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J Reconstr Microsurg. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 May 02.
Published in final edited form as:
J Reconstr Microsurg. 2013 May ; 29(4): 213–222. doi:10.1055/s-0032-1329921.
Perioperative Interventions to Reduce Chronic Postsurgical Pain
Ian Carroll, MD, MS1, Jennifer Hah, MD1, Sean Mackey, MD, PhD1, Einar Ottestad, MD1,
Jiang Ti Kong, MD1, Sam Lahidji, MD1, Vivianne Tawfik, MD, PhD1, Jarred Younger, PhD1,
and Catherine Curtin, MD2
1
Department of Anesthesiology, Division of Pain Management, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo
Alto, California
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2
Department of Plastic Surgery, Stanford School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California
Abstract
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Approximately 10% of patients following a variety of surgeries develop chronic postsurgical pain.
Reducing chronic postoperative pain is especially important to reconstructive surgeons because
common operations such as breast and limb reconstruction have even higher risk for developing
chronic postsurgical pain. Animal studies of posttraumatic nerve injury pain demonstrate that there
is a critical time frame before and immediately after nerve injury in which specific interventions
can reduce the incidence and intensity of chronic neuropathic pain behaviors–so called
“preventative analgesia.” In animal models, perineural local anesthetic, systemic intravenous local
anesthetic, perineural clonidine, systemic gabapentin, systemic tricyclic antidepressants, and
minocycline have each been shown to reduce pain behaviors days to weeks after treatment. The
translation of this work to humans also suggests that brief perioperative interventions may protect
patients from developing new chronic postsurgical pain. Recent clinical trial data show that there
is an opportunity during the perioperative period to dramatically reduce the incidence and severity
of chronic postsurgical pain. The surgeon, working with the anesthesiologist, has the ability to
modify both early and chronic postoperative pain by implementing an evidence-based preventative
analgesia plan.
Keywords
pain; neuropathic pain; preventative analgesia
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Chronic postoperative surgical pain presents a continuing clinical problem. Approximately
10% of patients following a variety of surgeries develop chronic postsurgical pain.1 Recent
clinical trial data show that there is an opportunity during the perioperative period to
dramatically reduce the incidence and severity of chronic postsurgical pain. The fact that
perioperative medical management can reduce chronic pain is of keen interest to surgeons,
as every incision damages nerves and risks the development of chronic pain. Mitigating
postoperative pain is especially important to reconstructive surgeons because common
operations such as breast and limb reconstruction have increased risk for developing chronic
Address for correspondence Ian Carroll MD, MS (EPI), Department of Anesthesiology, Stanford University, 780 Welch Road, Suite
208, Palo Alto, CA 94304 (irc39@pain.stanford.edu)..
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postsurgical pain.2–4 The surgeon, working with the anesthesiologist, has the ability to
modify the early and chronic postoperative pain experience by implementing an evidencebased program that employs the concept of “preventative analgesia.”
Chronic pain following nerve injury has been extensively studied using animal models.
These studies have found that there is a critical time frame before and immediately after
nerve injury in which specific interventions can reduce the incidence and intensity of chronic
neuropathic pain behaviors–so called “preventative analgesia.” In animal models, perineural
local anesthetic,5 systemic intravenous local anesthetic,6 perineural clonidine,7 systemic
gabapentin,8 systemic tricyclic antidepressants,9 and minocycline10,11 have each been shown
to reduce pain behaviors days to weeks after treatment. The translation of this work to
humans also suggests that brief perioperative interventions may protect patients from
developing new chronic postsurgical pain.
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The core issues for surgeons to understand regarding the occurrence of new chronic
postsurgical pain are:
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1.
Chronic postsurgical pain is most often not a failure of surgical technique but a
function of good biology gone bad.
2.
Despite the truth of the first point, the surgeon has several efficacious interventions
to reduce chronic postsurgical pain.
3.
Perioperatively there is a critical window of time to intervene to reduce chronic
postsurgical pain.
4.
Preventing postsurgical chronic pain is the responsibility of the surgeon. It is the
surgeon who sees the patient before surgery and who has the opportunity to initiate
preoperative medications to reduce chronic postsurgical pain, and it is the surgeon
who will initially manage the patient’s medications postoperatively.
5.
One common thread has emerged in studies examining chronic postsurgical pain;
severe pain immediately postop increases the risk of chronic pain. This may be
mediated by the long-term sensitization of pain-carrying neurons by brief periods
of high-intensity pain.
The remainder of this paper will provide information on their effectiveness at reducing
postsurgical chronic pain in humans (▶Table 1).
Gabapentinoids
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Gabapentinoids (gabapentin and pregabalin) are anticonvulsant medications that may reduce
acute and chronic pain after surgery.2 Both drugs bind to a subunit of voltagegated calcium
channels thought to participate in evoked neurotransmitter release in pain-carrying neurons.
In addition, these drugs may also increase spinal descending inhibitory noradrenergic signals
that decrease pain transmission in the dorsal spinal cord. There have been many clinical
trials of perioperative gabapentin to reduce pain after surgery. Gabapentinoids reduce opioid
consumption and postoperative pain scores by as much as 50%.12–15 Long-term benefits of
the perioperative gabapentinoids are less established, but there are sufficient data to warrant
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their use in populations at high risk for chronic postoperative pain, including patients in
whom nerves are deliberately being cut, manipulated, or repaired.
Perioperative Gabapentin: Effect on Chronic Pain
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The studies assessing the effect of perioperative gabapentin on persistent postsurgical pain
have been limited by small sample size, limited follow-up, and widely varying regimens. As
of February 2012, the authors identified 12 distinct clinical trials examining the effect of
perioperative gabapentin on pain at least 1 month after surgery (▶Table 2). Eight of these
trials demonstrated at least somewhat positive results. The best results were in studies with
higher doses of preoperative gabapentin (1,200 to 1,800 mg), which demonstrated a reduced
incidence of persistent pain and generally lower pain scores in those with pain.16–19 Two
studies administered lower doses of gabapentin (300 to 400 mg) preoperatively and noted a
reduced incidence of burning pain 3 to 6 months after surgery without reducing overall pain
scores.16,17 The four trials that failed to identify any positive benefit in long-term pain with
gabapentin were all underpowered.18–21 In sum, the existing studies suggest that higher
preoperative and additional postoperative doses may be more likely to reduce the
development of chronic postsurgical pain. Larger studies with improved patient retention are
needed to define the optimal dosing and duration of perioperative gabapentin treatment.
Perioperative Pregabalin: Effect on Chronic Pain
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Pregabalin is a newer gabapentinoid. As of February 2012, only three studies assessed longterm effects of pregabalin on postsurgical pain.22–24 Of these, two studies identified a
significant benefit to using pregabalin,25,26 and one failed to find any effect.27 The studies
that found long-term benefit to pregabalin administered 300 mg of preoperative pregabalin
and gave at least two postoperative doses. The best-powered study was conducted by
Buvanendran et al, who randomized 240 people to receive either placebo or pregabalin 300
mg preoperatively and 150 mg twice a day for the first 10 days after total knee replacement,
then tapering to 50 mg twice a day before stopping on postop day 14. Range of motion was
improved in the pregabalin group at 30 days after surgery, and the incidence of chronic
postsurgical neuropathic pain was reduced in the pregabalin group (0%) compared with the
placebo group (8.7% and 5.2% at 3 months and 6 months respectively; p ¼ 0.001 and p ¼
0.014).25
Optimal Dosing Strategies for Perioperative Gabapentinoids
Issues of Timing
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It is unclear whether or not gabapentinoids are more effective when administered
preoperatively versus postoperatively. Some studies28–30 have found no or little difference
between the dosing strategies in reducing postoperative pain. In one exception, it was found
that individuals administered gabapentin postoperatively used significantly less patientcontrolled analgesia (PCA) morphine than those given preoperative gabapentin. However,
most studies using preoperative gabapentinoids administered the drugs between 1 and 2
hours prior to surgery (likely based on peak plasma level data). However, because
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) peak levels may occur much later,31 future studies may need to
employ an earlier dosing to observe the full benefits of preoperative administration.
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Issues of Medication Quantity
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Several studies have examined the optimal dosage of preoperative gabapentinoids for
preventing early postoperative pain and reducing opioid use.29,32,33 These studies generally
indicate that higher dosages of gabapentin (900 mg or more) are more effective than lower
dosages (600 mg or less). Larger dosages of pregabalin (300 mg or larger) have also been
found to be more effective than lower dosages.22,23 Based on the available literature, we
recommend the following for patients at risk of severe postoperative acute pain or chronic
pain: (1) giving gabapentin 1,200 mg or pregabalin 300 mg at least 2 hours prior to surgery
and (2) continuing postoperatively for 14 days with pregabalin 150 mg twice a day or
gabapentin 400 to 600 mg three times a day. Postoperative gabapentinoids should be
decreased or stopped for postoperative sedation, dizziness, or confusion. Further definition
of uncommon side effects, and the optimal preoperative dose, postoperative dose, and timing
of doses is needed before perioperative gabapentinoids can be recommended as the standard
of care for all patients.
Perioperative Ketamine
Ketamine is a noncompetitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor antagonist,
which has been used as a general anesthetic and short-acting analgesic.24,28,29 The NMDA
receptor plays a key role in activating and sensitizing pain-carrying neurons in the dorsal
horn of the spinal cord. NMDA receptor–dependent changes may participate in making
pain-carrying neurons permanently hyperexcitable, contributing to chronic pain. When given
at the time of injury, ketamine may decrease pain by blocking the NMDA pathway.24,28,29
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The question of the long-term benefits of perioperative ketamine on long-term pain is
unclear.18,34–43 A study of rectal carcinoma resections found that higher-dose perioperative
intravenous ketamine reduced the incidence of persistent pain at 2 weeks, 1 month, and 6
months following surgery.30 Perioperative ketamine improved rehabilitation after total hip
surgery 1 month after surgery and decreased the prevalence of postoperative chronic pain 6
months after surgery. Another study showed perioperative ketamine in chronic opioid–
consuming patients reduced average pain intensity 6 weeks after surgery.44 This study
suggests that intraoperative ketamine may reduce chronic pain in chronic opioid users, who
can present a challenge for postoperative pain control.
There is some evidence that dosing of ketamine is important. A large study of microdosing
of ketamine in the PCA did not effect either acute or chronic pain.32 Whereas other studies
with higher doses of ketamine added to morphine PCA found improved pain control with
fewer opioid-related side effects.33,45
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In summary, low-dose perioperative ketamine results in improved immediate postoperative
analgesia and opioid-sparing effects. Furthermore, this intervention is one of the few
evidence-based ways for improving pain control in chronic opioid–consuming patients. The
available data suggest that subanesthetic intravenous (IV) ketamine given intraoperatively
may reduce the incidence of chronic post-surgical pain. A note of caution is indicated from a
recent study of 100-hour ketamine infusions for pain relief in complex regional pain
syndrome (CRPS), which was discontinued prematurely due to the development of possible
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drug-induced liver injury in two patients and liver injury of unclear etiology in a third
patient.46
Perioperative Antidepressants
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The dorsolateral funiculus of the spinal cord carries descending noradrenergic inhibitory
signals from the brain to pain synapses in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. The brain
therefore is constantly modulating the amount of pain an organism can feel. These
descending signals are thought to be responsible for the reports from many trauma victims
that their wounds are often not felt to be painful during the initial life-threatening phase of
injury but are only felt as painful at later time points (e.g., President Reagan reported
believing he had not been shot and felt no pain immediately following his attempted
assassination). Tricyclic antidepressants, venlafaxine (Effexor, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals Inc.),
and duloxetine (Cymbalta, Eli Lilly, Indianapolis, IN) increase synaptic availability of
norepinephrine and, to varying degrees, of serotonin by inhibiting reuptake of these
neurotransmitters. These drugs thereby augment descending noradrenergic inhibitory signals
from the brain that reduce pain transmission in the spinal cord.
Tricyclic Antidepressants
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Among antidepressants, tricyclic antidepressants have been most examined in the
perioperative environment but have been examined only with regard to their effect on acute
pain and opioid use—not their effect on chronic pain. This limitation is important, because
animal studies suggest that perioperative amitriptyline has a long-term protective effect on
pain following nerve injury.9 Human data have been mixed. Antidepressants that more
potently inhibit serotonin reuptake (amitriptyline and fluoxetine) have resulted in more pain
or diminished response to opioids early after surgery.47,48 In contrast, perioperative
desipramine (a more potent reuptake inhibitor of norepinephrine) appears to significantly
improve the efficacy of opioid analgesia.34,35,49 In summary, the effect of tricyclic
antidepressants on chronic postoperative pain has not been examined in humans. In the
immediate postoperative time frame, perioperative desipramine seems to enhance analgesia,
but perioperative fluoxetine and amitriptyline appear to augment pain on postoperative day
one and two. Therefore, perioperative tricyclic antidepressants cannot be recommended at
this time.
Venlafaxine and Duloxetine
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In one study, 150 patients scheduled for either partial or radical mastectomy with axillary
dissection were randomized to receive either venlafaxine 37.5 mg, gabapentin 300 mg, or
placebo for 10 days starting the night before surgery. At 6 months, venlafaxine reduced pain
scores with movement by nearly 50% compared with both placebo and gabapentin (p <
0.0001). Opioid analgesic use was also significantly decreased by venlafaxine compared
with both placebo and gabapentin. Although the dose of gabapentin used in this study (300
mg/day) was quite low compared with other studies of perioperative gabapentin use, the
dose of venlafaxine used was also quite low.16 We were only able to identify one study of
perioperative duloxetine examining whether it prevents chronic pain following surgery as of
February 2012.36 In this small, underpowered study, at 3 and 6 months following surgery
there were nonsignificant trends toward diminished pain and diminished abnormal
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sensations among the patients who received duloxetine. Further studies of antidepressants
with significant norepinephrine reuptake inhibition should be done, including comparison of
venlafaxine and duloxetine. Until then, based on the currently available evidence,
venlafaxine 37.5 mg should be considered to be started the day before surgery and continued
for 10 to 14 days in patients at high risk of developing chronic postsurgical pain.
Epidural and Intrathecal Local Anesthetics
Several studies have highlighted a role for epidural or spinal local anesthetics in improving
acute postoperative pain control, but the long-term effect of these interventions on the
development of chronic postsurgical pain remains controversial.
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There have been attempts to study the role of regional anesthesia in blocking the progression
of acute to chronic pain. Kairaluoma et al37 compared preoperative placement of a
paravertebral block with 0.5% bupivacaine versus a sham block in patients undergoing
breast surgery and found the block group experienced improved pain acutely and on followup at 1, 6, and 12 months.38
The prevalence of postthoracotomy pain is reported to be as high as 80% at 3 months.39 In a
trial of 70 patients undergoing thoracic surgery, initiation of a continuous epidural block
with mepivacaine prior to surgical incision was associated with decreased pain at 3 and 6
months when compared with epidural analgesia performed after the completion of surgery.40
Other studies have supported the findings that preoperative block reduced chronic pain.50,51
Taken together, these studies highlight the potential role of epidural analgesia to both reduce
severe postoperative pain and perhaps more importantly prevent the subsequent development
of chronic pain.
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Vitamin C
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Vitamin C is a free radical scavenger that has decreased tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF α)
and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in experimental models of inflammation. Zollinger et al first
reported that 500 mg of vitamin C for 50 days was superior to placebo in preventing the
occurrence of complex regional pain syndrome following wrist fracture.41 They
subsequently found that 500 mg per day and 1,500 mg per day dosing were superior to lower
doses42,43 Besse et al52 reported the results of a quasi-experimental study of perioperative
vitamin C in cohorts of patients undergoing foot and ankle surgery. Before the use of
vitamin C, 9.6% of cases developed CRPS compared with 1.7% of patients developing
CRPS following the institution of perioperative vitamin C. In summary, only three studies
have examined the potential impact of vitamin C on the development of complex regional
pain syndrome. However two of these were placebo-controlled, blinded, and randomized
trials of high methodological quality. In all three studies vitamin C reduced the risk of
developing chronic pain and CRPS. There appeared to be a dose-response relationship, with
500 mg of vitamin C per day appearing to be sufficient. Although this work clearly has to be
repeated by other authors and in other settings, and particularly with controlled trials in the
perioperative setting, the potential benefit when weighed against the known safety of
vitamin C at this dose argues for including vitamin C in a perioperative treatment plan.
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Clonidine
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Clonidine is an α-2 adrenergic receptor agonist that has several pathways by which it may
reduce pain.53–60 It has both central and peripheral actions, which leads to analgesia
following diverse routes of administration.61–64 Spinal (intrathecal and epidural) clonidine
appears to be more effective with fewer hypotensive side effects than intravenous clonidine.
When given in combination with either local anesthetic or opioid, spinal clonidine reduces
early pain and postoperative opioid requirements, and it also prolongs the time needed until
first rescue analgesic.62,63,65
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Several studies have examined the effect of perioperative clonidine on long-term pain. In a
small, nonrandomized, nonblinded study of patients undergoing lower limb amputation,
stump pain and phantom pain were dramatically reduced at both 6 months and 1 year in the
group receiving epidural bupivacaine, clonidine, and diamorphine,50 Lavand’-homme et al
studied patients undergoing colon resection. Continuous infusion of analgesics belonging to
the same class (including clonidine) was administered by either intravenous or epidural route
before incision until 72 hours after surgery. They found that patients who received epidural
analgesia including clonidine versus intravenous administration of clonidine at any time
point (during or after surgery) demonstrated markedly less need for supplemental analgesics;
reduced skin surface area that was hyperalgesic, and reduced pain at both 6 months and 1
year following surgery.51 These results suggest that (1) multimodal epidural analgesia
including epidural clonidine reduces postoperative pain, hyperalgesia, and residual pain, and
(2) multimodal epidural analgesia is more effective when started intraoperatively rather than
postoperatively.
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Another study randomized 60 patients undergoing a right colon resection to receive 300 μg
of clonidine, 10 mg of bupivacaine, or saline intrathecally prior to surgery.66 Intrathecal
clonidine significantly reduced PCA morphine use compared with both intrathecal
bupivacaine and saline, and no patients in the intrathecal clonidine group experienced
residual pain 6 months following surgery compared with six patients in the group that had
received intrathecal saline (p < 0.05). It should be noted that intrathecal clonidine (300 μg)
has been associated in other studies with a higher rate of postoperative sedation, and adverse
hemodynamic changes. Using bispectral index monitoring to ensure the correct depth of
anesthetic may help anesthesiologists prevent intraoperative and postoperative hypotension
in those patients who had received clonidine.
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In summary, three small prospective studies indicate that clonidine perioperatively may help
prevent chronic pain following surgery. Spinal administration of clonidine appears to be
more effective than systemic administration of clonidine and appears to be more effective
when accomplished prior to incision rather than postoperatively.
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Perioperative Interventions with Evidence for Reducing Acute Pain, but of
Unknown Efficacy in Reducing the Progression from Acute to Chronic Pain
NSAIDs
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Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) possess anti-inflammatory and analgesic
properties that inhibit spinal and peripheral cyclooxygenase (COX-1 and COX-2) enzymes
needed for the production of prostaglandins.67 NSAIDs are useful adjuncts in multimodal
analgesia and a Cochrane review demonstrates efficacy among NSAIDs when given even as
a single-dose for reducing acute postsurgical pain.68,69 Moreover, meta-analyses
demonstrate that NSAIDs not only reduce postoperative pain scores but also reduce opioid
consumption and show that when they are given in conjunction with opioids, they reduce
postop pain, nausea, vomiting, and sedation.70–73 COX-2 inhibitors appear to be equally
effective as nonselective NSAIDs.74 Meta-analyses of COX-2 inhibitors demonstrate more
effective acute postoperative analgesia than placebo with no increase in adverse events.75–77
Preventative effects of NSAIDS on the progression of acute to chronic pain have not been
well studied. In a randomized controlled trial of patients undergoing total knee replacement,
celecoxib demonstrated 30% lower pain scores during the first 4 weeks after surgery and
lower morphine consumption after surgery, but no effect was seen on pain or subjective
outcome at 1-year follow-up.78 A well done highly powered study randomized 902 patients
who had undergone hip replacement to receive placebo or 400 mg of ibuprofen three times a
day starting within 24 hours of completing surgery and continuing for 14 days. No
significant differences in chronic pain were observed 6 and 12 months after surgery.79
Perioperative nonsteroidal NSAID has also failed to demonstrate a reduction in the
incidence of postmastectomy pain syndrome in one small trial of 30 patients at 12 months.80
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In summary, there are good data that both nonselective NSAIDs and COX-2 inhibitors
reduce pain in the immediate postoperative period. However, the available data indicate that
any protective effect of postoperative ibuprofen for preventing chronic pain is clinically
insignificant if it exists at all.
Acetaminophen
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Acetaminophen is a commonly used nonopioid analgesic. Its mechanism of action remains
unclear, though it may inhibit central cyclooxygenase transcription.67,81 Oral acetaminophen
provides effective analgesia for acute postoperative pain and reduces opioid
requirements.72,82,83 For acute pain, combining acetaminophen with NSAIDs is considered
more effective than acetaminophen alone.84 However, evidence for prevention of
postsurgical chronic pain is lacking.
Glucocorticoids
Glucocorticoids are routinely administered perioperatively for their antiemetic effects,85 but
they also have important analgesic effects. They reduce proinflammatory cytokines and
increase anti-inflammatory cytokines. This may reduce the development and maintenance of
central sensitization and neuropathic pain associated with nerve injury.86
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Increasing evidence suggests glucocorticoid administration may augment acute pain relief
following minor and ambulatory surgical procedures.87–89 Of particular interest is the
suggestion that dexamethasone may also have an additive effect when used in combination
with a gabapentinoid.90
Examination of the effects of perioperative single-dose dexamethasone on acute
postoperative pain and opioid consumption were recently reviewed. Analgesic benefit was
observed in even low-dose dexamethasone. This group concluded that dexamethasone, at
doses > 0.1 mg/kg, is an effective adjunct in acute postoperative pain relief,91 and it does not
increase complications such as wound infection.
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In summary, glucocorticoids appear to have a significant role in reducing acute pain and
opioid use immediately following surgery. However, at this point, data are lacking to support
the use of perioperative glucocorticoids to prevent the progression from acute to chronic
pain.
Systemic Lidocaine
Lidocaine is a sodium channel blocker and local anesthetic.92 Intravenous lidocaine given
intraoperatively reduces immediate postoperative pain. A recent meta-analysis of 29
randomized controlled trials of IV lidocaine infusions during general anesthesia showed
significantly reduced pain at rest and at 6 and 12 hours after surgery. Also, IV lidocaine
reduced postoperative opioids, time to first flatus/feces, nausea/vomiting, and hospital length
of stay. Although incidence of cardiac and neurologic events was comparable, 8 of 12
studies reported toxic plasma levels of lidocaine.93
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Abdominal surgery was strongly associated with benefit from IV lidocaine.94 A study of
elective surgery for colon resection patients randomized thoracic lidocaine epidural
analgesia and IV saline, or an equivalent amount of lidocaine intravenously and epidural
saline, or IV and epidural saline. Thoracic epidural analgesia with lidocaine resulted in the
most pain relief but the IV lidocaine was more effective than placebo.95 thus IV lidocaine is
a good alternative in patients unable or unwilling to receive an epidural catheter.
In summary, perioperative IV lidocaine appears effective in certain patient populations to
reduce immediate postoperative pain and opioid requirements. Specifically, patients
undergoing major abdominal procedures appear to receive the greatest benefit. Epidural
lidocaine appears to be superior to intravenous lidocaine, but both are better than placebo.
However, there do not appear to be any studies testing whether intravenous lidocaine reduces
the likelihood of chronic postsurgical pain.
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Topical Interventions
EMLA cream has shown some promise as an adjunct treatment for perioperative pain. In one
trial of preoperative EMLA cream to prevent postoperative pain following breast surgery,
EMLA cream did not reduce acute pain during the first 24 hours following surgery. However
analgesic consumption during the second through fifth days following surgery was less in
the EMLA cream group. Three months after surgery, EMLA reduced the incidence of
chronic pain by 50% (p < 0.002).96
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Wound infiltration with anesthetic also has also been reported to reduce chronic postsurgical
pain. A trial of craniotomy patients randomized to wound infiltration with 0.75%
ropivacaine or to not have wound infiltration found that the ropivacaine group had reduced
pain acutely, and dramatically reduced the prevalence of persistent pain 2 months
postprocedure.97 A similar small study of the application of bupivacaine to iliac crest donor
site indicated that local anesthetic infiltration in addition to morphine at the graph site
reduced long-term pain 12 weeks following surgery.98 This data suggests that wound
infiltration with anesthetic may reduce chronic postoperative pain and is concordant with rat
studies suggesting local anesthetic application to acute injured nerves has long term
benefits.5
Conclusions
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Many animal and human studies now suggest that preventing chronic postsurgical pain is
within our grasp. A fundamental problem in the human clinical trials defining effective
interventions to prevent chronic postsurgical pain is that only a minority of patients from
even the most painful surgeries progress to develop chronic pain. As a result, to be
adequately powered to reliably show a statistically significant difference in the rates of
chronic postsurgical pain (or conversely to be convincing that a given intervention does not
work) clinical trials in this area need to go from having tens of patients per trial arm to
having hundreds (or thousands) of patients per trial arm. It is truly time to see the advent of
multicenter clinical trials sponsored by the National Institutes of Health to address this major
public health concern. These trials should aim to address proof of concept first, and then go
on to define optimal doses, durations of treatment, and optimal timing of initiating
individual treatments. Future work can then begin to address optimal combinations of
treatments, and develop a framework for personalizing these combinations to a given patient
and a given surgery.
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Table 1
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Summary of recommendations for reducing the risk of chronic postsurgical pain
1) Give a gabapentinoid
Gabapentin (Pfizer, Vega Baja, PR; Neurontin) 1,200 mg 2 hours pre-incision; 400–600 mg three times a day for 14 days
postoperatively.
Or
Pregabalin (Lyrica; Pfizer; capsules, Vega Baja, PR; oral solution; Kalamazoo, MI) 300 mg 2 hours pre-incision; 150 mg twice a day
for 14 days following surgery.
If not given before surgery, begin immediately postoperatively or after incision via a nasogastric tube intraoperatively. Lower
doses appear to be helpful, but less than the doses recommended here.
2) Ketamine
Pre-incision intravenous bolus 0.5 mg/kg followed by intravenous infusion 0.25 mg/kg /hour. This intervention should not be done
for patients with known liver disease or with significant risk factors for liver disease (e.g., alcoholism).
3) Make it numb
Author Manuscript
Initiate regional anesthesia with a regional block or an epidural before incision.
Or
Infiltrate ropivacaine 0.75% 20 mL in the wound (n.b., if given in conjunction with a regional block using conventional dosages or
accidentally injected intravenously, this ropivacaine dose is sufficient to induce severe local anesthetic toxicity).
Or
Apply 20 g of EMLA (eutectic mixture of local anesthetics) cream around the site of the wound preoperatively 5 minutes before
surgery and daily for the first 4 days following surgery.
4) Give venlafaxine (Effexor XR, Wyeth Pharmaceuticals Inc., Philadelphia, PA)
37.5 mg of extended-release venlafaxine starting the day before surgery and continuing for 10 to 14 days following surgery
(n.b., this may not be appropriate in patients already taking other antidepressants).
5) Vitamin C
500 to 1,000 mg for 50 days following surgery, based on known safety and efficacy in preventing complex regional pain syndrome
following wrist fracture and foot and ankle surgery.
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Table 2
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The effectiveness of perioperative gabapentin for chronic pain
Positive Studies
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Surgery type
Patients
Most remote
follow-up
Positive findings
Negative findings
Abdominal hysterectomy99
25
1 month
Gabapentin reduced incidence
of pain 1 month after surgery.
Did not identify a statistically
significant decrease in
immediate postoperative pain
Inguinal herniorrhaphy100
30
6 months
Gabapentin reduced pain
scores at 1, 3, and 6 months
after surgery. The number of
patients with daily activity
adversely affected by pain was
lower in the gabapentin group
at 1 month.
The number of patients whose
daily activities were adversely
affected by pain was similar
between groups at 3 months
and 6 months
Abdominal hysterectomy101
20
6 months
Gabapentin reduced pain
scores, pain impact, and
incidence of pain at 1, 3, and
6 months.
Pain impact on activities of
daily living was not
significantly different at
6 months
Thyroidectomy102
23
6 months
Gabapentin reduced total pain
score and the incidence of
more intense pain at 6 months.
Nonsignificant trend toward
decreased burning sensation
and numbness in the
gabapentin group.
Mastectomy16
50
6 months
At 6 months gabapentin
reduced the incidence of
burning pain.
Gabapentin did not reduce
global pain severity and opioid
use at 6 months.
Breast cancer surgery17**
22
3 months
Gabapentin and mexiletine
each reduced the incidence of
burning pain at 3 months.
Gabapentin did not reduce the
incidence of chronic pain, or
patients requiring analgesics at
3 months.
Breast cancer surgery103**
20
6 months
Gabapentin reduced the
incidence of chronic pain and
analgesic use at 3 months.
Gabapentin did not reduce the
incidence of chronic pain, and
analgesic use at 6 months.
Abdominal hysterectomy104
27
1 month
Gabapentin reduced the
incidence of pain at 1 month.
Gabapentin did not reduce the
incidence of analgesic use at
1 month.
Surgery type
Patients*
Most remote
follow-up
Positive findings
Negative findings
Coronary artery bypass graft
surgery18
20
3 months
Gabapentin reduced pain
intensity immediately after
surgery
Gabapentin did not reduce
pain intensity at 1 month and
3 months.
Total hip arthroplasty19
28
6 months
None
Gabapentin did not reduce
pain at any time point (one
third of patients lost to remote
follow-up).
Cesarean delivery20
16
3 months
Gabapentin improved acute
but not chronic pain.
Gabapentin failed to reduce
persistent pain, or median pain
scores at 3 months.
Lower limb amputation21
15
6 months
None
Gabapentin failed to reduce
the incidence and intensity of
pain at 6 months.
Negative Studies
*
Indicates the number of gabapentin patients per group available for most remote follow-up.
**
Modified radical mastectomy or lumpectomy with axillary lymph node dissection.
J Reconstr Microsurg. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2016 May 02.