Using Computer Technology to Compare Student Teaching Behaviours

This art icle was downloaded by: [ Universit y of Edinburgh] On: 09 August 2012, At : 01: 56 Publisher: Rout ledge I nform a Lt d Regist ered in England and Wales Regist ered Num ber: 1072954 Regist ered office: Mort im er House, 37- 41 Mort im er St reet , London W1T 3JH, UK European Journal of Physical Education Publicat ion det ails, including inst ruct ions f or aut hors and subscript ion inf ormat ion: ht t p: / / www. t andf online. com/ loi/ cpes19 Using Computer Technology to Compare Student Teaching Behaviours John Sproule, Gary Kinchin, Mart in Yelling, Terry McMorris & Michael McNeill Version of record f irst published: 03 Aug 2006 To cite this article: John Sproule, Gary Kinchin, Mart in Yelling, Terry McMorris & Michael McNeill (2002): Using Comput er Technology t o Compare St udent Teaching Behaviours, European Journal of Physical Educat ion, 7: 2, 123-135 To link to this article: ht t p: / / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1080/ 1740898020070205 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTI CLE Full t erm s and condit ions of use: ht t p: / / www.t andfonline.com / page/ t erm s- and- condit ions This art icle m ay be used for research, t eaching, and privat e st udy purposes. 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The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, act ions, claim s, proceedings, dem and, or cost s or dam ages what soever or howsoever caused arising direct ly or indirect ly in connect ion wit h or arising out of t he use of t his m at erial. European Journal of Physical Education, 2002, 7, 123-135 Using Computer Technology to Compare Student Teaching Behaviours Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 John Sproule, Gary Kinchin, Martin Yelling, Terry McMorris and Michael McNeill1 There are issues concerning the effectiveness of different types of lnital Teacher Training in Physical Education in England, thus there is a need to study the relative effectiveness of 4-year undergraduate and Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) programmes. The purpose of this study was to compare student physical education teachers during school experience relative to a set of teaching behaviours. The participants were 10 first-year undergraduates, 10 fourth-year undergraduates and 10 PGCE student teachers from the same university in England. Each participant was videotaped teaching one lesson which met the requirements of the English National Curriculum in PE at Key Stage 3 (pupils aged 11-14 yrs). Teaching behaviours were analysed by a team of researchers using a modified configuration of the Behavioral Evaluation Strategies and Taxonomy (BEST) software (Sharpe and Koperwas, 1999). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed no differences in the observed teaching behaviours between the fourth-year undergraduates and the PGCE group. However, the first-year undergraduates displayed significantly higher levels of behavioural management than both the fourth-year and the PGCE group. Also, the first-year undergraduates were found to have lower levels of positive skill feedback, but this was not statistically significant The results of this study suggest that there were no differences between the effectiveness of teaching produced by the fourth-year undergraduate and the PGCE student teachers. INTRODUCTION Since the inception of Physical Education (PE) degree courses in the United Kingdom during the 1960's, there has been a continuing process of evaluation, review and course change to meet the demands and needs of the PE profession. Recently, England has witnessed a move to decrease the number of 4-year undergraduate initial teacher training (ITT) courses and increase the number of Post-Graduate Certificate in Education (PGCE) courses. The PGCE-PE programme is an alternative to the traditional 4-year undergraduate 1 John Sproule is at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, Gary Kinchin is at Sottthampton University, England, Martin Yelling is at Loughborough University, England, Terry McMorris is at University College Chichester, England and Michael McNeill is at Hanyang Technological University, Singapore. 123 • Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 European Journal of Physical Education programme in PE ITT, and involves the completion of a 1-year PGCE course in PE after completing a relevant undergraduate degree in Sports Studies or Sports Science. Approximately 50% of PE teachers enter the PE profession through the PGCE route in England, with the remainder following the four-year concurrent model of ITT. Evans and Penney (1993,1994) critically examined "on the job training" (typically associated with one year PGCEPE courses in England) and argued that it is necessary to strengthen the theoretical base of ITT, suggesting that the PGCE route may be having an adverse affect on the teaching of PE in secondary schools. Davidson (1995) suggested that the PGCE route is incapable of providing adequate teacher training for a specialist subject of a practical nature, such as PE. Davidson's concerns focussed on both PGCE student teachers' restricted exposure within practical areas of the National Curriculum and the inadequacies of the PGCE route for training in the welfare and safety of children in PE. This view of the PGCE-PE route was supported by Morgan (1997), who suggested that not enough time was given to gymnastics and dance. One of the basic issues appears to be whether the traditional four-year undergraduate programme or the one-year PGCE programme produce better prepared and more effective teachers of PE. Perspectives in initial teacher training Zeichner (1983) identified four basic perspectives or approaches to ITT; personalistic, traditional/craft, critical inquiry and behaviouristic. Tinning (1988) described the personalistic perspective as resting on the foundations of a phenomenological epistemology and perceptual and developmental psychologies. Thus, teaching competence is equated with psychological maturity and teacher training is considered a process of becoming, rather than the mastery of a set of competencies. Beyer (1984, p.38) portrayed the traditional/craft perspective as one in which learning to be a teacher involves modelling cooperative teachers, with student teachers tending "to accept existing classroom situations as given, essentially unalterable". Zeichner's (1983) critical inquiry perspective suggested that the actions of student teachers (and teachers) are seen to carry ideological meanings that relate to particular views of the social world in general and the world of schooling in particular. Critical and reflective discourses about teaching are important. For example, teaching and curriculum issues are seen as problematic, rather than given. This is a perspective that recognises "the dialetic between means and ends and the social, historical, and political contexts in which issues themselves are embedded" (Tinning, 19"88, p.84). The fourth paradigm, the behaviourist perspective, is founded in the positivistic epistemology of behavioural psychology. There is a focus on developing specific, observable teaching skills which are known to be related to pupil learning. Importantly, "the criteria by which success is to be measured are made explicit and performance at a pre-spedfied level of mastery is assumed to be the most valid measure of teacher competence" (Zeichner, 1983, p.4). Thus, applied 124 Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 European journal of Physical Education behaviour analysis (Cooper, Heron and Heward, 1987; Kantor, 1969; Skinner, 1989) supports the view that desired behaviours can successfully be trained. Indeed, behaviourists have devoted considerable time to unearthing which behaviours are and are not 'effective' in terms of learning and to establishing that teacher behaviours can be changed for the better (Metzler, 1989; Silverman, 1991). For example, previous research on PE teaching has identified Academic Learning Time-PE (ALT-PE) as an effective teaching variable for use in ITT. ALT-PE is the amount of time a pupils spends in relevant motor skill and learning tasks (Metzler, 1983). In order to intervene constructively, it may be important to quantify the behaviours that are being exhibited at different stages in the process of becoming a qualified teacher. Piotrowski and Capel (1996) suggested that the purpose of an ITT programme in PE might be stated broadly as the preparation of teachers who can assist in the development of a physically educated population. If teachers are effectively to achieve this it is vital that their training provides appropriate preparation for this task. In order to direct and influence constructively the ITT process, it may be important to quantify the behaviours that are being exhibited at different stages in the process of becoming a qualified teacher. In the present paper the behaviouristic model is used to investigate teaching behaviours because it seems to be more compatible with the goals of the National Curriculum (Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority pfEE/QCA], 1999) and criteria driven 'Standards' for the award of qualified teacher status (Teacher Training Agency (TTA), 2001). The National Curriculum in England sets out a dear, full and statutory entitlement to learning for all pupils. It determines the content of what will be taught, sets attainment targets for learning, and determines how performance will be assessed and reported. The 'Standards' are the criteria against which those seeking Qualified Teacher Status (QTS) must be judged, and those who assess student teachers for QTS must satisfy themselves that all the 'Standards' have been met. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare student teachers during school experience relative to a set of teaching behaviours. The participants were three groups of student teachers from the same university: 10 first year and 10 fourth year student teachers in a traditional 4-year undergraduate ITT programme and 10 student teachers in a PGCE-PE programme. The first year group were included both to compare with the other two groups and also as the initial data collection for the development of a longitudinal study of the development of their teaching behaviours. METHOD Participants Participants were 30 white student physical education teachers from the same university, 10 selected from each of three cohort groups: 1UG - first 125 European Journal of Physical Education • year undergraduates in a 4-year ITT programme (mean age 18.9, SD 0.2 years); 4UG - fourth year undergraduates in a 4-year ITT programme (mean age 21.4, SD 0.4 years); and PGCE - student teachers in a PGCE programme (mean age 22.1, SD 0.2 years). Of the participants in each group, 5 were male and 5 were female. All were randomly selected from their cohort, and provided informed consent to take part in the study. Prior to this study all had experience of being videotaped while teaching children during microteaching experiences within the university environment. Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 Procedure Data were collected in 18 secondary schools located in and around small towns in Bedfordshire and Norfolk, England. Twelve of the schools were state comprehensive and 6 were selective private schools. The schools could all be classed as suburban or rural. Each participant was observed/filmed teaching a single lesson, rendering a total of 30 lessons from which data were gleaned. The class session used for data collection was one of many taught by each participant. Eighteen of the observed/filmed lessons were taught in co-educational settings, and twelve lessons were taught in singlegender situations, with similar numbers of co-educational and single sex classes between the three groups of student teachers. The participants were videotaped teaching one PE lesson during their assessed school experience (termed 'teaching practice' at some universities and colleges). All the lessons videotaped were at Key Stage 3 (age range 11 to 14 years, mean age 13.7, SD 0.2 years) of the (National Curriculum for PE (NCPE) (DfEE/QCA, 1999) and were videotaped during the final three weeks of the school experience. Thus, for the 1UG this was during weeks 4 to 6 of their first six weeks of school experience. The 4UG were videoed during the last 3 weeks of their final 12-week school experience, having previously had school experience in year one (6 weeks), year two (6 weeks) and year three (8 weeks). The PGCE student teachers were videoed during the final three weeks of their second school experience, that is weeks 24 to 26 of their total 26 week school experience during their one-year PGCE. Lessons observed were randomly drawn from a variety of NCPE areas of activity and they occurred both outside, on playing fields, and indoors, in gymnasia. Thus, within all three groups observed there were lessons taught in athletics, games and gymnastics, which were roughly evenly distributed. Each lesson was either the third, fourth or fifth lesson within units of work lasting for six weeks. Therefore, each 1UG student teacher was teaching the class for at least the third occasion, with the 4UG and PGCE student teachers all having taught their class in PE for at least eight weeks previously. Resources available were ample and appropriate for the lessons observed. This procedure was similar for all cohorts of student teachers. The underlying philosophy of programmes followed by both 4-year undergraduate and 126 European Journal of Physical Education • Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 PGCE student teachers at this university is that the 'Standards' required of student teachers are not seen as purely instrumental, but within a framework of knowledge based fields: subject knowledge, process/application knowledge, and contextual knowledge. Both the 4-year undergraduate and PGCE programmes of study were designed to meet the needs of the PE profession in preparing student teachers to teach the NCPE. The camcorder was mounted on a tripod and positioned so as not to interfere with the lesson plan, and the camera focussed on the student teacher throughout the lesson. The video recording began when at least one of the pupils had arrived in the lesson area and continued until the pupils were dismissed by the student teacher. The student teachers wore a microphone throughout the lesson. Behavioral Evaluation Strategies and Taxonomy The Behavioral Evaluation Strategies and Taxonomies (BEST) software was designed as a user-friendly system to facilitate the collection and analysis of quantitative data in descriptive and analytic ways. It included the counting of multiple events as they occur and interact in various ways within natural settings (Sharpe and Koperwas, 1999). The CD-ROM software permits the collection and immediate analysis of data gathered from observations of PE teaching either live with a lap-top computer or from video and audio recording of lessons. The computer keyboard can be configured to permit the recording of multiple and overlapping frequency behaviours (how many) and duration behaviours (how long) through depressing the appropriate keys. Three experienced teacher trainers (with a range from 7 to 26 years school and university teaching experience) familiarised themselves with a modification of the BEST (Sharpe and Koperwas, 1999) software data collection observational category system for PE teacher behaviours known as 'PETEACH' (Hawkins, Sharpe and Ray, 1994). The 'PETEACH' was designed for PE student teacher evaluation purposes in actual practice teaching settings within an ITT programme. It was designed for use in PE settings in which movement and active participation are desirable pupil behaviours and a variety of instructional behaviours are used by the student teachers. All of the selected target teacher behaviours observed in this investigation (see Figure 1) have received some support in the effective teaching literature (Walberg, 1986). This sequential data collection system is designed to record, group and file a time-based data record of discrete frequency (for example, number of teaching cues) or duration of quantitative events, such as teacher verbal instruction time (Sharpe and Koperwas, 1999). PETEACH was chosen because the behaviours it measures have been linked to teacher effectiveness (Walberg, 1986). For instance, the duration behaviour data, such as management and verbal instruction, allow an evaluation of ways in which 'time' was used by the teacher.. 127- European Journal of Physical Education • Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 Figure 1: Selected teacher target behaviours observed in this study Question Content specific (e.g. checking on instruction i.e. what are they learning). * Teaching Cues Focus on the technique/skill (i.e. teaching point during practice by the pupils) * Encouragement General. A verbal statement prior to a pupil's skill or organisational attempt (to enhance the pupil's perception of their ability to accomplish the subsequent task) * Positive skill feedback The teacher makes a positive verbal statement or gesture following an individual's or group of students' skill or organisational behaviours. * Negative skill feedback After the event (response to a pupil or group of pupils performance). A negative or critical verbal statement. * Corrective skill Provide specific corrective feedback after an individual or group skill attempt. * Demonstration Providing visual examples of a task. Does not include participation (e.g. bowling in game). * Physical Guidance Physically guiding an individual or group of pupils through a subject matter task or activity. Actual physical contact must be made. * Interpersonal Talking to an individual or group of pupils about non-subject matter and non-managerial tasks i.e. to foster positive relationship^). * Teacher off-task For example, talking about an unrelated issue with another member of staff. ** Specific Observation Watching, and proximal to, one pupil engaged in a subject matter task, for the purpose of providing feedback related to performance. ** General Observation Watching pupil groups engaged in any category of pupil behaviour. ** Verbal Instruction Verbally describing to the pupils how to do a skill, or is using a verbal prompt to direct a pupil or group engaged in attempting a skill or activity. ** Behaviour Management To an individual, group or class. Management Engaged in carrying out a non-subject matter organisational task (e.g. setting up equipment). * Frequency ** Duration 128 * ** European Journal of Physical Education Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 Establishing observer agreement and data analysis Observer training (> 20 hours) took the form of independent and collaborative viewings of actual videotaped PE lessons, during which coding categories and definitions (PETEACH) of teacher behaviours were noted and discussed by three experienced PE teacher trainers. Subsequently, a videotaped real PE lesson acted as a 'criterion standard' for the purposes of advancing observer training and establishing levels of observer agreement. The videotape was divided into equal time segments of 5 minutes duration. Data collection software (BEST - PETEACH) was synchronised to the start time of each 5 minute segment The three experienced PE teacher trainers then independently observed and coded each segment of the lesson. They then met to compare results on a percentage of agreement basis. This data recording and comparison was repeated on a weekly basis (7 days apart) until observer agreement reached > 80% for both intra (93%) and inter (91%) observer reliability for all categories of observed behaviour. This ensured a degree of consistency in the recording of similar types of information, minimising for bias and changes in behaviour and interpretation of event occurrence across observers. Also, agreement procedures were implemented to provide a check for whether the behaviours and events to be observed were well defined. Thus, inter and intra observer agreement, reliability and accuracy were determined by the use of recognised agreement tests and reliability procedures (Bakeman and Gottman, 1986; Kazdin, 1982). Cohen's Kappa (Cooper et al, 1987) statistical formulae was used to confirm the percentage of agreement, as follows: In this formula the P-Agreements was calculated using the following: Number of Agreements on Occurrences + Number of Agreements on Non-occurrences Total Number of Agreements + Total Number of Disagreements Once observer training was completed and reliability established the three observers simultaneously completed analysis and coding of all 30 lessons. Simultaneous and collaborative coding (coding the same video at the same time in the same room) was possible due to the flexibility of the BEST system allowing the observers to pause both the videotape and the observation software and to replay the video for discussion until complete and unambiguous agreement (% agreement 100%) was reached. Data analysis Descriptive statistics were calculated for all variables (mean ± SD). Statistical analysis was by one-way Analysis of variance (ANOVA) to find out if there was a significant difference between the three group means for both frequency and duration data. Where appropriate, post-hoc Tukey Tests determined a pairwise comparison of the means. Effect size was measured by T|2. 129 European Journal of Physical Education • Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 limitations of the study Limitations of the study are recognised, namely, that the sample size was small, participants were observed only teaching one lesson, and only a few quantifiable teaching behaviours were focussed on. Also, it is unrealistically optimistic to think that the videoing of lessons did not affect the behaviours of the pupils or student teachers, and this is acknowledged. This study involved a comparison between student teachers on two courses at one institution. It is possible that the results may be different if comparison was made between different institutions, courses and student teachers. Another potential confounding variable in this study was the involvement of both private and state schools. Future study designs should take this into account. They should also control for the area of the NCPE the student teachers are observed teaching i.e. one area of activity would be ideal. Finally, it is accepted that the systematic observation instrument, like all others, describes only some aspects of the instruction that occurs during a PE lesson. RESULTS The student teachers in this study seemed to display several of the characteristics of effective teachers (Darst et al, 1989; Metzler, 1990; Mosston and Ashworth, 1986) as shown in the mean frequencies of targeted teaching behaviours (Table 1). For example, the use of questioning is evident and Table 1: The mean frequency of targeted teaching behaviours for first year (1UG) and fourth year (4UG) undergraduate and PGCE student teachers of physical education Teacher Behaviours 1UG (n=10) Mean (SEM) 4UG (n=10) Mean (SEM) PGCE (n=10) Mean (SEM) Question (content specific) 18.5 (6.1) 25.5 (8.8) 23.6 (5.9) Teaching cue 5.5 (2.9) 11.7 (45) 12.8 (4.8) Encouragement (general) 14.9 (3.2) 17.0 (2.9) 17.5 (2.2) Positive skill feedback 38.5 (6.4) 58.4 (6.6) 51.0 (3.8) Negative skill feedback 1.4 (0.7) 1.5(1.2) 0.8 (0.5) Corrective skill feedback 12.7(4.4) 20.0 (3.0) 18.2 (2.8) Demonstration 12.9 (3.5) 18.5 (4.4) 18.9 (4.1) Physical guidance 0.0 0.0 0.0 Behavioural management 24.2 (4.4)* 9.7 (3.6) 8.0(25) * Higher (F ^ 130 2 = 6.14, p = 0.006; T| = 0.31) Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 European Journal of Physical Education divergent problem solving teaching approaches encourage the use of questioning as a teaching skill (Mosston and Ashworth, 1986). However, whether the student teachers were using the skills and tactics of effective questioning is beyond the scope of this present paper. There were no significant differences for any of the teaching behaviours between the 4UG and the PGCE groups. However, the 1UG group displayed significantly higher frequencies of behavioural management (p=0.006) than both the 4UG and the PGCE groups. Also, the 1UG group were found to be approaching significantly lower frequencies of positive skill feedback (F2 27=3.04; p=0.065; T)2 = 0.18). It is interesting to note that no individual student teacher in this study engaged in physical guidance. The mean percentage of time spent in targeted teaching behaviours is shown in Table 2. There were no significant differences found between the three groups in the percentage of time spent in specific observation, general observation and verbal instruction. However, the 1UG group spent significantly more time engaged in management (p=0.027) than both the 4UG and the PGCE groups, by 37% and 41% respectively. When management time is combined with verbal instruction time and then subtracted from total lesson time, an indication of the percentage of the lesson time made available for pupil learning time is achieved. When compared to the 4UG and the PGCE groups, the 1UG group had the lowest mean percentage time available for pupil learning, 45.8%, 49.5% and 53.7% respectively, although these differences were not significant Some correlational evidence exists of the positive relationship between increased time for ALT-PE and pupil learning (Metzler, 1989). Based on this it would appear that all three of the student teacher groups could have been more effective in their teaching. However, caution is suggested when interpreting duration (and frequency) data. A reductionist perspective should not simply be adopted on effective teacher/learning indicators, as previously highlighted by Dodds and Placek (1991). Table 2: The mean percentage of time spent in targeted teaching behaviours for first year (1UG) and fourth year (4UG) undergraduate and PGCE student teachers of Physical Education Teacher Behaviours 1UG (n=10) Mean (SEM) 4UG (n=10) Mean (SEM) PGCE (n=10) Mean (SEM) Specific observation 16.5 (5.5) 14.8 (3.9) 15J (3.6) General observation 28.5 (3.8) 33.6 (3.7) 35.3 (3.6) Verbal instruction 25.7 (1.9) 29.7 (2.1) 26.1 (1.4) Management 28.5 (2.9)* 20.8 (1.9) 20.2 (1.9) ' * Higher (F 2 ^ = 4.15, p = 0.027; T|2 = 0.24) 131 European Journal of Physical Education Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 DISCUSSION No statistically significant differences in the teaching behaviours studied in this investigation were found between a group of fourth-year student teachers (4UG) in a traditional ITT undergraduate programme and a group of student teachers in a one-year PGCE programme. The results of this study suggest that there were no differences between the effectiveness of teaching produced by the fourth-year undergraduate and the PGCE student teachers. This would seem to support that the two different courses (4UG versus PGCE) lead to a similar product. One might speculate that although the four-year undergraduate course is a longer process of i l l , PGCE students may enter ITT with a greater maturity plus other sports-related and life experiences. However, it is important to note that this present study has been quantitative. The BEST software also has an integral qualitative dimension, which enables the user to record narrative and written descriptions of teaching events and episodes. Thus, capturing some of the contextual aspects of the lesson simultaneously with the quantitative is recommended as the focus of future study using the BEST system. The observed behaviours exhibited by the first-year undergraduate group (1UG) are consistent with those of novice teachers, who are more pre-occupied with managerial tasks and explanations than with student learning per se (Doyle, 1986; Schempp, Sparkes and Templin, 1993; Tan, Schempp and Schwager, 1995). Whilst the frequencies of the majority of the observed teaching behaviours showed an increase between 1UG and 4UG, the combined mean percentages for verbal instruction and management for the sample of student teachers at the beginning and the sample at the end of their school experience were very similar (Table 2). For all three groups approximately half the lesson was devoted to the management of children or equipment or to speaking to inactive children, as a whole class. The focus on class management plus the tendency to address the entire class are - characteristics of novice teachers (Griffey and Housner, 1999; Parker, 1995) and closely linked to concerns for class control and discipline evident in most beginning teachers. One of the formats used to display the observed teaching behaviours is called a scalable time-plot. A scalable time-plot is a time-line (seconds) along the X-axis, with the observed teaching behaviours forming the Y-axis. From the analysis of the scalable time-plots the warm-up segment was typically the period of the lesson where activity was most sustained in terms of duration. This concurs with previous research that has shown the warm-up element of PE lessons is often the most active aspect for pupils (Yelling, Penney and Swaine, 2000). It is somewhat interesting, but at the same time worrying, that first (1UG), final year (4UG) and PGCE student teachers in this study showed quite similar percentages of managerial and verbal instruction time in classes taught in similar contexts. It certainly begs the question as to whether new entrants' use of time will facilitate the delivery of the required content of NCPE and challenge/extend children through the NCPE level descriptors (DfEE/QCA, 132 Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 European Journal of Physical Education 1999). Data was not collected on the opportunities children had to engage, successfully or otherwise, with the content to be learned but this offers a further avenue of research using BEST. It is important to note that the use of systematic observation and the insights such techniques can provide into teaching and learning have not played a central part in these student teachers' preparation. The impact of descriptive-analytic techniques in concert with qualitative feedback on the effectiveness of student teachers' teaching could be worthy of further investigation. The ability to objectively evaluate one's own teaching performance and modify that performance could be primary benefits derived from the use of systematic observation methodology (Mancini and Wuest, 1989): i.e. physical educators becoming agents of their own change. Teacher trainers have been challenged to meet the demands of the TTA requirements for ITT in information and communication technology (ICT), whilst also preparing their student teachers of PE to deliver effectively the NCPE and its inherent ICT characteristics (TTA, 2001). It is not suggested that the use of the BEST system be embraced, simply because it is relatively new technology - rather that it is not overlooked that the analysis of teaching behaviours demands the best use of our human intelligence. It is accepted that the use of a systematic observation methodology, such as the BEST system, is not a panacea for all. However, student teachers trained in the use of systematic observation may be able successfully to modify their instructional behaviour with the application of BEST. It is necessary to use tools of the 21st century to facilitate and further develop an understanding of complex pedagogical processes of teaching. This could improve the teaching standards of student teachers: for example, by providing data for post-lesson review to target effective and ineffective teaching behaviours. Importantly, this type of systematic analysis (BEST) can provide an insight into the decision-making that led to the actions, which the teacher demonstrated during the lesson, and may advance the quest to find the best ways to teach. In conclusion, although limitations of the study are recognised, the main finding of this study was that there were no statistical differences in the teaching behaviours studied between a group of fourth-year student teachers in a traditional ITT undergraduate programme and a group of student teachers in a PGCE programme. Previously, Eraut (1994) has stated that enhanced knowledge creating capacities of individuals and professional communities could help overcome barriers to practice-centred knowledge creation and development. It is an important professional skill to be able to reflect on your professional practice and Hargreaves (1995) has highlighted the need for innovation in the conditions for interaction that support persons involved in change processes within teaching. If student teachers are to take responsibility for their own development, both during ITT and then as Newly Qualified Teachers, it is important that they are equipped and empowered for this task. Mawer (1995, pp. 7-8) stated: 'Effective teachers are...constantly seeking to improve and develop, to put their practice under scrutiny, to explore new ideas and to become better teachers'. The BEST system has the 133- European Journal of Physical Education potential to become a more highly productive means of providing a better understanding of effective practice in ITT and teacher trainers should become more committed to the cautious and systematic exploration of computer technology-based ways and applications of preparing effective teachers. CORRESPONDENCE Downloaded by [University of Edinburgh] at 01:56 09 August 2012 Please address all correspondence to: Dr. John Sproule, Department of Physical Education, Sport and Leisure Studies, University of Edinburgh, Holyrood Road, Edinburgh EH8 8AQ. Telephone: 0131 6516554; e-mail: John.Sproule@education.ed.ac.uk REFERENCES Bakeman, R., and Gottman, J.M. (1986). 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