ORIGINAL PAPER
Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States 1(1), pp. 42–54 (2017)
DOI: 10.1556/2053.01.2017.002
First published online March 08, 2017
The hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles in humans
Róbert Bódizs1,2,3*†, Ferenc Gombos2†, Péter P. Ujma1,3, Sára Szakadát1, Piroska Sándor1, Péter Simor6,7, Adrián Pótári6,
Boris Nikolai Konrad4, Lisa Genzel8, Axel Steiger5, Martin Dresler4,5
and Ilona Kovács2
1
Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
Department of General Psychology, Pázmány Péter Catholic University, Budapest, Hungary
3
National Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Budapest, Hungary
4
Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
5
Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany
6
Department of Cognitive Science, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary
7
Nyírő Gyula Hospital, National Institute of Psychiatry and Addictions, Budapest, Hungary
8
Centre for Cognitive and Neural Systems, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
2
(Received: September 27, 2016; accepted: January 27, 2017)
Females and males differ in several features of their spindle oscillations, as well as in the hemispheric lateralization of
their neurocognitive processes. In addition, the hemispheric lateralization of cognitive functions was shown to vary in
an age-dependent manner. In spite of the above knowledge, data on the hemispheric lateralization of these oscillatory
phenomena are scarce and no sex differences or age effects in the hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles were
reported. Here, we aim to fill this gap by the description of the hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles in healthy
human subjects. Data sets from three research groups were unified (N = 251, age range: 4−69 years, 122 females) in
this retrospective multicenter study. The amplitude, density, and duration of slow (frontally dominant) and fast
(centroparietally dominant) spindles were analyzed using the individual adjustment method. Hemispheric lateralization was quantified by the (L − R)/mean (L, R) index. Orbitofronto-temporo-occipital and parietal fast sleep spindle
measures are left lateralized, while prefrontal spindle amplitude is characterized by right hemispheric dominance. Left
lateralization of fast spindle density and duration in the temporal and orbitofrontal regions, respectively, increases as a
function of age in males, but not in females. In turn, females are characterized by higher left hemispheric dominance
in occipitally measured fast spindle durations as compared with males. Sleep spindles are asymmetrically distributed
over the two hemispheres. This phenomenon is sexually dimorphic and region-specific perhaps indexing sex
differences in neurocognitive architectures.
Keywords: sleep spindles; sigma activity; hemispheric lateralization; sexual dimorphism; gender differences;
temporal lobe
HIGHLIGHTS
– Frontal sleep spindle amplitude is right lateralized
– Posterior fast spindle density, duration & amplitude
are left lateralized
– Temporal slow sleep spindle duration is left lateralized
– Left dominance of fast spindle density/duration
increases with age in males
INTRODUCTION
Sleep spindles are episodes of mid-frequency (between
wakefulness-related alpha and rapid eye movement-sleep
specific beta waves) oscillatory electroencephalogram
(EEG) activities emerging on the background of irregular,
colored noise-like or slow-wave (0.1−4 Hz) activity of nonrapid eye movement (NREM) sleep (De Gennaro and
Ferrara, 2003; Bódizs, Körmendi, Rigó, and Lázár, 2009;
Loomis, Harvey, and Hobart, 1935a, 1935b). Spindles were
shown to be associated with enhanced offline neuroplasticity (Lüthi, 2014), reflecting neurocognition (Fogel and
Smith, 2011), and individual differences in anatomical–
microstructural (white matter) features (Piantoni et al.,
2013). Recent intracranial and magnetoencephalographic
recordings revealed that the majority of sleep spindles are
local phenomena (Nir et al., 2011; Andrillon et al., 2011;
Dehghani, Cash, and Halgren, 2011). Moreover, the
topography of the correlations revealing associations
between spindles and cognitive performance indicates
function-specific localizations or hemispheric lateralization in healthy subjects (Bódizs, Lázár, and Rigó, 2008;
Nishida and Walker, 2007), as well as in typically and
atypically developing humans (Selvitelli, Krishnamurthy,
* Correspondence: Róbert Bódizs, Ph.D., Institute of Behavioural
Sciences, Semmelweis University, Nagyvárad tér 4, H-1089
Budapest, Hungary, E-mail: bodizs.robert@med.semmelweis‑univ.hu
†
These authors contributed equally to this work.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium for non-commercial purposes, provided the original author and source are credited.
© 2017 The Author(s)
The hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles
Herzog, Schomer, and Chang, 2009; Doucette, Kurth,
Chevalier, Munakata, and LeBourgeois, 2015). In addition,
sleep spindles were shown to vary significantly with age, the
most conspicuous finding being a decrease in spindle density,
duration, and amplitude in the aged, perhaps reflecting
diminishing neural plasticity and/or sleep quality (Nicolas,
Petit, Rompré, and Montplaisir, 2001; Martin et al., 2013).
The functional specialization of the two hemispheres is a
basic finding in human neuropsychology (Herve, Zago,
Petit, Mazoyer, and Tzourio-Mazoyer, 2013). The neuroanatomical localization of language, spatial cognition, and
other cognitive functions were shown to be hemispherically
asymmetric (Badzakova-Trajkov, Corballis, and Haberling,
2015). Some reports suggest that the hemispheric lateralization of cognitive functions is different in males and
females, with males usually having higher scores of hemispheric specialization/lateralization (Draca, 2010), while
others conclude that no verbal function-related sex differences in hemispheric lateralization are present (Sommer,
Aleman, Somers, Boks, and Kahn, 2008). Peripubertal
testosterone levels affect cortical maturation in the left
hemisphere more than in the right hemisphere in males,
whereas the opposite held true for females (Nguyen et al.,
2013). Several reports support the view that hemispheric
lateralization of cognitive functions depends on age.
Findings suggest that left hemisphere specialization of
expressive language is already established in young children
and persists through adulthood (Paquette et al., 2015),
while others emphasize a graded hemispheric specialization
during ontogenetic development (Behrmann and Plaut,
2015). The Hemispheric Asymmetry Reduction in Older
Adults (HAROLD) model predicts an age-related decrease
in the hemispheric lateralization of cognitive functions. It is
suggested that the asymmetry reduction reflects a compensatory function or a dedifferentiation process (Cabeza,
2002). Another model on age-related changes in hemispheric asymmetry is the right hemisphere hemi-aging
hypothesis, predicting an accelerated aging of the right
hemisphere as compared with the left (Dolcos, Rice, and
Cabeza, 2002). The above models were never tested from
the perspective of sleep-related neural activity.
Reports on the hemispheric asymmetry of sleep slow
waves were published in the early 2000s (Sekimoto et al.,
2000; Achermann, Finelli, and Borbély, 2001; Ferrara,
De Gennaro, Curcio, Cristiani, and Bertini, 2002). Despite
the indirect indications of the relevance of hemispheric
asymmetry in sleep spindles, only scarce reports were found
in the literature, with no assessment of sex differences at all.
Significant left > right differences in the spectral power at
bins specific to spindle frequency activity were observed in
bipolar fronto-central, centro-parietal, and parieto-occipital
derivation pairs (Roth, Achermann, and Borbély, 1999).
This finding was later partially replicated by period amplitude analysis of linked-mastoid-referred all-night EEGs of
NREM sleep: the number of sigma waves (>6 cycles of
11.4–16.7 Hz oscillatory activity) over the left parietal
region was shown to be significantly higher than the sigma
wave count over the right parietal area in 15 healthy male
volunteers (Sekimoto et al., 2005). However, a reverse
pattern was found over the frontal region: frontal sigma
waves were more frequent over the right hemisphere as
compared with the left one (Sekimoto et al., 2005). Furthermore, preliminary findings indicating the left hemispheric
dominance of fast sleep spindle densities and durations in
prefrontal and parietal regions were already reported during
the validation of the individual adjustment method (IAM) of
sleep spindle analysis (Bódizs et al., 2009). Together, these
findings suggest that besides the well-known anteroposterior
differences (Gibbs and Gibbs, 1951; De Gennaro and
Ferrara, 2003; Bódizs et al., 2009; Lüthi, 2014), sleep
spindles may also exhibit observable hemispheric asymmetry. Moreover, scarce findings indicate that the spindle
asymmetries might depend on the derivation used (monopolar vs. bipolar), and perhaps on the region analyzed. No
clear indication of age effects or potential sex differences are
available in these reports, as researchers did not involve
children, adolescents, older adults, and females in their
samples (Roth et al., 1999; Sekimoto et al., 2005) or did
not analyze sex effects (Bódizs et al., 2009). In sum, it is
reasonable to assume that spindles are asymmetrically
distributed over the cerebral hemispheres in humans. Furthermore, we hypothesize that the left–right asymmetry of
sleep spindles reflect the age-dependent changes and sex
differences in hemispheric lateralization of cognitive functions. Last, we hypothesize that sex differences in the
hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles emerge during
ontogenetic development around puberty/early adolescence.
METHODS
Here we conduct a retrospective, multicenter polysomnography study based on available all-night recordings of the
Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry (Munich, Germany), the
Psychophysiology and Chronobiology Research Group of
the Semmelweis University (Budapest, Hungary), and the
Laboratory of Developmental Neuroscience at the General
Psychology Department of Pázmány Péter Catholic University (Budapest, Hungary).
Subjects
Data sets from three research groups were unified to
examine the polysomnographic data of 251 healthy participants (Mage = 25.73 years, SDage = 12.23 years, age
range: 4–69 years, 122 females, see Table 1 and Supplementary Fig. S1). Below the age of 9 years, the statistical
variable “Age” was defined with two decimal places to
increase accuracy during periods of rapid development
(e.g., 6 years and 3 months equaled 6.25 years). Handedness
data were available for a subgroup of adult subjects
(N = 84) in the form of the points derived from the
Edinburgh Handedness Inventory (Oldfield, 1971).
According to semi-structured interviews with experienced psychiatrists or psychologists, all subjects were
healthy, had no history of neurologic or psychiatric disease,
and were free of any current drug effects, excluding contraceptives in females. Consumption of small habitual doses of
caffeine (maximum two cups of coffee until noon), but no
alcohol, was allowed. Six male and two female subjects
were light-to-moderate smokers (self-reported), and the rest
of the subjects were non-smokers.
Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States 1(1), pp. 42–54 (2017) | 43
Table 1. Details of the recording procedures of different subsamples
Subsample
a
MPIP – I
Original setting/aim
Lab, sleep, and IQ
MPIPa – II
PPCUb – I
Number
of subjects
(females)
Age range
(years)
95 (43)
18–69
20 (12)
Available EEG
derivations (10–20
system)
Fp1, Fp2, Fpz, AF1,
Comlab 32 Digital
AF2, F3, F4, Fz, F7,
Sleep Lab
F8, C3, C4, Cz, P3,
P4, Pz, T3, T4, T5,
T6, O1, O2
Fp1, Fp2, F3, F4, C3,
C4, P3, P4, O1, O2
Fp1, Fp2, Fpz, F3, F4, SD-LTM 32BS
F7, F8, Fz, C3, C4,
(Micromed Ltd.,
Cz, T3, T4, T5, T6,
Italy)
P3, P4, Pz, O1, O2,
Oz
Home/Williams syndrome
study (controls included
here)
Home/adolescent sleep
20 (14)
6–28
23 (12)
15–22
SUc – I
Lab/sleep & IQ, sleep spindle
methodology, wake–sleep
transition analysis
49 (19)
17–55
Fp1, Fp2, F3, F4, F7,
F8, Fz, C3, C4, Cz,
T3, T4, T5, T6, P3,
P4, O1, O2
SUc – II
Lab/nightmare study (controls
included here)
16 (7)
19–21
Fp1, Fp2, F3, F4, Fz,
F7, F8, C3, C4, Cz,
P3, P4, Pz, T3, T4,
T5, T6, O1, O2
SUc – III
Lab/home/children’s
dreaming
29 (15)
3.84–8.42
PPCUb – II
a
Recording
apparatus
Precision
(bit)
Hardware prefiltering
(Hz)
Sampling rate
(Hz/channel)
8
0.53–70
250
Recording
software
Brainlab 3.3
References
Ujma et al. (2014)
Ujma et al. (2014)
22
0.15–250 (plus <463.3 Hz
digital anti-alising
filtering before
downsampling from
4096 to 1024 Hz)
1024
Flat Style SLEEP La
Mont Headbox,
HBX32-SLP
preamplifier (La
Mont Medical)
Brain-Quick BQ132S
(Micromed)
12
0.5–70
249
12
1024
Brain-Quick BQ132S/
SD LTM 32BS
(Micromed)
12/22
0.33–1,500 (plus <450 Hz
anti-aliasing digital
filtering before
downsampling from
4096 to 1024 Hz)
0.33–1,500/0.15–250
(plus <450/<463.3 Hz
anti-aliasing digital
filtering before
downsampling from 4096
to 1024 Hz)
Max Planck Institute of Psychiatry, Munich, Germany. bPázmány Péter Catholic University, Budapest, Hungary. cSemmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary.
Brain-Quick
System Plus
(Micromed)
Bódizs, Gombos, and
Kovács (2012)
Bódizs, Gombos,
Ujma, and Kovács
(2014)
Datalab (Medcare) Bódizs, Sverteczki,
and Mészáros
(2008), Ujma et al.
(2014)
System 98
(Micromed)
Simor, Horváth,
Ujma, Gombos,
and Bódizs (2013)
System 98/System
Plus Evolution
(Micromed)
Ujma, Sándor,
Szakadát, Gombos,
and Bódizs (2016)
The hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles
Sleep recordings
Quantitative EEG analyses
Sleep was recorded for two consecutive nights by
standard polysomnography, including EEG according to
the 10–20 system (Jasper, 1958), as well as electrooculography, bipolar submental electromyography, and
electrocardiography. EEG electrodes were re-referenced to
the mathematically linked mastoids [(A1 + A2)/2]. Impedances for the EEG electrodes were kept <8 kΩ. Signals
were collected, prefiltered, amplified, and digitized at different sampling rates using different recording apparatus in
the different subsamples (Table 1). Sleep EEG recordings
for the second nights spent in the laboratory were manually
scored on a 20-s basis by applying standard criteria (Iber
et al., 2007). Epochs with artifacts were removed on a 4-s
basis by visual inspection of all recorded channels (including polygraphy). The EEG derivations contaminated by
persistent, long-lasting artifacts were removed from our
analyses. These latter derivations as well as the ones missing
in a subgroup of our subjects were treated as missing data.
The polysomnographic records used in this study were the
second nights. (First night records were discarded to control
the so-called first night effect.)
Although the recording apparatuses are of several types,
it has to be mentioned that spindle laterality is a technically
neutral measure, as it is based on the inter-hemispheric
differences derived within the same technical setting. Thus,
in contrast to absolute amplitude values, hemispheric lateralization indices are reliable measures in multicenter studies.
Sleep spindles of all-night NREM sleep were analyzed by
the IAM (Bódizs et al., 2009; Ujma et al., 2015). This
method is based on the average amplitude spectra of (in this
case all-night) N2 and N3 sleep. The frequency criteria of
slow and fast sleep spindles are derived from the individualspecific peaks of these spectra (between 9 and 16 Hz), based
on the inflexion points. The slow- and the fast sleep spindle
frequencies are tested for frontal- and centro-parietal dominance, respectively. The amplitude criteria for slow- and fast
spindles are determined in individual- and derivationspecific manner by multiplying the number of intra-spindle
frequency bins with the mean amplitude spectrum values
corresponding to lower and upper frequency limits. The
EEG is then band-pass filtered for individual slow and fast
sleep spindle frequencies using a fast Fourier transformation
filtering method and the precise envelopes of the filtered
signals calculated. EEG segments corresponding to the
envelopes transcending the amplitude criteria for at least
0.5 s are considered spindles (a scheme of the detection is
provided in Fig. 1 of Ujma et al., 2015). In fact, these
segments are contributing to the individual- and derivationspecific lower and higher frequency spectral peaks between
9 and 16 Hz. Based on the IAM approach, individual- and
derivation-specific densities (spindles × min−1), durations (s),
and amplitudes (μV) of slow, frontally dominant and
fast, centroparietally dominant sleep spindles were determined. Although these measures are not fully statistically
Fig. 1. The hemispheric lateralization of different sleep spindle features in healthy human subjects. A: EEG locations (dark teal – left,
tawny – right). B: Left (Fp1) and right (Fp2) frontopolar samples of stage 2 sleep EEG traces. Highlighted periods (black rectangles)
exemplify hemispheric asymmetries in sleep spindles. Vertical gray lines indicate seconds. C: The hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindle
densities. D: The hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindle durations. E: The hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindle amplitudes.
Horizontal bars denote 95% confidence intervals of the mean hemispheric lateralization indices: (Left − Right)/mean (Left, Right). Vertical
dotted black lines indicate zero values (0 = no hemispheric lateralization). Overall means of absolute left and right values are seen over the
horizontal bars indicating significant lateralization effects
Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States 1(1), pp. 42–54 (2017) | 45
Bódizs et al.
independent (Supplementary Table S1), we followed a
descriptive approach in our current paper, by analyzing
density, duration, and amplitude in separate statistical
models. We followed this approach because spindle density, duration, and amplitude were shown to depend in part
on different neurophysiological mechanisms, related to
long term potentiation (Werk, Harbour, and Chapman,
2005), thalamic inhibition/corticothalamic feedback (Bonjean et al., 2011; Barthó et al., 2014) and thalamocortical
recruitment/globality (Dempsey and Morison, 1941;
Andrillon et al., 2011), respectively.
N = 34, 14 females). Females and males were compared
in terms of their spindle asymmetry measures with a significant sex × age interaction effect in the GLMs in each of the
above age groups by factorial ANOVAs (sex × age group)
with Fisher’s least squares differences post-hoc tests
(see Supplementary Tables S2–S5 for descriptive statistics
of hemispheric laterality indices in different age groups).
Due to the variable number of N (caused by artifactual
derivations or missing channels in some subsamples), we
will provide the number of observations or the degrees of
freedom (df) while presenting the outcomes of statistical
tests throughout the manuscript.
Statistics
The hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindle features
(density, amplitude, and duration for both slow and fast
subtypes) was analyzed by calculating the hemispheric
lateralization indices between homologous derivation pairs
as follows:
Spindle laterality index = ðL − RÞ=meanðL, RÞ
where L = left and R = right.
Hemispheric asymmetry was tested by one-sample t-tests
with the null hypothesis that the population mean is equal to
0 (no hemispheric laterality). False discovery rate was
controlled by the Benjamini–Hochberg method (Benjamini
and Hochberg, 1995). We report the uncorrected significance values (p) for the t-tests surviving Benjamini–
Hochberg correction. For those variables revealing a significant hemispheric lateralization in the whole sample, we
went on to analyze sex and age effects, as well as their
interactions by general linear models (GLMs). In the next
step, we revealed the directions and sources of the interaction effects in our GLMs by Pearson product-moment
correlation coefficients as follows: in cases where significant
main effects of age or “sex × age”-type interaction effects
emerged, Pearson correlation coefficients between age and
the respective spindle measures (left, right, and asymmetry
index) were calculated for the whole sample (in case of age
main effect) or separately for females and males (in case of
sex × age interaction effect). In the former case, the sign of
the significant correlation indicates the direction of the age
effect (“+” for increase and “–” for decrease), while in the
latter case females and males could be compared in terms of
their age-related decrease, increase, or stability in spindle
asymmetries by the Fisher’s r-to-z transformation method.
A change (increase or decrease) in spindle asymmetry can
emerge from three potential sources: a change in one of the
two hemispheres, i.e., left or right or a change in both
hemispheres. To test the three potential sources mentioned
above, the age-associated changes in left and right spindle
measures were compared by the Fisher’s r-to-z transformation method.
Last, but not least we examined if different spindle
asymmetries between males and females are specific to
different age groups. Hence, we categorized our subjects
as follows: children (age < 10 years; N = 31, 15 females),
teenagers (10 years ≤ age < 20 years; N = 36, 18 females),
young adults (20 years ≤ age < 40 years; N = 150,
75 females) and middle-aged adults (age ≥ 40 years;
46 | Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States 1(1), pp. 42–54 (2017)
Ethics
Adult participants or the parents of the underage participants
signed informed consent for the participation in the study
according to the Declaration of Helsinki. The individual
research protocols used in this multilaboratory study were
approved by the local ethical committees, namely the ethical
boards of the Medical Faculty of the Ludwig Maximilian
University, the Semmelweis University, and the Pázmány
Péter Catholic University.
RESULTS
In general, more fast, than slow sleep spindle measures
(12 vs. 2) were shown to be characterized by asymmetric
hemispheric distributions. Sleep spindle densities and durations were left lateralized predominantly in temporal and
parietal regions, while spindle amplitudes were regiondependent right or left lateralized as follows (Fig. 1). Handedness did not correlate significantly with the hemispheric
lateralization of sleep spindles.
Sleep spindle densities
Overall hemispheric lateralization. Significant left hemispheric dominance of fast sleep spindle densities in the
middle and posterior temporal (tT3–T4(FastSpiDens) = 5.49;
df = 230; p < 10−6 and tT5–T6(FastSpiDens) = 3.82; df =
231; p = .000169, respectively), as well as parietal
(tP3–P4(FastSpiDens) = 3.10; df = 250; p = .0021) derivation
pairs was found (Fig. 1C).
Age and sex effects in hemispheric lateralization. Middle
and posterior temporal regions were found to be characterized by age-related changes in left hemispheric dominance
of fast sleep spindle dominances in males, but not females
(Fig. 2A and B). Thus, the GLM results indicate an
age-related change in the left hemispheric dominance of
middle temporal fast sleep spindle densities in males, but not
in females (Fig. 2A): the main effect of age (F = 8.64;
df = 1, 227; p = .0036), as well as a sex × age interaction
(F = 3.92; df = 1, 227; p = .048) were significant. Likewise, posterior temporal left hemispheric dominance was
characterized by age-related change in males, but not
females (Fig. 2B): age (F = 9.79; df = 1, 228; p = .001)
and sex × age (F = 4.68; df = 1, 228; p = .031) effects
were found to be significant. No significant age, sex,
or age × sex effects were found for the hemispheric
The hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles
Fig. 2. Hemispheric asymmetry of temporally recorded fast sleep spindle densities as a function of age, sex, and left/right absolute values.
A: Age-related changes in the left hemispheric dominance of middle temporal fast sleep spindle densities in females (♀, red) and males (♂♂,
blue). Horizontal dotted line indicates 0 value (no lateralization). Note the age-dependence of left hemispheric dominance in males, but not
females. Gray area indexes the age range (≥20 years) characterized by significant male > female left hemispheric asymmetry. B: Age-related
changes in the left hemispheric dominance of posterior temporal fast sleep spindle density in females (♀, red) and males (♂♂, blue). Horizontal
dotted line indicates 0 value (no lateralization). Note the age-dependence of left hemispheric dominance in males, but not females. C: The
age-dependent decreases in left (T3, dark teal) and right (T4, tawny) middle temporal fast sleep spindle densities of females. D: The agedependent decreases in left (T5, dark teal) and right (T6, tawny) posterior temporal fast sleep spindle densities of females. E: The agedependent decreases in left (T3, dark teal) and right (T4, tawny) middle temporal fast sleep spindle densities of males. F: The age-dependent
decreases in left (T5, dark teal) and right (T6, tawny) posterior temporal fast sleep spindle densities of males. Uniform age-dependent
decrease in sleep spindle densities are seen over both hemispheres and in both sexes (panels C–F). *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
lateralization of parietal fast sleep spindle densities.
A supplementary GLM analysis with age and sex as
predictors and the lateralization indices of all spindle features as within-subject dependent variables revealed an
increased left lateralization of temporal spindle density
(irrespective of spindle type) in males as compared with
females (Supplementary Analyses).
Left and right hemispheric findings. To clarify if the
changing asymmetry in males derives from increasing/
decreasing left/right hemispheric spindling or just the
change in relative dominance of one of the hemispheres,
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients between
age and temporal fast spindle measures were calculated.
Fast sleep spindle densities of the male subgroup uniformly
decreased with age over both the left (rAge_vs_T3(FastSpiDens)
= −.48; N = 122; p < 10−6) and the right (rAge_vs_T4(Fast−6
SpiDens) = −.51; N = 122; p < 10 ) temporal regions.
There was no significant difference between these correlations (z = .31; p = .75; Fig. 2E, Supplementary Fig. S2).
However, as seen in the significant age × sex effect in the
GLM, the left–right lateralization index (left hemispheric
dominance) significantly increased with age in males
(rAge_vs_T3–T4(FastSpiDens) = .28; N = 122; p = .0012;
Fig. 2A). The overall picture was similar for the posterior
temporal derivations of our male subjects; however,
the absolute values of the correlations reflecting
age-associated decreases in fast sleep spindle densities
were somewhat lower (rAge_vs_T5(FastSpiDens) = −.32;
rAge_vs_T6(FastSpiDens) = −.40; rAge_vs_T5–T6(FastSpiDens) =
.30; N = 122; p = .0002, .000003, and .0006, respectively; Fig. 2F). Age-associated decreases in left and right
middle and posterior temporal fast sleep spindle decreases
were of similar magnitude in females (rAge_vs_T3(FastSpiDens) =
−.40, rAge_vs_T4(FastSpiDens) = −.46, rAge_vs_T5(FastSpiDens)
= −.37, rAge_vs_T6(FastSpiDens) = −.39, N = 110; p = .00001,
10−6, .00004, and .00001, respectively; Fig. 2C and D).
Nevertheless, no significant age-related changes
in temporally derived fast sleep spindle asymmetries
were found in females (rAge_vs_T3–T4(FastSpiDens) = .07,
rAge_vs_T5–T6(FastSpiDens) = .07, N = 110, p = .45 in both
cases; Fig. 2A and B).
Age groups. Sex differences in the left hemispheric
dominance of middle temporal (T3–T4) fast sleep spindle
densities are non-significant in children (F = 1.16; N = 14
and N = 16 for females and males, respectively; p = .27)
and teenagers (F = 0.36; N = 18 for both females and
males; p = .54), but are significantly higher in young
(N = 68) and middle-aged (N = 20) adult males as compared with young (N = 63) and middle-aged (N = 14)
adult females, respectively [F = 7.44 (p = .0068) and
F = 13.64 (p = .0002) for young and middle-aged adults,
respectively; Fig. 2A]. Similarly, no sex differences in the
Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States 1(1), pp. 42–54 (2017) | 47
Bódizs et al.
left hemispheric dominance of posterior temporal (T5–T6)
fast sleep spindle densities are seen in children (F = 0.45;
N = 15 and N = 16 for females and males, respectively;
p = .50) and teenagers (F = 0.15; N = 18 for both sexes;
p = .69). However, in contrast to the middle temporal fast
spindle density asymmetries, sex differences in the left
hemispheric dominance of posterior temporal fast sleep
spindle densities are non-significant in young (F = 2.45;
N = 63 and N = 68 for females and males, respectively;
p = .11) and middle-aged (F = 2.85; N = 14 and N = 20
for females and males, respectively; p = .09) adults either
(Fig. 2B).
Interim summary on the laterality of sleep spindle density. Fast sleep spindle density is left lateralized in temporal
and parietal regions (Fig. 1C). The left hemispheric dominance in middle and posterior temporal fast sleep spindle
densities is characterized by age-associated increases in
males, but not in females (Fig. 2A and B, Supplementary
Fig. S2). Absolute fast sleep spindle densities uniformly
decrease as a function of age over both left and
right temporal regions in both sexes (Fig. 2C–F). Left
lateralization of middle temporal fast sleep spindle
density is increased in young (20–40 years) and middleaged (40–69 years) males as compared with females
(Fig. 2A).
Sleep spindle durations
Overall hemispheric lateralization. Measures of fast sleep
spindle durations were left lateralized in several derivation
pairs, including orbitofronto-temporal (tF7–F8(FastSpiDur) =
3.37; df = 228; p = .00086; tT3–T4(FastSpiDur) = 3.28;
df = 230; p = .0011; tT5–T6(FastSpiDur) = 5.19; df = 231;
p < 10−6), parietal (tP3–P4(FastSpiDur) = 3.62; df = 250;
p = .00035), and occipital (tO1–O2(FastSpiDur) = 3.13;
df = 250; p = .0019) regions. In addition, slow sleep
spindle durations of the middle temporal derivation pair
(tT3–T4(SlowSpiDur) = 3.07; df = 230; p = .0023) were
significantly left lateralized as well (Fig. 1D).
Age and sex effects in hemispheric lateralization. Agerelated changes in the hemispheric lateralization of orbitofrontal and occipital fast sleep spindle durations were
different in males as compared with females. GLMs
revealed a significant sex × age interaction effect for the
hemispheric laterality of fast sleep spindle durations in the
F7–F8 (F = 7.19; df = 1, 228; p = .007; Fig. 3A) and
O1–O2 (F = 7.69; df = 1, 250; p = .005; Fig. 3B) derivation pairs. No other main effects or interactions were
revealed for the hemispheric asymmetries in sleep spindle
durations. A GLM analysis with age and sex as predictors
and all spindle lateralization indices as within-subject
Fig. 3. Hemispheric asymmetry of orbitofrontally and occipitally recorded fast sleep spindle durations as a function of age, sex, and left/right
absolute values. A: Age-related changes in the left hemispheric dominance of orbitofrontal fast sleep spindle durations in females (♀, red) and
males (♂♂, blue). Horizontal dotted line indicates 0 value (no lateralization). Note the age-dependence of left hemispheric dominance in males,
but not females. B: Age-related changes in the left hemispheric dominance of occipital fast sleep spindle durations in females (♀, red) and
males (♂♂, blue). Horizontal dotted line indicates 0 value (no lateralization). Note the age-dependence of left hemispheric dominance in
females, but not males. Gray areas indicate the age ranges (<10 years and 20–40 years) characterized by significant group effects (females >
males). C: The age-dependent decreases in left (F7, dark teal) and right (F8, tawny) orbitofrontal fast sleep spindle durations of females.
D: The age-dependent decreases in left (O1, dark teal) and right (O2, tawny) occipital fast sleep spindle durations of females. E: The agedependent decreases in left (F7, dark teal) and right (F8, tawny) orbitofrontal fast sleep spindle durations of males. F; The age-dependent
decreases in left (O1, dark teal) and right (O2, tawny) occipital fast sleep spindle durations of males. Uniform age-dependent decrease in sleep
spindle durations are seen over both hemispheres and in both sexes (panels C–F). *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
48 | Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States 1(1), pp. 42–54 (2017)
The hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles
dependent variables revealed that occipital spindle duration
is more left lateralized in females as compared with males,
irrespective of spindle type (slow or fast; see Supplementary
Analyses).
Left and right hemispheric findings. As in the case of
sleep spindle densities, we aimed to unravel the sources of
age-dependent changes in asymmetric spindle durations by
analyzing the correlations of age with the appropriate
measures at derivations F7, F8, O1, O2, as well as with
the laterality indices between homologous derivation pairs
(Fig. 3C–F). Sleep spindle durations age-dependently
decreased in the left (rAge_vs_F7(FastSpiDur) = −.47; N =
120; p < 10−6) and the right (rAge_vs_F8(FastSpiDur) = −.53;
N = 120; p < 10−6) orbitofrontal regions of males
(Fig. 3E). There was no significant difference between these
correlations (z = .61; N = 120; p = .27).
In case of the age-associated changes in occipital fast
sleep spindle durations, however, a different pattern
emerged. In this case, the age × sex interaction effect
was driven by decreasing the left hemispheric dominance
in occipital fast sleep spindle durations in females
(rO1–O2(FastSpiDur) = −.18; N = 122; p = .042; Fig. 3B).
The effect was not due to different age-associated changes
in the left or the right occipital derivations of females, as
these values were similar (rO1(FastSpiDur) = −.48; rO2(FastSpi−6
for both) and not
Dur) = −.45; N = 122 and p < 10
significantly different (z = 0.3; p = .76; Fig. 3D).
Age groups. The hemispheric asymmetry of orbitofrontal
(F7–F8) fast sleep spindle durations did not significantly
differ in females and males among children (F = 3.07;
N = 14 and N = 15 for females and males, respectively;
p = .08), teenagers (F = 0.24; N = 18 and N = 17 for
females and males, respectively; p = .62), young adults
(F = 0.79; N = 63 and N = 68 for females and males,
respectively; p = .37), and middle-aged adults (F = 3.69;
N = 14 and N = 20 for females and males, respectively;
p = .055). As regarding the sex differences in the hemispheric asymmetry of occipitally derived (O1–O2) fast sleep
spindle durations, females (N = 15) were more left lateralized than males (N = 16) during childhood (F = 32.45;
p < 10−6, Fig. 3B), but no difference in teenagers
(F = 0.67; N = 18 for both females and males; p = .41)
could be observed. Furthermore, young adult females
(N = 75) were more left lateralized than males (N = 75;
F = 4.20; p = .041), but again, no sex difference among
the middle-aged (N = 14 vs. 20 females and males, respectively) was evident (F = 0.37; p = .54; Fig. 3B).
Interim summary on the laterality of sleep spindle duration. Orbitofrontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital fast
sleep spindle durations, as well as middle temporal slow
sleep spindle durations were left lateralized (Fig. 1D). The
left lateralization of orbitofrontal fast sleep spindle duration
is age-dependently increasing in males, but not in females
(Fig. 3A). In turn, the left hemispheric dominance of
occipital fast sleep spindle duration is age-dependently
decreasing exclusively in females (Fig. 3B). Females are
characterized by a higher degree of left lateralization of their
fast sleep spindle durations during childhood and young
adulthood (Fig. 3B). Fast sleep spindle durations are uniformly and age-dependently decreasing over both hemispheres and regions (Fig. 3C–F).
Sleep spindle amplitudes
Overall hemispheric lateralization. Sleep spindle
amplitudes were significantly right lateralized in the
frontopolar-prefrontal regions (tFp1–Fp2(SlowSpiAmp) =
−2.66; df = 249; p = .0082 and tF3–F4(FastSpiAmp) =
−3.68; df = 250; p = .00028 for slow and fast sleep
spindle amplitudes, respectively, Fig. 1E). In turn, fast sleep
spindle amplitudes in the posterior temporal (tT5–T6(FastSpiAmp)
= 4.28, df = 231, p = .00002), parietal (tP3–P4(FastSpiAmp) =
5.09, df = 250, p = .000001), and occipital (tO1–O2(FastSpiAmp) = 2.62, df = 250, p = .0092) derivation pairs were
characterized by significant left lateralization (Fig. 1E).
Age and sex effects in hemispheric lateralization. Frontopolar-prefrontal right hemispheric lateralization of sleep
spindle amplitudes was not significantly dependent on age
and/or sex. However, the posterior temporal left hemispheric dominance of fast sleep spindle amplitude increased
as a function of age (main effect of age: F = 3.97; df =
1, 230; p = .047). This latter effect did not depend on sex.
In addition, occipital fast sleep spindle amplitudes were
shown to be more left lateralized in females as compared
with males (main effect of sex: F = 4.39; df = 1, 230;
p = .037).
Left and right hemispheric findings. The age versus
posterior temporal fast sleep spindle amplitude correlation
was non-significant for the left hemisphere (rAge_vs_T5(FastSpiAmp) = −.09; N = 232; p = .16), and negative for the
right hemisphere (rAge_vs_T6(FastSpiAmp) = −.13; N = 232;
p = .04) in the whole sample (for both females and males).
The difference between these correlations was not significant (z = .43; p = .66). Indeed, the left–right dominance in
posterior temporal fast sleep spindle amplitudes slightly and
age-dependently increased in our subjects (rAge_vs_T5–T6
(FastSpiAmp) = .13; N = 232; p = .03), which seem to be
at least partially explained by right hemispheric decline in
fast spindle amplitudes.
Age groups. Hemispheric lateralization in the amplitudes
of posterior temporal fast sleep spindles was not different
between female and male subgroups of any age group.
However, the left hemispheric dominance in the amplitudes
of occipitally derived fast sleep spindles was significantly
higher in female children as compared with male children
(p = .002). This finding was similar to the observed
female > male difference in occipital fast sleep spindle
durations (Fig. 3B).
Interim summary on the laterality of sleep spindle
amplitude. Posterior temporal, parietal, and occipital fast
sleep spindle amplitude is left lateralized, whereas frontal
sleep spindle amplitude (both slow and fast) is right lateralized (Fig. 1E). The left hemispheric dominance of posterior temporal fast sleep spindle amplitude increases slightly
as a function of age, irrespective of sex. Left lateralization of
occipital fast sleep spindle amplitudes is higher in females as
compared with males.
DISCUSSION
Here, we aimed to provide a detailed analysis on the
hemispheric asymmetry of sleep spindles as measured by
Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States 1(1), pp. 42–54 (2017) | 49
Bódizs et al.
the IAM approach in a large sample of subjects involving
both females and males of a broad age range. We hypothesized that sleep spindles are asymmetrically distributed over
the cerebral hemispheres and are more left lateralized in
males than in females. Moreover, we hypothesized that the
sex differences in the hemispheric asymmetry of sleep
spindles are age-dependent, emerging around puberty.
Overall hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindle
measures
Our hypotheses were partially supported. Several sleep
spindle features are asymmetrically distributed over the two
hemispheres. Fast sleep spindles over the orbitofrontal,
temporal, parietal, and occipital cortices are characterized
by significant left hemispheric dominance in terms of
density, duration, and/or amplitude (Fig. 1). In turn, sleep
spindle amplitudes measured over the prefrontal cortices are
characterized by right hemispheric dominance (Fig. 1E).
These findings cohere with the above-mentioned reports on
asymmetric spindle frequency Fourier spectra and wave
count over the two hemispheres (Sekimoto et al., 2005;
Roth et al., 1999). Region specificity was reported in one of
the above studies (Sekimoto et al., 2005): right hemispheric
dominance of sigma wave count is highly coherent with our
finding of right lateralized sleep spindle amplitudes in the
prefrontal region. The well-known uneven distribution of
different sleep spindle types (slow and fast) over the rostrocaudal axis of the brain (Gibbs and Gibbs, 1951; De
Gennaro and Ferrara, 2003; Bódizs et al., 2009; Lüthi,
2014) can be complemented with our present findings,
indicating the putative relevance of analyzing the hemispheric lateralization measures of spindles in different age
and gender groups, as well as in various neuropsychiatric
conditions. The anterior–posterior and left–right differences
in sleep spindles cohere with the concept of local sleep
spindling (Nir et al., 2011; Andrillon et al., 2011; Dehghani,
Cash, Rossetti, Chen, and Halgren, 2010; Piantoni, Halgren,
and Cash, 2016). Moreover, our results add further support
for the concept of local – in this case hemispheric-specific –
sleep regulation (Achermann et al., 2001; Ferrara et al.,
2002), which should be generalized beyond the rhythmic
neural activity related to the slow-wave frequency domain
and should incorporate the spindle oscillations as well.
Hemispheric asymmetries in sleep spindling might reflect
different experience-dependent pressures for offline plasticity and network reorganizations during sleep in the two
hemispheres. The difference in these needs might stem from
differences in cognitive demands of the two hemispheres
during information processing in wakefulness and online
behavioral control. The functional relevance of the lateralization of regionally specific sleep spindling in offline
improvement of lateralized motor skills was explicitly
proven in a well-controlled experimental setting (Nishida
and Walker, 2007). As regarding trait-like effects, it was
suggested that tonic (resting state) asymmetries in the alpha
rhythm reflects subjects’ cognitive styles (Furst, 1976; Glass
and Butler, 1977). Our findings might be interpreted in the
same framework. Left hemispheric dominance of fast sleep
spindles could reflect the preferential reliance on left
hemisphere-related cognitive functions.
50 | Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States 1(1), pp. 42–54 (2017)
Our findings on the hemispheric lateralization of sleep
spindle density, duration, and amplitude are characterized
by similar topography (Fig. 1). Thus, in spite of the available evidence of specific neurophysiological processes contributing to distinct sleep spindle features (Werk et al., 2005;
Bonjean et al., 2011; Barthó et al., 2014; Dempsey and
Morison, 1941; Andrillon et al., 2011), our results indicate
the commonalities in these indices. Further studies are
needed to unravel the reliability of composite measures,
like spindle intensity/activity in contrast to the distinct
features analyzed in the current work.
Based on the availability of handedness data in a subgroup of our adult subjects, we cannot infer any specific
relationship between hand preference and sleep spindle
lateralization in humans. It deserves mention that the strongest effects in spindle lateralization consist of a significant
left hemispheric dominance of the temporal and orbitofrontal regions. The left temporal and orbitofrontal regions are
closely connected to the receptive and productive language
regions of the brain, namely, the Wernicke’s and the Broca’s
areas (Ardila, Bernal, and Rosselli, 2016). Thus, language
lateralization could indeed influence spindle lateralization in
humans. Moreover, this would explain the non-significant
correlation of handedness and spindle asymmetry, as language lateralization of the majority of both right- and lefthanders is left hemispheric (96% and 76%, respectively).
Only a minority of the left-hander subjects are characterized
by a weak (8%) or strong (2%) right hemispheric language
dominance (Pujol, Deus, Losilla, and Capdevila, 1999).
Taken the relatively low frequency (10%) of left-handers
in non-selected populations (Hardyck and Petrinovich,
1977) (including the 13% value in our current sample), the
above findings and assumption of language lateralization as
being the basis of spindle lateralization would imply a nonsignificant correlation between handedness and spindle
laterality. Although testable, there is no direct evidence
supporting this hypothesis yet.
Age- and sex-related differences in the hemispheric
lateralization of sleep spindle measures
In addition to unraveling the region-specificity, spindle
feature-related (density, duration, and amplitude) and
frequency-dependent (slow vs. fast) dimensions of the
hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindling, we detected
sex-specific, age-associated increases in the left hemispheric
dominance of fast sleep spindle densities and durations over
the temporal and orbital frontal cortices, respectively. Taking into account the cross-sectional nature of our data, these
findings indicate that older males are characterized by more
pronounced left temporal/orbitofrontal dominance of fast
sleep spindling. There are two potential explanations for
these effects. First, the developmental view suggests an
enhancement of left hemispheric dominance in males related
to maturational, hormonal (puberty), as well as experiencedependent, network reorganizational effects. A viable
empirical basis for the latter could be the finding of Nishida
and Walker (2007), revealing the functional involvement of
spindle asymmetry in the efficient consolidation of asymmetrically represented experiences. The other non-exclusive
possibility is a cohort effect: older participants could be
The hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles
former subjects of educational and parenting systems that
are significantly different from the recent ones and could
have an effect of enhancing the sex differences in cognitive
strategies/hemispheric lateralization, albeit there is no available literature supporting such a hypothesis.
The sexual dimorphism in the hemispheric lateralization
of sleep spindles was strikingly region-specific. In contrast
to the above-discussed age-dependent increase in left
hemispheric dominance of orbitofrontal/temporal fast sleep
spindling in males, occipital fast spindles were left hemispherically dominant in females. Moreover, the strong left
hemispheric dominance of occipital fast spindling was
predominantly evident in female children and decreased
rapidly and significantly with age (Fig. 3B).
The hypothesis on the puberty-related disjunction of
spindle-related hemispheric laterality measures of females
and males was not clearly supported by our data. Although
age-dependent changes in laterality measures are clearly
present and sometimes significantly different among
females and males, the largest sex-related differences are
usually seen in young/older adults (Fig. 2) or children
(Fig. 3). In contrast to the findings on the developmental
trajectories of brain maturation/cortical thinning (De Bellis
et al., 2001; Nguyen et al., 2013), we could not reveal a
sharp female/male difference in the hemispheric laterality
indices of sleep spindles in teenagers. This finding suggests
that in addition to sex, processes of long-term, experiencedependent plasticity may shape the hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles in humans. Although anteroposterior
gradients and frequency components of spectral fingerprints
describing individual-specific sleep spindle features were
shown to be strongly genetically determined (De Gennaro
et al., 2008), no such evidence was found provided for the
lateralization of spindles. Future studies are needed to reveal
the genetic and experience-dependent causes of cerebral
asymmetric sleep spindling in humans.
Findings on the age-related changes of hemispheric
lateralization of cognitive functions in children and adolescents are controversial: views on early established (Paquette
et al., 2015) and graded asymmetry (Behrmann and Plaut,
2015) were published. Our findings on the hemispheric
lateralization of sleep spindles are mixed in this regard:
asymmetries revealed for the temporal areas are agedependently increasing (graded asymmetry; Figs. 2A and B
and 3A), while frontal and occipital asymmetries are ageindependent or early established (Fig. 3B), respectively.
Theories on aging and hemispheric lateralization are
assuming an age-associated decrease or increase in cerebral
hemispheric dominance. The HAROLD model would predict an age-related decrease in the hemispheric lateralization
of sleep spindles (Cabeza, 2002). Whatever may be the
reason for this assumed asymmetry reduction is, here we
report evidence for an opposite process during sleep: hemispheric asymmetry of temporal and orbitofrontal fast sleep
spindling is greater in the aged, indicating increasing left
hemispheric involvement in sleep spindle generation/maintenance and perhaps increasing reliance on left hemispheric
offline neural plasticity in males. In turn occipital spindling
is left-hemispherically dominant in females. The age-related
change in the left hemispheric dominance of occipital fast
spindling is paralleled by an opposite process in males.
Thus, the age-related decrease in hemispheric asymmetry
predicted by the HAROLD model was partially supported in
terms of the occipitally derived fast sleep spindles in females
(Fig. 3B).
Another model on age-related changes in hemispheric
asymmetry is the right hemisphere hemi-aging hypothesis
predicting an accelerated aging of the right hemisphere
(Dolcos et al., 2002). A steeper age-related decline in right
hemispheric fast sleep spindling could indeed account for
our finding of increased left spindle dominance in the aged
males. This was not evidenced, however. Fast sleep spindle
densities and durations uniformly decreased over both hemispheres in the aged. It has to be mentioned that posterior
temporal fast sleep spindle amplitudes declined significantly
in the right but not in the left hemisphere; however, the
difference between the two correlations was not significant.
Altogether, our findings on age-related decreases in spindle
measures are coherent with the literature (Nicolas et al.,
2001; Martin et al., 2013). However, our finding on the ageassociated increase in the left temporal and orbitofrontal
dominance of fast sleep spindle density (generation/initiation probability) and duration (maintenance) in males was
not reported before.
Looking at the scatterplots, one can discern a high and
age-dependently increasing dispersion of the male data on
temporal fast spindle asymmetry (left hemispheric dominance). It is evident that the sex × age effect in spindle
laterality is driven by an extreme left hemispheric male
subgroup and/or a higher global variation of spindle laterality
in males as compared with females. This type of difference is
a common finding of sexual dimorphism for many phenotypic traits (Lehre, Lehre, Laake, and Danbolt, 2009).
When we look at the data derived from the occipital
cortex, a completely different picture emerges. Females are
characterized by higher left hemispheric dominance in
occipitally measured fast sleep spindle amplitudes as compared with males. Moreover, females, but not males, are
characterized by an age-associated decrease in occipitally
derived, left hemisphere dominant fast sleep spindle durations. That is, young females seem to be characterized by
left hemispheric dominance in fast sleep spindling, which
may be a case of region-specific and sexually dimorphic
spindle lateralization (Fig. 3; Supplementary Analyses).
Last, there is evidence for a right lateralization of frontal
sleep spindle amplitudes (Fig. 1E). Although the cause of this
right lateralization in sleep spindle amplitudes over the frontal
lobes is unknown and a theoretical framework explaining this
effect is lacking, it is worth noting that one of the two studies
analyzing the hemispheric lateralization of sleep spindles
already reported a similar effect (Sekimoto et al., 2005).
Given the well-established reciprocal relationship between
spindles and delta activity (De Gennaro and Ferrara, 2003),
the right lateralization of frontal sleep spindle amplitudes
could be the reflection of the preferential left lateralization of
slow-wave activity as measured in the frontal lobes after
prolonged wakefulness (Achermann et al., 2001).
Limitations
Despite the high number of subjects and wide age range, our
study has some limitations to be mentioned. One is the
Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States 1(1), pp. 42–54 (2017) | 51
Bódizs et al.
cross-sectional nature of our data. There is no possibility to
discriminate age effects and cohort effects from such data.
Moreover, the pubertal ages (10–14 years) are scarcely
represented in this sample, which might decrease the reliability of our statistical models. Also handedness data is
only partially available in our subjects. Moreover, the
technical non-homogeneity of our data could partly influence the absolute amplitude-related outcomes of this study.
In addition, the differences in sleeping environments (home
and different laboratories) could modulate spindle laterality
as well. Some of the sex differences in different age groups
show considerable fluctuation, with trend statistics. Later
studies have to consider these effects using more robust
approaches (e.g., Bayesian analyses), and this not entirely
logical progression of effects/non-effects with age have to
be analyzed in more detail. Last, but not least the sleep
stages N2 and N3, as well as the successive sleep cycles
might have specific importance in unrevealing the causes
and correlates of the hemispheric lateralization of different
sleep spindle features. Sleep stage and cycle effects were not
addressed in the present study, but will be part of a followup publication.
CONCLUSION
We conclude that sleep spindles are asymmetrically distributed over the two hemispheres. This phenomenon is sexually dimorphic and region-specific perhaps indexing sex
differences in neurocognitive architectures.
Authors’ contribution: RB, PPU, and MD designed the
study; RB, SS, PirS, PétS, BNK, and MD acquired data;
RB, PPU, FG, SS, and AP analyzed data; all authors
contributed to the writing of the manuscript.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of
interest.
Acknowledgements: This study was supported by the Hungarian Medical Research Council (ETT-162/2003) and the
Hungarian National Research Fund (OTKATS-049785,
OTKA-NF60806, and OTKA-NK104481), the Hungarian
Brain Research Program (KTIA_NAP_13-1-2013-0001),
as well as the general budgets of the Max Planck Institute
of Psychiatry, the Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Semmelweis University, and the Department of General Psychology, Pázmány Péter Catholic University. Péter P.
Ujma was supported by the ÚNKP-16-4 New National
Excellence Program of the Ministry of Human Capacities.
Péter Simor was supported by the European Union and the
State of Hungary, co-financed by the European Social
Fund in the framework of TAMOP 4.2.4 A/-11-1-20120001 “National Excellence Program” and by the János
Bolyai Research Scholarship of the Hungarian Academy of
Sciences. We would like to thank the German Mensa and
Mensa HungarIQa for the help they provided in subject
52 | Sleep Spindles & Cortical Up States 1(1), pp. 42–54 (2017)
recruitment. We also thank András Vargha and Emese
Kristóf for her assistance during the preparation of this
manuscript.
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