of how this could be recorded and documented. The researcher decided to employ the frequency range to calibrate the data, but the interpolation of Hz (the scientific term for designating sound frequencies) did not appear to make sense to literary scholars, and instead, this led to unforeseen confusion since the literary audience could not relate to mathematical figures with the least effort. The researcher, as a result, replaced figures with musicological terms such as bass (for low frequency) and soprano (for high frequency). This did not help much either, because one of the male artists whose voices were being examined sang only within a limited range that was more of a tenor and not in all the vocal ranges. Two, this approach could not support the semantic differences that listeners can infer from the artist's voice. The musicological approach, on the one hand, could not support the semantic differences that listeners can infer from the artist's voice. On the other hand, the musicological approach could not clearly explain how the same range and timbre of the artist's voice could yield a variety of meanings such that the listeners could construe the voice as sad, happy, or romantic, to mention a few. Moreover, literary scholars did not make sense of the musical approach whereupon the transcription of the song into a musical score sheet, because the music sheet could not deliver the exact tone that was heard through the speaker when the song was played. The music sheet approach thus failed because, although it gives details of the melody of a song, it is devoid of the exact tone of the singer. On the other hand, this research is a study in literature and performance scholars in this area do not know how to read music sheets. Consequently, the researcher had to define a way of appending the audio text to the written document and, in addition, borrow from linguistics the concept of modality and the concept of sonic text. This is because these two approaches enabled further elaborations of the adjectival terms that listeners associated with the meaning they inferred in the voice of the artist. The researcher thus adopted this approach because it enabled contextualization and interpretation of data with regard to the data that had been collected. Upon this breakthrough, the researcher borrowed from theatre performance and film criticism upon the realization that the voice of the artist not only employs latent linguistic skills to cause or enunciate a given meaning but also that the manner of enactment involves conscious muscle coordination of speech organs to bring the 177 intended meaning to bear. On the other hand, it was easy for literary scholars (students) to apply terms employed in film criticism and film scores to infer and describe meaning ostensibly conveyed in the voice of the artist by attaching literary meaning to the film audio style that defined the effect a voice has on a listener based on one's listening experience. This method was tested with a second-year class of oral literature. The researcher observed that upon the introduction of the sonic terms as a style that can be used to explain the meaning that can be inferred in the voice, the students were able to advance the earlier adjectival description to elucidate the literary salient form of criticism by following a series of easy-to-follow steps. These were underpinned at the adjectival level. This was by the identification of a sonic term that best describes the experience and criticism of the purpose as to why the artist may have opted for this effect. Based on the effect it brings to the song because of the manner of rendition. Research Equipment The researcher lost a Huawei smartphone in Tanzania during the research and data collection stage. The phone, in addition to contacts and messages, contained part of the research collected data which had been recorded both in audio and video. This data was lost before transcription. However, through the contacts of the interviewees and the relations established during the first interview, the researcher was able to make follow-ups on call to verify the information that had been lost. The researcher, as a result of this experience, learned that it is not good to trust strangers with equipment during fieldwork. How These Potential Explanations and Findings Can Be Tested According to the data and analysis, respondents did not articulate clearly how various aspects of voice could be explored and examined. However, their responses made it clear that they were responding to the effect that voice has on how they attach meaning to songs. This was in line with the hypothesis that the voice of the artist bears literary relevance, which can be inferred from the manner of voice usage and the expected meaning an artist would want the listeners to infer from the song. However, other than the music producer, Haroub Msingala, and one other respondent who has a bedroom studio, all other respondents did not show signs of understanding how the voice as a 178 performance practice functions to shape the meaning listeners infer from the voice of the artist. It, therefore, appeared to the researcher that though the interviewed respondents in this category were students of literature from Dar Es Salaam University, they did not appear to understand how phonation techniques as an aspect of performance influence ostensive communication or meaning that can be inferred from the voice based on the manner of utterance. The researcher hereby wishes, therefore, to observe that the effect the voice has on the listener can easily be tested by examining or questioning the mood the voice creates in the audience or the images and thoughts the voice creates in the audience. The voice in this context functions as a semantic consequence on the one hand. On the other hand, the manner of voice production or the performance functions as a semantic trigger. Although this research has focused largely on the results of the voice as implicature and hence the stylistic texts that are encompassed in voice, this section provides insights into how phonation techniques that are in operation during performance and voice production can be tested and hence their effect on meaning underscored. The movement of the tongue and the lower and upper lips as they achieve speech organs against the passive organs leads to the creation of voice when the speech organs and the air stream from the lungs come into contact. This leads to the articulation of the consonants and when there is no total air obstruction of the air, the creation of the vowels. This process can be termed articulation. According to the researcher, when the artists' understudy articulated their words gently or softly, for example, to suggest love and romance, the respondents easily identified and described the manner of utterance as soft. The opposite of this would be hard, for example, the voice people use when issuing commands. In both cases, the soft and hard articulation, the researcher noticed that a variety of speech organs are involved, and they all function in unique ways to make the voice carry or create the intended meaning. In addition to the amount of energy a speaker uses to shape the intended meaning from hard to soft, the researcher noticed that the length of time a speaker or singer holds or sustains the notes or sounds can also vary or shift meaning based on the amount of force and duration through which one holds the voice. The researcher noticed that context and the shared knowledge that defines contextual information, cultural experience, gender, age, the relationship between the speaker and the listener, and the 179 expectation of the speaker are among the major factors that influence the manner of articulation. During the performance, the process of voice rendition is characterized by the coordination of various muscles to create the expected effect on the voice. Following a couple of experiments with the voice, the researcher observed that features of the voice can be examined by focusing on the source of the rendition. Consequently, the researcher identified the following sites that significantly affect the texture of the voice, thereby having a significant effect on meaning. Voice a. Frontal sinus b. Nasal cavity c. Sphenoid sinus d. Ethmoid sinus e. Maxillary sinus f. Cheeks g. Lips h. Oral cavity i. Larynx j. Chest cavity The researcher observed that the manner of air control by the diaphragm, the amount of energy exerted by a speaker, and how the airstream comes into contact with these regions lead to the creation of sonic effects present in the voice. When this is associated with the message conveyed in the lyrics and cultural context, it yields the implied meaning expressed in the voice as oral nuances. The researcher discovered that by using a sound compressor (a piece of music production and voice editing equipment used to shape the oral nuances in a voice); one can easily measure and assess the attack and release, which yields the intended meaning in a voice. The researcher sought to represent this as follows: 180 FIGURE 2 181 Using the studio voice compressor, the researcher observed that the higher the attack and the shorter the release, the more a voice acquires a format and very official nuance. And the lower the attack and the longer the release time, the friendlier and less formal a voice/sound feels in the listener's ears. In addition, the researcher noticed that the human body similarly uses the diaphragm to control the nuances suggested in oral speech. Phonotation in this regard shapes the meaning the listener can infer based on the message and context. The art and technique of voice creation thus become a semantic trigger, which shapes the voice based on the meaning one wants to convey. While the speaker makes an utterance, the researcher also observed that other than the mouth (oral cavity), the nasal cavity and the different sinuses affect the quality of the voice as a result of the resonance that comes from the different sinuses. When some air passes through the oral cavity and another amount of air passes through the nose and is vibrated by the sinuses, this leads to the creation of the harmonics in the voice. The researcher noticed that this is what gives the voice the largest amount of emotions, especially if a singer appropriates the nasal cavity and the maxillary and sphenoid sinuses to imitate a cry. This is a technique common with Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz. Consequently, theory voices are laden with emotions that can be metaphorical based on the message in the song. In this context, the suggested emotions can be examined as nuances or onomatopoeic. The researcher noted that these can be measured, controlled, and shaped using equalizers for example the graphic equalizer, the parametric equalizer, and the mixing console. In the body of a human being, the control of the nose to vary the site of phonation or resonance in the three parts of the nose, namely the superior turbinate, mid turbinate, and inferior turbinate, is the main technique that shapes the harmonics in the voice. This is the technique that is responsible for the creation of emotions and introspection nuances in a voice. This leads to the appeal to emotion as a rhetorical technique in oral speech. This can be tested by shutting one's nose by pinching or pressing it hard with fingers from the side. In addition, the researcher noticed that the tune (melody) of a song is key in determining the mood and the effect the voice has on the audience. The manner of articulation, the phonation, and harmonics, therefore, as well as the melody, form the three basic levels at which the voice functions to shape the meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist. How high or low an artist sings in this 182 regard will not only depend on one's vocal range but the melody will be chosen within not only one's vocal range but also the mood the voice is expected to create based on the nature of the message. The mood, in this regard, leads to the choice of the model or the scale or the key of the artist's voice. The techniques of word enunciation, in this case, will be determined by the rhythm of the song, the speed (tempo), and the meter. Graphically, the researcher noticed that this can be represented in the following figure: Pitch Melody Harmonies Root Acceleration Intonation (melody) FIGURE 3 The movement of the melody, based on the nature of the voice of the artist (as evidenced in the interview with the music producer, Haroub Msigala), will be dependent upon the artist's voice to express the intended message by implicature. In this context, the listener should feel and identify with the message in the song based on the style of singing, the manner of words' articulation, and the effect of the resulting harmony. Consequently, this leads to the accumulative effect the voice of the artist has on the listener based on how well it paints the message of the song. During rehearsals, the researcher thus observed that the artist practices enacting the message by the appropriation of one's voice until one can capture the mood and attitude of the audience. The ability to capture the mood results from one's acumen and style of appropriating the harmonics. The ability of one to capture the attitude depends on one's ability to infuse the intended meaning by appropriating cultural nuances, tone, and intonations as well as stress patterns to imply the interpretation the artist expects the audience to consider as they (the audience) infer the rhetorical purpose for a given manner of singing. Consequently, the combination of the three 183 parameters is Rendition, harmonics, and Interval leads to the emergence of the sonic effect(s), which becomes present or permissible in the voice of the artist. In this regard, the critic can examine the purpose or expectation that the artist may have wanted to achieve by appropriating one's voice in this manner. There is relevance to why the artist may sing or express a given message in a given way. The sonic effects, in this regard, can be construed as stylistic features employed for a particular semantic purpose. In this regard, the voice of the artist has a filmic effect that is cinematographic in the mind of the listener, based on the message of the song and the cultural values. The researcher noted that, depending on how well one sings, the voice of the artist, in this case, can elicit or create in the mind of the listener a variety of effects. For instance, it can invoke memories, an effect known as anamnesis, it can elicit exuberance, excitement, and romance, a feeling known as phonotonie, it can create a deep, sad feeling known as perdition, and it can have a blissful feeling known as sharawanji, to mention a few. The observation of this section can be tested by changing the pitch and tempo of any song. The researcher noticed that the higher the tempo and pitch, the greater the level of excitement as mood manifests in a song, and the lower the pitch and tempo, the greater the solemnity and dullness of the sonic effect. The tempo (speed) and pitch of a song are best set based on the most appropriate texture of the singer's voice to express the sensibilities and meaning listeners associate with the message they are addressing. The researcher consequently concluded that based on the different textures of people's voices based on cultures, age, sex, and speech mannerism, became the origin of the different music genres that are in the world. Any genre, in this regard, is an expression of an aspect of a people's culture, social perspectives, cultural viewpoints, and ideologies. The total becomes an expression of a facet of a given people's philosophy. Bongo Flava, in this regard, the researcher noted, is an expression of the discourses of the weak in society. It is thus an expression of their dissatisfaction with the order of things, where audio aesthetics are employed to attract and entice the listeners so that one can pay attention to the message in the song and at the same time camouflage sensitive meaning in euphemistic discourses. This is because the artist's goal in expressing these social problems that characterize the reality of the subaltern days in society is not to criticize and pass harsh judgment, but to invite society's members to correct or address them in order to improve their lives, resulting in a better society that is more just and equitable for all. Song and film, in this regard, serve to reflect the daily problems with which young people in 184 society contend. A case in point is Katrina Thompson’s interview with Josiah Kibira, which brings out the experiences and challenges that the latter encountered in producing Kiswahili films in the U.S. and Tanzania. Josiah, having immigrated to Kansas City in the U.S., expounds on his experiences as an African student living in America and life after college. He cites loneliness as one of the challenges he faced, especially during holidays and festive seasons. He also expresses his dismay when people asked him whether Tanzania was in Africa, yet he was already familiar with Kansas, its people, economic activities, and even its major highways before he even went to America. Josiah explains how these experiences and challenges influenced his decision to produce Kiswahili films: "Imagine this: before I made Bongoland, there was (no place) here in the States where a Tanzanian could get Swahili movies. Now they can" (17). He reveals that there are very many similarities between his film Bongoland and what he experienced as an individual: “like Juma, I have been denied jobs, passed on promotions, and stuck in one job grade for a long time. The whole intention of Bongoland was to show people back home that life is not as easy as we all grew up thinking…” (42). Though his films received a good reception in Tanzania and the U.S., producing them was not an easy task. Lack of experience on his and the producer's part, a rejection of his grant applications, and a harsh African climate for some of his crew members were some of the obstacles they encountered in shooting and producing the film. From the standpoint of music production, pitch and tempo, articulation style, and harmonics combine to form and suggest implied attitudes, temperaments, judgments, and concealed emotions, and all of this serves to communicate explicit and implied thematic concerns that the artist expects the listeners to share. In this regard, the researcher noticed and observed that music and song are powerful cultural tools appropriated to issue social protest messages in the guise of other less sensitive themes, such as explicit messages. But upon examination of the root cause of the persona or character's fate, one realizes that the surface meanings are juxtapositions employed to create double meanings where the concealed (implied) meanings engender sharp criticism of social evil in society. The artist in this regard appropriates parallelism, which only becomes visible upon a critical examination of the relationship between the message expressed in the lyrics and the verbal (phonic) manner of voice appropriation. A song such as "Rita" in this context may represent thematic concerns of a dirge based on the message of the lyrics, but at the same time qualifies as a discourse of social protest against racism 185 and the suffering of the less powerful in society. This is demonstrated by the aural effect in the artist's voice, in which the moderate tempo of singing, ordinary/natural pitch (based on the artist's voice), manner of word articulation, and resulting harmonies invite the audience into the dialogue the persona is having with the implied audience and society at large. The song "Pii Pii" in this case, though it is disguised as a love song, is and can be construed as discourse articulating themes of gender protest. This is reflected in the voice of the artist as complaints of psychological harassment by a lover who is not loving and kind enough to bear with him as he waits for the traffic to ease so that he can get home. The cry in the voice of the persona portrays the female character as pushy and unreasonable. It is this weakness that defines her character, and the persona could thus be addressed directly in his choice of lyrics and the tone of his voice. The song "Nikifa Kesho" in this context, though it presents a surface meaning of a person who worries as to whether his music fans and friends will mourn him when he dies, is an expression of the pains and sufferings that characterize the psychological turmoil that defines the thoughts of the poor and less fortunate in society. This is brought out in the voice of the artist as a result of the voice technique of crying on pitch, appropriation of the inferior turbinates, gentle attacks, and long release of the words, as well as the pitch placement of the voice to ensure it captures the tone of suffering common with ordinary people and how they articulate their worries in their discourses. The art of using aesthetic and artist's features is a rhetorical practice of criticizing society without causing harm or injury to those who are the source of the suffering others endure in society. This is because two wrongs do not make a right, and probably because the artist feels all members of a given society should co-exist together in peace and harmony. Cadence This research, in addition, noted that as Wasamba observes, performances are made up of rhythms and cadences, repetitions and intonations, the use of particular speech forms such as anecdote or reported speech, the use of the dialect, as well as volume, tone and speed (Contemporary Oral Literature 13). As this research observed, cadence results from notes and chord combinations 186 (motion/progression), thus leading to cadence, for example plagal cadence. The voice of the chords and resulting melody (tune) imitate human emotions that members of a given culture associate with the mood they appropriate when expressing the resultant theme and thematic concerns expressed in the lexical choice in the context of the accompanying melody (TUNE). The chord movement resulting from cadences imitates emotions specific to cultural and anthropological tunings of tone, pitch, intonation, and mood. It is this tuning that characterizes the emotions resulting from the mood a given person employs to constitute the meaning implied in oral (verbal) texts. The pattern of the melody gives the character of the cadence. The cadence bears cultural value entrenched in the nuance of voice. Although musicology has named different cadences, such as plagal cadence, among others, the value of a cadence is in the meaning the cadence foregrounds. The meaning implied in cadences can be examined using the following steps: a) Identification of the cadence. b) Identification of the effect resulting from the cadence as a sonic text. c) The explanation of value (purpose-why) resulting from the relevance associated with the message in the context of the mood the cadence creates. Summary of examination of chords as cadence The chord progression can be examined as cadences by examining the melodic contour and the effect it creates using the following steps: a) Identification of the chord progression. b) Naming the cadence using available terms either in Literature, Linguistics, or Musicology. c) Explanation of the Mood, or Mode, or Modality that results from the cadence. d) Explanation of the effect it has on the message in the song. e) Explanation of the relevance this has as a sonic and stylistic feature. 187 FIGURE 4 SUMMARY OF THE ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE Voice as Performance Song performance simulates five major paradigms for the expected meaning to be brought to bear. In this case, the artist keeps in mind all five of these factors during the performance: a) Artist - Identity (of oneself and what one wants to represent or reflect). b) Message - Concerns that define the purpose of the message and performance. c) Culture - Cultural norms and social values and the role they play in determining artistic choices one appropriates. d) Character - Persons or addressee in the song who the persona addresses. e) Audience - Expected audience and their sensibilities and sensitivity to the message the artist is addressing. These five define the basis of context in performance. Voice as Cultural Practice The manner of speech adheres to the linguistic and anthropological dictates of culture. This forms the nuances in a verbal text. Cultural values inform the nuances and meanings they represent. The implied meaning in oral nuances can be examined by focusing on the mood resulting from tone as a rhetorical practice. Pitch in this case of a given voice can be examined based on the tonic, supertonic, median, subdominant, dominant, submedian, and diminished as various degrees of the pitch which can be appropriated for particular aesthetic and semantic functions. 188 FIGURE 5 FIGURE 6 Conclusion 189 This research is valuable in appreciating oral poetry, film, and performance studies. The research observes that there is a way in which the adaption of voice to the meaning of the lyrics in a song functions to enrich the meaning a song can communicate. The research operated on the hypothesis that there was a role for the voice and melody of the artist's voice in a song to enrich the message conveyed in the verbal text and to influence the interpretation of implied meanings in a song. This spawned a practice known as voice aesthetics, which operationalizes a philosophical foundation of cultural meaning permeated in the voice as oral nuances. The voices in a song as well as in a film, it was argued, define contexts for meaning constitution and permeation. The research, therefore, focused on a stylistic approach to reading voices—as texts—and their respective forms of accentuation to underpin the principles informing voice operations that help govern how the voice functions to bring the intended meaning to bear. Following the data analysis, results, and findings, this research arrived at the conclusions below. Examination of literary meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist can be achieved using the following steps: a) Identify the voice under examination b) Listen c) Identify relevance associated with the manner of expression based on the expected context – (this is the filtering process) where the voice function as an anaphones and the interpretation process involves the identification of the Encyclopaedic entries listeners operationalize to infer meaning. d) Underscore cultural and tacit assumptions that the artist and the intended audience are likely to operationalize in order to infer meaning from the manner of expression. e) Identify sonic terms that can best explain the effect that results from the listening experience. f) Discuss the consequent meaning associated with the effect the mood in the voice can have on the listeners. g) Underscore the relevance of the resulting mood to the thematic concerns based on the message of the song as envisaged in the given people's cultural norms and social values. 190 The research also concluded that the voice of the artist and the tune (melody of a song) function as forms of interpretations of cultural meanings and cultural sensibilities which members of a given community attach to thematic concerns. The artist's voice and the song's melody serve as enactments of meanings and emotions that members of a given community associate with thematic experiences. These enactments bear literary relevance that can be examined from a stylistic perspective. The voice of the artist and the tune (the melody of a song) also function as a foil in music and song. In this context, the voice and song melody bear characteristic features reflective of given ideologies. From a film criticism perspective, the voice and the melody in this regard create mis-es-scence in the mind of the listener. This is an enactment of the situation that defines the reality the artist addresses in the song; it is based on the scenes and experiences the voice evokes in the listener's mind. The tune melody and notes that form the words' articulations imitate speech and modality implied in a given way of speaking. Thematic concerns in audio texts can be deduced as a power practice when conceived in the context of the effect it has on listeners as evidenced by the actions, thoughts, feelings, and moods it invokes in the listener. in this context leads to the invocation of FORMs of JUDGMENT, whereupon the discourse between a speaker (voice) and listener (audience) operationalizes the permeation of meaning. The tone in this context simulates and enacts practices of ideology. The IDEOLOGIES that define, characterize, shape, and influence particular interpretations and assignments of meaning can be examined and analysed by QUESTIONING the assumptions that inform the values agents attach to a given text. It could be a book, the author, the characters, the culture, the reader, the audience, or an oral text. Tone, mood, and timbre, it can be concluded, are dependent on the harmonics an artist appropriates while singing. And the artists and the audience attach relevance to the voice based on the effect the tone, tune, and timbre of the voice have on the expected meaning. This is dependent on the cultural experiences associated with the nuances encompassed in a style of singing. Such expressions as cultural experiences bear anthropological, literary, linguistic, musical, and philosophical significance. And lastly, the meaning encompassed in the voice of the artist is subject to the lexical message conveyed in the song. It was thus concluded that the attachment of meaning implied in the voice of the artist operates at two levels; one, identification of the message in the song; two, identification of sonic implicatures; and three, attachment of relevance (meaning) to the 191 sonic features that characterize the voice of the artist; based on the manner of rendition, resulting harmonics in the voice, and ensuing tune as cadence. It was also concluded that an artist’s singing style (voice appropriation) can reveal a singer's attitude toward the audience, the message in the song, oneself, the implied character(s) in the song, as well as the culture and ideologies of the respective society. The attitude of the artist in this context reveals ideological standpoints that define the value the artist attaches to the thematic concerns he articulates in the song. The research observed that criticism of literary meaning implied in the voice of the artist faces problems from a literary perspective. One is a problem of adequate vocabulary with which to articulate, in written form, what is perceived through the ear, and two is a problem of method. There appears to be a lack of adequate methods for analysing the perceivable meaning passed from the singer to the audience in the form of aural nuances. In light of the above concerns, the research sought to make the following recommendations: Literature as a discipline can adopt sonic features described by Jean-Francois and Torgue Henry as a stepping stone towards stylistic criticism of literary meaning encompassed in the voice as text. This will enrich stylistic studies and stylistic criticism because the knowledge of critic features in voices and their criticism procedure can be used to add and expand the already existing criticism of drama, oral poetry, songs, performance, theatre, and film studies and orature. Literature can adopt the rudiments of the chord progression in song or music tunes (melody) as cadences. This adoption can aid in explication studies of implied meanings in songs as literary texts. In addition, the artist's voice and the sounds of musical instruments in songs arguably bear literary meaning when examined in the context of the meaning the lyrics imply. The literary meaning discernible in the sound is created during song composition and production stages to qualify salient contexts in which the implied meaning in the songs can be discerned. Techniques informing appropriation of sound technology operate invariably within linguistic contexts in order to signify aspects in which poetic meaning in the song can be discerned. Listening to a song from a literary perspective in this context provokes the question of whether its sound features influence how the meaning in the song or poem can be interpreted. Research in songs, film studies, and oral poetry appear to face a discrepancy, however, in analytical methodology that can be applied to examine 192 the influence sound production techniques have on meaning. The relationship between the lyrics' meaning and the role of the accompanying audio aesthetics in songs, therefore, calls for the need to examine the literary meaning that musical sound brings into the song and warrants a theoretical procedure in the literature on songs and on sound technology that can be employed to analyse literary meaning encompassed in the sound of a sound in songs. For instance, filling these criticism gaps can enrich the meaning film critics infer from a film. For instance, as noted in the article about this film, Going on an East African Safari, is a Swahili virtual adventure program intended to help 9th and 10th-grade learners visit and explore Nairobi National Park and Tsavo National Park in Kenya. Learners are expected to virtually experience the traditional songs and dances of the locals in these two parks, as well as learn about the migration of wildebeests. This program aims to promote culture, content, and language learning through the various teaching and learning experiences incorporated into the program. One listening and speaking goal for Intermediate Mid learners is “to write and present a review of a local song or dance in Kenya” (21). Learners are also expected to orally respond to questions about Taarab songs and dances: “learners will select their favourite song and dance based on a local culture such as Bongo and practice it. They will then perform the song to an audience…” (21). This program, therefore, exposes learners to the different cultural performances of the locals in the videos. The voice in this context can be treated as a performance and oral expressive form and is capable of suggesting a literary meaning. The research examined, for instance, how fans of Bongo Flava songs attach meaning to sound as a result of the various sound production tools and techniques the sound producers operationalize during the song production process. For instance, the increasing use of English in Kiswahili movies, for instance, defines Edwin Mwandelile and Job Mwakapina’s study, where English use in Tanzania is limited because, beyond the educational system, English is only spoken by a minority group. English links Tanzania to the rest of the world, while Kiswahili gives the country its unique identity. Therefore, the new trend of using more English in Kiswahili movies raises some concerns. The language change in the movies involves code-switching, codemixing, the use of English subtitles, and lexical borrowing (204). Cultural change is cited as one of the main reasons contributing to the aforementioned language change: “as a result of the fall of Ujamaa, Bongo movies, as well as Bongo Flava musicians, started embracing English as a colanguage in movies, as well as speaking styles, dressing styles, and many others from outside the 193 country” (Mwandelile and Mwakapina 206). The study also explained that English is used in Kiswahili movies to attract a bigger audience, especially beyond Tanzania. This, of course, fetches more money from non-Swahili speakers. Interestingly, Mwandelile and Mwakapina’s study also reveals that some actors switch from Kiswahili to English as a deliberate attempt to prove that they have gone to school since “using English in Tanzania is prestigious (207).” Different variables that sound production entails in this regard are examined in contexts of cognitive frames within which meaning in songs and audio text are constructed. A theorization process of how each of the variables operates to cause meaning can therefore lead to the creation of a theory of sound or voice criticism in oral literature and film. The researcher here can ask questions such as: how does the application of delay in a song affect the meaning that is discernible in the song? How can the cognitive process leading to this meaning be explained? Within what structure of thought and cognition do fans operate to constitute the meaning they discern in a song? Sound features, such as utterances, may not always suggest the superficial meaning one assumes upon hearing the utterance. For instance, an ironical or satirical statement suggests the implied meaning as a result of the manner of tone and context of usage. The responses that follow may function to point out interpretational frames that the listener applies in the interpretation of the statement. Intentions, as evidenced in the consequences, are evidenced in audiences' premises the unforeseeable meanings within which assumptions, suppositions, and presuppositions function to influence the very meaning that a text is capable of causing but which remains concealed or implied in the utterance. The language suggests and implies. An examination of its implications reveals one meaning that is implied that could have been ignored and two, the theoretical (cognitive) frame within which an interpretation that is brought to bear is constituted. Musical sounds in a song exist in a virtual spectrum, but the discerning ear perceives the song as a single piece of discourse. Deconstruction of the various elements of an ensemble can help in underpinning the role each element plays in a song as may be revealed in the intentions of the studio sound technicians and the interpretational frames traceable in the explanations of fans. On the assumption that musical sounds are not accidental in a song, their underlying intentions can be examined by deconstructing their effects on audiences. 194 Possible Application of Research Findings This research finding can be used in oral performance criticism in oral literature and theatre and performance, film criticism, phonology, anthropology in the examination of meaning associated with oral nuances as cultural expressions, forensics in the examination of oral evidence, as well as legal studies, music production, song production, sound engineering, and media studies in the examination of ideologies informing the manner of voice appropriation. Lastly, having a literature background, film production and editing, basics in fieldwork such as data collection and analysis, literary theory, basics in music theory, music production, and the ability to play the guitar and the piano worked for me as a researcher in this thesis. I could therefore connect them easily with the arguments of the respondents, and I would easily not only see where one is coming from but also identify with the emerging patterns that defined the mosaic and collage the collected data revealed upon analysis. Recommendation Lastly, the research recommends for inclusion of sonic terms in oral literature academic curriculums so that literature students can be grounded on criticism procedure, which they can employ when analysing literary meaning implied in songs. This can be achieved by applying the method explained in this research. 195 WORKS CITED Adolescence in Tanzania, United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF).2011 Agawu, Kofi. Music as Discourse: Semiotic Adventures in Romantic Music. Oxford University Press, 2008. Auerbach, Carl, and Louise B. Silverstein. Qualitative data: An introduction to coding and analysis. Vol. 21. NYU press, 2003. Augoyard, Jean-François, and Henry Torgue, editors. 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Binadamu Wabaya-Diamond - https://youtu.be/hSDilTuo2Gg Nov 2012. 2. Chande Ft Diamond-Nashindwa 3. Diamondi-Hisiaz: 12 Aug 2018 : https://youtu.be/E4u-UL-VBaY 4. Diamond – Kamwambie: Nov 28, 2013: https://youtu.be/CS5ui_5RCiw 5. Diamond – Mawazo : Nov 28, 2013 https://youtu.be/HxNh5thLnAE 6. Diamond Natamani : Dec 15, 2014 : https://youtu.be/cmHymnXNWTI 7. Diamond – Nitarejea: Nov 28, 2013 : https://youtu.be/rZt2KJpGuTg 8. Diamond – Chanda chema : Jun 5, 2012 : https://youtu.be/vsyTlqGn3xg 9. Diamond – Utanipenda : Dec 12, 2015 : https://youtu.be/LSk_M7d_OWM 10. Diamond Ft Mr Blue - Kiss To The Lady : Oct 7, 2015 : https://youtu.be/CFRReFjnzLw 11. Diamond Ft Mrisho—Gongolamboto : Jan 8, 2014 : https://youtu.be/tEmOeOKWcEI 12. Diamond Ft Sam Wa Ukweli & Top C-Usiniumize : May 13, 2011 : - 3 Sep 2018: https://youtu.be/muGJ2lXc_ek https://youtu.be/8dMCnPaR9_k 202 13. Diamond Nalia Na Mengi – Dec 9, 2014 : https://youtu.be/jGM0TEANyOY 14. Diamond Platnumz - Kesho – Dec 29, 2012 : https://youtu.be/LWrGHYaq65I 15. Diamond Platnumz - Number One - Sep 2, 2013 : https://youtu.be/64riif8FfNI 16. Diamond_Mapenzi Bidhaa - May 15, 2020 : https://youtu.be/EdrCQvIErrM 17. Diamond_Moyo_Wangu_ Nov 28, 2013 : https://youtu.be/SyLtTr2_jHc 18. Diamond_Nataka_Kulewa - Dec 3, 2014 : https://youtu.be/XcnYJom4DBc 19. Diamond_Platnumz_Kizaizai - Nov 25, 2014 : https://youtu.be/uqxHi0S8OjM 20. Diamondi-Ukimwona - Nov 21, 201 : https://youtu.be/_InPhHJN3Qw 21. Diamond – Mbagala : Nov 28, 2013 : https://youtu.be/zeUe1NFwqnw 22. Diamond-Lala Salama - Dec 8, 2014 : https://youtu.be/jdA6iJT8Avc 23. Diamond-Mapenzi Basi - Nov 20, 2014 : https://youtu.be/tl7j0JQ_s54 24. Diamond-Nimpende Nani - Dec 15, 2014 : https://youtu.be/HAByR4StLOQ 25. Kesho-Diamond - Dec 29, 2012 : https://youtu.be/LWrGHYaq65I 26. Kigoma-Kigoma All Stars - Apr 19, 2016 : https://youtu.be/2G1yVcMfwiQ 27. Kwa Nini-Diamond - Dec 3, 2014 : https://youtu.be/ctAFWYVsDTo 28. Diamond Nana - May 29, 2015 : https://youtu.be/IflpfcHmq5I 29. Lolilo Ft Diamond-We Ndo Wathamani - Jan 16, 2012 : https://youtu.be/nsk3XIM2X24 30. Ngwair & Mr. Blu & Diamond - Black Beauty Model - Aug 8, 2017 : https://youtu.be/6C9HTFvtTBg 31. Nimechoka-K-Sher Ft Diamond - May 17, 2013 : https://youtu.be/Mc0pAgV1WKk 32. Shetta_Ft_Diamond – Nidanganye - Feb 27, 2014 : https://youtu.be/l2okzSIpbCc 33. Utamu-Diamond Ft Dully & Ommy D - Dec 5, 2012 : https://youtu.be/HgbeloMU9ck 34. Diamond Sikomi -- Dec 6, 2017 https://youtu.be/oc1GryBs-4g 35. Diamond Naanzaje - Sep 5, 2021 : https://youtu.be/iKbW2EDs_mE 36. Nikifa Kesho https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=z7yV0CSBdCk 37. Nataka kulewa Dec 2, 2014 – https://youtu.be/0RLhYgzirtU MARLAW SONGS 38. Pii Pii – Marlaw - Apr 1, 2010 : https://youtu.be/b8mWNP874zs 39. Sitamsahau - Kinywena Ft Marlaw - Dec 31, 2010 : https://youtu.be/KgXsnJ8DOrE 203 40. Marlaw-Mbayuwayu-Ngo-Ngo-Ngo - Oct 27, 2011 : https://youtu.be/q36vymF83MQ 41. Busu La Pinky – Marlaw - Dec 20, 2009 : https://youtu.be/Dm05MEj3GqA 42. Wanimaliza - At Ft Marlaw - Sep 13, 2009 : https://youtu.be/WtYA9cUBn_o 43. Rita Marlow - Oct 22, 2008 : https://youtu.be/bT1ctHnPKTQ 44. Marlaw Mbembeleza - Jan 11, 2009 : https://youtu.be/f9rIAHb_eTg 45. Marlaw sorry sana - Apr 2, 2013 : https://youtu.be/d7g772T2dgM 46. Marlaw DAima milele - Feb 2, 2021 : https://youtu.be/MEg_H-SFBOU 47. Marlaw Bado umenuna - Apr 18, 2021 : https://youtu.be/QBd3W3Kbj0c 204 APPENDIX 1 INVERVIEW RESEARCHER THIONG’O JOSEPH AND HAROUB MSINGALA BONGO FLAVA MUSIC PRODUCER AND DISCO JOCKEY The interview was carried out on 16 MAY 2016. It was too hot inside the studio. So we decided to do the interview outside. (Stage directions – information in parenthesis [MINE]) The term Beat, in modern day music production discourses is employed to refer to the composition, and arrangement of musical instruments to express the implied meanings in a song as ostensive communication. Although Wilson & Sperber argue in relevance theory that if you keep quiet and you are willing to give an answer, then you don’t know, and that if you know and you keep quiet, then you are unwilling to answer, these two are not the only possible situations in criticism of oral performance. The researcher hereby observes that in analysis of Oral literature research materials there are cases where the researcher and the oral artistes know, based on the shared knowledge and cultural assumptions within which they can infer meaning implied in an oral performance, and they are willing to explain it but for lack of adequate vocabulary or most appropriate words that can be used to explain subtle meaning implied in oral performance discourses in form of nuances. Lack of adequate vocabulary does not therefore imply one doesn’t know and therefore cannot be treated as a confirmation that one doesn’t know. Lack of prerequisite vocabulary can result from linguistic competence, which consist of active repertoire at any one time as a result of regular usage. What speakers are not any to put in words in oral discourses can be conveyed through hands movements, facial expressions, pauses, hesitations, and other non-verbal cues. The researcher in this regard, has opted for a full transcription of the interview and in addition has attached a video of the interview so as to show the reader how data interpretation was informed by inferential communication on the one hand and ostensive communication on the other since the two complement each other in oral performances. The researcher assumes that this can aid the reader in appreciation of; data analysis, observations and conclusions made with regard to the objectives of the research. 205 Figure 7 The researcher Thiong'o Joseph interviewing Haroub Msingala Bongo Flava Music Producer and Disc Jockey THIONG’O JOSEPH: Kindly remind us your name brother MSINGALA HAROUB: My name is Msingala Haroub but down the street they call me Singa, I am a DJ. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Great MSINGALA HAROUB: Aa here is our studio THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yea MSINGALA HAROUB: (Pause) (Puts a reflective face) We do recording, music production. THIONG’O JOSEPH: What’s the name of your studio? MSINGALA HAROUB: Kausha music. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Kausha music, pleasure. So, I don’t know what could be your take on my concern that aah, there’s a relationship between the words in a song and the sound or how the musician sings those words? MSINGALA HAROUB: Ahh, I think aah, (Putting a reflective mood) some of the artists 206 THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: They don’t have that much, some of them, some they do. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Some they do MSINGALA HAROUB: Yea, THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay MSINGALA HAROUB: The way the song it is, the way the artist sound THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yea MSINGALA HAROUB: They don’t match. THIONG’O JOSEPH: They don’t match. MSINGALA HAROUB: They don’t match, but some of them they do. The message, the sound, they don’t come together. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay MSINGALA HAROUB: I don’t know, what’s the problem, (Shrugs the shoulders) but… THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay…Aah, when you are recording a musician, and they come to your studio, and you listen to their song, and you hear how someone is singing, what do you consider when doing the mixing, and the playing of the instruments? MSINGALA HAROUB: First ahh, you just have to listen to the artist before you make any beat. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah, MSINGALA HAROUB: Then the message will come later… THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah, 207 MSINGALA HAROUB: But ahh first things like how you sound, THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah, MSINGALA HAROUB: First things like how you sound; the way you sound we can make a beat. Then if there is… (Pause) some little changes maybe you can tell you’ll have to do this, and this and that. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay. Would you make the same beat for someone who is singing a love song or if let’s say…I come to your studio, I have one song a song on politics, and another song that is on love…will you change the beat? And I am the same musician? And maybe the speed of the song is the same? (Upon realization that the interviewee answers or gives evidence of how listeners / music producers identify with the personality in a person’s voice, the interviewer rephrases the question to interrogate how thematic concerns / (generic choices) affect or influence production of ostensive communication.) MSINGALA HAROUB: (Puts a contemplative mood and appears to reflect) Yaah, that depends on you. That depends on the artist. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah, MSINGALA HAROUB: If you sing about politics, love war…stuff like that, that depends on you. The way you want the tempo to be, that depends on you, and the producer, maybe can tell you like (Pause) According to the lyrics, THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah, MSINGALA HAROUB: That you wrote, the tempo must be like this maybe…. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah, according to the lyrics I wrote …yea, the tempo should be like this. 208 MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah, (both the interview adopt tempo as an example to explain how oral communication concepts form the basis of ostensive communication in order to bring the expected meaning to bear, based on the message in the lyrics.) Maybe… (pauses and reflects) even the style… THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aah, great. MSINGALA HAROUB: That you are using to sing…that can make a tempo… THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aahaa, so the lyrics and the message will also help the producer to help me guide the sound to bring out the meaning in the song. MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah, THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay let me (Hesitates) for instance if I sing (Hesitates) a song to praise East Africa, for instance, would you set or also guide me also on the sound of the Key board, the sound of the piano, the sound of the guitar, that would suit or maybe how would you go about choosing the right sound, for such a song? MSINGALA HAROUB: Aaahh… THIONG’O JOSEPH: You have said that when I sing you can guide me on how to change the tempo, so as to fit the message, what about the sound of the other instruments? MSINGALA HAROUB: (Pauses and reflects) First of all, music is about the feeling THIONG’O JOSEPH: Great MSINGALA HAROUB: The inner feeling THIONG’O JOSEPH: Sure 209 MSINGALA HAROUB: The inner feeling (pause) there is some messages you don’t need like to go faster you don’t need like a tempo of 100 or stuff like aah 80 coz you want people to listen not to dance that’s the difference. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Great MSINGALA HAROUB: There is music people will only listen not dancing and there is a music you need like dancing, dancing, dancing all through. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Entertainment…, Aahh. MSINGALA HAROUB: The message, that’s the difference (pauses to think) there’s a music people they can just sit down, listen and talk, there’s music people they just like going to the bar drinking all the time dancing, beng, beng, beng, beng. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: That’s the difference. It depends from the artist to the producer that ahh, I want this type of music THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: My message is like this THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: So how can you make a beat THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, for this music MSINGALA HAROUB: For this music , okay, let me hear first THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay MSINGALA HAROUB: You just can’t like aah, let’s say for example, someone just passed. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Mmmh 210 MSINGALA HAROUB: Passed away, ahh just died. You just can’t like aah play the music boom boom boom (Gesticulating with raised hands) No. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Sure sure, we must do something that has to do with… eeeh MSINGALA HAROUB: It’s like a “sloooow” (sustains the word to bring out the motion of the supposed melody) people they can listen…they can feel it THIONG’O JOSEPH: Aaaah sure, great. So my…would you agree with me in my research when I say…when you mention that someone has died, we are singing a mourning song, so the music we’ll make has to bring out the effect of mourning in the message…. MSINGALA HAROUB: (Nods) THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahh great, now my question would be, what do you consider because that the main prime area of my research? Because I was arguing in my proposal that there are things in music production process like the EQ, like the tempo, like the punch, the volume, the envelop that affect meaning. Would I be right in my argument? MSINGALA HAROUB: (Takes a long pause, thinks and appears to reflect on the question) that depends maybe… THIONG’O JOSEPH: Oh that depends…how would you approach it? MSINGALA HAROUB: (Smiles, looks on the side, but doesn’t give a straight forward response) (The interviewer goes on to fill the silence, just in case the interviewee lacks an explanation to complement the relativity suggested earlier that “That depends.”) THIONG’O JOSEPH: Because, I was arguing this way, if you do a dance song for instance, if we examine the issue of volume, and may be you do, a dance song that requires a lot of punch but in your production you give the punch very little strength, it will not give people that effect to dance, 211 (the interviewee smiles) and therefore the effect of envelop, volume (The interviewee nods) can factor to psyche people to dance…boom boom boom. That, the way we shall come to the studio and set that punch or even the quality of the drum you’ll use, it is one that should psyche and therefore there is something within the drum sound that we’ll consider to give people that effect and desire to dance. MSINGALA HAROUB: (Nods and appears to reflect) Ahh, first…you have like aah, let’s say you are a producer THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah MSINGALA HAROUB: (Thinks for a moment) what you should do or shouldn’t do. (Pause) THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah MSINGALA HAROUB: (Pauses again) You have to choose between two things like I said before (pause) People just die, you can’t just sing music like beng, beng, beng….No. People they are sitting somewhere they are having fan, or a dance like maybe having drink and stuff like that, you can play a music that people can dance (gesticulates with the hands) so when it comes like aah, to the beat, like aah, Boom, bombom, Boom, bombom, if you are standing some where you are just like shaking your head. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah MSINGALA HAROUB: To match the sound of the artiste, and the beat and the meaning, let’s say how you sing (gesticulates) is that the correct voice to the beat, like you said, you sing like the song of the morning, should be morning (Pause) should be morning THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah 212 MSINGALA HAROUB: You are talking about the mourning, people they just wake up, some they are going to school, some they go to work, like going to farm like aah, you have to aah represent the real situation THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, great. Aah tell me something, when you listen to a song maybe about mourning, we are making a song about someone who has died, when considering the feeling, you said music is about the feeling what will you consider when making the beat? MSINGALA HAROUB: Like I said, first as a producer you have to listen to the artist and while I am listening to you, (gesticulates, “Go ahead and sing”) your voice. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah MSINGALA HAROUB: Can make me (pauses) to do the tempo at first. That’s where we start. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, that’s where we start. MSINGALA HAROUB: Then I can start making the beat, like eeh, ta ta, ta ta, ta ta …I’m searching the tempo. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: Then when I get the tempo of your voice, like we say; your tone, the message, and the way you sound can make the tempo THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: So you start, singing then I can make like ta ta, ta ta, ta ta. Ask any producer, any producer. Then after that I’ve gotten your tempo, then I’ve started making the beat. THIONG’O JOSEPH: After the beat where shall we go next? 213 MSINGALA HAROUB: Okay, I’ve gotten the beat, then listening to you, you match with the beat, then we can go to the booth THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaa, MSINGALA HAROUB: Start recording as a demo THIONG’O JOSEPH: Where will you now bring in the other instruments? The guitars, the pianos, the strings, where will they come in? Or will you consider anything once we have the beat? MSINGALA HAROUB: Ahh, the once you are…the beat is like a let’s say this is my shirt THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yaah, MSINGALA HAROUB: Is like aah, is a dirty shirt still I can wear it but I have to clean it have to iron it, so if I go out, people they can see smart person. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yaah, MSINGALA HAROUB: So first the beat will be like aah, just a frame THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaah, just a frame, just a frame MSINGALA HAROUB: Just a frame. When you finish, your lyrics, then we start like aah, making all the voices like aaah the beat, the way you sound, everything is like a put it normal then if there is anything we need to add we can add like a the guitar, sometimes we are like we have to call people to like aah, from the music band aah they can play the guitar live. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yaah, sure MSINGALA HAROUB: so we do that sometimes THIONG’O JOSEPH: And the same way we clean the beat once we have it, shall we also clean the other instruments, to fit into the song? 214 MSINGALA HAROUB: You have to do that; (Reiterates) you have to do that. You have to like, let’s say MASTERING THE BEAT, (gesturerizes, what mastering is using hands) we put everything on the same level. Maybe your voice is not high is low, you have like the way you sound is bass so we have a little bit twist you, change the voice and make it like everybody can listen and hear what you talk. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yaah, Yaah. So do you think when you change that voice while mastering to make me audible and clear to everybody, you’d also consider the message in a song? Cause may be there’s a way we’d master and it’s a mourning song and it changes the meaning and then and it’s a mourning song we change the message in a song? And then there is a way we may master and then maybe maintain the meaning in a song? MSINGALA HAROUB: (Pauses and reflects for a few seconds) Yeah, and aaaah, (Takes a longer pause) what’s a 215 Figure 8 The interviewee reflecting on the question … the music is like a the artiste is like put the lyrics and staff and record THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: (pauses again) the best thing or the best part THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: …you don’t need to do and lose the reality THIONG’O JOSEPH: aaah, MSINGALA HAROUB: Of the artist, how him or her sounds THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ah haa, okay. MSINGALA HAROUB: So we can do a little tricks of people they can hear but not losing the message. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: And the sound, and the real sound from the artist. 216 THIONG’O JOSEPH: So, in, in, in a nutshell you are saying there are a lot of things we’ll consider in the studio to make sure we maintain the reality of the message. Oh, what would you say about the EQ? The parametric equalizers, do they matter in a song? MSINGALA HAROUB: (Nodding) Yeah, THIONG’O JOSEPH: They matter MSINGALA HAROUB: They matter because if they, the equalizers that are not perfect THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: That means the music will distort THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaah, whats distorting? MSINGALA HAROUB: Distortion is like, the bass is high, the twitter is high so when someone is playing the music is like you never hear the lyric sound, there’ll be some other sounds like ah…they are not good. THIONG’O JOSEPH: So whatever we are considering, if you are mixing a reggae song and we are mixing a mourning song, will the message affect how we shall do the EQ, the, the equalizers? MSINGALA HAROUB: Aaaah, first tempo, the way the music is sound… THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: And aah, doing an EQ… THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: it’s very important! THIONG’O JOSEPH: Very important MSINGALA HAROUB: Very 217 THIONG’O JOSEPH: Okay, assume I sound bass like I do and I want to do a love song what would you consider in the EQ -ing? And may be I’ve come to your studio and I’ve sang a song to a lady called Mary and I am saying, “Mary I love you, Mary I love you” would you’d, would you…what would you do maybe to, to my voice when I am saying, “Mary I love you, I love you Mary” may be to make me bring out the reality of the message? MSINGALA HAROUB: First you need to have a style THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaah, great, MSINGALA HAROUB: (Smiling) You need to have a style of singing THIONG’O JOSEPH: (Sounding happy) Yeah not just anything MSINGALA HAROUB: Not just anything. You can’t just say Mary I love you, I hope you remember there’s a there’s a guy, ahh, late Barry White, the guy was like not only singing but talking the voice was very bass but the guy was good. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaah, (pause) okay… MSINGALA HAROUB: So sometimes is like it doesn’t matter how you sound THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: what matters is the message and the way the producer is doing things to you. The way he’s just like ah mastering the, your voice and the beat everything should come together THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, Yeah. Okay let me ask you, let me look at it from a diff, different perspective; what if a University like University of Nairobi or Dar University came up with a course to teach music production and they want you to, teach students on factors to consider when making a song to sound the reality of the message would such a 218 course ever exist or do you think such things would really matter, is it teachable? MSINGALA HAROUB: Yes, it is teachable, but it depends on how and what people they want. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahaah, so the audience may also consi, come into play? Because my, I am imagining that when you are making this song about someone has died, it’s a mourning song will you consider, will you have the image of the audience in your mind? Like how do I want to my people listening to my song receive it? Would, would, do you consider that? MSINGALA HAROUB: When you are sitting down and writing the music THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: the lyrics (pause) it’s like, let’s say like I am talking about ahh, my finger THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yeah, MSINGALA HAROUB: I have to think wide like ehh, this is a finger, everybody has a finger …………………………………………BREAK……………………………………………. THIONG’O JOSEPH: You were telling me about aahh, the sound, the audiences that music is most to do with feelings MSINGALA HAROUB: Music is dealing with feelings just like I said once, inner feelings, inside feelings like eh someone is felt something about, so how can I represent it? That’s in the mind, so when you sing about love song or whatever, you have to make sure: the message (Pausing and putting emphasis) will be very very touching to someone. 219 THIONG’O JOSEPH: Mmh, (In acceptance) MSINGALA HAROUB: Someone will be like sitting down and keep listening and listening to your music. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yah, MSINGALA HAROUB: What you have to do is that not that just singing and singing because you have the voice to sing but you don’t have a message. You have to write a message that people they they… (He stops to give attention to a gentleman who has brought us some water) THIONG’O JOSEPH: There must be a message. Thank you (To the gentleman who brought the water) MSINGALA HAROUB: So you have to aah, write the message THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yah, MSINGALA HAROUB: and ahh, the listeners they can feel it. THIONG’O JOSEPH: they can feel it. MSINGALA HAROUB: and understand. Not only feeling. There’s a lot of music you can listen just can feel it but …they don’t mean it. THIONG’O JOSEPH: Sure, great. Yah, let me take you back to …someone has come to your studio, they have the lyrics, the song has the message, the way he has written and, but he’s not making it have that feeling, do you assist them or is there something you can do to such an artist? MSINGALA HAROUB: Yah, sometimes ah, the artists, they just are coming to the studio THIONG’O JOSEPH: Yah, MSINGALA HAROUB: the way they sound and the message is two different things 220 THIONG’O JOSEPH: Great! Ahah, MSINGALA HAROUB: so what you should do is like you just making a beat: go back at home and train THIONG’O JOSEPH: Ahah, MSINGALA HAROUB: once you get better come back THIONG’O JOSEPH: …come back. So in this process of telling this guy to go back home and train, you are telling him to go back and learn how to formulate his voice to suit the message? MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah, THIONG’O JOSEPH: so this process of formulating the voice to his message, we are therefore arguing that…the song doesn’t just happen. We must make sure it sounds the message MSINGALA HAROUB: (Nods in agreement) THIONG’O JOSEPH: Great, and the…h, what if someone goes home they train, they train but then you realize he is good to go he has recorded now you tell him, you are good we can do recording, when we now get to the mixer will you do other things now to make him even shine like once you polish the shoe he has practiced now you want to make it shine, anything you’ll do for that. MSINGALA HAROUB: Yes, yes, THIONG’O JOSEPH: ahaah, MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah, just like aah, let’s say, the way the artiste sound, you just like aah, want aah to make the music sound more good so there’s a little trick you can do like to make it like (Gestures) THIONG’O JOSEPH: Lively…polish the sound 221 MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah, THIONG’O JOSEPH: What factors maybe three four factors would you mention because in my proposal I was saying that, for the voice of the artist one must consider the EQ, EQ is a factor because if one maybe is a low voice may be we do some highs, if one is singing with a lot of mid maybe you do some bit of high, some bit of low, would I be correct in my argument? MSINGALA HAROUB: I think you are right, THIONG’O JOSEPH: ahaah, MSINGALA HAROUB: I think you are right, THIONG’O JOSEPH: and then, let’s look at this scenario, we do the EQ for my voice for a love song, and we set the mixture, the Mixer so that to bring out that feeling, again I want to sing a dirge-a song for someone who has just died, do you think have to change the mix, the mixer a bit to fit that other message, and I am the same artiste? MSINGALA HAROUB: let’s say goes like aah, the love song, someone just passed away, sometimes like you just can’t play a keyboard, when someone ahh just passed away, you are not like singing singing, your like just talking not only singing with a can a hard voice and stuff like…. THIONG’O JOSEPH: So there are, we are agreeing there are factors to be considered about how a song brings out the message? Factors that have to do with the sound. MSINGALA HAROUB: Yeah 222 APPENDIX 2 GROUP INTERVIEW OF STUDENTS AND LECTURERS IN DAR ES SALAAM UNIVERSITY INTERVIEW CARRIED OUT ON 16 MAY 2016 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… SPEAKER 1: A song like “Nataka kulewa” THIONG’O: Nataka kulewalewa (sings the phrase of the song) eheh. SPEAKER 1: So you find that the, the tune that has been selected THIONG’O: Yah SPEAKER 1: Has to communicate something about that detector of nataka kulewa THIONG’O: ah SPEAKER 1: not just…he is singing sad issues so therefore even the tune is sad THIONG’O: Yah, SPEAKER 1: As opposed to for example ah, “Nana” Babi Onana nana… (Sings a line of the song). So you find in “Nana” THIONG’O: Yah, SPEAKER 1: the tune is meant to be happy. THIONG’O: Happy… SPEAKER 1: Compared to THIONG’O: because “Nana is a song about a happy message?” 223 SPEAKER 1: Yes, and even the dancing styles is a bit happier compared to “Nataka kulewa” THIONG’O: Okay, Thank you. SPEAKER 1: Regarding also the digital sounds, THIONG’O: Yah, SPEAKER 1: There a lot of issues that are that have to be in digital sounds. One of them is the voice effects of the performer that is aah, is a bit tricky for me to find an example of Diamond cause most often his songs contains the natural sounds as opposed to some of the instances having a producer matching his feelings with that of the singer. Therefore, there is certain digital maneuvers that are really put in the beat to communicate something else THIONG’O: Great SPEAKER 1: In one of the songs “Nipe Tano” a you have a line that says, majani na beat nzito, Bokorecords nazikome, when he says “Majani na beat nzito, the beat is having an extra weight Dii Dii, as opposed to that other beat “Majani na beat nzito Bokorecords na zislow, you can hear that kind of beat, the heavy beat, it may be communicating something extra pertaining the recording studio, and the musicality probably of the music the man is making. The producer avoids flags and tries to create sounds that that identifies them, so this find those artistes who can appreciate his sound. Away for the audience to appreciate the song compared to a song that is not fine-tuned for example. We can talk of Producers like Emanuota, the song that is produced by Emanuota is having a particular digital sound that is supposed to be the sound of the singer and you can hear it, something like, water running, tune tune there’s something shwaaa that is added: that sound communicates something extra. The producer is known is Emanuota AKA Manuali Maji Maji so there is the 224 sound of maji which is added sometimes even without even mentioning his name hearing that sound of water understand that this song has been produced by Manuota. THIONG’O: Great SPEAKER 1: And however, on top of that you can also observe that the producer also plays with his sounds especially in relation to the artist in the sense that there is a song called ahh “Fok Fok” “Fak Fok” there is the backing of Fok. As we know that ahh we usually make repetition in order to create emphasis artistically, and this is one on the cases in African Poetry now when it comes to back up vocals you find that there is a message that is being highlighted THIONG’O: So you are saying, if you are singing and you sing the main voice, and I sing the backup voice, you are saying the backup vocal will have another message that is communicating. Thank you go on kindly. SPEAKER 1: Ahh now, with that, with that kind of ahh effect, sound effect you find that there is some sort of emphasizing the message, as well as putting some extra information that is missing in the main voice. You can also have suggestions of extra meanings in the sounds, someone maybe singing the main song and then there is an issue of other sounds. Which are not mainly part of the main song, because they are having extra type of information. THIONG’O: Do you of a song that you can use to support what you are saying in your last point? In any song not necessarily for Diamond or Marlaw, in your own music experience. Any song you can quote where the backup vocals add some extra meaning in a song? SPEAKER 1: Yes Sir, I am having a bit more time… 225 THIONG’O: Yeah I’ll give you before we get the responses from the others. Maybe you’ll still get a song. You have my contacts; you can still get me on the same. SPEAKER 1: Okay thank you. THIONG’O: You are done, maybe we are done with that part but not everything else you had. SPEAKER 1: Okay, ahh, I would like also to respond to factors that also mostly influence sound effects in songs, THIONG’O: Yeah, how do they? SPEAKER 1: One of the issue that ahh, facts you’d be interested is how the sound engineering has been done. THIONG’O: You are great, aha, I’m happy to hear that. SPEAKER 1: The sound engineering ehh, you know we have several studios, THIONG’O: Yah, SPEAKER 1: Main studios and there are studios which you can find someone is having in his bedroom, for example mine is in my bedroom. THIONG’O: aah, SPEAKER 1: If I want to compose and you’ve THIONG’O: You can record yourself… SPEAKER 1: Yes, I usually end up using a computer and a program THIONG’O: Okay SPEAKER 1: But there are other live sounds which can be incorporated in the songs. Other studios which are well off, equiped the engineering of the sound is good. 226 Figure 9University of Dar es Salaam Literature Students and Lecturers during the Data Group Interview THIONG’O: ahah, SPEAKER 1: and if the song is heard someone develops interest in that song because it is attractive, it is audible, each and everything that has been used in that song is going to be heard. And there is no collision of instruments and and the vocal, there is also the merging of the fancy called “Kunata na beat”, there is also the choice of melody THIONG’O: ahah, SPEAKER 1: A good song THIONG’O: ahah, 227 SPEAKER 1: is the one which whose message relate with the melody which the singer has chosen THIONG’O: yah SPEAKER 1: aah, now failure to choose an appropriate tune or melody will result to someone having not appreciated by fans. THIONG’O: yah SPEAKER 1: The other issue is whether the artist the voice reflect the message, I have said ah think of love songs as opposed to sad songs, now there must be one relationship between aah, THIONG’O: The message and the melody. Okay. SPEAKER 1: I think I should end. THIONG’O: Thank you, thank you so much. ……………………………………………………………………… SPEAKER 2: You also find love controversies, disappointments, break ups also good endings and things like that. Therefore, the topic, (emphasizing) because people identify themselves with the topic, and understand because they see themselves as part of the song. THIONG’O: You say that you remind me of a song like Rita, by Marlaw. SPEAKER 2: Yeah, “Rita” you can see, the sad story, bad ending. Therefore, you can say the, the Tragedy it makes you eeh, THIONG’O: Like the song SPEAKER 2: Yeah, like the song THIONG’O: You identify with the theme 228 SPEAKER 2: It appeals to your emotions (Touches the heart area with the right hand) therefore the topic that they choose, even some non-sense songs like eh, “Nikamwaga Beer Yangu” just interesting, you see yourself in the club and you are complaining about someone who have says, this is my song, therefore you see yourself, the young stars, they see themselves, then the songs like ganja, and things like that, they are club songs therefore people see themselves and especially the young stars. Therefore, they like the songs because they create the environment that the understandtherefore, I see the topic and also the contribution of musical instruments, they modify the songs, this compilation of beats, and things like that, they modify the song and make them more modern. But I think the root is in the tune, and the subject that they choose to represent. That is why you find sometimes some songs like the Nigerian beats, East Africans understand them easily because they are just the say way as our songs. People in East Africa can dance because they are the same way as our songs. Therefore I think that this idea of simple tone as for African songs, they are simple in tune, and almost the same. And I think this is the secret Bongo Flava employs. THIONG’O: Enjoys… …………………………………………………………………………… Appropriation of voice OST SO AS to communicate meaning with least effort SPEAKER 3: …The message the song announces, THIONG’O: Yah… SPEAKER 3: If they are the same with their feelings, they get interest THIONG’O: Yah… SPEAKER 3: And the mood of the song 229 THIONG’O: ahah… SPEAKER 3: Aah, I feel I should also speak about the style. They give you like, like, like, ehh, consider Marlaw and Diamond Platnumz THIONG’O: ahah… SPEAKER 3: …their style is soft, THIONG’O: ahah… SPEAKER 3: …their style is soft, THIONG’O: is soft eh, ahah SPEAKER 3: Though I don’t know the word where that category where that would fit because I know THIONG’O: …there are other genres… SPEAKER 3: I hear of RnB…whether…I’ll speak of these two artistes. There songs they are soft, there style is soft, it is what the majority (Gesturizes drawing a circle in the air using both hands) likes, THIONG’O: ahah… SPEAKER 3: soft in terms of weight, they use, aahm, they are not weights that would give audience hard times, to discover the intended meaning THIONG’O: ahah…great. SPEAKER 3: Yah, but the way, it...the simplicity of the weight is accompanied usually by the instruments, instruments also does not communicate anything hard, THIONG’O: ahah SPEAKER 3: Yah that will block more of the emotions or something like that. So I think its true about the style, the styles they use, 230 THIONG’O: mhm, SPEAKER 3: The simplicity of the style THIONG’O: Yah SPEAKER 3: Goes or gives interest makes audience to enjoy, since they enjoy the meaning THIONG’O: Great great SPEAKER 3: Aah, factors that I would consider while making the responses, ahh, I think one of the factors is relevance THIONG’O: (To some of the interviewees as they leave) Pleasure, pleasure pleasure. Ahah, just go on. SPEAKER 3: The relevance, THIONG’O: The relevance eh, ahah, SPEAKER 3: The extent to which the song reflects actually what is happening on the ground, the people, their society THIONG’O: ahh, SPEAKER 3: Yes, this one now they will see themselves, in the message that is communicated THIONG’O: ahh, …maybe maybe cause I can see most of you want to leave, let me make ah, this request that, you can inform everyone else who is a fan of Bongo Flava to get in touch, are you guys in whatsapp, you can do a group and then you also add me in the group then we continue chatting on the same, you have my email, so those of you who have a class can feel free to leave, but those of you who are still free we can still continue with the same. But please put all the responses via my email, even after this. 231 SPEAKER 3: I spoke, I was speaking about the factors, I said about the relevance of the song, songs ability to capture the body with attention and the style THIONG’O: Yah, SPEAKER 3: Those ones are the factors to be considered if one was to analyze a song. THIONG’O: Wow, I am very grateful, thank you so much and I am very happy. I don’t know anyone else with more responses? END 232 APPENDIX 3 QUESTIONNAIRE NAME TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? 233 234 NAME MASANJA TUNGU TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW CODES POSSIBLE TEXT INFERENCES THEME RELEVANCE: I.E. ASK; HOW DO MY FINDINGS CONFIRM / CHALLENGE THE EXISTING LITERATURE? Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you 235 interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? . The musician’s voice basically works on RENDITION: creating audience’s tension and Dramatic moving them effect of the with the song’s artist’s voice. meaning. The voice captures my attention ADSR: hence interest on Rendition as making sense of performance the song. technique ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. . YES, especially when they strike to my senses. 236 The musical instruments normally awaken my interest to know what the song COGNITIVE EFFECT communicates. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? . Yes, it does. Style such as that used by Diamond and Marlaw are VOICE AS soft-and this gives the OSTENSIONS message an emotional tone of meaning. iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs 237 based on their effect on audiences? . They do – for the reason given in (iii) above. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? . Sometimes the musical sounds communicates actual words recited by the musician. vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? . Relevance of the song a. Song’s ability to mobilize 238 audience’s attention. b. Style used vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? . Gives vivid description of feelings that characterize the musicians words. Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? a. The musician’s voice basically works on creating audience’s tension and moving them with the song’s meaning. The voice captures my attention hence interest on making sense of the song. 239 ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. a. YES, especially when they strike to my senses. The musical instruments normally awaken my interest to know what the song communicates. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? a. Yes, it does. Style such as that used by Diamond and Marlaw are soft-and this gives the message an emotional tone of meaning. iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? a. They do – for the reason given in (iii) above. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? a. Sometimes the musical sounds communicates actual words recited by the musician. vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. Relevance of the song b. Song’s ability to mobilize audience’s attention. c. Style used vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? a. Gives vivid description of feelings that characterize the musicians words. 240 NAME IBRAHIM NYEURA TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? a. How they sing suggests the meaning they intend. b. Their voices make the audience / listener feel pity, sad, romantic. etc ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. a. They capture the attention of the listener hence to listen the song. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? a. Yes iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? a. They make the song more interesting hence to insist their intended message. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? 241 a. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. The tune b. The musical instruments c. The subject (topic) vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? a. Most of the melodies come from the environment -They are somehow familiar melodies – but modified: therefore, they capture the attention of the listeners. b. They are somehow simple melodies unlike the western songs. 242 NAME TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? a. The voice of the musician helps to send impeccable message clearly. For example, a song such as “Rita” by Marlaw is emotional through the voice of the singer who is Marlaw, and hence helps pass the intended message. Another song is “Nikifa Kesho” by Diamond the voice is sympathetic and hence arouses emotions and deeper meaning. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. a. NO, because some songs instruments don’t match with the message. For example, the song “Moyo Wangu” by Diamond. The instruments are in a partying pattern but the singer is in lamentation. “Mawazo”, Nikifa Kesho by Diamond. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? a. Certainly. Because what one sings and wants to convey should match with the style. For example it can’t be a mourning and grief message and then you use a partying or clubbing style. Example, Marlaw’s song of “Rita” is a message sorrowful message intended and its style correlates - (Soft voice). 243 iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? a. Not at all. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? a. It helps to innovate more emotional tones or tune that help cement the meaning. E.g. Lala Salama by Diamond. vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. Message b. Style c. Relevance vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? a. Melody influence the message. 244 NAME ROBIN EVINCE RICHARD TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? a. By considering Marlaw as an artist, the song title “Rita” the song is really impressing as the voice of the musician it’s good and his words are easily heard compared to other artists, also the organization of tone as whole raising and falling of tones. Used by the artist adds credibility to Marlaw. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. a. Yes, it is true the that the musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings of the song conveyed for instance, Diamond as an artist the song called “Mbagala” there was the balancing between the voice of a musician and the musical instruments used, such situation leads to effectively conveying of the message. But this aspect is much dependent on a musician.it is not the factor for the whole musicians. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? a. It’s true that the style of singing may influence the message conveyed on different aspects for example a musician sings slowly and adheres to rules of raising and falling of tones it is possible for easy conveying of the message compared to those who singing loud and fast it is possible for an individual to miss the intended message by the musician. iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? 245 a. The sound production in Bongo Flava have led to the conveying of the intended message in a way that, even individual has his/her own way of interpreting the music and how an individual is exposed to such kind of tone for example the tone used in the song called “Mdogo mdogo” by Diamond Platnumz have features that many of the people in Tanzania they like it, such situation lead to easy conveying of the message and affect them on different ways. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? a. By interpreting the musical sound from digital sound technology, have contributed to the song interpretation basing on the technology used in music production. Nowadays, the musical instruments are being heard clearly compared with the previous years hence such music quality contributes to easy interpretation of the message of the song by the audiences. vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. The factors to be considered i. The voice of the musician ii. Message of the song iii. How does the song and the message relate to the contemporary society? iv. Is the song brought about positive impacts or negative impacts? vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? a. Tune of the song for the Bongo Flava fans is highly considered for instance these songs that have a certain melody, which awaken people emotions like dancing or shaking their bodies are much more preferred compared with these that causing the majority into deep feelings basing o their day to day activities. 246 NAME RSPNDT 1 - YOHANA MUNG'AYA TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW 15-5-2016 Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? The voice influences the listener to feel the real situation within the song. For example, Diamond’s song “Nataka Kulewa” the voice in that song arouse the listener’s emotions regarding cheating in relationship. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. Yes, the musical instruments add flavor to the musicality of the song. For example, Marlaw’s song “Pii Pii” who’s the musical instruments aid the grasping of meaning in the way the help a listener visualizes his struggle on the traffic jam to head to the place of appointment. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? Yes. iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? Yes v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? 247 -Its clarity on words used. vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? -Voicing -Musicality nature that involves musical musical instruments -Appearance of the artiste on the stage (physical) -body movement when singing -Style on performance vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? 248 NAME RSPNDT 2 - ELIAS GODFREY TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? The role played by the voice of the musician is to drive out the feelings of the listeners. Example, In the song “Kwa Nini” the artiste, Diamond sings as he says, “Usione nalia, moyoni naumia” with strong feelings. These feelings is to show how an artiste Diamond is pained by the love. Also in the song “sorry sana,” Marlaw has sang with strong feelings. He sings so, due to his sorry to his lover. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. Yes, For example Diamond Platnumz in the song “Lala salama” The beat is drawing feelings. Since there are various musical instrumental: Instruments imbedded in that beat that draw the feelings of the listeners. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? Yes, the style of sings influences the message delivery, since the style attract certain artists to be celebrated. Example, Diamond Platnumz has a style of crying while singing a chorus and repetition of chorus. This style facilitates message delivery. Also Marlaw, uses the words like “Pii Pii” to show the creativity. iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? 249 Sound production contributes much to the meaning of the songs and affect the audiences. Since if the artiste sings the of pleasure will use the normal words, but when singing the sad song, he uses the sad words. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? The digital sound technology influences the musical sound by making the voice very attractive. In its attraction results to audience listen it careful vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? Factors that influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret songs are like:  Voice of an artist  Musical instruments  The artist himself, that is how he is, wearing, talking, like an artiste  The use of language like archaic words. vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? The role played by the melodyis to make the music sound as music. For example, in the song of “Nataka Kulewa” by Diamond uses normal melody and also in the song “Kesho” there is normal use of melody to show normal feelings. 250 NAME RUTH N NZEGENUKA TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? a. Voice of any musician brings uniqueness for example, I can identify Diamond through his voice. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. a. Yes, b. Music instruments develop feelings to the listeners. c. Develop meaning intended. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? a. It does because every artist designs his own style to communicate message to listeners. b. Style helps to identify the artist. iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? a. Sound connect to meaning v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? a. Digital sounds blur or blocks the real sound of instrument. b. They produce artificial rhythm. 251 vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. Experience of people / fans and what message they receive in those songs. vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? a. Melody connect feelings to music fans, they get involved in the song. NAME ZABLON PETER CHACHA TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? a. It is true that that the voice of the musician plays the role in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs because he / she sings by using his or her voice reflects the meaning of the song concern. Example, song of Marlaw known as “Rita” voice interprets implied meaning. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. a. The musical instruments may help in shaping the possible meaning however it is not for all songs. For example, the song Sisters by Belle 9 has used musical instruments which helped in shaping the possible meaning. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? 252 a. In some cases, the style of singing may influence the message conveyed in the songs, he / she may use different styles of singing so as to influence the message conveyed in the songs. A good example is Marlaw, the he sings by using different styles of singing. iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? a. The sound production techniques in Bongo Flava songs may contribute to meaning of song once the sound production techniques is clear to the song concern. b. The audiences can be affected by sound production techniques when there is a low quality in sound production techniques. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. Tone b. Voice c. Production vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? 253 NAME JOHN LAMEK TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?  The voice of these Bongo musicians are harmonized because the focus on love issues. That is, they are shaped in a very sweet voice to depict the message about love issues. For example, Diamond’s Moyo Wangu, Nanana, and Nitarejea.  Note this; Most Diamond’s songs are about love issues thus the voice are in romantic way. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.  Yes  The musical instruments of Bongo Flava artistes are made in a way that the sound goes with the message conveyed. The music produced are romantic however, not exactly compared to very known romantic songs of the Westlife. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? a. The style chosen by the Bongo Flava artistes are directly influencing the message conveyed in their songs. For example, the way Diamond sings and even performing his songs which are mostly about love affairs the style of singing corresponds with the topic of his songs. iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? 254 a. The sound production techniques used by these Bongo Flava songs affects the audience in the sense of entertainments and conveys message about romances. Thus other songs are focusing on entertainment in terms of their melodies v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? a. The musical sounds produced depends on the tune from the digital instrument it produces. The tune mostly depends on the mood of the song i.e. sad or happy. vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. The voice of the musician matter most to the interpretation of Bongo Flava music. vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? a. The melody used by these Bongo Flava musician, are connected clearly with the issues they communicate especially about love issues. That is, when fans hear the melodies which goes hand to hand with their emotions and feelings about love helps than to interpret the particular song. 255 NAME SALEHE HAMADA SALIMU TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? a. Diamond Platnumz, song utanipenda? b. Voice of this song creates attention to the reader about the content for example, tension about economically affected related to love affairs. Hence show sad voice to interpret true love. c. Voice shows content situation or events for example law voice used to console others, like her mother as a character within the song. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. a. YES, musical instruments are used according to the meaning for example in Marlaw’s song “Rita” the beats was even low compared to the content that a singer was in sad situation about his wife’s death. So you cannot dance. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? a. Yes, because you can’t dance within the sound while you are blaming or pleasing somebody to rescue on something but you can use this style in pleasure songs as used in Diamond’s songs “Gongo la Mboto” and Bumbum respectively. 256 iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? a. YES, sound production techniques provokes emotions of the reader in relation to the meaning for example sound used in “Je Utanipenda” some of audience can cry due to the way this artist uses in this song. Unlike other songs like Nana, Bum bum, as well as Moyo wangu which provoke audience to sing and dance. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? a. Through attracting and convincing to interpret the meaning due to its technology. For example Nana of Diamond Platnumz uses digital technology and produces emotional beats that attract readers compared to the meaning hence readers feel confortable to hear and dance that song. vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. Use of style compared to the content within the song like wear of rags and dirty clothes i.e. “Utanipenda” b. Use of real character compared to the meaning like Marlaw’s “Pii Pii” characters like cars, Traffic, drivers, the way the song tells us. c. Use of intonation to create meaning and attraction to the audience the way tone rise and fall like “Je Utanipenda” sometimes Diamond rise up and fall hence provokes the audience’s emotions. vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? a. Through style of beats, as used in Nana we can interpret that song is the pleasure song hence you can dance compared to the Marlaw’s song “Rita” which his melody reflects sadness of the singer hence you can’t dance or show happiness melody. 257 NAME SAGIRE JOSEPHAT TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes?  The voice of the musician plays a potential role as it makes a reflection of portrayal issue in bringing up the implied. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words.  The musical instruments help very much as they bring about emotions feelings and motivating the musician and the audience. Also they help in directing the musician in track. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? a. YES. It does, the style illuminates the taste of the intended message acting as the transformation of words into a reality. iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? a. YES they do. As they accord / accompany the motion of the song and arise the tone of a particular hidden meaning or message. That is, each tone tends to have specific issue. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? a. There are situations in which the listener does not get clearly the meaning of the spoken / sang words, hence the musical sound will help in this case in informing implicitly the possible meaning. 258 vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. Style b. Musical sound c. Costumes / dressing d. Body languages and body movements vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? a. It calls for attention and eventually it captures the audience or hearer towards contemplating the implied meaning. NAME SPEMBA SPEMBA TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? a. The voice of the artist attracts attention for one to listen. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. a. Yes, the artist's voice most often reflect what is sung. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? a. Yes, singing as opposed to rapping is essential element in communicating message example, the singer in relation to love message and rapper most often are harsher. iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? 259 a. Yes, failure to engineer sound may result to faint copy of product which will end up not being pleasant as opposed to clear sounding music in which music and poetry are audible. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? a. backing of vocals put extra information. b. sound effects may suggest extra meaning. vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. sound engineering b. melody chosen c. whether the artist's sound reflects the message I.e. Think of love song / sad songs as opposed to happy songs. vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? a. Best message is communicated by best melody. b. tune and melody matches with the beat to complete harmonious product. 260 NAME MAKONDA MIHAMBO TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW Please make your free responses to the following questions as best as you can with regard to the songs of Diamond Platnumz and Marlaw. You are free to mention the title of the song which helps best explain your response. i. Is there a role you would say the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret implied meanings in the songs of the two artistes? a. The role which the voice of the musician plays in shaping how you interpret meaning in the song is that, the voice of the musician helps the listeners to understand which message the song portrays. e.g. the voice determines whether the message presented is is about either love, or implies happiness. For example, the Diamond songs like "Nende Kamwabie" "Ukimwona" "Lala Salama" etc the voice determines that the artist is in LOVE having deep love with someone. ii. Do you think the way Bongo Flava artistes play musical instruments help in shaping the possible meanings the song conveys? (YES/NO). Explain your answer in a few words. a. Yes, the musical instruments help in shaping the possible meaning the song conveys for example Diamond songs like Ukimwona and Nikifa Kesho implies the content of the song because the way they are organized shows that the artist is in such situation. iii. Would you say the style of singing influences the message conveyed in the songs? a. The style of singing influences the message conveyed in the song in the sense that the style used by the artist determine the message and the attitude of the artist for example, Marlaws song Rita, shows the sorrowful situation or condition. 261 iv. Would you think that sound production techniques in Bongo Flava contribute to the meaning of the songs based on their effect on audiences? a. Sound techniques in Bongo somehow contribute to the hearing of the song and their effect oN the audience. v. Does the musical sound resulting from digital sound technology influence how you tend to interpret the song? a. they influence the emotional/feelings of the artist. vi. What factors would you consider while making the responses to question 1-5 above? That is, what factors do you think would mostly influence how Bongo Flava fans interpret the songs? a. Tune b. voice c. participants d. Message e. producer f. Audience g. Instruments vii. How would you explain the role melody or tune of the song play in shaping how Bongo Music fans interpret the songs? a. ------------------ 262 APPENDIX 4 INTERVIEW PHOTOS RESEARCHER THIONG’O JOSEPH AND HAROUB MSINGALA BONGO FLAVA MUSIC PRODUCER AND DISCO JOCKEY STUDENTS OF UNIVERSITY OF DAR ES SALAAM 263 APPENDIX 5 DATA VERIFICATION QUESTIONNAIRE Verification of Findings and Conclusions The aim of this data collected on 18 Jul 2019 was to verify finding and conclusions which the research had arrived at after analysis of data on the role the voice of the artist plays in conveyance of meaning. The researcher had observed that Bongo Flava artists use language stylistically and their voices operationalize a variety of oral techniques to convey implied meaning. The questionnaire was presented to fourth year Literature students of Egerton University, who were in their second last semester. The researcher wanted to compare how other literary scholars at graduate level tend to reason out meaning in while listening to a song. The researcher played the to the interviewees, several times, distributed to questionnaire and requested the interviewees to respond to the questions based on the transcribed and translated text as well as the audio that continued to play in the background. It was observed that the interviewees responded to the questions with least effort. This led to the conclusion that age, knowledge, academic level, experiences one has in relation to a given situation influence the relevance and inferences listeners make out of a song. However, the researcher still observed that in manner of criticism of literary meaning implied in the voice of an artist, like most people the interviewees only used Adjectival Descriptive elaborations of how the songs made them feel. In relation to the findings of the research the researcher was thus of the opinion that the knowledge this research had contributed to the existing knowledge would aid in providing new methods for critiquing literary meaning on voice or audio texts. 264 NAME TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW 18-7-2019 “Nikifa Kesho” If I Die Tomorrow Ai, Oh vipi Ameneke atanililia - Will Ameneke mourn my death Je wasani wenzangu wataniimbia - Will my fellow artistes sing for me? Au litafutika jina langu - or my name will fade Na nyimbo zangu watosikia - and my songs will be forgotten Oh vipi Wasafi watanililia - Oh will Wasafi cry for me Je ndugu rafiki watahudhuria - Will friends attend the funeral Au nitakapo kufa sina change - Or when I die there will be no change Hata mamangu atanikimbia - Even my mother will forsake me Ni swali gumu sana - It’s a very difficult question to Lakini nauliza sababu ipo siku itafika - But I am asking because the day is coming Nitapotenganishwa nafsi na roho -When the spirit and the body will be separated Kwenda milele kupumzika - To rest in eternal peace Sijui wengi watalia kwa uchungu - I don’t know if many will cry because of pain Ama nd'o watafurahi - Or that is the time they’ll celebrate Mi siku zamu nikiitwa kwaMungu - My time to be called in Heaven Nitapokatishwa na uhai - When I’ll be separated from life Chorus Ni kama nikifa kesho - If I die tomorrow Hivi ninani nitazikwa naye - Whom will I be buried with Oh nani atakumbuka nauliza - Oh who will remember Nikifa kesho oh nani atamwambia mama asi cry - who will tell mama not to cry Oh mama mwanao me sina hata motto mmoja - Mom I don’t have a single child Wakusingiziwa hivi nikiondoka wasidanganye hao - so let no one cheat you Wengi l'onao waliniambia ngoja ngoja eti subiria 265 - Many told me to wait Na wengine kabisa wakakataa tuzae - And many more refused to give birth Oh Wakiniambia - Oh telling me Eti muda wao haujawadia - that their time hasn’t come Wataharibu ujana - They’ll spoil their youth Wengine pia - Others in addition Baada yashi dawao wakanikimbia - because of poverty they left me Waliniumiza sana.... - I got very hurt Chorus 266 Please Respond To These Questions 1. Styles in Bongo Flava: Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song? 2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style? 3. What would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song? 4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song? 5. Within which song genre would you classify this song? 6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above? 7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does? 8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other styles? List 9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons? 10. Who is your favorite musician and why. 267 NAME : DAMARIE BITUTU TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW 18-7-2019 RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS 1. Styles in Bongo Flava: Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?  Yes  Rhyme – it is expressed through the final words with the ending of the /a/ sound e.g. ata nil ilia…wataniambia. This is referredtoas assonance.  Rhetoric questions – Je wasani wenzangu wata niimbia?  Effect – to make one reason out on the issues displayed. 2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?  So that he can bring rhythm to the song and make it enjoyable. 3. Themes: what would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?  Major theme – sorrow  He wants pity from the people he is addressing.  He wonders what will happen when he dies. 4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?  He sings in a low sorrowful song – this is to bring a sad effect to the people listening to it. 5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?  Soft Bongo Flava 6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?  There are different types of Bongo Flava; there are those that are fast or (hard)— party type of Bongo Flava but this one is soft for it has slow beats. 7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?  The artist wants the effect of his voice to be heard. He wants to show how he feels, his emotions through the song. 268 8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other styles. List  Soulful music – type of music whereby the singer sings with sorrow, passionate about something that is at times disturbing his peace. 9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?  Yes – he wants to express himself. 10. Who is your favorite musician and why?  Venesa Mdee – she sings melodiously. One can feel her emotions through her vocals and her lyrics are meaningful. 269 NAME : SHARON SIMALOI TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW 18-7-2019 RESPONSES TO THESE QUESTIONS 1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?  Repetition – “oh”  Rhyme – atanililia, wataniimbia  Consonance  Assonance – Lakini nauliza sababu 2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?  To show that there is still an event that occurs after. 3. What would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?  The artist is trying to figure out whether his life on earth has impacted people enough to remember him when he dies. 4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?  The artist voice affects my interpretation of this song because it creates a merciful mood and thoughts as he creates a desire to seek awareness or what will happen after he dies. 5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?  Bongo Flava 6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?  Bongo because it is a Tanzanian song sang by a Tanzanian artist, its beats are also like Hip-hop, which in Tanzania is considered as Bongo. 7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?  So as to create a convincing mood for the reader and make the reader emphatic of his situation. 8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other styles. List  Rhyme, Repetition, Assonance 270 9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?  Yes 10. Who is your favorite musician and why?  Rihanna, her style of dressing, her confidence as she does her video not to forget her beautiful voice. 271 NAME : ABUDHO UMURO GALGALO TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW: 18-7-2019 RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS 1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?  Code switching – nani atambia mama asi cry  Repetition – Je, oh.  Similes – nikama nikifa kesho.  Rhetorical questions – if I die tomorrow, will my fellow artists sing for me? 2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?  To emphasize on his messages  To spread the song message and ideas  To create suspense 3. What would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?  Good legacy about his career  His song to be remembered forever. 4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?  It comes from deep sense of animosity and the need for survival of the song and to be fighters of legacy. 5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?  Reggae 6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?  It has the skank guitar rhythm from listening to its audio  It has verse – chorus structure  Vocal styles 7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?  To show sympathy.  To show love that he has for Ameneke and his mother. 272  To create rhythm 8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other styles. List  Assonance e.g. “Oh” sounds  Consonance, Alliteration, repetition. 9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?  Yes, for instance for emphasis, clarifications. 10. Who is your favorite musician and why?  Diamond is my favorite musician. Reasons: his songs are entertaining, educating. 273 NAME: DOREEN KATHURE TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW: 18-7-2019 RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONS 1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?  Repetition (Oh) – creates  Assonance – Lakini nauliza sababu 2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?  To create rhythm and musicality 3. What would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?  Theme of sadness: the artist feels sad as he questions of how people would react after he dies. He wonders who will mourn for him and who will comfort his mom during burial. 4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?  The voice of the artist makes the audience feel mercy for him and also think of how life would be after their death. How close people would react. It makes the audience come into contact with reality of the happening after their death. 5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?  Bongo flava 6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?  It’s a Tanzanian Hip-hop music sang by a Tanzanian artist. 7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?  To capture the mind and attention of his audience and engage them too. 8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other styles. List  Rhyme  Assonance 274 9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?  Yes: to create musicality and maintain the rhythm of the song. 10. Who is your favorite musician and why?  Beyoncé – The music inspires women. 275 NAME : CINDY MUNENE TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW: 18-7-2019 RESPONSES TO THESE QUESTIONS 1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?  Rhyme – Uchungu, Mungu  Repetition – Je, oh  Symbolism – Kwenda milele pumzika 2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?  To show that there is still an event that continues to occur or the song continues. 3. What would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?  There is a theme of sadness. It is being brought out as you talk about death and discuss how the experience would be. 4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?  The artist’s voice affects my interpretation in that he brings me into a reality of how much death would impact him and I find myself feeling pain and mercy for him as well as leaves me wondering if people would celebrate or actually mourn him or forget him. 5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?  Bongo Flava 6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?  Bongo Flava. It is the name for Tanzanian music. (Ubongo) gotten from Bongo to mean brain also to reference Dar es Salaam. 7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?  He is actually talking in a way that gets the reader to emphasize on his situation that is ongoing. He uses it to discuss or try to understand what would happen in his passing. 276 8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other styles. List  Rhyme, symbolism, assonance, repetition 9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?  Yes, to capture the audience’s attention  To get the audience to see things from his point of view. 10. Who is your favorite musician and why?  Rihanna. Her message and confidence as she sings.  Her mode of dressing and her voice. 277 NAME: EDERA WINNIE TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW: 18-7-2019 PLEASE RESPOND TO THESE QUESTIONS 1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?  Repetition: Oh who will remember, oh tell me. 2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?  Rhyme: Ata nil ilia  Wataniambia 3. Themes: what would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?  Theme of sorrow or sadness  The intonation within the song is expressing sadness when he dies. 4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?  The reason for using rhyme is to create musicality in the song. 5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?  Bongo Flava 6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?  It’s a Kiswahili song, making and the musician himself is based in Tanzania. 7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?  He uses his voice to attract the audience or the listeners, so that they can get the message. 8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other styles. List  Alliteration  Rhyme  Repetition 278 9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?  Yes. 10. Who is your favorite musician and why?  Mbasso: A very famous Tanzanian musician. His songs have great information together with its titles. The information he gives within his songs has great information. 279 NAME: WANJIKU AKA GATUSH TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW18-7-2019 PLEASE RESPOND TO THESE QUESTIONS 1. Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?  Alliteration: i. consonance – wasafi watanililia ii. Assonace – Ameneke atanililia  Repetition – Je? Je wasanii, Je ndugu?  Rhyme – Uchungu, Mungu. 2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?  To create a rhythm  To emphasize certain words / message – about what will happen when he dies.  To enhance / create mood / tone 3. Themes: what would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?  The author is trying to figure out like how people will react to his death. Like he is worried if his death will affect or impact on people. That is why he is worried if his name will fade or who will console his mother. 4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?  The voice of the musician is of mercy. This is because he is filled with sorrow. 5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?  Bongo Flava 6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above  Because it is a Tanzanian song (Wasafi) i.e Artist is a Tanzanian.  The beats of the song. 7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does? 280  The artist uses his voice in the style he does because he is worried he wants to attract audience attention (AMENEKE) i.e. he doesn’t know if people are hypocrites they pretended to love him yet they don’t. 8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other styles. List  Rhyme  Repetition  Alliteration 9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?  YES! This is to emphasize and make the reader or audience get the deeper meaning of the song. 10. Who is your favorite musician and why?  Diamond Platnumz. I love his style of singing, dancing, lyrics, his outfits etc 281 NAME: MAYABI JOY TELEPHONE CONTACT EMAIL ADDRESS TOWN / CITY DATE OF INTERVIEW 18-7-2019 PLEASE RESPOND TO THESE QUESTIONS 1. Styles in Bongo Flava: Do you think the artist has used any stylistic features in this song?  Alliteration type of consonance  Assonance – Lakini nauliza sababu  Rhyme – uchungu, Mungu  Repetition – Je je 2. Why would you say, may be his reason for using these style?  Repetition and musicality.  To create rhythm 3. Themes: what would you say the artist may have expected to achieve in this song?  The artist is trying to figure out whether his life on earth has impacted people and if at all one day he dies if he will be remembered and if the song will be remembered. 4. How does the voice of the artist affect how you interpret the song?  The artist sings with a lot of sorrow 5. Within which song genre would you classify this song?  Bongo Flava 6. Why did you classify the song in the genre in 5 above?  Because it is a Tanzanian song. The artist is a Tanzanian.  The beats are like Hip-hop 7. Why do you think the artist uses his voice in the style he does?  The artist uses his voice to convince the audience and the readers. 8. Are there literary or linguistic terms you can use to describe this style of singing or other styles. List  Alliteration 282  Repetition  Rhyme 9. Do you think the artist employs these singing techniques for some reasons?  Yes, to emphasize and to make readers or audience get the deeper meaning of the song. 10. Who is your favorite musician and why?  Christiana Shusho from Tanzania  She sings with passion and conveys the message which is the word of God through the words she uses. DATA INTEERPRETATION KEY QUESTION INFORMATION CODE CATEGORIES SORT OBSERVATION NO OF MADE AS RESPONDENTS THEMES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 STAGES OF OSTENSIVE COMMUNICATION INTERVAL ORAL EXPRESSION INVOLVES A PARTICULAR MANNER OF VOICE MODULATION. This can be broken down into the following levels 1. Musicality in the voice forms a musical phrase – Chord (imitation of particular cultural emotions) 2. Melody of voice as modalities 283 MENTAL PROCESS 3. Ostension 4. Emotions 5. Mood 6. Attitude (Judgment) 7. Cultural experience (leading to the association) COGNITIVE EFFECT 8. Associated Meaning 9. Conclusion VOICE AS SIMULATION OF CHARACTERS IN SOCIETY REVEALS FUNCTION OR PURPOSE FOR VOICE USAGE AS STYLE 1. Shaping identities (perception of author / Artist as physical reality formed in the cultural norms, ideologies and perspectives as cultural dictates. 2. Shaping character (subsumed in the song) 3. Shaping meaning implied in the message) - TEXT 4. Shaping perception (Inferential communication) 5. Shaping voice of poetic and dramatic celebration of cultural values of a given people. (upon examination of the ideologies informing voice techniques as performance. 6. Composition techniques employs rules to set expected meaning in the audio text 284 APPENDIX 6 SONGS TRANSCRIPTIONS “PII PII” Ahh Ahh Eiy Eiy (Eiy Eiy) Verse 1 Ninataka niwahi kufika, nija inajam sasa wapi nitapita Nimekaa karibia saa sita, s asa kukaa nimechoka ooh baby Sijamwona long time now, nimerudi toka mwezi jana Nimeshakwambia mama nimefika tangu mchana Anajua nimeshafika, ameshapika, amekasirika Alipika tangu mchana, ila sasa, lunch imegeuka dinner Chorus Nimechoka kupiga honi now (pii pii) hatuelewani (2x) Pii pii, nimechoka kupoteza time Nina siku nyingu kwenda home, I'm missing my baby Pii pii, hello baby, natamani niwe nyumbani Nimekwama hapa nijani kuna jam baby Aah aah, kuna jam baby Aah ahh, hello (3x) Verse 2 Unanikatia simu unanionea, wewe ungekuwepo ungejionea Unafanya hivyo unakosea mamaa Unanikatia simu unanionea, wewe ungekuwepo ungejionea Unafanya hivyo unakosea mamaa Nakuomba mpenzi ungojee, ni nijani naja niombee Nimeochoka nakuja tulee, huruma nionee Nakuomba mpenzi ungojee, ni nijani naja niombee Nimeochoka nakuja tulee, huruma nionee Hook 2x Nimechoka kungoja highway, nitapita popote mradi wee Ili kama ni kesi na iwe (hatuelewani) 285 Chorus Nimechoka kupiga honi now (pii pii) hatuelewani (2x) Pii pii, move out of the way, nimechoka kupoteza time Nina siku nyingu kwenda home, I'm missing my baby Pii pii, hello baby, natamani niwe nyumbani Nimekwama hapa nijani kuna jam baby Aah aah (ooh), I love you so much Aah ahh, I love you Mama Aah aah, I love you Mamaa, ah ah ai Hook 2x Nimechoka kungoja highway, nitapita popote mradi wee Ili kama ni kesi na iwe (hatuelewani) 2x Pii pii, move out of the way, nimechoka kupoteza time Nina siku nyingu kwenda home, I'm missing my baby Pii pii, hello baby, natamani niwe nyumbani Nimekwama hapa nijani kuna jam baby 2x I love you so much, I love you Mama I love you mama (2x) My baby (6x) “RITA BY MARLAW” Ooh Rita (Rita) 3x Ooh Rita oh no no no Sauti inasikika Tega makini, hujui nani inamwita Chozi lanitoka nitazamapo angani, Naona Sura ya Rita Ona mikono yangu mitupu, imezoea kukushika we Hata nyumbani kwangu haupo umepotea sikuoni kwamwe Ooh Rita 2x Daily nakuwaza wee Ooh Rita 2x Mimi nitanyamazaje? Rita we unajua jinsi gani mimi na wewe tulivyopendana, Jitoa sadaka kimapenzi ilimradi tusijetengana, Ila we unajua ni yako familia, damu yangu ya Bongo si ya Asia. Ndo kigezo cha wao kunitosa mara mbili risasi wamenikosa. Kumbuka ile mimba ndio iliyokufanya ukaja kwangu (ulifukuzwa kwenu). Ulijifunguapo mtoto na wote mkaishi kwangu (ukawachukiza kwenu). 286 Na taarifa ikaja kwako wewe Rita, Uende Arusha nduguzo wanakwita, Ukani-kiss kiss mimi na mtoto, nikakukiss hey hey Ni tangu Arusha hadi Iringa simu inaita napokea unalia, Kurudi Iringa uishi nami ndugu zako wamekuzuia Ukasema laiti ungejua usingekubali uondokee pekee, Mwanao analia, ona mumeo ni bora ninywe pombe. Ila kwa penzi ukafosi kurudi, piga simu mume wangu nakuja, Na maneno ya konda kwenye basi ulifika alikupa siti ukakaa, ulipokaa ukakaa. Ile siku mi nimelelewa, niko mi na mwanangu kumpokea mke wangu. Konda akasema si wewe, ila tu mwili wako Ooh Rita Rita ahh Na Marco Chali, ndani ya MJ Records, this is true story to Marco Rita 3x Aaah hata nyumbani kwangu haupo!! 287 “Nikifa Kesho” If I Die Tomorrow Ai, Oh vipi Ameneke atanililia - Will Ameneke mourn my death Je wasani wenzangu wataniimbia - Will my fellow artistes sing for me? Au litafutika jina langu - or my name will fade Na nyimbo zangu watosikia - and my songs will be forgotten Oh vipi Wasafi watanililia - Oh will Wasafi cry for me Je ndugu rafiki watahudhuria - Will friends attend the funeral Au nitakapo kufa sina change - Or when I die there will be no change Hata mamangu atanikimbia - Even my mother will forsake me Ni swali gumu sana - It’s a very difficult question to Lakini nauliza sababu ipo siku itafika - But I am asking because the day is coming Nitapotenganishwa nafsi na roho -When the spirit and the body will be separated Kwenda milele kupumzika - To rest in eternal peace Sijui wengi watalia kwa uchungu - I don’t know if many will cry because of pain Ama nd'o watafurahi - Or that is the time they’ll celebrate Mi siku zamu nikiitwa kwaMungu - My time to be called in Heaven Nitapokatishwa na uhai - When I’ll be separated from life Chorus Ni kama nikifa kesho - If I die tomorrow Hivi ninani nitazikwa naye - Whom will I be buried with Oh nani atakumbuka nauliza - Oh who will remember Nikifa kesho oh nani atamwambia mama asi cry - who will tell mama not to cry Oh mama mwanao me sina hata motto mmoja - Mom I don’t have a single child Wakusingiziwa hivi nikiondoka wasidanganye hao - so let no one cheat you Wengi l'onao waliniambia ngoja ngoja eti subiria - Many told me to wait Na wengine kabisa wakakataa tuzae - And many more refused to give birth Oh Wakiniambia - Oh telling me Eti muda wao haujawadia - that their time hasn’t come Wataharibu ujana - They’ll spoil their youth Wengine pia - Others in addition Baada yashi dawao wakanikimbia - because of poverty they left me 288 Waliniumiza sana.... - I got very hurt Chorus 289 APPENDIX 7 LINKS TO THE AUDIO-VISUAL SITES OF THE SONGS Pii Pii https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=8eyAeqkV2gg Rita https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=bT1ctHnPKTQ Nikifa Kesho https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=z7yV0CSBdCk 290 APPENDIX 8 Sonic Experience Reference here is made to: A Guide To Everyday Sounds Edited By Jean –Francois And Torgue Henry, Translated By Andra McCartney And David Paquette, McGill-Queen’s University Press, London. Accelerando In music, a marking (usually abbreviated as Accel.) that indicates an acceleration in the speed of performance, and consequently an increase in the tempo of the piece. Anamnesis An effect of reminiscence in which a past situation or atmosphere is brought back to the listener’s consciousness, provoked by a particular signal or sonic context. Anamnesis, a semiotic effect, is the often involuntary revival of memory caused by listening and the evocative power of sounds. Anamnesis, an evocation of the past, refers to situations in which a sound or a sonic context revives a situation or an atmosphere of the past. This effect can span very different periods of time while retaining its intrinsic nature: it can happen on the scale of an entire life –a song that evokes a childhood memory – or a short span of time – for example, when a film soundtrack plays on the exposition of a sound element previously heard. However, the more distant and unexpected the reference, the more the emotion may overwhelm the listener. The effect is not based on the sound or on its meaning. It is rather the listener who gives it an anamnestic value. Two people listening to the same sound environment can develop very different evocations, but these effects could not happen without the occurrence of sound. The anamnesis effect merges sound, perception, and memory. It plays with time, reconnecting past mental images to present consciousness, with no will other than the free activity of association. In its clinical meaning, anamnesis does not refer only to a simple evocation of a memory; it also implies the historical reconstitution of a disease by a patient. In the same way, a sound or a group of sounds may lead to the reconstitution of a whole period of life as it unfolds during the entire updating of a time sequence. 291 Anticipation Someone waiting for a sound to appear will “pre-hear” – that is, he or she will actually hear – the expected signal, even if no sound has been emitted. This effect can be observed either in the expectation of an unknown sound, every rustling then becoming a potential sign, or in familiar situations where the listener anticipates in her or his mind, a foreseeable (or fore-hearable) sonic context. If anamnesis is most often an involuntary phenomenon, anticipation, on the other hand, may appear when one expects too much. Asyndeton The deletion from the perception or memory of one or many sound elements in an audible whole. Surveys studying everyday sound behaviour show that the amount of “forgotten” or unheard sound is extremely prominent. The asyndeton effect allows the valorization of a portion of the sound environment through evacuation of useless elements from our consciousness. Asyndeton is therefore complementary to the synecdoche effect. Asyndeton, through its rhetorical origin, refers more to the generic notion of forgetting, whereas erasure is used specifically in reference to practice. Attraction A phonotropic effect in which an emerging sound phenomenon attracts and polarizes attention, be it conscious or not. The magnitude of this effect can range from fleeting comprehension to the complete mobilization of attention. In very busy streets for instance, singers and musical groups try constantly to gain the attention of passersby. These sound situations exert a power of attraction precisely because they are in contrast with the ambient hubbub. When the acoustic horizons of different musicians overlap, there is no emergence effect, thus no attraction. A siren, which manifests itself exclusively in the sonic sphere, and whose source often cannot be located, illustrates the attraction/repulsion duality that characterizes the emergence of certain sound events. 292 Blurring The blurring effect refers to the progressive and imperceptible disappearance of a sound atmosphere. In contrast to the decrescendo effect, the auditor usually only notices the absence of sound once the effect is completed. Chain A chain reaction: one sound event provokes a sonic response, which produces another, and so on. These successive inductions, whether or not they are enacted consciously, can result in a phenomenon of sound escalation. Crowd situations are favourable to the appearance of this effect; the applause that follows a show, for instance, may be started by a small group of people, or even a single auditor, and progressively lead the whole audience up to a manifestation whose intensity greatly exceeds the sum of individual contributions. Sometimes the role of a “claque” appears to be quite useful in inciting movement and maintaining pressure. Chorus An electroacoustic effect that consists of mixing a direct signal with a portion of itself, slightly delayed and modulated through a low frequency oscillator. The variable phase displacement thus produced enriches the original sound by seeming to multiply the sound sources – hence its reference to chorus, sum of individual voices. Cocktail This effect, named by E. Cherry with reference to the sound space in which we can observe it best, refers to our ability to focus attention on the speech of a specific speaker by disregarding irrelevant information coming from the surroundings. In this type of metabolic context, sound components are almost equivalent in intensity and frequency: it is their multiplication that creates the surrounding sound level. “From the physical point of view, one of the predominant elements in the cocktail effect is the spatial separation of noise and speech. In consequence, we know that, on the psycho-physiological level, selective listening is governed by our capacity to discriminate sounds from different sources – that is, by our capacity to localize in the noise.” Colouring 293 An effect describing the influence of a location, electroacoustic system, or instrument on the new balance of the frequencies of a sound, “coloured” through its diffusion. We speak of the “colour” of a room or the “colour” of a loudspeaker. Colouring is acoustically linked to filtration, but its use remains more popular. To the untrained ear, the colouring of a sound situation is particularly well perceived when colouration changes rapidly. A good example is the clear inside/outside transition of film soundtracks or the entry of woodwind instruments (flute, clarinet, bassoon, oboe) in the musical stream of string instruments. Compression An electroacoustic effect: a compressor reduces the dynamic range of a signal by raising lowintensity signals while lowering high-intensity ones. Generally speaking, compression makes it possible to raise the average energy of a recording by avoiding the strict use of peak signals in the calibration of its maximum volume. It allows the adaptation of a signal to media supporting different dynamics: vinyl disc, cassette, or compact disc. Coupling Interaction between two sound phenomena that seem to be distinct yet connected, without being necessarily engaged in a causal relationship. In architecture, for example, we can observe the reciprocal influences of different reverberations of two adjacent spaces. Crescendo An effect produced by a progressive increase in the intensity of a sound. This well-known effect, which has specific notation in music, can be found in the most diverse contexts: in the approach of a sound source, the acceleration of a vehicle, the start-up of a machine, the rise of a murmur, etc. Crossfade While the cut out effect describes an abrupt change from one sonic state to another, the term crossfade refers to a more progressive transition between states, accomplished through a decrease in intensity of the first state and increasing apparition of the second. We can experience this effect 294 when crossing a mid-sized square in which reflections from the street or the façade behind us slowly crossfades with sounds from the opposite direction. Cut Out The cut out effect refers to a sudden drop in intensity associated with an abrupt change in the spectral envelope of a sound or a modification of reverberation (moving from reverberant to dull spaces, for instance). This effect is an important process of articulation between spaces and locations; it punctuates movement from one ambience to another. Deburau With this effect, the listener’s attention searches for a sound that is inaudible, such as the voice of a mute person. The effect is named for Jean-Baptiste Deburau (1796–1846), a famous mime whose trial attracted the whole of Paris, curious to hear his voice. By extension, this effect characterizes the identification of a sound source followed by the observation that once discovered, it is no longer of particular interest. Decontextualization The incongruous intervention of a sound or group of sounds into a coherent situation that was previously experienced, or into a situation where the sonic content is predictable: for example, sounds from the private domain heard in a public space. More or less refined musical gags essentially play on a decontextualization of sound or meaning, as illustrated by the French ensemble Le Quatuor, a classical string quartet that performs in a humorous style, playing on traditional conventions by varying rhythmic and melodic lines and stylistic digressions. Decrescendo An effect produced by a progressive diminution of sound intensity. Often indicated in music at the end of a phrase or a movement, a decrease in sound intensity can also be found in varied contexts, whether it is caused by the sound source moving away or by something like a machine stopping. 295 Delay In its generic sense, this effect refers to any delay between the emission of a sound and its repetition. Echo and reverberation are thus two types of delay. As an electroacoustic effect, delay can be applied at the level of milliseconds; generally, it is less than a second. Delay is used to give depth to a sound or to spatialize it in the stereophonic field. Desynchronization Desynchronization, a temporal decontextualization effect, characterizes the emergence of a sound emission that breaks the regularity of a rhythm or a well-established sound structure, creating a feeling of incongruity. The event may have the same sonic nature as the elements it disrupts, as when someone interrupts another person without respecting the rhythmic alternation of a conversation. The social dimension of the desynchronization effect is crucial. Cinematographic montage also offers a clear field of application for this effect; arranging sounds in a sequence, the rhythmic development must be accomplished while respecting both the acoustic complexity of the scene and legibility of significant sound events. Any discontinuity in the phrasing of the sequence provokes a feeling of desynchronization. Digression The digression effect refers to the emergence of a temporary change of sound ambience in a complex perceptive organization that does not seem to affect behaviours or mark memory. Digression is an erasure effect at the level of a whole sequence. The most common example is a phone call that interrupts a conversation, suspends it for a moment, and then allows its resumption at the place where it stopped without altering its content. Dilation The dilation effect refers to the feeling of the emitter concerning the space of propagation and the hearing sensitivity of others: the emitter feels that the sound he or she produces will carry and be clearly perceived (diastolic movement). This effect can be anticipatory as well as perceptual. Human ethology is swarming with representative cases of this preventive sound marking: for instance, a person who is not accustomed to using a telephone and speaks loudly as the correspondent is far away. 296 Distortion A distortion of specific frequencies of the spectral envelope of a sound that affects the totality of a sequence. In comparison with filtration, distortion acts through addition rather than subtraction. Distortion manifests itself as an electroacoustic effect, either in an involuntary manner in the electrophonic chain, when saturation is produced during amplification, or as a specific additive intended to voluntarily transform the sound of an instrument such as an electric guitar. Doppler Physicist Christian-Johann Doppler (1803–53) noticed this effect first with sound and then also with light. The Doppler-Fizeau effect describes a relative anamorphose of the original signal. This perceptive modification is due to a relation of movement between the sound source and the listener that provokes either a compression or an expansion of the sound wave. A sound signal that moves closer is perceived as being higher than it actually is, whereas that same signal moving away will be perceived as being lower. This phenomenon comes from a combination of the sound’s speed of propagation and the movement of the sound source. When both the sound wave and the sound source move in the same direction, the perceived frequency rises. When they move in opposite directions, the perceived frequency drops. When there is a sudden change of direction of the source in relation to the listener, the Doppler effect can be accompanied by a complementary effect of approach and distancing. Drone The drone (bourdon) effect refers to the presence of a constant layer of stable pitch in a sound ensemble with no noticeable variation in intensity. Linked to music in its designation (the drone is a permanent bass note over which other elements are laid), the drone effect can also be observed in urban and industrial soundscapes. Many technical systems generate constant sounds that are close to a drone, even if thefrequencies concerned are not limited to the bass range that originally characterized it. 297 Dullness The dullness (matité) effect is the effect to reverberation; absolute dullness implies total absence of reflected sound signals. A room is considered as “dull” when absorbent materials prevent diffusion of reflected waves. The absolute state of dullness is only realized in an anechoic chamber. In such a room, searching for total silence, composer John Cage, could still hear his own circulatory and nervous systems. Echo Echo, a phenomenon observed in nature, is the simple or multiple repetition of a sound emission, linked to a reflection in the space of diffusion. The term comes from Echo, a mythological nymph condemned to never speak first, but only repeat the last syllables of others. The psychogenetic signification of this effect was underlined as being possibly as important as the mirror stage. Emergence A generic effect that includes the totality of sound occurrences that appear in a given context. Often coupled with another effect, emergence not only implies the irruption of a loud sound in a low-intensity context; it also characterizes the appearance of sounds that differ in pitch, timbre, or rhythm. The singularity of the emergence effect is marked by the affirmation of a new sound rather than the modalities of its appearance, the latter being linked more closely to other effects with which it is combined. Envelopment The feeling of being surrounded by a body of sound that has the capacity to create an autonomous whole, that predominates over other circumstantial features of the moment. The envelopment effect is sometimes applied to negative situations, but most often it provokes reactions comparable to bewitchment – staggering, delightful. The accomplishment of this effect is marked by enjoyment, with no need to question the origin of the sound: hence the clear difference between envelopment and ubiquity. 298 Erasure The erasure effect refers to one or several sound elements in an audible ensemble that are deleted from perception or memory. This selective suppression is a fundamental effect of hearing. The majority of audible sounds in a day are heard without being listened to and are then forgotten. Expansion An electroacoustic effect. An expander increases a signal over a chosen threshold of intensity, avoiding the disappearance of faint signals in background noise, while increasing the energetic impact of the signal. Fade Disappearance of a sound through a progressive decrease in intensity. A fader is a potentiometer that controls volume. In English, the term “fade” also refers to the wave effect caused by fluctuating radio reception, particularly with short wave. Feedback Feedback is an application of the retroaction theory developed in the 1940s (by Norbert Wiener, Claude Shannon, and Warren Weaver) that makes it possible to anticipate a current action using past experience as a guide. Feedback, or re-injection, is particularly used in musical electroacoustics. As a controlled Larsen effect, feedback characterizes the sonic loop that occurs between the pickup of an electric guitar and the loudspeaker that amplifies it. The guitarist modulates the Larsen effect created by playing on the orientation of the instrument in relation to the speaker. Thus, the guitarist controls the re-injection of the signal over itself, producing a sustained sound that is often distorted. Filtration A reinforcing or weakening of specific frequencies of a sound. Modification of the spectral envelope can be caused by distortions linked to the mode of utterance, to the space of propagation, or to an electroacoustic filtration that makes it possible to act voluntarily on the response curve. A 299 filtration effect is perceived when the frequency of a sound that we are accustomed to or that we have heard previously is modified. Various features of the environment separating the source and listener can filter sound. These features may be related to sound propagation through air (atmosphere density, air movement created by wind, lapse rate), or to the presence of obstacles that block the direct reception of a signal (for instance, traffic insulation walls). Textual and media expressions The filtration effect often provides an opportunity for novelists to describe the behaviour of characters who produce or listen to sounds in their environment. For instance, in the writing of Stendhal, filtered sounds create an atmosphere of fullness. The romantic hero in a Stendhal novel will find a medium for reverie. Similarly, sounds softened by the density of the air or reflected on walls of houses or across lakes, allow characters to flee the presence and proximity of people surrounding them. These sounds, which lead to melancholy and resignation, are associated with the character’s affective fixation on himself or herself, independent of the listening pleasure the sounds may engender filtered sounds are the basis for shaping relations between individuals. They lead to and may even motivate hearing curiosity. It is, however, in the work of Marcel Proust that we achieve a new step toward an understanding of the influence of filtration on individual sound behaviours. The narrator of In Search of Lost Time devotes particular attention to the family entourage. Sounds that penetrate through partitions of a room maintain contact, but this contact simultaneously throws the Proustian hero into a state of anxiety. These examples demonstrate that listening through a filtering partition does indeed play a role in behaviour rules, self-reflection, and sonic modes – all practices that Michel Foucault called “practices of the self” Flange A musical electroacoustic effect in which direct sound is combined with its own delayed reinjection, thus creating a phase effect. By balancing the intensity of reinjection and modulating the filtration of frequencies, it is possible to control the progressive evolution of a sound. This effect was developed in the 1960s from the simultaneous diffusion of the same message over two tape players and the possibilities of desynchronization that this innovation offered. Flutter Echo A flutter echo is the localized emergence, in the reverberation of a room, of a specific frequency and its harmonics that remains stationary between two parallel and reflecting walls. 300 Fuzz A musical electroacoustic effect that is synonymous with distortion. Fuzz originally referred to the saturation of a tube amplifier that was pushed to its maximum; later the term was also used to refer to devices of the electrophonic chain that make it possible to obtain and control a similar sonic result. The “fuzz pedal” on an electric guitar allows the player to act specifically on the even harmonics of a sound. Haas An effect, described by Helmut Haas in 1950s, that corresponds to a gap in perception between a direct wave and a reflected wave in order of one to thirty milliseconds. We now call this effect artificial reverberation. Harmonization A musical electroacoustic effect. A harmonizer makes it possible to transpose a signal and mixes different pitches created. The chords obtained are often delayed to spatialize each element while making reproduction clearer. Hyperlocalization A perceptive effect linked to the sporadic character of a sound source that irresistibly focalizes the listener’s attention on the location of emission. When the source moves, the listener continues to follow it. This effect is often found in transmission through solids (for example a marble rolling on the floor upstairs). Imitation A semiotic effect referring to a sound emission that is consciously produced according to a style of reference. Imitation implies the use of a cultural code that allows recognition of this style in the sound emission. Imitation is found as structure in the global shape of a sound utterance, and it works in a complex way; Imitation implies a sense of intention on the part of the emitter, and to be appropriately perceived, it also requires the listener’s knowledge of the reference. Imitation is a semiotic effect because it re-represents particularly significant features of the style of reference. This reference is characterized by a remarkable emission style, or a particular use of certain 301 acoustic parameters that allow its recognition and its differentiation from other sources. Physic Al and Applied Acoustics Since the imitation effect is, above all, defined as a semiotic effect, our interest in it focuses principally on sound as a carrier of meaning, a signifier. It is hard to apply acoustic definitions. For instance, researchers encountered difficulties when dealing with speech recognition. It is extremely difficult to physically express what we call “style.” In fact, every acoustic parameter, including rhythm and timbre, can participate in the formation of a particular style of reference. Immersion The dominance of a sonic micromilieu that takes precedence over a distant or secondary perceptive field. While it is possible that the submerged sound element may be heard temporarily, the dominant effect is primarily perceived as positioned above the background sound. Natural contexts offer numerous examples of this effect: listening to snatches of conversation, a song near the sea, or the music of a carousel on a beach. In this specific context, the murmur of the waves creates a permanent setting that gives the impression of containing a primary sonic situation. The urban drone can also create this structure of a permanent framework over which individual sonic activities are superimposed. Incursion The incursion effect refers to an unexpected sound event that modifies the climate of a moment and the behaviour of a listener in a characteristic way. This effect is to time as the intrusion effect is to space. Even with its generalized use, a telephone ring remains an aggressive sound event for many people, not so much because of its timbre, which has softened over time, but because of its unexpected and imperious character: a call not only interrupts the present state, but also dictates new behaviour for a given moment. Intrusion A psychomotor effect linked to territoriality. The inopportune presence of a sound or group of sounds inside a protected territory creates a feeling of violation of that space, particularly when it 302 occurs in the private sphere. In some pathological states, voices and sounds are perceived as illegitimate intrusions in the body. Larsen This effect, refers to the loop established in an electrophonic chain between a microphone and loudspeakers that constantly reinjects the signal over itself. If nothing interrupts this cycle, the speakers may blow out when they are used at a high intensity. Related effect feedback Limitation An electroacoustic effect: a limiter prevents a sound signal from exceeding a specified threshold of intensity, thus reducing its most intense sections and peaks. A limiter is also used to augment the average dynamic of a signal. Related effect compression Lombard The greater the intensity of a sound environment, the greater the level of vigilance, regardless of the intelligibility of the signal. In industry, we have observed an increase in attentiveness linked to an increase in the sound level, even when it reaches or exceeds the legal threshold of 85 dB(A) at which occupational hearing loss may start to appear. Mask The mask (masque) effect refers to the presence of a sound that partially or completely masks another sound because of its intensity or the distribution of its frequencies. This effect, easily demonstrated acoustically, also implies a subjective psychophysiological reaction: the masking sound can be judged as either parasitic or favourable, depending on whether or not the masked sound is perceived as pleasant. Metamorphosis A perceptive effect describing the unstable and changing relations between elements of a sound ensemble. 303 Mixing A compenetration of different and simultaneous sound sources. In everyday life, the mixing effect implies close levels of intensity between the diverse sounds present. Narrowing The narrowing effect refers to a sensation that the space is shrinking, which is felt by an emitter listening to the return of a sent message. Niche An occurrence of a sound emission at the moment that is the most favourable and that offers a particularly well-adapted place for its expression. The niche effect, which merges a sound message and a sound context, is one of the key instruments of sound action, and can operate on any component of sound: intensity, pitch, timbre, rhythm. Noise-Gate A musical electroacoustic effect that involves the establishment of a threshold of intensity, literally a “gate,” below which the signal is automatically cut. The cutting rate of the sound intervenes directly on attack and release, making it possible to retain only the most dynamic impact of a sound. Perdition A semantic effect that might also be called the “dereliction” or “loss.” This effect is linked to a feeling of perdition, in the double sense of a soul in distress and the dissipation of a sound motif. The sound seems to be emitted for nothing, for everyone to hear but requiring no answer. It is a sound without destination, absurd in the etymological sense; its entire expression is simply a sign of powerlessness. Often characteristic of extreme suffering constituted principally of tears and moans, this effect accompanies life situations that are violent or painful. 304 Phase An acoustic effect that desynchronizes the cycles of two simultaneous emissions of a sound signal. Phasing is in fact a de-phasing effect: two cycles that are identical but begin at two different points of their curves, or two cycles that begin together but do not have the same duration. Phonomnesis This effect refers to a sound that is imagined but not actually heard. Phonomnesis (phonomnèse) is a mental activity that involves internal listening: examples include recalling to memory sounds linked to a situation, or creating sound textures in the context of composition. Phonotonie This effect, also called the phonotonic effect, characterizes the feeling of euphoria provoked by a sound perception. Sometimes it induces a behaviour directly, such as a renewed activity, a collective movement, or a reflex gesture. Musical listening often plays this functional role in individual or collective work. Quotation The emergence, in a contemporary context, of a sound fragment for which the semantic reference is confirmed. Contrary to imitation, quotation (citation) is a textual reprise and does not imply distance. It is easily identifiable in musical and verbal contexts, but it can also be observed in the everyday sound environment. This semiotic effect can range from homage to burlesque. The quotation effect will always be accomplished in the scope of a known cultural product; it is conventional and is recognized in a given culture. This excerpt of another expression is accompanied by signs that make it possible to recognize the original source. Rallentando In music, a rallentando (rall.) marking instructs the musician to reduce the speed, or tempo, of the performance. 305 Release Release (traînage) is an acoustic effect that describes the residual duration of a sound, from its cessation until silence or background noise. Remanence A continuation of a sound that is no longer heard. After the extinction of both emission and propagation, the sound gives the impression of remaining “in the ear.” Remanence is neither an anamnesis (sounds heard in the present that evoke the past), nor a phonomnesis (remembered sound without physical listening). Remanence does not involve deep and early memory. It is simply the mnestic trace of barely subsided sound signals. Repetition A reappearance of similar sound occurrences. The repetition effect works on two levels: on one hand, it marks phenomena of automatism involving subjection; on the other hand, it characterizes phenomena of return, reprise, and enrichment by accumulation. Reprise A musical marking indicating the strict repetition of a sound motif (phrase, chorus, air). The reprise may take place either immediately after the exposition of the theme and be quickly repeated, or after one or more developments. The reprise does not imply any modification of the original motif but may be performed by another instrument, or at different octaves. Repulsion A psychomotor effect referring to a sound phenomenon that produces, in an uncontrolled or conscious way, an attitude of rejection and behaviours of flight, whether mental or real. Resonance The resonance effect refers to the vibration, in air or through solids, of a solid element. 306 Reverberation A propagation effect in which a sound continues after the cessation of its emission. Reflections of the sound on surfaces in the surrounding space are added to the direct signal. Sharawadji An aesthetic effect that characterizes the feeling of plenitude that is sometimes created by the contemplation of a sound motif or a complex soundscape of inexplicable beauty. Suspension A semantic compositional effect characterized by the feeling of nonfulfillment of a heard sound sequence: the sound seems to be suspended, awaiting continuation. This effect leaves the listener in a state of uncertainty, indecision, or powerlessness. In its aesthetic dimension, suspension corresponds to the principle of incompletion of a work; in its psychosociological dimension, it refers to waiting. Sound signals and sonic punctuation (jingles) are types of tamed suspensions. Synchronization A psychomotor effect by which the rhythm of appearance of a sound phenomenon determines the beginning of an individual or collective perceptive or motor activity. Synchronization is one of the major forms of chronophony in social life – that is, of punctuation of time by sound. Synecdoche Listening to a complex sound ambience, the synecdoche effect is the ability to valorize one specific element through selection. Selective listening, Tartini The Tartini effect refers to the production of a sound that is physiologically audible, but that has no physical existence. It looks like a sonic hologram. In psychoacoustics, this phenomenon is also sometimes described as “combination tones.” This compositional effect exists under very specific conditions: for instance, it is possible to hear a fundamental frequency reconstituted by the ear based on listening to two or more of its harmonics. 307 Tremolo A fast pulsation characterizing the diffusion of a sustained sound, in the form of multiple repetitions articulated in discontinuous frequencies. Tremolo actually cuts a signal into square signals, whereas vibrato leads it into a sinusoidal movement (frequency continuity). Ubiquity An effect linked to spatio-temporal conditions that expresses the difficulty or impossibility of locating a sound source. In the major variant of this effect, the sound seems to come from everywhere and from nowhere at the same time. Vibrato Vibration that affects a sustained sound. Vibrato consists of a continuous modulation of intensity or pitch allowing one to enrich a sound. The control of vibrato required for the human voice and for string and wind instruments is one of the great characteristics of performance style. Wall A composite effect in which a continuous high intensity sound gives the listener an impression of facing an ensemble of sound materialized in the shape of a wall. Wave A compositional effect describing a sound or a group of sounds that we hear following a curve of intensity, the shape of which is analogous to the shape of a wave and consequent undertow: crescendo, maximal point, fast or progressive rupture of the sound, and decrescendo. Wha-Wha An electroacoustic effect that intervenes in the filtration of a sound and allows successive subtraction or reinforcement of diverse frequencies, notably higher ones. Wobble 308 An electroacoustic effect of analogue tape recorders that characterizes the deformation produced during playback due to an incorrect alignment between the magnetic tape and the playback head. Wow An effect characterizing variations in the pitch of a sound message caused by the irregular rotation of a turntable deck or the maladjusted or broken mechanism of an analogue magnetic tape recorder. 309 APPENDIX 9 Contribution of this Research to Existing Research Methodology and Criticism of Meaning implied in Audio Texts This section discusses the contribution the research would wish to make with regard to methodology and criticism of Oral Literary meaning encompassed in criticism of the voice of the artist, voices in general as audio texts, as perceived in song, theatre, and in film. This is based on the research results and discussions above possibly in order to fill the existing gap that the research had identified based on the second objective of the research as well as the second hypothesis. This is on the observation that Oral Literature methodology appear to grapple with challenges on how meaning implied in oral texts can be collected and analyzed. As Wasamba (2015:195-6) succinctly observes, analysis and interpretation of verbal art especially in Kenya reveals an inadequate engagement with the raw data collected during field work, as well as with the secondary data already published. Wasamba goes on and notes that Data analysis in oral Literature is still struggling with establishment of hybridized tradition that harmonizes the Literary, Linguistic, and social science analytic traditions. The researcher thus agrees totally with Wasamba on the acknowledgement that “a lot still need to be done to address this lacuna (195).” Key Observations on Pitch of a Song and the Effect it has on Meaning Based on the effect the melody / tune of a song has with reference to the Voice of the Artist Pitch can be understood as the highness or lowness of a sound or a voice. It was inferred from the relevance the respondents attached to the songs that the pitch of an artist’s voice aid in setting the mood permeated in a song as implicature. High pitch based in the context of an artist’s vocal range is suitable for conveying happy messages because they are conceived to bear nuances of positive excitement. Low pith on the other hand is suitable for dull, sad, and unhappy messages. However, for the implied meaning to suffice, the duration within which an artist sustains the notes should bring out the implied nuances. In again, must be in correspondence with the musical scale or key in which the artist is singing based on the nature and texture of one’s voice. The implied nuances in the voice is registered in the mind of the listeners within milliseconds. This depends on how fast the listener is able to associate a given style of singing with the expected implicature or implied meaning. That period of perception within which the listener appropriates particular cultural 310 linguistic contexts in order to infer meaning in a voice this research established is key in determining a singer’s voice to have the expected cognitive effect. This research sought to refer to this duration as Predelay. A Predelay in this context is the character a voice must simulate in order to invoke the expected feelings, mood, emotions, and thoughts in the mind of the listener. Consequently, emotions in this regard or the mood the song creates in the listener’s mind define the ostensive communication i.e. ability of the song to communicate the intentions of the artist. For instance, the nuances of mourning and self-pity in this context are noticed in Diamond Platnumz voice in the song “Nikifa Kesho”, The song “Rita” by Marlaw on the other hand is laden with nuances of mourning and the song “Pii Pii” is characterized by a mood of youthful excitements. The style of singing in this context it was noted appropriates a tune or melody that will capture and create the intended mood in the listeners. It was observed that during the song making process, the producer establishes the cadence that best brings out the intended meaning based on the texture of the artist’s voice. The cadence in this context it was observed is made up of the rising and falling of the melody of the song. The picks and troughs of the melody in this regard are determined by the choice of chord progression. The chord progression it was noted defines a phrase and hence functions as a phrasing procedure enunciating a given meaning that can be inferred as cultural nuance from an oral literature perspective and as modality from a linguistic perspective. Most importantly, the researcher observed in addition that the chief source of emotions in the voice depends on the phonotation techniques which an artist appropriates a one’s unique style of singing. The research noted that the emotions encompassed in an artist’s voice, and which are communicated to the audience as ostensions chiefly rely on how an artist resonates one’s voice within three main parts of the nose. These are inferior, mid and superior turbinates. In addition, this depends on how one appropriates the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary sinuses. Although the research established that most listeners identified the implied emotions in an artist’s voice with ease, it was observed that almost none knew the source of the inherent nuances in the voice as well as the meaning they would associate with the implied meaning in the voice. As a result of this observation, it would be sound for future studies and criticism methods of Orature and performed texts such as songs and oral poetry to train learners on listening skills that can help one identify particular nuances in the voice as well as ground learners in criticism practices that 311 can help the learner underpin the purpose and relevance various nuances have on the implied meaning in oral texts. Character Analysis as Themes In the examination of the voice of the artist as a character in the song, the research found that the following questions can be asked in the examination of characters as themes: Why do these people do the things they do? What meanings do they attach to their activities? Why do these people sing the way they sing? What meaning do they attach to their style (s) of singing? Can their styles of singing be said to bear any literary value? Can their styles of singing be studied as literary texts? If yes, how? (sonic Texts). These questions were limited to the Audio text not the musical transcription. Styles of Singing as Music Genres The research found that the following questions can guide in criticism of styles of singings as aesthetic practices: At what point does one manner of singing shift from one generic category into another. How can the generic shifts be underpinned and how can they be described and explained? What is it that characterize a music genre and delineate it from other genres? E.g. Rhythm, Tempo, Harmonics and Relevance the members of a given culture attach. Chord progression as cultural idiophones and cultural onomatopoeia. Explain in details different aspects of performance that characterize the meaning, which is discerned in the voice. To their respective meanings as generic categories. Is it the music that matter or it’s the cultural practitioners and the relevance they attach to their music as cultural activities? Contextual Information That Inform the Inferences and Inferential Process It was in addition observed that contextual information that inform the inferences and inferential process ought to define the criticism procedure of analyzing literary meaning implied in voices. It was found that during performance the shape of the Lips – control the mood. It was found that during performance the nose- controls the harmonics that carry emotions encompassed in the voice 312 of the artist. It was found that during performance the Pitch Designates Gender and the character simulated by the voice of the artist. It was found that during performance the message of the song is key in determining how the artist appropriates the voice in order to bring the expected meaning to bear. Bass Tenor Alto Soprano Stylistic Features Expressed in Lexical Choices in Bongo Flava Bear Literary Meaning Which Is Implied in the Use of Figures of Speech Stylistic features expressed in lexical choices in Bongo Flava bear Literary meaning which is implied in the use of figures of speech. The voice of the artist implies audio stylistic features that bear thematic relevance in Bongo Flava music. The manner of word utterance in this regard is sensitive to cultural values and expectations of the nuanced meaning an artist expects to convey. Consequently, singers imply a variety of thematic concerns as a result of their oral artistic techniques- as speech practices. The tune in Bongo Flava songs bear meaning that reflect ideological and social cultural perspectives of the artist, and others and the larger society. Steps That Can Be Used To Repeat This Research/Experiment Using Other Music Genres and Songs Notably, this research can be repeated by following the following procedure or by asking the following questions: What is the main message expressed in the lyrics? How have these words been uttered? What is the effect of their manner rendition? What is the effect of their harmonies? What is the effect of their pitch? What Sonic Effect do their mood create? How the implied message is interpreted based on the ensuing context? Why have they been uttered in that manner? What can we discover about manner of voice as literary discourse? What/ who do they reveal about the speaker? What and why do they reveal about the persona? What and why do they reveal about other characters? What and why do they reveal about this society? What and why do they reveal 313 about human relations about the community or culture? What conclusions can we draw based on responses above? What recommendations can we make in this regard? Stages of Data Collection, Organization and Analysis For purposes of future researches, the research noted that the following steps can guide future researches when carrying out researches of voice of the artist a) Field work b) Data collection c) Date coding d) Data sorting e) Data organization based on emerging categories as THEMES f) Results g) Discussion h) Findings i) Conclusions j) Recommendations Observation on Data Coding This research observed that Oral Literature data can be coded for but not limited to: a) Stylistic devices b) Aural stylistic effects as devices c) Cultural Expectations d) Cultural Meanings e) Assumptions f) Explicature & Implicature g) Expectations of the speaker h) The following technique can be used when coding for different concerns a. The descriptive narratives of the field notes will be in regular font. Which the b. Quotations of the respondents will be in bold, and c. The Observations made by the researcher in italics. d. Major motifs / key features in CAPS 314 Steps to Follow After Coding This research observed that the following steps can be followed to organize data after data coding: a) Establish categories b) Classify c) Establish concepts d) Contextualise purpose based on intentions & expectations e) See connections based on context f) Identify emerging motifs g) Infer relevance (meaning) based on emerging motifs h) Identify emerging patterns i) Base interpretation on emerging motifs j) Look for regularity k) Underpin possible social influence on meaning l) Note: Meaning is context dependent. m) Voice as explicature is always dependent on cultural relevance n) Context is the basis of the implied meaning. Levels/Steps of Examining the Meaning Implied in the Voice Based on Manner of Utterance After data has been coded and categorized, the following steps it was observed can aid in the inference and meaning making process: 1. Identify the voice under examination 2. Focus on a word, phrase or line and the intended meaning. 3. Pay attention to the manner of utterance based on the effect they have on the listener and what they reveal about the speaker 315 4. Use adjectives to describe the effect so as to contextualize the intended meaning the listener is expected to infer. 5. Identify a sonic term that can best be used to describe the effect resulting from the voice. 6. Justify or argue for the purpose of why the speaker may have used this mode of utterance. Argue for the role culture and society may have plated in determining and influencing the speaker to use this manner of voice Summary of application of relevance Theory in Criticism of Voice as a Style in Song as an Oral Performance Style in Song As an Oral Performance Can Be Examined By Following the Following Steps a) Examine the shared knowledge i.e. voice as an implicature intended to convey nuanced meaning. b) Encyclopedia entries. Identify probable images, symbolic metaphors etc. that are suggested or implied, which can be inferred from the voice. c) Examine the cognitive process that characterize inferential process. d) Account for the cognitive effect the voice has on the audience, based on cultural role in influencing implied mood, attitude, encompassed in tone, pitch and intonations. In this context tone, pitch and intonation are treated as semantic triggers, while mood and attitude are semantic consequents. Summary of Steps through Which the Brain Attaches Meaning In Audio Texts Voice 2. Listening 3. Brain process (cognitive process) 4. Semantic Association based on the linguistic and cultural knowledge of the listener 5. Cognitive Effect (discernment of meaning) Interpretation of implied Relevance based on context. Sonic Features as Style After using adjectives to describe the effect the voice has on the listener by focusing on words, phrase and line, one can examine the implied suggested meaning that result from the effect the manner of voice usage has on the listeners- as Ostensive communication. Then identify a term in 316 the sonic terms/texts in everyday experience. Account for why (purpose) the voice (speaker) expected to achieve by eliciting the effect the voice has on the listener. Filtration Process When listening to a song and consequently inferring meaning from the song. The diagram below is a semblance of the process through which meaning is created. This process can be said to comprise the following stages; perception of concept, identifying with language bearing expected meaning, identification with mood/melody (Tune) bearing implied meaning encompassed in voice, identifying with sonic effects responsible of a given meaning implied in the feeling the song has on the listener, and lastly cognitive Effect i.e. phonic text implied in voice as style evidenced in the implied context and manner of utterance. 317 APPENDICIES 10 MP3 VERSSION OF THE THREE MAIN SONGS 318 Meaning meaning encompassed in Relevance Based on Cognitive Effect. I.e. the based on: stylistic use of the knowledge that words that define the cultural emerge as a meanings the artist result of how and the audiences the listener can decode and make inferences encode in the song Sonic Effect Meaning based on cultural manner of present in encompassed in contexts expression. the voice of stylistic use of determining manner the voice as of expression and word articulation. Filtering process Voice as of the meaning informative implied in the text meaning the voice of the artist Artist’s Voice / Resulting Language Audience listener based on cultural attaches to the context voice of the Lexical message and artist and the Tune & message in the Message lyrics based on Filtering process Voice as of the meaning ostensive implied in the communication lexical message (Audio based on cultural Aesthetic context Texts) the artist Evidenced in the effects the song has on the listener. e.g. phonotanie, Anamnesis. 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330