Page 1 of 8
Original Research
Applying grounded theory to data collected through
participatory research on African Independent
Churches’ liturgical rituals: A comparative study
Authors:
Bethel A. Müller1
Cas J. Wepener2
Affiliations:
1
Department of Practical
Theology and Missiology,
Stellenbosch University,
South Africa
Department of Practical
Theology, University of
Pretoria, South Africa
2
Note:
This article is published in the
Section Practical Theology
of the Society for Practical
Theology in South Africa.
Correspondence to:
Cas Wepener
Email:
cas.wepener@up.ac.za
Postal address:
Private Bag X20, Hatfield
0028, South Africa
Dates:
Received: 14 Feb. 2011
Accepted: 11 May 2011
Published: 12 Oct. 2011
How to cite this article:
Müller, B.A. & Wepener, C.J.,
2011, ‘Applying grounded
theory to data collected
through participatory
research on AIC liturgical
rituals: A comparative study’,
HTS Teologiese Studies/
Theological Studies 67(2),
Art. #1034, 8 pages. http://
dx.doi.org/10.4102/hts.
v67i2.1034
This article reported on two research projects, the first conducted in the early 1990s and the
second, a project currently in progress. In essence, the article was an attempt to compare the
theology of African Independent Churches in the two respective periods by making use of a
grounded theory approach to their worship services. Significant similarities and differences
were identified and reported on.
Introduction
In this article1, two research projects will be described and discussed. Both were funded research
projects involving liturgy and preaching in African Independent Churches (AICs). The first
project was conducted in the early 1990s and the second is currently running. Juxtaposing the two
projects highlights significant similarities and differences, although the research methodologies
employed were not identical.
Participatory research and a close-reading technique2 were implemented by a research team under
Prof. B.A. Müller, with the financial support of the HSRC (Human Sciences Research Council) in
the early 1990s. This was applied to 37 tape-recorded services recorded and then transcribed by
personnel of NERMIC (New Religious Movements and Independent or Indigenous Churches)
under the leadership of Prof. G.C. Oosthuizen. Their research findings were reported in an official
document called Skrifgebruik in die Onafhanklike Afrika Kerke (1992). The hypotheses guiding this
report were that an analysis of the services and rituals informing the life and practices of these
churches was becoming extremely urgent in order to understand the African consciousness
expressed in the culture and theology represented by these fast-growing churches (Müller 1992:3).
The team realised that the older negative attitude towards these churches, based upon traditional
and paternalistic criticism from the developed world, had to be replaced by a more positive
approach, as expressed by Barrett (1968), Turner (1967), Oosthuizen (1989), Lamont (1971) and
especially Daneel (for details, see Müller 1992:4f)3. They realised, with Daneel (1987:19), that the
faith of these churches was not expressed in doctrinal concepts, but was ‘acted out, danced out’
(Turner 1967:82). Robert and Daneel (2007:43) also state in an article that an AIC, in general,
‘produces a meagre paper trail’.
In 2008, a partly similar (but also different) research programme on the worship services and
other rituals of, amongst others4, the Corinthian Church in Phepheni (AIC) commenced with
an international research team. Financial support was provided by the NRF (National Research
Foundation). The team is interested is establishing whether different ‘dimensions’ of ritual were
‘more adequate’ than others, with regard to the generation of social capital (Cilliers & Wepener
2007:39). The specific overarching research question for the project is: ‘How and to what extent
does religious ritual contribute to the formation of the kinds of social capital that assists or could
assist in alleviating poverty and promoting social development in South African communities?’
(Wepener, Swart, Ter Haar & Barnard 2010:63).
1.This material is based upon work supported by the South African National Research Foundation (NRF) under Grant number 73974. Any
opinion, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author and therefore the NRF does
not accept any liability in regard thereto.
© 2011. The Authors.
Licensee: AOSIS
OpenJournals. This work
is licensed under the
Creative Commons
Attribution License.
2.In both research projects, grounded theory, specifically the Heidelberger Method, was applied to transcribed worship services, of
which the liturgical material was collected by means of participatory research. According to Pleizier (2010:229), despite the various
ways grounded theory can be designed, it usually involves the following steps: ‘empirical data is coded, codes are turned into concepts,
and concepts are related to hypothetical statements’. The Heidelberger Method was originally designed as a way to analyse sermons by
asking very specific questions, namely how the Bible or text was used, what the prevailing concepts of God and of the church embodied
in the sermon are and what the socio-ethical implications are. This was very useful in the study of sermons in 1992. For comparative
purposes, we decided to adopt the Method in 2011.
3.In 1948, Sundkler was still very negative in his evaluation of these churches. In later publications he became more positive. A recent
book by Oduro, Pretorius, Nussbaum and Born (2008) has the same aim.
4.In this particular project, a variety of churches representing the South African ecclesial landscape is included, amongst others Reformed,
Anglican and this one AIC. For an overview of the project, see Wepener et al. (2010:61−82).
http://www.hts.org.za
doi:10.4102/hts.v67i2.1034
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In order to come to grips with the very innovative liturgical
material, which is foreign to a person from the developed
world, a participatory research method was adopted in this
specific study within the overarching research project, which
was to analyse five services, all held in Phepheni; all the
sermons were transcribed5. For this particular contribution,
a description of five services is first given6. The authors of
the article once again used grounded theory to analyse the
material and additional interviews were conducted with
respondents as deemed necessary. This specific method was
adopted here for the sake of comparison with the previous
project, although it must be acknowledged that alternative
dimensions of rituals could be used, for example those of
Lukken (2005:58–70).
The HSRC research performed in 1992
The research programme
On an aliquot part basis, 37 services were selected that were
held in various congregations of AICs in KwaZulu Natal
(KZN). Generally speaking, they came from an Apostolic
Faith background and to a lesser extent from an Anglican and
Episcopal tradition. We will refer later to the effects of this
missiological background on their ’faith in action’, expressed
in their liturgy. The research team was supplied with written
transcriptions of these dynamic and communicative liturgical
events. Understandably, it was a nearly impossible task to
analyse these transcriptions, seeing that oral communicative
events have a completely different psychodynamic to that of
written documents. It was therefore important to develop a
research method that would give access to the real-life and
faith worlds implicit in these transcriptions, worlds often
so strange to many scholars from the developed world. It
had to be a method whereby the team could experience the
way these congregations look at life, at faith, what meanings
they confer upon, or derive from, these liturgical events.
Therefore, it was decided to adopt a method of participant
observation, which Lofland called a system of ‘interweaving
and listening’ (1984:13; on this method see Schwartz & Jacobs
1979:26f). It is a matter of entering sympathetically into the
grief and joys of the historical situation of the congregation,
often expressed in symbolic language and events. This boiled
down to a sensitised close reading of the transcriptions in a
concentrated effort to try to understand the belief patterns
embedded in and often hidden behind and under the surface
of, these transcribed and formalised liturgical events. Only
then can theological research come to grips with the rich
material and existential meanings expressed in them. It was
striking how various rhetorical techniques were used to
communicate this meaning, often clad in the ‘mists’ of the
mythical and the symbolic.
The formal liturgical pattern of the services
In the absence of a fixed pattern, like those in most churches
in the developed world, it was extremely difficult to
5.For a description of a typical Sunday worship service in this congregation, see
Wepener, Mbaya & Barnard (in press) and for a special annual service called the
Isitisha [the burning of the heifer], see Mbaya (2011).
6.For more on the use of participatory research in liturgical studies, see amongst
others, Johnson (2005), Post (2001), Stringer (1999) and Wepener (2005, 2010).
http://www.hts.org.za
Original Research
formulate a description of a formal liturgical pattern. Liturgy, in
the case of the AIC, is not thought out, but celebrated every
Sunday in an innovative and new way; it is rather danced out
than described. Faith is not so much articulated in dogmatic
concepts as it is lived out. Liturgy is furthermore the product
of the creative genius of the leader, acting in unison with the
authentic response of the congregation expressed in specific
liturgical elements of the service. It was therefore difficult to
conceptualise or describe the liturgy in its entirety.
The purpose of the services was clearly to restore and nourish a
well-balanced and integrated a quality of life, living in peace
with God and all fellow human beings, especially those in
the family and in the congregation. By the atoning work of
Christ, sinners are saved, cleansed, healed, filled with joy,
born again and converted to this blessed life of harmony
and peace (see Müller 1992:19–25). The exhortation to strive
for this salvation is preached in the sermon, repeated in
the hymns and testimonies of fellow-believers, resulting
eventually in the confession of sin. In addition to the liturgical
exhortations, there was a strong emphasis on teaching the
basic tenets of the faith, which has to lead in the end towards
a pastoral emphasis in the liturgy, namely to comfort and to
console.
In order to help the congregation to share in this inner
wholeness, certain rhetorical techniques were implemented
in the liturgy. The power of authority resided in the text,
the minister and the testimonies delivered in the course of
the service. The message is communicated by exhortation,
teaching and consolation. In all this a predominantly ethical
imperative style was preferred; words used frequently were
‘you must, are urged, compelled, we implore, request, ask
you’, and so forth (see Müller 1992:30). The congregation
was exhorted to a continued self-examination, resulting in
repentance and conversion. This ethical motif penetrated all
elements of the liturgy.
The different elements of the liturgy
The services usually started with the minister, dressed in
liturgical attire, reminiscent of an Anglican background,
welcoming the congregation, usually dressed in white
robes. A call to worship or a votum follows and a blessing
is pronounced.
Daneel regards the reading of Scripture as the ‘focal point’ of
the service (1987:250). Believing that Scripture is in itself the
voice of the living God, it represents the basic authority of all
that precedes and follows in the service.
The sermon, based roughly on the scriptural text, is central and
plays a key role in the liturgy. Quite interesting was the fact
that very often more than one sermon was given during the
same service, often not clearly related to one another, often
interrupted by some member giving testimony or simply
by shouts of ‘Hallelujah!’ But, the sermon holds the service
together, acting as an integrating agent, although not always
the most important liturgical event. The sermon is a strongly
verbal performance, verbose with a strong emotional appeal.
doi:10.4102/hts.v67i2.1034
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The reality of sin is referred to in all the services. Great
emphasis was therefore placed on the preceding exhortations
towards developing a conviction of sin in order to pave the
way to the confession of sin. Sin is basically caused by human
weakness and disobedience to the instruction contained in
Scripture and in the liturgy. Sin is not only spiritual, but also
very real in a secular sense, deriving from a self-centred life,
slander, corruption, disobedience to parents and ecclesial
leaders…
Hymns are an important and indispensable part of the liturgy:
in one service hymns were sung 38 times, in another on 33
occasions! They are characterised by praise, supplication and
dedication as a response to some event in the liturgy. Drums
and circle dancing often accompany the hymnal worship.
Choirs are used less often.
Prayers, in the form of individual or communal praise,
thanksgiving and intercession are essential parts of every
liturgy. Praying the Lord’s Prayer occurs nearly in every
service.
These prayers are often connected to healing. Physical healing
is often performed by a diviner by laying on of hands, whilst
the congregation dance in a circle.
On a few occasions, a cleansing service was performed. In
the AIC tradition, contact with death or a dead person, or
experiencing some bad luck has a fouling effect on a person,
who then has to be cleansed before being allowed to share in
the service (see Bührman on the pastoral effect of liturgical
events)7.
There was only one mention of baptism and none of the
Eucharist.
The profile of the services, using the four
categories of the Heidelberger Method
The role of Scripture
Scripture is regarded as the basic authority behind every
event in the liturgy. It speaks directly and in an immediate
way: it is hardly expounded and explained in terms of its
original context, but transferred directly and applied in
the actual, existential context of today. The result is that
very little exegetical finesse, as is familiar in the Reformed
tradition, is practised. The research team called their
hermeneutic an associative one, in which texts are not so
much explicated, but applied directly, in accordance with
the sound of the words and the realities associated with it
in the daily life of believers. Texts are therefore instigators
of a rhetorically communicative event, supplemented by
the rhetorical techniques displayed by the minister. There
was a marked preference for narrative texts, supporting the
narrative and symbolic idiom in speaking of God, Scripture
and the church. Secondly, there was a significant preference
for admonishing texts, in line with the exhortative purpose of
the whole liturgical performance.
7.See also Wepener (2009a:229−246), in which commensality was used as a tool to
measure social capital and which showed that, because of this effect of death on
church members, they do not eat at funerals.
http://www.hts.org.za
Original Research
The notion, idea or conception of God
God the Creator is described as the Almighty One, who has
more power, also more vigour and life-force [uMoya] than
anybody else. He acts in a supreme way in the history of
the biblical patriarchs and of Israel, but also in the life of the
founders of the church and its history. This creative God is
chiefly regarded as Father, the Giver of all good things, the
Baba Wethu who helps, guides, cares and protects, even on
journeys and in work situations. He rules over their whole
life and their destiny. He gives instruction in his Word and
the words of the ministers. As the almighty Giver of all
blessings, he can be trusted when they bring their need to
him. No wonder that the ‘Our Father’ takes such a central
place in the liturgy. He works in close relation to ancestral
spirits, acting as protectors against evil. They participate in
day-to-day living being a next to God a source of wellbeing,
illness being caused by a disturbance of the balance between
man and the life-giving spiritual forces (see Bührmann 1984
on this aspect).
The life and work of Christ is the central and guiding force
in the entire liturgy and in the life of the church. Salvation
in Christ is a comprehensive and all-embracing concept in
all the services. He is the Saviour who died on the cross out
of love for his people and was resurrected unto eternal life;
thereby he takes away their sins and as his children’s Friend
he knows all their problems and helps to solve them. As their
liberator and protector in their daily lives, he does not only
take away their sins, but heals them. He restores the harmony
in people’s lives and one day will take his children to him in
heaven. Prior to accepting salvation in Christ, sin must be
confessed, amongst others by participating in the ritual of
cleansing as mentioned previously.
The Holy Spirit gives power to the believer and is active in
the spirit of the ancestors and in charismatic events such as
glossolalia. For the rest, little is said about him.
Satan, as counterpart of God, dominates the life of those
outside the church, who have to be liberated from the service
of Satan by Christ in his battle against the Evil One.
The notion, idea or concept of the church
The term ‘church’ is used in a variety ways: for the worship
service itself, or as an institutional group, or as a body living in
unity and koinonia [community] with one another. The church
consists of those who live in obedience to the exhortations
and teachings issued in the liturgy. It inherits the Kingdom,
entering thereby into the blessed life of peace, mutual love
and harmony with one another. There is a strong emphasis
on koinonia as the total experience of active love, sharing the
needs of the afflicted. In the liturgy, the church is warned
against sluggishness in its relationship with God and others,
against pretended faith and backsliding. The church and its
members must be continually renewed in a spiritual sense.
They must become involved in the church, sharing the joys
and pains of others and becoming an example in the world.
This was the missionary perspective of the different AICs:
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sharing love, especially with those inside the congregation,
but also with those outside, irrespective of race and colour.
The social-ethical context of the services (the generation
of social-ethical capital)
There was very little reference to the social-ethical issues
of the day. A foreign, privatised ethics was practised,
dealing mostly with ethical issues relating to the inside life
of the congregation, the practice of harmony with regard to
internal mutual relationships, mainly in marriage, inside the
family and the congregation (see Müller 1992:30). Respect
for older people, for parents and for leaders of the church
must be cultivated and financial obligations to others and
to the church must not be neglected. In the community of
faith, help must be given to those in need, in times of illness
and death. But the line between the church and the world is
bridged occasionally, when the churchgoer is exhorted to go
to all people, irrespective of colour or race. Here, the pastoral
emphasis and dynamic displays a missionary perspective.
The combination and interaction of both these perspectives
is one of the main reasons for the remarkable growth of the
AIC.
Some conclusions
The liturgy functioned primarily in the closed and private
space of a small congregation. It was therefore very much an
in-group event.
The liturgical elements and innovations display an
interesting mixture of two traditions, namely of the more
charismatic and spiritualistic background embedded in their
missiological history and the African culture expressed in
various ways. This is one of the reasons for their dynamic
religious appeal and growth.
The low impact of their liturgy on the generation of social
capital may also be the result of this mission background:
missionary theology and practice were rather more of a
spiritualistic and church-orientated nature, with the result
that religion was practised in the mission stations, isolated
from the community. The ubuntu character of African
customs was therefore subdued by this spiritualistic
approach.
The NRF research project 2008–2011
Five services of the Corinthian Church in Phepheni (AIC)
were documented and analysed for this case study by a
similar method of participant observation and grounded
theory. Some provisional results within the framework of
the overarching NRF project have been recorded and some
also published (cf. Mbaya 2011; Wepener & Cilliers 2007;
Wepener 2009a; Wepener et al. 2010; Wepener & Barnard
2010; Wepener, Mbaya & Barnard in press). In this second
section, a provisional formal liturgical pattern will once
again be described first, followed by a liturgical profile in
accordance with the Heidelberg Method of analysis.
http://www.hts.org.za
Original Research
The formal pattern
The same difficulty as in 1992 was experienced in describing
a formal pattern, because there is no descriptive and
theologically worked out plan for the liturgy. Liturgy is part
of an innovative and creative process, often dictated by the
actual situation of the service. Liturgy is played as a game
of faith, is danced out in practice, although the participatory
observation did, in fact, discern a pattern over time as
described in Wepener, Mbaya and Barnard (in press). This
pattern basically consists of the elements of:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
welcoming rite
invocation
prayer
Apostolicum
the Lord’s Prayer
Scripture readings
sermons
National Anthem
healing rites
burning of incense
sharing of visions
blessing.
All these elements are connected by the circle dance,
accompanied by singing and the playing of musical
instruments.
The purpose of these services was very much the same as in
1992. It consisted of bringing the participants to wholeness,
an experience of the fullness of the life. Sin and Satan are
regarded as disrupting this wholeness, which must be
restored by Christ and people following his example. Despite
this fact, arising from the use of grounded theory with regards
to the transcribed services, other qualitative methods such
as interviews and focus groups used in the church within
the broader project also confirmed this finding. Informal
discussions with members regarding why they worship
specifically in this church and not another usually has to do
with healing or experiences of being healed in this church’s
worship8.
Rhetorically, the service calls on the congregation to obey
Scripture and the preached word. Again, the imperative
abounds, but this time it was more rooted in the indicative, for
example ‘because God loves you … you must give yourself’
or ‘because you are his family … keep his commandments
and instructions’. There is a call to action, to do what Jesus
did; this is new and different compared to the 1992 research.
Further research is needed to inquire about the reasons for
this.
The elements of the service will be described in what follows (cf.
also Wepener, Mbaya & Barnard in press). We will, however,
focus only on those most relevant to our study.
The service starts with a welcome (even a welcome dance for
visiting researchers). These services are in actual fact very
8.In this regard, see also the research on eating and drinking in this congregation
(Wepener 2009a).
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Original Research
welcoming (Wepener & Barnard 2010:8). This is followed by
a kind of invocation, invoking the Holy Spirit to be active in
the service, also invoking the spirit of the founder Johannes
Richmond (Wepener & Barnard 2010:9). The services are
conducted by an ordained minister, assisted by members
of the congregation doing the Scripture reading, giving
testimony, sharing a vision or dream, assisting with the
healing and cleansing rituals.
fact that the founder’s father was a Muslim means that much
Islamic symbolism is evident in the Christian church.
The reading of Scripture takes a central place in the liturgy.
More than one reading takes place in the same service (see
also Wepener & Barnard 2010:1). Great respect is shown
towards Scripture and the congregation raises their hands
every time it is read.
A blessing is given at the end of the service and the researchers
are always invited to a meal afterwards.
Following the Scripture reading, the sermons form an
important element of the whole service, giving it an
integrated structure. More than one sermon is quite common;
everybody is allowed to preach or give their testimony, which
is part of the sermon but not necessarily integrated with
it, like the manifold sermons themselves. Most sermons,
however, are delivered by Rev. Dingaan, the leader priest
of the congregation and sometimes by one of the other two
priests, one of whom is a woman.
Scripture is regarded as the basis of God’s revelation to his
people. He speaks his Word in a nearly Barthian way. To
quote Rev. Dingaan on the matter, ‘the Spirit makes God’s
Word alive in our congregation. The Bible is more than a
book; it is the living Word of the Spirit’. A formal exegesis
and hermeneutic is not practised; Scripture is expounded in
a very direct way. The words of the text are made directly
applicable to the daily life of the listening congregation.
Even allusions to the donkey used by Christ in the entry to
Jerusalem is spiritualised to manifest the humility of Christ.
As God’s revelation, Scripture must be proclaimed as the basis
of all Christian life and faithful living. This proclamation is
carried out in an emphatic instructive and imperative mode.
Confession of sin is referred to in the sermon, but there was
very little sign of it being a separate liturgical element, as it
was in 1992.
Hymns, accompanied by drums and circle dances formed a strong
and essential part of all the services.
The singing is often accompanied by prayer, often
accompanied by chanting or with congregants in a kneeling
position. Prayers can be very long, taking up to 25 minutes.
An interesting custom is that the door of the hut acting as
the ‘church building’ is closed every time a prayer is offered;
is this form a liturgically sanctifying element? Prayers
are meant to invoke the Holy Spirit and the spirit of the
forefathers to become active, whereas the circle dance may be
a sort of epiclesis, which prepares the congregation to listen
to the Word, but also to invoke the Spirit for other liturgical
elements such as healing rites.
Healing always forms part of the service (Wepener, Mbaya &
Barnard in press).
Members of the congregation who have become contaminated
through contact with death or other unfortunate situations
have to be cleansed before they are allowed to attend a service
(cf. Wepener, 2009a). This takes place as a ritual, very close
to our modern day psychotherapeutic practices (see on this
Bührman 1984). Many of the rituals observed and described
are also reminiscent of practices described in the Book of
Leviticus; however, there seem to be various influences
that inspire these cleansing practices. Some of these include
Xhosa traditions, rites encountered in Leviticus and unique
Corinthian Church rituals prescribed by the founder; also the
http://www.hts.org.za
Baptism is a very important part of the liturgy, acting as a
ritual whereby members are presented to God as his children.
However, apart from baptism, there are also other water
rituals such as a ritual that involves jumping into the river at
the beginning of a new year.
The profile of the service
The role of Scripture
Superficially, there seems to be a great similarity with the
findings of the 1992 research: in the preparation of the
sermon very little, if any, objective exegesis is performed;
apart from a broad spiritualising hermeneutic, there seems
to be a complete lack of a more scientific hermeneutical
consciousness. It is believed that biblical texts are read and
understood under the direct inspiration of the Holy Spirit
and then applied directly without use of interpretative skills.
The application seems to be governed by strong legalistic
emphases.
On closer inspection, however, there is a very distinct use
of Scripture, relating to the preacher’s general knowledge
and understanding of biblical texts in line with theological
tradition. This is enriched by a distinct Christocentric
hermeneutic, whereby texts are interpreted christologically,
specifically in relation to sin. Furthermore, texts are
interpreted in terms of the concrete needs in the congregation
and in the community in general. We can thus speak of a
distinct pastoral hermeneutic.
Note the interesting use of the circle dance in the preparation
of the service and throughout as a means to hear the Word
correctly. It is regarded as a means to invigorate the Holy
Spirit and the spirit of the founder to guide the use of
Scripture in the service. We can call this a form of epiclesis,
which is an important element of the Reformed liturgical
tradition in relation to the sermon and in the Roman Catholic
tradition in relation to the Eucharist, but it seems in this AIC
in relation to all the different liturgical elements.
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Original Research
The focus of the liturgy
The idea or notion of the church
As was explained previously, the services focused on
bringing the participants into the wholeness of a balanced
life and the experience of the fullness of it, a fullness restored
by Christ in the people following his example. Forgiveness
of sin is central in the liturgy, after being warned against the
many evils in the congregation and in society.
The Church is regarded as the family of God, a people of
God, who are a community of love and fellowship. Love
and fellowship are the ‘most important thing in life’, based
on ‘God is love’. The God who receives them as his children
stimulates a sense of belonging to God and to one another.
He makes them into a community of support, accepting one
another, sharing their needs.
The service calls on the congregation to obey Scripture
and the proclaimed Word. On the surface this seems to be
legalistic, but looking more closely, it becomes evident that
this is rooted in the indicative, as previous examples prove.
The service is very pastoral in its approach. It wants to,
amongst other things, give hope by emphasising giving
love and help to people in need. This pastoral dimension is
nourished by the total liturgical celebrations of the Sunday.
Here, homiletics is rooted in the total liturgy, a valuable principle to
be followed by all churches! When we asked Rev. Dingaan what
the most important theme to preach about is, he answered
without hesitating that it is indeed hope.
The sharing of the blessing is an important part of the liturgy
as a counter to any form of legalism.
Teaching and commissioning of believers in the office
of proclaiming the message of salvation is important in
the sermons, but is also ritually acted out9. This is a basic
Reformed principle, echoed in the homiletic emphasis on
the building up of the church and nurturing its identity (see
Campbell 1997:221f).
The notion or idea of God
God, as Creator, is revered as the almighty one, protector and
lawgiver.
Christ, as Saviour, forms the central part of the believer’s
life; soteriology becomes the essence of all proclamation. As
Saviour, he is our example. Believers are called to ‘do what
Jesus did just as Jesus did’. As our Friend, he is the source of
the fullness of life.
The whole service is an action of the Holy Spirit, who makes
God’s Word alive in the congregation. Life is essentially
regarded as spiritual. All elements of the liturgy derive their
efficacy from the spiritual power, thereby becoming vehicles
of this power [amandla]. However, the work of the Spirit is
also understood in a broader sense in as far as traditional
rituals connected to the ancestral cult are still performed
and members are also urged to adhere to these customs (for
example, the baptism sermon and the so-called Ladi-service
that must first be performed in members’ homes). The Spirit
is also not identical to the spirit of the founder, although it
seems as if there is some sort of cooperation.
9.During the annual Isitisha [the burning of the heifer] service in Mlazi several hours
are spent on initiating and then commissioning members for service.
http://www.hts.org.za
The role of baptism is very important, as through it God
receives them into his family and thereby structures a bond
between him and them, so that they can obey and care for
one another.
Interesting is the role of the Apostolicum. Do they want to
express a relationship with the tradition of the Church
through this?
The idea or notion of the secular context
The preacher himself says that he is not much interested
in socio-political issues. However, in the message of the
sermon, in the embodiment of the Word in the liturgy and
in the emphasis on being a community of faith, this faith
is not so much expressed and manifested in sound dogma,
but in faithful living in both the congregation as well as in
the secular context. It is also noteworthy that the National
Anthem is often sung during worship services, an element
that could not be present in the 1992 research because the
National Anthem was only a product of the National
Assembly after 199410. As a hymn, it did also not appear in
the collected data from the first project.
The sermons give due attention to specific socio-political
issues, especially those existing within the community of
believers: individuals in trouble, the preacher telling the
congregation who are the people in need, encouraging the
giving of gifts… This is all part of a sound diaconological
perspective on the preaching event. The annual Isitshisa
[burning of the heifer] service is not part of this case study,
but it could be noted that at that service, members from this
congregation collect food and money, which is then donated
to poor blind people.
As a community of love, they are called to a life of charity,
thereby becoming the source of creating and generating
social capital.
In the secular world, life is incomplete, full of problems in
families and amongst friends; there are people going hungry
and who are without work. Robbery and violence exist,
evil multiplies and ‘bad people’ who are bewitched cause
trouble in and outside the church. In dealing with this, the
congregation is called to its missionary obedience to the
guidance of the Spirit. This is clearly manifested in their
outreach on trains, in buses and in their context in general.
10.In the same period that this development seems to have occurred in AIC worship,
much research have been carried out on the theme of the role of worship in the
South African socio-political context. See, for example, De Klerk (2001), Müller
(2006, 2007) and Wepener (2009b).
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Page 7 of 8
Conclusion
On the surface, there seems to be many similarities between the
general focus of the services, especially in the use of Scripture
in the sermons (see the description of the profile of the 1992
services and the description on the 2007–2010 services
earlier). In both cases, there is no fixed liturgical pattern:
liturgy is not thought out, but celebrated; there is an absence
of exegetical and interpretational skills; a form of moralistic
and legalistic proclamation abounds; the marked influence
of their mission background and its mission theology was
obvious. On the surface, it seems as if very little theological
development has taken place in the interim.
On closer inspection, a very remarkable theological
development can be registered. What is noticeable, is a
move away from the charismatic, pseudo-pietistic, as
well as Anglican approach to a more Reformed one. This
is clearly evident in the role played by the Scripture as
Word of God, in an almost Barthian sense! The Word and
especially its proclamation are regarded as the primal basis
of belief and faithful living. Reminiscent of the Reformed
emphasis on doxology in the relation to God is the reverence
of the congregation when Scripture is read and in times of
prayer (see Wainwright 1980). The use of the circle dance
as a specific form of the Reformed epiclesis was evident.
The Christological emphasis in the services reminds us of
Calvinistic and indeed, the whole of the Reformed tradition.
The imperative based on the indicative was obvious,
especially on closer inspection. The use of an ordained
minister in the preaching and the emphasis on the office of
believers is characteristic of Reformed doctrine. One reason
for this state of affairs, however, could be the fact that the
minister of Phepheni was indeed influenced by his contacts
with Dr Danie van Zyl at Sokhanya Bible School.
In comparison with 1992, a much stronger ecclesiological
emphasis was noticeable. A clear example can be seen in
the practice of baptism as incorporation into the family of
God and the fellowship of believers. Also, the use of the
Apostolicum is evidence of this, a clear sign to us that the
congregation wants to show its affiliation with the tradition of
the church at large. The pastoral emphasis and the role of the
communio sanctorum [community of saints] as an anchor in a
very unstable world, especially experienced in the suburbs, is
indicative of the role of the church today in its diaspora! The
role of cleansing is reminiscent of the necessity of confession
and forgiveness of sins, advocated by the early church, prior
to participating in the liturgy and sharing community?
The role of the Spirit infusing all elements of life was much
more emphasised in 2010 than in 1992.
In 1992 the services were held in the open air, outside of
buildings. In 2010 a hut was used as the liturgical space
where the congregation met.
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Original Research
The emphasis on being a community of love and charity
reminds us of the often forgotten Reformed emphasis on
the communio sanctorum [community of saints] as the secular
expression of the identity of the church.
It seems as if the AICs have been more and more open
to theological influences, or in any event this particular
Corinthian congregation. This may also be a consequence
of the many positive evaluations of them, accepting them as
part of the body of Christ.
Thus, although on the surface there seems to be very little
difference regarding the data collected in the 1992 and in the
2008 projects, a closer look reveals new theological influences,
whilst still strongly adhering to traditional AIC theology.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal
relationship(s) which may have inappropriately influenced
them in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
The two authors co-operated closely in the research process
and writing of the article. B.A.M. was the leader of the 1992
project and conducted most of the field research then and
C.W. is the current NRF project leader and conducted all the
field research in that project that was used in this article. The
two authors wrote this article together.
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