Reconceptualising Lesson Study as Knowledge Management

Chapter 2 Reconceptualising Lesson Study as Knowledge Management Abstract This chapter articulates the knowledge creation process of Lesson Study from the perspective of knowledge management (KM). It begins by explaining the concepts of knowledge management in the school context, including KM initiatives, the nature of knowledge and knowledge strategies. It then goes on to describe the role of communities of practice in creating and managing knowledge in Lesson Study. 2.1 What Is Knowledge? This section describes the conceptualization of knowledge from a school organization and management perspective. It answers the question: what is knowledge in school organization? Sallis and Jones (2002, p. 8) have described knowledge as “information in use” to separate the definition of knowledge from that of information, thus highlighting the applicability of knowledge to school improvement. This line of thinking sees knowledge as actionable information that interacts with the human mind, a concept that gives knowledge meaning and purpose. The construction of knowledge involves using intelligence to acquire and apply what one has understood from daily experience and study and through an accumulation of facts, procedural rules or heuristics. Organization members share a common frame of reference regarding their work. Knowledge in organizations is the collection of beliefs, skills, experiences and memories owned by the individuals within it. Organization knowledge is the power and capability to analyze and understand information to better seize opportunities and advantages for organizational development. Knowledge is a vital resource that enables organizations to achieve competitive advantage. It helps them generate strategic advantages to achieve sustainable development. It has become a matter of urgency for organizations to learn how to manage knowledge to improve performance and competitiveness. Knowledge can be classified by form into tacit and explicit knowledge (Polanyi 1968). Tacit knowledge originates from the experience, action, ideals, values and emotions of an individual (Sallis and Jones 2002). It is usually personal, specific to a context and difficult to formulate and communicate. Tacit knowledge can be expressed or transmitted through metaphor or analogy. Managing and capturing it is © The Author(s) 2019 E. C. K. Cheng, Successful Transposition of Lesson Study, SpringerBriefs in Education, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2472-7_2 17 18 2 Reconceptualising Lesson Study as Knowledge Management a laborious task. As remarked by Awad and Ghaziri (2004), “knowledge is embedded in the human mind through experience and jobs.” It is thus difficult to codify and store in a database. On the other hand, explicit knowledge refers to knowledge that can be transferred via formal and systematic language and is easier to disseminate. Explicit knowledge can be digitized, stored in an organization’s documentation, and easily transmitted or expressed. Capturing explicit knowledge is not difficult. The lesson plans, teaching materials and teaching guides created by teachers who participate in Lesson Study are in the form of explicit knowledge. Knowledge for teaching is tacit by nature, but it can be codified into teaching guides and lesson plans, converted into explicit knowledge. In this case, codified tacit knowledge is decontextualized from the context in which it was obtained. Lesson Study involves a process of converting knowledge from tacit knowledge to explicit knowledge (Cheng 2015). Through conducting Lesson Study, the tacit knowledge embedded in the teacher’s mind is shared, co-constructed and codified into explicit knowledge as lesson plans, teaching materials and reflective reports. Explicit knowledge is usually knowledge that is well organized and represented and can be transferred and shared between different subject departments. Lesson Study can help a school develop sustainably by leveraging tacit knowledge and codifying it into explicit knowledge. 2.2 What Is Knowledge Management? The section explains the concept of Knowledge Management in the school context and articulates why Lesson Study can be viewed as a KM approach. Knowledge management is a branch of strategies management, a process that uses information and knowledge as organizational resources for improving management processes (Davenport and Prusak 1998). These processes include formulating, implementing, monitoring and evaluating strategic plans, and thus enhancing organizational performance (Hatch and Dyer 2004; Wiig 2004). Knowledge management in a school context refers to the process that enables retrieving, sharing, applying, storing and creating knowledge to maximize it within the organization. In schools, KM creates a mechanism that enables school leaders and teachers to retrieve and use organization knowledge as a resource to plan and carry out their teaching effectively (Hansen et al. 1999; Zack 1999; Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995; Cheng 2015). In short, KM focuses on capturing and reusing knowledge to save time and effort, and thus improve school performance. Effective knowledge management practices need record management (Jain and Mnjama 2016; Cheng 2018). Text mining can be used to draw explicit knowledge to improve the school’s practices from active records. Knowledge can be codified into records as explicit knowledge. School leaders and teachers can retrieve actionable information as data that can be used to make specific decisions, and recontextualize explicit knowledge for decision making and organization development. These record management processes help to capture, codify and diffuse knowledge in a school context. They can improve school planning and management, either through record management or through meetings where knowledge can 2.2 What Is Knowledge Management? 19 be shared with all teachers. Effective record management (RM) ensures the authenticity of KM records and provides contextual information for the explicit knowledge to be meaningfully interpreted and applied. In other words, RM guarantees the quality and usability of records generated by the KM functions. RM is critical for the implementation of KM (Duranti and Xie 2012). 2.3 Why Is Knowledge Management Significant for School Improvement? The section discusses the significance of implementing knowledge management in school organizations. Doing so is becoming increasingly important as the rapid expansion of knowledge continues to dramatically influence the school curriculum of many countries. Curriculum reforms have been proposed and implemented in many countries to enhance education development. For example, “Learning to Learn” in Hong Kong (Education Commission of Hong Kong 1997), “Thinking Schools, Learning Nation” in Singapore (Sharpe and Gopinathan 2002), and “Integrated Curriculum Reform” in Japan (Ministry of Education of Japan 2001; MacDonald 2005). Teachers are required to acquire and master pedagogical knowledge to enact the intended learning objectives of the curriculum and to provide students with learning experiences. Schools need to strengthen their abilities to plan, implement, evaluate and monitor the overall implementation of the curriculum. There is often a capacity gap among school leaders and teachers in terms of planning and implementing that curriculum (Chu 2014). It is important for schools to close that gap for effective planning and implementation. Schools should seek ways to improve the capacity of school leaders and teachers to plan and implement their school-based curriculum (Cheng 2011; Cheng and Ko 2012). They should also develop a mechanism to support teachers in acquiring and creating pedagogical knowledge to address these implementation gaps. Lesson Study has also been applied to address curriculum reform (Lewis and Takahashi 2013; Lee and Lo 2013). The aim of knowledge management is to support organizations in creating capable structures and mechanisms for acquiring, applying, sharing, retaining and even creating knowledge (Cheng 2012). KM can be used not only for problem-solving and decision making but also for crafting pedagogical strategies. It can create knowledge that will support schools in implementing new curriculum. Students in different schools have different learning characteristics. Accordingly, schools strive to develop varying teaching and learning plans to address their students’ needs. However, as not all teachers have broad enough knowledge to implement the plan or the curriculum successfully, it will be useful for schools to institutionalize a knowledge sharing platform that enables them to share their knowledge to develop suitable teaching strategies. Applying knowledge management in school helps teachers share and construct their knowledge in the teaching process. If their knowledge is not harnessed, teaching effectiveness will not be maximized and the knowledge asset will be lost once the 20 2 Reconceptualising Lesson Study as Knowledge Management teachers with that knowledge leave the schools. This will hinder the effectiveness of teaching and the professional development of other teachers. Effective knowledge management is vital for knowledge retention. Institutionalizing a knowledge management mechanism in schools not only keeps knowledge from being lost when experienced staff retire or leave the organization, but also supports schools in enhancing their curriculum planning capacity to cope with the changes of a complex and challenging policy environment. Integrating KM with the core business process is a key factor in effective KM implementation (Tsai 2014; Martin 2005). The KM process should align with the core development tasks of the organization so staff can better undertake that core business. For school organizations, teaching and learning within the school context is the core business (Du Plessis 2013; Hong et al. 2014). Applying KM effectively leverages and creates knowledge useful to implement the organization’s development plan. Schools should apply and institutionalize a KM mechanism to manage their curriculum, so KM can be accepted by teachers and effectively practiced. It can help teachers tackle teaching and learning issues caused by education and curriculum reforms and improve their effectiveness and performance (Bhusry and Ranjan 2012; Cheng 2015; Cheng et al. 2016). Once they become aware of its value, teachers will be more willing to practice KM systematically and promote its successful implementation in the organization (Chu 2014). Organizations should design their KM strategy so that it will align with their major concerns when implemented (Mohapatra et al. 2016). In the school context, integrating KM activities with the core process of teaching and learning should be an important focus of school leaders and a vital step in successfully implementing a KM strategy (Du Toit and Steyn 2011). The knowledge encoded into teaching materials and records should align with the mission and vision, and the core major concern, of the school. 2.4 What Are the Key Strategies to Implement Knowledge Management? This section introduces strategies for managing knowledge in school organizations. Codification and personalization strategies are the two major strategies that organizations can apply to align explicit knowledge resources and tacit knowledge capabilities to improve organizational performance (Zack 1999). Codification is Information Technology based strategy; personalization is people-based strategy (Sveiby 2001). Personalisation and codification strategies may be put into operation through Lesson Study to leverage knowledge for school development (Cheng 2017). Personalization strategy focuses on the sharing of tacit knowledge between individuals (Ho et al. 2012). The strategy can help individuals share personal tacit knowledge, insights, and experience informally with other people (Jordan and Jones 1997; Snowden 2002). It stresses person-to-person contact, interaction and communication for knowledge sharing (Hansen et al. 1999; Osterloh and Frey 2000). Personalization strategy incorporates processes of knowledge retrieval, sharing and utilization (Cheng et al. 2016). Any lesson-preparation meeting that fosters 2.4 What Are the Key Strategies to Implement Knowledge Management? 21 knowledge sharing and elicitation can be seen as a personalization strategy. Many professional development activities characterized by the interpersonal face-to-face exchange of knowledge (Nicolas 2004) are personalization (people-based) strategies. Examples include collaborative action research, professional learning communities, communities of practice and learning circles in which there is face-to-face dialogue among members for knowledge sharing. School leaders should consider investing resources in processes, tools and networks which can support and facilitate these personal interactions for knowledge sharing if they wish to adopt personalization strategy (Benbya and Belbaly 2005; Merono-Cerdan et al. 2007). Codification strategy involves the storage, retrieval and application of explicit knowledge recorded in organizational documents. These may include teaching guides, lesson plans and minutes (Cheng et al. 2016). Codification strategy helps individuals document and store knowledge in explicit format for retrieval by others in a “people-to-document” manner (Gupta et al. 2009; Kumar and Ganesh 2011). The development of a record management system to store curriculum guidelines, teaching plans and materials is one example of codification strategy. As a system-based approach (Choi and Lee 2003), codification strategy relies on the application of an IT system for record keeping (Andreeva and Kianto 2012). The record management system plays a central role in adopting the strategy for storing, retrieving, sharing and applying documented knowledge (Kumar and Ganesh 2011). Adopting codification strategy requires investment in and extensive use of an IT system and record management system that helps to store and retrieve knowledge (Lee and Hong 2002; Liao et al. 2007). In such instances, individuals strive to encode their knowledge explicitly into a shared knowledge repository, such as a database, for others to easily retrieve and access. Codification of teaching knowledge is a common strategy adopted by schools to implement knowledge management (Cheng 2015). Records management, the supervision and administration of digital or paper records, uses a codification strategy to capture tacit knowledge in a written form. The codification strategy is a system-orientated approach for managing knowledge by codifying, storing, and formally sharing that knowledge (Choi and Lee 2003). Codification for storing knowledge requires the ability to store, share and use an organization’s explicitly documented knowledge. Individuals explicitly encode their knowledge into records, which form a shared knowledge repository. Codification for knowledge storing and retrieval is usually implemented by building a school-based taxonomy in files or digital archives (Andreeva and Kianto 2012). A Digital Archive is an information technology based system designed to support and enhance the process of knowledge creation, retrieval, storage, transfer and application within organizations (Alavi and Leidner 2001). Although information technology is needed to capture the information about who knows what, and to provide information systems to connect people, the people in the organization are also important. An effective records classification system ensures that each record is properly classified so it can be located and used for its original purpose and to ensure accountability over time. Taxonomy, the practice and science of classification, covers the laws and principles of systematic classification. To build the taxonomy for managing explicit knowledge, a user-driven approach to classifying the records should be developed. 22 2 Reconceptualising Lesson Study as Knowledge Management Records management supports teachers’ decision making on teaching and learning issues by making it easier for them to elicit information from files and records. As Harris (2009) asserted, a community can facilitate a social learning process and provide context for the recorded information for knowledge elicitation. Teaching requires a unique and tailored approach; a people-based knowledge strategy is suited to situations in which the intuition, adaptability and intellect of the knowledge carriers are needed (Hansen et al. 1999). Basic teaching knowledge is tacit and embodied in the teachers’ minds. It will be used as required as part of a personalization strategy for leveraging and sharing. Moreover, the subject knowledge to be taught in the classroom is already explicitly codified in textbooks and teaching materials. Some school activities are based primarily on mass-produced standards and lack any distinguishing characteristics. Nevertheless, the codification of knowledge strategy may be more suitable, as teaching processes and knowledge involved can be used over and over again. School teaching involves a mixture of tacit and explicit knowledge. Milne (2007) proposes a community approach to developing taxonomy by providing contextual background to the records. The codified knowledge exists in the form of guidelines, handbooks, procedural manuals, agendas and minutes that capture the elements needed for overall school management that can provide students with a quality education (Cheng et al. 2016). Best teaching practices can be leveraged by encouraging professional dialogue between teachers and then codifying these practices into lesson plans, teaching artefacts, videos and reports for dissemination. Lesson study not only helps teachers improve their instructional design skills (Cheng 2011), it also supports them in acquiring both internal and opportunistic knowledge, which they can then share informally (Jordan and Jones 1997). The provision of administrative and management documents by the record management system has proved helpful for teaching tasks and has also supported knowledge sharing in Lesson Study. Schools may develop a classification system within a digital archive for each department to store its lesson plans, teaching artefacts, teaching handbooks and other documents. Through Lesson Study, teachers can raise issues they have about creating instructional activities. They are also encouraged to codify their findings into lesson plans, teaching material and artefacts in a handbook, so the knowledge is retained. 2.5 Why Is Lesson Study an Approach of Knowledge Management? Lesson Study involves teams of teachers working together to plan and research their lessons. They retrieve knowledge from the schools in which they serve or from external organizations, try out the knowledge in their lessons, share it with other teachers, and even create new knowledge. All are stored in the form of written lesson plan documents. Lesson Study involves the process of retrieving, sharing, applying, storing and creating. It is a common knowledge management approach for managing teaching knowledge within schools. Lesson Study can also be 2.5 Why Is Lesson Study an Approach of Knowledge Management? 23 conceptualized as a knowledge management process to retrieve, apply, share and create and store knowledge. In term of knowledge process, Lesson Study involves teams of teachers working together to plan and research lessons. Lesson Study involves a Plan-Do-Check-Act (PDCA) process to improve teaching and learning by leveraging teachers’ tacit knowledge and codifying it into explicit knowledge for dissemination (Cheng 2015). Teachers share their knowledge in planning lessons, and tacit knowledge is leveraged, co-constructed and codified as explicit teaching knowledge in lesson plans and teaching materials. During the ‘Do’ part the teacher implements the lesson, observed by peers. This enables the teacher to apply and internalize explicit teaching knowledge as tacit teaching knowledge through teaching practice. The ‘Check’ procedure enables them to review how successfully the lesson plan was implemented. The ‘Check’ process is an evaluation procedure through which tacit teaching knowledge can be created, exchanged, and constructed among teachers. They then store the newly developed knowledge as lesson plans and teaching material for reuse. Lesson Study applies personalization and codification strategies to create and retain pedagogical knowledge through constructing a knowledge sharing platform. Schools use Lesson Study to create, capture and codify pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) for reuse and dissemination. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) consists of the teaching methods, strategies and prior student knowledge that may affect teaching. Shulman (1986) conceptualizes PCK as knowledge that integrates subject content knowledge, teaching knowledge, curriculum knowledge, knowledge of learner characteristics and knowledge of education goal. Teachers meet to study the difficulties students encounter in certain topics. They plan a lesson that creates PCK to tackle the challenges and address students’ problems. They implement and observe the lesson, evaluate the experience of the lesson in a group, and seek ways to improve it. Their tacit knowledge can then be codified into a lesson plan, stored and shared on school servers, their own storage devices, or Google Drive. Their PCK has been captured and codified into explicit knowledge in the form of the new lesson plan for wider dissemination. However, while the codified knowledge will be decontextualized and stored in the records, it does need people to recontextualize it as tacit knowledge. The issue of managing the pedagogical knowledge created by Lesson Study cases was raised in Chapter one. For more than a decade, teachers in many countries have used Lesson Study to improve teaching and learning. Inevitably, Lesson Study cases are producing an ever-growing volume of teaching materials and records, in both paper and electronic form. Schools need to manage these records of pedagogical knowledge effectively to save time and effort otherwise spent covering old ground. Schools need to know how to manage copious records and how to elicit knowledge from them to design instructional events and implement curriculum. Exploring the knowledge creation process of Lesson Study in school organizations will help discover an effective mechanism to address this issue. 24 2.6 2 Reconceptualising Lesson Study as Knowledge Management Can KM Help to Reproduce the Soul of Lesson Study? Chapter one has mentioned the difficulties of transplanting the body of Lesson Study to other countries without the ‘soul’ of its originating country. As Lesson Study is a KM approach, taking reference from the core ideology of some KM approaches and tools may help in this. The community of practice (CoP) is the most common KM approach or tool that organizations may adopt to leverage knowledge. The idea of the CoP is based on social learning theory. Communities of practice (CoPs) can be powerful tools as environments in which individuals communicate in interpersonal contact to share tacit knowledge (Chau and Maurer 2005; Yi 2009). A CoP is ‘a group of people who share a concern or passion for something they do and learn how to do it better as they interact regularly’ (Lave and Wenger 1991; Wenger et al. 2002). This definition implies three fundamental characteristics of CoPs—joint enterprise, mutual engagement, and a peer-shared repertoire (Wenger et al. 2002). Joint enterprise refers to the knowledge to be shared in the community, a common interest of the members. In the case of Lesson Study communities, the joint enterprise of community members is the pedagogical knowledge and teaching skills that help them enact the core themes of the teaching and learning plans of their schools. For Japanese teachers in specific schools, the study focus of the Lesson Study communities is the joint enterprise, focused on nurturing the next generation by discovering appropriate pedagogies to implement their school’s teaching and learning plan. By defining the key issues that the community needs to address, the joint enterprise clarifies the purpose and value of the community. It builds a sense of common identity among community members and gives them an idea of how they can participate and what it is worth them contributing to the community. The joint enterprise is usually shaped by like-minded people with common goals. The nurturing development of CoP in a school should be bottom-up rather than top-down. An enforced top-down approach, prioritizing carrying out tasks assigned by a senior, makes developing their joint enterprise harder. Members need to negotiate the joint enterprise during the early stage of their collaboration. Building a shared vision in the organization (Senge 1990) can help to frame and sharpen it. Mutual engagement refers to the interaction of community members during their activities and the way they help each other and share information. In a CoP, members build relationships based on mutual trust and respect which help them interact and learn together. Once these relationships of trust and respect are established, members engage in the community’s activities proactively for effective interaction. They are willing to ask each other difficult questions, share their own ideas and mutual experiences, and listen to and learn from each other carefully to resolve questions. Through mutual interaction in the community members can share information with each other to help address each other’s’ problems. They share accountability for managing the knowledge and share the responsibility for failures in practice. Such mutual engagement and shared accountability can only be nurtured in high-trust organizations and societies. Shared repertoire refers to the shared repertoire of resources developed by the CoP members through sustained mutual interaction. In a CoP, members keep talking and 2.6 Can KM Help to Reproduce the Soul of Lesson Study? 25 interacting with each other. Their personal experiences, insights, ideas, tools and approaches to addressing recurring problems can be shared with each other and become community resources. As time goes by, these resources accumulate, creating a shared repertoire for members’ practices. This shared repertoire of resources is the specific knowledge developed, shared and maintained by community members working together. It is the ‘routines, words, tools, ways of doing things, stories, gestures, symbols, genres, actions, or concepts’ (Wenger 1998, p. 83) that have been generated by the community and adopted as a part of its practice. The shared repertoire enables the members to cope with the community’s domain of knowledge more effectively. Based on this repertoire, the members develop shared practices to address the issues they face, improving their abilities to act individually and collectively. Joint enterprise, mutual engagement (shared accountability) and repertoire are the three characteristics of a CoP that enable the community to manage knowledge. The combination of all three helps cultivate a Lesson Study community. Lesson Study communities create knowledge to enhance teacher competencies and improve student learning. Leveraging, codifying and disseminating the knowledge of individual teachers can help address difficulties in curriculum implementation. As knowledge is an important asset for sustainable development in schools, the study of knowledge creation in the organization, and the sharing from Lesson Study, has become, an important area for research. However, schools, as organizations, contain different subject departments. Each subject department will implement its own Lesson Study to generate PCK for its subjects. The effective implementation of subject-level Lesson Study is important. However, school-level Lesson Study, which connects and combines each subject level lesson to develop a broader pedagogical knowledge, is equally important. School-level Lesson Study aims to nurture students with the skills and competencies defined in the overall teaching and learning plan of their schools. Systems thinking (Senge 1990) is a critical factor in operating Lesson Study communities in schools effectively. Systems thinking, in the school context, is the ability to perceive dynamic relationships among different departments rather than just focus on static snapshots and events in one’s own department. In terms of implementing the school-based curriculum, systems thinking is the ability to see how the pedagogical content knowledge created by individual departments can be merged with the PCK of others, creating a school-level Lesson Study that identifies knowledge for overall school improvement. To cultivate these key characteristics, we need a reference model, a knowledge management model that institutionalizes Lesson Study communities in schools for knowledge creation and retention. Certain questions need to be addressed to manage the knowledge generated by the Lesson Study communities. For example, how can we leverage the tacit knowledge created in the Lesson Study communities? How can we codify tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge for wider dissemination? How can we recontextualize explicit knowledge as tacit knowledge? 26 2.7 2 Reconceptualising Lesson Study as Knowledge Management Summary Knowledge is actionable information: an organizational resource that can be applied for organizational development. Knowledge management is an organization’s strategic process for managing its knowledge resources. KM aims to create and retain knowledge by allowing its retrieval, sharing, use and storage. Knowledge can be classified as either tacit knowledge or explicit knowledge. Codification strategy can be applied to effectively store, retrieve and apply explicit knowledge through IT systems. Personalization strategy can be used to leverage tacit knowledge by means of person-to-person contact, interaction, and communication. Within organizations, record management systems and communities of practice (CoP) are effective tools for adopting, respectively, codification and personalization strategies. Lesson Study focuses on addressing students’ learning difficulties, improving teaching and learning, and filling the knowledge gap for curriculum implementation. It is a KM approach that involves acquiring, storing, sharing, applying and creating pedagogical knowledge assets and tacit knowledge competences to enhance teaching and learning performance and reach curriculum goals. The key characteristics of a Lesson Study community are joint enterprise, mutual engagement, shared accountability and repertoire. They create the soul of Lesson Study: professional practices and practical wisdom for creating knowledge. Recent research approaches on Lesson Study call for a model that can locate Lesson Study at the organization level. As Lesson Study is a KM approach, adopting an organizational KM model can help institutionalize Lesson Study. 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