Interactive
Multimedia in
Education
and
Training
Sanjaya Mishra
Indira Gandhi National Open University, India
Ramesh C. Sharma
Indira Gandhi National Open University, India
IDEA GROUP PUBLISHING
Hershey • London • Melbourne • Singapore
Acquisitions Editor:
Senior Managing Editor:
Managing Editor:
Development Editor:
Copy Editor:
Typesetter:
Cover Design:
Printed at:
Mehdi Khosrow-Pour
Jan Travers
Amanda Appicello
Michele Rossi
Lori Eby
Amanda Appicello
Lisa Tosheff
Yurchak Printing Inc.
Published in the United States of America by
Idea Group Publishing (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.)
701 E. Chocolate Avenue, Suite 200
Hershey PA 17033
Tel: 717-533-8845
Fax: 717-533-8661
E-mail: cust@idea-group.com
Web site: http://www.idea-group.com
and in the United Kingdom by
Idea Group Publishing (an imprint of Idea Group Inc.)
3 Henrietta Street
Covent Garden
London WC2E 8LU
Tel: 44 20 7240 0856
Fax: 44 20 7379 3313
Web site: http://www.eurospan.co.uk
Copyright © 2005 by Idea Group Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, without
written permission from the publisher.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Interactive multimedia in education and training / Sanjaya Mishra, Ramesh C. Sharma, Editors.
p. cm.
ISBN 1-59140-393-6 -- ISBN 1-59140-394-4 -- ISBN 1-59140-395-2
1. Interactive multimedia. I. Mishra, Sanjaya. II. Sharma, Ramesh C.
QA76.76.I59I5816 2004
006.7--dc22
2004003752
British Cataloguing in Publication Data
A Cataloguing in Publication record for this book is available from the British Library.
All work contributed to this book is new, previously-unpublished material. The views expressed in
this book are those of the authors, but not necessarily of the publisher.
Interactive Multimedia in
Education and Training
Table of Contents
Preface ............................................................................................................. vi
Sanjaya Mishra, Indira Gandhi National Open University, India
Ramesh C. Sharma, Indira Gandhi National Open University,
India
Part I: Planning and Design Considerations
Chapter I
Planning for Multimedia Learning ............................................................... 1
Patrick J. Fahy, Athabasca University, Canada
Chapter II
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education ........ 25
Geraldine Torrisi-Steele, Griffith University, Australia
Chapter III
Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance .......................... 47
Ashok Banerji, Monisha Electronic Education Trust, India
Glenda Rose Scales, Virginia Tech, USA
Chapter IV
Teaching, Learning and Multimedia .......................................................... 60
Loreen Marie Butcher-Powell, Bloomsburg University of
Pennsylvania, USA
Chapter V
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures:
Strategies for Developing Computer-Based Learning Units ................ 73
Rika Yoshii, California State University, San Marcos, USA
Alfred Bork, University of California, USA
Alastair Milne, California State University, San Marcos, USA
Fusa Katada, Waseda University, Japan
Felicia Zhang, University of Canberra, Australia
Chapter VI
Designing for Learning in Narrative Multimedia Environments ....... 101
Lisa Gjedde, Danish University of Education, Denmark
Part II: Pedagogical Issues
Chapter VII
Principles of Educational Software Design ............................................ 113
Vassilios Dagdilelis, University of Macedonia, Greece
Chapter VIII
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials: An Issue of
Literacy ....................................................................................................... 135
Michael Sankey, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Chapter IX
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning ........... 158
Paul Kawachi, Kurume Shin-Ai Women’s College, Japan
Chapter X
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy .......................................... 184
Peter E. Doolittle, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, USA
Andrea L. McNeill, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University, USA
Krista P. Terry, Radford University, USA
Stephanie B. Scheer, University of Virginia, USA
Chapter XI
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems ...... 213
Elspeth McKay, RMIT University, Australia
Chapter XII
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories ....... 249
S. Retalis, University of Piraeus, Greece
Part III: Applications and Case Studies
Chapter XIII
Interactive Multimedia and AIDS Prevention: A Case Study ........... 271
José L. Rodríguez Illera, University of Barcelona, Spain
Chapter XIV
Interactive Learning in Engineering Education ................................... 289
Katia Tannous, State University of Campinas – Unicamp, Brazil
Chapter XV
An Embedded Collaborative Systems Model for Implementing
ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning ............ 306
Shivanand Balram, Simon Fraser University, Canada
´ ´ Simon Fraser University, Canada
Suzana Dragicevic,
Chapter XVI
Cave Automated Virtual Environment: A Supercomputer-based
Multimedia System for Learning Science in a Science Center .......... 327
Leo Tan Wee Hin, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
R. Subramaniam, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Sharlene Anthony, Singapore Science Centre, Singapore
Chapter XVII
Multimedia Learning Designs: Using Authentic Learning
Interactions in Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences .................. 350
Mike Keppell, Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong
Jane Gunn, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Kelsey Hegarty, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Vivienne O’Connor, The University of Queensland, Australia
Ngaire Kerse, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Karen Kan, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Louise Brearley Messer, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Heather Bione, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Chapter XVIII
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool to Enhance Pronunciation in
Language Learning ................................................................................... 377
Felicia Zhang, University of Canberra, Australia
About the Authors ..................................................................................... 400
Index ............................................................................................................ 411
vi
Preface
There have been many experiments and innovations in the field of education
and training regarding knowledge delivery. From face-to-face to virtual education, different technologies have played great roles at different times. In the
last two decades, due to the advent of computer technologies, information delivery has got new meaning. Development, access, and transfer of text, sound,
and video data have given a unique face to classrooms, libraries, and training
and resource centers, in the form of interactive multimedia programs.
Interactive multimedia as a subject/topic is still in its stage of infancy, which
excites and attracts educational technologists. However, design and development of an interactive multimedia program is a complex task involving a team
of experts, including content provider(s), multimedia developer(s), graphic
designer(s), and, of course, the instructional designer(s), who most of the time
plays the role of a project manager as well. This book is not about multimedia
development, but the subject matter delves into the complex issue of planning,
guiding, and designing multimedia from the instructional perspective. As such,
we address pedagogical issues, applications, and effectiveness.
What is Interactive Multimedia?
Multimedia has been defined in a number of ways. It is not our intention here to
go into the details of these definitions. But, in order to clarify the use of the
term in the context of the book, we would prefer to quote a few of them:
Definition 1: “Multimedia is the combination of a variety of communication
channels into a co-ordinated communicative experience for which an integrated cross-channel language of interpretation does not exist” (ElsomCook, 2001).
vii
This definition gives way for two approaches—one that is termed the “multiple-media” utilization, and the other in which a combination of different channels acquires unification as a medium. The latter approach leads us to the next
definition:
Definition 2: “… multimedia can be defined as an integration of multiple media
elements (audio, video, graphics, text, animation, etc.) into one synergetic
and symbiotic whole that results in more benefits for the end user
than any one of the media elements can provide individually” (Reddi,
2003).
Definition 2 essentially tries to emphasize the second approach of Definition 1
with more clarity and spells out the components of multimedia. Taking a systems theory perspective, it also tells us that the overall effectiveness of multimedia is better than any one component of it. But, neither of the definitions explicitly includes the “interactive” power of multimedia, as in Definition 3:
Definition 3: “The term ‘interactive multimedia’ is a catch-all phrase to describe the new wave of computer software that primarily deals with the
provision of information. The ‘multimedia’ component is characterized by
the presence of text, pictures, sound, animation and video; some or all of
which are organized into some coherent program. The ‘interactive’ component refers to the process of empowering the user to control the environment usually by a computer” (Phillips, 1997).
Though the authors of various chapters use different words and phrases throughout the book, the intentions are invariably in tune with Definition 3 referred to
above.
Multimedia has been a favorite area for organizations as a means of training
employees. McCrea and others (2000) and Urdan and Weggen (2000) found
online training being given preference by organizations, considering that with
this method, employees can be trained in less time, with less cost, and more
effectively than with other methods. It has been found that integrating multimedia into course delivery certainly adds to the advantages (Najjar, 1996).
Authors of the various chapters in this book critically examine interactive multimedia as a tool for education and training in various settings. Much has already been said in the literature about how-to aspects of multimedia development (Boyle, 1997; Phillips, 1997; Villamil & Molina, 1998; Lachs, 2000; ElsomCook, 2001; Low et al, 2003; Reddi & Mishra, 2003). Here, the authors make
viii
an attempt to build a theoretical understanding based on experience and research. The pictures projected in all these chapters are successful implementation stories of multimedia, and how it is useful as an educational tool. Nevertheless, there is a huge amount of literature on “no significant difference.” Kahn
(n.d.), in a short review, questions the effectiveness of multimedia in online
training but recommends that it has a place “where visual/ or auditory depiction
could enhance the learning experience.” Contributors of different chapters share
their innovative uses of the potentials of multimedia, and this is expected to
further motivate and guide other teachers and readers to use multimedia in their
teaching. The chapters in the book are organized in three parts—planning
and design considerations, pedagogical issues, and application and case studies.
Planning and Design Considerations
Planning for multimedia is a much broader consideration than the design and
development issues. It is important because the implementation of multimediaenabled teaching and learning has to be integrated into an already existing system and practice. Moreover, issues such as media mix, choice, and teaching—
learning functions should match the requirements of the subject. It is in this
context that Patrick Fahy, in Chapter 1, discusses the characteristics of multimedia in relation to basic pedagogic tasks and organizational realities. He emphasizes that successful implementation of multimedia-enabled teaching and
learning includes organizational change, changes in attitudes, and issues related
to cost, acquisition of appropriate technologies, and human resources. In Chapter 2, Geraldine Torrisi-Steele provides conceptual guidelines and a planning
framework for effective use of multimedia in education. Banerji and Scales in
Chapter 3 review current developments in performance support systems and
recommend use of interactive multimedia based on performance-centered design for teaching and learning. In Chapter 4, Loreen Butcher-Powell provides a
theoretical framework for enhancing teaching through the use of Web-based
multimedia. In Chapter 5, Yoshii and others discuss the Irvine-Geneva development strategy for computer-based learning materials that can be adaptable to
many languages and cultures. Based on the experiences gained in the development of a group of software systems, the authors describe software characteristics and tools that can be successfully implemented in global education. In the
last chapter of this part (i.e., in Chapter 6), Lisa Gjedde describes a narrative
(storytelling) framework for designing multimedia learning environments.
ix
Pedagogical Issues
Learning is primarily the process through which we become the human beings
we are, and it takes place through a variety of media, strategies, and processes,
of which interactive multimedia is just one. Using these media and technologies, we internalize information and knowledge available in the external world
to construct our own experiences. Research into human learning is primarily
categorized into three distinctive groups: behaviorism, cognitivism, and
constructivism. There are others who also believe in experiential learning and
andragogy. All of these have significance for the design and development of
interactive multimedia. In this part dealing with theoretical issues, there are six
chapters. In Chapter 7, Vassilios Dagdilelis discusses the principles of designing educational software and emphasizes that “construction of educational software should be based on some method; otherwise it is in danger of failing of
costing too much or of being greatly delayed.” Michael Sankey, in Chapter 8,
continues the discussion of multiple representations in multimedia materials raised
in the previous chapter. Sankey reviews the issue of multimedia literacy of
learners and investigates the learning styles, visual representations, and cognitive constraints experienced by the learners when information is presented in
multiple ways. Based on these analyses, Sankey suggests a set of 12 design
principles. In Chapter 9, Paul Kawachi discusses a four-stage model for learning critical thinking skills using multimedia. The four stages of Design for Multimedia Learning (DML) model are brainstorming cooperative group learning
using synchronous media, lateral-thinking collaborative learning using asynchronous media, hypothesis testing in a collaborative synchronous manner, and experiential learning in cooperative synchronous media. Though this model is more
about multiple-media use in teaching and learning, it has a new innovative framework to offer in the context of use of interactive multimedia on the Web. Peter
Doolittle and others in Chapter 10 focus on multimedia and the effect of cognitive load on teaching, training, and learning. Based on a review of research,
they present seven principles of multimedia design:
Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better
1.
when the instructional environment involves words and pictures rather
than words or pictures alone (multimedia principle)
2.
when the instructional environment involves auditory narration and animation rather than on-screen text and animation (modality principle)
3.
when the instructional environment involves narration and animation rather
than on-screen text, narration, and animation (redundancy principle)
4.
when the instructional environment is free of extraneous words, pictures,
and sounds (coherence principle)
5.
when the instructional environment involves cues, or signals, that guide an
x
individual’s attention and processing during a multimedia presentation (signaling principle)
6.
where words or narration and pictures or narration are presented simultaneously in time and space (contiguity principle)
7.
where individuals experience concurrent narration and animation in short,
user-controlled segments, rather than as a longer continuous presentation
(segmentation principle)
In Chapter 11, Elspeth McKay examines contextual issues involved in
interactivity of multimedia instructional materials and the cognitive style construct as a meta-knowledge acquisition process. From a human–computer interaction (HCI) perspective, she describes a framework applicable in Webbased educational systems. In the next chapter (Chapter 12), Retalis looks into
the issue of interoperability of multimedia learning objects. This chapter describes a brokerage system for the exchange of learning resources.
Applications and Case Studies
Interactive multimedia has applications in a variety of situations in education
and training, in corporate presentation, in advertising, and in many other areas.
In this part, there are six chapters presented as illustrative case studies of the
application of multimedia. In Chapter 13, José Rodríguez Illera describes the
use of interactive multimedia in AIDS prevention. The design of the multimedia
package adopts some of the lessons outlined in Parts I and II of this book,
especially the use of role play as narrative and the social construction of meaning that make it a successful program. Katia Tannous in Chapter 14 describes
some examples of multimedia use in engineering education that extensively
uses the power of simulation. In Chapter 15, Balram and Dragicevic report a
new embedded collaborative system for structuring and managing multimedia
in cartography teaching and learning. In Chapter 16, Leo Tan Wee Hin and
others describe a multimedia system for learning science in an informal setting
of a science center in Singapore. The authors present a case of high-quality
visualizations, interactivity, immersive experiences, and stereoscopic imagery
in the multimedia virtual environment that contributes toward experiential learning and has the significant influence of the constructivist approach. In Chapter
17, Mike Keppell and others describe the use of multimedia in dental and health
science courses. Using a case-based learning design and learner-centered approach, the illustrative multimedia examples demonstrate the importance of instructional design. In the last chapter of the book (i.e., Chapter 18), Felicia
xi
Zhang reports on the use of interactive feedback tools to enhance language
learning, in this case, Chinese Mandarin.
Conclusions
In education and training settings, interactive multimedia packages have been
found to be used as library-based multimedia resources for teachers and students; as supplementary curricular material for a specific course; as a tool for
teaching and reinforcing analytic and reading skills and for building an entire
course around the use and creation of multimedia materials (Bass, n.d.). In the
modern society, where computer and Net technologies are becoming indispensable, the learning technologies are found to be deployed in all sectors: schools,
colleges, universities, and industries. The emergence of the knowledge and educational content industry, the emergence of virtual campuses of learning, the
availability of new learning and training tools, and the deployment of such tools
to meet the diverse needs of learners have greatly influenced education and
training systems. The needs for lifelong learning, just-in-time training, and retraining led to the development of widely accessible and reusable digital multimedia content and learning repositories. As the contributors of this book point
out, the advantages are multifarious: increased interoperability, reusability, and
individualization of digital learning materials. The learners are benefited in terms
of increased quality, relevance, and contextualization of their learning.
The primary objective of Interactive Multimedia in Education and Training
is to document and disseminate relevant theoretical frameworks and the latest
empirical research findings and showcase illustrative examples of multimedia
applications in various disciplines. The 18 chapters included in this book have
attempted to achieve this objective and shall be useful to teachers, researchers,
educational administrators, and policy makers as a one-step reference point on
innovative use of multimedia, based on sound pedagogical principles. Nevertheless, there are still gray areas, such as the assessment of multimedia packages, their costs, and return on investment (ROI). In spite of this gap, it is
expected that this book will encourage teachers/trainers and administrators to
plan, design, develop, and implement interactive multimedia in educational settings: in basic, secondary, higher, and further education, and in business and
industrial training.
xii
References
Bass, R. (n.d.). A brief guide to interactive multimedia and the study of the
United States. Retrieved November 24, 2003 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.georgetown.edu/faculty/bassr/multimedia.html
Boyle, T. (1997). Design for multimedia learning, London: Prentice Hall.
Elsom-Cook, M. (2001). Principles of interactive multimedia (p. 7). London:
McGraw Hill.
Kahn, D. (n.d). How effective is multimedia in online training? E-learning
Guru.com White Papers. Retrieved November 26, 2003 from the World
Wide Web: http://www.e-learningguru.com/wpapers/multimedia.pdf
Lachs, V. (2001). Making multimedia in the classroom. London: Routledge
Falmer.
Low, A. L. Y., Low, K. L. T., & Koo, V. C. (2003). Multimedia learning systems: A future interactive educational tool. Internet in Higher Education, 6, 25–40.
McCrea, F., Gay, R. K., & Bacon, R. (2000). Riding the big waves: A white
paper on B2B e-learning industry. San Francisco: Thomas Weisel Partners LLC.
Najjar, L. J. (1996). The effects of multimedia and elaborative encoding on
learning. Atlanta, GA: Georgia Institute of Technology.
Phillips, R. (1997). The developers handbook to interactive multimedia: A
practical guide for educational developers (p. 8). London: Kogan Page.
Reddi, U. V. (2003). Multimedia as an educational tool. In U. V. Reddi, & S.
Mishra (Eds.), Educational multimedia: A handbook for teacher-developers (pp. 3–7). New Delhi: CEMCA.
Reddi, U. V., & Mishra, S. (Eds.). (2003). Educational multimedia: A handbook for teacher-developers. New Delhi: CEMCA.
Urdan, T. A., & Weggen, C. C. (2000). Corporate e-learning: Exploring a
new frontier. WR+Hambrecht & CO.
Villamil, J., & Molina, L. (1998). Multimedia: An introduction, New Delhi:
Prentice-Hall of India.
xiii
Acknowledgments
The editors would like to express their sincere gratitude and thanks to all those
who directly or indirectly helped in the collation and review process of the
book, without whose support, the project could not have been satisfactorily
completed. Most of the authors of chapters included in this book also served as
referees of articles written by other authors. In addition, many others provided
constructive and comprehensive reviews on chapters. Some of those who provided the most comprehensive, critical, and illuminative comments include Dr.
Som Naidu, University of Melbourne; Dr. Kinshuk, Massey University; Dr.
Punya Mishra, Michigan State University; and Dr. Allison Littlejohn, University
of Strathclyde—our sincere thanks to all of them.
A special note of thanks goes to all the staff at Idea Group Inc., whose contributions throughout the whole process from inception of the initial idea to final
publication have been invaluable. Especially we are indebted to Mehdi KhosrowPour, Senior Academics Editor; Jan Travers, Senior Managing Editor; Michele
Rossi, Development Editor; Amanda Appicello, Managing Editor; and Jennifer
Sundstrom, Assistant Marketing Manager for providing support from time to
time and dealing with our queries at a lightening speed. Their special interest in
the publication, and professional guidance made it easier for us to complete the
editing work on time.
We would like to thank our employer, the Indira Gandhi National Open University, and its staff members for their constant encouragement to do quality work.
Dr. Sharma, especially would like to thank his wife, Madhu, and children, Anku
and Appu, for their constant support and understanding.
Last but not the least, all the contributing authors of the book deserve special
thanks for their excellent contributions, and we are grateful to all of them for
having faith on us during the long development process of the book and for
meeting the deadlines.
Sanjaya Mishra
Ramesh C. Sharma
Editors
Part I
Planning and
Design
Considerations
Planning for Multimedia Learning
1
Chapter I
Planning for
Multimedia Learning
Patrick J. Fahy, Athabasca University, Canada
Abstract
Multimedia tools, applied with awareness of the realities of organizational
culture, structures and finances, have been shown to enhance the
performance of learning systems. If some predictable pitfalls are avoided,
and proven pedagogical design principles and appropriate vehicles
(including the Internet) are used effectively, multimedia can permit greater
individualization, in turn fostering improved learning, learner satisfaction,
and completion rates.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
2 Fahy
Introduction
Effective uses of multimedia in open and distance learning (ODL) depend upon
various factors, some intrinsic to the media themselves, and others related to the
differing pedagogic tasks and organizational environments into which these tools
are introduced. For those planning use of multimedia, it may be valuable to
consider the likely impacts of these tools on teaching and learning practices and
outcomes, and on organizational structures and processes, as they are likely to
be different in scope and magnitude from those of traditional instructional
innovations.
This chapter discusses some of the characteristics of multimedia in relation to
basic pedagogic tasks and organizational realities. The goal is to alert new users
to issues that often arise in multimedia implementations and to assist experienced
users in assessing their strategies, by outlining some fundamental considerations
commonly affecting implementation of multimedia. Both new and experienced
technology users will hopefully find the discussion useful for reflecting on
options, and anticipating potential pedagogic and administrative challenges, as
they move from simpler to more complex combinations of media for teaching.
The chapter begins with a discussion of the term multimedia, including a review
of some of the characteristics (including common pedagogic benefits and
potential issues) of specific media. Based on this analysis, some of the conditions
under which multimedia might readily support learning tasks are explored.
Finally, the impact of multimedia as an innovation on aspects of organizational
culture (including structure and finances) are addressed.
Defining Multimedia
While the term “multimedia” has not always been associated with computers
(Roblyer & Schwier, 2003, p. 157), there is no doubt that it is the merging of
increasingly powerful computer-based authoring tools with Internet connectivity
that is responsible for the growing interest in and use of multimedia instruction,
in both distance and face-to-face environments. This trend is encouraged by
growing evidence that well-designed online delivery, regardless of the media
used, can improve retention, expand the scope and resources available in
learning situations, and increase the motivation of users (Fischer, 1997; Bruce &
Levin, 1997; Mayer, 2001). For these reasons, the term “multimedia” is now
firmly associated with computer-based delivery, usually over the Internet and
accompanied and supported by interaction provided via some form of computermediated communication (CMC).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Planning for Multimedia Learning
3
Definitions of multimedia vary in particulars but tend to agree in substance.
Mayer (2001, p. 1) defined multimedia learning simply as “presentation of
material using both words and pictures.” Roblyer and Schwier (2003) observed
that definition is problematic, because it is increasingly difficult to distinguish
multimedia from other tools with which it seems to be converging. They also note
that multimedia have sometimes been defined simplistically by the storage
devices they employ, e.g., CD-ROM, videodisc, DVD, etc., a practice they
regard as clearly inadequate. Roblyer and Schwier offered this definition of
multimedia: “A computer system or computer system product that incorporates
text, sound, pictures/graphics, and/or audio” (p. 329). They added that the
multimedia implies the purpose of “communicating information” (p. 157).
In keeping with the above, in this chapter, the term “multimedia” refers to the
provision of various audio and video elements in teaching and training materials.
Usually, the delivery of the media is by computer, and increasingly, it involves the
Internet in some way, but the storage and delivery devices, as noted above, are
secondary to the forms of the stimuli that reach the user. The definition assumes
that media are used, but it does not address such design issues as choice of
specific media for differing pedagogic purposes and levels of user control.
Basic to considering how specific media contribute to the effectiveness or
ineffectiveness of multimedia is a brief discussion of the available research on
technology in learning. Multimedia technologies invariably consist of media with
effects on learning that have been studied before, making this knowledge
pertinent and applicable here (Saettler, 1990).
Media and Learning
Specific Media Characteristics
For some time, media have been used with more traditional delivery methods
(lectures, tutorials) to support essential teaching objectives, such as the following
(Wright, 1998):
•
•
•
•
Clarifying and illustrating complex subjects
Adapting to individual learning styles
Improving retention and aiding recall
Reaching nonverbal learners
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
4 Fahy
Debates have occurred over the precise role of media in learning. The fundamental disagreement between Clark (1983, 1994) and Kozma (1994) about
media and learning is familiar historically and need not be repeated here. It seems
clear that Mayer’s (2001) views of multimedia (discussed later) clearly support
one point made in that debate, that of the “interdependence” of presentation
media and delivery methods in certain circumstances, especially in collaborative
situations, and where higher-order learning is an objective (Crooks & Kirkwood,
1988; Juler, 1990; Koumi, 1994). As Berge (1995, p. 23) concluded, and as has
been documented by Mayer (2001), “Some media channels promote particular
interactions, and other channels can hinder that same type of interaction.”
While the potential for successful high-level learning outcomes is present in
media use, a persistent problem in multimedia applications has been failure to
achieve more than low-level learning outcomes (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, &
Krathwohl, 1956). Helm and McClements (1996) commented critically,
“Interactivity in the context of multimedia often refers to the learners’ ability to
follow hypertext links or stop and start video clips…. Much of what passes for
interactivity should really be called feedback” (p. 135). These are serious
criticisms, justifying Mayer’s (2001) advice, “Instead of asking which medium
makes the best deliveries, we might ask which instructional techniques help guide
the learner’s cognitive processing of the presented material” (p. 71).
The varying characteristics of different presentation media and modes, and their
implications for learning, have direct implications for the design of multimedia
strategies and materials. Sound can supplement visual information and can be
used to attract attention, arouse and hold interest, provide cues and feedback, aid
memory, and provide some types of subject matter (heart or machinery sounds,
voice clips). Music can be used to augment feedback, grab attention or alert
users, and support the mood of a presentation. Synthetic speech, while useful
for handicapped users, is less effective if too mechanical sounding. Szabo (1998)
concluded that achievement gains due to audio are “weak or non-existent.” He
added that where benefits are seen, they tend to accrue to the more highly verbal
learners. Problems with development costs and bandwidth for delivery of audio
can also be significant (Wright, 1998; Szabo, 1998).
Graphics and color can be used for various purposes, from simple decoration
to higher-level interpretation and transformation (helping the observer to form
valid mental images) (Levin, Anglin, & Carney, 1987). Research has shown that
realism and detail are not critical in graphics and may, in fact, extend learning
time for some users; relevance is more important than detail (Szabo, 1998). Color
may also distract some learners, unless it is highly relevant to instruction. A
significant proportion of individuals (especially men) have some degree of colorblindness, suggesting that color should be placed under the control of the user
where possible. The best contrasts are achieved with blue, black, or red on white
or white, yellow, or green on black.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Planning for Multimedia Learning
5
Animation can sometimes shorten learning times by illustrating changes in the
operation or state of things; showing dangerous, rapid, or rare events; or
explaining abstract concepts. For some, animation increases interest and holds
attention better than text or audio, and the resulting learning seems to be retained
(Szabo, 1998). Overall, however, research indicates that well-designed and
imaginative verbal presentations may be capable of producing similar outcomes
(Rieber & Boyce, 1990), leading to the conclusion that animation may not
possess many unique instructional capabilities.
Video (motion or sequences of still graphics) can be used to show action and
processes and to illustrate events that users cannot see directly or clearly in real
time. Video, when used skillfully and artistically, can also emotionally move
observers and can produce impacts affecting attitudes similar to in-person
observation of real events.
Hypermedia is the linking of multimedia documents, while hypertext is the
linking of words or phrases to other words or phrases in the same or another
document (Maier, Barnett, Warren, & Brunner, 1996, p. 85). Hypertext and
hypermedia may be difficult to distinguish and increasingly difficult to separate
from other applications of multimedia (Roblyer & Schwier, 2003). When paired
with plain text, hypertext has been shown to be a cost-effective way to extend
text’s information-conveying capabilities, especially for more capable learners.
Szabo (1998) suggested that hypertext should be used more to provide access to
information than for actual teaching, in recognition of the need for hypertext
materials to be placed in context for maximum impact (especially for less
experienced or less capable learners).
Hypermedia is a particularly promising form of multimedia materials designed
for ODL (Maier, Barnett, Warren, & Brunner, 1996, p. 85; Roblyer & Schwier,
2003). With advances in hardware, software, and human–computer interfaces,
it is now technically feasible to use hypermedia systems routinely in online
teaching. Dozens of hypertext and hypermedia systems exist, with most offering
three basic advantages:
•
Huge amounts of information from various media can be stored in a
compact, conveniently accessible form, and can easily be included in
learning materials.
•
Hypermedia potentially permit more learner control (users can choose
whether or when to follow the available links).
•
Hypermedia can provide teachers and learners with new ways of interacting, rewarding learners who developed independent study skills and permitting teachers to be creative in how they interact with learners (Marchionini,
1988, p. 3).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
6 Fahy
There are potential problems, too, in learning with hypermedia, related to the
volume and structure of all information found on the Web. The vast amounts of
information available can overwhelm the learner, especially if structure is
inadequate or procedures such as searches are not skillfully refined, allowing
learners to “wander off” and become engrossed in appealing but irrelevant side
topics. Learners who do not have independent study skills may not be able to
manage the complexity of hypermedia. This problem may not be immediately
evident, however, because they appear to be engaged and on task, sometimes
deeply so.
Other potential problems in teaching with hypermedia include some unique to this
medium and others common to all learning situations that require specific skills
or make assumptions about learner attributes and characteristics:
•
Hypermedia require basic literacy skills. While this may change as increasing bandwidth makes audio and video available, presently, the Internet and
its multimedia products rely heavily on text.
•
A related problem is that interacting with hypermedia and multimedia
requires keyboard and mouse skills, as well as understanding and manipulating function keys. The computer illiterate, the unskilled, or the physically
handicapped may be affected.
•
More broadly, accessing hypermedia and multimedia requires computer
use, including sitting in front of the machine and making sense of its cues
and displays. Those with vision, concentration, coordination, or mobility
problems, or those distracted or confused by the intense stimulation of
colors, animation, sound, etc., may be penalized.
The above specific features of media have been shown to affect their usefulness
for teaching and learning. In addition to the limitations of media, a key point here
is the importance of historical media research to the present discussion:
multimedia are media, and the view taken in this chapter is that knowledge
previously gained about their impact on learning is still highly applicable.
Media Characteristics, Teaching Conditions, and Learning Outcomes
When media are used together, their effects can interact, sometimes unpredictably. With media, “more is not necessarily better.”
There is as yet little thorough research on multimedia technologies to inform
design and implementation decisions; use of previous research may help guide
present practice. What follows is a discussion of some key didactic purposes to
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Planning for Multimedia Learning
7
which media may apply, followed by some remarks about the Internet as a base
for multimedia delivery.
Evaluations have shown that a fundamental benefit to students from the best uses
of technology in teaching is a more systematic approach to the individualization
and customization of instruction (Massy & Zemsky, 1999). Properly designed,
a technology-based learning environment provides students with more options
than are typically available in traditional learning situations, in content, pace,
preparation, and review of prerequisites, and for activities such as collaboration,
consultation, and testing/evaluation. These are objectives that have long been
recognized as pedagogically essential (Zimmerman, 1972; Mezirow & Irish,
1974; Kemp, 1977; Dede, 1996; Roblyer, Edwards, & Havriluk, 1997). Among
the benefits of technology delivery are the potential for less required training
time; greater mastery and better transfer of skills; more consistency in delivery
of content (a particularly important outcome of skill training); and greater student
persistence, completion, satisfaction, collaboration, and self-direction (Grow,
1991; Moore, 1993). In some situations, experience has shown that highly selfdirected students may be able to undertake and complete advanced studies with
little or no direct assistance or intervention from the institution, increasing
efficiency through the “unbundling” of learning from direct teaching (Massy &
Zemsky, 1999, pp. 2–3). In the best examples, technologies increase learning,
enhance learner satisfaction, stabilize costs, and raise the visibility and appeal of
(and potential revenues from) existing programs (Oberlin, 1996).
While positive effects are possible in teaching with media, they are not
automatic. Internal consistency of objectives is critical: multimedia technologies
must be congruent with the organization’s learning model and actual teaching
practices, as well as with students’ expectations and capabilities for autonomy
and self-direction (Grow, 1991). If tools are chosen for their technological
capabilities alone, there is a risk of failing to fit with the organizational
environment (Helm & McClements, 1996; Mayer, 2001; Welsch, 2002), resulting in potentially disastrous technology implementation “mistakes” (Quinn &
Baily, 1994).
Despite differing characteristics, useful online training technologies have in
common the effect of bringing the student into timely and productive contact with
the tutor, the content, and peers, thereby reducing the “transactional distance”
in distance learning, the communications gap or psychological distance between
geographically separated participants (Moore, 1989; Chen & Willits, 1998). The
differences in how various media accomplish their effects are important to their
potential usefulness. Figure 1, for example, compares instruction delivered by
human and technological means (Fischer, 1997).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
8 Fahy
Figure 1: Comparison of characteristics of human- and technology-based
instruction
Training element
Planning and preparation
Expertise
Interactivity
Learning retention
Human-delivered training
Able to design training to
correspond to the training
plan; able to monitor
consistency
Presenters hired from
industry usually represent the
most current knowledge and
highest expertise
Instructors tend to train the
group, ignoring individual
needs
Retention rates vary
Consistency
Instructors tend to adapt to
the audience, sacrificing
consistency
Feedback, performance
tracking
Human instructors especially
good at constant, ongoing
evaluation, response to
trainee performance
Technology-based training
Must be systematically
designed to conform to the
training plan
Must be designed to conform
to industry standards;
currency with standards must
be maintained
Able to focus on individual
needs in content, pacing,
review, remediation, etc.
Can be up to 50% higher than
instructor-led group training
Rigorously maintains
standards but may also be
designed to adapt to learner’s
performance or preferences
Better at keeping records and
generating reports, but
designing cybernetic systems
to adapt instruction based on
feedback is costly, complex
Note: Elements: Fisher, 1997 (pp. 29-30).
Illustrated in Figure 1 are some of the trade-offs inherent in the decision to use
teaching media, as opposed to traditional forms of delivery alone. If a critical
value for a program is met by tutor-based delivery, and resources are plentiful,
it may be chosen without regard for cost. Where economy is important, however,
the “best” delivery solution may not be affordable; a less costly but still adequate
solution may have to be chosen. (This was the purpose of Bloom’s [1984] “twosigma” challenge, to find a teaching medium as effective as one-on-one tutoring.
The search, of course, continues with multimedia.) Analysis such as the above
may assist in identifying the trade-offs involved in the choice of one medium or
technology over another and may suggest compensating strategies to improve
the effectiveness of whatever tool is chosen (Wolfe, 1990).
Besides cost and accessibility (Bates, 1995), another issue in selecting media is
the type of experience or learning outcomes intended by the training (DeSanctis
& Gallupe, 1987). Picard (1999), for instance, sees the key contribution of media
as their ability to promote relationship building, and not merely information
exchange, in work or learning.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Planning for Multimedia Learning
9
Figure 2: Relation of data, audio, and video technologies to information
exchange and relationship-building outcomes
|
|
(High)
|
Audio + data
|
Audio + data +
|
|
video
|
|
|
|
Information |_______________________ |___________________
|
|
Exchange
|
Audio only
|
Audio + video
|
|
|
|
|(Low)___________________|____________________
Relationship-building
Source: Picard (1999).
From Figure 2, we see the following:
•
When relationship-building and information exchange needs are both low,
audio media alone may suffice.
•
When both relationship-building and information-exchange needs are high,
audio, video, and information exchange (including text) should all be
present.
•
Relationship-building is enhanced by combining audioconferencing and
video together with data, especially text. (Text alone has substantial
relationship-building capabilities, as anyone who has ever had a pen pal, or
exchanged love letters, can attest.)
In relation to learning, technologies have potential directly to address common
teaching tasks. In Figure 3, the views of several theoreticians regarding tasks or
conditions essential to learning are compared. Two points should be noted in this
comparison: (a) there is considerable apparent agreement among authorities on
elements essential to effective teaching and learning, and (b) there appear to be
obvious roles for multimedia in supporting some of these tasks.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
10 Fahy
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Figure 3: Comparison of models of effective teaching and learning: roles for multimedia
Bloom (1984)
Tutorial instruction
Chickering & Gamson
(1989)
Student–faculty
interaction
Reinforcement
Student–faculty
interaction
Corrective feedback
Proper feedback
Cues and explanations
Student–faculty
interaction
Student participation
Active learning; student
reciprocity and
cooperation
Time on task
Time on task;
communicating high
expectations
Assessing and enhancing Respecting diverse ways
learner’s reading and
of learning
study skills
Gagne (1985)
Joyce & Weil (1980)
Presenting new material;
describing objectives;
gaining learner’s
attention
Recalling previous
learning; enhancing
retention and recall
Providing feedback on
performance
Learning guidance
Presenting stimuli,
objectives; sequencing
learning tasks
Increasing attention;
promoting recall
General support
Prompting and guiding
Feedback
Prompting and guiding
Guidance
Student performance
Evoking performance
Active involvement
Assessing performance
Moore (in Garrison,
1989)
Communicating in an
understandable manner
Planning for Multimedia Learning
11
A broader point in this discussion is made in Figure 3: technologies have
capabilities to assist in specific teaching tasks, if used within their identified
limitations as presentation and delivery media. The purpose of research on media
is to identify characteristics (capabilities and limitations) that can then be applied
in the ID phase, thus avoiding use of the wrong tool for a specific pedagogical
purpose. Previous media research can be useful in identifying multimedia
implementations able to supply or support the following:
•
Instruction—CAL (computer-assisted learning), including various types
of simulations, can be used, supported by varieties of CMC (e-mail,
synchronous and asynchronous IP-audio- and IP-videoconferences, textchat, file exchanges, and data access).
•
Reinforcement, corrective feedback, and cues and explanations—
CAL and, especially, CML (computer-manager learning) can be useful.
•
Participation, engagement, time-on-task—Strategies for collaboration
and cooperation with peers and authorities include various forms of
problem-based learning, using Internet-based communications tools. Motivational advantages are gained from the scope of access and the immediacy of interaction provided by the Web.
•
Assessing and respecting diverse learning styles, preferences—
Though not cited by all the authorities in Figure 3, this may be one of the
most powerful arguments for multimedia delivery. (As Fletcher [1992]
recognized more than a decade ago, individualization is both “a morale
imperative and an economic impossibility”—unless, it is argued here, use is
made of well-designed multimedia resources.)
As noted earlier, technologies vary in their immediacy and interpersonal impact.
For example, video affects the likelihood and, according to some research, the
speed with which relationships will grow in mediated interaction, while simple
data exchange may do little to promote relationships in virtual work teams
(Walther, 1996; Picard, 1999). The objectives of the instruction should dictate the
media to be used and must be grounded in the media’s demonstrated capabilities;
the choice of media thus both affects and reflects the relative emphasis on
different desired learning outcomes.
Multimedia and the Internet
Multimedia are increasingly associated with the Internet, which offers both
delivery advantages and challenges to users: advantages arise from the Internet’s
enormous capacity to link and interconnect, but there are potentially serious
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
12 Fahy
problems related to lack of inherent structure and tutor control (Thaler, 1999;
Stafford, 1999; Campbell, 1999). Advantages of the Internet for teaching, under
ideal conditions, include the following (Heinich, Molenda, Russell, & Smaldino,
1996, p. 263):
•
Engrossing: The opportunity for deep involvement, capturing and holding
learner interest.
•
Multisensory: The incorporation of sounds and images along with text (but
see Mayer’s [2001] multimedia principles, below, regarding the limits of
sensory channels).
•
Connections: Learners can connect ideas from different media sources,
for example, connecting the sound of a musical instrument with its
illustration.
•
Individualized: Web structure allows users to navigate through the
information according to their interests and to build their own unique mental
structures based on exploration.
•
Collaborative creation: Software allows teachers and learners to create
their own hypermedia materials; project-based learning provides opportunities for authentic collaboration.
Some of the more common problems with the Internet for teaching, and as a
platform for multimedia delivery, are as follows (Heinich et al., 1996, p. 263):
•
•
Getting lost: Users can get confused, or “lost in cyberspace.”
•
Noninteractive: Programs may simply be one-way presentations of information with no specific opportunities for interaction or practice with
feedback. A further problem is that, due to poor design, what may be
intended as interaction is sometimes more accurately called feedback
(Helm & McClements, 1996).
•
Time-consuming: Because they are nonlinear and invite exploration,
hypermedia programs tend to require more time for learners to reach
prespecified objectives. Because they are more complex than conventional
instructional materials, hypermedia systems require more time to master
(“Workers find,” 2000).
•
Bandwidth: This continues to be a critical barrier to Web-based multimedia
use for some potential users. While broadband availability is increasing
Lack of structure: Those whose learning style requires more structure and
guidance may become frustrated. Some less-experienced or less welldisciplined users may also make poor decisions about how much information they need.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Planning for Multimedia Learning
13
worldwide (PC Magazine, 2003), especially outside North America
(“Where’s the broadband boom?,” 2002), online speeds still prevent many
users from accessing multimedia efficiently or reliably (Howard, 2001;
Miller, 2002).
The above inherent limitations of the Internet as a multimedia delivery tool arise
from its very nature. In order for these limitations to change, the Internet would
have to become more structured, limiting user choices. This is unlikely, as these
changes would make the Web a very different entity from what it is today
(Greenaway, 2002).
Planning Issues with Multimedia
Design and Development Principles
The potentials and challenges discussed above underscore the importance of
planning and design in the implementation of multimedia. Fortunately, research
offers principles that can guide instructional designers and instructors in the
development and use of multimedia. Mayer’s (2001) work is particularly useful.
His examination of the impact of multimedia on learning, based on how the human
mind works to process verbal and visual information (p. 4), has produced
important insights about media and learning, including the following:
•
Words and pictures, although qualitatively different, complement one
another and promote learning, if learners are successful in mentally
integrating visual and verbal representations (p. 5).
•
True learning is more a process of knowledge construction than information
acquisition (p. 12).
•
Deep learning is evidenced by retention and transfer (lack of which
indicates no learning, or merely superficial rote learning) (pp. 5, 16–17).
In Mayer’s model, there are three key assumptions underpinning a cognitive
theory of multimedia learning: (a) humans have dual channels for processing
input as part of learning, the visual and the auditory; (b) while the two channels
exist in most people, humans are limited in the amount of the information they can
process in each channel at one time; and (c) learners must actively process
information and experience as part of learning, by a process that includes
attending to relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into
coherent mental representations and integrating mental representations with
other knowledge (p. 44).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
14 Fahy
Mayer (2001, p. 41) concluded that successful learning requires students to
perform five actions, with direct implications for the design of effective
multimedia instruction:
1.
Select relevant words from the presented text or narration.
2.
Select relevant images from the presented illustrations.
3.
Organize the selected words into a coherent verbal representation.
4.
Organize selected images into a coherent visual representation.
5.
Integrate the visual and verbal representations with prior knowledge.
Mayer articulated seven principles useful for guiding the design of multimedia
instruction. Under these principles, students have been shown to achieve greater
retention and transfer (Mayer, 2001, p. 172):
1.
Multimedia principle: Students learn better from words and pictures than
from words alone.
2.
Spatial contiguity principle: Students learn better when corresponding
words and pictures are presented near rather than far from each other on
the page or screen.
3.
Temporal contiguity principle: Students learn better when corresponding words and pictures are presented simultaneously rather than successively.
4.
Coherence principle: Students learn better when extraneous words,
pictures, and sounds are excluded rather than included. (“Extraneous” can
refer either to topical or conceptual relevance, with the latter being more
important.)
5.
Modality principle: Students learn better from animation and narration
than from animation and on-screen text. (This principle assumes use of a
concise narrated animation, text that omits unneeded words.) (See p.
135.)
6.
Redundancy principle: Students learn better from animation and narration than from animation, narration, and on-screen text. (This principle is
based on capacity-limitation hypothesis, which holds that learners have
limited capacity to process material visually and auditorily [p. 152].
Eliminating redundant material results in better learning performance than
including it [p. 153]).
7.
Individual differences principle: A particularly important finding is that
design effects are stronger for low-knowledge learners than for highknowledge learners, and for high-spatial learners than for low-spatial
learners (p. 184).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Planning for Multimedia Learning
15
The above are examples of design principles under which learning may be
enhanced by the use of various display or delivery media. Principles such as
these are particularly important, as they are research-based and tested (Mayer,
2001). Any design principles adopted should meet similarly stringent empirical
tests.
Multimedia, Productivity and Performance
The previous discussion suggests that multimedia implementation, while potentially valuable to learning, requires strategic planning to exploit pedagogic
possibilities and avoid the pitfalls of misapplication. The point has further been
stressed that the existing literature on technology-based learning is applicable to
multimedia planning, especially the known pedagogic and representational
characteristics of individual media identified in actual learning situations. There
are nonpedagogic considerations, too, related to organizational impacts and
various costs from the use of multimedia.
A realistic decision to incorporate multimedia in ODL should recognize that
multimedia, like most technologies, are unlikely initially, or perhaps ever, to save
the organization time or money (Quinn & Bailey, 1994; Burge, 2000; Cassidy,
2000). In fact, multimedia may in the short-term increase operational complexity,
create “organizational chaos” (Murgatroyd, 1992), and promote time-wasting
behaviors by users throughout the organization (Laudon, Traver, & Laudon,
1996; Fernandez, 1997; Evans, 1998; Fahy, 2000; Dalal, 2001). The early effects
of multimedia, like other technologies in complex organizations, may well include
lower organizational productivity (Black & Lynch, 1996).
Another caveat is financial: the economics of technologies generally suggest that
the total cost of ownership (TCO) of multimedia technologies will constantly rise
(Oberlin, 1996), and that no genuine cost savings may ever actually be achieved
by some users (Welsch, 2002). The rationale for adopting multimedia technologies, therefore, is more related to performance enhancements, such as greater
flexibility, improved learning, and higher satisfaction and completion rates for
users, than to cost savings (Oberlin, 1996; Daniel, 1996; Fahy, 1998).
This point is significant, because, historically, technology users have sometimes
confused performance and productivity outcomes in technology implementations, underestimating the costs and long-term impacts of technology, while, to
the detriment of realistic expectations, overestimating and overselling possible
productivity benefits (Dietrich & Johnson, 1967; McIsaac, 1979; Mehlinger,
1996; Strauss, 1997; Lohr, 1997; Wysocki, 1998; Greenaway, 2002; Hartnett,
2002). For the future of multimedia, avoiding these kinds of mistakes is critical:
unrealistic expectations produce disappointment, and may result in skepticism
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
16 Fahy
among instructors and managers about the value of educational innovation
generally, and educational technologies in particular (“Nothing travels through an
educational vacuum like a technological bandwagon.”)
Organizational Issues in Multimedia Adoption
Realistic expectations of multimedia require compatibility with the adopting
organization’s culture, structure, and finances (Welsch, 2002).
The culture of any organization includes its various values, beliefs, myths,
traditions, and norms, as well as its historic practices and typical ways of doing
business (including how it adopts or rejects innovations). Organizational culture
may present the most serious challenges to those responsible for the strategic
planning (Rogers, 1983; Stringer & Uchenick, 1986), including the problem of
distinguishing whether any resistance encountered is due to simple unwillingness
or to real inability (Welsch, 2002). (In the latter case, resistance may be rationale
and appropriate, a sign that conditions are not right for an innovation to succeed.)
The problem is thought to be particularly acute in slow-to-change enterprises
such as public education (Senge, 1990).
Another problem for adoption of complex innovations such as multimedia is the
attitude in some organizations that training is an optional activity (Gordon, 1997).
Ironically, it is technologically illiterate managers and administrators who most
often resist training initiatives, both for themselves and their staff, to avoid
embarrassment in an area in which they know their expertise is not as great as
their subordinates’. The needs analysis stage of planning is the best place to
assure that cultural issues like these are recognized and evaluated in advance.
Planning for multimedia implementation need not be timid. The needs assessment should carefully distinguish climate from culture and respond accordingly.
Climate consists of the commonly held viewpoints and opinions in the organization, directly influenced by widely recognized measures of organizational health
and success, such as enrollment or student achievement and performance
relative to competitors. Climate is more “constructed” and temporary than
culture, based upon elements such as student and staff perceptions of how well
the organization is performing its fundamental tasks. By its nature, climate is
more manageable than culture. Managers, by their reactions to external developments, can influence how staff members interpret the outside events that may
shape climate. Climate is an area in which planning can have an impact, through
the efforts of planners to influence the internal recognition and interpretation of
outside events.
In addition to culture, structural factors within the organization may also affect
multimedia innovations. The presence and adequacy of the required technologi-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Planning for Multimedia Learning
17
cal infrastructure, including software, hardware, communications, and networking systems, should be assessed. Personnel in the form of knowledgeable
management, maintenance, training and support staff, key consultants, and costeffective contract help are also critical structural elements. If not already
provided for, the costs of system upgrades and ongoing maintenance (including
initial and recurrent training for staff) should be assessed in a structural review,
preceding the introduction of multimedia systems. Ongoing costs should be
identified in budget projections.
Finances are a vital part of any multimedia adoption in ODL. Assessing
organizational finances also introduces complexity into the planning process, as
costs are inherently difficult to predict accurately, sometimes even to identify
completely. While precise accuracy in cost analysis may be difficult, potential
purchasers of technologies should be aware that, as noted above, the total cost
of ownership of multimedia technology will likely be well above the purchase
price, exceeding the purchase price by many times (Oberlin, 1996; Black &
Lynch, 1996; Khan & Hirata, 2001; Welsch, 2002). Using a definition of
productivity as the ratio of benefits to costs (Massy & Zemsky, 1999), the high
cost of a technology may not be disqualifying if the payback is clear. Costs alone
do not necessarily change the justification for a technology, but they could
constitute a shock to an organization that has not adequately anticipated them.
Part of the rationale for investing in multimedia is the fact that technology
provides flexibility: technologies are more scalable than human resources, if this
aspect is exploited in the organizational vision. In general, scalability means that
program growth may be more easily accommodated with technology than
without it; costs do not escalate in line with growth as they do where enrollment
increases are borne strictly by hiring more instructors and support staff.
Multimedia resources may be augmented or trimmed without reference to
collective agreements or other commitments. Another difference is that technologies such as multimedia tend to become more efficient the more use is made
of them, lowering the break-even point and increasing their efficiency (Matkin,
1997; Harvard Computing Group, 1998; Watkins & Callahan, 1998).
The decision to acquire technology is fundamentally a strategic one, because
technologies are means to various ends. Bates (1995) suggested that accessibility and cost are the two most important discriminators among technologies,
and thus the most critical criteria in a technology acquisition process. A decision
to “build” or develop a new multimedia technology option should bear in mind that
there is now a rapidly increasing amount of available software (Gale, 2001). A
careful analysis of needs and a search of available options should be performed,
especially before a decision to develop is authorized, as even professional
programming projects, in general, often end in failure (Girard, 2003), and
instructors who lack special instructional design (ID) training are particularly apt
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
18 Fahy
to become bogged down in the development of ultimately mediocre materials
(Grabe & Grabe, 1996).
Another factor in assessing the financial viability of various multimedia technologies is the potential target audience in relation to the expected costs of
production. Perry (2000) cautioned that custom multimedia training courseware
will likely not be cost-effective for fewer than 1,000 users. Bates (1995, 2000)
also offered figures and usage considerations that help with the assessment of
costs and benefits. Costs and time frames can be formidable: Szabo (1998)
reported nearly a fourfold range (40 to 150 hours per hour of instruction) for
development of very basic computer-assisted learning (CAL) in health education, and another study reported that a 6 hour module in weather forecasting,
involving a production team of instructional designers, meteorologists, hydrologists, graphics artists, media specialists, computer scientists, and SMEs, consumed a year and cost $250,000 (Johnson, 2000).
Conclusions
Presented in this chapter was a discussion of factors (inherent, pedagogic, and
organizational) that may impact planning for multimedia use. The suggestion here
is that multimedia are more likely to affect pedagogical performance (how well
the program or the organization does its work) than productivity (measured by
profitability). In planning for multimedia implementation, it was suggested,
performance outcomes should be the focus (improvements in quality of service,
as measured by timeliness, accessibility, convenience, and responsiveness of
program offerings and supports), rather than “bottom-line” outcomes.
Strategic planning in the form of ID promotes proper uses of multimedia
technologies, especially (at the awareness and adoption stages). The best
pedagogical arguments for use of multimedia technologies (providing more
learner convenience, satisfaction and success) may be compelling enough, but
problems in relation to existing organizational culture, structure and finances
should not be overlooked. The adoption process includes distinguishing climate
factors from culture (the former being more amenable to influence by effective
leaders); considering the needs of affected groups in planning; acknowledging
and respecting users’ expectations; providing existing managers with training, so
they can provide effective leadership; accurately assessing existing and needed
technical resources; avoiding overselling potential benefits, thus keeping expectations realistic; and selecting, adapting, or (rarely) building products on the basis
of demonstrable advantages, especially accessibility and costs.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Planning for Multimedia Learning
19
Pedagogically, the principal contributions of multimedia technologies in teaching
and training are likely to be increased flexibility, resulting in greater learner
access and convenience, and more choices to users, including self-pacing,
individualization, customization, and learner control. Positive impacts such as
these on aspects of the teaching process can be anticipated, but problems should
also be expected; media selection usually involves trade-offs, and the losses and
gains in the choice of one delivery or presentation medium over another should
be acknowledged.
For instructional designers, principles exist to guide development of multimedia.
Among the most useful of these are the multimedia principles that address design
issues such as contiguity, redundancy, coherence, and choices of delivery modes
(Mayer, 2001). Adoption of these principles would, in general, likely result in
“lean” multimedia design, with use of audio-textual and visual-pictorial elements
based more directly upon empirical evidence about how these actually impact
learning, rather than upon their technical features alone. Though perhaps less
technologically elegant, such implementations promise to be more pedagogically
effective and organizationally compatible.
References
Bates, A. W. (1995). Technology, open learning and distance education.
New York: Routledge.
Bates, A. W. (2000). Managing technological change. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Berge, Z. (1995). Facilitating computer conferencing: Recommendations from
the field. Educational Technology, January–February, pp. 22–30.
Black, S., & Lynch, L. (1996). Human-capital investments and productivity.
American Economic Review, 86, 263–267.
Bloom, B. S. (1984). The 2-sigma problem: The search for methods of group
instruction as effective as one-to-one tutoring. Educational Researcher,
June–July, pp. 4–16.
Bloom, B. S., Engelhart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H., & Krathwohl, D. R.
(Eds.). (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification
of educational goals. Handbook 1: Cognitive domain. New York:
David McKay Co., Inc.
Bruce, B. C., & Levin, J. (1997). Educational technology: Media for inquiry,
communication, construction, and expression. Retrieved October 8, 1997
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
20 Fahy
from the World Wide Web: http://www.ed.uiuc.edu/facstaff/chip/taxonomy/latest.html
Burge, E. (2000). Using learning technologies: Ideas for keeping one’s balance.
Open Praxis, Vol. 1, pp. 17–20.
Campbell, M. (1999, November 11). Hey, what work? We’re cruising the
Internet. The Edmonton Journal, p. A-3.
Cassidy, J. (2000). The productivity mirage. The New Yorker, pp. 106–118.
Chen, Y., & Willits, F. (1998). A path analysis of the concepts in Moore’s theory
of transactional distance in a videoconferencing environment. Journal of
Distance Education, 13(2), 51–65.
Chickering, A., & Gamson, Z. (1989). Seven principles for good practice in
undergraduate education. AAHE Bulletin, March, pp. 3–7.
Clark, R.E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of
Educational Research, 53(4), pp. 445 - 459.
Clark, R.E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21-30.
Crooks, B. & Kirkwood, A. (1988). Video-cassettes by design in Open University courses. Open Learning, November, pp. 13-17.
Daniel, J. (1996). Implications of the technology adoption life cycle for the use
of new media in distance education. In J. Frankl & B. O’Reilly (Eds.), 1996
EDEN conference: Lifelong learning, open learning, distance learning (pp. 138–141). Poitiers, France: European Distance Education Network.
Dalal, S. (2001, October 26). Futzers draining production budgets. The Edmonton
Journal, pp. F-1, 8.
Dede, C. (1996). The evolution of distance education: Emerging technologies
and distributed learning. The American Journal of Distance Education,
10(2), 4–36.
DeSanctis, G., & Gallupe, R. B. (1987). A foundation for the study of group
decision support systems. Management Science, 33(5), 589–609.
Dietrich, J. E., & Johnson, F. C. (1967). A catalytic agent for change in higher
education. Educational Record, Summer, pp. 206–213.
Evans, J. (1998). Convergances: All together now. The Computer Paper.
February. Retrieved October 8, 1998 from the World Wide Web: http://
www.tcp.ca/1998/9802/9802converge/together/together.html
Fahy, P. J. (1998). Reflections on the productivity paradox and distance
education technology. Journal of Distance Education, 13(2), 66–73.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Planning for Multimedia Learning
21
Fahy, P. J. (2000). Achieving quality with online teaching technologies. Paper
presented at the Quality Learning 2000 Inaugural International Symposium, Calgary, Canada. March. (Available from ERIC documents: ED 439
234.)
Fernandez, B. (1997, October 4). Productivity improvements not computing.
Edmonton Journal, p. J16.
Fischer, B. (1997). Instructor-led vs. interactive: Not an either/or proposition.
Corporate University Review, Jan/Feb., pp. 29–30.
Fletcher, J.D. (1992). Individualized systems of instruction. Institute for
Defense Analyses.
Gagne, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning and theory of instruction
(4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Gale, S. F. (2001). Use it or lose it. Online Learning, 5(7), 34–36.
Garrison, D.R. (1989). Understanding distance education: A framework for
the future. New York: Routledge.
Girard, K. (2003). Making the world safe for software. Business 2.0, 4(5), 64–
66.
Gordon, E. E. (1997). Investing in human capital: The case for measuring training
ROI. Corporate University Review, 5(1), 41–42.
Grabe, C., & Grabe, M. (1996). Integrating technology for meaningful
learning (pp. 243–247). Toronto: Houghton Mifflin Co. Retrieved February 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://www.quasar.ualberta.ca/
edmedia/ETCOMM/readings/Krefgra.html
Greenaway, N. (2002). Internet falling short of hype. The Edmonton Journal,
June 12, p. A-13.
Grow, G. (1991). Teaching learners to be self-directed. Adult Education
Quarterly, 41(3), 125–149.
Hartnett, J. (2002). Where have all the Legos gone? Online Learning, 6(2), 28–
29.
Harvard computing group. (1998). Knowledge management-return on investment. Author. Retrieved March 14, 2000 from the World Wide Web: http:/
/www.harvardcomputing.com
Heinich, R., Molenda, M., Russell, J. D., & Smaldino, S. E. (1996). Instructional
media and technologies for learning (5 th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Merrill, an imprint of Prentice Hall.
Helm, P., & McClements, R. (1996). Multimedia business training: The big thing
or the next best thing? In J. Frankl, & B. O’Reilly (Eds.). 1996 EDEN
conference: Lifelong learning, open learning, distance learning (pp.
134–137). Poitiers, France: European Distance Education Network.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
22 Fahy
Howard, B. (2001). 20 years of missed opportunities. PC Magazine, 20(15), 75.
Johnson, V. (2000). Using technology to train weather forecasters. T.H.E.
Journal Online. June. Retrieved March 21, 2002 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.thejournal.com/magazine/vault/articleprintversion.cfm?
aid=2880
Joyce, B., & Weil, M. (1980). Models of teaching (2 nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs,
NJ: Prentice Hall.
Juler, P. (1990). Promoting interaction; maintaining independence: Swallowing
the mixture. Open Learning, pp. 24–33.
Kemp, J. E. (1977). Instructional design (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: FearonPitman Publishing.
Khan, S., & Hirata, A. (2001). Lowering the TCO of video communications.
Retrieved February 13, 2002 from the World Wide Web: http://
www.tmcnet.com/tmcnet/articles/0501en.htm
Koumi, J. (1994). Media comparisons and deployment: a practitioner’s view.
British Journal of Educational Technology, 25(1), pp. 41-57.
Kozma, R. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), pp. 7 - 19.
Laudon, K., Traver, C., & Laudon, J. (1996). Information technology and
society (2 nd ed.). Toronto: Course Technology Inc.
Levin, R. R., Anglin, G. J., & Carney, R. R. (1987). On empirically validating
functions of pictures in prose. In D. M. Willows, & H. A. Houghton (Eds.),
The psychology of illustration: Volume 1, Basic research (pp. 51–85).
New York: Springer-Verlag.
Lohr, S. (1997, October 12). The future came faster in the good old days. The
Edmonton Journal, p. B-1.
Maier, P., Barnett, L., Warren, A., & Brunner, D. (1996). Using technology in
teaching and learning. London: Kogan Page.
Marchionini, G. (1988). Hypermedia and learning: Freedom and chaos. Educational Technology, pp. 8–12. Retrieved January 1999 from the World
Wide Web: www.quasar.ualberta.ca/edmedia/ETCOMM/readings/
Krefmar.html
Massy, W. F., & Zemsky, R. (1999). Using information technology to enhance
academic productivity. Retrieved October 7, 1999 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.educause.ed/nlii/keydocs/massy.html
Matkin, G. (1997). Using financial information in continuing education. Phoenix,
AZ: American Council on Education.
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. New York: Cambridge University
Press.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Planning for Multimedia Learning
23
McIsaac, D. (1979). Impact of personal computing on education. Association
for Educational Data Systems Journal, 13(1), 7–15.
Mehlinger, H. (1996). School reform in the information age. Phi Delta Kappan,
pp. 400–407.
Mezirow, J., & Irish, G. (1974). Priorities for experimentation and development
in adult basic education. Vol. 1, Planning for innovation in ABE. New
York: Columbia University, Center for Adult Education. (ERIC ED 094
163.)
Miller, M. J. (2002). Broadband optimism. PC Magazine, 21(3), 7–8.
Moore, M. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.),
Theoretical principles of distance education (pp. 22–38). New York:
Routledge.
Moore, M. G. (1989). Three types of interaction. American Journal of
Distance Education, 3(2), pp. 1–6. Retrieved November 9, 2001 from the
World Wide Web: http://www.ed.psu.edu/acsde/ajde/ed32.asp
Murgatroyd, S. (1992). Business, education, and business education. In M. G.
Moore (Ed.), Distance education for corporate and military training
(pp. 50–63). Readings in distance education, No. 3. University Park, PA:
Penn State University, American Center for the Study of Distance Education.
Oberlin, J. L. (1996). The financial mythology of information technology: The
new economics. Cause/Effect, pp. 21–29.
PC Magazine. (2003c). Broadband: Bringing it home. PC Magazine, 22(5), 25.
Perry, T. (2000). A history of interactive education and training. Retrieved
February 4, 2002 from the World Wide Web: http://www.coastal.com/
WhatsNew/online_history.html
Picard, J. (1999, June 10). Creating virtual work teams using IP
videoconferencing. Presentation at the Distance Education Technology
’99 Workshop, Edmonton, Alberta.
Quinn, J., & Baily, M. (1994). Information technology: The key to service
performance. Brookings Review, 12, summer, pp. 36–41.
Rieber, L., & Boyce, M. (1990). The effects of computer animation on adult
learning and retrieval tasks. Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 17,
pp. 46–52.
Roblyer, M. D., & Schwier, R. A. (2003). Integrating educational technology
into teaching, Canadian edition. Toronto: Pearson Education Canada
Inc.
Roblyer, M. D., Edwards, J., & Havriluk, M. A. (1997). Integrating technology
into teaching (pp. 27–53). Columbus: Merrill.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
24 Fahy
Rogers, E. M. (1983). Communication of innovations (2nd ed.). New York:
The Free Press.
Saettler, P. (1990). The evolution of American educational technology.
Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc.
Senge, P. (1990). Fifth discipline. Toronto: Doubleday.
Stafford, D. (1999, December 15). Surfing from web-linked worksite a common
practice, survey shows. Edmonton Journal, p. F-7.
Strauss, M. (1997, October 7). Web sites don’t boost sales, survey of retailers
says. Globe and Mail, p. B-8.
Stringer, R. A., & Uchenick, J. (1986). Strategy traps. Toronto: Lexington
Books.
Szabo, M. (1998). Survey of educational technology research. The Educational Technology Professional Development Project (ETPDP) Series.
Edmonton, Alberta: Grant MacEwan Community College and Northern
Alberta Institute of Technology.
Thaler, J. (1999, May 15). Web in the workplace: Waste or help? The Edmonton
Journal, p. I-1.
Walther, J. B. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal and hyperpersonal interaction. Communication Research, 20(1),
3–43.
Watkins, K., & Callahan, M. (1998). Return on knowledge assets: Rethinking
investments in educational technology. Educational Technology, 38(4),
33–40.
Welsch, E. (2002). Cautious steps ahead. Online Learning, 6(1), 20–24.
Where’s the broadband boom? (2002). PC Magazine, 21(16), 23.
Wolfe, D. (1990). The management of innovation. In L. Salter, & D. Wolfe
(Eds.), Managing technology (pp. 63–87). Toronto: Garamond Press.
Workers find online surfing too tempting. (2000, February 22). The Edmonton
Journal, p. A-3.
Wysocki, B. (1998). Computer backlash hits boardrooms. The Edmonton
Journal, May 1, p. D-3.
Zimmerman, H. (1972). Task reduction: A basis for curriculum planning and
development for adult basic education. In W. M. Brooke (Ed.), ABE: A
resource book of readings (pp. 334–348). Toronto: New Press.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 25
Chapter II
Toward Effective Use
of Multimedia
Technologies in
Education
Geraldine Torrisi-Steele, Griffith University, Australia
Abstract
While multimedia technologies are being used in educational contexts, the
effective use of multimedia in these contexts remains problematic. In an
attempt to contribute towards addressing this problem, this chapter presents
a set of conceptual guidelines and a practical planning framework that is
intended to inform the planning and design of more effective multimedia
integration into educational contexts. A mixed-mode approach is advocated
in this chapter. Multimedia technologies are viewed as part of a tool-set and
tool selection should be appropriate to curriculum content and to the
teaching and learning context.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
26 Torrisi-Steele
Introduction
Whether or not multimedia technologies should be used in educational contexts
seems to no longer be an issue. Multimedia technology is pervading almost all
aspects of existence. The rationale for its use in educational contexts is grounded
in social, economic, and pedagogical reasons. However, what does remain
problematic is the effective use of multimedia technology in educational contexts. At the crux of addressing this problem is the notion that effective
integration of multimedia in the curriculum depends not on the technology itself
but rather on educators’ knowledge, assumptions, and perceptions regarding the
technology and its implementation in the specific learning context (Jackson &
Anagnotopoulou, 2000; Bennet, Priest, & Macpherson, 1999). From a pedagogical perspective, it is generally accepted that multimedia technologies have
the potential to reshape and add a new dimension to learning (Relan & Gillani,
1997; Lefoe, 1998). In reality, however, this potential has largely failed to be
realized. The fundamental belief underlying this chapter is that this potential will
only be realized by informed pedagogical decision making and the formulation of
teaching strategies designed to exploit multimedia technologies for maximum
effectiveness within a particular learning situation. From this perspective,
educator development that focuses on pedagogical change is a pivotal aspect of
the effective use of multimedia technologies in educational contexts.
The term “multimedia technologies” is being used in this chapter to mean the
entirely digital delivery of content using any integrated combination of audio,
video, images (two-dimensional, three-dimensional), and text. In its most primitive form, the term “multimedia” is sometimes defined as content presentation
using a combination of media [i.e., sound, images (static, moving, animated,
video), and text]. From this perspective, any presentation that involves the use
of, for example, face-to-face teaching, video recorder, and a slide show could be
considered multimedia.
The distinguishing feature of digital multimedia, as used in this chapter (as
opposed to the primitive form defined above), is the capacity to support user
interaction. Hence, the term “multimedia technologies,” as used in this chapter,
will always imply that there is an element of “interactivity” present. The concept
of interaction is considered along two dimensions: the capacity of the system to
allow an individual to control the pace of presentation and to make choices about
which pathways are followed to move through the content, and the ability of the
system to accept input from the user and provide appropriate feedback to that
input. Multimedia technologies may be delivered on computer via CD-ROM,
DVD, or via the Internet, or on other devices such as mobile phones and personal
digital assistants capable of supporting interactive and integrated delivery of
digital audio, video, image, and text data. Multimedia technologies as referred to
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 27
in this chapter also encompass new communications technologies such as e-mail,
chat, and videoconferencing. Virtual reality technologies are also included.
It will be argued later in this chapter that various multimedia technologies are
seen as part of a tool set or possible modes of instruction. Other modes include
face-to-face teaching, print materials, and video and audio devices. A “mixedmode” approach will be advocated in this chapter based on the argument that tool
selection should be appropriate to curriculum content and to the teaching and
learning context.
The contents of this chapter have been based largely on the author’s professional
development experiences with tertiary educators implementing online learning.
However, the ideas discussed in this chapter are based on principles of good
practice that apply to a broad range of teaching and learning contexts, including
primary, secondary, tertiary, and other training environments.
Against this background, this chapter aims to provide a set of conceptual
guidelines and a practical foundation (in the form of a planning framework) that
will be of interest to those involved in planning and designing appropriate
professional development targeted at promoting effective multimedia integration, and to individual educators in primary, secondary, tertiary, and other training
environments who wish to implement multimedia technologies more effectively
into the curriculum.
Multimedia Technologies in
Learning Environments
When computer-based interactive multimedia emerged in the 1990s, innovative
educators began considering what implications this new media might have if it
was applied to teaching and learning environments. Within a relatively short time
frame, the emerging multimedia and associated communications technologies
infiltrated almost every aspect of society. So, what was initially viewed as a
technology “option” in educational contexts has for social, economic, and
pedagogical reasons become a “necessity.” Many educational institutions are
investing considerable time, effort, and money into the use of technology.
Socially, computer literacy is an essential skill for full participation in society. The
use of multimedia technologies in educational institutions is seen as necessary for
keeping education relevant to the 21st century (Selwyn & Gordard, 2003).
Economically, the belief prevails that the large-scale use of new multimedia and
associated communication technologies for teaching and learning may offer
cheaper delivery than traditional face-to-face and distance education and will
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
28 Torrisi-Steele
also help establish and maintain competitive advantages for institutions by
allowing them to tap into overseas markets (Bennet, Priest, & Macpherson,
1999, p. 207).
The pedagogical basis for the use of educational multimedia technologies has
perhaps been the greatest driving force for the massive investments made by
educational institutions into multimedia technologies. Literature abounds with
rhetoric about the potential impact of multimedia technologies on traditional
teaching practices. The central theme is that the integration of multimedia
technologies will lead to a transformation of pedagogy from traditional instructivist
teacher-centered approaches to the more desirable constructivist learner approaches that are seen as embodying essential characteristics of more effective
learning environments (Tearle, Dillon, & Davis, 1999; Relan & Gillani, 1997;
Willis & Dickson, 1997; LeFoe, 1998; Richards & Nason, 1999). From the
learner-centered perspective, the teacher’s role changes from the traditional
(instructivist approach) role of instructor and supplier of knowledge to a role
more closely aligned with support and facilitation of the active construction of
knowledge by the learner (Tearle, Dillon, & Davis, 1999). The learner-centered
approach implies empowerment of the individual learner and the ability to provide
the learner with self-directed, more meaningful, authentic learning experiences
that lead to lifelong learning. This implication is at the crux of constructivistbased pedagogical arguments for the integration of multimedia technologies in
educational contexts (Selwyn & Gorard, 2003; Gonzales et al., 2002).
However, despite the well-documented and generally accepted potential of
multimedia technologies to reshape teaching practices, it has been identified in
literature that the promised impact of multimedia technologies on learning and
pedagogical practices have largely not eventuated. There are relatively few
positive impacts on educational practices for major investments of time, effort,
and money by educational institutions (Cuban, 1986; Hammond, 1994; Oliver,
1999; Nichol & Watson, 2003; Conlon & Simpson, 2003; Selwyn & Gorard,
2003).
The reason for this lack of impact is seen to lie not with the attributes of the
technology itself, but rather with the ways in which the technology has been
implemented in learning contexts. More specifically, it is the educators’ knowledge, assumptions, and perceptions regarding the technology and its implementation in the specific learning context that will determine its implementation and,
hence, its effectiveness (Jackson & Anagnotopoulou, 2000; Bennet, Priest, &
Macpherson, 1999). As is often noted in literature, the potential of multimedia
technologies to reshape learning contexts (Relan & Gillani, 1997; Lefoe, 1998)
will only be realized by informed pedagogical decision making and the formulation of teaching strategies designed to exploit multimedia technologies within the
curriculum context.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 29
Although it may be recognized by educators that multimedia technologies have
the potential to offer new and improved learning opportunities, many educators
fail to realize this potential. A number of educators using multimedia technologies
in their learning environments are largely limiting its use to a tool for data access,
communication, and administration (Conlon & Simpson, 2003). This is an “addon” approach to multimedia technology use rather than a truly integrated
curriculum approach. This lack of true integration results in minimal (if any)
change in both pedagogical strategies and learning environment (Tearle, Dillon,
& Davis, 1999; Strommen, 1999).
Failure to implement effective technology integration is attributed to the fact that
educators, even experienced educators, are generally unprepared for the
changes demanded by and produced by “technology infusion” (Charp, 2000).
While some of the pedagogical “know how” of more traditional learning
environments possessed by educators may transfer to new interactive multimedia contexts, educators often lack the skills and technical and pedagogical
knowledge to effectively implement those technologies in their learning environments. Rakes and Casey (2002, online) observed the following:
…many [educators], especially more experienced teachers, have been
unable to find effective ways to use technology in their classrooms. One
possible explanation for this lack of success is that the use of technology
in the classroom has been viewed in terms of simple skill acquisition
instead of as a change process that affects the behavior of individuals on
a very profound level.
If there is a lesson to be learned from the last few decades of “educational
technology” development, it is that technologies themselves offer very little to
the learning process. Conlon & Simpson (2003, p. 149) warned that if educators
are “hastened” into adopting multimedia technologies without any clear educational vision of change, then significant transformation of teaching practice is
unlikely. The importance of focus on educator development and resources that
will foster continuous pedagogical growth and “re-engineering” becomes selfevident and is well documented in literature (Gonzales et al., 2002; Burns, 2002;
Pierson, 2001; Charp, 2000; Collis, 1996; Rakes & Casey, 2002).
Against this context, some of the key issues that need be addressed in educator
development will be identified and discussed. Five key guidelines and a planning
framework for facilitating more effective multimedia technologies integration
will be presented.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
30 Torrisi-Steele
Toward More Effective
Technology Integration
The preceding discussion has directed attention to the notion that while multimedia technologies have the potential to reshape practice, the potential is often
unrealized due to the fact that educators are often ill-equipped to meet the
challenges of change demanded by multimedia technologies and to exploit
change made possible by them. This notion is supported by an earlier study
(Torrisi & Davis, 2000) conducted by the author into the experiences of tertiary
educators developing online multimedia materials.
The data from the study highlight some of the key issues that need to be
addressed in educator development efforts. Educators in the study were asked
to identify what they believed were key competencies that students should
develop as a result of undertaking study in the subject. Each educator was also
asked to clarify what they believed to be the role of online materials in their
course. Table 1 juxtaposes individual educator’s responses for key competencies against the educator’s stated intended use of online materials. Upon
examination of responses as shown in Table 1, a lack of congruency between
what educators identified as key competencies for their students and the stated
use of online materials was found. This lack of congruency between stated key
competencies and intended use of online materials is indicative of multimedia
technology that is not truly integrated with the curriculum goals, content,
objectives, and context, rather use is limited to being add-on or supplemental.
Insight into reason for supplemental use of multimedia technologies was revealed
in interviews with the tertiary educators, whose comments suggested they
perceived the use of multimedia online technologies as an exercise in translating
materials into another medium, mostly for access and alternative to face-to-face
or printed content delivery. This perception of technology use does not foster
pedagogical change. It leads to counterproductive strategies that replicate more
traditional methods with the new medium. The result is no impact or even
negative impact on the learning environment. Rather, what is required is
conceptualization of multimedia technology use in educational contexts as a
process of transformation that acknowledges, and strives for, change in practice.
In addressing this problem, it is useful to consider the idea of progressive
technology adoption found in the literature.
Sandholtz, Ringstaff, and Dwyer (1997) suggested that supplemental use of
multimedia technologies as was observed in this study should be viewed as the
first stage of a continuum of change that culminates in a third stage of full
integration and transformation of practice. The idea of progressive technology
adoption is supported by others. For example, Goddard (2002) recognized five
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 31
Table 1: Comparison of stated key competencies cited by teaching staff as
important for students to acquire for their subject area to staff member’s
stated intended use of the online materials
Key competencies as stated by individual
educators
for
students
in
their
teaching/subject area
Educator A
• Critical analysis
• Ability to research
• Standard academic writing skills
Intended use of the online materials as stated
by individual educators
• An adjunct to face-to-face teaching; students
could access lectures if they could not come to
lectures
• It’s the way things are going
Educator B
• Rhythmic perception
• Rhythmic literacy
• Programming skills
• Wanted to have a more efficient way of doing
things
• Students access the materials (notes, exercises)
before coming to lectures
• To decrease degree of coordination because
links are made obvious on the Web page
• Access to materials off campus
Educator C
• Challenge their assumptions
• Analyze the thinking, underlying practices
• Connect theoretical material with their own
life experiences
• Think through how values can be
incorporated into a real-life situation
Educator D
• Analytical skills
• Mathematical skills
• The case study approach is commonly used.
Educator E
• Develop problem-solving skills
• Understand the material covered rather than
just memorize it, and then apply what they
have been taught to new situations
• Become more creative in the tasks assigned
• A Web site that students could move around in
rather than work linearly and that would get
them thinking; to really engage them
• Wanted to use class contact time for students
to engage with each other on the basis of
content they already encountered rather than
using time for presenting content alone
• Resource that would be accessed in tutorials
• To reduce but not replace lecture hours
eventually
Educator F
• Analysis, synthesis, creativity
• Develop an analytical way of thinking and
problem analysis
• The key advantage to the students was greater
accessibility and a more convenient way of
delivering of course materials
• Through supplementary activities such as
reading, research, foresee what is going to be
taught and contribute more to the class, rather
than "being a clean slate" when material is
presented
• Resource would have the same attributes as
opening a book
• Students have access to the content, but it
really is only an add on
Note: Examination of responses shows a general lack of congruency between key competencies
required and staff member’s stated intended use of online materials, indicative of poor curriculum
integration.
Source: Adapted from Torrisi & Davis (2000, pp. 172–173).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
32 Torrisi-Steele
stages of progression: knowledge (awareness of technology existence); persuasion (technology as support for traditional productivity rather than as curriculum
related); decision (acceptance or rejection of technology for curriculum use—
acceptance leading to supplemental uses); implementation (recognition that
technology can help achieve some curriculum goals); and confirmation (use of
technology leads to redefinition of the learning environment—true integration
leading to change).
It is proposed here that framing the educational use of multimedia technologies
in terms of progressive levels of use and integration is valuable in that it forces
conceptualization of effective technology integration as a process of “change”
inherently leading to practice transformation rather than as simple skill acquisition required for translation of materials into a new medium.
Adopting the view that technology integration is a process leading to transformation and innovation directs attention also to the need to include elements of
reflective practice in any educator development guidelines and frameworks. The
term “reflective practice” is being used here to encompass the idea that
educators consciously make judgments about their performances and success of
strategies. The notion of evaluation (both formal and informal) is inherent in the
idea of reflective practice. According to Ballantyne, Bain, and Packer (1999),
lack of reflection leads to lack of awareness of the “appropriateness of…methods
in bringing about high quality student learning” (p. 237), resulting in the
perpetuation of traditional or ineffective teaching methods. The need for
educators to reflect on their practices cannot be understated. Development of
new strategies that appropriately integrate multimedia technologies into the
curriculum will only take place, according to Tearle, Dillon, and Davis (1999),
when the educator has “re-examined his or her approach to teaching and
learning” (p. 10).
In the 2000 study conducted by Torrisi and Davis, another key finding was that
among the concerns about the production process by educators, the principal
concern was the lack of knowledge about the attributes and possibilities of the
media and feelings of inadequacy in terms of how to exploit the potential of the
media available. Consistent with other findings on professional development
(Ellis, O’Reilly, & Debreceny, 1998), it appears that educators are primarily
interested in learning the technical aspects of multimedia technologies only
insofar as this knowledge is useful in informing pedagogical decisions and
options. The implication of this observation is that teaching development efforts
aimed at effective integration of multimedia technologies in educational contexts
must teach educators how to use the technology within the context of “matching
the needs and abilities of learners to curriculum goals” (Gonzales et al., 2002,
p. 1).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 33
The view upheld in this chapter is that using multimedia technologies within the
curriculum context implies appropriate use of technologies. This view of
appropriate technology use supports a mixed-mode approach to curriculum
design. That is, the emphasis is on exploiting the attributes of various multimedia
technologies and other strategy options in terms of their appropriateness to
content requirements, context, learner needs, and curriculum goals. Some
guidelines and a development framework that encapsulate these views are
discussed below.
Guidelines and a
Development Framework
In the discussion above, some key issues to be addressed in teacher development
resources and approaches have been identified by drawing upon data from an
earlier study (Torrisi & Davis, 2000). The author’s perspective on addressing
those issues was also alluded to. Drawing on issues identified in the preceding
sections, this section presents the following:
1.
A set of guidelines useful for guiding educator development activities
2.
A planning framework that may be used to guide teacher development or
by individual teachers in order to facilitate the effective integration of
multimedia technologies in learning environments
A brief case study is also described in order to illustrate implementation of the
notions presented.
Educator Development Activities—Five Key Guidelines
It has been established in the preceding sections that while multimedia technologies are seen as having the potential to reshape practice, the fact remains that
implementation often results in little impact on the teaching space. The attributes
of the multimedia technologies are not effectively exploited to maximize and
create new learning opportunities. At the crux of this issue is the failure of
educators to effectively integrate the multimedia technologies into the learning
context. The following guidelines are suggested for guiding educator development toward the effective integration of multimedia technologies into learning
environments.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
34 Torrisi-Steele
•
Guideline 1: The goal of implementing multimedia technologies into
learning spaces is to exploit the attributes of multimedia technologies in order to support deeper, more meaningful learner-centered
learning. Realization of this goal necessarily transforms the teaching and learning space. The knowledge-delivery view of multimedia
technologies must be challenged, as it merely replicates teacher-centered
models of knowledge transmission and has little value in reshaping practice.
Constructivism is the guiding philosophy.
•
Guideline 2: Transformation is only achieved through integration of
multimedia technologies into the learning space. Integration implies
that technology use is inextricably linked with the total curriculum as
opposed to the superficial add-on approach that is the result of a view of
translation.
•
Guideline 3: Integration and subsequent transformation is achieved
via an ongoing evolutionary process through which educators’
knowledge of multimedia technologies draws more closely toward
inextricable linkages with curriculum goals and the educator’s
knowledge of pedagogy.
•
Guideline 4: Equipping educators with knowledge about the potential of the multimedia technologies must occur within the context of
the total curriculum needs rather than in isolation of the academic’s
curriculum needs.
•
Guideline 5: Evolutionary process leading to transformation and
integration of multimedia technologies is fueled by sustained reflection on practice. Sustaining reflection on practice from the beginning of
endeavors in online materials development through to completion stages,
after which debriefing and further reflection feed back into a cycle of
continuous evolution of thought and practice. Collaborative work and
sharing of experiences and ideas with other educators is also of benefit
here.
In addition to the above guidelines, two considerations as identified by Torrisi and
Davis (2000) are important to recognize as contributing to effective professional
development conducive to long-term transformation in practice.
First, it is important that professional development programs are not designed in
isolation of the educators operating context. Traditional training workshops
removed from the immediate teaching context of the educator fail to be
effective. Programs must empathize with and address concerns that arise from
educators’ earlier attempts at innovation through technology. Ongoing support
opportunities, both technical and pedagogical, must be inextricably linked with
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 35
educators’ everyday practice. If appropriate technology use is to be a reality,
then professional development must do as Fatemi (1999) stated:
…more than simply show teachers where in a curriculum they can
squeeze in some technology....Instead, it helps them learn how to select
digital content based on the needs and learning styles of their students,
and infuse it into the curriculum rather than making it an end in itself. (p.
1)
Professional development programs will be most effective, as Bennet et al.
(1999) stated, if educators are able to “connect the use of new technology to their
own teaching experiences” (p. 212). The planning framework described below
focuses on these ideas.
Second, in order for educators to be willing to use multimedia technologies in the
classroom, it is necessary that they feel confident in their use from a technical
perspective. Hence, professional development programs need to provide opportunities for developing basic computer competencies necessary for developing
confidence in using technology as a normal part of teaching activities. Again, it
is stressed that learning technical aspects must occur not in isolation of
educators’ teaching contexts, but rather in parallel with and integrated with
pedagogical development. In this way, acquisition of technical knowledge is
appropriate to the needs of the educators and is thus more likely to be relevant.
A Planning Framework
The five key guidelines above, together with issues discussed in this paper, can
be embodied in a framework that provides a more concrete approach to
curriculum planning conducive to the integrated use of multimedia technologies.
The framework may be used to guide educator development (as has been done
by the author) or may be useful as a guide for individual educators as they plan
for multimedia technology use. The framework aims to highlight the use of
multimedia technologies as part of the set of tools that is available for educators
in executing teaching and learning strategies.
The framework is thus directed toward appropriate and judicious use of
multimedia technologies. It also encourages educators to consider the attributes
of them and then consider how to exploit those technologies for producing more
meaningful and varied learning experiences; in so doing, allowing technology use
to be an integral part of “knowledge spaces” which “allow users to explore as
they wish” (Brown, 1997).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
36 Torrisi-Steele
Figure 1: Framework for appropriate integration of multimedia technologies
into the learning environment. Environment attributes include human
resources, financial resources, and other infrastructure and institutional
limitations. Multimedia and other emerging multimedia technologies form
part of the set of tool choices that the educator might choose on the basis
that the attributes of the chosen tool(s) best fits with the learning context
and desired outcomes.
Source: Adapted from Torrisi-Steele (2001).
Consistent with learner-centered approaches, the process begins with an
analysis of learner characteristics and of learner needs in relation to the content
that is to be taught. In defining learner needs, the demands of the content must
also be taken into account. As stated in Jamieson (1999), “The content of student
learning (what is taught) logically precedes the method of teaching
content…without content there is no teaching method” (p. 2). On the basis of this
analysis, desired learner outcomes and objectives are identified.
In formulating teaching and learning strategies, the framework demands that the
choice of tools be an informed choice based on integrated knowledge of strategy,
learner needs, content requirements, environmental constraints (location, available equipment, funding, etc.), and tool attributes. Thus, the aim of technology
integration more naturally precipitates from using the framework.
The fundamental view expressed by the model is that multimedia technologies
and other emerging technologies are part of a tool set that, along with other
available options (face-to-face teaching, print, etc.), are available choices for
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 37
Table 2: Some common tool choices for teaching and learning and their
main advantages and disadvantages
Tool
Textbook and
other print
materials
Video
Face-to-face
teaching
Multimedia
CD ROM
World Wide
Web—Web
sites and
related
Internet
technologies
Advantages
Portable, inexpensive, simple, “lowtech,” easy to use, preorganized
quantities of information, accessible
without special equipment, can be
inexpensive, most educators familiar
with this medium and have production
expertise
Motivational, sound and images to
convey information, readily available,
easy to use, inexpensive
Can respond to needs of students
dynamically, can be used to promote
discussion, collaborative learning,
enables clarification and analysis of
information
Can convey information using video,
audio, sound and text; once produced,
inexpensive to replicate for student
access; option for nonlinear
information presentation, so learners
are able to explore at their own pace,
forming their own pathways; high
interactive learning potential
Increasingly supporting multimodal
presentation—text, images, sound,
video, and higher levels of interactive
possibilities; access to up-to-date
information; potential for collaborative
learning with learners in multiple
locations (e.g., chat,
videoconferencing); potential for
anytime, anyplace; highly
motivational; updating of information
relatively easy
Wealth of up-to-date information
available along with nonlinear nature,
interactivity and multimodal
presentation can support discovery
orientated strategies
Disadvantages
Become outdated, cannot update easily, static
information presentation, no interaction
possibilities
Linear information presentation, multiple copies
for student access at home can be
problematic/expensive, video production can be
expensive and time consuming, requires VCR
access and display mechanism
No flexibility for students in terms of attendance,
access limited to on campus
Costly both in terms of time and money to
produce; production requires a high level of
technical expertise; software and content become
outdated—cannot update easily without
undergoing another development and production
run
Requires costly technical infrastructure
(networks, workstations, video conferencing
facilities)
Development of own online materials: complex
requiring expertise; can be costly and timeconsuming; involves a high level of commitment
Updating Web materials can be
difficult/frustrating if not technically competent
to some degree
Sophistication of Web materials available to
students is limited by access factors such as
bandwidth, modem capabilities
Not all educators are familiar with/comfortable
with the new media technologies—steep learning
curve both in technical understanding and
implementation strategies; lack of awareness of
these issues is one of the greatest pitfalls in
adopting multimedia technologies; as
technology capabilities increase, so do
complexity, commitment required, and the
potential of “things not working”
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
38 Torrisi-Steele
strategy implementation. Inherent in the presented framework is the philosophy
that learning about multimedia technologies is an exercise in identifying the
attributes of that technology and, at the same time, considering those attributes
in terms of usefulness in the curriculum (Table 2). This approach addresses the
problem of the “blanket approach” to multimedia technologies use that sometimes arises when the hype surrounding a new technology emphasizes the
technology itself rather than learning as the primary concern. The proposed
framework does not exclude the use of more traditional approaches or tools such
as print, etc., if they are deemed appropriate to the learning situation.
It is also worth noting that the framework encourages evaluation of strategy
outcomes and reflection on existing as well as new strategies. Consideration of
the use of multimedia technologies occurs with the goal of modifying or replacing
existing strategies that, upon reflection, are considered ineffective. This is
considered an important characteristic of the framework for two reasons:
1.
It promotes the perspective that multimedia technologies are implemented
with the primary goal of pedagogical change (thus helping to dispel the idea
of a simple translation approach to technology adoption).
2.
This encourages educators to draw on prior knowledge and experiences
with prior teaching and make stronger connections between these experiences and the use of the technology (Bennet, Priest, & Macpherson, 1999).
This is an important aspect of professional development efforts aimed at
facilitating technology adoption for two reasons: perceptions of relevance
are increased; and feelings of inadequacy that may be experienced by
educators in dealing with new technology are minimized (Torrisi & Davis,
2000).
Reflective practice forms the cornerstone of the framework and is consistent
with the notion of an evolutionary approach to technology integration. Execution
of the strategy must be followed by a careful analysis of congruency of intended
and actual outcomes. This analysis may involve formative and summative
evaluation methods as well as personal reflection. The key question now
becomes the following: Are the desired/anticipated outcomes congruent with
actual outcomes? If they were, then the strategy is a success. Any discrepancies, however, need to be considered in the light of reflection of the process—
Why did the discrepancies occur? In what ways might the strategy be changed
or improved? Were the tool choices appropriate? The approach thus leads to a
cycle of reflection followed by modified implementation followed again by
reflection. Reflection on the process is not limited to assessment of whether
outcomes were satisfactory, but rather encourages inspection of each stage of
the planning process in order to identify shortcomings in either analysis or
strategy. Aside from facilitating better technology integration into the curricu-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 39
lum, this approach may assist in overcoming some of the resistance to technology
adoption, in that technology adoption becomes motivated by the need to improve
practice.
The brief case study below illustrates an application of the framework and the
beliefs expressed in this chapter.
A Case Study
The following case study is for a course in human services at tertiary level study.
The case study summarized in Table 3 illustrates the key tenet of the framework
described above that requires decision making regarding the tool choices for
strategy implementation to be based on consideration of learner characteristics,
desired learner outcomes, discipline requirements, and environmental considerations.
Table 3: Based on the planning framework described, this table illustrates
how, for a tertiary-level human services course, decision making about tool
choices for implementing strategies satisfies the constraints and demands
of environment, learner characteristics, discipline requirements, and desired
outcomes as well as addresses issues with previously used strategies. From
the perspective of multimedia technology use, multimedia technologies are
exploited in terms of attributes that will satisfy these demands and constraints.
This facilitates appropriate and integrated technology use.
Tool choice (indicated by *)
Multimedia-based
Web site
Web
communications
technologies
*
*
Print
video
Faceto-face
*
*
Issue/consideration
Environment: Good technical
infrastructure (computer
laboratories and Internet access)
allowing for on-campus access
outside working hours; the majority
of students have computer and
Internet access at home; regular oncampus contact time is also
scheduled
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
40 Torrisi-Steele
Table 3: continued
Tool choice (indicated by *)
Multimedia-based
Web site
Web
communications
technologies
Print
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
video
Faceto-face
Issue/consideration
Learner characteristics
Mostly mature (nonschool
learners) learners, with a high
proportion of learners in fulltime employment, with a cross
section of abilities, backgrounds,
and experiences; on-campus
attendance is sometimes
problematic
Desired learner outcomes
“Challenge their own
•
assumptions”
•
“Analyze the thinking
underlying practice”
•
“Connect theoretical
material with their own life
experiences”
*
•
“Think through how values
can be incorporated into a
real-life situation”
*
Discipline requirements:
Off-campus practicum
sessions— need for easily
portable materials and offcampus access as well as
communication with peers offcampus; thinking through and
changing beliefs is a core goal of
the subject
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 41
Table 3: continued
Tool choice (indicated by *)
Multimedia-based
Web site
Web
communications
technologies
*
Web multimedia
materials More
interactive and
stimulating—
encourage more
active involvement
with content
*
Print
video
Faceto-face
Issue/consideration
Issues with previously used
strategy relying on face-to-face
contact with print materials:
Students failing to engage with
reading materials prior to class,
so much of valuable face-to-face
contact time is used for delivery
of content rather than active
discussion
Some students miss out on
classes on occasion, because
they are working or have other
commitments
Resulting Subject Form
Given the adequate technical infrastructure, a subject Web site is used as the
principal organizing medium for the subject and also as the primary means of
preparation before engaging in face-to-face contact time. The Web site outlines
weekly schedules and presents appropriate simulations and interactive exercises
to introduce learners to course content and begin the process of self-reflection
on beliefs and practices. The potential of multimedia-based Web sites to be used
for more dynamic and engaging presentation of content prior to class time is
exploited. Interactive case scenarios are presented via the Web site where they
encourage students to explore their existing knowledge. This will “free-up” faceto-face class time for more valuable, deeper discussions rather than pure content
presentation and initial reflection. Participation in discussion is important in
helping students to analyze their own assumptions and in exposing them to the
feelings and thoughts of others. The sharing of experiences, particularly after
practical placements, is an important mechanism in this subject. Face-to-face
contact is seen as an important tool for achieving learner outcomes that focus on
analysis of beliefs and practices.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
42 Torrisi-Steele
The Web site also enables students to have around-the-clock access to class
materials. Chat rooms are useful in enabling students to support each other and
collaboratively solve problems, especially when away from campus on practicum.
Support is also available from tutors at certain times of the week, during which
students can log in while off campus. This is an important mechanism for helping
students to connect theoretical knowledge with the experiences they are
undergoing at the time. E-mail is also useful in encouraging and maintaining
student–faculty contact during practical and other off-campus times.
Print materials will still be used but primarily as an easily portable reference
source, especially while on practicum, rather than as a primary source of
information prior to attendance at face-to-face class times.
Future Trends
The range and nature of multimedia technologies are constantly changing. In an
educational context, the challenge is to develop approaches to planning that can
be used to facilitate integration of existing and future technologies. By conceptualizing the role of technologies in the learning context as a component of a set
of tools, it is intended that the framework and ideas presented in this chapter be
one step in the direction of “generic” planning approaches that will provide
guidance to educators and those involved in their professional development in
both current and future technological environments. Planning approaches need
to be contextually framed so that the key focus is to exploit the attributes with
the aim of providing deeper, more meaningful learning experiences that will equip
students with the lifelong learning skills demanded in the present and the future.
Evidently, with the dynamic nature of multimedia technologies, there will always
remain a need for ongoing professional development that will present opportunities for educators to investigate the attributes of multimedia technologies as
they emerge in terms of usefulness for their particular teaching contexts. From
this perspective, ongoing research focusing on which technologies are being used
in what contexts and what results are being obtained becomes important. Such
research will highlight the attributes of the technology that are worth exploiting
and for what purposes and could result in models of implementation so that
educators could draw upon one another’s experiences.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 43
Conclusions
The framework and ideas presented in this chapter precipitated from concern
about the ineffective and often inappropriate use of multimedia and associated
technologies in learning contexts.
The fundamental belief expressed in this chapter is that effective use of
multimedia and other technologies in teaching and learning environments occurs
when multimedia technologies are integrated fully and appropriately into the
curriculum. The primary goal for integrating multimedia and associated technologies into the curriculum is to provide for a learning environment that espouses
more meaningful and deeper learning.
It is advocated throughout this chapter that multimedia and associated technologies are considered as part of a tool set available for strategy implementation. If,
how, and when to integrate technologies are decided by taking into account
constraints and conditions imposed by the environment, learner characteristics,
desired learning outcomes, and the nature of the content, and by reflecting on
success or otherwise of previously used teaching practices. Also highlighted is
the important role of reflective practice. Another key theme is the need to foster
the view that technology integration is an evolutionary, transformative process
rather than an exercise in translation of strategies to another medium. The five
guidelines for multimedia technology use and the planning framework presented
in this chapter incorporate these views.
The dynamic, rapidly evolving technological environment characteristic of the
present and the future represents ongoing challenges for educators striving to
make use of these new tools to the best advantage for a more effective learning
environment and more meaningful learning outcomes. Despite the dynamic
nature of technical environments, it is the author’s belief that there is at least one
constant premise upon which educator development aimed at multimedia technology integration efforts can develop—that is that change in practice is
inextricably linked with successful integration of multimedia technologies in
teaching and learning contexts. Nurturing the acceptance of this premise needs
to be a matter of priority in current and future educator development efforts in
the area of educational application of technologies.
References
Ballantyne, R., Bain, J. D., & Packer, J. (1999). Researching university teaching
in Australia: Themes and issues in academics’ reflections. Studies in
Higher Education, 24(2), 237–257.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
44 Torrisi-Steele
Bennet, S., Priest, A., & Macpherson, C. (1999). Learning about online learning:
An approach to staff development for university teachers. Australian
Journal of Educational Technology, 15(3), 207–221.
Brown, T. (1997). Multimedia in education—Conclusions. Retrieved September 27, 1999 from the World Wide Web: http://129.180.87.4/Units/
CurricSt/CSIT513/573/573_12.html
Burns, M. (2002). From black and white to color: Technology, professional
development and changing practice. T.H.E. Journal, 29(11), 36–42.
Charp, S. (2000). Technology integration. T.H.E. Journal, 29(11), 8–10.
Collis, B. (1996). Pedagogy. Retrieved September 10, 2002 from the World
Wide Web: http://www2.openweb.net.au/TT96University/BC.html
Conlon, T., & Simpson, M. (2003). Silicon Valley versus Silicon Glen: The impact
of computers upon teaching and learning: A comparative study. British
Journal of Educational Technology, 34(2), 137–150.
Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology
since 1920. New York: Teachers College Press.
Ellis, A., O’Reilly, M., & Debreceny, R. (1998). Staff development responses
to the demand for online teaching and learning. Paper presented at
ASCILITE ’98 conference, Wollongong. Retrieved March 20, 2003 from
the World Wide Web: http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/wollongong98/
ascpapers98.html
Fatemi, E. (1999). Building the digital curriculum. Education Week on the
Web. Retrieved July 16, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://
www.edweek.org/sreports/tc99/articles/summary.htm
Goddard, M. (2002). What do we do with these computers? Reflections on
technology in the classroom. Journal of Research on Technology in
Education, 35(1), 19–26.
Gonzales, C. L. P., Hupert, N., & Martin, W. (2002). The Regional Educational
Technology Assistance Program: Its effects on teaching practices. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 35(1), 1–18.
Hammond, M. (1994). Measuring the impact of IT on learning. Journal of
Computer Assisted Learning, 10, 251–260.
Jackson, B., & Anagnostopoulou, K. (2000). Making the right connections:
Improving quality in online learning. Teaching and Learning Online:
New pedagogies for new technologies. International Centre for Learner
Managed Learning, Middlesex University. Retrieved April 15, 2003
from the World Wide Web: http://webfeedback.mdx.ac.uk/_lmlseminar/
_private/_abstract14/finland.htm
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Toward Effective Use of Multimedia Technologies in Education 45
Jamieson, P. (1999). Improving teaching by telecommunications media:
Emphasising pedagogy rather than technology. Paper presented at the
Ed-Media 1999 World conference on Educational multimedia, hypermedia
and telecommunications, Charlottesville.
Lefoe, G. (1998). Creating Constructivist learning environments on the
Web: The challenge of higher education. Paper presented at ASCILITE
’98 conference, Wollongong. Retrieved March 20, 2003 from the World
Wide Web: http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/wollongong98/
ascpapers98.html
Nichol, J., & Watson, K. (2003). Editorial: Rhetoric and reality—The present
and future of ICT in education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(2), 131–136.
Oliver, R. (1999). Teaching and learning with technology: Learning from
experience. In On the Edge Leading the learning revolution. Paper
presented at the Proceedings of the Australian Curriculum Assessment and
Certification Authorities Conference, Perth.
Pierson, M. E. (2001). Technology integration practice as a function of pedagogical expertise. Journal of Research on Computing in Education,
Summer, 413–430.
Rakes, G. C., & Casey, H. B. (2002). An analysis of teacher concerns toward
instructional technology. International Journal of Educational Technology. 3(1). Retrieved March 30, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://
www.outreach.uiuc.edu/ijet/v3n1/rakes/index.html
Relan, A., & Gillani, B. (1997). Web-based instruction and the traditional
classroom: Similarities and differences. In B. H. Khan (Ed.), Web-based
instruction. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
Richards, C., & Nason, R. (1999). Prerequisite principles for integrating (not
just tacking-on) multimedia technologies in the curricula of tertiary
education large classes. Paper presented at the ASCILITE ’99 Conference. Brisbane. Retrieved March 30, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http:/
/www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/brisbane99/papers/papers.htm
Sandholtz, J., Ringstaff, C., & Dwyer, D. (1997). Teaching with technology.
New York: Teachers College Press.
Selwyn, N., & Gorard, S. (2003). Reality bytes: Examining the rhetoric of
widening educational participation via ICT. British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(2), 169–181.
Strommen, D. (1999). Constructivism, technology, and the future of classroom learning. Retrieved April 15, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http:/
/www.ilt.columbia.edu/ilt/papers/construct.html
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
46 Torrisi-Steele
Tearle, P., Dillon, P., & Davis, N. (1999). Use of information technology by
English university teachers. Developments and trends at the time of the
National Inquiry into Higher Education. Journal of Further and Higher
Education, 23(1), 5–15.
Torrisi, G., & Davis, G. (2000). Online learning as a catalyst for reshaping
practice—The experiences of some academics developing online materials. International Journal of Academic Development, 5(2), 166–176.
Torrisi-Steele, G. (2001). Appropriate use of multimedia technologies in tertiary
learning environments. Staff and Educational Development International, 5(2), 167–176.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 47
Chapter III
Interactive
Multimedia for
Learning and
Performance
Ashok Banerji, Monisha Electronic Education Trust, India
Glenda Rose Scales, Virginia Tech, USA
Abstract
Developments in information and communication technologies (ICT) are
rapidly transforming our work environments and methods. Amongst these
changes, the advent of interactive multimedia technology has meant new
approaches to instruction, information and performance support
implementations. The available resources can be amalgamated in a suitable
way to create an enabling environment for learning, training and performing.
Concise descriptions of the salient aspects are presented along with basic
design principles for communication and performance support. Guidelines
for design and suggestions for implementation are provided for the benefit
of the practitioners.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
48 Banerji & Scales
Introduction
Undoubtedly, the advent of computers and communication technology has
forever changed our daily lives. Today, we have the fantasy amplifiers (computers), the intellectual tool kits (software and hardware), and the interactive
electronic communities facilitated by the Internet that have the potential to
change the way we think, learn, and communicate. However, these are only
tools. The late Turing Award winner Edsger Dijkstra said, “In their capacity as
a tool, computers will be but a ripple on the surface of our culture. In their
capacity as intellectual challenge, they are without precedent in the cultural
history of mankind” (Boyer et al., 2002). The onus is on us, our innovative ideas
as to how we harness the technology for education, training, and business in order
to lead or lag in the new social order. In this regard, we may remember that
Charles Darwin said, “It’s not the strongest of the species who survive, nor the
most intelligent, but the ones most responsive to change.”
In this chapter, we will review these current developments in teaching and
learning from a broader performance support systems perspective. Then we will
suggest a performance-centered design approach in support of developing
teaching and learning solutions for the knowledge worker of today.
Lessons from the Past
There are many examples from the past indicating the rush to implement cuttingedge technologies (Marino, 2001). All of these began with a grand promise as a
total solution to a long-standing problem. For example, in 1922 Thomas Edison
predicted that “the motion picture is destined to revolutionize” the educational
system and will largely supplement textbooks. Radio was hailed with the promise
to “bring the world to the classroom.” Similarly, educational television was touted
as a way to create a “continental classroom” (Cuban, 1986). How much of these
hopes have been met as of today?
On similar lines, recently, there has been much hype about interactive multimedia
and the Internet as the remedies for all problems in training and education.
However, as a knowledge resource, multimedia productions, the Internet, and a
library have similar attributes. It is particularly wrong to assume that putting all
the information on the Internet will make learning happen. The Internet is useful,
but it does not guarantee learning any more than a good library ensures creating
knowledgeable persons (Clark, 1983).
From a technocratic perspective, there is a tendency to assume that installing
computers and networks will solve every conceivable problem. However, the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 49
value and benefits of technology will come only through leveraging it for dynamic
and strategic purposes that place the focus first on learning and performing and
second on the technology (Dede, 1998; Bare & Meek, 1998).
The key lessons from the past indicate that including performance-centered
design techniques tends to improve the usability of the information or learning
systems. As we move from the “Information Age” into the “Knowledge age,”
it is important to consider technological solutions to support teaching and learning
(Reeves, 1998). In the transition from the “Old Economy” to the “New
Economy,” a key outcome of the transformation is a dramatic shift from
investments in physical capital to investments in human or intellectual capital. A
well-designed holistic approach toward training and development is therefore
needed to support the learning needs of the knowledge worker (McArthur,
2000). In this regard, we need to consider the benefits of a user- and performance-centered approach from the standpoint of design. The remaining portion
of this chapter will discuss how the electronic performance support systems
approach can help in the challenges associated with the new paradigm.
Performance Support Systems
There are three primary impacts of information and communication technologies
(ICT). These are the methods in which the following occur:
(a) Information is distributed and retrieved.
(b) Knowledge and expertise are stored and acquired.
(c) Skills are learned and transferred.
These technologies have made important impacts in transforming education,
training, and skill development approaches. In 1991, Gloria Gery introduced a
framework for electronic support (Gery, 1991, 2002). While definitions vary, it
is widely agreed that performance support systems do the following:
•
Enable people to perform tasks quickly, because they provide integrated
task structuring, data, knowledge, and tools at the time of need
•
Do not tax the performer’s memory or require performers to manipulate too
many variables
•
Enable task completion, with learning as a secondary consequence
Taking a broader view, we can say that an electronic performance support
involves “a human activity system that is able to manipulate large amounts of task
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
50 Banerji & Scales
related information in order to provide both a problem solving capability as well
as learning opportunities to augment human performance in a job task” (Banerji,
1999a). Such systems provide information and concepts in either a linear or a
nonlinear way, as they are required by a user. The EPSS concept provides a
holistic design framework encompassing a custom-built interactive guidance,
learning, information, and knowledge support facility that is integrated into a
normal working environment. Such systems are concerned with effective
human–task interaction in which the computer provides an interface to various
job tasks and becomes an aid in achieving efficient task performance.
Components and Types of EPSS
In most modern workplaces, computers are used for decision making, task
performance, task sequencing, planning, and also learning, thereby replacing
many manual methods. In such situations, the work is not done solely by people
or solely by computers but by human-computer systems. The computers and
communication technology thus act as a powerful tool by providing an interface
to the basic job tasks that are involved. People and computers thus tend to work
cooperatively and symbiotically, combining the advantages of the powers of each
in order to achieve more effective job performance (Licklider, 1960).
Thus, human-task interaction within the human activity system (HAS) forms the
foundation of EPSS. The HAS involves the following three subsystems, as shown
in Figure 1:
(a) The tool subsystem
(b) The task subsystems
(c) The people subsystem
The tool subsystem provides an interface to various job tasks and becomes an
effective aid in achieving efficient task performance. It can also be a means for
improving performance. However, the performance generally gets hindered in
the absence of an appropriate “interface.” These are the barriers of task
performance that a support system should strive to minimize. The dimensions of
these barriers include knowledge, skill, information, decision, processes, and
procedures. The function of an EPSS would be to reduce the “permeability” of
the interface through appropriate means. These include eLearning facility and
Knowledge Management, among many others (Dickelman & Banerji, 1999).
There could be three principal ways in which the “tools system” interfaces the
“task system,” and, three broad classifications of EPSS can be made depending
on how they render support in task performance:
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 51
Figure 1: Concept map of human activity system
Human Activity System
People System
I
N
T
E
R
F
A
C
E
Task
System
Tools System
Type 1: In this type, tasks are performed with computer and software tools, such
as word processors, spreadsheets, and so on. Support for this type of
application is tied with the software tools and, therefore, can be called
software-integrated EPSS. The simplest examples are cue cards, animated help in Microsoft applications (Figure 2), and wizards.
Type 2: In this type, computer-based tools mediate the organizational tasks and
practices, such as banking systems, enterprise resource planning systems,
air ticket booking, along with hotel and car booking systems, and so on.
Supports are needed as an integrated part of this type of application so that
the user can perform competently with minimal training. These types of
applications can be called job-integrated EPSS.
Type 3: In this type, computer-based systems mediate and facilitate the various
operations and job roles, such as knowledge-based tasks, repair and
maintenance jobs, and so on. Support for this type of application can be
called operation-integrated EPSS. The emerging technologies involving
wearable computers and virtual reality applications supporting repair jobs
fall in this class of applications.
Numerous examples of EPSS applications are available in the literature (Banerji,
2003; Dickelman, 2001; Gery, 1991; Hall, 2003). However, detailed discussion
of specific EPSS tools is not possible within the confines of this chapter.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
52 Banerji & Scales
Figure 2: Animated help in Microsoft applications
Interactive Technologies for
Communication
Let us now examine multimedia technology as a tool for communication and
information transfer. Communication is central to the development of human
society and is responsible for all the knowledge that we have accumulated so far.
By the word “communication,” we mean the process of transmission of data and
information from one person to another, which ultimately may lead to knowledge
after processing in the mind of the recipient.
The communication process for information transfer is usually bidirectional. The
chain of events starts with a trigger in the mind of the sender (Person A), who,
in turn, gives the idea a form by encoding it in a language or expression or picture.
The encoded message (signal) is then transmitted to the receiver (Person B),
who must have the appropriate decoder to understand the message conveyed by
the signal. The receiver may appropriately respond by similarly returning a
message to the sender after suitable encoding.
The process of communication, however, continues only if the receiver has the
appropriate decoder/encoder. This model is shown in Figure 3. This model can
also be easily modified for human–computer communication by replacing
“Person B” in the model with a computer. The developments in multimedia and
Internet technologies provided the necessary impetus for this evolving human–
computer symbiosis utilizing the various communication modes and channels.
Their possible applications are limitless, as the technology is under constant
evolution.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 53
Figure 3: Encoder-decoder and channel model of communication
Information source: The process responsible for selecting or formulating the desired message.
Message: The material that the information source wishes to transmit.
Signal: The form in which the message is actually sent to the recipient.
Transmission channel: The medium through which the message is sent.
Source: Adapted from Wilbur Schramm’s model (1954), as referred to in Tannenbaum (1998).
In the case of human-computer communication, interaction with the computer
and the communicative dialogue takes place through some limited modes and
channels. The modes are mainly visual, audio, and tactile. Within each mode,
there can be various channels. Examples include text, graphics, animation, and
video channels in visual mode; voice, sound, and music in audio mode; discrete
and continuous tactile interaction modes using keyboard and mouse/joystick, etc.
The effectiveness of this communication depends on how well the modes and the
media components have been selected and combined. Various interactive
technologies are available for this purpose. Detailed discussion on these will be
beyond the scope of this chapter. However, the above model is important for
conceptualizing and realizing the three types of EPSS discussed earlier.
Design Principles
The foregoing discussions on human–task interaction and interactive technologies for communication give us the necessary foundation for appropriate design
of interactive multimedia for learning and, particularly, for performance support.
Although the complexity of the application domain can vary considerably, we can
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
54 Banerji & Scales
design an appropriate performance support solution based on a set of 10
fundamental principles and guidelines. These are listed in Table 1. The 10 basic
principles formulate the design strategies for EPSS, including its major supporting components—eLearning and knowledge management (Banerji, 1995).
Table 1: Basic principles of performance support
Num
ber
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Principle
Remarks
Specify and prioritize the critical areas of
underperformance within the application domain and then
identify appropriate strategies to improve performance
Suggests a methodology for
identification of critical areas of
performance deficiency and a top-level
approach for their remedy
Attempt to design mechanization aids and automation
tools to facilitate increases in personal and organizational
performance with respect to task-oriented skills
Identify relevant generic and application-oriented tools
and processes that will provide on-the-job support and
improve task performance
Attempt to identify and, if possible, eliminate all
unnecessary information blockages and constrictions
within an organization or a work environment
Identify an appropriate combination of media, multimedia,
hypermedia, and telecommunications in order to optimize
information flow and interpersonal communications
Where a user or employee has an identified skill deficiency,
attempt to rectify the situation using just-in-time (JIT)
training and learning techniques
Whenever feasible, a performance support system should
accommodate individual learning styles and thus attempt to
maximize its utility for as wide a range of users and task
performance situations as is possible
Identify appropriate groups of people who have the expertise
needed to solve demanding problems and provide the
infrastructure necessary to facilitate group working
Whenever feasible, attempt to use intelligent agents within
an EPSS facility in order to (a) identify the skills needed
for a given task, (b) locate sources of organizational
expertise relevant to these tasks, and (c) enhance software
components
Attempt to provide facilities to create a corporate pool of
knowledge and skill assets that can be used to maintain and
enhance performance levels
Possible measures for prioritizing tasks
could be based on cost, quality, error
rate, and task performance time
Suggests generic tool sets for
information provision, information
dissemination, intervention of JIT
Training and learning facilities,
including eLearning, within a
performance support environment
Accommodates the importance of
various types of users and their learning
styles
Suggests computer-supported
collaborative work (CSCW), the use of
intelligent agents, and Knowledge
Management
Permeate benefits of performance
support right across an organization;
create a corporate knowledge pool and
skill asset (knowledge capital) that can
be made available throughout an
organization and is available when
needed
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 55
Implementation Approach
Performance means to complete a task such as a piece of work or a duty
according to a usual or established method. It also means mastering the task
using the most efficient and effective techniques. One aspect of mastering a task
using a performance support system is the reliance upon the cognitive partnership between the user and the performance support tool. The important functions
and performance measures are as follows:
(1) Reduction in task performance time
(2) Reduction of operational error
(3) Improvement of the quality of task performance
(4) Reduction in cost
These can be achieved through appropriate design of EPSS (Barker & Banerji,
1995; Banerji, 1999a; Gery, 2002).
EPSS for Teaching and Learning
The four parameters, time, error, quality, and cost, form the justification for the
use of the EPSS approach in any workplace design/redesign. For example, these
are equally applicable in any academic institution or corporate university for
supporting (a) the students in their learning tasks, (b) the faculty in their tasks of
delivering knowledge, and (c) the employees in their management tasks and
functions. Let us elaborate one approach.
Despite the advent of powerful, inexpensive, easy-to-use computer technology,
the uptake of computer-assisted learning and computer-based training methods
within most academic institutions had so far been slow. However, a new wave
in the form of Virtual Classroom, Virtual University, Web-Based Training is
currently sweeping across most institutions all over the globe. These are clubbed
under the term eLearning (or e-learning), which provides opportunities for new
modes of information exchange, information transfer, and knowledge acquisition.
It is conceivable that for some time to come, lectures will continue to be the
mainstream mechanism for the bulk dissemination of information and knowledge
to large groups of students. Given this situation, it is important to address the issue
of how best to leverage technology to improve the quality of students’ learning
experiences and at the same time provide a more effective and efficient
framework for the faculty to develop and present material. One way in which this
could be done is to create an electronic performance environment that simultaCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
56 Banerji & Scales
neously fulfils the needs of both faculty and students. The model of required
support for this purpose is shown in Figure 4.
The model shown in Figure 4 is based on the recognition of the currently accepted
strategy. It suggests how we can incorporate the new strategy in making the shift
(a) from teacher-centered instruction to student-centered learning, (b) from
information delivery to information exchange, and (c) from passive learning to
active/exploratory/inquiry-based learning.
The distinguishing characteristic of knowledge and skill is that it derives from and
finds its meaning in activity. Knowledge is dynamic. Its meaning is constructed
and reconstructed as the individual grapples with the use of knowledge through
conceptualization, analysis, and manipulation. This naturally has important
implications for curriculum development. The objectives of education in any
discipline are conventionally attained through (a) classroom training (conceptual
understanding), (b) tutorials (analysis), and (c) laboratory practice (practical skill
or manipulation).
However, in view of the rapidly changing practices, revitalizing education and
training, particularly technical education, has become a matter of concern. This
Figure 4: Concept map of support system for teaching and learning
Goal
Students: Efficient in problem solving, domain understanding, performing
Lecturers: Up-to-date and skilled in knowledge transfer, teaching
Skill refinement, rehearsal,
practice, collaborate
Functions
Knowledge acquisition &
transfer
Methods
Support
Skill and knowledge
assessment
Lectures & Tutorials
Multimedia CBT
Electronic Mentor
Basic skill
development
Workshop & Laboratory
eLearning and
Knowledge
Management
infrastructure
Virtual Lab
Electronic collaboration
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 57
is because of two factors. First, setting up an appropriate up-to-date laboratory
is costly and takes time. Second, accessibility of the laboratory is limited to fixed
available hours. The existing practices therefore do not support open and flexible
learning (Barker, 1996; Baker et al., 1995). Therefore, the central challenge lies
in how to provide cost-effective learning opportunities for a larger and more
diverse student population. Following on the human activity system model
(Figure 1) and the basic principles of performance support system design (Table
1), Figure 4 suggests an approach for a support system for teaching and learning.
This can be achieved by incorporating the virtual laboratory, multimedia computer-based training (CBT), including eLearning, knowledge management infrastructure, and the support components made available through the Internet and
communication facilities, as shown in Figure 4.
Conclusions
This chapter described design approaches to assist the knowledge worker of
today by leveraging technology to support learning and performance. The basic
premise of the approach is incorporating new techniques to deliver just-in-time
learning into an EPSS design. Design for this purpose needs sound judgment and
decision about pedagogy, which is often the main cause of failure, not the
technology. It should be realized that merely hosting Web pages with all the
information about the subject is not what eLearning is about. Better learning will
not occur if only a conversion of media is effected—from paper to digital.
With sound design, the potentials of interactive multimedia technologies for
learning and performing are many. Technology is available now to make learning
interesting and activity oriented. It is possible to create low-cost alternatives for
learning with active experimentation through virtual laboratories, where learning
occurs through practicing and visualizing the concepts. Most importantly, it is
possible to make these benefits available in a consistent way to a wider crosssection of people covering a large geographical area.
Gary S. Becker, Nobel laureate and professor of economics and sociology at the
University of Chicago, argues the following (Ruttenbur, Spickler, & Lurie, 2000):
The beginning of this century should be called “The Age of Human Capital.” This
is because the success of individuals and economies succeed will be determined
mainly by how effective they are at investing in and commanding the growing
stock of knowledge. In the new economy, human capital is the key advantage.
(p. 12)
In the knowledge-based economy, organizations as well as individuals need to
focus on protecting their biggest asset: their knowledge capital. Therefore, the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
58 Banerji & Scales
leaders of companies competing in the knowledge economy have to recognize
the importance of efficient knowledge management as well as the importance of
developing and enhancing their intellectual capital leveraging technology.
The increasing economic importance of knowledge is blurring the boundaries for
work arrangements and the links between education, work, and learning. In this
regard, the electronic performance support approach provides a holistic framework for workplace design and redesign.
Of course, the human mind is not going to be replaced by a machine, at least not
in the foreseeable future. There is little doubt that teachers cannot be replaced
with technology. However, technology can be harnessed as a tool to support the
new paradigm. We can derive much gain by adopting information and communication technologies appropriately, especially as we look for new solutions to
provide the knowledge worker with immediate learning opportunities.
References
Banerji, A. (1995). Designing electronic performance support systems. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computers in Education
(ICCE95) (pp. 54–60). Singapore, December 5–8.
Banerji, A. (1999a). Performance support in perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 38(7). Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http:/
/www.pcd-innovations.com/piaug99/PSinPerspective.pdf
Banerji, A. (1999b). Multimedia and performance support initiatives in Singapore
Polytechnic. SP Journal of Teaching Practices. Retrieved from the
World Wide Web: http://www.vc.sp.edu.sg/journals/journals_intro.htm
Banerji, A. (Ed.) (2001). The world of electronic support systems. Retrieved
February 6, 2004 from the World Wide Web: http://www.epssworld.com/
Bare, J., & Meek, A. (1998). Internet access in public schools (NCES 98031). U.S. Department of Education. Washington, DC: National Center for
Education Statistics.
Barker, P., & Banerji, A. (1995). Designing electronic performance support
systems. Innovations in Education and Training International, 32(1),
4–12.
Barker, P., Banerji, A., Richards, S., & Tan, C. M. (1995). A global performance
support for students and staff. Innovations in Education and Training
International, 32(1), 35–44.
Boyer, R. S., Feijen, W., et al. (2002). In memoriam Edsger W. Dijkstra 1930–
2002. Communications of the ACM, 45(10), 21–22.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia for Learning and Performance 59
Clark, R. E. (Winter 1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media.
Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 445–459.
Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The classroom use of technology
since 1920. New York: Teachers College Press.
Dede, C. (1998). Six challenges for educational technology. Retrieved from
the World Wide Web: http://www.virtual.gmu.edu/SS_research/cdpapers/
ascdpdf.htm
Dickelman, G., & Banerji, A. (1999). Performance support for the next
millennium: A model for rapidly changing technologies in a global economy.
HCI 99 Conference, Munich.
Dickelman, G. J. (Ed.) (2003). EPSS design contest awards. Retrieved February
6, 2004 from the World Wide Web: http://www.pcd-innovations.com/
Gery, G. (2002). Performance support—Driving change (pp. 24–37). The
ASTD E-Learning Handbook, Ed. Allison Rossett. New York: McGraw
Hill.
Gery, G. J. (1991). Electronic performance support systems: How and why
to remake the workplace through the strategic application of technology. Boston, MA: Weingarten Publications.
Hall, B. (Ed.) (2003). Retrieved February 6, 2004 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.brandonhall.com
Licklider, J. C. R. (1960). Man–computer symbiosis. IRE Transaction of
Human Factors in Electronics, HFE-1(1), 4–11.
Marino, T. (2001, July/August). Lessons learned: Do you have to bleed at the
cutting edge? The Technology Source. Retrieved from the World Wide
Web: http://ts.mivu.org/default.asp?show=article&id=860#options
McArthur, K. E. (2000). Teachers use of computers and the Internet in
public schools (NCES 2000090). U.S. Department of Education, Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
Reeves, C. T. (1998). The impact of media and Technology in Schools. A
research report prepared for the Bertelsmann Foundation. Retrieved from
the World Wide Web: http://www.athensacademy.org/instruct/media_tech/
reeves0.html
Ruttenbur, B. W., Spickler, C. G., & Lurie, S. (2000). eLearning the engine of
the knowledge economy. Retrieved from the World Wide Web:
www.morgankeegan.com; http://www.masie.com/masie/researchreports/
elearning0700nate2.pdf
Tannenbaum, R. S. (1998). Theoretical foundations of multimedia (Chapter
5). New York: W.H. Freeman & Co. Computer Science Press.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
60 Butcher-Powell
Chapter IV
Teaching, Learning
and Multimedia
Loreen Marie Butcher-Powell,
Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, USA
Abstract
“We must not forget that almost all teaching is Multimedia” (Schramm,
p.37). Today, the magnetism of multimedia is clearly oblivious via the use
of streaming video, audio clips, and the Internet. Research has shown that
the use of multimedia can aid in the comprehension and retention of student
learning (Cronin & Myers, 1997; Large Behesti, Breulex & Renaud, 1996;
Tennenbaum, 1998). As a result, more educators are utilizing Web-based
multimedia materials to augment instruction online and in the classroom.
This chapter provides a theoretical framework for transforming Student
Centered Discussion (SCD), a traditional based pedagogy strategy, to a
new multimedia pedagogy SCD strategy. The new multimedia SCD pedagogy
represents a new way of teaching and learning. As a result, positive
responses and feedback have been collected from students in their ability
to interpret facts, compare and contract material, and make inferences
based on recall of information previously presented or assigned in article
readings.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Teaching, Learning and Multimedia
61
Introduction
Research has shown that students can integrate information from various
sensory modalities into a meaningful experience. For example, students often
associate the sound of thunder with the visual image of lightning in the sky. When
the cognitive impact of two given interaction modalities differ enough, different
learning modes can be induced. Moreover, an interaction modality, which affects
a learning mode, also has consequences for the learning performance (Guttormsen,
1996, 1997). Therefore, a teacher is faced with the need to integrate various
combinations of sensory modalities, such as text, still images, motion, audio,
animation, etc., to promote the learning experience.
Multimedia is multisensory; it engages the senses of the students. Multimedia
can be defined in a variety of ways, but in this chapter, the term “multimedia”
refers to a Web-based interactive computer-mediated application that includes
various combinations of text, sound, still images, audio, video, and graphics.
Multimedia is also interactive; it enables both the student and the teacher to
control the content flow of information (Vaughan, 1998). A major part of using
multimedia in instruction involves engaging students in sense-making activities,
such as conversations and chats about external representations that use concepts, symbols, models, and relationships. As a result, multimedia has introduced
important changes in the educational system and has impacted the way teachers
communicate information to the student (Neo & Neo, 2000).
Learning
Learning is fundamentally built up through conversations between persons or
among groups, involving the creation and interpretation of communication (Gay
& Lentini, 1995; Schegloff & Sacks, 1973; Schegloff, 1991). More importantly,
learning is established and negotiated through successive turns of action and
conversations (Gay et al., 1995; Goodwin & Hertage, 1986; Schegloff, 1991).
Thus, conversations are means by which people collaboratively construct beliefs
and meanings as well as state their differences.
Brown, Collins, and Duguid (1989) argued that learning involves making sense
of experience, thought, or phenomenon in context. They hypothesized that
student representation or understanding of a concept is not abstract and selfsufficient, but rather it is constructed from the social and physical context in
which the concept is found and used. Further, Brown et al. (1989) emphasized
the importance of implicit knowledge in developing understanding rather than
acquiring formal concepts. It is, therefore, essential to provide students with
authentic experiences with the concept.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
62 Butcher-Powell
Students can engage in learning conversations in distributed multimedia environments. Multimedia technologies, such as graphics, simulations, video, sound, and
text, allow instructors to use multiple modes and representations to construct
new understanding and conceptual change of enhancing student knowledge.
Brown et al. (1989) stated that learning involves making sense of thoughts,
experiences, or phenomena in contexts. Multimedia allows for the accommodation of diverse learning styles. Different media provide different opportunities for
communication and activities among students. For example, online conversations
provide a common background or mutual knowledge about beliefs and assumptions during conversation.
The Distinct Ways of Learning
There are multiple ways of learning. Four of the most common and distinct ways
to learn are independent learning, individual learning, cooperative group learning,
and collaborative group learning (Kawachi, 2003). For the purpose of this
chapter, it is important to understand the differences between cooperative and
collaborative learning.
Traditionally in a cooperative learning environment, knowledge is learned by the
student via the teacher or other students repeating, reiterating, recapitulating,
paraphrasing, summarizing, reorganizing, or explaining the concepts. Meanwhile, in collaborative learning, knowledge is not learned by the student via the
teacher, but rather knowledge is learned via an active dialogue among students
who seek to understand and apply concepts. Using multimedia in collaborative
environments allows students to participate in genuine learning activities by
which they can reflect as well as modify their understanding of concepts (Brown
et al., 1989; Gay, Sturgill, Martin, & Huttenlocher, 1999; Harasim, Hiltz, Teles,
& Turoff, 1995; Wegerif, 1998; Murphy, Drabier, & Epps, 1997). The ability to
read and respond to a message posted to an online forum creates opportunities
for the creation of knowledge.
With the use of multimedia, students can utilize the information presented to them
by the teacher, and represent it in a more meaningful way, using different media
elements. Fortunately, there are many multimedia technologies that are available
for teachers to use to create innovative and interactive courses. A review of
literature on multimedia educational tools revealed some interesting innovative
and rich multimedia-based learning tools. Jesshope, Heinrich, and Kinshuk (n.d.)
researched the ProgramLive application. The ProgramLive application is a rich
multimedia-based tutorial of the Java programming language. ProgramLive’s
interface represents a notebook, within a browser. There are tabs to the side of
the notebook display that can be used for navigation of the material, as well as
pop-up explanations of key concepts.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Teaching, Learning and Multimedia
63
Millard (1999) developed an Interactive Learning Module for Electrical Engineering Education and Training titled the Interactive Learning Modules (ILM).
ILM presents Web-based multimedia tutorials created with Macromedia Director. ILM provides a mechanism for the creation of supplementary material for
lectures and collaborative problem solving and simulation environments. ILM is
highly modular for the usage of various materials to be used in multiple courses.
Similarly, the Multimedia Learning Environment (MLE) developed by Roccetti
and Salomoni (2001) is a networked educational application that also provides
course material in a student-based manner. MLE provides a virtual learning
environment, through a client application, where the multimedia educational
material is structured in Adaptive Hypermedia, from which sets of hypermedia
pages are dynamically retrieved and presented to the student via tailoring the
contents and presentation style to the students needs (Roccetti et al., 2001).
Further, Jesshope, Heinrich, and Kinshuk (n.d.) are currently developing an
integrated system for Web-based education called the Teaching Integrated
Learning Environment (TILE). This system uses Web-based delivery of course
material, including interactive multimedia presentations, problem solving, and
simulation environments in which students learn by doing. Like MLE, TILE
provides students with an interactive multimedia environment and instructors
with a multimedia environment for managing, authoring, monitoring, and evaluating student learning.
The multimedia educational tools, described above, have been traditionally used
in two ways, either as a vehicle for students to learn theory and application
beyond the subject matter or as a tool used by the teacher to support teaching.
As a result of multimedia educational tools, teachers are faced with a significant
need to provide a more multimedia-based approach to learning, and to create a
new educational pedagogy that emphasizes collaborative learning via multimedia.
Numerous studies have been conducted in the attempt to determine how
effective multimedia is in teaching (Blank, Pottenger, Kessler, Roy, Gevry,
Heigel, Sahasrabudhe, & Wang, 2002), however, very few studies have been
conducted to illustrate and determine the factors that may aid in a new
multimedia pedagogy strategy for teaching. This chapter was designed to
provide the theoretical framework for how teaching is enhanced using Webbased multimedia. The objective of the chapter will be to explain the latest
pedagogical teaching strategies for utilizing interactive Web-based multimedia
educational tools. As a result, this chapter will provide instructors with a positive
and effective example for utilizing Web-based multimedia in teaching.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
64 Butcher-Powell
A New Global Environment
for Learning
A new multimedia pedagogical model for learning in a collaborative environment
was incorporated in the Information Science and Technology (IST) undergraduate program at Pennsylvania State University (PSU), Hazleton, Pennsylvania
(USA). The transformation from a traditional lecture-based model to an interactive Web-based multimedia application was accomplished using A New Global
Environment for Learning (ANGEL). ANGEL is PSU’s course management
system (CMS) that is currently in use within the University’s system (Pennsylvania State University, n.d.). ANGEL is an interactive Web-based multimedia
application developed by CyberLearning Labs Incorporated, for constructive,
collaborative, inquiry-based, and problem-solving Web-based learning. ANGEL
allows for interaction, testing, presentations, audio, video, forums, file submissions, and many more multimedia features. Through ANGEL, instructors are
able to use multimedia effectively in aiding in the students’ learning and retention
process (Pennsylvania State University, n.d.).
Pedagogical Strategy
Beginning with the philosophy that “learning is not a spectator sport” (Chickering
& Gomson, n.d.), students are encouraged to get involved in their educational
experience. The probability of students’ learning improving by getting involved,
talking and writing about what they have learned, relating it to past experiences,
and most importantly applying it to their daily lives, is much greater than by
students sitting in classes listening to teachers, memorizing prepackaged assignments, and spitting out answers. The goal of each course is to provide the
students with a challenging, critical thinking, novel, technology-focused, and
learner-centered educational experience, where they learn by pursuing knowledge, improving basic communication skills, and, most importantly, taking
responsibility for their own learning (Brown et al., 1989).
To obtain such a goal, the following procedures were used. The classes were
structured toward creating a problem-based learning (PBL) and a studentcentered discussion (SCD) environment for students utilizing a multimedia
course management system, ANGEL. PBL is traditionally used in courses that
provide more student-centered learning experiences. The origins of PBL began
in the medical education field (Barrows, 1986, 1999). PBL is a student-centered
pedagogical approach in which learning is taught through suggested real-world
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Teaching, Learning and Multimedia
65
problems. PBL establishes the importance of clearly formulated effective realworld problems. An effective problem has a realistic context and is couched in
appropriate vocabulary. The problem should be complex and ill-structured,
without clear-cut, easy answers or nuances and subtitles that are not immediately apparent. Moreover, the problem should support both discovery and selfdirected learning while engaging the interest and the curiosity of the student
(Desmarchais, 1999).
SCD is a delivery system for the application of educational goals in the
classroom. This process is accomplished by integrating basic discussion skills in
the classroom. The technique is one that models after all competency levels of
Blooms Taxonomy in a limited structured time period. The discussion and teambuilding process that occurs in SCD promotes the active engagement of the
students in their own educations. This technique requires the student to actively
take responsibility for conducting a productive and meaningful discussion
(Wright & Shout, n.d.). SCD has been proven to be an interactive model that
encourages students to develop effective communication and interpersonal skills
as well as strengthen critical-thinking skills (Butcher-Powell & Brazon, 2003).
Moreover, Wright et al. (n.d.) stated that this model is effective regardless of
discipline or knowledge base.
The addition of multimedia technology into a PBL and a SCD environment
further enhances the students’ learning experience. Figure 1 illustrates this
focus.
Figure 1: The multimedia PBL–SCD curriculum model
Problem
Content
Lecture
Student
Traditional-based
teaching model
Coach
SCD
Problem
Solvers
Conventional PBL
model
Student
Multimedia
Problem
Solvers
Traditional SCD
model
Facilitator
Resources
Problem
Solvers
The multimedia
PBL–SCD model
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
66 Butcher-Powell
Class Structure
The original version of the PBL and SCD was modified in order to incorporate
multimedia into the class. The classes meet every Tuesday and Thursday for
approximately one hour and 10 minutes for one 15-week and one 14-week
semester. On every Tuesday, the PBL and SCD models were used in class. To
accomplish a cohesive learning experience, the students are first divided into
small groups consisting of four students. Each group has 30 minutes to discuss,
ponder, debate, question, learn, and solve the problem from a video clip stored
on ANGEL. Additional resources, such as articles, notes, and existing Web
cases were made available to the students in a digital library on ANGEL. After
the 30 minutes were over, the entire class was combined into one big circle, upon
which students received another video clip that expanded upon the first video
clip. The students were to engage in a larger PBL and SCD environment to
create a solution to the problem identified in the video clips.
After the class session was over, students were required to log on to ANGEL
and write a brief summary of what they learned from the video clips, and how
that relates to their lives. In addition, the students were required to search the
Web and find an article on the subject matter and post it to ANGEL for
Thursday’s class. On Thursday, an interactive PowerPoint lecture supporting
Tuesday’s video clip and the students’ PBL and SCDs were presented to the
class and remained available in ANGEL for later student usage. After the 30
minute lecture, the remaining 40 minutes were left for the students to find and
discuss an article or Web site in the forum section of ANGEL. Moreover, each
student was also required to read and elaborate upon at least one other student’s
summary of a related article or Web site.
After the material was taught utilizing the defined methods, the students were
required to take an online interactive time test via ANGEL. Traditionally, the test
consisted of random multiple-choice, true and false, matching, and short-answer
questions. ANGEL allowed authenticated users, during a specified time frame,
various combinations of questions, and timed the test. More importantly, ANGEL
allowed the teacher to make prerecorded video available during the test in order
to guide a student through each excursion of the test. And, finally, ANGEL
allowed the teacher to pregrade the test so that the students had immediate
access to their grades after their tests were submitted. However, the answers
to the test were only available for review after all students completed the test.
As illustrated above, this new multimedia pedagogical strategy allowed for
inquiry to be accomplished via text mining and visualization tools. As a result,
students were able to explore the emerging problems, solutions, and trends in
their fields of study. Moreover, collaborative learning was also achieved via live
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Teaching, Learning and Multimedia
67
links and remote-controlled “video” sessions by reviewing multimedia recorded
lecture sessions that encouraged students to interact with instructors and digital
libraries.
Data Source and Collection Instrument
The data population consisted of undergraduate students (n = 32) in the
Information Science and Technology major at PSU Hazleton, Pennsylvania,
USA. The students ranged in age from 20 to 28 (M = 20.51, SD = 2.68).
Academic classification was represented by juniors (n = 26) and seniors (n =
8). The teaching team consisted of one instructor utilizing two classes to explore
student perceptions and experiences with the cohesive multimedia pedagogical
strategy. Data were gathered in pre- and postquestionnaires and in student
diaries. The pre- and postquestionnaires consisted of 11 questions to assess the
students’ interest in group project work and whether or not they were motivated
in their project development. The questionnaire also tried to determine the
students’ levels of understanding and critical-thinking skills. The questionnaire
was measured using a five-point Likert scale. The scale measurements were 1,
strongly agree; 2, agree; 3, undecided; 4, disagree; and 5, strongly disagree. The
scales and all questions in the questionnaire were developed after a review of
literature guided by the theoretical base. An expert panel of faculty and doctorallevel graduate students evaluated the face and content validity of the questionnaire.
Results and Discussion
The feedback at the time of writing indicates that the new multimedia pedagogy
approach used in the classes is fully endorsed by students and leads to intense
student engagement and an effective level of learning. Thus, over 80% (87.7%)
of the students (n = 32) had a computer with Internet access at home and were
able to fully take advantage of the new multimedia way of learning. At the
beginning of the course, most (90.6%) of the students were excited and eager
to be taught using the new multimedia pedagogy. Furthermore, almost all of the
students (96.87%) at the end of the course felt they had learned a great deal of
theory, content, and application with the new multimedia pedagogy. Consistently,
students (96.87%) indicated that they would like to see this new multimedia
pedagogy applied to all of their undergraduate classes. The perceived benefit of
the new multimedia pedagogy to the student mean was 1.92 (SD = 0.63). This
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
68 Butcher-Powell
indicated that students agreed with the perceived benefits of the new multimedia
pedagogy strategy.
Inferential t-tests were used to determine if significant differences (p < 0.05)
existed in the perception of additional workload as a result of the adoption of the
new multimedia strategy. The t-test revealed that no significant differences (t =
1.59, p = 0.114) existed in the additional workload mean between the students
who liked and did not like the new multimedia way of learning. Furthermore, no
significant differences existed in the additional workload mean between the
students who earned a B or better and the students who earned a B- or less. More
importantly, no significant differences existed between the students who earned
a B or better or the students who earned a B- or lower, as they strongly agreed
that this was a great way to learn.
Moreover, the students’ experiences with this new multimedia pedagogical
strategy were also demonstrated throughout the semester by the student’s ability
to interpret facts, compare and contrast material, and make inferences based on
recall of the information previously presented or assigned information in the
given article. Most importantly, the student’s readiness for the class was
instantly recognized.
Overall, the new multimedia pedagogical strategy represents a new way to
develop and deliver classroom discussions and material. In traditional classroom
discussions, the faculty member assumes the role of the discussion leader. He
or she identifies the questions that will be discussed and maintains a teachercentered structure. In contrast with traditional classroom discussions, the new
multimedia pedagogical strategy online approach is much more student-centered
through the usage of multimedia enhancements. As a result, the instructor
assumes the role of discussion facilitator, instead of discussion leader. This shift
from discussion leader to discussion facilitator forces students to become
responsible for their behavior and interaction in the discussion.
Limitation
The integration of multimedia into the classroom and online is essential if
multimedia is to become a truly effective educational resource. However, the
integration and the change in pedagogy are difficult, time consuming, and
resource-intensive tasks. Research has shown that teachers need time working
with the technology before they will be at a level of comfort to change or modify
their pedagogy (Redmann et al., 2003).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Teaching, Learning and Multimedia
69
Conclusions
Despite a rapidly growing recognition of the potential impacts of such interactive
multimedia developments, teachers have relatively little understanding of the
extensive benefits surrounding the use of new multimedia resources in the
classroom. The dearth of knowledge exists in a wide variety of domains,
including but not limited to the design and development of new systems and tools
to retrieve and manipulate documents, as well as the uses and impacts of such
new tools on both learning and problem solving. Previous research documents
the improvement in learning as a result of the use of multimedia (Blank et al.,
2002), while other researchers have not found any significant differences in
learning between multimedia-based and traditional-based pedagogical approaches
(Moore & Kearley, 1996). As efforts to illustrate the impact of multimedia in
instruction continue, one fact remains: Modern multimedia-based pedagogical
approaches have roots of the oldest traditional human communication methods.
However, in the future, multimedia pedagogical strategies will have a much more
profound impact on how instructors approach and engage students in the process
of education and communication.
As the complexity of using multimedia in the classroom continues, new teacher
and student technologies will become robust, and ad hoc methodologies will give
way to more interactive student competence for learning.
References
Barrows, H. (1999). The minimum essentials for problem-based learning.
Retrieved March 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://www.pbli.org/pbl/
pbl_essentials.htm
Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy of problem based learning methods.
Medical Education, 20, 481–486.
Blank, G. D., Pottenger, W. M., Kessler, G. D., Roy, S., Gevry, D., Heigel, J.,
Sahasrabudhe, S., & Wang, Q. (June, 2002). Design and evaluation of
multimedia to teach java and object oriented software engineering. Proceedings of the American Society for Engineering Education. Montreal,
Canada.
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Dugid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the Culture
of Learning. Educational Researcher, 18, 32–42.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
70 Butcher-Powell
Butcher-Powell, L. M., & Brazon, B. (February, 2003). Workshop: Developing
interactive competence: Student centered discussion. Journal of Computing Science in Colleges, Proceedings of the 18th Annual CCSC
Eastern Conference, Bloomsburg, PA, 18(3), 235–240.
Chickering & Gomson. (n.d.). Seven principles of good practice in undergraduate education. Retrieved April 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://
www.hcc.hawaii.edu/intranet/committees/FacDevCom/guidebk/teachtip/
7princip.htm
Cronin, M. W., & Myers, S. L. (Spring 1997). Effects of visual versus no visuals
on learning outcomes from interactive multimedia instructions. Journal of
Computing in Higher Education, 8(2), 46–71.
Desmarchais, J. E. (1999). A Delphi technique to identify and evaluate criteria
for construction of PBL problems. Medical Education, 33(7), 504–508.
Gay, G., & Lentini, M. (1995). Use of communication resources in a networked
collaborative design environment. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication,1(1). Retrieved April 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://
www.ascusc.org/jcmc/vol1/issue1/IMG_JCMC/ResourceUse.html
Gay, G., Sturgill, A., Martin, W., & Huttenlocher, D. (1999). Documentcentered peer collaborations: An exploration of the educational uses of
networked communication technologies. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 4(3). Retrieved January 13, 2004 from: http://www.
ascusc.org/jcmc/vol4/issue3/gay.html
Goodwin, C., & Hertage, J. (1986). Conversation analysis. Annual Review of
Anthropology, 19, 283–307.
Guttormsen Schar, S. G. (1996). The influence of the user-interface on solving
well- and ill-defined problems. International Journal of Human–Computer Studies, 44, 1–18.
Guttormsen Schar, S. G. (1997). The history as a cognitive tool for navigation in
a hypertext system. In M. J. Smith, G. Salvendy, & R. J. Koubek (Eds.),
Vol. 21B, pp. 743–746.
Harasim, L., Hiltz, S. R., Teles, L., & Turoff, M. (1995). Learning networks:
A filed guide to teaching and learning online. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Jesshope, C., Heinrich, E., & Kinshuk. (n.d.). Online education using technology Integrated Learning Environments. Massey University, New Zealand.
Retrieved February 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://
www.tile.massey.ac.nz/publicns.html
Kawachi, P. (2003). Choosing the appropriate media to support the learning
process. Media and Technology for Human Resource Development,
14(1&2), 1–18.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Teaching, Learning and Multimedia
71
Large, A., Behesgti, J., Breuleux, A., & Renaud, A. (1996). Effect to animation
in enhancing descriptive and procedural texts in a multimedia environment.
Journal of the American Society of Information Science, 47(6), 437–
448.
Millard, D. M. (1999). Learning modules for electrical engineering education and
training. Proceedings of the American Society for Engineering Education.
Moore, M.G. & Kearsley, G. (1996). Distance Education: A Systems View.
Wadsworth Publishing.
Murphy, K. L., Drabier, R., & Epps, M. L. (1997). Incorporating computer
conferencing into university courses. 1997 Conference Proceedings:
Fourth Annual National Distance Education Conference (pp. 147–
155). College Station, TX, USA: Texas A & M University. Retrieved
January 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://disted.tamu.edu/~kmurphy/
dec97paphtm
Neo, M., & Neo, T. K. (2000). Multimedia learning: Using multimedia as a
platform for instruction and learning in higher education. Paper presented
at the Multimedia University International Symposium on Information
and Communication.
Pennsylvania State University. (n.d.). Overview and tools. Retrieved February
9, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://cms.psu.edu
Redmann, H. D., Kotrlik, W. J., & Douglas, B. B. (2003). A comparison of
business and marketing teachers on their adoption of technology for use in
instruction: Barriers, training, and the availability of technology. NABTE
Review, 30, 29–35.
Roccetti, M., & Salomoni, P. (2001). A Web-based synchronized multimedia
system for distance education. Proceedings of the 16th ACM Symposium
on Applied Computing (pp. 94–98).
Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1993). Collaborative knowledge building. In E.
DeCorte, M. C. Linn, H. Mandl, & L. Verschaffel (Eds.), Computerbased learning environments and problem solving (pp. 41–66). Berlin:
Springer-Verlag.
Schegloff, E. A. (1991). Conversation analysis and socially shared cognition. In
L. Resnick, J. Levine, & S. D. Bernard (Eds.), Socially shared cognition
(pp. 150–172). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Schegloff, E. A., & Sacks, H. (1973). Opening up closings. Semiotica, 7, 289–
327.
Schramm, W. (1977). Big media, little media. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage
Publications.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
72 Butcher-Powell
Tennenbaum, R. S. (1999). Theoretical foundation of multimedia. New York,
NY: Computer Science Press.
Vaugh, T. (1998). Multimedia: Making it work (4th ed.). Berkeley, CA:
Osborne/McGraw Hill.
Wegerif, R. (1998). The social dimension of asynchronous learning networks.
Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 2(1), 34–39.
Wright, D., & Shout, L. (n.d.). Developing interactive competence through
student-centered discussion. Retrieved March 2003 from the World Wide
Web: http://home.kiski.net/~dwright/scd/hme.html
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
73
Chapter V
Reaching Students
of Many Languages
and Cultures:
Strategies for
Developing Computer-Based
Learning Units
Rika Yoshii, California State University, San Marcos, USA
Alfred Bork, University of California, USA
Alastair Milne, California State University, San Marcos, USA
Fusa Katada, Waseda University, Japan
Felicia Zhang, University of Canberra, Australia
Abstract
To address the global problems of learning, we must make our development
strategies ready to support the many different languages and cultures in the
world. This chapter discusses how the Irvine-Geneva development strategy
supports, and can be made to support further, development of global
materials. We will first discuss essential characteristics of the kind of
learning software that will successfully address global education. We will
then discuss our design and translation strategies for current software with
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
74 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
those characteristics, the tools we have developed for facilitating them, and
our implementation strategies. We will end our discussion with linguistics
issues related to globalization in general.
Introduction
As the education community begins to address the global problems of learning,
we must make our development strategies ready to support the many different
languages and cultures in the world. While more computer-based materials
become available via the Internet, the majority is still written for English
speakers, making the materials virtually inaccessible to many students, or forcing
them to learn in English in styles inappropriate for many cultures (Yoshii, Katada,
Alsadeqi, & Zhang, 2003).
This chapter discusses how the Irvine-Geneva development strategy supports,
and can be made to support further, development of global materials. The Irvine–
Geneva development strategy brings together a philosophy of tutoring design
with a system of learning software development oriented toward embodying
that philosophy in pedagogically strong designs. These designs are given to
software development teams to implement them in well-engineered units, using
software tools oriented to that philosophy.
We will first discuss what we submit are essential characteristics of the kind of
learning software that will successfully address global education. We will then
discuss our design and translation strategies for current software with those
characteristics, the tools we have developed for facilitating them, and our
implementation strategies. We hope the readers will expand on our strategies
and use and even possibly enhance our tools in developing their materials.
We will end our discussion with linguistics issues related to globalization in
general.
Background: Learning Material for Global Education
What the characteristics will be of the learning software that will successfully
address global education is clearly subject to much debate; however, we present
the following characteristics as essential. We note that some of these characteristics require, or at least benefit by, distance learning.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
75
1.
Individualization: The software must adapt automatically to each student
as it progresses. Global education inherently implies a world of different
types of students. Each student will have unique abilities and learning
problems. The software must recognize these as it works with the student,
treating each student as an individual, providing individualized pacing and
appropriately chosen help sequences.
2.
Collaborative Learning: We recommend designing to allow collaborative
learning, as well as individual learning. For collaborative learning, we
recommend a group of two to three students sitting around a computer. One
obvious group that would benefit is those students who are unfamiliar with
computers.
3.
Mastery: The software should be designed to bring all students to understand everything the material has to give them, with no assumptions of
human teachers taking over any part of the material. Where this involves
the acquiring of skills, not just the learning of facts, the designers must take
the additional demands into account, providing for, at least, practice,
encouragement, and the student tiring from time to time.
4.
Culture: The material should match and respect the culture of each student
group. From an ethical point of view, it is important to respect people’s pride
in their cultural identities and heritages. We will explore this in more detail
later in the chapter.
5.
Languages: The material must be amenable to translation into many
different languages with many different writing systems. This effort cannot
simply use direct translations, as discussed later in this chapter, because
each culture has its own views of the world and its own ways of expressing
them.
6.
Autonomy: The software should not depend on, or even presume, any
institutions of learning as their environments. Although they may well be
used there, the units should still work autonomously with the student,
depending on no additional aid.
7.
Motivation: The software must be intrinsically motivating. Many of the
enticements and goads usual to classrooms, such as grades, assessments,
or teacher instructions, may not be available; but where a classroom
presentation can be made exciting and engaging, instilling excitement about
the domain, a presentation in the software should be able to do at least as
well. Again, however, what is motivating will likely depend on the student’s
culture.
8.
Affordability: The software must not be kept from its necessary audiences
by its cost (see also the next item). In estimating necessary consumer cost,
all significant expenses that are not otherwise defrayed must be included:
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
76 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
for instance, development, evaluation, delivery, later support and release of
updated versions, and any commercial profit margins involved.
9.
Delivery: Delivery mechanisms must be available for reaching everyone,
even very poor students, including those in environments without schools
(see above about autonomy). Note that designers must resolve potential
conflicts between this and other items above: no amount of motivation and
individualization will benefit students if doing so requires the software to use
capacities the students’ equipment does not have.
The development strategy developed at the University of California, Irvine
(UCI), in cooperation with the University of Geneva, is capable of meeting all the
requirements just stated (Bork et al., 1992).
Evolution of the Development Strategy
The evolution of what is now the Irvine–Geneva development strategy began
over 30 years ago. It has had, roughly, the major phases discussed next (Bork,
1987).
Birth of the Methodology and Tools
In the first phase, the project at UCI developed the central methodology and
programming tools to be used in producing highly interactive learning units. From
the start, it was recognized that for any learning software project to achieve the
nine major characteristics from page 75, a genuine software engineering
approach was necessary. This meant bringing groups of expert teachers or tutors
together with highly capable programmers. The two groups needed to communicate by a means both straightforward enough and detailed enough to give
teachers a relatively low learning curve yet give programmers all the pedagogical
details that the teachers wanted the software to realize with each student. Thus
was born the script: a visual document providing a semiformal notation for
teachers to design pedagogical flow.
In this early stage, there was no automation, to any degree, of the creation and
editing of pedagogical designs. When the evaluation of the learning software
showed (almost inevitably) necessary revisions in the pedagogical design,
updating the paper scripts reliably was so nearly impossible that the revisions
were usually made to the software alone; and a given script could thereby
become inaccurate, or worse, obsolete. The delivery system was a specific
mainframe with specialized graphics terminals; no personal computers or
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
77
networking were available. This phase lasted years, comprising a long run of
many different projects, and a wealth of learning material was produced (in
physics, mathematics, and evolutionary biology). However, these materials were
confined not only to UCI but also to the particular mainframe where they were
developed.
Transportable and Translatable Software
In the second phase, the Centre Universitaire d’Informatique (CUI) of the
University of Geneva began a long collaboration with UCI as individual microcomputers were starting to be available, the forerunners of today’s personal
workstations. An entire new set of tools for the programmers was developed
(Franklin et al., 1985) in a programming language not only transportable among
machines but also much more oriented to software engineering goals: software
more correctly implemented, more reliable, and easily amenable to necessary
changes. With the broadening of scope brought by several European colleagues,
these tools also evolved to support translation needs among European languages,
including attempts to make a given learning unit choose automatically the
language it would use, from among those provided for it. The first projects were
done in the wholesale translation of learning software originally scripted in
English. Scripts remained on paper and resistant to updates, including translation.
However, the need for creating and altering scripts in soft copy was becoming
ever more pressing, and the first explorations were being made into achieving it.
Incorporating Multimedia
With the arrival of the digital videodisc, the programmers’ tools evolved yet
again, to incorporate live sound and video into the windowing already used by the
existing text and graphic display. But no evolution of the scripts was required:
they were already flexible enough that teachers needed only a few refinements
of convention to specify multimedia content, both repurposed and original. These
were applied in a prototypal project to develop student comprehension of spoken
Japanese, with actual Japanese television footage, courtesy of Nippon Television
(Yoshii, 1992).
Script Editing Online and the World Wide Web
By the final stage of this project, CUI Geneva, under our late colleague Bertrand
Ibrahim, made it possible for the first time for teachers to create and edit scripts
online with a UNIX-based interactive system, called at the time IDEAL (Bork
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
78 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
et al., 1992) and more recently DIVA. This was used not only in the spoken
Japanese project but also in at least two others of very different domains. IDEAL
was also the first effort to generate automatically as much as possible of the
program code to implement the script (Ibrahim, 1990). Currently, support tools
for creating learning software in Java are being developed at California State
University San Marcos (CSUSM) (Yoshii, 2002). One overriding goal is to
develop learning software that is inherently deliverable over the World Wide
Web.
It will be noted that project arrangements described above imply significant
costs. While a full discussion of project financing issues is beyond the scope of
this chapter, we maintain that larger projects are actually helpful here. They not
only produce larger amounts of learning software that increasing numbers of
students will need, they can also help distribute costs and reduce or eliminate
repetition of overhead items, ultimately resulting in less expense per unit of
learning software. This has been true of most of our projects, which have been
funded by nonprofit organization grants, and by both grants from and contracts
with large corporations.
Development Strategy in Relation to
Global Education
There are four important aspects of the development process covered by the
Irvine–Geneva development strategy—management, design (including translation), implementation, and evaluation. In the following sections, we will discuss
the latter three in relation to global education.
Starting Point: Interaction and Individualization Go
Hand in Hand
The strategy we use for pedagogical design aims to create learning software that
is interactive, in the sense that a human tutor is interactive, when working with
no more than a few students. Some current application of the term interactive
uses it simply when multimedia or Internet connection is involved. This is
emphatically not adequate for our meaning. To this end, we identify certain
fundamental properties that we maintain that the pedagogical design must
achieve:
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
79
Quality of interaction: The “quality” refers to the amount of information that
the software can obtain from the student’s answer (or other action), to
assess the student’s progress and choose as a result the action the software
should take next. The notation in our scripts is well oriented to the display
of conversational questions and the reading of free-form, conversational
answers typed at the keyboard (or possibly spoken into a microphone). Our
strategy usually considers multiple choice questions to be low-quality
interactions—they are usually very limited in the number of alternatives and
limit what the student will contribute to simply choosing among prepackaged answers.
Frequency of interaction: High-quality interactions will still have limited
helpfulness if they only happen rarely in the script. Experience suggests
that the script should let no more than 20 or 30 seconds pass between
interactions. This not only contributes to the quality of information the
software can gather about the student but also keeps them more involved
and participating.
Individualization: This results when the material analyzes the information
obtained from frequent, high-quality interactions to choose, for the student,
the most appropriate among a variety of available actions. Providing the
following actions in the design can enhance the degree of individualization:
•
Having the design decide which material to present next, including
whether it should be remedial, and if so, what kind.
•
Having the design choose the path with a more appropriate pace for
the student, if the student’s history shows problems, or where possible,
adjust the pace on the current path.
•
Having the design choose an alternate technique or style intended to
work better with the student. The further interactions along that path
will let the software analyze whether the student is benefiting from
that technique. When the learning material incorporates many learning
strategies (for example, a variety of exercises for learning the same
concept), individualization makes learning material suitable for students of many different cultures.
It falls to the pedagogical designers, discussed in the next section, to make sure
these fundamental qualities are present in the design.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
80 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
Design: Supporting Interaction, Individualization,
Collaborative Learning, and Mastery
The pedagogical design is the major determinant of the software’s tutoring
quality. Hence, we emphasize the designers being experienced and accomplished teachers and/or tutors in their subject domains who are expert in
addressing student learning problems. In a large project, there will be many
design groups, each with three to five teachers. Because the script should be the
product of consensus and mutual inspiration among experts, fewer than three in
a group are not recommended.
A good and effective design requires that the designers specify in a script all
details that affect student learning (Bork et al., 1992; Yoshii, 1992). The
fundamental elements of a script are summarized below:
•
The messages including everything the designers want to say to the student
and are to be presented, either in voice or on the screen. The software will
present the student with exactly the language the teachers put in the script.
•
All the graphics and animation, which the designers must specify by
prescribing what they decide are its necessary features. Specialists in
graphics will fill in the designs needed there, from the designers’ specifications.
•
The script notation provides elements for natural-language comments or
directives, where the designers include all necessary information, addressed to programmers, other designers, translators, or whomever else
they need.
•
All multimedia content, which the designers must specify as they do for the
graphics.
•
Details of each interaction with the student, including analysis of the student
answer and resulting actions from the software.
•
Arrows indicating the flow among all of the above.
See Figure 1 for an example of a scripted exercise. The script notation is well
oriented toward interactions that support individualization, because, for each
interaction, the following must be specified:
•
Answer Categories: The designers must list for each interaction all
categories into which all the reasonable possible answers can fall. For each
category, the designers must list “answer patterns” that will be used to
match against student input. More categories for a given input lead to
greater interaction quality.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
•
81
How to proceed next from each category of answer: Typically from a
category matching satisfactory answers, the script would lead to confirmation and praise, and then to the next material. From categories matching
predicted wrong answers, the script would lead to hints or help sequences
specific to the problem represented by each category. Because the student
may be asked to retry the same question a number of times, the number on
an arrow coming out of each answer category indicates how many times
the student’s answers have matched the category.
By observing the number of answer categories and arrows coming out of each
category, it is easy to assess roughly how responsive the material is to a variety
of student answers.
The script notation also supports individualization through the use of student
performance information as follows:
•
As part of the actions resulting from any answer category, the designers
may specify what information about the student answer(s) to record.
•
As with student inputs, the designers can create categories to test the
recorded information at any point they consider that the software needs it,
to choose the most appropriate next action for this student’s performance.
For example, the past performance plus the current answer may suggest an
appropriate hint to give, or a sequence of answers may suggest a different
difficulty level for the student. And most importantly, a sequence of such
tests may be used to determine the mastery of a given part of the material.
Further, to ensure quality of the software, teachers are instructed to do the
following:
•
Create frequent interactions throughout the software, as already described.
•
Make the design adaptable to use by groups of two or three students, not
just one student.
In our experience, teachers from a breadth of areas, nationalities, and academic
backgrounds have been able to design with the scripting notation within an hour
of being introduced to it.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
82 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
Figure 1: Sample script
International Design Groups for Multicultural Designs
How do we create designs for multiple cultures and languages? Having each
design group create a different version of a script for each different language
would be time-consuming and costly, not to mention the number of designers we
would need in each group. Therefore, we assume here that the design is created
first for one language, while preparing for delivery in multiple languages for
multiple cultures.
Often, there are differences in how a given subject is taught in different cultures.
There are also differences in the ways students are praised or given help. There
are visual aids to which certain cultures respond to better than others, or which
some cultures find offensive or ridiculous. The learning software must supply a
variety of techniques borrowed from many different cultures and must provide
interactions comfortable to any one culture.
In listing answer categories in a script, the designers must cover a variety of
answers given by the students of different cultures. For example, consider the
question “How do you measure your body temperature?” It is common in
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
83
English-speaking countries that the student will put a thermometer in the mouth,
but in some cultures, including Japanese, this is not appropriate—Japanese
students will put a thermometer in their armpit.
Therefore, for a design to work with a variety of cultures, the design groups must
have strong international composition. The designers must be careful not to
equate the single language of their design with a single culture. For example, we
must recognize the cultural differences among students of French-speaking
countries. We recommend involving teachers who understand their local educational requirements and the need to be culturally sensitive. If delivery in multiple
languages is anticipated, the design groups should involve bilingual teachers and
linguists from the anticipated cultures so that they can foresee whether there will
be possible difficulties in translating the material into their languages.
However, as the number of cultures in the world is not only very large but subject
to change, unique reactions and responses from different cultures cannot always
be anticipated, even by the most international group of designers. It is therefore
important to incorporate a scripting mechanism that is fuzzy enough and flexible
enough to be modified to include handling these cases. For example, in our
scripts, the designers can insert comments to document how answer-matching
patterns have been chosen and what is essential in translating them.
In the next section, we describe the process of “translating” a completed script.
Translation to New Languages and Making Cultural
Adjustments
Why should we make the material available in many different languages when
students of many countries are able to understand English or other commonly
spoken languages? In what languages should the students learn? Nations (or
indeed any regions of distinct culture and language) and their citizens “typically”
demand education in their mother tongue to respect and sustain their national or
regional identity and unity (Lo Bianco, 2002). The situation can become more
complex for regions and countries in which a number of languages are spoken,
for example, Canada, Switzerland, or India. Fortunately, some of them already
have solutions in place that designers of learning software should follow. For
example, faced with some 200 indigenous languages, India follows a threelanguage policy, whereby children learn Hindi and English as well as a local
language at school (Comrie, Matthews, & Polinsky, 1996).
Assuming initial scripting was done as recommended above, those scripts must
now be translated into one or more other languages. However, the same need for
transcultural awareness (or greater) exists as in the original design sessions:
merely translating the texts in the scripts, and audio in the multimedia content,
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
84 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
would frequently result in what has been called cultural imperialism (Phillipson,
2002). Each translation effort must be guided by appropriate cultural (and
political) expertise, in order to revise the script to adjust to appropriate practices
in the culture of the target language. Our ultimate goal is that the resulting
document be as authentic and natural in its culture as the original document.
There are at least three aspects to the translation of a script, and related cultural
adjustments:
•
•
•
Messages
Multimedia, graphics, and simulations (and texts within them)
Student responses
Messages
In the first aspect, the messages addressed to the student are translated. The
translator must be familiar with the climate of the students using the software and
with acceptable demeanor and approach from tutor to student in the target
culture. Sufficient familiarity with students learning the subject matter is also
needed in order to be able to choose the common phrases for that field, if any are
available. And when it arises (as it will) that some target language does not
provide those phrases, the translator must be able to fill in an appropriate glossing
of concepts in the field.
Multimedia, Graphics, and Simulations
The second, and possibly most costly, aspect is the production of new multimedia
to replace all language-dependent multimedia that was prescribed for the original
design, translated, and, where necessary, recast in the target culture. Multicultural
considerations already described above will, of course, also guide the design of
the new multimedia. Close coordination of the new multimedia production with
the project management and designers will be found to be essential. Related to
this but still separate is the translation of occurrences of text in simulations and
other graphics. The original production of these components should isolate and
mark this text so that it is not overlooked in translation. It will also help if the
containing graphic design can be made, from the start, as independent as possible
of the screen positions of these text fragments, because translation will almost
invariably change the space they occupy. However, this will not always be fully
possible, so designers must be prepared to act on notification from translators
that revised graphic or simulation design is needed for the new language’s
version.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
85
Student Responses
Whereas translated multimedia is probably the most costly component, the most
demanding component to translate is surely the sets of the keyword patterns by
which the software analyzes student inputs. A simple direct translation of the
keywords in the English patterns may produce a different effect—in fact, a
serious error—in the translated version. Instead, the translator must be comfortable both with what was intended in the entry and with how students in the target
culture would naturally express it. Consider a case of translating even a simple
English interaction to Japanese. Given a yes/no question, American students may
say “yes” to affirm and “no” to negate, whether the question was phrased as
positive or negative, for example, “Do you know this song?” “Yes” [I do]. “Don’t
you know this song?” “Yes” [I do]. In Japanese, the typical translation of “yes”
is “hai” and of “no” is “iie.” However, when the question phrasing is negative,
Japanese reverses the use of the words. The translator must therefore substitute
patterns for “hai” and “iie” according to context and not by blanket replacement
of “yes” and “no.”
The following are further examples:
•
There are languages that do not use an explicit word for either or both of
“yes” or “no,” for example, Finnish and the Scottish Gaelic. What Mandarin
Chinese does is similar—because there is no single word for “yes” or “no,”
the positive of the verb is used to express the meaning of “yes” and the
negative to express the meaning of “no.”
•
French and German each use a third word (French, “si”; German, “doch”)
for an affirmative response to a negative question.
•
Phrases involving prepositions, especially in casual conversational use,
virtually defy straightforward translation. It is essential that the translator
recreate the intention in the appropriate conversational idiom of the target
language.
There may still be differences in answer categories due to the students’ culture
(as opposed to language) that the designers missed and the translator must catch
during the translation process.
With all these requirements of translation and cultural adjustments, follow-up
design sessions with a small group of teachers of the target culture may be
necessary. With proper script-editing software, script modifications are easy.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
86 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
Affordable Development: Script Editing Made Easier
We have stated that our scripts were initially on paper and therefore prohibitively
difficult to update, and that any translation would become a new project. The
design is now often entered directly into the computer where it can be updated
easily. Interactive script editors, of which we now have two very different
versions, make this possible. If the script is still done on paper, we can transcribe
it into an editor later. The first script editor was written by Bertrand Ibrahim and
his group at the CUI of the University of Geneva (Ibrahim, 1989). Another script
editor is being developed in Java at California State University, San Marcos
(Yoshii, 2002).
Geneva Script Editor (IDEAL)
The first working script editor, originally called IDEAL (Interactive Development Environment for Assisted Learning), and more recently DIVA, was
produced at the University of Geneva. It was created for (mostly UNIX)
graphical workstations, and it was oriented to generate implementations of the
designers’ scripts in a high-level programming language, as human programmers
would do from paper scripts. For the first time, designers could work out scripts
easily, revising and editing as they went. What had been a quickly learned
notation now became almost trivial, mostly handled automatically by the editor
itself.
IDEAL was intended from the first to support multilingualism in the scripts it
edits. To this end, it was arranged in two levels: the script editor, to work directly
on scripts; and a so-called “synchronous editor,” that synchronized the flow
diagrams with the files holding their textual content, so that each may be
manipulated independently of the other.
Thus, when a designer creates a new element of the script and enters its textual
content, the diagrammatic portions are placed in the script’s own file, and the text
is placed in a separate but associated file dedicated to text messages and all other
language-dependent text in the script, one language for a given file. It is thereby
relatively easy (for scripts where direct translation is appropriate for a given
target culture) to produce an additional text file in the target language. In the
easiest translation cases, it would only be necessary to make a copy of the
previous message file and then proceed from message to message in the script
editor, turning each message and each text comparison into its translated form.
Because the message files are all plain text, it is entirely possible to edit them with
a plain text editor, and indeed, because IDEAL runs under UNIX, to apply any
of the myriad of small but useful transformation programs that UNIX provides.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
87
However, the sensitivity of an accurate translation to the context of the source
message implies that doing them in IDEAL is the safest way. (For instance, it
would be unwise blindly to translate Japanese “hai” to French “oui” without
seeing whether it is displayed in a positive or negative context.)
Figure 2 shows how IDEAL renders the elements of the script in its window. It
will be seen that it closely simulates the handwritten form. However, two
refinements may be seen:
•
The generalized script “comment” is now formalized into two types: either
a “directive” to the programmer or a “documentation node” for the design.
Designers should take advantage of the latter to provide guidance for
translators when necessary information for them may not otherwise be
clear from the script
•
A so-called “subgraph” component is now provided, which lets a section of
script be created to be self-contained and named, so that various other parts
of the script can use it if they need it. Division into subgraphs may be used
as an organizational tool, for example, for isolating culturally sensitive areas
that may need replacement during translation.
Figure 2: IDEAL script components
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
88 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
A sample of an IDEAL window with an actual section of script, taken from a
UNIX workstation display, is shown in Figure 3. The bit of script in its editing
pane demonstrates the following:
•
Elements for analysis and decisions made both on student input, and on
conditions of current student history. Translators will need to concentrate
particularly on the former.
•
The same limited size for every script component in the drawing. This both
simplifies the drawing and maximizes the amount of script logic visible at
one time. Display and editing of the component’s whole text are easily
obtained just by double-clicking the component, creating a separate window
to edit just the text.
Figure 3: IDEAL Script Editor screen
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
89
•
The editor’s placement of the arrows leading from element to element, and
its automatic numbering of them. The designer (or translator) needs only to
select the two elements that need a joining arrow: The editor takes care of
positioning it appropriately for the current positions of all script components
in the window.
•
Panes for prompting and information (particular to the kind of workstation
in use) below the pane displaying the script.
•
Pop-up menus (not visible in the examples), which make it easier to get
quick access to commands with minimal mouse movement.
San Marcos Script Editor
The San Marcos script editor was developed and is being enhanced with the goal
of interpreting the entered script to cause the actions of the tutoring system. The
designers first create an overall design by creating tracks and listing the names
of their exercises for each track. With the exercise creation screen, the
designers first specify the initial text-display speed, and then using tabs, the
designers can go to various screens for specifying components of an exercise—
instructional material, questions, student-answer categories with patterns, hints,
and graphics. The designers specify connections between these components
using “sequence signals.”
Figure 4 shows an example screen for specifying all questions of an exercise.
The signal ##SG101## following each question indicates that after displaying the
question, the system should display the graphics sequence numbered 101. Signals
allow such actions as go to the next exercise, go to the specified exercise, and
go to the specified component (e.g., question or hint) with or without clearing that
window, and do them based on student performance. Any learning software
created with the editor will automatically store student performance records,
holding such things as how many times the student answered in a given way
during the current session and in previous sessions.
In specifying the answer categories and patterns for an exercise, the designers
may enter lists of synonyms and name them. For each answer category, the
designers write patterns using actual words, numbers, synonym names, and
predefined symbols such as “*” to mean “any” and “~” to mean “not.”
The script editor also allows creation of simple graphics sequences. See Figure
5 for the graphics editor screen. By clicking buttons, the designers can draw,
move, or delete objects such as circles, rectangles, lines, and arrows. By using
the Show button, the specified graphics sequence can be displayed for the
designers.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
90 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
Figure 4: Entering questions
Figure 5: Graphics Editor
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
91
Script Editors Helping the Translation Process
To aid the translation effort, the messages can appear in one window in the initial
language, and in another window, the translator can create the translated
material. Or, in IDEAL, for translations of larger scope, entire separate script
files can be edited side by side.
Currently, these editors use the Roman alphabet. Even for Japanese, which
prefers non-Roman characters, transliteration into Roomaji can be used for
scripting purposes. The San Marcos editor, written in Java, has double-byte
encodings available for character representation supporting Java input tools
(Campione et al., 1998), making it easier to support Chinese and Japanese
characters.
Representing textual characters with double-byte codes is a major enhancement
for letting the scripted program inherently support virtually any alphabet or script
system in the world to which translation may be needed. Double-byte encodings
replace the previous single-byte encodings, of which ASCII and its extensions
are typical. Single-byte encodings can represent at most 28 or 256 characters;
standard (nonextended) ASCII represents at most 127. In contrast, a doublebyte encoding can represent up to 216 or 65,566. Not only is this enough for
virtually any script system in the world, it is enough to represent several of the
major ones simultaneously.
Java is designed to be represented in Unicode, one of the major double-byte
systems standardized by the International Standards Organization (ISO). This is
very important, because strings of text in which each character contains 2 bytes
instead of one break many long-standing assumptions on which text-handling
algorithms are based. By relying on text-handling tools and properties provided
in Java, the San Marcos Script Editor/Interpreter can make sure no such breaks
occur.
Beyond this, at least three major areas present themselves for translating scripts
to go anywhere in the world:
•
Display: Origin and direction of text display will change with certain script
systems, for instance, various Semitic scripts are written right to left.
Chinese and Japanese can be written either left to right then top to bottom,
or top to bottom then right to left. Also, both the revised phrasing in the
translation and the space required to spell it will significantly affect the
placement on the screen and hence its design.
•
Student textual input: How to input text that differs significantly from
keyboard contents tends to become a subproject in its own right. Increasingly, operating systems like Windows or MacOS make some solutions
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
92 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
available, but they are not guaranteed consistency with each other or
consistency in the internal text representations they create.
•
Text analysis: Because analysis algorithms depend heavily on exactly how
text is represented in computer memory, it is essential that means of student
input result in the same storage as that used by internal answer-matching,
and that it supports all variations of the answer-matching algorithm that the
scripts require.
Fortunately, the tools provided in the Java language give us means to address all
these issues, whether through direct support or by providing a general platform
on which such support can be built for the editor and interpreter.
Affordable Implementation: Minimizing the Need for
Programmers
At this stage, except in the case of the San Marcos system, development moves
from design to a running program. This will require at least one programmer, and
possibly more. All graphics, multimedia, or both that the script requires must be
created in a way that the program can control. However, the programmer will
need no special knowledge of an authoring system, but will simply work with a
high-level programming language. Ideally, the running program should undergo
beta testing to discover and eliminate as many program errors as possible.
The IDEAL script editor can produce much of the program code from the stored
script. Exactly how much will vary for any given project, because it depends on
how much the designers have used the script’s directives to specify additional
features, components, or behaviors. The code uses the tools described starting
on page 76, which were intended to provide consistent support of common
necessities, all oriented toward the student with little sophistication in computer
usage. Construction then follows the course typical of any software project. A
programmer (or programming team if the design’s needs go that far) “builds” the
whole project—generating executable binary versions from all the source code,
and organizing the results into the deliverable packaging, along with all other
material that they must use while running. If the scripts’ directives specify
further behavior or features, the programmer(s) will also create and integrate the
source code for them, as a subproject of the whole unit.
In contrast, the San Marcos script editor comes with a script interpreter, which
executes the stored script itself. Both are written in Java. No programmer is
necessary. During the design session, alteration between the editor and the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
93
Figure 6: Script interpreted
interpreter can be used to test partial designs. The learning material is limited to
the features allowed by the script interpreter. However, a consequence of using
the Java language is that we expect to be able to provide a “hook” and an API
to let programmers, if available, implement features not already available to the
interpreter. Object technology already provides for such a capability; and the
Java language allows for the runtime reading and executing of additional Java
components. Note that the inclusion of this ability would still permit the creation
of scripts without additional features, in the cases where Java programmers
were not available.
See Figures 6 and 7 for example screens of a system interpreted by the script
interpreter.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
94 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
Figure 7: Script interpreted
Full Evaluation in Each Language
No matter how skilled the designers and translators are, several rounds of formal
evaluation are important. We normally do this for the language of the original
design, but in a multiple-language project, it must be done with each new
language. Sizable numbers of students in each of the languages must run their
versions of the program, and it must save various data observed during their
progress to determine where the design is, in whatever way, leaving the students
with problems. Students in each culture must learn effectively. After each round
of evaluation, results are analyzed and corrections or refinements are made in
the program. With the script editors, many or most program changes can be made
directly in the stored script, and new code is generated and rebuilt (for IDEAL)
or interpreted quickly (for CSUSM).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
95
Note that the concentration here is on the effectiveness of (and any problems in)
the design. Ideally, the majority of program bugs (at least serious ones) will have
been eliminated by the time evaluation is done.
Translators and designers should also remain aware that graphics, simulations,
and multimedia that are part of the material are also subject to design improvements from evaluation.
Maintenance in Many Languages
Even after delivery, changes are possible, even likely. Even the most sophisticated commercial software typically still has bugs after five years or more of
release. If the units are available in several languages, and we need to make a
change, that change will initially be made in one language. Then we need to
identify what changes are necessary in the remaining languages. As pointed out
above, IDEAL synchronizes different language versions of a script. Because the
editor knows where to find each piece of text in different language versions, the
editor facilitates keeping all versions current.
Affordable Delivery
An important factor leading to low costs for a student-learning hour is an
affordable delivery system. Initially, we expect a variety of delivery methods,
including Internet and CD-ROM. It has been projected that two-way satellite
connections will become an inexpensive delivery method for large numbers. We
also can use, particularly for poor parts of the world, a less expensive learning
appliance than current personal computers, to provide just learning. A much
simpler operating system will be sufficient.
Linguistic Views on Global Education
What follows now is a different perspective. Independent of the Irvine-Geneva
development strategy discussed so far, we present the views of linguists on
global education.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
96 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
A Linguistic View on Learning Environments for
Languages
So far, examples from science and mathematics have been used to illustrate the
different aspects of the Irvine–Geneva development strategy. However, when
it comes to dealing with the creation of learning units for languages, the political
and ideological dimension of language use comes into play. Governmental
agencies, program designers, education experts, local teachers, learner input,
and other stakeholders such as international organizations will need to be
consulted. As the use of language units will have an enormous impact on a
country’s identity and economy, it is vital for us to respect the wishes of different
governmental agencies about the choice of language (both the language being
taught and the language used to present the material) for the language units.
However, in some cases where international organizations play a crucial role in
the development of a country, the stakeholders might not share the same ideology
with regards to investments in education (Lo Bianco, 1999).
To avoid being locked in an ideological debate about how investments in
education should be made and run the risk of paralyzing the project, in our opinion,
what is at stake is not the choice of language(s) but what flexibility we can build
into our learning environment. A well-planned and strategically thought out
learning environment not only can be sensitive to the issue of language use in
different cultures, but it can also accommodate the goals of different ideologies.
An example of such a language learning environment could consist of a number
of different multilingual learning objects, such as interactive learning units, put
forward in this chapter; a video database (Davis, 2003); an audio–video browser;
and a speech analysis program for providing positive feedback (Zhang &
Newman, 2003), Web sites, helpful learning tools, and so on. These materials
would enable each student to make up his/her own “learner’s database” as he/
she goes along. Of course, having a flexible learning environment will also be
beneficial for other subject areas.
In a language learning environment like this, if it is necessary to have investments
in literacy skills quantified in terms of some proxy measure of wider educational
outcomes, it can be incorporated in the program. The accessibility and ease in
using the range of programs also means the rights and development of both
developing and developed nations to education can also be bolstered.
Linguistic Divide to be Overcome
As we see in the foregoing discussion, reaching students of many languages and
cultures is, or soon will be, a technological reality. We expect it to be a vehicle
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
97
to advance social benefits and equality on a global scale. However, it is also true
that the opposite has been effected against less affluent social groups that have
less access to the information networks. The now familiar expression, “digital
divide,” identifies the effect of information technologies on the social class
structure. The problem raised here is not new: similar issues applying to
computer technologies in education have been discussed since the pioneering
stage of the field (Hertz, 1987). Today, however, the rapidly spreading availability of the Internet and computers has given birth to a new expression, “the
ubiquitous society,” which makes us feel that the digital divide is to be overcome
and should not deter us from advancing information technologies.
More fundamental, persistent problems lie in a purely linguistic sense. This is
because information technologies and language are inseparable, and because the
situation surrounding world languages is complex. The problem here is described
in terms of a chain of three “D”s of linguistics: linguistic diversity, linguistic
disparity, and linguistic divide (Katada, 2002, 2003). Linguistic diversity characterizes the fact that more than 6,000 languages are spoken around the world
(Comrie, Matthews, & Polinsky, 1996). Under linguistic diversity, linguistic
disparity is an unavoidable reality. Currently, no one can deny that English as a
global lingua franca has gained ascendancy in nearly all areas of human activities
(Crystal, 1997; McArthur, 2002). The linguistic disparity is then mainly against
the non-English world, which effectively creates a divide between social classes,
between those who have access to English and those who have not; hence, the
linguistic divide. Language is our humanity and so is linguistic diversity. As long
as linguistic diversity exists in one way or another, the chain of three “D”s of
linguistics will not disappear from any issues of globalization, including education.
Earlier we discussed various translation requirements and the necessity of
cultural adjustments, a main purpose of which is to avoid the linguistic divide. We
note here that a technological solution may be forthcoming that would make the
linguistic divide largely disappear (Katada, 2002, 2003). For example, among
notable technologies advancing day by day, the Universal Networking Language
developed by the UNL project at the United Nations University is a global lingua
franca of computers that mediates between any language pairs. It is expected
that by 2006, the UNL will be able to handle any language pairs from about 180
countries and areas of the world, according to the Nikkei in Japan (1997). Similar
and competitive projects are well underway. It should no longer be a dream that
papers written in French are directly read in Swahili on the Internet. Perhaps it
is not unreasonable to expect that, some day, such technologies can be used to
develop computer-based learning units in many languages. After all, the linguistic
divide is to be overcome and not deter us from advancing in the field.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
98 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
Conclusion
We discussed a strategy for developing learning materials for many languages
and cultures:
•
Design sessions and design scripting tools that support interaction, individualization, collaborative learning, and mastery
•
•
International groups of designers for multicultural designs
•
•
Script editors and interpreters minimizing the need for programmers
Support software tools capable of supporting multiple languages and of
facilitating changes during translation and cultural adjustments
Evaluation and maintenance for multiple languages and cultures
The existence of extensive materials in several languages, with different
cultures, allows for extensive research with large numbers of students on the
issues of cultural differences. For example, how do students in different cultures
differ in the way they learn arithmetic? What are the differences in learning
styles in different cultures (e.g., what were the effects of collaborative learning;
what sequence of exercises did they need; what common errors were made;
what help sequences helped them, etc.)? Much of the student performance
records can be kept on the computer and can be analyzed later for these
purposes. These ideas are expanded further in Bork and Gunnarsdottir (2001)
and in papers at www.ics.uci.edu/~bork.
We can overcome the digital divide and the linguistic divide through careful
selection of development and delivery strategies sensitive to cultural and
language issues.
Acknowledgment
We wish to acknowledge the many contributions of the late Prof. Bertrand
Ibrahim of the University of Geneva, who passed away most unexpectedly in
July 2001. He was instrumental in first expanding our attention to the many
problems, both subtle and important, of making the production system support
multilingual learning units. He contributed much additional design and software
to its management. The relatively short description given here of the IDEAL
(later DIVA) visual development environment belies the size and complexity of
the development effort it required, including maintaining it for us remotely from
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Reaching Students of Many Languages and Cultures
99
over 10,000 miles away. Bertrand headed all of that with competence, grace, and
humor. His contributions and his friendship will be sorely missed.
We also thank Ervin Sarok, Hong Vo, Tsu-Shu Tseng, Xiaoqing Wu and Yibin
Miao for their work on the Script Editor and Interpreter.
This paper is based on an earlier paper entitled Computer-Based Learning
Units for Many Languages and Cultures by Alfred Bork and Rika Yoshii,
which appeared in the Proceedings of the International Conference on
Computers in Education, December 2002, pp. 924–928, published by IEEE.
Copyright 2002 IEEE.
References
Bork, A. (1987). Interaction: Lessons from computer-based learning. Interactive media: Working methods and practical applications, D. Laurillard
(Ed.). Chichester, England: Ellis Horwood Limited.
Bork, A. et al. (1992). The Irvine-Geneva course development system. Proceedings of IFIP (pp. 253–261), Madrid, Spain, September.
Bork, A., & Gunnarsdottir, S. (2001). Tutorial distance learning—Rebuilding
our educational system. New York: Kluwer Academic.
Campione, M., & Walrath, K. (1998). The Java tutorial (2nd ed.). Reading, MA:
Addison Wesley Longman.
Comrie, B., Matthews, S., & Polinsky, M. (1996). The atlas of languages: The
origin and development of languages throughout the world. New
York: Facts on File.
Crystal, D. (1997). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Davis, J. (2003). Media ON Demand: MonD player. Sydney: Classroom
Video.
Franklin, S. et al. (1985). StringAnalysis Unit reference guide, Ports Unit
reference guide, Keyed Files reference guide. Educational Technology
Center, University of California, Irvine.
The Geneva Script Editor images were obtained from http://cui.unige.ch/eao/
ideal/SyncEd/doc/script.gif and big.gif
Hertz, R. (1987). Computers in the language classroom. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
100 Yoshii, Bork, Milne, Katada & Zhang
Ibrahim, B. (1989). Software engineering techniques for CAL. Education &
Computing, 5, 215–222.
Ibrahim, B. (1990). Courseware CAD. Proceedings of the IFIP fifth World
Conference on Computers in Education (pp. 383–389). Sydney, Australia, 9–13 July, North-Holland.
Katada, F. (2002). The linguistic divide, autolinguals, and the notion of educationfor-all. Proceedings of the International Conference on Computers in
Education 2002 (pp. 1522–1523). IEEE Computer Society.
Katada, F. (2003). A new aspect of language education in the ubiquitous age.
Proceedings of the EDMEDIA Conference, AACE.
Lo Bianco, J. (1999). Globalisation: Frame word for education and training,
human capital and human development/rights. Melbourne: Language
Australia Ltd.
Lo Bianco, J. (Ed.). (2002). Voices from Phnom Penh, Development &
language: Global influences & local effects. Melbourne: Language
Australia Ltd.
McArthur, T. (2002). The Oxford Guide to World Englishes. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Phillipson, R. (2002). Global English and local language policies. Englishes in
Asia: Communication, identity, power and education. A. Kirkpatrick
(Ed.). Melbourne: Language Australian Ltd.
Yoshii, R. (2002). The CSUSM script editor-interpreter pair: Tools for creating
conversational tutoring systems, Proceedings of the 8th ALN-Sloan
Conference.
Yoshii, R. et al. (1992). Strategies for interaction: Programs with video for
learning languages. Journal of Interactive Instruction Development,
5(2), 3–9.
Yoshii, R., Katada, F., Alsadeqi, F., & Zhang, F. (2003). Reaching students of
many languages and cultures. Proceedings of the EDMEDIA Conference, AACE.
Zhang, F., & Newman, D. (2003). Speech tool, Canberra, Australia, University
of Canberra, Australia.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Designing for Learning in Narrative Multimedia Environments
101
Chapter VI
Designing for
Learning in Narrative
Multimedia
Environments
Lisa Gjedde, Danish University of Education, Denmark
Abstract
Narrative is fundamental for learning and the construction of meaning. In
the design of interactive learning programs, the need for narrative is often
neglected, and the emphasis is on information design rather than the design
of experiential learning environments. This chapter presents research
related to the development of two prototypes of narrative interactive
multimedia learning environments, from an experiential and situated learning
perspective and proposes a model for a narrative learning process, related
to a situated and experiential learning perspective.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
102 Gjedde
Background
Narrative is fundamental for the construction of meaning on a personal as well
as on a community level. The narrative format has been a traditional way of
teaching in many cultures, and teachers may develop a competence as storytellers, drawing on narrative for motivation, and for experiential and contextual
learning by using stories or having the learner’s develop stories themselves
(Gudmundsdottir, 1991). The concept of narrative encompasses both the narrative expression in the form of story-making and narrative as a cognitive tool for
the construction of knowledge, which includes the construction of culturally
embedded knowledge as well as being an important part of knowledge sharing
(Bruner, 1990; Schank, 1995). It also plays an important part in collaborative and
experiential learning. The concept of situated and collaborative learning has
been put forth by Brown, Collins, and Duguid, (1989) in their seminal article on
Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning: “Learning, both outside and
inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social
construction of knowledge.” The role of narrative in this learning process is
important for distributed and embedded knowledge.
Narrative and Multimedia
Research into interactive multimedia as a resource for instruction and learning
has previously pointed to problems in the organization and presentation of the
material in relation to the cognitive processes of the students. Researchers from
the MENO-project (Multimedia in Education and Narrative Organisation),
located at the Open University and University of Sussex, have been investigating
the role of narrative in relation to comprehension and learning in interactive
multimedia, based on findings that the degree of narrative structure would affect
the learners’ level of comprehension. They found (Laurillard et al., 1998) that
“learners working on interactive media with no clear narrative structure display
learning behaviour that is generally unfocused and inconclusive.” Based on a
hypothesis of narrative as fundamental for learning, they designed an experimental study with three versions of material on a CD-ROM, with different degrees
of narrative structure, and tested the different versions in classroom settings.
The CD-ROM offered video sequences and a notepad for collecting material as
well as questions to guide the exploration. Their conclusions point to the
importance of designing interactive multimedia environments (Plowman et al.,
1999), “so learners are able to both find narrative coherence and generate it for
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Designing for Learning in Narrative Multimedia Environments
103
themselves.” Groundbreaking cognitive psychologist and AI-researcher Roger
Schank (1995), has likewise found narrative reasoning and construction to be
fundamental for cognitive processes. At a theoretical level, Schank (with
Abelsson) has contributed seminally through his cognitive models of goals,
scripts, and plans. At the level of development and research, he has developed
several prototypes and multimedia training programs that draw on narrative
elements like case stories. He has advocated different learning architectures,
which offers the possibility for sharing knowledge and natural learning and that
stories can be used as a fundamental mode of communication and learning not
only in case-based learning architectures but also in exploratory and incidental
learning. Schank’s prototypes of learning architectures with their call for life-like
learning situations can be seen as exponents for experiential learning (Schank &
Cleary, 1995).
The above-mentioned projects focused on their exploration of narrative in
relation to educational and cognitive processes. They, however, do not provide
prototypes that afford an exploration of the potentials of learning in an open
environment, where the learner’s own production of multimedia narratives is
supported by offering multimedia tools.
Experiential learning is most often characterized by learning from primary
experience. In relation to the research projects presented here, it is suggested
that a fictional and imagination-based experience may offer a context for
experiential learning that may provide material for expression and reflection. An
influential model for experiential learning, which has been developed by David
A. Kolb, draws on the work of John Dewey and Jean Piaget. However, in
relation to the development of principles for the design of narrative interactive
learning environments, it is important to include a focus on the situated and social
aspects of the learning process.
There are potential learning advantages to be gained by constructing multimedia
learning environments, not primarily as way of presenting encyclopedia-style
factual material, but rather through offering the learners an experiential pathway
into the material. It is further suggested that this may be enhanced by providing
a narrative experience through a narrative framework, through narrative visual
elements, as well as offering multimedia tools for narrative construction.
This chapter raises some questions related to the development of such prototypes
of narrative interactive multimedia learning environments from an experiential
and situated learning perspective and suggests a model for a narrative learning
process, related to a situated and experiential learning perspective.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
104 Gjedde
Design of Narrative Interactive
Learning Environments
Designers of educational interactive multimedia programs are facing a challenge
as to how to design learning environments that may enhance the collaborative
learning that is situated as well as cognitive, through the use of narrative in the
design and content. They are also facing the challenge of how to engage the
learner in interactive experiences that are meaningful at the level of participation
and expression of the learner. The participation may be in an immersive
experience that allows the learner to actively engage in the action or to identify
with the protagonist of the story. It may also be an experience with elements of
role-playing, where the learner takes the action forward by using imagination as
well as factual knowledge, and thus interacts by moving the story line forward.
Engaging the learner in an imaginative productive way, where the learner is
guided to participate in the development of the narrative plot and contribute to the
development of the story, may be a way of engaging the learner at multiple levels
of involvement.
Often, the use of story in education presents the teacher in a role as storyteller
and the students as listeners that follow the unfolding of the narrative. The use
of narrative in educational media calls for ways to engage the learner in a process
of narrative that is meaningful and fully draws on the possibilities of the media
for creation of media expression by the user, and thus for engaging the learner
at different levels.
By placing the learner in the role as a storyteller, the learning context becomes
one that may enhance the level of involvement as well as the inclusiveness of the
situation, as the learner may approach the task from a different point of view and
use different modalities of expression: images, sound, movement, etc.
Another issue to be explored in the development of narrative multimedia learning
environments concerns the creation of content that is meaningful, that may be
engaging for the learner and takes into consideration possible differences in
gender-specific interests and social and cultural backgrounds.
Some of these issues related to the development of an architecture and design
for narrative based on principles for experiential and situated learning, with the
creation of authentic tasks, have been explored in two research projects funded
by the Danish Ministry of Education, as part of a program to further the
development and research of the use of ICT in schools.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Designing for Learning in Narrative Multimedia Environments
105
Participatory Content Design
The Narrative Universes of Children
This project is on the creation of content and the design of interactive multimedia
narratives by children within the Danish Language and Art curriculum. The
project involved students of Grades 4 to 6 in a study drawing on principles of
participatory design. Four classes at four different schools, numbering about 100
students and six teachers, participated in this project, which aimed at exploring
children’s narrative universes and their narrative construction and collaboration
in multimedia productions and the creation of content design supporting that.
The research design included two separate phases. The first phase was an
investigation of the narrative universes, which the children in this age group
produced, when prompted to produce stories and develop imagery to illustrate
them. The children produced stories and drawings, working in groups, for a
period of weeks. They were allowed to use different modes of expression,
ranging from making giant storybooks to be used for the kindergarten pupils, to
the use of tape recorders and puppet theatre. The main purpose with this first
phase was to prompt the creation of narrative material in order to inform the
design process for the animation program. In this way, the learners would help
create relevant content material, which subsequently could be used in relation to
the animation program they were to use in the second phase.
The second phase focused on the learner’s construction of interactive narratives
using a simple animation program that allowed for production of interactive
multimedia narratives by the learners. Based on the analysis of the stories and
narrative universes created by the children during the first phase, a series of
narrative universes was developed by the researchers based on the content
created by the children. These universes were then produced into graphic
material, by professional artists, in order to be used by the learners in the
animation program.
The animation program allowed the learner to use these images and also to
construct and modify the images and animations and the use of text and sound.
This led to the creation of a rich material of interactive stories provided by the
learners as well as classroom observation of their collaborative processes in their
construction of the interactive narratives. This process in which most of the
students where highly motivated, led to other processes of informal collaborative
learning leading to mastery of the program and production of the story in which
they were involved.
The collaborative learning was expressed in the creation of shared environments,
with narrative elements, e.g., characters, settings, and themes. The program
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
106 Gjedde
aimed at creating a context that would support the development of the learners’
narrative competences and their construction of interactive narratives that were
relevant to them, and it would also support their sharing of experiences. A further
analysis of this rich material may reveal more of the learner’s strategies for
developing interactive media literacy and expressive nonlinear narrative competencies, and how this type of learning environment may support situated and
collaborative learning and knowledge construction.
Narrative Framework –
Narrative Expression
Another project related to the development and research of narrative multimedia
learning environments is the project “Narrative in interactive Web-based learning environments.” This project explores the interplay between the narrative
context that includes a narrative setting, with access to resources including stills,
audio, and text, and the learner’s collaborative production of narratives using
these resources. The prototypes are produced and explored as action research
using a qualitative methodology. It is an iterative design process involving an
educational setting with three secondary schools with students in Grades 8 and 9.
In order to facilitate this process of collaborative learning, it is important that the
context be motivating and appealing and that it offer familiar and interesting
figures, settings, and issues that may be the frame for further exploration and
narrative development relating to that theme (Gjedde, 2002). Part of the
development of the script for the frame narrative included the showing of
documentary film material from the historical period that this multimedia learning
program addressed. This film was shown to the target group of Grade 8 students,
and they were asked to fill out a questionnaire, subsequently, that focused on the
different content areas of the film about the German occupation of Denmark
during the Second World War, rating it for interest. The questionnaire and
discussion of the film showed gender-specific preferences for the subjects.
These were addressed in the development of the script for the frame narrative
in order to provide content material, which would be interesting and motivating
for the different students in relation to their preferences.
The illustrations that are used in this Web-based interactive multimedia program
were made by an award-winning Danish artist. By applying a certain aesthetic
expression on purpose, they are meant to address the target group and help
create an immersive experience.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Designing for Learning in Narrative Multimedia Environments
107
Figure 1: Multimedia narrative interface
Figure 1 shows part of the room, which is the main interface in the program. It
is navigable at 360 degrees, allowing the learner to explore the room and the
artifacts, which are related to the narrative learning process.
Most of the artifacts are interactive and will open up to the activities that are
available in this learning environment. The activation of the picture over the desk,
which is indicated on the figure, will take the learner into the frame narrative. The
frame narrative will guide the learner through some fictional but historically
correct episodes, and lead the learner to some questions to continue the
storytelling, either from the point of view of the male or female protagonist. The
book on the table will provide access to a specially designed Web builder.
Through this production tool, material from the databases holding sound and
image files can be integrated in the Web-based multimedia stories produced by
the learners. All the relevant source materials and production tools can be
accessed as artifacts in the room, being held, for instance, in the cupboard, the
book on the table, and the phone. This coherence between the graphic interface
and the narrative environment is done in order to provide for a pervasive
narrative experience, in which all actions and all materials are embedded in the
context of the frame narrative. This is done in order to support the use of a
narrative logic and narrative reasoning involved in the narrative experience,
which provides for a shared learning environment that may facilitate the building
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
108 Gjedde
of stories involving shared knowledge and experience in a community of
practice.
Toward a Narrative Learning Process
Storytelling and the use of narrative in interactive multimedia programs can offer
ways of engaging with the material at different levels. The narrative elements
and the way they are embedded in an interactive learning environment can serve
as cognitive artifacts, which support the construction of meaning through
structure, content, and culturally implicated values. The narratives offer immersive
experiences, which allow the user to engage at an emotional level and involve the
user with different emotional states.
Developing and producing stories stimulates narrative thinking and a sense of
causal relationships and analogy. It brings about possibilities for identification
with the characters and situations, and in this way, it allows for multiple
perspectives on situations and different points of view that are essential social
skills. The development of this level of understanding and the competence to
interpret and construct meaning are important skills and values in terms of the
personal development and sense of cultural identity and personal values of the
learner.
The stories offer materials for interpretation and reflection, and a shared cultural
environment for doing so. In the interactive learning environment, the reflective
process is distributed by the use of interactive log books and online conferences
that allows for reflection on the process and productions.
The narrative learning process is framed by stories that are contextual, that make
up the shared conceptual learning environment, which is characterized by its
setting, characters, actions, and themes. The learner’s development of the
stories may lead to a process of research into the elements and factual material
that are necessary for the unfolding of the story. The process of the articulation
of the narratives in an interactive multimedia production may lead to the sharing
of knowledge in a way that is socially and cognitively inclusive.
Through the narrative expression and articulation in digital media, a process that
is experiential as well as situated in communities of practice, may be initiated.
This model on a narrative learning process is presented in Figure 2.
The model for the narrative learning process in the interactive multimedia
learning environment described above, involves five distinct learning approaches
and activities that are interrelated and mutually supportive. This model suggests
a process of dynamic learning in which the elements are synergically related:
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Designing for Learning in Narrative Multimedia Environments
109
Figure 2: Narrative learning process
1.
Narrative. The top point of the pentad refers to the concept of narrative
that is based on the premise that narrative is an important experiential and
contextual frame and approach to learning. It relates to the narrative
content as well as to the organizing narrative structure.
2.
Immersion. The concept of immersion is related to the experience of
narrative content and structure. It is through the story and the related
imaginative story elements that the learner experiences the immersion. It
may be experienced further in the learning process as immersion in the
subject matter and a research activity that is then expressed in the learner’s
own narrative articulation.
3.
Research. The activity of research is a learner-directed activity delving
into information and themes related to the narrative and the curricular areas
it is exploring. It is focused by the narrative and supported by the sense of
immersion into the subject.
4.
Expression. The activity of expression is based on the research activity and
is held in line by the narrative, which is the context it relates to and it further
elaborates on or uses as a base for the construct of new narratives. It is also
supported by the sense of immersion into the narrative context and
characters.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
110 Gjedde
5.
Reflection. This activity can be a reflection by the learners on the material
presented in narrative or nonfiction form, as well as on the narrative
expression produced by the fellow learners. It is thus offering the teacher
an avenue for reflecting on the learners’ concepts as they are expressed in
narrative form. It can encompass a hermeneutic as well as an aesthetic,
imaginative, and expressive process.
These above-mentioned points are relevant parameters to include in the evaluation of the learning potentials of narrative interactive learning environments.
Key questions to be asked in such an evaluation include the following:
•
To what extent does the narrative interactive learning environment offer a
narrative experience with a content that is relevant, engaging, and pervasive?
•
Does it provide tools for the learner to participate in a process of
articulation?
•
•
Is it to be used with a learning scenario that includes a process of reflection?
What roles does it offer the learner and the teacher?
Conclusion
Experiential and narrative learning processes move the focus from the instructor
toward the learner. It moves it from the transfer of information, toward the
hermeneutic process of interpretation and construction of meaning. By building
architectures for learning in interactive multimedia environments that take into
account the hermeneutic narrative process and the expressive narrative process,
reflection on the learner’s own expression is included.
Principles for the development of narrative multimedia learning environments
must ideally be based on educational and psychological principles as well as on
including production theory, in order to offer the potentials for a satisfactory
learning experience.
Using the approach of narrative learning may further the knowledge of how to
design and make available an interactive multimedia learning environment that
can support the learner toward the understanding of the events and the meaning
they hold and not just aim at achieving knowledge of factual events. Having this
as the overarching learning paradigm supporting the design, it may allow for the
learners to enter into levels of learning in which they may be more likely to be
involved at personal levels. Thus, the boundaries between formal and nonformal
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Designing for Learning in Narrative Multimedia Environments
111
learning environments may be blurred and allow for the learners to be part of
communities of practice that are situated in experiential settings and cater to their
needs to express their own goals and learning.
Acknowledgments
The projects “The Narrative Universes of Children” and “Narrative in interactive Web-based learning environments” are funded by the Danish Ministry of
Education, “ITMF-programme.”
The project “The Narrative Universes of Children” has been carried out in
collaboration with Leif Gredsted, Associate Professor, DPU.
References
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Dewey, J. (1939). Education and experience. New York: Collier Books.
Gjedde, L. (2002). Context, cognition and narrative experience in Sophies World.
In B. H. Sørensen, & O. Danielsen (Eds.), Learning and narrativity in
digital media. Samfundslitteratur: København.
Gudmundsdottir, S. (1991). Story-maker, story-teller; narrative structures in
curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 23(3), 207–218.
Kolb, D. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning
and development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Laurillard, D., Stratfold, M., Luckin, R., Plowman, L., & Taylor, J. (1998).
Multimedia and the learner’s experience of narrative. Computers and
Education, 31, 229–242.
Mandler, J. (1984). Stories, scripts, and scenes: Aspects of Schema Theory.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Plowman, L., Luckin, R., Laurillard, D., Stratfold, M., & Taylor, J. (1999).
Designing multimedia for learning: Narrative guidance and narrative construction. Proceedings CHI’99:ACM Conference on Human Factors in
Computing Systems (pp. 310–317). Pittsburgh, PA, USA,15–20 May.
Schank, R. C., & Abelson, R. P. (1995). Knowledge and memory: The real
story. J. R. S. Wyer. Hilldale, NJ: LEA.
Schank, R. C., & Cleary, C. (1995). Engines for education. Hilldale, NJ: LEA.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
112 Gjedde
Part II
Pedagogical
Issues
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
113
Chapter VII
Principles of
Educational
Software Design
Vassilios Dagdilelis, University of Macedonia, Greece
Abstract
Despite the generalized use of Information and Communication Technologies
(ICT) in teaching, their educational applications have not yet been
standardized: a general consensus does not exist on how ICT can be
applied to teaching nor on how educational software must be constructed.
In this chapter, it is argued in favor of educational software construction
being guided by a didactic problematique. In this framework we consider
as a promising software category mindtools and, in particular, the socalled open microworlds. Their design must be guided by a number of
principles: the tool logique, the multiple interface and the multiple
representations principles. In this chapter, a detailed critique of these
principles is also presented.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
114
Dagdilelis
Introduction
From the time computers were invented until today, this latest decade has been
intensely characterized, more than any of the previous ones, by the infiltration of
the so-called new technologies in everyday life. Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) are also being integrated into education at all levels. In fact,
this integration is a two-way process, as it has consequences for the educational
system in which ICT are integrated. The influence of ICT on the way lessons are
planned and conducted, on the administration of teaching institutions (schools,
universities, and others), on existing teaching methodologies, on evaluation, and
finally on the educational system in general, is so deep rooted, that ICT is likely
to be the cause of a complete restructuring of the entire educational system.
Despite their use in teaching, which is constantly expanding, as well as the
important influence they have on transforming current curricula, the educational
applications of ICT have not yet been standardized, meaning that a general
consensus does not exist on how ICT can be applied to teaching and a consensus
does not exist that can be used as a general guideline for the development of
educational software.
More specifically, concerning those points where a consensus of opinion does not
exist, the following could be stated:
•
The characteristics of educational software: There are many categories of educational software, which correspond to the different characteristics of that educational software as well as what its most appropriate use
might be. The general characteristics of the software and its use are based
on, explicitly or implicitly, learning theories, and pedagogic and didactic
assumptions; therefore, these different points of view may be incompatible.
•
The usefulness of computers and educational software: In certain
situations, the effects of ICT on the educational system are obvious. For
example, ICT have enabled long-distance learning to be reorganized based
on new foundations due to the creation of computing networks and
communication mechanisms among users at multiple levels (synchronous
or asynchronous, with images, sound, video).
In the majority of cases, even though the use of ICT is considered
imperative, because, theoretically at least, ICT improve the lesson, this
improvement, however, has not been amply documented. In other words,
even though a basic reason for the use of ICT in education is the hypothesis
that they improve both teaching and learning, the conditions that render
teaching more effective are not actually known, and often, related research
does not highlight any significant difference in the quality of the lessons
based on ICT (http://teleeducation.nb.ca/nosignificantdifference/). Opin-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
115
ions have also been expressed which indirectly question the overall
usefulness of ICT as a means of teaching support (Cuban, 2001; Stoll,
2000).
•
The validity and theoretical support of experimental data: All over
the world, experimental teaching methods and research studies are being
carried out in order to discern the particular uses that will be most effective
from a teaching perspective. One part of the research, as well as one
section of the international literature related to the pedagogic uses of ICT,
is geared at describing the characteristics of successful educational
software. Unfortunately, research on teaching in the last few years, even
though numerous, is not usually accompanied by a satisfactory theoretical
background and thus has not managed to come up with substantial data to
enable the design of adequate educational software and organize effective
didactic situations.
•
The absence of a method for the construction of educational software: Nowadays, two major categories appear to exist in the way
educational software is constructed, each of which comprises several
subcategories. In the first, the focus is on technology, meaning the
technical features of the software and its construction method. In the
second, the starting point is the teaching/learning process the software
will support.
In this chapter, it is argued in favor of educational software construction being
guided by a didactic problématique. Further, educational software must be
created according to the most up-to-date learning theories and, more specifically,
constructivism.
In this framework, the most promising software category is mindtools and, in
particular, the so-called open microworlds.
The research to date, in conjunction with the large number of available
educational software and, in general, digitalized educational material, have
contributed to the relative progress that has taken place, but only in certain fields.
Thus, concerning these mindtools, we have at our disposal a know-how that
allows us to design, but only in certain situations, educational software and more
general educational environments with notable functional features. This knowhow can be summarized in the form of general design principles on which an
educational environment can be based (or at least some sections of it).
These principles are the following:
•
The principle of tool logic: Computers and ICT in general, should be used
as tools in order to make learning easier.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
116
Dagdilelis
•
The principle of multiple interface: The interface should offer the users the
ability to express themselves not only by direct manipulation of objects but
also with an active formulation of commands and instructions.
•
The principle of multiple representations: Knowledge within the context of
educational environments should be expressed in many ways, through
multiple frameworks that are interconnected and equivalent from a functional point of view.
In the following paragraphs, a detailed critique of these principles is also
presented.
Educational Software
Development Methods
Educational software was an area in which a medium level of production existed
20 years ago, however, in the last decade, in which time the graphical user
interface (GUI) was established, production has become intense. Educational
software originated mainly from two different sources, which in many cases
cooperated: one source was software-producing companies and the other was
the academic institutions, such as university laboratories or research centers and
institutes (Harvey, 1995; van der Mast, 1995). This dual source essentially
corresponds to the fact that in the last decade there has been significant progress,
both in the level of technological know-how as well as in teaching theory,
because current teaching know-how, despite the serious drawbacks pointed out
in the introduction, has greatly improved in comparison to 20 years ago.
As was natural, the large amount of production gradually led to the development
of various models of educational software, which can be used as guidelines in the
creation of new educational software; a creation which, very likely may, in turn,
lead to the improvement or even to a radical revision of existing models. Needless
to say, this cycle can continue for a long period of time.
In the international literature, numerous models on the construction of educational software have been proposed, such as that described by Lage et al. (2002).
This representative model proposes the use of “an incremental prototype life
cycle” of 11 stages along general lines that must be followed for the construction
of educational software. It is obvious that this model has been influenced by the
general methodology of software engineering and attempts to adapt its general
characteristics to educational software.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
117
This type of methodology, as well as others like it, even though they might be
considered effective from the point of view of developing software, is independent of both its content and its didactic use. This model, which is structured
according to the principles of software engineering, does not actually focus on
the most important aspect of educational software, namely, its teaching characteristics. Therefore, the models in this category are useful in describing the
process for the development of educational software but have little value as tools for
analyzing how useful particular educational software is for teaching purposes.
Another method used generally in the design of educational means and environments (Instructional Design) can also be used, such as the model ADDIE
(Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, Evaluation). This category is
usually referred to as tutorial software.
One final category we often come across is that which proposes lists of practical
advice or checklists covering certain aspects of educational software (Beale &
Sharples, 2002), with the drawback that it does not present a comprehensive set
of principles on which this type of environment can be constructed.
The development of models or methods for the construction and use of
educational software is, as a rule, either oriented toward the rationale of
software engineering, or, consequently lacking in teaching parity, refers to the
teaching characteristics of the software and is thus often fragmentary.
It is obvious that the construction of educational software should be based on
some method, otherwise it is in danger of failing, of costing too much, or of being
greatly delayed. This method, however, should be subject to the didactic rationale
and not the other way round (Reusser, 1994). The basic characteristic of
educational software should be its didactic efficiency rather than its technological supremacy, even though this, of course, is also desired.
Knowledge Theories and
Didactic Problématique
Behaviorism and Constructivism
The many types of contemporary educational environments are certainly wellknown: from the simplest drill-and-practice-type software to the more complex
educational microworlds, a gamut of educational applications exists with a wide
range of technical features, the interface, the audience they are geared to, and
the goals aimed at. The wealth of environments is enormous, and their categorizations can be based on numerous criteria. It is generally accepted that the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
118
Dagdilelis
design of educational environments, whether digital or not, is guided, even at a
subconscious level, by the pedagogic theories of the manufacturers. The choice
of a theory is so important that most times it determines, directly or indirectly, the
characteristics of the educational environment or even its type. Therefore, a
large section of the educational applications with essential aims to convey
knowledge and skills, many e-books for instance, belong to the behaviorist school
(Collins, 1996).
Behaviorism and constructivism are two widely spread learning theories that are
fundamentally different in their outlooks.
Behaviorism, which appears at an international level to be waning, assumes that
learning is the result of a stimulus–response process. Learning is seen largely to
be a passive procedure, where the subject attempts to adapt to the environment.
The constructivist approach, at polar ends with the behaviorist, is based on the
hypothesis that subjects construct their own, personal knowledge through
interaction with the environment; while learning essentially consists of a teaching
methodology based on assimilating new information and then adapting the
subject’s mental structures in such a way as to be compatible with the new data.
In the constructivist learning model, the subject, in attempting to explain or to
examine questions, formulates hypotheses; searches for ways to verify or
disprove these hypotheses; interacts with his or her environment (both material
and human); redirects the results of experiences; and constantly reconstructs
intellectual structures, the mental shapes, in such a way as to integrate them with
the new data. Therefore, the educational environments of the constructivist
paradigm differ greatly from those based on the behaviorism, because they favor
active learning, cooperation between learners, investigation, formulation of
hypotheses, as well as their verification or disproof. In other words, they promote
actions and activities similar to scientific work, even though in reality, scientists’
work is fundamentally different than that of students’ work.
The Constructivist Approach
To a large extent, the various categories of educational software correspond to
those of learning theories, which they are based on. For this reason, there is no
general consensus on educational software. On the contrary, these various
categories coexist. As is natural within the framework of the various schools of
thought, extended argumentation has been put forward from all sides.
The main argument for the preference of the constructivist approach and,
subsequently, for cognitive tools, can be expressed by borrowing the characteristic metaphor of Resnick et al. (1996), who, arguing in favor of the “constructivist”
environments, claim that all parents would prefer their children to learn to play
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
119
the piano rather than learn to use a stereo. Even though it is much easier to use
a stereo, the experience offered in learning to play a musical instrument as well
as the likelihood of composing musical scores is incomparably richer than merely
using even the most advanced electronic device.
Of course, the counterargument to this is that if someone wants to listen to highquality music, 99 times out of 100, they will use a stereophonic system rather than
attempt the arduous task of learning to play the piano. Moreover, it is almost
certain that even those people who know how to play the piano own some kind
of stereophonic system.
Nevertheless, a basic part of the authors’ reasoning remains indisputable: the
richest experiences are not gained by the simplest means, perhaps the opposite
occurs—experiences are usually analogous to the power of expression the
means offers the user. In this way, learning the piano decisively contributes to
the creation and development of a relationship between the person and music that
is rich in feelings. It must be admitted, however, that sometimes this relationship
requires the use of devices that reproduce rather than produce sound, that is, the
stereo, not the piano.
What then, if any, is the conclusion? We could say that the choice of the means
is determined by the type of use one requires. This is also the case for educational
software—its characteristics depend on the use for which it was made.
Mindtools
Throughout human history, technology has obviously contributed to the development of the human intellect and especially to that of learning. Pea (1985) defined
cognitive technology as “any medium that helps transcend the limits of the
mind, such as memory, in activities of thinking, learning and problem solving.”
Within this more general framework, certain computing environments, more
precisely the environments and their didactic use, are usually characterized as
cognitive tools (Collins, 2000) or even as mindtools (Jonassen, 2000), i.e.,
“computer-based tools and learning environments that have been adapted or
developed a function as intellectual partners with the learner in order to engage
and facilitate critical thinking and higher order learning” (p. 9). This category of
educational environments presents certain significant didactic features.
There are numerous definitions and a relatively adequate amount of literature on
cognitive tools or mindtools. According to Jonassen, Peck, and Wilson (1999), an
educational environment should support knowledge construction, explorations,
learning by doing, learning by conversing, intellectual partners that support
learning by reflecting. On the basis of this analysis, therefore, it is possible to
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
120
Dagdilelis
evaluate the various sections and functions of educational software, or more
precisely, of an educational environment. Those sections and functions that
serve or support the above-mentioned uses are thus more desirable. For
example, the existence of a system of written communication between learners
is a desirable characteristic if it is a prerequisite for the creation of communication and subsequently a type of social interaction between learners; this,
however, is a characteristic of particular significance in the development of
knowledge on the subject according to current didactic theories (Laborde, 1983).
It should be emphasized that this criterion is too broad and, as a consequence, has
only limited usability.
The choice of a specific group of software and the knowledge theory supporting
it, unavoidably creates a generalization of design principles or, more precisely,
a generalized criterion: if the end result is the creation of an educational software,
of an educational environment intended to function as a cognitive tool, then its
various sections and their functions must also be in accordance with this same
rationale.
Open Environments and
Open Microworlds
Cognitive tools are not defined in any one way, and there are many types of
software that fall into this category. The principles of their design have a general
character, and although they cannot be applied to all types of educational
environments, they are nevertheless useful as guides in the design of many such
environments.
Cognitive tools, by their nature, are open environments. Those environments
that do not have predetermined lessons or activities that the learner must follow
but allow for the free development of activities within the framework of an area
of knowledge can be considered as open environments.
There are many types of such environments, from Logo to the current ones such
as the environments of so-called Dynamic Geometry (Bellemain, 1992) and
others that are based on the synthesis of preexisting components (Rochelle et al.,
1999). They have a number of characteristics in common that characterize them
as mindtools and that have been “well-established” and, up to a point, have a
theoretical basis.
Despite the fact that in recent years, open environments have been recognized
as valuable learning environments, certain reservations have also been stated.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
121
Collins (2000) asked whether the environment should encourage guided learning
or exploratory learning, and highlighted the fact that open environments actually
allow the learner to “play around” with the software. He, himself, however,
argued in favor of environments which in the beginning are rather guided until the
learners gain a certain level of skill in order to be able to use them on their own
and who gradually will be liberated. In reality, however, all educational software
functions within the particular context of a teaching situation. As a rule,
learners are required to solve a problem or to explore the various angles of a
problem. So, it is unlikely that they “play around” (Hoyles & Noss, 1993).
A special category of software with a large teaching potential includes the socalled open microworlds, that is, the environments in which predetermined
activities and lessons do not exist, but where learners can define new objects
(programs, geometric shapes, functions, natural laws) as well as the relationships
between them, in order to experiment (Hoyles & Noss, 1993; Bellemain, 1992;
Tinker, 1993).
The developments of open environments, which favor experimental learning and
problem solving, have proliferated in recent years. In these environments, a
specified teaching scenario or route does not exist; the teaching material that
accompanies these environments simply indicates the type of didactic situation.
The potential of these environments is of particular importance to teaching: the
ability to choose to decrease the teaching noise (that is, undesirable side effects
such as extremely long calculations that can totally overshadow the real
objective of the lesson), the intelligent help (in conjunction with intelligent
messages), and the programming by demonstration (Bellemain, 1992; Cypher,
1994).
Furthermore, these environments allow learners to express their ideas, even if
erroneous, and apply them until they come to a dead-end or to an obviously wrong
conclusion (Dagdilelis et al., 2003). If we accept the basic principles of
constructivism (Balacheff, 1986; translation from French), these are necessary
conditions in order “to provoke a knowledge confrontation and thus develop
learners’ perceptions.” Resnick et al. (1996) considered data that make the
environment familiar to also be important. This familiarity does not aim at giving
the learner motives but rather is necessary in order for the learner to be able to
use a representational model in order to find the solution to the proposed problem.
Such tools enable learners to represent their thought processes in external
models for examination and reflection, and may further help them to improve
these processes (Emrah, 1995).
The general principles described below are related to open environments
designed with the rationale characteristic of the bulk of mindtools.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
122
Dagdilelis
The Principle of Tool Logic
By nature, cognitive tools consist of environments in which the learner can
explore phenomena from various angles and, by experimenting with these, reach
certain conclusions. They are connected, either directly or indirectly, with
possibly more than one field of knowledge (for example, working with Excel on
a certain kind of problem requires a combination of programming and mathematics). They often provide the learner with the representation of a microworld,
either natural or intellectual, and at the same time a series of tools needed for its
exploration. For example, the so-called Dynamic Geometry environments [such
as Cabri-Geometer (Bellemain, 1992) or Geometer Sketchpad (Roschelle &
Jackiw, 2000)] consist of a simulation of Euclidian space (a totally mental
construction that does not exist in reality), whereas the environments for the
study of natural phenomena (such as Interactive Physics, 2003) represent
natural space in which Newton’s laws hold.
An important issue that arises is one concerning the dichotomy between an
environment of “physical and epistemological faithfulness” (Collins, 2000). A
true natural representation means that the educational environment depicts the
actual situation, whereas an epistemological one means that in the educational
environment, the same laws (mathematical, natural, etc.) apply, which also exist
in nature. The most appropriate choice for either one or the other situation, or to
be more precise, the necessity for natural faithfulness, because the other option
is regarded as imperative, depends on the use the software is geared for. For
example, the study of space from a geometric perspective might demand its
simulation in order for the learner to be able to relate to and solve geometric
problems under “real” conditions, such as measuring the distances of two points,
which between them are not visible, or measuring the area of a golf course, which
has an odd shape with a small lake in the middle. On the other hand, where the
object of study might be the so-called theoretical (Euclidian) geometry, in which
case the environment must “simulate” Euclidian space that, as stated above, does
not actually exist because it is simply an intellectual construction, scientific
faithfulness is adequate and sufficient.
The existence of natural faithfulness is a significant factor in the learning of
concepts and relationships on account that it contains elements familiar to the
learner. Furthermore, the existence of natural faithfulness makes it easier to
apply the principle of authenticity, in other words, the teaching requirement for
contextualized learning in an environment that is as close as possible to reality
(Collins, 2000). Even though this principle has validity, the main object of
research in a cognitive tool is not so much natural faithfulness as epistemological
faithfulness, that is, the agreement of the environment and the reactions with the
simulated system (Resnick et al., 1996).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
123
Epistemological or physical faithfulness is not, however, a sufficient condition to
justify the use of ICT. For example, an environment in which simply the
construction of geometric shapes is possible does not make it a cognitive tool.
The criterion is the principle of tool logic and its didactic economy. An
educational environment contains a particular tool that supports a teaching
method or the learning of certain concepts, and it should be designed as such. In
addition, however, the potential of the teaching environment should be higher
than that of usual environments. For example, software for physics should offer
greater possibilities than that available in an actual laboratory. In other words, the
design of an educational environment should be based on specific teaching needs,
which are revealed by research on teaching or from the experience of teachers,
rather than the other way around. This, of course, does not mean that the
educational environment cannot break into new possibilities, but rather that in
some way, the educational software should comprise the best possible means for
the teaching of a concept or a technique.
Tool logic can, of course, vary as to its exact content from one area of knowledge
to another and from one software program to another. Nevertheless, certain
characteristics of educational environments, considered as cognitive tools for the
learner, seem to play important roles in the learning process:
1.
The environment should combine conviviality and usability. This means that
the educational software should be simple and easy-to-use. An environment that requires complex procedures often forces the learner to focus on
technical details instead of concentrate on the problem at hand. Novice
programmers, for instance, often focus on dealing with the syntactic errors
instead of with the construction of the algorithm—this is precisely the kind
of teaching noise mentioned above. This fact has led to the creation of
simpler languages in order to introduce learners to programming. A
practical measure of usability is the effort and time needed to accomplish
a task. More generally, the key criterion of a system’s usability is the extent
to which it enables people who use it to understand it, to learn and to make
changes (Nielsen & Mack, 1994).
2.
The possibility of avoiding teaching noise focuses on the essence (Tall,
1993). Teaching noise does not only come from a nonoptimal interface, as
was the case in the above paragraph, but also from the use of methods and
procedures that are inappropriate for the user. An essential function of
educational environments is that in solving a problem, the user does not get
caught up in any time-consuming processes that are counterproductive to
learning. For example, a software such as Excel executes complex
calculations with high precision and thus avoids teaching noise. This means
that any in-between procedures that might take a lot of time and do not
benefit learning are done away with. Usually, teaching noise can initially be
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
124
Dagdilelis
an object of learning, which evolves into a means; and teaching economy
often imposes its marginalization in the process of problem solving (Douady,
1993). For instance, basic calculations are an object of learning in the first
years of schooling, which however, become the means to solving complex
problems in physics and mathematics in the 11 th or 12 th year of school. Now,
if a software allows the problems to be completed quickly, then this releases
the learner from a tedious process that has no learning benefit (only the
execution of many basic calculations). For this reason, in many software
programs, the available information or representations can be increased or
reduced, depending on the needs of the lesson (Bellemain, 1992; Dagdilelis
et al., 2003).
3.
The environment’s large potential for expression is revealed in stages
through the possibility of creating composite structures, with more specific
and stronger tools. The procedures in Logo, the macroconstructions in the
environments of dynamic geometry, and the formulae in Excel and the other
spreadsheets, are examples of this type, because they offer the user the
possibility to compose new objects of the corresponding space (construction processes, geometric shapes, and algebraic relationships, respectively)
based on the software’s relatively simple primitives.
4.
The possibilities to adapt to the user’s needs and provide teaching help are
given. This is perhaps the most difficult prerequisite from a technical point
of view, because adapting to the needs of the user is materialized at multiple
levels. For example, a module of the system can offer intelligent guidance
in the use of the software. But, adaptation can be extended to more
interesting teaching fields. For instance, in a contemporary educational
environment, recordability, that is, the ability to continuously record the
user’s actions, is now a common option that presents interesting possibilities (Bellemain, 1992). Besides the obvious use of these records by the
teacher, who, at times, with the help of the software itself, can analyze the
learners’ actions and gain valuable insights and results, the system can
diagnose certain characteristics of the learners and offer them the necessary help by showing them the weaknesses in their solutions or even help
them solve the problem in a variety of ways. In certain environments (such
as Cabri-Geometer; Bellemain, 1992) of this type, the software can decide
on, for the accuracy or not of a question the learner is formulating (e.g., are
these points on the same straight line?), whether to point out the possible
weaknesses of a program or to propose improvements or even correct
solutions reached by the learner.
5.
The possibility of communication is provided. Contemporary constructivist
theories believe that humans do not learn in isolation but construct their
knowledge through interacting with their environment, which consists of
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
125
other people, including co-learners and teachers. The progress of network
technology in the last decade has created the preconditions for the
development of communication systems, even between learners and teachers who are geographically separated. However, it must be emphasized
that, despite all its progress, technology is not yet adequately functional, and
despite the theories that support the value of communication, we have but
a few satisfactory examples of use that surpass the level of being
commonplace.
Within tool logic, teaching economy imposes the integration into the environment
of those elements that have a meaning from a teaching point of view. Therefore,
the parts that characterize the environment, such as the multimedia elements,
should serve some teaching goal and should not exist merely for effect.
The most important consequence of the principle of tool logic, however, is the
need for educational software to be incorporated into teaching. This fact means
that it is essential for educational software to be accompanied by a description
of the corresponding didactic situations, within the framework in which the
application will be used. This is necessary because even the best software is
meaningless if it does not function within the context of a didactic situation
(Brousseau, 1986a, 1986b). On the other hand, software exists that, although not
educational, can be used as a cognitive tool within teaching, such as Excel and
spreadsheets generally, as well as mathematics software such as Mathematica
and the like.
The opposite phenomenon can, of course, be assumed, of the use of extremely
rich software in an elementary way, especially in the situation where a
corresponding didactic problématique does not exist.
Role of the Interface and the
Principle of Multiple Interface
The interface of contemporary educational environments plays an incredibly
significant role in the process of learning, because it essentially determines the
way in which learners will formulate their ideas. In this way, the interface
indirectly determines an environment’s expressive power (Climaco et al., 1993).
The expressive power of an environment indicates how quickly and simply the
tools enable a description of situations the users can immediately perceive in
terms of existing goals and needs. It stands to reason that the environment should
support a means of expression that will be simple but at the same time have the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
126
Dagdilelis
ability to formulate complex concepts. These two requirements can, however, be
antithetical. In reality, there are at least two different systems that serve them.
Modern interface is characterized by the existence of graphics (GUI). In these
new graphic environments the specific elements are the “image-action” and the
objectification metaphor: actions are substituted by the duo icons and actions
with the mouse (for example, clicking on the icon of a diskette has the result of
saving the active file). This progress of the interface, in turn, leads to the
development of a very interesting ability, that of direct manipulation (Bellemain
& Dagdilelis, 1993). With direct manipulation, the user can “handle” objects
(their representations) on the monitor, using a mouse directly on the image of the
“object.” An obvious characteristic of direct manipulation is, of course, that it
does not require any kind of formulation on the part of the user. In order to
destroy a file, all that is needed is to “throw it away” and to “empty” the
“recycling bin.” This, however, does not necessarily mean that the nonexplicitly
expressed commands in every environment are direct use: in the e-examples of
NCTM (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics), for instance, there is
also a tiny programming environment for primary school children that does not
require any written formulation—they use an iconic language—while in the past,
there were other software with similar characteristics. In modern graphic
environments, concepts and their relationships acquire a pseudomaterial basis,
they appear to be—and behave as though they are—materials; for example, in
the environments of Dynamic Geometry, the straight-line sections act as though
they were elastic (they can elongate or shrink simply by dragging and dropping
their ends), and in certain environments of Dynamic Algebra, the graphic
representations function as though they are wire (they too permit modifications
such as parallel transformation or flexure simply by drag and drop; Function
Probe, 1999).
Direct manipulation, in this way, acquires particular importance as a teaching
possibility, because it allows the user to express, in a direct way, relationships and
choices that, in everyday terms, are unclear, because usually the user can act on
them but not express them. In this way, direct manipulation gives the ability to
choose a shade of color from a palette, the free-hand design of a shape, or the
construction of a digital object, activities that are possibly familiar to the user but
cannot easily be described (Eisenberg, 1996). Moreover, the conflict between “I
do” and “I explain how to do” (Duchateau, 1992), is well-known as one of the
common difficulties of novice programmers. For example, novice programmers
can easily understand the design rule of a recursive shape, such as embedded
squares or Koch’s snowflakes, but they come up against great difficulty when
they attempt to construct a recursive procedure that designs them (Carlisle,
2000; Dalit, 2001).
The advantage that direct manipulation has on teaching is particularly obvious in
the cases where it is an essential teaching variable, that is, a factor that can
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
127
greatly affect the teaching and learning processes by being present or absent.
Early educational software for geometry, for instance, which were mainly based
on the explicit formulation of commands (such as GEOMLAND; Sendov &
Sendova, 1995), turned out to be more difficult to use by young learners. In
certain cases, the use of the “objects” or at least certain elements of the system
is carried out through intermediate iconic mechanisms, such as sliders, of which
Microworlds Pro and Avakeeo are well-known examples (Microworlds Pro,
1999; Koutlis & Hatzilacos, 1999). Nowadays, technology even allows for
commands to be given indirectly to computers by demonstration (Bellemain,
1992; Cypher, 1994).
Direct manipulation comprises one end of the scale, while on the other end are
the explicit formulation environments (such as Logo). Nevertheless, the inexplicit manipulation of objects is not the only solution and can coexist with the
explicit expression of commands. International research shows (di Sessa et al.,
1995; Hoyles, 1995; Sendov & Sendova, 1995; Laborde & Laborde, 1995) that
direct manipulation is neither the only means nor the most appropriate solution
for all situations. If direct manipulation offers ease in expression, explicit
formulation offers the possibility to express composite concepts and relationships. Written formulation offers a large expression potential to the user, who can
describe sophisticated relationships such as recursion or patterns with much
greater ease than with either direct or indirect manipulation. In reality, the
formulation of definitions, properties, and relationships is a component of the
concepts themselves; it requires specialized knowledge that should be cultivated
in the learner (Laborde, 1983).
The majority of typical languages, which enables a high degree of structure, are
usually programming languages of some sort. Programming languages, of
course, have their own teaching value but are, in some way, incredibly
decontextualized, which means that they function in abstract and, thus, are often
difficult to learn. On the contrary, in recent years, a generation of specific
languages has appeared that has been adapted to the particularity of the
environments in which they function. Thus, languages are being developed that
allow the formulation of geometric or other causal dependencies (Sketchpad,
2003). In fact, the existence of these languages can make the software much
more functional, because up to now, the tendency has been for software
development to constantly add new features and tools, resulting in the creation
of environments with scores of abilities but with problematic in-depth use
(Eisenberg, 1996). It is worth noting that this problem as well as its suggested
solution were highlighted 30 years ago in the area of programming. Dijkstra
(1972) characterized certain languages as “baroque monstrosities” and argued
in favor of languages with a small repertory of commands but that had a high
possibility of composing new ones.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
128
Dagdilelis
Particular teaching problems, such as the choice of functional syntax and the
appropriate formalism arise due to the existence of specific descriptive languages. However, with the use of various techniques, these problems can
nowadays be dealt with to a satisfactory degree.
So, as current research shows, each of the methods of expression (manipulation
or formulation) has its advantages and disadvantages; therefore, the best
construction strategy for educational environments is to incorporate both methods that have the capacity to be used for contemporary needs. Perhaps the best
examples are computers and their operating systems. The two most popular
systems (Windows and Unix in various forms) coexist, serving different groups
of users and converging to become a “double” nature, as it were—Windows has
written commands, while for the Unix-like systems, X-Windows have now
become an important component.
Multiple Representations
The progress of technology (high-analysis monitors, fast processors and graphic
cards, effective algorithms, etc.) has enabled, to a great extent, the development
of technical illustrations with animated or unanimated images or video. Current
educational environments are using these new means all the more extensively:
animated images that are also interactive. The particularly significant role of
images has often been emphasized in the international literature (Tall, 1993;
Kaylan, 1993).
The progress of technology has also increased the potential of another section
of educational environments, namely, that of multiple representations. A
representation, in this case, is a system that symbolizes certain knowledge. For
example, a mathematical function can be represented as a formula or as a graph;
an algorithm can be represented in the form of diagrams or in a textual
programming language.
Support multiple representational forms enable the learner to represent concepts
and meaningful relationships between concepts both verbally and pictorially
(Kozma, 1992) and allow the learner access to the different representations
simultaneously, so that interrelationships are directly available (Emrah, 1995).
Multiple representations are not necessarily totally based on pictures. According
to Beale et al. (2002), they include interactive systems of “external representations. External representations are observable, and often manipulatable, structures, such as graphs, tables, diagrams or sketches that can aid problem solving
or learning” (p. 18). Here, external representations are regarded in the broad
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
129
sense of the term, including in them textual representations, in other words,
subordinate texts. The importance of external representations is that each one
can comprise a significant teaching aid for the learner, because it contains
important information. For example, these types of representations can make
obvious the relationship between data-producing sets with common characteristics, tendencies, or properties. Of course, these representations have the
disadvantage that, although they make certain properties of the concepts under
study obvious, they leave out certain others. Often, one type of external
representation is particularly useful in order to solve a certain category of
problems but is inappropriate for all the others. This drawback is overcome by
the existence of multiple external representations.
Of particular interest are those external representations that are dynamic and
interconnected and in fact bidirectional. In other words, they present symmetrical possibility. In educational environments, one form of expressing a concept
or relationship is often preferred over another, due to the particular didactic
contract (Brousseau, 1986) that commonly exists in school environments or
simply due to technical reasons. Thus, a graphic representation of a function can
often result from its analytical expression, and the change to the analytical
expression causes a modification of the curve but not the opposite. This
modification has been previously pointed out (Bellemain & Dagdilelis, 1993;
Schwarz, 1993) and integrated into earlier pilot software or more recently, into
well-known software (such as Function Probe, 1999). However, this possibility
is limited, as it can be used only for certain categories of functions that are known
beforehand. At school, most explored functions are known beforehand, so this
is not a concern.
Recent research studies on teaching in various scientific fields have shown
(Douady, 1993; Tall, 1993) that multiple representations clearly have teaching
value. For example, the representation of a mathematical function in an
analytical, graphical, and numerical way with the ability of direct interaction
between the various frameworks of expression allows the learner to produce
more complete images of the concept being examined and to develop significant
notions on it, even when lacking basic knowledge (Tall, 1993). Environments
should offer the option of choice between one or multiple representations,
depending on the teaching needs at the time. In this way, for instance, multiple
representations for computing programs executed simultaneously on DELYS
(Dagdilelis et al., 2003)—a software developed by the University of Macedonia
(Thessaloniki, Greece) for the teaching of programming—the user can decide
which functions will be visible and which will not.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
130
Dagdilelis
Synthesis
In the above paragraphs, three basic principles for the design of modern
educational environments were presented: the principle of tool logic, the principle
of multiple interfaces, and the principle of multiple representations. Although the
number of such principles has not been exhausted, as the research data show,
they contribute significantly to the development of educational environments
with high didactic specifications.
The rationale behind the examination of these design principles was focused on
their teaching functions rather than on the logic of software engineering. This is
the reason why general principles related to those categories of educational
software that appear to be the most promising, that is, cognitive tools, were
chosen. The main conclusion from the study of these educational environments
is that a basic factor for their effective use in teaching is the didactic situation
in which they are applied. The value of cognitive tools lies precisely in their
ability to support situations with a rich teaching potential. With few exceptions,
research on teaching does not seem to have progressed at the same rate as that
on the technology of educational software. This fact explains the general
impression, which exists internationally, that educational software has not yet
succeeded in achieving its goal to improve teaching to the level expected. This
is a direction that should be followed in order to succeed in the design and
construction of even better quality educational environments and also simultaneously to make better use of existing software.
References
Balacheff, N. (1986). Une étude des processus de preuve en mathématique chez
les élèves de collèg, Thèse de Doctorat d’Etat en Didactique des
mathématiques, Grenoble, France.
Beale, R., & Sharples, M. (2002). Design guides for developers of educational software. British Educational, Communication and Technology
Agency.
Bellemain, F. (1992). Conception, realisation et experimentation d’un logiciel
d’aide à l’enseignement lors de l’utilisation de l’ordinateur. Educational
Studies in Mathematics, 23, 59–97.
Bellemain, F., & Dagdilelis, V. (1993). La manipulation directe comme
invariant des micromondes educatifs. Fourth European Logo Conference, Athens, Greece.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
131
Brousseau, G. (1986a). Fondement et methodes de la didactiques de
mathématiques. Recherches en Didactique des Mathématiques, 7(2).
Brousseau, G. (1986b). Theorisation des phénomènes d’enseignement des
mathématiques. Thèse d’etat, Univesité de Bordeaux I, 1986.
Carlisle, E. G. (2000). Experiences with novices: The importance of graphical
representations in supporting mental models. In A. F. Blackwell, & E.
Bilotta (Eds.), Proc. PPIG 12 (pp. 33–44).
Climac, J. N., Antunes, C. H., and Costa, J. P. (1993). Teaching operations
research using “home made” software. In D. L. Ferguson (Ed.), Advanced
educational technologies for mathematics and science, NATO ASI
Series, F: Computer and System Sciences, Vol. 146 (pp. 305–338).
Springer Verlag.
Collins, A. (1996). Design issues for learning environments, international
perspectives on the design of technology-supported learning environments. S. Vosniadou, E. De Korte, R. Glaser, & H. Mandl (Eds.). Mahweh,
NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Publishers.
Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in classrooms.
Harvard, MA: Harvard University Press.
Cypher, A. (Ed.). (1994). Watch what I do—Programming by demonstration.
Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Dagdilelis, V., Evangelidis, G., Satratzemi, M., Efopoulos, V., & Zagouras, C.
(2003). DELYS: A novel microworld-based educational software for
teaching Computer Science subjects. Computers and Education, 40(4).
Dalit, L. (2001). Insights and conficts in discussing recursion: A case study.
Computer Science Education, 11(4), 305–322.
di Sessa, A., Hoyles, C., Noss, R., & Edwards, L. (1995). Computers and
exploratory learning, setting the scene. In di Sessa et al. (Eds.). Computers
and exploratory learning, NATO ASI Series, F: Computer and System
Sciences, Vol. 146 (pp. 1–12). Springer Verlag.
Dijkstra, E. W. (1972). The humble programmer. Communications of the ACM,
15(15), October, 859–866.
Douady, R. (1993). L’ingenierie didactique, un moyen pour l’enseignant
d’organiser les rapports entre l’ensegnement et l’apprentissage. Cahier de
DIDIREM, 7(19).
Duchateau, C. (1992). From DOING IT…to HAVING IT DONE BY... The
Heart of Programming. Some Didactical Thoughts, NATO Advanced
Research Workshop Cognitive Models and Intelligent Environments
for Learning Programming, S. Margherita, Italy.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
132
Dagdilelis
Eisenberg, M. (1995). Creating software applications for children: Some thoughts
about design. In A. A. diSessa, C. Hoyles, & E. Noss (Eds.), Computers
and exploratory learning, NATO ASI Series, F: Computer and System
Sciences, Vol. 146. Springer Verlag.
Emrah, O. (1995). Design of computer-based cognitive tools. In A. A. diSessa,
C. Hoyles, & E. Noss (Eds.), Computers and exploratory learning,
NATO ASI Series, F: Computer and System Sciences, Vol. 146. Springer
Verlag.
Function Probe. (1999). Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://
questmsm.home.texas.net/
Harvey, J. (1995). The market for educational software, Critical Technologies Institut- RAND, prepared for Office of Educational Technology, U.S.
Department of Education. DRU-1 04 –CTI.
Hoyles, C. (1995). Thematic chapter: Exploratory software, Exploratory cultures? In di Sessa et al. (Eds.), Computers and exploratory learning,
NATO ASI Series, F: Computer and System Sciences, Vol. 146 (pp. 19–
219). Springer Verlag.
Hoyles, C., & Noss, R. (1993). Deconstructing microworlds. In D. L. Ferguson
(Ed.), Advanced educational technologies for mathematics and science, NATO ASI Series, F: Computer and System Sciences, Vol. 146 (pp.
385–413). Springer Verlag.
Interactive Physics. (2003). Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://
www.interactivephysics.com/description.html
Jonassen, D. H. (2000). Computers as mindtools for schools: Engaging
critical thinking. New Jersey: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. C., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with
technology: A constructivist perspective. New Jersey: Merrill/Prentice
Hall.
Kaylan, A. R. (1993). Productivity tools as an integrated modeling and problem
solving environment. In D. L. Ferguson (Ed.), Advanced educational
technologies for mathematics and science, NATO ASI Series, F:
Computer and System Sciences, Vol. 146 (pp. 439–468). Springer Verlag.
Koutlis, M., & Hatzilacos. (1999). “Avakeeo”: The construction kit of computerised microworlds for teaching and learning Geography. Retrieved from
the World Wide Web:= http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/conf/gishe96/program/
koutlis.html
Kozma, R. B. (1992). Constructing knowledge with learning tools. In P. A. M.
Kommers et al. (Eds.), Cognitive tools for learning, NATO ASI Series,
F: Computer and System Sciences, Vol. 81 (pp. 305–319). Springer Verlag.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Principles of Educational Software Design
133
Laborde, C. (1983). Langue naturelle et écriture symbolique, deux codes en
interaction dans l’enseignement mathématique. Didactique des
mathématiques.
Laborde, C., & Laborde, J. M. (1995). What about a learning environment where
Euclidean concepts are manipulated with a mouse? In di Sessa et al. (Eds.),
Computers and exploratory learning, NATO ASI Series, F: Computer
and System Sciences, Vol. 146 (pp. 241–262). Springer Verlag.
Lage, F. J., Zubenko, Y., & Cataldi, Z. (2001). An extended methodology for
educational software design: Some critical points. 31th ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference, T2G-13, 2001, Reno, Nevada, USA.
MicroWorlds Pro. (1999). Logo Update On Line, Vol. 7, Number 2.
Nielsen, J., & Mack, R. (1994). Usability inspection methods. New York: John
Wiley & Sons.
Pea, R. D. (1985). Beyond amplification: Using the computer to reorganize
mental functioning. Educational Psychologist, 20(4), 167–182.
Resnick, M., Bruckman, A., & Martin, F. (1996). Pianos not stereos: Creating
computational construction kits. Instructions, 3(6).
Reusser, K. (1994). Tutoring mathematical text problems: From cognitive task
analysis to didactic tools. In S. Vosniadou, E. De Corte, & H. Mandl (Eds.),
Technology-based learning environments, NATO ASI Series, F: Computer and System Sciences, Vol. 137 (pp. 174–182). Springer Verlag.
Roschelle, J., & Jackiw, N. (2000). Technology design as educational research:
Interweaving imagination, inquiry & impact. In A. Kelly, & R. Lesh (Eds.),
Research design in mathematics & science education (pp. 777–797),
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Roschelle, J., DiGiano, C., Koutlis, M., Repenning, A., Jackiw, N., & Suthers,
D. (1999). Developing educational software components. IEEE Computer,
32(9).
Schwarz, J. L. (1993). Software to think with: The case of algebra. In D. L.
Ferguson (Ed.), Advanced educational technologies for mathematics
and science, NATO ASI Series, F: Computer and System Sciences, Vol.
146 (pp. 469–496). Springer Verlag.
Sendov, B., & Sendova, E. (1995). East or West—GEOMLAND is best, or Does
the answer depend on the angle? In di Sessa et al. (Eds.), Computers and
exploratory learning, NATO ASI Series, F: Computer and System
Sciences, Vol. 146 (pp. 59–78). Springer Verlag.
Sketchpad. (2003). Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.
keypress.com/sketchpad/
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
134
Dagdilelis
Stoll, C. (2000). High tech heretic: Reflections of a computer contrarian.
Anchor Books.
Tall, D. (1993). Interrelationships between mind and computer: Processes,
images, symbols. In D. L. Ferguson (Ed.), Advanced educational technologies for mathematics and science, NATO ASI Series, F: Computer
and System Sciences, Vol. 146 (pp. 385–413). Springer Verlag.
Tinker, R. F. (1993). Modelling and theory building: Technology in support of
student theorizing. In D. L. Ferguson (Ed.), Advanced educational
technologies for mathematics and science, NATO ASI Series, F:
Computer and System Sciences, Vol. 146 (pp. 91–114). Springer Verlag.
Van der Mast, C. (1995). Developing educational software: Integrating disciplines and media (pp. 1–96). Ph.D. thesis, Technische Universiteit Delft.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
135
Chapter VIII
Multiple
Representations in
Multimedia Materials:
An Issue of Literacy
Michael Sankey, University of Southern Queensland, Australia
Abstract
The movement toward utilising multimedia learning environments in teaching
has increased dramatically in recent years. This chapter reports on
current research trends relevant to the development of these environments.
Specifically analysing issues related to designing for an ever increasing
multiliterate clientele. It highlights the use of multiple representations and
investigates some cognitive constraints present when displaying this
information. Lastly, when learners are given a level of choice in accessing
materials they may be further empowered in their knowledge acquisition.
An understanding of these basic concepts will play an important role in our
approach to Instructional Design. Therefore a set of recommendations is
made for the design of these materials.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
136 Sankey
Introduction
The trend toward using multimedia learning environments as the preferred basis
for teaching (particularly teaching at a distance) has increased dramatically,
particularly over the last five years. This chapter reports on current research
trends investigating the development of multimedia course materials. Specifically, it analyzes relevant instructional design (ID) issues and reflects on the
concepts involved in catering to a multiliterate clientele and how the use of
multiple representations may enhance the learning opportunities of students,
primarily postsecondary learners. First, it will investigate the role that learning
styles play in the learning process and what should be considered when preparing
instructional material, looking closely at the importance of visualization in the
representation of concepts and the current understandings of what it means to
be literate in a culture saturated with visual elements. It will be seen that our
understanding of these basic concepts will play an important role in our ID
approach to teaching and learning, particularly when using visual and multiple
representations in the multimedia learning environment. Second, it will investigate the cognitive constraints experienced by learners when information is
displayed in multiple ways in such an environment, and whether it will be
beneficial to learner cognition to provide users with a level of interactive choice.
Finally, a set of recommendations will be made as to an appropriate format and
potential way forward for the design and delivery of multimedia instructional
materials.
Different Learning Styles
In developing instructional materials, contemporary educators are required to be
keenly conscious that many learners, for many reasons, have vastly different
learning styles. Although most researchers agree that different learning styles
exist, and freely acknowledge the significant effect that learning styles have on
the learning process, they are unable to form a consensus regarding the
establishment of a single set of accepted principles (Vincent & Ross, 2001). For
instance (see Figure 1), a recent study conducted by Liu and Ginther (1999)
found that approximately 20–30% of American students were auditory learners;
about 40% were visual; while the remaining 30–40% were tactual/kinesthetic,
visual/tactual, or some combinations of the above (Study 1). Another study
(Study 2) found that approximately 50% were auditory, followed by 33% visual,
and 17% kinesthetic (Vincent & Ross, 2001). Although these figures vary, it is
clear that people learn in different ways. In a similar vein, it is now known that
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
137
Figure 1: Two studies showing different results in learning styles
because individuals have different sensory preferences or cognitive styles,
learning is more effective when multiple sensory channels are involved (Kearnsley,
2000). This being the case, it is imperative (Stokes, 2002) that “instructional
materials, as well as teaching styles, should be matched with cognitive styles for
greatest learner benefits” (p. 12), and this imperative becomes a matter of
priority given the cultural shift that has occurred in a media-saturated environment.
In traditional learning environments, it is seen that many instructional events only
target one genetic cognitive style. This situation, for today’s learner, is highly
unsatisfactory. This is particularly so for those with learning styles inappropriately matched with the learning task at hand (McKay, 1999). It has been
highlighted in several studies in recent times that there are distinct learning
advantages to matching the presentation of learning materials to a user’s
cognitive style, particularly for the young and the less able of all ages (Atkinson,
2001; Moreno, 2002). On the other hand, however, it is also seen (McKay, 1999)
that “when there is a mismatch between cognitive style and the mode of
presentation, it is argued that performance is deemed to be reduced” (p. 324).
Fortunately, there seems to be a growing awareness, among some instructional
designers (IDs) at least, of the important role that individual differences play in
determining a learner’s cognitive style (McKay, 1999). The challenge then for
all educators is to present material in multiple ways, so as to encourage sufficient
retention of information and to facilitate satisfactory learning in a culture that
over recent decades has changed so considerably. One understandable problem
with this (DePorter, 1992) is that “many people don’t even realise they are
favouring one way or the other, because nothing external tells them they’re any
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
138 Sankey
different from anyone else” (p. 114).
Consequently, many students struggle
with the text-based learning materials
provided in a variety of traditional learning environments.
Instructional designers, therefore, must
address the complex interrelationships
that exist between learning tasks, a
learner’s cognitive processes, and
media attributes (Gunawardena, 1992).
Figure 2 shows a representation of the
different learning styles, indicating that
many learners use a combination of
styles. This will require teaching to utilize a variety of presentation techniques
that will help students interact with materials and to satisfy their different
learning needs (Lih-Juan, 1997). To illustrate this, in both school and university
environments, academic work has become increasingly verbal (teacher/lecturer
talking at the front of the classroom) in an effort to make teaching appear more
personal. There are unfortunate consequences, however, for those pupils whose
cognitive style is for processing information using images rather than verbal
means (Atkinson, 2001). In other words, some learners may have great difficulty
interpreting and understanding verbal instructions, especially when lengthy and
complex, and would respond better to what they see. On the other hand, there
are those learners who have difficulty reading but are careful listeners and
remember well what they have been told (Flattley, 2002). Anderson (2001) goes
as far as to say, “Optimal learning occurs when the instruction is exactly matched
to the aptitudes of the learner” (p. 45).
Interestingly, there is substantial research
Figure 2: A representation of
to suggest that computer-aided learning
the different learning styles
(multimedia) has the potential to improve much of this dichotomy, as materials can be presented in a variety of
forms and thus be more sensitive to style
differences (Atkinson, 2001; Mayer,
2001). Before we investigate this claim
more closely, it is necessary to look at
the role visualization plays in the representation of information, particularly as
images play such an important role in the
multimedia environment, not to mention
society.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
139
Visualization in Representation
Aristotle once stated that, “without image,
thinking is impossible” (McKeon, 1941).
Interestingly, Stokes (2002) noted that
much of the research reported in educational literature today would support this,
asserting that using visual strategies in
teaching results in a greater degree of
learning. This is because people find it
easier to learn and remember knowledge
visually (Andrewartha & Wilmot, 2001).
Unfortunately, in most university classes,
very little visual information is presented.
Students mainly listen to lectures and read
material written on whiteboards, in textbooks, or on handouts. In the case of
distance education students, students interact with study books or computer
screens that contain very few visual references. Felder and Soloman (2001)
contended that most people are visual learners, and that if sufficient visual
content were included in learning materials, students would retain more information. This is primarily because learners today (particularly those entering
university straight from high school) have grown up surrounded by constant
visual stimuli and have become highly sophisticated in their abilities to assimilate
and process visual data. These students now expect that a high percentage of
their learning should be transmitted visually (Evans, 2002). Fortunately, many
educational researchers are now calling for increased attention to the use of
graphical inscriptions in education (Roth, 2002). The question is, how far are their
voices carrying?
Although visual images are an integral part of human cognition, they tend to be
marginalized and undervalued in the education system (McLoughlin & Krakowski,
2001). Kress and van Leeuwen (1996) suggested that this is fundamentally due
to a basic lack of understanding, that there are many elite academics who are
horrified by these thoughts, seeing any addition of pictures to learning materials
as “dumbing down” academic content. On the contrary, images are an essential
component of education, having always been used (to some degree) to support
learning and teaching in a variety of ways. Images provide access to complex
visual information and experiences that cannot be replicated in purely textual
terms. This is because, as stated in Evans (2002), “pictures interact with text to
produce levels of comprehension and memory that can exceed what is produced
by text alone” (p. 1). Further, visual forms of representation are important, not
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
140 Sankey
just as heuristic and pedagogical tools, but as legitimate aspects of reasoning and
learning. Linking this with the multiple modes of representation that technologies
can now offer, the visual experiences learners encounter can result in a higher
level of cognition being attained (McLoughlin & Krakowski, 2001). It is hoped,
therefore, that as more visual elements are incorporated into learning materials,
with a view to achieving an optimal balance between verbal and visual cues,
interdependence between these two modes of thought will be fostered.
Ultimately, due to advances in technology, the ability to transmit and display both
realistic images and graphical representations of information should (it is hoped)
provide an impetus for educators to come to a deeper understanding of the role
of visualization in learning. Theorists have emphasized that visual thinking is a
fundamental and unique part of the perceptual process, and that visualization is
the indispensable partner to the verbal and symbolic ways of expressing ideas
and thoughts (McLoughlin & Krakowski, 2001). The imperative is for instructional designers and educators alike to stay abreast of changes, both in cultural
and technological areas. Increasingly all forms of communication are being
transferred via the grammar of the visual, resulting in learners becoming more
sophisticated in their abilities to recognize and interpret visual meaning as well
as to utilize visual information to enhance social, cultural, or learning activities
(Evans & Shabajee, 2002). Instructional designers must take into account the
range of symbolic and visual forms that enable the construction, analysis, and
refinement of ideas (McLoughlin & Krakowski, 2001). For it is increasingly
being found that utilizing symbolic, visual, and verbal (in the case of multimedia)
representations facilitates and strengthens the learning process by providing
several mutually referring sources of information (Moreno, 2002). As will be
seen below, educators need to foster a variety of new types of literacies to make
education relevant to the demands of this new millennium.
These demands will necessitate that those involved in designing and writing of
teaching materials, both traditional and multimedia-based, be aware of the
processes involved in the production of images. As Muffoletto (2001) believed,
understanding the process by which images become images, images that will, in
turn, represent or refer to the creation of meaning, may be deemed as useless “if
teachers do not incorporate the notion of multiple perspectives into their daily
pedagogy” (p. 7). This is not a new thought, as DePorter (1992) stated, “when
you’re aware of how you and others perceive and process information, you can
make learning and communication easier” (p. 110). This suggests that an
effective instructional format would facilitate a combination of cognitive styles,
thereby necessitating the introduction of visual-texts [images] (McKay, 1999).
This would then become almost mandatory if, as is being suggested, visual
communication is capable of disseminating knowledge more effectively than
almost any other vehicle of communication (Flattley, 2002). There is, therefore,
a real need to know how to communicate using images, which includes being alert
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
141
to different forms of visual messages and being critically aware of how to read
and view images as a language.
This argument is not limited simply to visual literacy. In considering what it means
to be literate in contemporary culture, it is seen that literacy is on the verge of
reinventing itself—it now not only includes visual literacy but also technological,
computer, critical, media, and other literacies. Being literate in the future implies
having the ability to decode information from all types of media (Grisham, 2001).
Therefore, educators are required to personally cultivate a philosophy of multiple
literacies, then foster and train learners in the full variety of literacies available
to them. Ultimately, it is the educator who will empower their students and make
education relevant to the demands of the future. For in a very real sense, our
technology rich, postmodern condition requires us to be increasingly multiliterate.
Multiple Literacy
Kellner (2000) believed that literacies are socially constructed by educational
and cultural practices and that they evolve and shift in response to social and
cultural change, he wrote:
…one could argue that in an era of technological revolution and new
technologies we need to develop new forms of media literacy, computer
literacy, and multimedia literacies that I and others call by the covering
concept of “multiliteracies” or “multiple literacies.” New technologies
and cultural forms require new skills and competencies and if education
is to be relevant to the problems and challenges of contemporary life it
must expand the concept of literacy and develop new curricula and
pedagogies. (p. 249)
This being the case, multiple literacies are required if we are to meet the
challenges of today’s society. These literacies, according to Stokes (2002),
include “…print literacy, visual literacy, aural literacy, media literacy, computer
literacy, cultural literacy, social literacy, and eco literacy” (p. 11). If maximum
benefit is to be extracted from information presented by modern communication
technologies, both in terms of engagement and learning, a future-oriented
approach must be adopted. Such an approach will prepare students to function
in an increasingly technology-based society and give them the ability to “read”
the world and communicate through multiple modes of communication.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
142 Sankey
Initially, this will require the reconceptualization of the notion of literacy, so that
verbal texts, graphs, drawings, photos, and other communicative devices will all
be seen as texts to be read. This understanding will then need to be applied to the
development of new, inclusive, curriculum. If Web sites, CD-ROMs, and
multimedia presentations are to be the medium of education in the future, there
is need to theorize the literacies necessary to interact with these new multimedia
environments and to gain the necessary skills to enable individuals to learn, work,
and create in these emergent cultural spaces and domains (Kellner, 2000). Being
multiliterate in a society that recognizes a full range of multiple learning styles will
therefore require the development of theories and strategies for the multiple
representations of concepts for instruction, if for no other reason than to be
totally democratic (see Figure 3). If students are to be prepared to operate in a
multiliterate manner (O’Rourke, 2002), then “we must provide them with
opportunities to both express themselves and make sense of the world through
multiple modes of communication (linguistic/textual, visual/graphical, musical/
audio, spatial, gestural) sometimes all operating simultaneously” (p. 57). It would
seem that the way forward in this regard is to conceptualize and demonstrate the
use of multiple representations, utilizing the latest multimedia technologies and
techniques.
Figure 3: Multimedia will allow
us to more fully cater to the
multiliterate learner
Utilizing traditional teaching media, such
as textbook and printed study material,
makes the consideration of individual
learning styles, when designing instruction, very difficult. Instead, educators
and IDs have relied upon the notion of a
“generic” or “model” user to help them
conceptualize (or possibly simplify) the
learning process. Inevitably, this model
user would be a read/write learner, who
is equipped with a set of common or
average cognitive characteristics. This
is where interactive multimedia can play
such an important facilitating role. It is
in the use of multiple representations in
this environment that the preferred
modality of the user, over that of an
arbitrary generic construct, can aid in
the construction of meaning. This is
because multimedia programs have been
found to better cater to today’s increasingly less homogeneous student cohort
(Andrewartha & Wilmot, 2001). In a
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
143
practical sense, this is further evidenced by many of the major textbook
publishers, who, anticipating this cultural shift, have moved vigorously into
the multimedia marketplace, producing and promoting CD-ROMs and Web
sites that support their texts. Clearly,
multimedia does not hold all the answers, but it does offer certain previously nonexistent opportunities for the
educator.
Multiple Representation and
Multimedia
The use of multiple representations, particularly in computer-based learning
environments, offers a wonderful variety of possibilities to the ID/educator. For
instance, Bodemer and Ploetzner (2002) informed us that, “multiple representations can complement each other, resulting in a more complete representation of
an application domain than a single source of information does” (p. 2). It has also
been found that users both prefer and respond more positively to materials that
contain visual elements. This is primarily because recall and memory are
improved when information is presented visually or is supplemented by the use
of images (Evans, 2002). Further, Ainsworth and Van Labeke (2002) stated that,
“Learning with multiple representations has been recognized as a potentially
powerful way of facilitating understanding for many years.” They also stated the
following:
…early research concentrated on the ways that presenting pictures
alongside text could improve readers’ memory and comprehension of
text. In the last two decades, the debate has widened to include an
extensive variety of representational formats including animations,
sound, video and dynamic simulations. (p. 1)
When an illustration is placed alongside or just above text, or an image contains
an annotated caption, student recall and comprehension of that information are
improved. This is consistent with the constructivist theory on learning that
involves the construction of connections between visual and verbal representa-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
144 Sankey
Figure 4: The words “atomic blast” by themselves may mean very little, but
the inclusion of an image dramatically increases meaning
“When the atomic bomb explodes a huge mushroom cloud is
formed that stretches way up into the sky.”
Source: http://www.rockingham.k12.va.us/EMS/WWII/WWII.html
tions of a given system (McLoughlin & Krakowski, 2001). To illustrate this point,
a simple example is offered.
This written explanation by itself may mean very little to a person who has never
seen a huge mushroom cloud or atomic blast. However, if an image of an atomic
blast were placed with or near this text (see Figure 4), the reader would have an
instant reference point. Simply put (Doolittle, 2002), “students learn better from
words and pictures than from words alone” (p. 1). It can be seen in this simple
example that both language and image are important means of symbolic
representation, so when the written message fails to communicate a concept
fully, visual communication can be relied upon.
Learning, therefore, can be seen to be more effective when more than one sense
modality is utilized. For instance, this is seen in verbal and visual processing when
connections are clearly made between the information contained in each
modality. This is further supported by research into multiple representations
conducted by Ainsworth (1999), which obtained results indicating that single
representational strategies do not differ significantly in their degrees of effec-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
145
tiveness. However, “where the learner employed more than one strategy, their
performance was significantly more effective than that of problem solvers who
used only a single strategy” (p. 137). When learners are given the opportunity
to use multiple representations, they may be able to compensate for any
weakness associated with one particular strategy of representation by switching
to another (Ainsworth, 1999, p. 137). Further, Ainsworth (1999) stated that, “it
can be seen that there may be considerable advantages for learning with
complementary processes because, by exploiting combinations of representations, learners are less likely to be limited by the strengths and weaknesses of any
single one” (p. 137).
For computer-based multimedia, the notion of visual literacy therefore takes on
increased importance. Computer screens are clearly more graphic (visual) and
interactive than traditional media, leading the user to scan visual fields, perceive
and interact with icons and graphics, and use devices, such as a mouse, to interact
with desired material and fields (Kellner, 2000). Animation (with the combination
of sound and image), which falls within both the visual and auditory fields, plays
a pivotal role in this new medium, as computer-generated animation. This
strategy potentially aids the learner to build mental representations for comprehension by utilizing multiple sensory channels, resulting in more recall than visualonly or auditory-only presentations (Anderson, 2001). Therefore, verbal explanations when presented with animated graphical representations will lead to a
greater understanding than representation utilizing a single modality. Animated
pictures, it would appear, have an enabling function that allows the user to
perform a higher degree of cognitive processing than with static pictures
(Schnotz, 2002). This is primarily due to the fact that (Lai, 2001), “animated
pictures can present different states of a subject matter, and provide more
information to a learner.” Quite simply, when material is made more interesting,
students select more information for active processing.
One of the most obvious benefits of utilizing interactive multimedia is that of
providing a virtually limitless array of resources that can be incorporated into a
lesson plan, providing learning experiences that would otherwise be unavailable
to students. However, this important feature, if not handled correctly, may in fact
prove detrimental to the learning process. This is essentially due to the fact that
processing multiple representations on the screen may place additional, and quite
often unnecessary, cognitive demands on the learner. Individual differences
within users also play a role in this scenario, for students may learn at a deeper
level using multimedia interactive environments, but only when the advantages
of multiple representations are not outweighed by individual differences in
cognitive load (Moreno, 2002). For example, learners may have to direct
attention simultaneously to different representations, especially if multiple
representations are combined with other dynamic components, such as compli-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
146 Sankey
cated sound, animated movement, and interactive text. This requires the learner
to process large amounts of information at the same time. Very often these
demands overburden student cognitive capabilities, resulting in the user learning
very little (Bodemer & Ploetzner, 2002). The best combinations of the above
must be considered and be tested for optimum usability.
Cognitive Constraints and Benefits
Two specific theories should be taken into account when designing instructional
multimedia events (there are many other cognitive theories that could be
considered, but not in this context). These two theories are Dual Coding Theory
and Cognitive Load Theory. Both theories focus, to different degrees, on the use
of short-term or working memory, in which text, either auditory or written, and
images are processed simultaneously. These theories seem at first to give
contradictory predictions about the influence of instruction on learning when text
and pictures are combined (Gellevij et al., 2002). However, common ground can
be found when considering these theories (see Figure 5). The author believes this
ground, when applied, can be very effective in the design of multimedia learning
environments.
Figure 5: Common ground may be found between Cognitive Load and Dual
Coding theories
Dual Coding
Theory
Dual Coding
Theory
Cognitive Load
Theory
Cognitive Load
Theory
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
147
Cognitive Load Theory
Cognitive Load theory suggests that when large amounts of information are
presented at one time, the learner can experience cognitive overload in working
memory, as working memory only has a limited capacity. What happens in effect
is that the learner becomes overwhelmed with what is being presented, resulting
in a loss of direction and focus. This is based on the assumption that a learner has
limited processing capacity and only finite cognitive resources. If a learner is
required to devote mental resources to activities not directly related to schema
construction, learning may be inhibited (Kalyuga et al., 2001). It has also been
shown that students learn more effectively when extraneous words, pictures,
and sounds are excluded from materials (Sweller, 1999). It is therefore essential
that multimedia presentations focus on clear and concise presentations, rather
than on all the “bells and whistles” or unnecessary information that will
potentially impede student learning (Doolittle, 2002). In other words, if one form
of instruction is intelligible and adequate (for example, a simple animation),
providing the same information in a different form will impose extraneous
cognitive load on the learner (Sweller, 2002). In a multimedia context, the main
factors influencing cognitive load seem to be screen design displaying text,
graphics, and animation.
The overuse of visuals in a presentation may steer learners to the exciting or
entertaining aspects of a learning environment, but usually this is at the expense
of encouraging thoughtful analysis of underlying meaning. Therefore, it may
interfere with the intent of the lesson (Stokes, 2002). Too many elements at one
time may overburden working memory, decreasing the effectiveness of processing. This is particularly the case when students with little prior knowledge of an
environment are faced with excessive interactions or more controls than are
necessary (Lai, 2001). On the one hand, it has been found that experienced
individual learners who are able to establish their needs earlier in the learning
episode and are uniquely qualified to act on their prior knowledge experience less
overload (Lai, 2001). This is primarily due to the fact that an unlimited number
of elements can be held in long-term memory in the form of hierarchically
organized schemas, and these schemas can be brought into working memory and
treated as a single element (Kalyuga et al., 2001). Consequently, it is often seen
that poor instructional choices are made when students are faced with complex
instructional content or when they do not have sufficient prior knowledge of an
environment. For multimedia learning to be effective, it is important to design
material in a way that minimizes the amount of cognitive load (Moreno, 2002).
Interestingly, and not to discount the previous argument, some cognitive psychologists working with Cognitive Load theory now acknowledge that more
effective working memory capacity is available if learners work in multiple
modes, as long as reasonable constraints are provided.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
148 Sankey
Dual Coding Theory
Dual Coding theory, on the other hand, suggests that working memory consists
of two distinct systems or substorage areas: verbal and nonverbal. This theory
differs from Cognitive Load theory that builds on the idea that there is only one
working memory with only a limited capacity (Gellevij et al., 2002). The verbal
system processes narrative (spoken) information, while visual information, both
image and text, is processed by the nonverbal system. Cognitive psychologists
believe that one way to stretch the capacity of working memory is to utilize both
of these storage areas (Clark, 2002; Mayer, 2001; Tabbers, 2002). This means
that narrative and pictures may be processed at the same time but in two
distinctly different areas of working memory. Consequently, presenting information in two sensory modalities (visual and auditory) increases the amount of
working memory available and, comparatively speaking, decreases the cognitive
load caused by the instructional format.
Combining verbal information with graphical elements should maximize memory
resources, allowing processing to be distributed over multiple systems; thereby,
making the learning episode more effective. The key concept involved in the
visualization of information is to make use of the visual system to efficiently
process information that otherwise may require more cognitive effort (Ainsworth,
2003). By utilizing the human visual system in this way, to process information
in parallel with verbal information, we can bypass or reduce the bottleneck effect
that can occur within working memory. Further, utilizing illustrations or simple
(rather than complex) images can further reduce the load on working memory,
for they are spatial, and in a sense, nontemporal. Text, by contrast, is read in
temporal sequence and requires extra memory to keep all the parts in one place
(Kirsh, 2002), therefore, requiring more cognitive processing. With text presented as audio, the learner can listen to a narration and at the same time look
at a picture. Similarly, if a picture is too complex, the learner has to search the
image at the same time as he or she is listening to the text. That means that the
text and corresponding parts of the picture are not perceived simultaneously,
causing a split-attention effect (Tabbers et al., 2000) or overload.
Sweller (2002) informed us of the following:
…under split-attention conditions, rather than presenting a diagram and
written text that should be physically integrated, it may be possible to
present a diagram and spoken text. Because the diagram uses a visual
modality while speech uses the auditory modality, total available working
memory capacity should be increased resulting in enhanced learning. (p.
1506)
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
149
This means that students may better understand an explanation when corresponding spoken text and pictures are presented at the same time, rather than
separated in time (Mayer & Moreno, 1999). Mayer and his fellow researchers
from the University of California have repeatedly shown in their testing that
users benefit significantly from this multimodal approach to instructional design,
with the most common form being a mixture of spoken text and pictures (Gellevij
et al., 2002). Simply put, students learn better from animation and narrative
rather than from animation, narration, and on-screen text.
A Learner-Centered Approach
The next step is tying together the concepts investigated above of an individual
learning style, the multiple representation of information, and the creative use of
multimedia environments. It has been seen as difficult, if not impossible, to design
learning environments to cater to the “generic” learner, who does not actually
exist. The beauty of the multimedia environment, however, is that it may be
customized by the developer, and in some cases the user, to suit a particular
learning style or combination of learning styles. This being the case, it can allow
the learner to adapt a presentation to his/her individual cognitive needs, by
actively deciding about the “what” and the “how” of a given presentation
(Schwan, 2002). This suggests that if the learner is presented with a choice of
representation, the one that best suits their needs can be selected. Evidence in
recent research by Ainsworth and Van Labeke (2002) suggested that this
strategy will significantly improve learning.
Learner choice is the foundational paradigm shift that needs to occur in the
delivery of education today. One that moves us from a model where a learner
is given virtually no choice, to one in which a learner can be a co-driver in his or
her learning. If students perceive that they have a level of control over their
learning experiences, they are more likely to use information-processing approaches that focus on the content as a whole and see connections between the
parts, thereby actively thinking about the structure of the information presented
(Anderson, 2001). Therefore, adult learners should be primarily guided in their
learning by the multimedia program but be given a certain level of freedom to
make conceptual connections between component parts. However, as we saw
above, allowing too much freedom can generate a level of insecurity, particularly
with the inexperienced learner (Andrewartha & Wilmot, 2001).
When a presentation can be broken down into learner-controlled, stepwise
segments (see Figure 6), rather than one continuous presentation, learners can
better understand a larger number of different concepts (Schnotz, 2002). In
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
150 Sankey
Figure 6: This presentation is broken down into learner-controlled segments
(stepwise segments), rather than presented in a continuous presentation.
Users are given the choice to view the text if they want.
Note: Available for viewing at: http://www.usq.edu.au/users/sankey/mgt2102/
Figure 6, we see a screen capture from a Project Management Course offered
at the University of Southern Queensland in which students are taken through
four animated sequences that demonstrate how to construct a network flow
diagram. Students are initially led through the presentation in a predetermined
sequence and are then allowed to experiment with the environment, to the effects
of changing certain perimeters. At any time, the student can view the text that
is being narrated by clicking on an icon at the top right of the screen. This is for
students who would prefer to read, instead of listen to, the presentation. Students
can replay the sequence if they like or jump to the next sequence if they feel they
already know the concept being discussed.
It should be noted that a multimedia presentation that has too many embedded
controls, as discussed above, might limit the effectiveness and efficiency of the
learning event, actively retarding assimilation (Lai, 2001). Therefore, using
continuous simulation pictures and too many controls is likely to cause cognitive
overload, whereas stepwise simulation pictures (breaking the animation down
into shorter segments) will avoid cognitive overload by scaffolding the learning
and by giving more control of the presentation to the learner.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
151
As the ability to exert control over actions within the multimedia environment is
ultimately a pleasing experience for the learner, allowing too much control of the
process may have the opposite effect and direct learner attention toward the
operation of the program, rather than toward the content. Due to the limited
capacity of working memory, students cannot simultaneously focus on the
content area and control the learning process at the same time (Lai, 2001). It is
therefore recommended that only limited program control be allowed, giving
learners the opportunity to concentrate on the task at hand. The practical
challenge for IDs therefore, is to use the power of computer graphics in
empirically justifiable ways.
Recommendations for Future Designs
Many universities have begun to embrace the translation of courses onto the
World Wide Web. Unfortunately, instead of utilizing the unique interactive
opportunities of the computer, most online courses simply replicate the Transmission of Information Model that is common practice in the classroom or in
traditional distance education. Jona (2000) believed that most online courses are
simply fancy “page turners,” purely being digital presentations of lecture notes,
facts, and concepts that the learner progresses through sequentially. Learning
management systems are seen as simply being repositories for these documents
but with the added advantage of having some neat communication tools to help
teachers and students interact with each other. However, if the philosophy of the
construction of learning does not change with the new technology, really, the
student has gained very little. The key is not to disregard this new learning
environment and return to the old, but to enhance it with other available
techniques and technologies, to provide a more complete package. This includes
multimedia environments that incorporate a combination of learning strategies
and techniques, to cater for a broad multiliterate learner community. To do this,
we must strategize a number of learning principles, based on current research
that provides a comprehensive set of recommendations. Based on the above and
previous research conducted in this field, a set of 12 strategies or design
principles, though not exhaustive, are outlined below:
•
“Less is more.” Lean text that gets the point across is better than lengthy
elaborated text. Use inclusive language and precise text to minimize the
amount of reading from the screen.
•
Socially engage the learner, where appropriate, with conversational language.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
152 Sankey
•
Prevent the need for visual search. Make it obvious where to find certain
elements. Place all related information together, so the learner does not
have to hunt for it.
•
Do not use images for the sake of it. There must be pedagogical benefit for
their inclusion. Use simple graphics initially where possible, then add to
complexity as you progress. Scaffold visual learning where appropriate.
Incorporate, where possible, images that tell a story providing a reference
point or anchor for the information being transmitted.
•
•
Avoid including additional music or sounds, unless an essential component.
•
When creating animation, use image and spoken text, allowing the two
sources of information to be processed concurrently in working memory.
•
In utilizing animation, allow access to a text-based version of the material
for those learners who prefer to read instruction rather than listen. This is
useful for learners with high prior knowledge.
•
Build knowledge gradually, with stepwise segments of information (sequentially), not one long presentation. A useful e-learning environment will
present information in small chunks to hold interest.
•
Ensure that the background image or color does not interfere with the
clarity of information presented in the foreground. Use variations in color
or intensity to highlight important information.
•
If pictures and text are presented together on a page or screen, present
them simultaneously, rather than separately. The two representations can
then be processed in working memory at the same time. Use captioned
images or incorporate the text into the image, if appropriate.
•
Avoid referring to an image or diagram that appears on another page or
screen. If need be, repeat the image.
Provide ample opportunity for learners to make decisions as they learn,
providing a rich set of resources (as an option) to help them make decisions.
Give the learner some control over the learning environment, ensuring that
the instructional strategy is made clear.
Conclusion
The new technologies and cultural spaces discussed require a rethink of
education in its entirety, ranging from the role of the teacher; teacher–student
relations; classroom instruction; distance and online education; grading and
testing; the value and limitations of books, multimedia, and other teaching
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
153
materials; and the goals of education (Kellner, 2000). It should be emphasized
that use of visual and other alternate forms of literacy are not being promoted
here to supplant the need for linguistic literacy, rather to support and enhance it.
As stated by Flattley (2002), “As educators we must literally get back to the
drawing board—or the computer or television screen—to develop visual materials for instruction.” McKay (1999) believed that if we are able to move beyond
individual instruction to individualized instruction, we may start to design
instruction that caters for a range of cognitive/learning styles. It is a time, as
Kellner (2000) informed us to do as follows:
…put existing pedagogies, practices, and educational philosophies in
question and to construct new ones. It is a time for new pedagogical
experiments to see what works and what doesn’t work in the new
millennium. It is a time to reflect on our goals and to discern what we
want to achieve with education and how we can achieve it. (p. 259)
This chapter has attempted to outline the foundational pedagogical constructs
and assumptions utilized in the development of multimedia learning environments. It has been shown that educators and IDs, in designing instructional
environments, must take into consideration different learning styles and the
possibilities offered in and by the multiple representation of concepts. Visualization in representation and the use of multimedia must play an important role when
catering for today’s multiliterate clientele. Certain cognitive constraints and
benefits have been considered, principally relating to establishing effective
learning strategies. These areas are particularly important when catering to
students who have learning modalities that may differ from the “traditional”
style. Finally, allowing the user a certain amount of choice or control in their
learning episode is both a highly desirable and appropriate option, one that has the
potential to further empower a student’s learning experience. The learning of a
variety of concepts, using a diversity of instructional formats, shows how this
instructional designer has responded to an investigation of current research in
this field as contained in the set of recommendations above.
References
Ainsworth, S. (1999). The functions of multiple representations. Computers and
Education, 33(2–3), 131–152.
Ainsworth, S., & Loizou, A. (2003). The effects of self-explaining when learning
with text or diagrams. Cognitive Science (In Press).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
154 Sankey
Ainsworth, S., & Van Labeke, N. (2002). Using a multi-representational design
framework to develop and evaluate a dynamic simulation environment. In
R. Ploetzner (Ed.), International workshop on dynamic visualizations
and learning. Tubingen, Germany: Knowledge Media Research Center.
Anderson, M. D. (2001). Individual characteristics and Web-based courses. In
C. R. Wolfe (Ed.), Learning and teaching on the World Wide Web (pp.
45–72). San Diego: Academic Press.
Andrewartha, G., & Wilmot, S. (2001). Can multimedia meet tertiary education
needs better than the conventional lecture? A case study. Australian
Journal of Educational Technology, 17(1), 1–20.
Atkinson, S. (2001). Cognitive styles and computer-aided learning (CAL):
Exploring designer and user perspectives. Paper presented at the PATT-11
conference: New media in education, Eidenhoven, The Netherlands.
Bodemer, D., & Ploetzner, R. (2002). Encouraging the active integration of
information during learning with multiple and interactive representations. In
R. Ploetzner (Ed.), International workshop on dynamic visualizations
and learning. Tubingen, Germany: Knowledge Media Research Center.
Clark, R. (2002). Six principles of effective e-learning: What works and why.
The eLearning Developers’ Journal. Retrieved September 10, 2002 from
the World Wide Web: http://www.elearningguild.com/pdf/2/091002DESH.pdf
DePorter, B. (1992). Quantum learning: Unleashing the genius in you. New
York: Dell Publishing.
Doolittle, P. E. (2002). Multimedia learning: Empirical results and practical
applications. Irish educational technology users’ conference, Carlow,
Ireland.
Evans, J. (2002). The FILTER generic image dataset: A model for the creation
of image-based learning & teaching resources. ASCILITE 2002, Winds of
change in the sea of learning: Charting the course of digital education, 19th annual conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education, Auckland, NZ.
Evans, J., & Shabajee, P. (2002). Preliminary results from the FILTER Image
Categorisation and Description Exercise. The international conference
on Dublin core and metadata for e-communities. Florence, Italy: Firenze
University Press.
Felder, R. M., & Soloman, B. A. (n.d.). Learning styles and strategies.
Retrieved March 14, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www2.ncsu.edu/
unity/f/felder/public/ILSdir/styles.htm
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
155
Flattley, R. (2002). Visual literacy. Department of Psychology, Pima College.
Retrieved April 9, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://dtc.pima.edu/
psychology/Visual_Literacy.html
Gellevij, M., van der Meij, H., de Jong, T., & Pieters, J. (2002). Visuals in
instruction: Functions of screen captures in software manuals. In R.
Ploetzner (Ed.), International workshop on dynamic visualizations and
learning. Tubingen, Germany: Knowledge Media Research Center.
Grisham, D. L. (2001). Technology and media literacy: What do teachers need
to know? Reading Online. Retrieved July 1, 2002 from the World Wide
Web:http://www.readingonline.org/editorial/edit_index.asp?HREF=april
2001/index.html
Gunawardena, C. N. (1992). Changing faculty roles and audiographics and
online teaching. The American Journal of Distance Education, 6(3), 58–
71.
Jona, K. (2000). Rethinking the design of online courses. ASCILITE 2000,
Learning to choose, choosing to learn. 17th annual conference of the
Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education,
Southern Cross University, Coffs Harbour, Australia.
Kalyuga, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (2001). Learner experience and
efficiency of instructional guidance. Educational Psychology, 21(1), 5–
23.
Kearnsley, G. (2000). Online education: Learning and teaching in cyber
space. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
Kellner, D. (2000). New technologies/new literacies: Reconstructing education
for the new millennium. Teaching Education, 11(3), 245–265.
Kirsh, D. (2002). Why illustrations aid understanding. In R. Ploetzner (Ed.),
International workshop on dynamic visualizations and learning.
Tubingen, Germany: Knowledge Media Research Center.
Kress, G., & van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading images: The grammar of visual
design. London: Routledge.
Lai, S.-L. (2001). Controlling the display of animation for better understanding.
Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 33(5), Summer.
Lih-Juan, C. (1997). The effects of verbal elaboration and visual elaboration on
student learning. International Journal of Instructional Media, 24(4),
333–340.
Liu, Y., & Ginther, D. (1999). Cognitive styles and distance education. Online
Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 2(3), Fall. Available from
the World Wide Web: http://www.westga.edu/~distance/liu23.html
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
156 Sankey
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1999). Instructional technology. In F. Durso (Ed.),
Handbook of applied cognition. New York: Wiley.
McKay, E. (1999). An investigation of text-based instructional materials enhanced with graphics. Educational Psychology, 19(3), September, 323–
335.
McKeon, W. R. (Trans.) (1941). Aristotle. “On memory and reminiscence.”
The basic works of Aristotle (pp. 607–617). New York: Random House.
McLoughlin, C., & Krakowski, K. (2001). Technological tools for visual thinking:
What does the research tell us? Apple University Consortium Academic
and Developers Conference, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia: Australian National University.
Moreno, R. (2002). Who learns best with multiple representations? Cognitive
theory implications for individual differences in multimedia learning. Proceedings of ED-MEDIA 2002, The world conference on educational
multimedia and hypermedia and telecommunications. Denver, Colorado, USA.
Muffoletto, R. (2001). An inquiry into the nature of Uncle Joe’s representation
and meaning. Reading Online. Retrieved July 1, 2002 from the World
Wide Web: http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/lit_index.asp?
HREF=/newliteracies/muffoletto/index.html
O’Rourke, M. (2002). Engaging students through ICTs: A multiliteracies approach. TechKnowLogia, (April–June), 57–59. Retrieved November 2,
2002 from the World Wide Web: http://www.TechKnowLogia.org
Roth, W. M. (2002). Reading graphs: Contributions to an integrative concept of
literacy. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 34(1), 1–24.
Schnotz, W. (2002). Enabling, facilitating, and inhibiting effects in learning from
animated pictures. In R. Ploetzner (Ed.), International workshop on
dynamic visualizations and learning. Tubingen, Germany: Knowledge
Media Research Center.
Schwan, S. (2002). Do it yourself? Interactive visualizations as cognitive tools.
In R. Ploetzner (Ed.), International workshop on dynamic visualizations and learning. Tubingen, Germany: Knowledge Media Research
Center.
Stokes, S. (2002). Visual literacy in teaching and learning: A literature perspective. Electronic Journal for the Integration of Technology in Education, 1(1, Spring), 10–19. Retrieved April 9, 2003 from the World Wide
Web: http://ejite.isu.edu/Archive.html
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multiple Representations in Multimedia Materials
157
Sweller, J. (1999). Instructional design in technical areas. Melbourne: ACER
Press.
Sweller, J. (2002). Visualisation and instructional design. In R. Ploetzner (Ed.),
International workshop on dynamic visualizations and learning.
Tubingen, Germany: Knowledge Media Research Center.
Tabbers, H. K. (2002). The modality of text in multimedia instructions:
Refining the design guidelines. Heerlen, The Netherlands: Open University of the Netherlands.
Tabbers, H. K., Martins, R., & van Merrienboer, J. J. D. (2000). Multimedia
instructions and cognitive load theory: Split-attention and modality effects.
Association for Educational Communications and Technology national conference, Long Beach, California.
Vincent, A., & Ross, D. (2001). Learning style awareness: A basis for
developing teaching and learning strategies. Journal of Research on
Technology in Education, 33(5), Summer.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
158 Kawachi
Chapter IX
Empirical Validation
of a
Multimedia Construct
for Learning
Paul Kawachi, Kurume Shin-Ai Women’s College, Japan
Abstract
A multimedia construct for learning based on the Theory of Transactional
Distance has been developed consisting of four stages of decreasing
transactional distance. This model has been applied in various teaching
and learning contexts, on- and off-line, and its validation was investigated.
Results confirmed in practice the four distinct sequential stages. Difficulties
were discovered in navigating through the collaborative second and third
stages, consistent with findings from related studies on acquiring critical
thinking skills. Specific areas for attention were identified to promote
learning using multimedia.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
159
Introduction
Previous Models of Learning
Two significant models have been proposed to identify the essential steps of
learning critical-thinking skills: one by Dewey (1933) and another by Brookfield
(1987). Dewey proposed five phases of reflective or critical thinking:
1.
Suggestions, in which the mind leaps forward to a possible solution
2.
An intellectualization of the difficulty or perplexity that has been felt
(directly experienced) into a problem to be solved, a question for which the
answer must be sought
3.
The use of one suggestion after another as a leading idea, or hypothesis, to
initiate and guide observation and other operations in collection of factual
material
4.
The mental elaboration of the idea or supposition (reasoning, in the sense
in which reasoning is a part, not the whole, of inference)
5.
Testing the hypothesis by overt or imaginative action
Brookfield also proposed five phases to develop critical thinking:
1.
A triggering event
2.
An appraisal of the situation
3.
An exploration to explain anomalies or discrepancies
4.
Developing alternative perspectives
5.
Integration of alternatives in ways of thinking or living
However, the steps given in the above models do not correlate with each other.
The steps are not clearly distinguishable, and the actual process need not be
sequenced linearly. So these models are not sufficiently clear to constitute the
basis of a syllabus. A new clear and practical model is proposed based on the
distinct ways of learning. And this new model will constitute the basis for an
intelligent syllabus for acquiring critical-thinking skills using multimedia.
The Distinct Ways of Learning
There are four distinct ways of learning (Kawachi, 2003a): learning alone
independently, alone individually, in a group cooperatively, and in a group
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
160 Kawachi
collaboratively. Here it is important to distinguish cooperative learning from
collaborative learning, in order to deploy these in the new model detailed below.
Cooperative learning essentially involves at least one member of the group who
“knows” the content soon to be learned by the other(s). Learning takes place
through the “knower” repeating, reiterating, recapitulating, paraphrasing, summarizing, reorganizing, or translating the point to be learned.
Collaborative learning follows a scientific process of testing out hypotheses. A
participant publicly articulates his (or her) own opinion as a hypothesis, and being
open to the value of conflict allows this to be negated if possible by others, in
which case the original participant or another offers up a modified or alternative
hypothesis for public scrutiny. In collaborative learning, disagreement and
intellectual conflict are desirable interactions. All participants share in
coconstructing the new knowledge together, and this learning occurs inside the
group as a type of consensus achieved through analysis and argument. In
collaborative learning, there was no “knower” prior to the learning process taking
place (in contrast to the situation of cooperative learning).
Need for a New Model of Learning
Largely as a result of the rapid expansion of open and distance education,
learning theory has undergone a revolution to a social constructivist paradigm
based on cognitive concepts of how we learn. Previous models of learning have
been too vague for applying to current learning practices through computermediated communications. Hence, there is a need for a new practical model.
New Multimedia Learning Model
A new model for learning critical thinking using multimedia has been proposed
by Kawachi (2003b). Design is a key characteristic generally lacking in the
current applications to date of computer-mediated communications adopted in
conventional face-to-face or distance education courses. The presented Design
for Multimedia in Learning (DML) model translates conventional theoretical
models of learning into an efficient practical design for use in the multimedia
educational environment. While the two leading previous models have variously
postulated five phases to critical thinking for learning, this new model has four
distinct stages, and is directly underpinned by Moore’s (1993) Theory of
Transactional Distance. This theory, which involves educative-dialogue (D),
prescribed structure (S), and student autonomy (A), tries to measure the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
161
psychological distance between the student and the information to be learned,
and has been widely accepted as an effective theory underlying and informing
open and distance education. The original theory only deals with one student,
learning content with the interactions of a tutor. So it is adapted here to bring into
account the important interactions among the student and other students (for a
discussion here, see Kawachi, 2003b).
The four stages of the new DML model are as follows:
•
In Stage 1, learning occurs in a group cooperatively, gathering and sharing
information and fostering a learning community. Here synchronous-mode
computer-mediated communications are best, such as chat and
conferencing. However, it should not be forgotten that bridging telephony
can simultaneously link 50 students synchronously with the tutor(s).
Videorecording the interactions here could provide material for reflection
in Stage 2, or as is often the case, the tutor as observer could take written
notes for later distribution as a summary or transcription to the participants.
This stage can be characterized by self-introductions (as a prelude to being
a source of content material to other students), brainstorming (limited at
Stage 1 to only accumulating new ideas, yet to be argued in Stage 2),
involving divergent thinking to gather various different perceptions in order
to explore and to frame each student’s context, and helping each other as
equals with obtaining content, especially in sharing personal experiences
and past literature that has been read, which constitute old foundational
knowledge. (Brainstorming is initiated by providing an ill-defined scenario
or case study to elicit multiple perspectives.) The transactional distance
initially is at a maximum (D- S-) with no teaching-dialogue and with no preset structure.
•
In Stage 2, lateral-thinking (creative thinking around the problem) is used
to generate and develop metaphors (an idea or conception that is basically
dissimilar but formed from noting similarities between the initial information
and the new concept) or new ideas, and these supported by argument.
Students discuss, for example, their own problems that they have found
which have brought them to participate in the current course, and then
argue to identify possible solutions to each other’s problems. Creative
thinking here may derive from combining seemingly disparate parts,
especially ideas contributed from others in different contexts into a new
synergic whole. The teacher is still keeping academically at a distance
away from the content under discussion, while the students are making their
efforts to achieve some pre-set goals (to present own problem and reasons
for engaging the current course, for example), which gives structure to their
discussions (D- S+). Some time is needed for reflection here, and asynchronous modes such as e-mail and a bulletin board are effective because of the
time interval incurrent between receiving the stimulus and the student’s
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
162 Kawachi
response. Moreover, these modes of interaction through written text also
provide a written record to the student that enables recapitulation, retrieval
of a theme, and recovery of someone’s perspective, and so foster reflection.
•
In Stage 3, the tutor engages the students with guiding comments in what
Holmberg (1983) has described as a Guided Didactic Conversation, helping
the students achieve the course structural requirements of understanding
the general concepts to be learned (D+ S+). The tutor poses questions, and
students defend their formulations. This stage is characterized by hypotheses testing and logical straightforward thinking (termed “vertical” thinking
in contrast to “lateral” thinking) associated with problem solving and is
collaborative. Problem-based learning can involve holding multiple alternative hypotheses at the same time, and evidence gathered can be assigned
to examine simultaneously the various hypotheses. Asynchronous mode is
ideal here, to allow sufficient time for cognitive connections and coconstruction of new nonfoundational knowledge.
•
In Stage 4, the final stage, the course requirements have largely been
already achieved and there is no structure left, except to disseminate the
achieved mental ideas and test them out in real life. This stage is
characterized by experiential learning and is cooperative, and at minimum
transactional distance (D+ S-), in synchronous mode, and with teaching
dialogue to assist the students to reflect on their studies.
Student Autonomy in Learning
Definitions of “autonomy” in learning have in common an emphasis on the
capacity to think rationally, reflect, analyze evidence, and make judgments; to
know oneself and be free to form and express one’s own opinions; and finally,
to be able to act in the world (Tennant & Pogson, 1995). These qualities
characterize the collaborative thought processes of Stage 3, and also the
experiential aspect of Stage 4. Stage 1 has maximal transactional distance, and
for a student to succeed here in independent learning, Moore (1993) pointed out
that the student would need maximum autonomy (p. 27). Autonomy is thus seen
as a highly powerful and desirable quality for independent learners. Not all
students bring this high level of autonomy with them initially into their studies, and
so the tutor must bring the student around to acquire this autonomy. The DML
model illustrates a cyclical process—even an iterative process—through Stages
1 to 4 to equip and bring the student to go onto independent learning in a further
new cycle starting at Stage 1 in a new learning venture.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
163
Autonomy has also been related to recognizing one’s interdependence on others
(Boud, 1988). Interdependence relates to understanding the need to learn
together with others, either in cooperative mode or at other times in collaborative.
Interdependence is a maturity characterizing an adult student and is acquired
through awareness and prior experience of the critical-thinking process. Toward
the end of Stage 4, the student can have acquired this sense of interdependence.
So in entering a new Stage 1 interaction, the student may be interdependent
(post-Stage 4) and once more newly independent (starting a fresh Stage 1).
These attributes of independence and interdependence have already been found
to be separate, orthogonal, and coexisting in mature students at the end of their
course (Chen & Willits, 1999).
While autonomy is defined as an attribute of the student, different distance
education programs and the different stages in the DML model relate to different
levels of autonomy for the student to be a successful learner. In a program at
Stage 2, the deployed structure means that the student is charged with thinking
rationally, but horizontally rather than vertically, and is analyzing already-given
evidence, rather than finding new evidence, so the quality of autonomy is
somewhat measured to fit the limited freedom given to the student. At Stage 3,
different qualities of autonomy for hypotheses testing are needed for success—
including a mature openness to new ideas that might be in conflict with one’s
previous and present conceived view of the world. The student needs to exercise
the freedom to formulate or reformulate one’s own conceptions. While in Stage
4, the quality of autonomy should include the willingness and ability to act to test
out these newly constructed ideas to see experientially how they operate in
practice.
It is difficult, therefore, and moreover unhelpful to assign an integrated level of
autonomy to each stage in the DML model. The student should utilize measured
amounts of the various qualities that constitute autonomy during each stage to
support learning. Can the tutor and institution influence the level and qualities of
autonomy used by the student? Yes. And explicit clear advice from the tutor may
be all that is required. The student, however, might not yet possess the skills for
exercising the full range of qualities constituting autonomy (in other words, is
unequipped for full autonomy). The novice and nonexpert will likely need
scaffolding help at different stages to cope.
Scaffolding for Learning
Scaffolding is the intervention of a tutor in a process that enables the student to
solve a problem, carry out a task, or achieve a goal that would be beyond the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
164 Kawachi
student’s unassisted efforts (Wood et al., 1976, p. 190). In providing individualized scaffolding, the tutor knows the intended knowledge to be learned and has
a fair grasp of the prospective development for the student. The distance
between the unassisted level of capability and the potential level that can be
achieved through scaffolding is Vygotsky’s (1978) “zone of proximal development” (p.86). Vygotsky included the opportunity that such scaffolding could be
from “more capable” other students, indicating a cooperative assistance (as
opposed to a collaborative process). Wood et al. (1976) made this very clear:
tutoring is “the means whereby an adult or ‘expert’ helps somebody who is less
adult or less expert. …a situation in which one member ‘knows the answer’ and
the other does not” (p. 89). Accordingly, we might be advised to reserve the term
“tutor” for the cooperative Stages 1 and 4 only, and use a term “facilitator” for
the collaborative processes of Stages 2 and 3.
In Stage 1, tutor intervention providing scaffolding includes making the outcomes
of studying explicit to the student and ensuring that the student can comprehend
the aims and objectives. If not, then tutor feedback and error correction become
merely vehicles of information for imitation and copying, and vaporize these
opportunities to acquire mastery. The tutor need not exercise full control over the
discovery process. It is recognized that students also acquire learning through
unexpected accidental discovery of knowledge.
Both Stage 2 (D- S+) and Stage 3 (D+ S+) are characterized by added structure.
In Stage 3, scaffolding should add a safe structure for the interactions involved
in the analytic argumentation of hypotheses testing, which have led to some
students feeling wounded, by so-called flaming. Zimmer (1995) proposed an
effective framework involving three functional turn-taking steps ABA between
two persons A and B, which when repeated as BAB give both participants the
opportunities to give opinions and receive counteropinions empathetically, as
follows:
A)
(Hello) Affirm + Elicitation
B)
Opinion + Request understanding
A)
Confirm + Counteropinion
B)
Affirm + Elicitation
A)
Opinion + Request understanding
B)
Confirm + Counteropinion
I should also like to propose another framework drawn from some ideas of Probst
(1987) for collaborative learning in literature and art, in which transactions are
not aimed at hypotheses-testing characterized by counteropinion but rather a
new insight built on critical reflection that while shared may be personalized in
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
165
each individual. In literature, learning is not cooperative: there is no “knower”;
the tutor does not guide the student to some pre-set conclusion of the meaning
of the text. In literature, the tutor or any student (A) elicits opinion to initiate the
three functional turn-taking steps BAB (followed by ABA), as follows:
A)
(Hello) Affirm + Elicitation
B)
Opinion/Analysis + Request understanding
A)
Affirm + Elicitation of evidence
B)
Reflect + Elicit other opinions/Analyses
A)
Opinion/Analysis + Request understanding
B)
Affirm + Elicitation of evidence
A)
Reflect + Elicit other opinions/Analyses
This framework—basically of reflective analysis followed by articulation, bring
in ideas from their own reading or those elicited from other students, then repeat
reflective analysis with accommodation to construct a new insight—involves the
same cognitive processes that occur in individual learning. In the group, content
comes from texts and other students, while in individual learning, content comes
only from texts. In both cases, it is the transactions between the student and the
content that creates the new knowledge in the student.
Courses based on experiential learning that focus on Stage 4 in synchronous
mode can also benefit from explicit scaffolding. In non-face-to-face (nonvideo,
nonaudio) synchronous “chat” text-based conferencing, students should be
directed to articulate their feelings explicitly. Neubauer (2003a) found that once
students had become skilled in explicitly stating their feelings (such as “I am
confused…”), then their learning improved by better sharing experiences, and
they then more highly valued their text-based content—more than if they had
used visual face-to-face cues. So, scaffolding can also assist in Stage 4
synchronous chat experiential learning.
On the Number of Participants
In both the above frameworks, I suggest that any participant(s) may be behind
either voice, so the framework could be effective for more than two persons at
the same time. Bork (2001) has suggested that the optimal number may be four
in collaborative transactions, in an optimal online class size of 20 students, while
six has been reported by Laurillard (2002), and about 10 by others. Wang (2002)
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
166 Kawachi
has asserted that engaging as many participants as possible would maximize
diversity and optimize collaborative learning. Zimmer (1995) has found that
provided participants are aware of the framework, then collaborative learning
succeeded in practice for a group of 12 students.
The optimum number of active participants in synchronous cooperative learning
is different from that for asynchronous collaborative learning. An online survey
of those on the DEOS-L listserv, who have had relevant experience in conducting synchronous chat (Neubauer, 2003b), found the optimum number was from
10 to 20 students: if students were new to the synchronous media, then five to
seven students was optimum; in groups of 10 to 15 mixed-experience students,
then 10 was optimum; while if students were experienced and the moderator
(tutor) also was experienced, then 15 was optimum. And the upper limit of 20
students was suggested to keep the discussion at a sufficiently fast rate to
maintain high interest levels. There seemed to be a marked difference between
respondents who found that five to seven was optimum and those who found that
20 was optimum, and this difference might be related to the task at hand. Five
to seven new students would imply that they were at Stage 1, forming a learning
community with personal introductions and so on, while 20 students were likely
at Stage 4, sharing course experiences. A note should be added here to the effect
that non-native-speakers of English might be slower and more apprehensive
(than native speakers) about their actively participating in synchronous discussions (see, for example, Briguglio, 2000; Kawachi, 2000). That these synchronous discussions are cooperative and not collaborative, however, should mean
that their state anxiety should be lower and performance higher than if collaborative discussion were conducted synchronously.
Using a Framework
These two frameworks illustrate and scaffold the interactions, either synchronous or asynchronous, for learning collaboratively in a group. The framework
indicates what content should optimally be included in an utterance, and specifies
in what serial order to progress towards achieving discovery and coconstruction
of new understanding and new knowledge. It should also be noted that the use
of a framework also implies some timeliness in replies. The system would not
function if turn-taking were violated or not forthcoming. Participants need to take
responsibility for the group succeeding by actively providing what is required and
when it is required. In this way, some pacing is inevitable if the group is to move
towards achieving its goal.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
167
To some large extent, nonresponse in an asynchronous environment can be
overcome by others offering up the required content in time. This is often the
case in synchronous free discussions. However, group cohesiveness depends on
the active participation of all members of the group. If a student does not
participate, the group is fragmented and not functioning as a whole. Prior to the
task, coping strategies should be acquired, agreed upon, and then used when
required, such as prearranging the time frame allowed within which a student
should contribute, pairing up students to provide backup in case one is at a loss,
or having the moderator provide behind-the-scenes coaxing and elicitation.
Methodology for
Validation of the Model
Research into preferred learning styles has suggested that while some students
may be field-dependent, others are field-independent. Lyons et al. (1999)
described how some are so-called right-brain dominant. These students tend to
be intuitive and prefer informal unstructured learning environments and group
discussions in empathetic elicitation, sharing, and valuing each other’s experiences and views (who would prefer cooperative learning in a group). Others are
so-called left-brain dominant and are analytic, rational, and objective (who would
prefer collaborative learning in a group).
In order to validate the model empirically, hypertext linkages were added
purposively into a Web-based course. The Internet is a nonnarrative media in
which no predetermined pathway through it is provided to the student newly
logging on. Hypertext linkages on corporate business Web sites have been
categorized by Harrison (2002), but there has been no categorization to date of
hypertext usage in educational Web sites. Here, some links were colored red to
indicate that examples could be reached by clicking on the highlighted linkage,
while other links were colored blue to indicate to the student specifically that
reasons could be reached. The courseware was reduced in content by removing
all preexisting or customary references to examples and reasons except for the
colored hypertext links.
It was then postulated that during traveling through the courseware, some
students preferred to see examples, while others preferred to see reasons, with
both groups achieving learning of the general concepts with no significant
difference in achieved quality of learning.
The students examined in this study were all Japanese, and Japanese students
are known to prefer cooperative learning in a group and avoid critical evaluation
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
168 Kawachi
of others, preferring instead to preserve group harmony through empathetic
sharing (Kawachi, 2000).
By coloring each hypertext or telling the students directly what color it would be
or which content could be reached through which link, it was then planned that
students would not open a link simply from curiosity but would pass across any
link they decided was not wanted and move onto opening a link that might be
helpful in their accomplishing the task at hand. Students were monitored in their
selection. Students were also required to keep journals as a written “think-aloud”
record for formative and summative evaluation. Students were also interviewed
during and after their online studies. E-mail messages were also kept. Students
were continually encouraged to interact with each other. This was to keep the
group on task cohesively, providing peer support and pacing to some degree, as
well as for the designed cooperative or collaborative interactions.
Results
The above method for empirical validation of the DML model in Japan using
specially designed hypertext courseware to investigate cooperative and collaborative pathways during learning was not entirely successful. The study found that
students at the undergraduate level could successfully move through the first two
stages but could not engage the third stage due to lack in sufficient foundational
knowledge and experiential maturity. Interviews were conducted on the students, but these also failed to identify any cause for the breakdown in the learning
cycle. Validation at the graduate and continuing adult education level is ongoing.
Course and Student Assessment
Summative records of achieved learning from each student indicated the
particular stage reached by the student, and to a fair degree of accuracy, where
within a stage was reached by the student. In each stage, indeed at any time
throughout the course, interactions were recorded for formative and summative
evaluations, of both the course itself and of the student’s individual participation,
contribution, learning process (including choices made), and quality of learning
outcomes. In Stage 1, handwritten notes, audiorecording, or audio-video recording can serve these purposes. Only written reports, interviews, and tutor
observations were used in the present study. In Stage 2 and Stage 3, the
asynchronous modes are performed through written contributions, such as by
mail, teletext, fax, or e-mail, so that records can be easily stored and retrieved.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
169
Nonacademic and academic exchanges between the student and others can
usually be recorded (though recording telephone conversations needs informed
consent). At the present time (June 2003), it remains technologically difficult, if
not impossible, to record the hypertext-enabled learning narratives of each
student. Some adaptive hypermedia can restrict the available hypertext choices,
but at present, think-aloud, recall, and separate audio-video recording are the
only means with which to track the pathways and learning processes of the
students who were using interactive hypermedia. In the present study, the
student journals, triangulated with interviews and observations, were used. Stage
4 is characterized by social constructivist experiential learning, which usually
entails some form of public articulation of the student’s tentative or summative
perspective achieved from the previous stages. For example, a written thesis is
the most common instrument of evaluation here. Oral presentation at a conference and publication of a report in an academic journal are also common
instruments. In the present study, the final demonstration was different depending on the course. In all courses, there was a written summative report from each
student. In one course, there was project work including a poster presentation
and group journal thesis published. This thesis included individual reports of
pathways and a group collective report.
In the empirical validation of the DML model in this study, the students were not
paced, but the course was of predetermined duration. The aim at the outset was
to bring all the students through all four stages to present some new personal
meaning they had each achieved through the four-stage process. Observations
and written records gathered during the course were revealing that many
students were slower than expected—this was even after the course was
tailored to be at a comprehensible level fitting to each particular class. Withinclass individual cognitive and affective differences were greater than expected.
It thus transpired that the summative reports from the students, rather than
confirming all had successfully completed the four stages, instead revealed the
location within the model that they had each reached.
The small seminar class of six second-year undergraduates completed the four
stages during the one year and adequately demonstrated their new socially
constructed knowledge in an exhibition presentation, in a published journal, and
in reflective reports of their experience and how the course had changed their
thinking. The teaching aim was to scaffold and promote a desire in each of them
for lifelong learning. Two of the six went on to engage in higher learning at
another university.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
170 Kawachi
Adult Motivations to Learn
In this validation study, student motivation to learn in a preferred way had a
potential influence on the performance in certain stages. Therefore, to investigate any influence, students were surveyed by questionnaire on their preferred
approaches to learning and their motivations. The questionnaires and selfreports were followed up by interviews. How to initiate each and all the various
intrinsic motivations to learn has been previously reported by Kawachi (2002c).
However, that study was based on the taxonomy of Gibbs et al. (1984), which
used data from about 1960 which pre-date multimedia learning technologies.
Briefly, there are the four intrinsic motivations: vocational, academic, personal,
and social. These were discovered in the present study simultaneously in varying
levels depending on the task and with individual differences. However, beyond
these, there was suggested some motivation to lifelong learning that was difficult
to accommodate within the nearest category of intrinsic personal challenge. This
motivation was suggested by only the older postgraduate students. It is tentatively labeled the “aesthetic” motivation to learn. The discovery and illuminatory
methodology used here was informed by various interview open responses
leading into focused discussions, and it followed a grounded-theory approach.
Two orthogonal dimensions were found and labeled as positive and negative
incidences of jouissance occurring accidentally during the learning process.
These incidences only occurred when the student was markedly actively
learning—struggling to construct meaning to discover suddenly how things fit
together in a shot of joy (positive jouissance) or how things had been mistaken
and misunderstood (negative jouissance). This aesthetic motivation was concluded to be acting along the process of the interaction between the student and
the content-to-be-learned (actually to the student from the content-to-belearned, a unidirectional motivation). Aesthetic motivation derives from the
process. There was a similar motivation acting in the opposite direction —to the
process—of expressive motivation, in which the student is driven to proceed, by
the joy of doing (as might occur for example in writing poetry, or fine-art
painting). As an illustration, aesthetic motivation drives a hobby fisherman;
positive jouissance occurs when the fisherman catches a surprisingly large fish,
and alternatively, negative jouissance occurs when a fish escapes suddenly.
Both these types occur only in the adult or mature person with an already fully
formed self or culture, and they occur as a bursting of this bubble, momentarily
and transiently. The fisherman’s experience is increased by the jouissance, and
he is more driven to continue fishing. Aesthetic motivation is the motivation to
lifelong learning. The tutor needs to understand the limits of the student’s context
or worldview and guide the student to approach the limits of his or her world,
hopefully to experience jouissance and initiate aesthetic motivation to learn.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
171
Summary of Results
Repeated empirical studies found that only small classes with close tutor
moderating, and preferably of students with sufficient background knowledge,
could successfully engage the collaborative learning tasks and complete all four
stages in this model. Most undergraduate students, especially in larger classes
or even in small groups but with reduced tutor monitoring, could not engage the
collaborative Stage 3. A similar finding was also reported by Perry (1970), in the
United States, who concluded that college students were maybe not yet
sufficiently mature to acquire the skills of critical thinking. It is well known
(Kawachi, 2003c) that collaborative learning characterizes the construction of
nonfoundational (graduate-level) knowledge rather than the acquisition of
foundational knowledge (at the undergraduate level).
Discussion
Scaffold Efficacy
The DML model was designed and intended to act as scaffolding to guide the
teacher (in the present study, the author), inform the process, and assist student
learning. It was not completely successful. This was due to the limited duration
of the course and the levels of maturity in the students. The limited duration of
the shorter (6-month) courses meant that the self-pacing or unpaced nature
would not allow for the students to complete the full learning cycle. The low
levels of maturity in the undergraduate younger students meant that they found
much difficulty in navigating Stage 3.
Four separate modes of learning were serially linked in this DML model. Stage
1 employed synchronous media for cooperative brainstorming; Stage 2 employed
asynchronous media for collaborative lateral thinking; Stage 3 employed asynchronous media for collaborative vertical thinking and problem-based learning;
and Stage 4 employed synchronous media for experiential learning. This model
indicates the need to change the type of media employed during the learning
process, for example, from synchronous to asynchronous to move from Stage 1
to Stage 2. While Stage 3 proved difficult for some students, the largest hurdle
was found in moving from asynchronous collaborative Stage 2 to asynchronous
collaborative Stage 3. This needs to be discussed. The task activities of Stage 3
require the students to raise doubts about others, to question the teacher and the
text, and to search for one’s own opinion, even though this might be against the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
172 Kawachi
established opinions of others in authority. One reason for the students not
moving into Stage 3 was that the activities of Stage 3 were inconsistent and
incongruous with their own lives or cultural views of the world (for example, see
Briguglio, 2000, p. 3, for a discussion of Jones, 1999, unpublished report).
These questioning skills may be characteristic of a mature adult. In support of
this DML model to master these questioning skills of Stage 3, Halpern (1984)
reported that all adults should learn to question input prior to acquisition, in what
he described as a “content” effect: “When we reason we do not automatically
accept the given premises as true. We use our knowledge about the topic
(content) to judge the veracity of the premises and to supply additional information that influences which conclusion we will accept as valid” (p. 359). Adults
generally have more experience than adolescents from which to draw additional
information, so they can be expected to be more questioning during learning from
a teacher or other resource. Younger or immature adults can be expected to not
yet hold adequate foundational knowledge with which to engage the Stage 3
questioning and answering.
Moreover, a gender difference might be operating here. Raising doubts about
others, and having others raise doubts about you, may be an undesirable activity
for some students—not only for women but also for those who may be
disadvantaged by physical or mental dysfunctions and those who may not be
adequately literate. There are many kinds of literacy involved here—linguistic
literacy in a first language, linguistic literacy in the language as medium of the
education (notably in English as a foreign language), information literacy (the
capability to find information efficiently), cyber-literacy (the capability to handle
virtual systems and manage oneself within these), and technological literacy (the
capabilities to manage and interact through the human–computer interface). In
such cases, the need for conservation of self may rise higher than the internal
drive or need for progression through further education.
Women who try distance education may be more likely to bring with them higher
levels of self-doubt and anxieties that can add a more cautious approach to their
questioning of authorities. Also, traditionally, higher education has not been part
of their world and self-concept, so they are operating in a somewhat alien world,
and one that is not congruous with their present conception of the world. This
may also be true for men, because adults generally have already established their
social world and self, and where this does not include higher education—as in
those who engage in higher education for the first time as a “second chance”—
then the students might understandably be reluctant to argue with others in
academia. Adults who are returning to higher education or are at the postgraduate level may find no incongruity.
Belenky et al. (1997) reported that the aim for participating in education is
different between women and men. They write that women want to be at the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
173
center and not be far out from others, and they value the comfort that being in
the group brings to their learning and self-development. They write that men, on
the other hand, want to excel and be out ahead of the group, and they may feel
threatened by another person being too close or approaching. Asynchronous
media may provide women the time needed to move the group forward as a
whole, without one moving alone, too far from the center. However, this might
require unusually good communication skills and literacies.
On Pacing
There was no pacing imposed during this empirical validation of the model. Four
courses were each of one 6-month academic semester, consisting of about 15
lessons, each 90 minutes, plus out-of-class interactions equivalent to at least a
further 200 hours and, in many cases, much more. In another two courses, the
duration was double that and continued for 1 year. No pacing was used, because
through previous experience, it was found that pacing induced students to adopt
a performance orientation (for discussion, see Abrami & Bures, 1996, p. 38),
rather than adopt a deep approach to their learning. This was an ethical decision,
which negatively confounded the findings. However, literature studies later
indicated that in paced (Gunawardena et al., 1997, 2001) and unpaced (McKinnon,
1976; Piaget, 1977; Renner, 1976a, 1976b) learning, students similarly reached
to various levels, not completing the four stages, and mostly reaching to
somewhere between the middle of Stage 2 and the middle of Stage 3, as in the
present study.
In the two courses of one-year duration, findings showed that the students
generally had reached the end of Stage 4. One course was a small seminar class
of six second-year undergraduate students, and the other was of eight postgraduate adult students. Both were closely guided by the tutor. A similar class of adult
students was unpaced and closely guided but over only six months, and they
reached only to the middle of Stage 3.
All the courses were compulsory, so no student was allowed to drop out without
having to repeat the course. This fact influenced the decision to have no pacing
and to focus on the students’ deep learning achievements.
Other Studies Measuring Transactional Distance
The present study, through close monitoring, followed each student through the
learning-cycle process from an initial maximum transactional distance to less and
less transactional distance. Hypertext navigation paths and serial written reports
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
174 Kawachi
were used, together with interviews. These were very effective as measures of
the progress of each student and were fairly effective as a measure of the
transactional distance. The transactional distance varied during the course,
becoming more reduced. Thus, the present study was a longitudinal study of
measuring transactional distance.
A cross-sectional study measuring transactional distance was recently reported
by Chen and Willits (1999).
Chen and Willits (1999) designed, piloted, and applied a questionnaire to measure
the transactional distance in a videoconferencing course. They applied factor
analysis to determine the loadings on dialogue, structure, and autonomy. They
surveyed 202 students participating in 12 different courses (suggesting that their
questionnaire had up to 70 items, if the 202 were treated as one cohort together
for factor analysis). The items in each factor indicated that each concept of D,
S, and A was complex and not simple. Their study was limited by the fact that
they could not use factor analysis to discover structure, dialogue, and autonomy
as three factors initially and used simply three separate questionnaires pasted
together as one, and three separate analyses – one for each of them. This was
likely because dialogue, structure, and autonomy are interrelated by a simplex
structure, not a hierarchical structure. Factor analysis is inappropriate for
simplex structures (Bynner & Romney, 1986). Dialogue and structure are
related horizontally in that the amount of structure influences the amount of
dialogue, so a simplex structure exists, and factor analysis should not be used.
Structural path analysis would reveal this, but Chen and Willits did not report
doing any path analysis. Nevertheless, they found that lower transactional
distance was correlated with a higher level of learning outcome.
Their results support the use of the DML model to reduce systematically the
transactional distance during a course to increase the quality and level of
learning.
Implications and Future Studies
Implications and Problems Arising
The problems arising can be clearly seen: while the DML model serves as a
comprehensive model for using multimedia and advanced learning technologies
to achieve critical learning and develop lifelong learners, few students actually
proceed beyond Stage 2 or 3—both the collaborative stages. The results falling
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
175
from this are that so-called educationalists have their students afloat without
winds in the doldrums. Students are using computers to chat and find (old
foundational) knowledge, relating personal whims in Stage 1, and sharing
interesting anecdotes in Stage 2, and not engaging academic knowledge-creation
in Stage 3. While such depressing results were not seen in the present study, the
obtained results were mixed. Some students could succeed to complete a full
learning cycle of the model, and a couple went on to lifelong learning. But most
undergraduate students found navigating the collaborative process of Stage 3 too
difficult, despite the availability of scaffolding giving much additional structure to
facilitate the required dialogue (from D- S+ Stage 2, to D+ S+ Stage 3).
It was also apparent that students found it difficult to move from Stage 3 to Stage
4. They reported that they could discover knowledge, views, and perspectives
from other students and the World Wide Web and could make their own opinions
from weighing these critically. However, they reported difficulty in relating the
theoretical perspective of Stage 3 to their own practical context in Stage 4
experientially. (A solution is given here next, rather than in the following section,
for clarity.) Dialogue is very important in Stage 3, and a lot is needed. So, guided
conversation is used. After largely achieving coconstruction of new understanding and knowledge, they need to move into Stage 4. To help them manage this,
the tutor should increase dialogue even more by introducing synchronous
conferencing. In the present study, personal presentations were made publicly
to other students concerning the impact of the new knowledge on their lives and
how they would try out new ideas in their lives. According to Moore (1993) the
institution here should “take measures to reduce transactional distance by
increasing the dialogue through use of teleconferencing” (p. 27). Students will
lose some autonomy (A-) in going to synchronous mode, because they must
become more empathic with others, but they will gain in dialogue (D+) and also
in responsiveness to their own wants and needs and own context (with Sdecrease in institutional structure).
Concerning the use of the World Wide Web and multimedia to promote students’
learning, Herrington and Oliver (1999) reported that the higher-order thinking (of
Stage 3 and Stage 4 here) was supported by using a situated-learning framework
for relating the discussion to the student’s own context. When using multimedia
in situated learning, there was much less lower-order discussion and less social
chat (Herrington & Oliver, 1999), indicating that multimedia could be applied to
move students from Stage 1 to Stages 2 and 3. The implication here is that
increasing the use of multimedia might have helped younger students cope better
with the collaborative Stage 3.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
176 Kawachi
Suggested Solutions
The various interactions between the student and tutor, student and other
students, and student to content, and the quality, quantity, and frequencies of
these constitute the academic dialogue in the educative process. The amount of
dialogue needs to be carefully measured to suit each student’s learning preferences and the task at hand. It is not true that simply increasing the amount of
dialogue will solve all these interaction problems.
Adults generally need their prior experience and knowledge to be valued. Stage
3 entails collaborative argument. This needs an openness and receptiveness to
have one’s ideas be contradicted. Taking in new conflicting perspectives or
information means, first, deconstruction of the existing cognitive knowledge
network, where such deconstruction can be painful, especially when the prior
understanding (like an old and trusted friend) has served the adult well to date.
Concerning the uptake of learning technologies in their own courses, teachers,
for example, have expressed a willingness to accept the innovation only insofar
as it can be taken in small safe steps, permitting the teacher the safety-net option
of recoursing to their proven methodology. The tutor should closely guide adults
to moderate the amount of new conflicting information to prevent loss in their
self-esteem. This is especially important during the Stage 3 collaborative
argument and is not unimportant in the cooperative stages. Adults with a
preference to field dependence (defined by Walter, 1998, as “those who
gradually build towards generalisations about patterns from repeated exposure”)
will want to receive much information and likely enjoy cooperative learning in a
group, while adults with a preference to field independence (defined by Walter,
1998, as “those who tend to see patterns and general principles in a flash of
insight”) are likely to want very much less input and may prefer the reflective
process of collaborative learning in a group. The tutor is going to have a difficult
time trying to moderate the amount of information proffered in student-tostudent interactions.
To manage the quantity of new information, and the quality and frequency, the
tutor could direct cooperative massive exchanges away from Stage 2 and Stage
3 to a virtual “coffee-shop” set up expressly for this purpose, to keep the
collaborative forum uncluttered. Then, the tutor will need to direct fielddependent learners to this virtual coffee-shop to assist their learning in their
preferred way. This will also keep the online main forum clearer for the fieldindependent learners, during cooperative learning when field-dependent learners
may be up-loading voluminous perspectives.
In Stage 3, there is a benefit to everyone to have diversity as wide as possible
in different perspectives through which to test multiple hypotheses. Overloading
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
177
to field-independent learners ought to be avoided, so careful use of hypertext is
suggested here. For example, hypertext could be used in Stage 3 to give available
links to reasons, keeping the main forum relatively uncluttered. It is necessary
for the tutor to preascertain the field-dependence/independence of the participants and then closely guide each type separately, or to utilize some technique
such as adaptive hypertext to accommodate these differences, equitably. The
DML model indicates when, how, and why such adaptive hypertext will be
useful. Using adaptive hypertext, the institution can provide extra interactivity to
field-dependent students in the asynchronous collaborative stages, when there
may be online silence among the field-independent learners. In the absence of
adaptive hypermedia, the tutor should carefully tailor the amount of tutor-tostudent messages to each type of learner.
Future Studies
Future studies are required to explore further why students find Stage 3 difficult
to navigate through. In law and in health care and medicine, the collaborative
critical-thinking skills in Stage 3 are especially important. Several institutions
base their curricula now on trying to impart these skills using problem-based
learning, though not all students prefer or choose this way of learning (for
example, see Mangan, 1997, for law, and see Barrows, 1998, for medicine).
Using this DML model, the current attention to problem-based learning processes can therefore be understood, and problem-based learning can be seen
clearly in relation to the other ways of learning.
Since the present preliminary results were confounded by gender differences as
well as by the use of English as a foreign language, further extended studies are
underway. To investigate the correlation, if any, between the use of English as
a foreign language and any potential overload (suggested by reduced reading and
writing speeds by non-native-English users by Kawachi, 2002a, 2002b), identical
courseware in various languages has been identified (namely Pocock & Richards,
1999), and students studying in their native language will be followed and
comparatively measured.
Student motivations to learning online remain an area for further studies. How
to initiate each and all the various intrinsic motivations to learn has been reported
by Kawachi (2002c). However, further studies are warranted, because current
taxonomies of adult motivations to learn pre-date multimedia learning technologies.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
178 Kawachi
Conclusion
The DML model has been tested out in Japan, in large and small classes. Larger
classes were divided into small groups of five or six students each. However,
only in the small classes did students move successfully through the whole
learning cycle. It was concluded that learning critical thinking using multimedia
was better suited to graduate-level students or to small groups of tutor-guided
undergraduate students. It was also concluded that tutor (the author) guidance
was an important element and was too thinly spread while trying to manage five
or six small groups simultaneously. In the larger classes, students did not achieve
mastery of the collaborative learning, despite trying to use the frameworks
provided.
The deployment of learning technologies does not result simply in the status quo
plus technology, but instead results in a new complex educational environment.
The DML model tested out here provides a clear guide to technology users.
However, the relative amount of time to be spent in each stage of this model is
not prescribed and must be varied according to the students’ own pace and
according to the topic under study. Quality in learning outcomes can be defined
as learning that has been achieved efficiently in terms of resources, is long
lasting, and has personal meaning in the relevant desired context. To assure
quality, the available learning technologies need to be utilized strategically.
Different students naturally bring various learning preferences with them, and a
single mode of teaching will be inappropriate. The advantage of multimedia is
that multimedia can be designed to appeal to these various preferences simultaneously. The model of learning critical-thinking skills investigated here provides
a scaffold to all the agents involved in education, including the administrators,
teachers, nonacademic support, and students. This model as a scaffold serves as
a cue and support to all these agents. Some students (or some teachers) might
be uncomfortable in a particular stage of this model, where learning proceeds
through a nonpreferred way. For example, field-dependent learners may prefer
the synchronous cooperative stages, while field-independent learners may
prefer the asynchronous collaborative stages. Nevertheless, critical thinking is
a universally avowed desirable goal in adult education, and adults need to acquire
these skills and should be strategically flexible in their approaches to study. The
model dictates when switching to another approach is required, to proceed
optimally and learn efficiently the full repertoire of skills that interlink for critical
thinking. There is no argument that some courses may utilize only one way of
teaching and learning. This model shows how such courseware might be
improved for all-round human resource development.
Computer-mediated communications are being utilized for an increasing number
of students in both conventional classrooms and at a distance, in synchronous
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
179
mode and in asynchronous mode. This could suggest that more research and
design resources might be forthcoming. Yet there is little research to date on why
and when to utilize these technologies. In some studies, synchronous
videoconferencing technologies have been bought and can technically connect
the various agents for the learning process, but the tutors and institutions aim for
collaborative learning, for which the synchronous technology is inappropriate
and unsuccessful. Remarkable efforts are being made by many institutions
worldwide to apply these new technologies for learning, yet the instructional
design and the technology selected continue to be important factors causing the
failures to achieve higher-order thinking skills (Abrami & Bures, 1996, p. 37).
The present DML model is the only practical model proposed to date for selecting
and ordering the utilization of learning technologies for acquiring critical-thinking
skills. As such, the DML model constitutes an intelligent syllabus to be tested out
further.
References
Abrami, P. C., & Bures, E. M. (1996). Computer-supported collaborative
learning and distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 10, 37–42.
Barrows, H. (1998). Problem based learning. Southern Illinois University
School of Medicine. Retrieved January 10, 1999 from the World Wide Web:
http://edaff.siumed/dept/index.htm
Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., & Tarule, J. M. (1997).
Women’s ways of knowing: The development of self, voice and mind
(10th anniversary ed.). New York: Basic Books.
Bork, A. (2001). What is needed for effective learning on the Internet. Special
issue on curriculum, instruction, learning and the Internet. Educational
Technology and Society, (in press). Retrieved June 10, 2002 from the
World Wide Web: http://www.ics.uci.edu/~bork/effectivelearning.htm
Boud, D. (1988). Moving toward student autonomy. In D. Boud (Ed.), Developing student autonomy in learning (2nd ed.) (pp. 17–39). London:
Kogan Page.
Briguglio, C. (2000). Self directed learning is fine—If you know the destination!
In A. Herrmann, & M. M. Kulski (Eds.), Flexible futures in tertiary
teaching—Proceedings of the 9th Annual Teaching Learning forum,
February 2–4, 2000, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Australia.
Retrieved May 14, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://cea.curtin.edu.au/
tlf/tlf2000/briguglio.html
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
180 Kawachi
Brookfield, S. D. (1987). Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to
explore alternative ways of thinking and acting. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Bynner, J. M., & Romney, D. M. (1986). Intelligence, fact or artefact:
Alternative structures for cognitive abilities. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 56, 13–23.
Chen, Y. -J., & Willits, F. K. (1999). Dimensions of educational transactions in
a videoconferencing learning environment. American Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 45–59.
Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective
thinking to the educative process. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath and
Company.
Gibbs, G., Morgan, A., & Taylor, E. (1984). The world of the learner. In F.
Marton, D. Hounsell, & N. J. Entwistle (Eds.), The experience of
learning (pp. 165–188). Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press.
Gunawardena, C., Plass, J., & Salisbury, M. (2001). Do we really need an online
discussion group? In D. Murphy, R. Walker, & G. Webb (Eds.), Online
learning and teaching with technology: Case studies, experience and
practice (pp. 36–43). London: Kogan Page.
Gunawardena, C. N., Lowe, C. A., & Anderson, T. (1997). Analysis of global
online debate and the development of an interaction analysis model for
examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing.
Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17(4), 397–431.
Halpern, D. F. (1984). Thought and knowledge: An introduction to critical
thinking. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Harrison, C. (2002). Hypertext links: Whither thou goest, and why. First
Monday, 7(10). Retrieved October 10, 2002 from the World Wide Web:
http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue7_10/
Herrington, J., & Oliver, R. (1999). Using situated learning and multimedia to
investigate higher-order thinking. Journal of Educational Multimedia
and Hypermedia, 8(4), 401–422. Retrieved May 6, 2003 from the World
Wide Web: http://dl.aace.org/9172
Holmberg, B. (1983). Guided didactic conversation in distance education. In D.
Sewart, D. Keegan, & B. Holmberg (Eds.), Distance education: International perspectives (pp. 114–122). London: Croom Helm.
Kaplan, H. (1997). Interactive multimedia & the World Wide Web. Educom
Review, 32(1). Retrieved May 21, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http:/
/www.educom.edu/web/pubs/review/reviewArticles/32148.html
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
181
Kawachi, P. (2000). Why the sun doesn’t rise: The impact of language on the
participation of Japanese students in global online education. Unpublished MA ODE Thesis, Open University, Milton Keynes, UK. Available
from the author by e-mail: kawachi@kurume-shinai.ac.jp
Kawachi, P. (2002a). Poverty and access: The impact of language on online
collaborative learning for Japanese learners. In H. P. Dikshit, S. Garg, S.
Panda, & Vijayshri (Eds.), Access & equity: Challenges for open and
distance learning (pp. 159–170). New Delhi: Kogan Page.
Kawachi, P. (2002b). On-line and off-line reading English rates: Differences
according to native-language L1, gender, and age. Proceedings of the 16th
annual conference of the Asian Association of Open Universities,
Seoul, Korea, November 5–7. Retrieved January 10, 2003 from the World
Wide Web: http://www.aaou.or.kr
Kawachi, P. (2002c). How to initiate intrinsic motivation in the on-line student
in theory and practice. In V. Phillips et al. (Eds.), Motivating and
retaining adult learners online (pp. 46–61). Essex Junction, VT: Virtual
University Gazette. Retrieved August 25, 2002 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.geteducated.com/vug/aug02/Journal/MotivateRetain02.PDF
Kawachi, P. (2003a). Vicarious interaction and the achieved quality of learning.
International Journal on E-Learning, 2(4), 39-45. Retrieved January 16,
2004 from the World Wide Web: http://dl.aace.org/14193
Kawachi, P. (2003b). Choosing the appropriate media to support the learning
process. Journal of Educational Technology, 14(1&2), 1–18.
Kawachi, P. (2003c). Initiating intrinsic motivation in online education: Review
of the current state of the art. Interactive Learning Environments, 11(1),
59-81.
Laurillard, D. (2002). Rethinking university teaching (2 nd ed.): A conversational framework for the effective use of learning technologies.
London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Lyons, R. E., Kysilka, M. L., & Pawlas, G. E. (1999). The adjunct professor’s
guide to success: Surviving and thriving in the college classroom.
Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Mangan, K. S. (1997). Lani Guinier starts campaign to curb use of the Socratic
method. Chronicle of Higher Education, (11 April), A12–14.
McKinnon, J. W. (1976). The college student and formal operations. In J. W.
Renner, D. G. Stafford, A. E. Lawson, J. W. McKinnon, F. E. Friot, & D.
H. Kellogg (Eds.), Research, teaching, and learning with the Piaget
model (pp. 110–129). Norman, OK: Oklahoma University Press.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
182 Kawachi
McLoughlin, C., & Marshall, L. (2000). Scaffolding: A model for learner
support in an online teaching environment. Retrieved May 14, 2003
from the World Wide Web: http://cea.curtin.edu.au/tlf/tlf2000/
mcloughlin2.html
Moore, M. (1993). Theory of transactional distance. In D. Keegan (Ed.),
Theoretical principles of distance education (pp. 22–38). London:
Routledge.
Neubauer, M. (2003a). Asynchronous, synchronous, and F2F interaction.
Online posting May 23 to the Distance Education Online Symposium.
Retrieved May 23, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://lists.psu.edu/
archives/deos-l.html
Neubauer, M. (2003b). Number of online participants. Online posting January
22nd to the Distance Education Online Symposium. Retrieved January 22,
2003 from the World Wide Web: http://lists.psu.edu/archives/deos-1.html
Palincsar, A. S. (1986). The role of dialogue in providing scaffolding instruction.
Educational Psychologist, 21, 73–98.
Perry, W. G. (1970). Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the
college years: A scheme. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Piaget, J. (1977). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. In P. N.
Johnson-Laird, & P. C. Wason (Eds.), Thinking: Readings in cognitive
science. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Pocock, G., & Richards, C. D. (1999). Human physiology: The basis of
medicine. Oxford : Oxford University Press (and same courseware in
Japanese, in French, and in Spanish).
Probst, R. E. (1987). Transactional theory in the teaching of literature. ERIC
Digest ED 284 274. Retrieved April 24, 2002 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed284274.html
Renner, J. S. (1976a). Formal operational thought and its identification. In J. W.
Renner, D. G. Stafford, A. E. Lawson, J. W. McKinnon, F. E. Friot, & D.
H. Kellogg (Eds.), Research, teaching, and learning with the Piaget
model (pp. 64–78). Norman, OK: Oklahoma University Press.
Renner, J. S. (1976b). What this research says to schools. In J. W. Renner, D.
G. Stafford, A. E. Lawson, J. W. McKinnon, F. E. Friot, & D. H. Kellogg
(Eds.), Research, teaching, and learning with the Piaget model (pp.
174–191). Norman, OK: Oklahoma University Press.
Reynolds, B. (2003). Synchronous instruction in D/E. Online posting May 27 to
the Distance Education Online Symposium. Retrieved May 27, 2003 from
the World Wide Web: http://lists.psu.edu/archives/deos-l.html
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Empirical Validation of a Multimedia Construct for Learning
183
Rosenshine, B., & Meister, C. (1992). The use of scaffolds for teaching higherlevel cognitive strategies. Educational Leadership, 49(7), 26–33.
Tennant, M.C., & Pogson, P. (1995). Learning and change in the adult years:
A developmental perspective. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Walter, C. (1998). Learner independence: Why, what, where, how, who?
Independence: Newsletter of the IATEFL Learner Independence Special
Interest Group, 21, 11–16.
Wang, H. (2002). The use of WebBoard in asynchronous learning. Learning
Technology Newsletter, 4(2), 2–3. Retrieved June 10, 2002 from the
World Wide Web: http://lttf.ieee.org/learn_tech/
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem
solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17, 89–100.
Zimmer, B. (1995). The empathy templates: A way to support collaborative
learning. In F. Lockwood (Ed.), Open and distance learning today (pp.
139–150). London: Routledge.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
184 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
Chapter X
Multimedia, Cognitive
Load and Pedagogy
Peter E. Doolittle, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, USA
Andrea L. McNeill, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, USA
Krista P. Terry, Radford University, USA
Stephanie B. Scheer, University of Virginia, USA
Abstract
The current emphasis, in education and training, on the use of instructional
technology has fostered a shift in focus and renewed interest in integrating
human learning and pedagogical research. This shift has involved the
technological and pedagogical integration between learner cognition,
instructional design, and instructional technology, with much of this
integration focusing on the role of working memory and cognitive load in
the development of comprehension and performance. Specifically, working
memory, dual coding theory, and cognitive load are examined in order to
provide the underpinnings of Mayer’s (2001) Cognitive Theory of Multimedia
Learning. The bulk of the chapter then addresses various principles based
on Mayer’s work and provides well documented web-based examples.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
185
Introduction
Improving the efficiency and effectiveness of instruction has consistently been
a primary goal of education and training. In pursuit of this goal, cognitive
psychology has provided considerable insight regarding the processes that
underlie efficient and effective instruction. The past 50 years are replete with
empirical studies addressing the characteristics inherent in human learning and
the influence of these characteristics on instruction. Unfortunately (Anderson,
Reder, & Simon, 1998), this “science of human learning has never had a large
influence upon the practice of education [or training]” (p. 227; italics added).
This gap between research and practice is lamentable and serves to deny
learners and teachers access to powerful forms of teaching, training, and
learning.
Fortunately, the current emphasis on the use of instructional technology has
fostered renewed interest in integrating human learning and pedagogical research (see Abbey, 2000; Rouet, Levonen, & Biardeau 2001). As Doolittle
(2001) has stated, “it is time to stop professing technological and pedagogical
integration and to start integrating with purpose and forethought” (p. 502). One
area within instructional technology that has begun this integration is multimedia.
The domain of multimedia has matured beyond technology-driven applications
into the realm of cognition and instruction. As stated in Rouet, Levonen, and
Biardeau (2001), “There is a subtle shift of attention from what can be done with
the technology to what should be done in order to design meaningful instructional
applications” (p. 1). This shift has involved the technological and pedagogical
integration between learner cognition, instructional design, and instructional
technology, with much of this integration focusing on the role of working memory
in the development of comprehension and performance.
Specifically, a focus has developed addressing the limited resource nature of
working memory and cognitive load. Cognitive load simply refers to the working
memory demands implicitly and explicitly created by instruction and how these
demands affect the learning process. Those learning tasks that are poorly
designed or involve the complex integration of multiple ideas, skills, or attributes
result in increased cognitive load and decreased learning. This relationship
between cognitive load, working memory, and instruction/training has proved to
be especially significant when the instruction is in the form of multimedia.
According to Mayer (2001), “the central work of multimedia learning takes place
in working memory” (p. 44).
This chapter focuses on multimedia and the mitigating effects of cognitive load
on teaching, training, and learning. A central organizing theme throughout the
chapter is the development of theoretically sound pedagogy (see Figure 1).
Theoretically sound pedagogy involves instruction that is based on empirical
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
186 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
research and sound theory designed to illuminate the nature of human learning
and behavior. Such theoretically sound pedagogy may then be molded to fit
specific learning environments, learning goals and objectives, and learners.
Working Memory, Dual Coding and
Cognitive Load
When pursuing theoretically sound pedagogy, it is essential to ground one’s
conclusions in the human memory literature. Unfortunately, while there is a
plethora of research findings exemplifying the structure and function of human
memory, a singular model of memory to which one can refer has yet to emerge.
Currently, the three most prevalent models are Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968)
dual-store model, Baddeley’s (Baddeley, 1986; Baddeley & Hitch, 1974)
working memory model, and Anderson’s (1983, 1990, 1993) functional ACT-R
model. Each of these models has roots in the early information-processing work
of Broadbent (1958) and Peterson and Peterson (1959).
P E DA G O G Y
Specific
Pedagogy
Using
narration & animation
to explain and clarify
planetary motion.
General
Pedagogy
Use
narration & animation
to explain and clarify
concepts.
R E S E A R C H
Figure 1: The development of theoretically sound pedagogy
Cognitive
Principle
Constructing mental
models from narration
& animation enhances
comprehension.
Empirical
Finding
One learns more from
narration &animation
than narration or
animation alone.
Pedagogy
Research
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
187
Memory Models and Working Memory
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) emphasized the structural nature of memory,
delineating three essential structures, sensory memory, short-term memory,
and long-term memory. Atkinson and Shiffrin asserted that individuals experience the world through their senses, momentarily storing these senses in raw
sensory formats at their sensory sites. These sensations, if attended, may then
be encoded into a mind-friendly format and consciously held in short-term
memory, where if the individual rehearses this encoded experience, the experience may be transferred to long-term memory. The dual-store of Atkinson and
Shiffrin’s model refers to the short-term memory store, where a small amount
of information or experience may be held temporarily, and the long-term memory
store, where an unlimited amount of information or experience may held
indefinitely. This idea that there were two storage components, each with
different processing capabilities, was developed from Broadbent in the 1950s
through Atkinson and Shiffrin in the 1960s and was well accepted in the early
1970s. Unfortunately, in the 1970s, testing of the dual-store model revealed
inconsistencies in the need for two storage components. By the 1980s, the dualstore model, with its two storage components, was being replaced by a unified
working and long-term memory model.
Two separate memory stores were eliminated, and what remained was a single
memory store, long-term memory, and a constellation of related processes,
termed working memory, responsible for the regulation of reasoning, problem
solving, decision making, and language processing (Miyake & Shah, 1999).
Working memory is often confused with, or made synonymous with, short-term
memory, as working memory has retained certain short-term memory characteristics. For example, a central characteristic of short-term memory was a limited
capacity due to a hypothesized small storage space. This limited capacity is also
a characteristic of working memory, but the rationale has changed from a
limitation based on structure (i.e., space) to a limitation based on function (i.e.,
processing). Working memory limitations are currently seen as a function of
ongoing processing and the nature of the information being processed (see
Miyake & Shah, 1999). While working memory and short-term memory share
certain similar characteristics, although for differing reasons, they are also
significantly different.
Perhaps the most obvious difference between short-term memory and working
memory is that short-term memory was construed as a storage location or “box,”
while working memory is defined as a set of cognitive processes responsible for
the support of complex cognition. A second, and related, difference involves
purpose. Typically, short-term memory is described as subservient to long-term
memory, where long-term memory is responsible for the cognitive processing
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
188 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
and short-term memory is merely a workspace for memorization (Baddeley,
1999). Working memory, however, is interpreted as working synergistically with
long-term memory, playing a primary role in control and regulation functions
(Cowan, 1999). This emphasis on synergy underlies the third difference, which
is related to the influence of long-term memory on short-term and working
memory. The traditional relationship between short-term memory and long-term
memory is one of independence, where short-term and long-term memory
communicate, as two individuals talking on the telephone, sharing ideas but each
operating in only distantly related realms. The relationship between working
memory and long-term memory, however, is one of interdependence (Baddeley
& Logie, 1999; Ericsson & Kintsch, 1995). The interplay between working
memory and long-term memory is integrated to such an extent that any
discussion of human cognitive performance in the absence of either working or
long-term memory would be incomplete.
Thus, an exploration of human cognitive performance in a multimedia environment would need to address this working and long-term memory interdependence. This interdependence is evident in two theories that are currently guiding
the development of multimedia instructional technology—dual-coding theory and
cognitive load theory.
Dual-Coding Theory
Building on working and long-term memory interdependence, Paivio (1971,
1990) created a theory of cognition that emphasizes the mind’s processing of two
types or codes of information, verbal and nonverbal. Specifically, Paivio (1990)
stated that memory and cognition are represented within two functionally
independent, but interconnected, processing systems (see Figure 2). One
system, the verbal system, is specialized for the representation and processing
of verbal information (e.g., words, sentences, stories), while the other system,
the nonverbal system, is specialized for the representation and processing of
nonverbal information (e.g., pictures, sounds, smells, tastes). Each system holds
and processes representations that are modality-specific (i.e., visual, auditory,
tactile, gustatory, olfactory), that is, the representations retain certain properties
of the concrete sensorimotor events on which they are based (Clark & Paivio,
1991). It is important to note that these representations are not exact copies of
one’s experiences, but rather they represent imprecise facsimiles (Paivio, 1990).
The interaction between the verbal/nonverbal processing and modality-specific
perceptions can be somewhat confusing. A central point is that regardless of
modality, verbal experiences are processed by the verbal system, and nonverbal
experiences are processed by the nonverbal system (see Table 1). An everyday
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
189
Figure 2: A schematic representation of Paivio’s (1990) dual-coding
model, including both verbal/nonverbal channels and representational,
associative, and referential processing
EXTERNAL STIMULI/ENVIRONMENT
Verbal Stimuli
SENSORY MEMORY
Auditory
Visual
Tactile
Gustatory
Olfactory
WORKING/LONG-TERM MEMORY
Representational
Processing
Associative
Processing
Referential
Processing
Experience
Nonverbal Stimuli
Auditory
Visual
Tactile
Gustatory
Olfactory
Representational
Processing
Response
Associative
Processing
Table 1: Examples of verbal/nonverbal cognitive processing based on
specific modality experiences
Cognitive Processing
_____________________________________________________________
Modality
Nonverbal
Verbal
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Visual
Looking at pictures, animations, or
Reading a book, a billboard, or the
clouds
label on clothing
Auditory
Listening to music, airplanes taking
Listening to a speech, a song, or a
conversation
off, or nature sounds
Haptic
Touching silk, another's hair, or the
Reading Braille, finger spelling, or
sign language
texture of wood
Gustatory
Tasting food, licking an envelope, or
NA
eating snow
Olfactory
Smelling food, a rainstorm, or
NA
noxious gases
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
example of dual coding would include an individual looking at a weather map on
the computer while listening to a weather report (e.g., http://www.weather.com/
activities/verticalvideo/vdaily/weeklyplanner.html). The words encountered listening to the weather report would be processed by the verbal system, while the
visual images encountered looking at the weather map would be processed by the
nonverbal system.
Paivio (1990), upon delineating this relationship between verbal/nonverbal
processing and modality-specific perceptions, focused primarily on the verbal/
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
190 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
nonverbal processing aspects of the dual-coding theory. According to Paivio
(1990), three levels of processing enable verbal and nonverbal representations
to be accessed and activated during cognitive tasks (see Figure 2). Representational processing is characterized by direct activation; that is, a verbal or
linguistic sense experience directly activates a verbal representation and a
nonverbal or nonlinguistic sense experience directly activates a nonverbal
representation. For instance, reading on-screen text (verbal) directly activates
the verbal system, while seeing an on-screen image (nonverbal) directly activates the nonverbal system. Referential processing refers to the indirect
activation of the verbal system through experience with nonverbal information
and the indirect activation of the nonverbal system through experience with
verbal information. For example, reading on-screen text (verbal) may indirectly
activate a mental image (nonverbal) based on the on-screen text; similarly,
viewing an on-screen image (nonverbal) may indirectly activate a concept label
(verbal) for that image. Consequently, referential processing is indirect in nature,
because it requires crossover activity from one symbolic system to another.
Finally, associative processing refers to the activation of representations within
either system by other representations within that same system. For example, for
a student with an aversion to technology, the word “computer” (verbal) might
elicit verbal associations such as “hate” or “stupid” (verbal); conversely, the
sight of a computer (nonverbal) might elicit images or visceral responses
(nonverbal) reminiscent of unpleasant experiences using the computer.
Studies examining verbal/nonverbal processing have revealed two central
findings (Mayer, Heiser, & Lonn, 2001; Sadoski & Paivio, 2001). First, processing experiences verbally and visually lead to greater learning, retention, and
transfer than do processing experiences only verbally (Clark & Paivio, 1991;
Paivio, 1975). For instance, in studying the process of osmosis, viewing an
animation with a text description of the process (see http://edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/
5114web/modules/slideshows/slideshows.cfm?module=4) results in better learning, retention, and transfer than simply reading a text description. Second, both
verbal and visual channels of information processing are subject to memory
limitations such that each channel may be overloaded, reducing processing
capacity and speed, and learning, retention, and transfer. For example, a
multimedia slide show that includes auditory narration (verbal), subtitles of the
auditory narration (verbal), and text within the slides themselves (verbal) is
certain to overload an individual’s verbal channel (http://edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/
5114web/modules/memory5_apps1/slideshow1.cfm). These two findings play a
central role in multimedia pedagogy (see Mayer & Anderson, 1991; Schnotz,
2001) and are further explored in the next section, which addresses cognitive
load theory. The construct of cognitive load is a means for assessing the memory
limitations mentioned previously and for understanding the beneficial effects of
adding visual information to verbal information.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
191
Cognitive Load Theory
Cognitive load is a multidimensional construct that refers to the memory load that
performing a task imposes on the learner (Paas & van Merrienboer, 1994;
Sweller, van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). Inextricably linked with cognitive load
theory is the notion that working memory is a limited resource; therefore, a
careful distribution of the cognitive load within working memory is needed to
successfully perform a given task (Chandler & Sweller, 1991, 1992). Further,
cognitive load theory is based on several assumptions concerning human
cognitive architecture (Mousavi, Low, & Sweller, 1995), including the following:
1.
People have limited working memory and processing capabilities.
2.
Long-term memory is virtually unlimited in size.
3.
Automation of cognitive processes decreases working memory load.
Ultimately, the central premise of cognitive load theory is that working memory
is limited and, if overloaded, learning, retention, and transfer will be negatively
affected.
Cognitive load theory posits that instructional materials impose upon the learner
three independent sources of cognitive load—intrinsic cognitive load, extraneous
cognitive load, and germane cognitive load (Gerjets & Scheiter, 2003; Paas,
Renkl, & Sweller, 2003). Together, intrinsic, extraneous, and germane cognitive
load comprise the total working memory load imposed on the learner during
instruction (Tindall-Ford, Chandler, & Sweller, 1997) (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Scenarios of the relationship between working memory capacity
and the three components of cognitive load (i.e., intrinsic, extraneous, and
germane cognitive load)
Extraneous
Cognitive
Load
Working
Memory
Capacity
Extraneous
Cognitive
Load
Germane
Cognitive
Load
Extraneous
Cognitive
Load
Intrinsic
Cognitive
Load
(a)
(b)
Intrinsic
Cognitive
Load
(c)
Intrinsic
Cognitive
Load
(d)
Germane
Cognitive
Load
Extraneous
Cognitive
Load
Intrinsic
Cognitive
Load
(e)
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
192 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
Intrinsic cognitive load represents the inherent working memory load required
to complete a task. As an inherent component of a given task, intrinsic cognitive
load is beyond the direct control of the instructional designer. Sweller (1994)
suggested that the amount of interaction between learning elements, element
interactivity, is a critical factor influencing intrinsic cognitive load. Element
interactivity (Tindall-Ford et al., 1997) occurs when the “elements of a task
interact in a manner that prevents each element from being understood and from
being learned in isolation and, instead, requires all elements to be assimilated
simultaneously” (p. 260). For example, learning the syntax of a computer
language imposes a heavy intrinsic cognitive load, because to learn word and rule
orders, all the words and rules must be held in working memory simultaneously.
What constitutes an element does not depend solely on the nature of the material,
but it also depends on the expertise of the learner (Gerjets & Scheiter, 2003;
Tindall-Ford et al., 1997). High element interactivity may not result in high
cognitive load if expertise has been attained, thus allowing the learner to
incorporate multiple elements into a single element, or “chunk,” through schema
acquisition or automaticity. This may be evidenced in the use of online simulations. For example, the Neurodegenerative Disease Simulation Model, a Java
applet, can be daunting and create significant cognitive load for the novice due
to the multiple options available, the complexity of the graphs, and the lack of
automated skills related to the operation of the simulation (http://www.math.ubc.ca/
~ais/website/guest00.html). For the experienced Neurodegenerative Disease
Simulation Model user, however, the cognitive load is significantly reduced as the
options are incorporated into schemas that act as an independent element, and
the actual operation of the simulation is automated. Thus, using the simulation
may result in extremely high intrinsic cognitive load for novices while imposing
very little cognitive load on experts.
In addition to intrinsic cognitive load, the manner in which information is
presented to learners and the activities required of learners can impose additional
cognitive load (Paas, Renkl, & Sweller, 2003). While intrinsic cognitive load is
determined by the nature of the material, extraneous cognitive load reflects the
effort required to process instructional materials that do not contribute to learning
the material or completing the task. In this sense, extraneous cognitive load can
be seen as “error” in the overall instructional process. Fortunately, extraneous
cognitive load is, to a large extent, under the control of instructional designers
(Sweller et al., 1998). For example, when animation and text are combined,
extraneous cognitive load is increased if the animation and text are not presented
simultaneously (Moreno & Mayer, 1999). Specifically, imagine a simulation in
which the directions are presented first, followed by the simulation (see http://
webphysics.ph.msstate.edu/jc/library/2-6/index.html). In this case, the learner
must read the directions, maintain the relevant directions in working memory, and
then attempt to use the simulation. The simulation has an innate level of cognitive
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
193
load, intrinsic cognitive load, to which is being added an additional cognitive load,
extraneous cognitive load, as the result of having to maintain the directions in
working memory. A simple solution to this extraneous cognitive load would be
to provide the directions on the same page as the simulation.
The third type of cognitive load is germane cognitive load. Germane cognitive
load is the cognitive load appropriated when an individual engages in processing
that is not designed to complete a given task, but rather, is designed to improve
the overall learning process (e.g., elaborating, inferencing, or automating).
Engaging in processes that generate germane cognitive load is only possible
when the sum of intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load is less than the limits of
an individual’s working memory. In addition, like extraneous cognitive load,
germane cognitive load is influenced by the instructional designer. The manner
in which information is presented to learners and the learning activities are
factors relevant to the level of germane cognitive load. However, while
extraneous cognitive load interferes with learning, germane cognitive load
enhances learning by devoting resources to such tasks as schema acquisition and
automation (Paas et al., 2003). For example, a student may engage in solving an
historical murder mystery (http://web.uvic.ca/history-robinson/), resulting in
both intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load. If sufficient working memory
capacity remains, the student may also engage in practicing a metacognitive
strategy for assessing the primary sources that serve as data for solving the
murder mystery. Using a metacognitive strategy is not essential to engaging the
murder mystery, however, this use will lead to greater automaticity of the
strategy, elaboration on the primary sources, and ultimately, enhanced learning.
Overall, total cognitive load is comprised of the sum of intrinsic, extraneous, and
germane cognitive load. This summative nature leads to several interesting
scenarios (see Figure 3), all limited or constrained by an individual’s working
memory capacity (see Figure 3a). These differing scenarios will all be examined
using a common example, a Social Justice Resource Center database site (see
http://edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/diversity/).
In the first scenario, if the sum of the intrinsic and extraneous cognitive loads
exceeds one’s working memory capacity, then learning and performance of the
given task will be adversely affected (see Figure 3b). In the case of the Social
Justice site, the Advanced Search page could easily overwhelm the working
memory capacity of a database/search novice (Figure 4). The Advanced Search
page contains complex functions for Boolean searches, data restriction, and
layout control, all possibly contributing to excessive extraneous cognitive load.
If, however, the sum of intrinsic and extrinsic cognitive load is equal to one’s
working memory capacity, then one should be able to complete the given task
successfully (see Figure 3c). Continuing the Social Justice example, the extraneous cognitive load may be reduced by instructing a student to focus only on
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
194 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
understanding and using the Boolean operator search fields and ignoring the data
restriction and layout options. Providing or focusing on fewer options is likely to
reduce extraneous cognitive load.
While this situation is acceptable, it does not provide any cognitive resources for
engaging in additional and beneficial processing beyond the mere completion of
the task. If cognitive load is reduced further, such that the sum of intrinsic and
extraneous cognitive load is less than one’s working memory capacity, then one
may engage in additional synergistic processing, yielding germane cognitive load,
resulting in increased overall performance (see Figure 3d). For a database/
search novice, no use of the Social Justice Advanced Search page is likely to
result in germane cognitive load. To facilitate germane cognitive load, a new Web
page may need to be developed that simplifies the task at hand, such as a Basic
Search page (Figure 5). The Basic Search page has only one field to complete
Figure 4: The Advanced Search page of the Social Justice Resources
Center that when used by novices to search for social justice resources
results in high intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
195
with very simple directions. The use of the Basic Search page would allow the
user to engage in secondary processes, generating germane cognitive load, such
as generating a schema of database use, elaborating on potential keywords, and
combining keywords into more precise search phrases.
Thus, the ultimate goals of instruction are to (a) create tasks that have inherently
low to moderate intrinsic cognitive load, (b) develop instructional designs that
reduce extraneous cognitive load, and (c) foster engagement in active processing
that facilitates germane cognitive load (see Figure 3e). An example that satisfies
all three of these criteria would include searching the Social Justice Resources
Database using the Basic Search page that combines a manageable task with an
efficient environment to produce effective learning and performing.
This effective and efficient learning and performing is shaped by careful
attention to the constraints and guidelines provided by dual-coding theory and
cognitive load theory. And, just as dual-coding theory informs cognitive load
theory, cognitive load theory informs the cognitive theory of multimedia (see
Mayer, 2001). By considering factors that may place an undue burden on the
learner while engaged in multimedia cognition, designers can develop multimedia
environments that promote effective and efficient learning.
Figure 5: The Basic Search page of the Social Justice Resources Center
that when used to search for social justice resources results in low intrinsic
and extraneous cognitive load
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
196 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
A Cognitive Theory of Multimedia
Creating multimedia that balances the constraints of human memory (e.g., dual
coding and cognitive load) with the goals of education and training (e.g.,
meaningful learning, retention, and transfer) requires a theory of multimedia
instruction grounded in the science of human learning. Until recently, multimedia
meant multiple media devices used in a coordinated fashion (e.g., cassette tape
player and a slide show) (Moore, Burton, & Myers, 1996). However, advances
in technology have combined these media so that information previously delivered by several devices is now integrated into one device (e.g., computer, kiosk)
(Kozma, 1994). Thus, multimedia is now typically defined as the integration of
more than one medium into a common computer-based communication framework; specifically (von Wodtke, 1993), “multimedia refers to the integration of
media such as text, sound, graphics, animation, video, imaging, and spatial
modeling into a computer system” (p. 3).
This common computer-based communication framework for multimedia instruction resulted in early research on multimedia focusing on capturing the
capabilities of this new framework to deliver instruction (Moore, Burton, &
Myers, 1996). However, the current focus of multimedia instruction has shifted
away from this technology-centered approach to a more learner-centered
approach, where the emphasis is on how to design multimedia frameworks to aid
human cognition (see Abbey, 2001).
This learner-centered approach to multimedia instruction focuses on the cognitive processing of multimedia messages and the influence of this processing on
learning, retention, and transfer. This processing of multimedia messages within
a computer-based instructional environment is typically reduced to two channels
of presentation/sensation—auditory and visual. Within this limited two-channel
environment, words and pictures comprise the two main formats available for
engaging in multimedia instruction. Words, or verbal information, include primarily auditory speech or printed text, whereas pictures, or visual information,
include primarily static graphics (e.g., illustrations and photos) and dynamic
graphics (e.g., animation and video). Fortunately, advances in computer technology have resulted in the emergence of numerous ways of presenting these
words and pictures. These advances allow designers to combine words and
pictures in ways that were not previously possible. As a result, new research has
emerged concerning the effectiveness of presenting instruction using both words
and pictures.
Research focusing on exploiting the benefits and limitations of the mind’s verbal
and visual-processing channels in multimedia instructional environments has
been championed by Richard Mayer and his colleagues (see Mayer, 2001).
Mayer (2001), in pursuing this dual-channel multimedia research, specifically
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
197
defines multimedia as “the presentation of material using both words and
pictures….I have opted to limit the definition to just two forms—verbal and
pictorial—because the research base in cognitive psychology is most relevant to
this distinction” (pp. 2–3). This research base to which Mayer refers is centered
on Baddeley’s working memory model (Baddeley, 1986, 1999), Paivio’s dualcoding theory (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Paivio, 1990), and Sweller’s cognitive
load theory (Chandler & Sweller, 1991; Sweller, 1994). As mentioned previously, these three theories are not independent but rather overlap, creating
theoretical interdependencies. This interdependency is evident in Mayer’s
construction of the cognitive theory of multimedia learning (Mayer, 2001).
Mayer’s (2001) cognitive theory of multimedia learning is premised on the
following three assumptions: (a) learners process visual and auditory information
in different cognitive channels—the dual-channel assumption; (b) each cognitive
channel has a limited processing capability—the limited-capacity assumption;
and (c) learners actively process this visual and auditory information—the
active-learning assumption.
The dual-channel assumption holds that individuals have separate cognitive
channels for processing auditory and visual information. For example, if a learner
is watching a video clip with auditory narration, then the visual channel will
process the video images, while the auditory channel will process the narration.
This dual-channel assumption is consistent with Baddeley’s (1986) working
memory model and Paivio’s dual-coding theory (Paivio, 1990).
The limited-capacity assumption builds on the premise that humans are limited
in the amount of information that can be processed in either channel at one time.
For instance, if a learner is watching a video clip with subtitled text, the visual
channel could easily become overloaded attempting to process both the video
images and the subtitled text, because the images and the text are processed
visually. This limited-capacity assumption is consistent with Baddeley’s (1986)
working memory model and Sweller’s (1994) cognitive load theory.
The active-processing assumption posits that learners actively engage in
processing multimedia environments by (a) selecting relevant information from
the environment, (b) organizing the information into coherent representations,
and (c) connecting both visual and verbal representations (Mayer, 1997). For
example, if a learner is watching a video clip with auditory narration, the learner
will select relevant pictures from the video and relevant words from the
narration, organize the pictures and words into coherent representations, and
then combine these coherent representations into an overall conceptual model of
the video clip. The active-learning assumption is consistent with Paivio’s (1986)
dual-coding theory and Baddeley’s (1986) working memory model.
These three assumptions combine to create a model of multimedia processing
based on a dual-channel, limited-capacity, active-processing learner. It is
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
198 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
important to think of these three assumptions as an integrated whole, not as
isolated factors, as each affects the other and in turn affects learning within
multimedia instructional environments. For example, if too much visual information is presented (e.g., animation and on-screen text; http://
basepair.library.umc.edu/movies/mitosis1.mov), then the visual channel’s capacity will be exceeded, leading to insufficient processing of that visual information (i.e., either the animation or on-screen text will not be attended to in their
entirety). This situation could be corrected, however, by either eliminating some
of the visual information (e.g., removing the on-screen text) or switching some
of the visual information to an auditory channel (e.g., using audio narration
instead of on-screen text (http://basepair.library.umc.edu/movies/mitosis.mov).
Within these three assumptions, Mayer (2001) posited five cognitive processes
necessary for the generation of meaningful learning, retention, and transfer.
These five processes are evident in the cognitive theory of multimedia and
include the following: (a) selecting relevant words from the multimedia environment, (b) selecting relevant images from the multimedia environment, (c)
organizing the selected words into a coherent representation, (d) organizing the
selected images into a coherent representation, and (e) integrating the word and
image representations with prior knowledge into a coherent mental model
(Mayer, 2001). A learner watching a narrated slide show demonstrates these
five processes (see http://edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/5114web/modules/classical/
slideshow1.cfm). The learner selects relevant words from the narration and
relevant images from the slide show. The learner then generates meaningful
representations of the words and images. Finally, the learner integrates the
words, pictures, and relevant prior knowledge into a coherent mental model of
the narrated slide show.
These three assumptions and five processes, based on working memory, dualcoding theory, and cognitive load theories, serve as the framework for much of
Mayer’s work in multimedia learning. Mayer’s work addressing multimedia
learning has resulted in several principles of multimedia learning. It is important
to note that Mayer’s research focuses on the derivation of cognitive principles
from empirical research, where the principles may then be used to create general
pedagogy (see Figure 1). This clarification is important, as Mayer uses short
tutorials within his research. However, the principles that are derived are not
limited to tutorial-based instructional environments. The benefit of focusing on
the derivation of cognitive principles is that these principles have generalizability
beyond the contexts in which they are originally demonstrated. In the following
section, several cognitive principles of multimedia are delineated and examples
are provided that extend these principles into nontutorial instructional environments.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
199
Multimedia, Principles and Pedagogy
The development of cognitive principles of multimedia is essential in the quest for
theoretically sound pedagogy for multimedia instructional environments (see
Figure 1). These cognitive principles serve as the bridge between empirical
findings and general pedagogical principles. Over the past 15 years, Richard
Mayer, Roxana Moreno, and their colleagues have continued in their efforts to
generate empirical findings relative to multimedia learning. These empirical
findings have coalesced into a series of cognitive and pedagogical principles
relevant to learning and instruction within multimedia environments. The following section will introduce seven cognitive principles of multimedia that have
emerged from their work. These seven principles include the multimedia
principle, the modality principle, the redundancy principle, the coherence principle, the contiguity principle, the segmentation principle, and the signaling
principle (see Table 2).
Multimedia Principle
The multimedia principle simply states that individuals learn, retain, and transfer
information better when the instructional environment involves words and
pictures, rather than words or pictures alone. Specifically, individuals who
experienced a short tutorial explaining how bicycle tire pumps worked, where the
instruction was in the form of words and pictures or narration and animation,
learned, retained, and transferred the knowledge within the tutorial significantly
better than individuals who experienced a tutorial where the instruction was in
the form of narration or animation only (Mayer & Anderson, 1991, 1992). Thus,
when constructing multimedia instructional environments, learning, retention,
and transfer are facilitated by the use of both words and pictures, or narration
and animation.
Theoretically, these results and the multimedia principle may be explained based
on Paivio’s (1990) dual-coding theory. When an individual experiences instruction both verbally and visually, the individual constructs verbal and visual
representations of the explanations and subsequently integrates the two representations into a coherent model. This dual-channel integration has been
demonstrated to provide for increased learning when compared to learning based
on a single-channel representation (Clark & Paivio, 1991; Paivio, 1991). Further,
these results and the multimedia principle are consistent with Mayer’s (2001)
cognitive theory of multimedia. Mayer posits that verbal and visual representations are informationally distinct, such that the informational sum of the integration of verbal and visual representations always exceeds the information present
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
200 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
Table 2: Brief Definitions of the Cognitive Principles of Multimedia
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Principle
Definition
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better when the instructional
Multimedia principle
environment involves words and pictures, rather than word or pictures alone.
Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better when the instructional
Modality principle
environment involves auditory narration and animation, rather than on-screen
text and animation.
Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better when the instructional
Redundancy principle
environment involves narration and animation, rather than on-screen text,
narration, and animation.
Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better when the instructional
Coherence principle
environment is free of extraneous words, pictures, or sounds.
Individuals learn and transfer information better when the instructional
Signaling principle
environment involves cues that guide an individual's attention and processing
during a multimedia presentation.
Individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better in an instructional
Contiguity principle
environment where words or narration and pictures or animation are presented
simultaneously in time and space.
Individuals learn and transfer information better in an instructional environment
Segmentation principle
where individuals experience concurrent narration and animation in short, usercontrolled segments, rather than as a longer continuous presentation.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
in the verbal or visual representations alone. This integration of distinct verbal
and visual representations, in turn, leads to greater learning, retention, and
transfer. As Mayer (2001) stated, “In short, our results support the thesis that a
deeper kind of learning occurs when learners are able to integrate pictorial and
verbal representations of the same message” (p. 79).
This integration has ramifications for pedagogy, specifically, that multimedia
instructional environments should utilize words or narration and pictures or
animation. Combining words or narration and pictures or animation can be as
simple as using static images to clarify on-screen text. For example, ACKY.NET
provides a wealth of information regarding Web design, including several
effective tutorials that consist primarily of static images and text (http://
www.acky.net/tutorials/flash/bouncing_ball/). Another basic method of combining words or narration and pictures or animation is the use of streaming video
for disseminating lectures (http://sinapse.arc2.ucla.edu/streaming/cnsi/seminars/
spring2003/mceuen-rm8-mbr.ram). The video lecture scenario may be made
more complete through the use of streaming video, with a concurrent slide show
and hyperlinks (http://ra.okstate.edu:8080/ramgen/zayed/leadership_skills_a/
trainer.smi). The key in these instances is that words or narration and pictures
or animation are being combined for the purpose of enhancing instruction.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
201
Modality Principle
The modality principle, which further clarifies the multimedia principle, states
that individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better when the instructional environment involves auditory narration and animation, rather than onscreen text and animation. Specifically, individuals who experienced a short
tutorial explaining the creation of lightning, where the instruction was in the form
of auditory narration and animation, learned, retained, and transferred the
knowledge within the tutorial significantly better than individuals who experienced a tutorial where the instruction was in the form of on-screen text and
animation (Mayer & Moreno, 1998; Moreno & Mayer, 1999). Thus, when
constructing multimedia instructional environments, learning, retention, and
transfer are facilitated by the use of auditory narration and animation.
Theoretically, these results and the modality principle may be explained based on
Baddeley’s (1986) working memory model and Sweller’s (1991) cognitive load
theory. When on-screen text and animation are presented simultaneously, an
individual is confronted with the task of attending to and creating two visual
representations, which can easily overload the visual channel. When the visual
on-screen text is transformed into auditory narration, the cognitive load of the
visual channel is reduced, and the overall cognitive load of the instructional
environment is better balanced between the auditory and visual channels.
Further, these results and the modality principle are consistent with Mayer’s
(2001) cognitive theory of multimedia. Mayer supports the limited-capacity,
dual-channel structure of memory responsible for the cognitive overload created
by the presentation of two visual stimuli: on-screen text and animation. According to Moreno and Mayer (1999), “When learners can concurrently hold words
in auditory working memory and pictures in visual working memory, they are
better able to devote attentional resources to building connections between
them” (p. 366).
Pedagogically, using both channels to foster connections implies that multimedia
instructional environments should utilize narration and animation, as opposed to
on-screen text and animation, whenever possible. Integrating audio and video in
multimedia environments is reasonably common these days. Stanford University’s
Center for Professional Development provides a series of Online Seminars that
consist of simple streamed lectures, which combine narration and video, on a
variety of topics (http://stanford-online.stanford.edu/murl/cs547/). Another example that demonstrates the blending of narration and animation is the International Association of Intercultural Education’s The Big Myth that provides
lessons on creation myths and cultural pantheons from around the world (http:/
/www.mythicjourneys.org/bigmyth/1_webmap.swf). In each of these instances,
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
202 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
the multimedia instructional environment is enhanced through the use of concurrent auditory narration and animation.
Redundancy Principle
The redundancy principle, which provides an extension of the multimedia and
modality principles, states that individuals learn, retain, and transfer information
better when the instructional environment involves narration and animation,
rather than on-screen text, narration, and animation. Specifically, individuals who
experience a short tutorial explaining the creation of lightning, where the
instruction was in the form of auditory narration and animation, learned, retained,
and transferred the knowledge within the tutorial significantly better than
individuals who experienced a tutorial where the instruction was in the form of
on-screen text, auditory narration, and animation (Mayer, Heiser, & Lonn, 2001;
Moreno & Mayer, 2002). Thus, when constructing multimedia instructional
environments, learning, retention, and transfer are facilitated by the use of
auditory narration and animation, without on-screen text.
Theoretically, these results and the modality principle may be explained based on
Baddeley’s (1986) working memory model and Sweller’s (Chandler & Sweller,
1991) cognitive load theory. When on-screen text, auditory narration, and
animation are presented simultaneously, an individual is confronted with the task
of attending to and creating two visual representations based on the on-screen
text and the animation, and attending to and creating an auditory representation
based on the auditory narration. The task of attending to and creating two visual
representations can easily overload the visual channel and impair the individual’s
ability to attend adequately to the auditory channel. When the visual on-screen
text is eliminated, the cognitive load of the visual channel is reduced, and the
overall cognitive load of the instructional environment is better balanced between
the auditory and visual channels. Further, these results and the modality principle
are consistent with Mayer’s (2001) cognitive theory of multimedia. Mayer
supports the limited-capacity, dual-channel structure of memory responsible for
the cognitive overload created by the presentation of two visual stimuli: onscreen text and animation. According to Mayer et al. (2001), “in this case,
learners are less likely to be able to carry out the active cognitive processes
needed for meaningful learning” (p. 195) (e.g., elaboration, organization, reflection).
While the redundancy principle has significant ramifications for pedagogy, these
ramifications will be combined with the recommendations from following
principle, the coherence principle, and will be discussed at the end of the next
section.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
203
Coherence Principle
The coherence principle, which refines the redundancy principle, states that
individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better when the instructional
environment is free of extraneous words, pictures, or sounds. Specifically,
individuals who experienced a short tutorial explaining either the creation of
lightning or the workings of a hydraulic break, where the instruction was in the
form of narration and animation, learned, retained, and transferred the knowledge within the tutorial significantly better than individuals who experienced a
tutorial where the instruction was in the form of narration, animation, and
interesting, but irrelevant, words, pictures, or sounds (Mayer, Heiser, & Lonn,
2001; Moreno & Mayer, 2000). Thus, when constructing multimedia instructional environments, learning, retention, and transfer are impeded by the inclusion
of extraneous, irrelevant materials; therefore, multimedia should be kept simple
and include only those attributes necessary for the instruction.
Theoretically, these results and the coherence principle may be explained based
on Baddeley’s (1986) working memory model and Sweller’s (Chandler &
Sweller, 1991) cognitive load theory. When extraneous materials are introduced
into the multimedia instructional environment, these extraneous materials compete with the instructional materials for the limited resources of the individual’s
working memory. If these extraneous materials are significant, then cognitive
overload can occur, and learning and performance will be negatively affected.
According to Moreno and Mayer (2000), “these findings suggest that auditory
overload can be created by adding auditory material that does not contribute to
making the lesson intelligible” (p. 121).
The redundancy and coherence principles each have a common message for the
building of pedagogy, specifically, that multimedia instructional environments
should be clear and concise, avoiding the duplication of information and the
inclusion of extraneous, noninformative elements. While the tendency in creating
multimedia instructional environments is often to add “bells and whistles”
(multiple representations of the same content, interesting sounds, or moving
text), simple designs that are focused on the learner’s attention and process are
more effective. A simple, yet effective multimedia instructional environment is
the Who Killed William Robinson? Web site at the University of Vancouver,
British Columbia Web address (http://web.uvic.ca/history-robinson/). This site
is composed of primarily static text and pictures, yet the design and implementation of the project is simple and straightforward. There is no redundant or
extraneous material. Another that is simple, yet effective is the Advanced
Education Psychology site at the Virginia Tech Web address (http://
edpsychserver.ed.vt.edu/5114web/modules/classical/). These particular sites
are prime examples of effective multimedia instructional environments that are
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
204 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
not “tech heavy,” that is, sites that do not rely on advanced technology but rather
on effective multimedia design.
Signaling Principle
The signaling principle, which is related to the coherence principle, states that
individuals learn and transfer information better when the instructional environment involves cues, or signals, that guide an individual’s attention and processing
during a multimedia presentation. Signaling (Meyer, 1975) “serves as guides…by
giving emphasis to certain aspects of the semantic content or pointing out aspects
of the structure of content so that the [individual] can see the relationships stated
in the passage more clearly” (p. 1). Specifically, individuals who experienced a
short tutorial explaining the creation of lift in aeronautics, where the instruction
was in the form of narration and animation, and included auditory signals (e.g.,
intonation changes, pausing) and visual signals (e.g., arrows, color emphasis,
summary icons), learned and transferred the knowledge within the tutorial
significantly better than individuals who experienced a tutorial where the
instruction was in the form of narration and animation but did not include signals
(Mautone & Mayer, 2001). Thus, when constructing multimedia instructional
environments, learning and transfer are facilitated by the use of auditory and
visual cues and signals.
Theoretically, these results and the signaling principle may be explained based
on Baddeley’s (1986) working memory model and Sweller’s (1991) cognitive
load theory. When signals or cues are provided that focus an individual’s
attention on relevant, rather than irrelevant, information, the individual’s expenditure of cognitive resources is more efficient, thus reducing cognitive load. In
addition, this reduction in cognitive load, when coupled with cues and signals
designed to make explicit relational links within the presentation information,
results in the increased generation of connections between auditory and visual
representations. According to Mautone and Mayer (2001), “signals encourage
learners to engage in productive cognitive processing during learning, including
selecting relevant steps in the explanation, organizing them into a coherent
mental structure, and integrating them with existing knowledge” (p. 387).
Pedagogically, the signaling principle posits that multimedia instructional environments should include cues to assist in focusing learner’s attention and
fostering appropriate learner processing of the relevant information. Students
often find Web pages and online instruction overwhelming, with too much to see
and do. Using cues to guide a learner’s attention and processing provides the
learner with instructional scaffolding and learner support. As part of the online
experience in the Department of Entomology, students have the option of
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
205
participating in an online “course” called The Whole Student. This course
combines streaming audio with static slides and provides cues for students
through the use of effective navigation and by placing on the static slides the main
points discussed in the audio (http://www.ento.vt.edu/ihs/distance/lectures/
whole_student/). Another site that provides effective cues is Biology in Motion’s
Evolution Lab. This site provides cues through section headers, color, and
graphics (http://biologyinmotion.com/evol/). The Whole Student and Evolution
Lab sites both provide effective cues through strategic use of text and text
attributes (e.g., boldface, color).
Contiguity Principle
The contiguity principle states that individuals learn, retain, and transfer information better in an instructional environment where words or narration and pictures
or animation are presented simultaneously in time and space. Specifically,
individuals who experienced a short tutorial explaining the creation of lightning,
where the instruction was in the form of integrated on-screen text and animation
(i.e., the text was presented spatially within the animation), learned, retained, and
transferred the knowledge within the tutorial significantly better than individuals
who experienced a tutorial where the instruction was in the form of separated
on-screen text and animation (i.e., the text was presented spatially separated
from the animation) (spatial contiguity effect; Moreno & Mayer, 1999). In
addition, individuals who experienced a short tutorial explaining the creation of
lightning, where the instruction was in the form of simultaneous narration and
animation, learned, retained, and transferred the knowledge within the tutorial
significantly better than individuals who experienced a tutorial where the
instruction was in the form of narration followed by animation (temporal
contiguity effect; Moreno & Mayer, 1999). The contiguity principle, as stated
here, combines what Mayer and Moreno referred to as the spatial contiguity
principle and the temporal contiguity principle (Mayer & Anderson, 1991;
Moreno & Mayer, 1999). Thus, when constructing multimedia instructional
environments, learning, retention, and transfer are facilitated when text or
narration and pictures or animation are concurrent and are not separated in either
time or space.
Theoretically, these results and the contiguity principle may be explained based
on Baddeley’s (1986) working memory model and Sweller’s (Chandler &
Sweller, 1991) cognitive load theory. When on-screen text is presented spatially
separate from animation, the individual is forced to split attention between the
two sources of information (Mayer & Moreno, 1998). This attention split
requires extra working memory and processing resources and is more likely to
result in cognitive overload than when the on-screen text and animation are
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
206 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
integrated. Similarly, when narration is provided prior to viewing an animation,
the individual must maintain the narration in working memory while viewing the
animation if any connections between the narration and animation are to be
created. This narration maintenance is cognitive resource intensive and is likely
to result in cognitive overload at the onset of the animation. Mayer’s (2001)
cognitive theory of multimedia is consistent with these findings and rationales: “If
we want students to build cognitive connections between corresponding words
and pictures it is helpful to present them contiguously in time and space—that is,
to present them at the same time or next to each other on the page or screen”
(p. 112).
Applying the contiguity principle implies that multimedia instructional environments should be constructed such that words and pictures or narration and
animation are displayed simultaneously and close together. Prime examples of
this synchronization of time and place include the fusion of audio and video. For
example, Brainware.tv’s Boardband Business Videos (http://www.brainware.tv/
previews/p1harn2.asx) and the Electronic Scholar’s Study of Teaching Videos
(http://www.electronicscholar.com/videos.html). Another example of synchronization includes the synthesizing of text and animation, where the text is
integrated into the animation. An example of this type of synchronicity includes
the Projectile Motion Java applet (http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/
more_stuff/Applets/ProjectileMotion/jarapplet.html). This applet plots the path
of a simulated projectile, given specific parameters (i.e., velocity, angle, mass),
and provides integrated feedback on the projectile’s maximum distance, maximum height, end velocity, and time aloft. The previous video examples represent
temporal contiguity, where multimedia are experienced simultaneously, while the
applet example represents spatial contiguity, where multimedia are experienced
close together in space. It is important that multimedia instructional environments
be both temporally and spatially contiguous.
Segmentation Principle
The segmentation principle states that individuals learn and transfer information
better in an instructional environment, where individuals experience concurrent
narration and animation in short, user-controlled segments, rather than as a
longer continuous presentation. Specifically, individuals who experienced a short
tutorial explaining the creation of lightning, where the instruction was in the form
of 16 short, user-controlled segments of concurrent narration and animation,
learned and transferred the knowledge within the tutorial significantly better than
individuals who experienced the tutorial as a single, continuous narration and
animation presentation (Mayer & Chandler, 2001; see also Mayer & Moreno,
2003). Thus, when constructing multimedia instructional environments, learning
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
207
and transfer are facilitated by the user being able to control the rate of
information presentation.
Theoretically, these results and the segmentation principle may be explained
based on Baddeley’s (1986) working memory model and Sweller’s (Chandler &
Sweller, 1991) cognitive load theory. When an individual has control over the rate
of information presentation, the individual may pace the presentation such that
time and cognitive resources are allotted for making connections between verbal
and visual representations. Alternatively, during an automatically paced presentation, the individual may lack sufficient time and cognitive resources to make
representational connections, resulting in cognitive overload. Mayer and Moreno
(2003), in discussing the segmentation principle in light of the cognitive theory of
multimedia, stated that “the learner is able to select words and select images from
the segment; the learner also has time and capacity to organize and integrate the
selected words and images” (p. 47).
The segmentation principle, pedagogically, supports the position that multimedia
instructional environments should be created to allow the user control over the
pacing of the environment, if the environment is likely to foster cognitive
overload. A well-constructed example of allowing user control includes Virginia
Tech’s Critical Media Literacy in Times of War site (http://www.tandl.vt.edu/
Foundations/mediaproject/). This site integrates text, graphics, animation, and
audio, while providing the learner with step-by-step navigational control. Similarly, the Joliet Junior College tutorial Using a Secant Line to Approximate a
Tangent Line provides the learner with the ability to experience the tutorial in
small steps (http://home.attbi.com/~waterhand/tangent.html). In each of these
cases, the user is provided with the ability to slow his or her interaction with the
multimedia instructional environment and thus provide added time and resources
for active cognitive processing.
Summary
The explanations and examples of pedagogy based on the cognitive principles of
multimedia provide an initial framework for creating multimedia instructional
environments that are empirically and theoretically well grounded. This grounding is essential, as it has been demonstrated repeatedly that media itself, even
multimedia, has little effect on learning unless the pedagogy that drives the media
is focused on student learning (see Clark, 1983, 1994).
Collectively, these seven cognitive principles of multimedia provide a grounded
framework within which to begin to build this learner-centered pedagogy. The
multimedia and modality principles clearly delineate the benefits of using
concurrent narration and animation in multimedia instructional environments.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
208 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
Furthermore, the redundancy principle extends the multimedia and modality
principles by demonstrating that providing redundant information in both auditory
and visual-processing channels is detrimental when the visual channel also needs
to process images. Further, the coherence principle refines the redundancy
principle by demonstrating that irrelevant stimuli, as well as redundant stimuli, are
detrimental to learning, retention, and transfer. However, the signaling principle
may provide a potential solution to the overload caused by irrelevant or redundant
stimuli by providing cues that may focus the learner’s attention and processing
and thus ameliorate the cognitive overload. While signaling may ameliorate the
presence of extraneous stimuli, the coherence principle demonstrates, more
generally, that proximity in time and space of narration and animation is
beneficial to learning, retention, and transfer. Finally, the segmentation principle
demonstrates that when a narration and animation sequence is likely to proceed
too quickly for the learner to process information adequately, then allowing the
user to control the progress of the narration and animation sequence pace is
beneficial.
Conclusion
Improving instruction has been a primary goal of education and training. To
foster this goal, educators have employed cognitive principles to highlight
effective instructional practices. Unfortunately, a disconnect continues to exist
between this science of human learning and daily educational practice. This gap
denies learners and teachers access to powerful forms of teaching, training, and
learning.
Fortunately, the field of instructional technology, generally, and the domain of
multimedia learning, specifically, is providing an avenue for bridging this educational gap. Current research into pedagogical and technological integration
within multimedia instructional environments is yielding significant and meaningful findings related to the improvement of learning, retention, and transfer. As
discussed previously, the cognitive principles of multimedia, derived from
Mayer’s (2001) cognitive theory of multimedia, provide a solid foundation upon
which to build a theoretically sound pedagogy. This process, however, of
creating pedagogy from theory is fraught with difficulty and thus must be
undertaken with care and forethought. According to William James (1899-1958):
I say moreover that you make a great, a very great mistake, if you think
that psychology, being the science of the mind’s laws, is something from
which you can deduce definite programmes and schemes and methods
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
209
of instruction for immediate schoolroom use. Psychology is a science,
and teaching is an art; and sciences never generate arts directly out of
themselves. An intermediary inventive mind must make the application,
by using its originality. (p. 23)
Thus, pedagogy of any type is at least once removed from its theoretical
underpinnings. With this caution in mind, it is necessary that we not only apply
the pedagogy arising from the cognitive principles of multimedia with due
diligence, but that we also continue to further investigate and refine the pedagogy
of multimedia.
References
Abbey, B. (Ed.). (2000). Instructional and cognitive impacts of web-based
education. Hershey, PA: Idea Group.
Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University.
Anderson, J. R. (1990). The adaptive character of thought. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Anderson, J. R. (1993). Rules of the mind. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Anderson, J. R., Reder, L. M., & Simon, H. A. (1998). Radical constructivism
and cognitive psychology. In D. Ravitch (Ed.), Brookings papers on
educational policy: 1998 (pp. 227–255). Washington, DC: Brookings
Institute.
Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human memory: A proposal system
and its control processes. In K. W. Spence, & J. T. Spence (Eds.), The
psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and
theory (pp. 89–195). New York: Academic Press.
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Baddeley, A. D. (1999). Essentials of human memory. East Sussex, UK: Taylor
and Francis.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.),
Recent advances in learning and motivation. New York: Academic
Press.
Baddeley, A. D., & Logie, R. H. (1999). Working memory: The multiplecomponent model. In A. Miyake, & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
210 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp.
28–61). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Broadbent, D. E. (1958). Perception and communication. London: Pergamon.
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1991). Cognitive load theory and the format of
instruction. Cognition and Instruction, 8(4), 293–332.
Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1992). The split-attention effect as a factor in the
design of instruction. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 62(2),
233–246.
Clark, R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of
Educational Research, 53(4), 445–459.
Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991). Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149–210.
Clark, R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 21–29.
Cowan, A. (1999). An embedded-process model of working memory. In A.
Miyake, & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of
active maintenance and executive control (pp. 62–101). Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
Doolittle, P. E. (2001). The need to leverage theory in the development of
guidelines for using technology in social studies teacher education. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 4(1), 501–
516.
Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Psychological Review, 102, 211–245.
Gerjets, P., & Scheiter, K. (2003). Goal configurations and processing strategies
as moderators between instructional design and cognitive load: Evidences
from hypertext-based instruction. Education Psychologist, 38(1), 33–42.
James, W. (1958). Talks with teachers. New York: Norton. (Originally
published in 1899.)
Kozma, R. (1994). Will media influence learning: Reframing the debate.
Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 7–19.
Mautone, P. D., & Mayer, R. E. (2001). Signaling as a cognitive guide in
multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(2), 377–
389.
Mayer, R. E. (1997). Multimedia learning: Are we asking the right questions?
Educational Psychologist, 32(1), 1–19.
Mayer, R. E. (2001). Multimedia learning. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia, Cognitive Load and Pedagogy
211
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1991). Animations need narrations: An
experimental test of a dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 83(4), 484–490.
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1992). The instructive animation: Helping
students build connections between words and pictures in multimedia
learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 444–452.
Mayer, R. E., & Chandler, P. (2001). When learning is just a click away: Does
simple user interaction foster deeper understanding of multimedia messages? Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(2), 390–397.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998). A split-attention effect in multimedia
learning: Evidence for dual processing systems in working memory.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(2), 312–320.
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (1998). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in
multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43–52.
Mayer, R. E., Heiser, J., & Lonn, S. (2001). Cognitive constraints on multimedia
learning: When presenting more material results in less understanding.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 187–198.
Meyer, G. J. F. (1975). The organization of prose and its effects on memory.
New York: Elsevier.
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (Eds.). (1999). Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Moore, D. M., Burton, J. K., & Myers, R. J. (1996). Multiple-channel communication: The theoretical and research foundations of multimedia. In D. H.
Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp. 851–875). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (1999). Cognitive principles of multimedia learning:
The role of modality and contiguity. Journal of Educational Psychology,
91(2), 358–368.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2000). A coherence effect in multimedia learning:
The case for minimizing irrelevant sounds in the design of multimedia
instructional messages. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92(1), 117–
125.
Moreno, R., & Mayer, R. E. (2002). Verbal redundancy in multimedia learning:
When reading helps listening. Journal of Educational Psychology,
94(1), 156–163.
Mousavi, S. Y., Low, R., & Sweller, J. (1995). Reducing cognitive load by mixing
auditory and visual presentation modes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(2), 319–334.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
212 Doolittle, McNeill, Terry & Scheer
Paas, F., & van Merrienboer, J. J. G. (1994). Instructional control of cognitive
load in the training of complex cognitive tasks. Educational Psychology
Review, 6(4), 351–371.
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional
design: Recent developments. Educational Psychology, 38(1), 1–4.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and verbal processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart,
and Winston.
Paivio, A. (1975). Coding distinctions and repetition effects in memory. In G. H.
Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 9, pp.
179–214). New York: Academic Press.
Paivio, A. (1990). Mental representations: A dual coding approach. New
York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Peterson, L. R., & Peterson, M. J. (1959). Short-term retention of individual
verbal items. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58, 193–198.
Rouet, J., Levonen, J., & Biardeau, A. (Eds.). (2001). Multimedia learning:
Cognitive and instructional issues. London: Pergamon.
Sadoski, M., & Paivio, A. (2001). Imagery and text: A dual coding theory of
reading and writing. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Schnotz, W. (2001). Sign systems, technologies, and the acquisition of knowledge. In J. Rouet, J. JU. Levonen, and A. Biardeau (Eds.), Multimedia
learning: Cognitive and instructional issues (pp. 9–30). New York:
Pergamon.
Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional
design. Learning and Instruction, 4, 295–312.
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive
architecture and instructional design. Educational Psychology Review,
10(3), 251–296.
Tindall-Ford, S., Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1997). When two sensory modes
are better than one. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 3(4),
257–287.
von Wodtke, M. (1993). Mind over media: Creative thinking skills for
electronic media. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
213
Chapter XI
Cognitive Skill
Capabilities in
Web-Based Educational
Systems
Elspeth McKay, RMIT University, Australia
Abstract
This chapter represents a discussion on the interactivity of how people
think and react to instructional materials in general, in the light of how this
interaction may be affected by multimedia. Grounded in instructional
design, where first principles take a fine grained approach to identify the
learning/instructional context; this chapter provides an explanation of the
differing terminology used by people when referring to multimedia
instruction. A Meta-Knowledge Processing Model is proposed as a
courseware designing tool. Several controversial issues that surround
learning with multimedia are exposed. More work is needed to unlock the
mysteries that surround multimodal instructional strategy development.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
214 McKay
Introduction
Can Web-based educational systems (WBESs) really facilitate cognitive skill
development? It would appear from the common rhetoric that learning occurs as
a somewhat automatic process through interactive multimedia. Moreover, it is
taken for granted that a collaborative approach to lifelong learning and knowledge transfer is a guaranteed WBES outcome. An examination of current
multimedia courseware reveals that the opposite is true. This is where effective
learning management systems (LMS) can make all the difference. To this end,
there have been a number of developments toward identifying the management
of collaborative instructional environments (Bhattacharya, 2000). However, if
we want to sustain the momentum toward achieving positive outcomes from
interactive multimedia in a shared knowledge/experiential learning network
(Sims, 2000), we must first understand more about how to manage an individual’s
capacity to access information through human-computer interaction (HCI)
(Preece, 1994). Once we understand more about the HCI phenomenon and learn
how to manage the so-called e-learning environment successfully, we may be
in a position to claim that interactive-context-mediated learning has arrived (von
Wodtke, 1993).
This chapter discusses the interactivity of how people think and react to
instructional materials in general, and how this interaction may be affected by
multimedia. Written from the perspective of instructional design, where first
principles take a fine-grained approach to identify the learning/instructional
context, this chapter first provides a brief explanation of the terminology used by
people when referring to multimedia instruction. To assist with this, a MetaKnowledge Processing Model (see Figure 1) is proposed as a courseware design
tool that identifies each complex variable involved in an interactive multimedia
learning environment. Because multimodal instructional materials tap into an
individual’s spatial ability, several controversial issues, relating to cognitive skill
acquisition within a WBES, will be exposed. In closing, this chapter will show
how current progress points toward the future, revealing that much more work
is needed to unlock the mysteries that surround multimodal instructional strategy
development.
Dealing with the Terminology
What exactly is meant by HCI? The global leaders in this field at the Open
University, in the United Kingdom, have defined HCI as comprising elements of
computer science, cognitive psychology, social and organization psychology,
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
215
ergonomics, human factors, artificial intelligence, linguistics, philosophy, sociology, anthropology, engineering, and design (Preece, 1994). The reader may
perhaps appreciate that each one of these professions will have its own cultural
semiotics or ways of viewing its domain and expressing itself. For instance,
consider how the terms “information,” “data,” and “knowledge” are often
treated completely differently by computer scientists and sociologists. In computer science, the first two terms are often treated as having different characteristics, while there will be difficulty expressing just what knowledge is. In
sociology, there will be a different understanding of the same terms, for instance,
information and data may have exactly the same meaning, while knowledge will
be explained in many variations of complexity (Nonaka, 1994). Therefore, it may
come as no surprise that understanding the terminology is a major issue in dealing
with the complexity of interactive multimedia in education and training. Consequently, ontology (a branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of being)
(Angus, 1986) is gaining popularity among educational technology researchers
in defining the complex nature of their learning environments.
This chapter examines the ontological/contextual issues involved in an interactivity
of instructional media and the cognitive style construct as a metaknowledge
acquisition process (McKay, 2000). Cognitive-style construct describes the
interactive variables of an individual’s information processing (cognitive) style
(Riding & Rayner, 1998). Moreover, the term “metaknowledge” is used in this
chapter to convey a model for describing knowledge about knowledge (Scandura
& Dolores, 1990), that provides an ontological framework applicable in a WBES
(McKay, Garner, & Okamoto, 2003). It is necessary to make this distinction to
differentiate between the more common usage of the term, whereby knowledge
is generated by an individual presented with various pieces of information.
Gaining an insight into what happens when people interact with computers
presents a fascinating challenge. Further work is currently underway to substantiate the speculated mechanisms surrounding the relationship between specific
learning domains and notational transfer (to be proposed here as an internal/
external exchange process) in an online learning context (McKay, 2002a,
2002b).
The purpose of approaching instructional design issues and cognitive skill
capabilities in an interactive multimedia context in this manner is to further the
discourse on cognitive skill acquisition per se in a WBES environment and to
focus on the interactive effect of differences in cognitive construct (how we
represent information during thinking and the mode of processing that
information) (Riding & Cheema, 1991) and instructional format (verbal(text)/
image(pictures)) (McKay, 2000a), with the examination of the interactivity of
relatively new research variables (audio, color, and movement), to further
complicate matters. Initial research has identified that it is the interaction of the
integrated cognitive-style construct with instructional format that affects perfor-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
216 McKay
mance the most. The questions arising from the interactive effects of cognitivestyle construct and multimedia upon cognitive performance may provide significantly different outcomes. Consequently, the following discussion examines the
ontological framework (McKay, Garner, & Okamoto, 2002) involved in understanding the interactivity of Web-initiated instructional conditions and cognitive
style as a metaknowledge acquisition process.
Instructional Design for WBES
For some, interactive multimedia in education and training may sit as a very
comfortable concept. Nevertheless, there are many important instructional
design matters relating to the issues of student learning through multimedia that
researchers need to work on. Due to the multiple disciplines that constitute HCI,
it is necessary to understand the linguistics in play. Therefore, by explaining to
a more ubiquitous audience how these HCI-specific terms are represented by
this author, new insights may be provided to some readers. Starting with the
basics of instructional design, there are three major components of a theory of
instruction: methods, conditions, and outcomes (Reigeluth, 1983).
Method of Delivery
Methods are the different ways to achieve different learning outcomes under
different conditions. For instance, methods can take the form of an instructional
agent (maybe a teacher or some other instructional medium) that directs its
actions at a learner (Landa, 1983). In a WBES, this context-mediated modeling
tool can include an instructional conditions agent that responds to the user’s
characteristics to ensure that optimal instructional conditions are brought into
play to achieve the expected instructional outcomes.
Instructional Characteristics/Conditions
These conditions are the factors that influence the effects of the instructional
methods employed and, as such, are important for prescribing instructional
strategies. Instructional conditions have a twofold impact (Reigeluth, 1983).
First, courseware designers may be able to manipulate them, as some conditions
interact with the method to influence their relative effectiveness, such as
instructional format. Second, there are instructional conditions that cannot be
manipulated and, therefore, are beyond the control of the designer, such as
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
217
learner characteristics. In fact, instructional theories and models specify the
conditions under which each set of method variables should or should not be
used.
Assessment practices in diverse cultures and learning domains may be studied
using the model depicted in the Instructional Conditions component in Figure 2.
Note that the term conditions-of-the-learner (Reigeluth, 1983) combines the
interactive effects of the internal states of an individual and external events of
the instructional delivery format on learning (McKay, 2000a); providing a
computer-mediated context for e-learning environments. Investigation of this
context-mediated process will help researchers reconstruct the ways that
individuals deal with structure and how they subsequently remember prior
experiences (Hoffman, 1998).
Outcomes are the various effects that provide a measure of value of alternative
methods (delivery technologies) under different conditions (instructional format—audio/text/graphics/animation), as they focus on instruction rather than on
the learner (Reigeluth, 1983). For instance, consider various instructional
delivery alternatives that need to be included in a WBES to facilitate the expected
cognitive performance for palm-held or desktop computers and mobile phone
technologies.
These three components can be combined into a model for designing any
instructional event, thereby facilitating development of an e-learning ontology—
providing exact parameters required for robust research methodologies or
experimental designs (Gay, 1992).
The Metaknowledge Processing Model, shown in Figure 1, articulates the
complexity of the e-learning delivery environment. The Method of Delivery
Transfer Agent (learning facilitator) directs the Instructional Conditions
(learner characteristics and instructional format) according to the results of the
Learner Characteristics (cognitive style) and Event Conditions (complexity
of processing the learning material), and the Measurable Instructional Outcomes (cognitive performance). Directions for choice of Instructional Format
are given by the Method of Delivery Transfer Agent (McKay & Martin, 2002).
Consequently, the Metaknowledge Processing Model serves as a framework in
which to continue the discussion on mechanisms for knowledge acquisition, and
cognitive strategies for specific learning domains. In light of understanding how
this chapter relates to interactive multimedia in an educational context, it is
necessary to clarify what is meant by the term “knowledge acquisition”
(Gonzalvo, 1994). However, the type of knowledge under examination will
depend upon how one interprets the instructional goal or expected learning
outcome (Lukose, 1992). Furthermore, the overall context in which the model
exists will reflect different relationships among the various component parts. For
instance, consider where there may be important differences between the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
218 McKay
Figure 1: Metaknowledge Processing Model (McKay, 2000)
Method of
Delivery
Transfer Agent
Instructional Conditions
Learner characteristics
Instructional
Format
Event Conditions
Internal
External
Verbal
Visual
Measurable
Instructional
Outcomes
education and training sectors. In the education sector, there may not be very
many alternatives for the method of delivery due to funding restrictions. The
choices are often cost driven to squeeze out the very last drop from the
equipment funds (Laurillard, 1993), often leaving less than desirable methods of
engaging the learner with the instructional media, as opposed to decisions that
should be made to optimize the educational outcomes. In the corporate sector,
there is more concentration on providing delivery media that promotes knowledge sharing (Hedberg, Brown, Larkin, & Agostinho, 2001). This of course is not
the only contextual environment that may exert dramatic effects upon the
Metaknowledge Processing Model. The following environmental contexts are
provided as mere examples to demonstrate how the model can be used as an
effective instructional designing tool to enhance multimedia in education and
training sectors.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
219
Context Variation
Web site accessibility is gaining momentum. WBES designers are working
toward providing enhanced multimedia platform functionality for a wide range of
differences in individual’s educational/training needs (Loiacono, 2003). Interactive context-mediated learning environments are also under scrutiny (McKay,
Nishihori, & Garner, 2003) to fully exploit the visual nature of the multimedia
environment (Brogan, 2002). The collaborative approach to learning is another
example of a context-mediated environment that impacts on the Metaknowledge
Processing Model. Once again, the notions of collaboration can vary (Dillenbourg,
1999). To this end, there are moves to establish some industry standards
(Okamoto, Kayama, & Cristea, 2001). For instance, the Metaknowledge Processing Model is especially useful in determining where the relationships lie
between the instructional media and expected outcomes from desktop videoconferencing sessions (Sharpe, Hu, Crawford, Gopinathan, Moo, & Wong,
2001). Moreover, learning networks are a seemingly natural extension of
collaborative research (Bourne, 2000); where multimedia per se plays no part in
the HCI (Miller, 2000). E-learning has become the buzzword for the 21st century.
While there are many ways in which this term is applied, for instance, it can be
applied easily to Web-based training as it can be to knowledge management
(Rosenberg, 2001). Moreover, the term metaknowledge acquisition process is
used in this chapter to mean the ontological framework represented in a
hierarchy to identify each component, relationship, and interaction (Raban &
Garner, 2001). The situations in which the Metaknowledge Processing Model
may be embedded are endless.
Therefore, when dealing with the ontological complexities of interactive multimedia, in a collaborative online learning context, it may now be apparent how
important it is to drill into each variable to locate the parameters and scope of the
relationships that are involved in any interaction between the method and
expected instructional outcomes (Figure 2). It should come as no surprise that
in any given population of learners, there will be an enormous variation in the
ways people think about the learning content, and moreover, there will be a wide
variation of how those people will process that information. It has been said that
imagers or pictorial thinkers are believed to experience difficulty with predominantly text-based learning material. They may have to translate text into a
graphical form before they can absorb and assimilate the received information.
This process may be tiring and even stressful for the learner (Douglas & Riding,
1993). Verbal-thinking learners may be similarly stressed, by trying to learn from
pictorial-based material. They may miss out on the overall picture of the learning
material, whereas their pictorial-thinking counterparts, who take a broader
sweep of the same material, may ignore the fine detail involved (Laeng, Peters,
& McCabe, 1998).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
220 McKay
Figure 2: Context-mediated learning dynamics
Method of Delivery
Information Transfer
Agent
Instructional
Format
Instructional Conditions
Textual
Graphics
Learner characteristics
Event Conditions
Internal
External
Pick out the separate details from the abstract concepts ( aggregated
view ) contained in the ( external ) message (text and/or graphics).
Notational transfer process
Measurable Instructional
Outcomes
Cognitive performance
In a collaborative learning environment, the visual and verbal learners can share
their understanding, thereby enriching the learning experience for both cognitive
styles. Promoting and monitoring this interaction is the key to developing
successful Web-based instructional materials (McKay, 2003). Research must
further investigate the dynamics of this collaborative interaction and the complex
nature of experiential learning tasks. Web-based experiential learning also raises
questions, not only of the metaknowledge requirements for improved group
interaction, but also, of the ontological requirements (such as how to deal with
a diverse range of prior domain knowledge and skill) for modeling contextmediated group interaction in diverse cultures.
It is proposed that the ontology that deals with instructional conditions is the
instructional component that is least understood in a general sense. More
particularly, little is known of the likely effects of interactive multimedia in
education and training. Much more research is needed in this area. It has been
suggested that work should commence on investigating the interactivity of the
cognitive-style construct and instructional format on performance outcomes
(McKay, 2000a, 2000b). Moreover, in a WBES, educational researchers need
to understand how people translate information that comes to them from
multimedia (color, sound, movement) in a progression of environments (paper-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
221
based (text/pictures), computerized (text/pictures/sound/movement)). This activity has been described as notational transfer (McKay, 2002b), involving an
internal/external exchange process.
In this chapter, the term knowledge transfer simply means the instances of
understanding that occur as a result of experiential interaction with multimedia
in general, and more specifically, in relation to accessing Web-mediated information. Moreover, due to the multisensory nature of multimedia, research is also
needed to identify an individual’s propensity toward spatial ability (Clements,
1983; Thompson, 1990).
Expected/Measurable Performance Outcomes
In any instructional event, it is important to identify the learning domain (the
instructional content) that specifies the learning tasks for developing necessary
skills and knowledge to achieve the measurable cognitive performance outcomes
(the instructional goals). To this end, the term cognitive skill acquisition is
referred to in this discussion as the set of cognitive skills associated with
declarative (the that) and procedural knowledge (the how) (Merrill, 1980). In
other words, this type of cognitive skill acquisition can be described in five
discrete categories: verbal information (knowing basic terms), intellectual
skill development (basic rules, discriminating and understanding concepts and
principles), intellectual skill (higher-order rules, problem solving, the ability to
apply concepts and principles in new situations), and two types of cognitive
strategies [(identify subtasks, recognize unstated assumptions) and (knowing
the how, recall of simple prerequisite rules and concepts, integrating learning
from different areas into a plan for solving a problem)].
The following mechanisms may explain how individuals deal with the instructional format in terms of information processing, and the speculated internal/
external exchange process.
Background on Information Processing
An explanation for how the cognitive-style construct (Riding & Rayner, 1998)
interacts with a particular abstract or conceptual task that involves procedural
programming knowledge may lie within the relationship of the instructional
conditions’ components, as shown in Figure 1 (McKay, 2000a, 2000b). It should
be no surprise that individuals’ performances vary on the strength of their
cognitive-style construct and the task at hand. It has been demonstrated that
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
222 McKay
there is an interactive effect of graphical instructional metaphors on logical
reasoning and spatial relations (McKay, 2000a, 2000b). Consequently, a number
of questions arise: can an explanation for this be found using between-item and
within-item elaborations (McKay, 2002b)? Furthermore, can visual metaphors,
used as an internal/external exchange agent, have the same interactive effect
(for some novice learners) in environments other than the computer programming domain? Questioning this leads to the bigger question: how will a WBES
impact on an individual’s capacity to learn?
Spatial Ability and
Notational Transfer
In the past, verbal (or analytic) ability was taken to be a measure of crystallized
intelligence, or the ability to apply cognitive strategies to new problems and
manage a large volume of information in working memory (Hunt, 1997), while the
nonverbal (or imagery) ability was expressed as fluid intelligence (Kline, 1991).
However, as electronic courseware lends itself to integrating verbal (textual)
with nonverbal (graphical representations and sound), instructional conditions
that generate novel (or fluid) intellectual problems, research into the effects of
WBES on knowledge acquisition must be carried out to provide instructional
designers with prescriptive models that predict measurable instructional outcomes for a broader range of cognitive abilities.
An empirical experimental research methodology for cognitive performance
measurement was used to facilitate the prediction of whether the method of
delivery will affect highly verbal/low-spatial learners, because they need a direct
notational transfer agent (Figure 3), or whether the instructional conditions will
disadvantage high-spatial/low-verbal learners, because they will be less able to
pick out the unstated assumptions (McKay, 2002b).
Picking out these important instructional variables for some types of instructional
outcomes provides appropriate instructional environments for a broader range of
novice learners by means of an information-transfer agent, thereby controlling
the choice of instructional format and instructional event conditions. Figure 3
shows how isolating the key components of the instructional conditions will
provide the means to manipulate the method of delivery, which in turn may bring
about a choice of information-transfer agent.
It is proposed that the external representation of the instructional material may
require a direct notational transfer of the symbol system used for the instructional
strategy (from the external representation of the instructional material to an
internalized form in an individual’s memory) (Goodman, 1968). For instance, the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
223
Figure 3: Notation transfer process
Instruction
Manual
External
Representation
Internalized
Rule
295
No decimal point for real
numbers
Notation value = 1
Notation value = 1
Method
of Delivery
Information
Transfer
Agent
Instructional Conditions
Learner characteristics
City loop tram circuit algorithm
DOWHILE >=8am and <=6pm
TRAM
STOP
TRAM
STOP
TRAM
STOP
TRAM
STOP
TRAM
STOP
TRAM
STOP
DO
ENTER
NOT
Melbourne City Loop
TRAM
STOP
TRAM
STOP
TRAM
STOP
Tram leaves Flinders Sreet depot at 8am
to pick up passengers
Notation value = 2
Logical condition p tested,
with specific question
Event Conditions
Internal
External
Instructional
Format
Textual
Graphics
Capacity
Demonstrating
for
skill
notational transfer
If condition p is true, then
process statements within
sequential block execute
once
If condition p is false, then
control passes to next
statement after ENDDO
Notation value = 1
graphical details in a road map directly relate to the physical environment (in a
1:1 direct notation ratio, like the explicit representation of basic data-type rules
in computer programming). In a programming environment, another example
would be that a real number must not contain a decimal point (Figure 3). On the
other hand, the embedded details in an abstract metaphor are said to require a
non-notational transfer process. For instance, the programming loop shown as a
graphical metaphor in Figure 3 requires a 2:1 transfer for the non-notational
characteristics of the external representation to a single internal notational
representation. While some learners may be adept at using this type of transfer
to trigger prior experiential knowledge, others may not.
Taking this type of fine-grained approach to locating the complexity of the
ontological requirements will provide Web designers with special insight. However, courseware authoring that offers WBESs without involving a customizable
platform to individualize instructional strategies is much like implementing the
closed systems of days gone by, and given the passing of time, this type of closed
WBES will eventually fail (Preece, 1994). This leads us to our next topic of
discussion: what are the key issues limiting the development and global dissemination of effective WBESs?
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
224 McKay
Issues Relating to Cognitive Skill
Capabilities in WBES Environments
When considering the merits of interactive multimedia in education and training,
a number of complex issues arise that involve a synthesis of disparate HCI
paradigms. To begin with, not enough is known about the interactive effects of
cognitive style and multimedia learning programs on expected performance
outcomes. While it has been shown that not all people will respond to pictorial
learning materials (McKay, 2000a, 2000b), further research is needed into the
Web-mediated instructional environment to unravel the contextual complications
that arise through multimedia. It is just assumed that multimedia means increased
accessibility. For some parts of the community, this may well be the case. Notice
the change of terminology here from “Web-based” to “Web-mediated”. The
term “Web mediation” infers that there is some type of interactive negotiation
embedded in the Web-based instructional strategies.
The Issue of Method of Delivery
Has the approach to online learning undergone some kind of mystical transformation with the advent of multimedia in education and training? It may appear
that in some quarters, unless learning materials are online, they are discarded.
However, the voice from novice learners talking about their experiences with
Web-mediated learning products may tell a different story. There appears to be
a considerable gap in their expectations for how they feel about the capabilities
of technology and the realities of online offerings. The task ahead for courseware
designers is to fill this gap (Bush, 2002). Appropriate leadership is required to
realize the rich potential that techno-educational materials can provide (Maddux,
2002).
It would seem that a common fault with much of the discourse on e-learning to
date is that it remains limited to the mechanistic aspects of HCI. Unfortunately,
this tendency leaves out one of the most important issues relating to courseware
development—sound instructional design principles. It is therefore essential to
look beyond software/hardware management and deal with the difficulties
relating to maintaining the integrity of the learning activities per se. A common
fault with current courseware designers is that they are not learning from past
mistakes (Salomon, 2002).
In describing the gap in a novice-learner’s expectations of interactive multimedia
learning platforms: people become dissatisfied because they cannot manipulate
and directly interact with the materials. Another pressing issue has to do with the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
225
accountability of the instructional design process. Credibility checks of the
courseware designer’s experience and qualifications should be clearly displayed
in online learning sites. Moreover, learning content certification processes need
to be identified to reassure that the materials have undergone sufficient quality
testing. One such Web site providing training for this type of certification testing
can be found at http://www.brainbench.com. Unfortunately, these programs do
not extend to online or computer-based educational materials.
Web-based educational programs can, however, ignite a learner’s imagination.
Research has shown that, in some cases, students who have participated in online
learning at higher levels than in their more traditional classroom sessions actually
record the highest levels of perceived learning (Fredericksen, Pickett, Shea,
Peiz, & Swan, 2000). While not directly related to an interactive multimedia
delivery platform, this experimental research also reveals that in the absence of
a structured classroom environment, courseware developers need to be aware
of the expectation that learners will take a more active role in their own learning.
As a consequence, the instructional strategies adopted for online education must
be made crystal clear to the learner and facilitator alike. Web-based courseware
designers must assume nothing. All types of questions from learners should be
anticipated and answered by the facilitator in a friendly, nonjudgmental manner.
While on the surface, technological access to learning facilitation appears to
offer increased benefits, there is an assumption that in Web-based courseware
the students and instructors are somehow brought together (Quigley, 2002).
However, in order to cope with techno-instruction, higher-order skill sets are
required on the part of the learner, including knowing how to update personal
skills when required by the instructional media, having the ability to use a range
of thinking skills, knowing how to transfer collaborative learning in the real-world
into the classroom environment, and being willing to engage in agile and flexible
learning models (Cadena Smith & Shelley, 2002).
It would appear that most often the Web-based instructional material is textbased, with a tendency to emphasize asynchronous discussion forums, where
questions and answers are posted online for all participants to view and become
involved. While this type of learning experience may have its place in technopedagogy, it can become extremely frustrating for a novice learner wishing more
immediate feedback.
It would appear that multimedia may tempt learners with the possibility to engage
in a more visual instructional environment than commonly offered by the
traditional approach to classroom experiences. Moreover, the online learning
community is currently demanding more from technology than can be delivered
(Quigley, 2002). For instance, beckoning on the techno-horizon are things like the
teleportation of the instructional facilitator, providing a life-sized representation
complete with the ability to eyeball participants, with lifelike body language
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
226 McKay
responses. Sadly, this type of learning context will not be available for the
majority of learners. Costs are immense. ISDN and broadband networks are
needed for successful implementation. Clearly, enhanced techno-learning environments such as this will remain beyond the reach of most individuals for some
time to come.
Herein lies the dilemma for those either taking up the development of e-learning
content for a new project or embarking on a venture to convert existing
instructional materials to a Web-mediated learning program that involves interactive multimedia. Courseware designers need to have their feet planted firmly
on the ground. While dealing with the temptation of installing these new
technologies, they also need to keep abreast of the emerging strategies from the
instructional science paradigm. One advantage of the push towards increasing
the uptake of e-learning is the growing awareness for sound instructional design
principles (Gibbons & Fairweather, 1998).
Design Aspects with Method of Delivery
Problems that arise for interactive courseware design can be traced back to the
lack of knowledge about the principles of instruction (Merrill, 2002). It is
proposed that the ripple effect of bypassing fundamental rules will be magnified
by an instructional strategy that involves multimedia. This is because not nearly
enough attention is given by instructional designers to offer alternative strategies
to achieve different learning outcomes, under different conditions. For instance,
it has been shown that an expert will only require minimal access to a manual for
basic rules, when a novice expects to be given a clear step-by-step procedure
(Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986; Tennyson & Bagley, 1991).
The Issue of Instructional Conditions
(Learner Characteristics/Instructional Format)
Drawing on the Metaknowledge Processing Model (see Figure 1) to
articulate the instructional conditions in relation to interactive multimedia in
education and training environments, it is useful at this point to explain the likely
interactive effects of learner characteristics and instructional format (the
multimedia delivery mechanism employed) on cognitive performance outcomes.
There are at least two variables that will need to be examined: the learner
characteristics and instructional event conditions (complexity of processing
the learning material). In the first instance, learner characteristics, there are a
number of ways to describe individual characteristics (cognitive style construct,
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
227
skill capability). The cognitive-style construct has already been defined to
describe how we represent information during thinking (verbal/imagery)
and the mode of processing that information (holistic/analytic) (Riding &
Cheema, 1991). While in the second instance, instructional event conditions,
there is little hard evidence that explains how individuals will respond to the
intellectual complexities of processing the interactive multimedia.
Long before the advent of technology and certainly before the emergent interest
in bringing multimedia into classrooms, it was shown in a series of aptitude tests
that there are two distinct creative types, based on two unlike reactions toward
the world of experience. It was shown that the inability to notice visual objects
was not always inhibitory of creative activities. The very fact of not paying
attention to visual impressions may be due to the haptic aptitude (a need for a
sense of physical contact or touch). Interestingly, one factor that was noticed in
visual observations was the ability to see the whole object without awareness of
detail. An individual may then analyze an object into detailed or partial impressions (Lowenfeld, 1945). These segmented details are then rebuilt into a new
synthesis of the original whole. It is perhaps interesting to note that extreme
haptical individuals have normal sight and use their eyes only when compelled
(Lowenfeld, 1945). These individuals react as would a blind person who is
entirely dependent upon touch and kinesthesis (http://pi-flora.com/cannect/
haptic.htm, accessed September 2003).
Design Aspects with Instructional Conditions
Developing multimedia courseware has become a specialist’s domain. Although
software development tools make the production of the instructional content
seem relatively easy, the real problem lies in the lack of expertise that can adopt
a synergistic approach. The seemingly eclectic nature of HCI masks the
requirement for a sound instructional design framework. There are two camps
of expertise: on the one hand, some are the technocrats that cannot see there is
too much attention given to the mechanics of the multimedia, while others view
the pedagogical detail in a unilateral sense, not realizing the power of the
multisensoral instructional environment.
The Issue of Measurable Instructional Outcomes
There is a direct relationship between the method of instructional delivery
(media) and the measurable instructional outcomes in the Metaknowledge
Processing Model described earlier in this chapter. There is an important
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
228 McKay
distinction to make here. The method of delivery will be chosen to move a learner
through the instructional strategies to achieve each particular instructional goal.
As such, the measurable outcomes must focus on instruction rather than on the
learner (Reigeluth, 1983). Therefore, a thorough task analysis is necessary to
identify the expected learning outcomes in terms of human performance.
An individual’s capabilities can be described as falling within the following
categories: intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, verbal information, motor skills, and attitudes (Gagne, 1985). Although this taxonomy was derived
prior to multimedia entering into educational/training settings, it is still a useful
model upon which to describe the varieties of learning that people undergo
throughout a lifetime. Unfortunately, many Web-based learning materials do not
take into account this range of capabilities or the learners’ skills at applying them.
Design Aspects with Measurable Instructional Outcomes
Failing to conduct a thorough task analysis for each set of instructional outcomes
will result in weak and ineffective testing methodologies. It is a simple naivety
to believe that the testing process should involve nothing but a set of questions
and answers. When, in fact, test design is a complex process. First, there must
be an understanding of the expected cognitive performance outcomes (achievable goals). Second, the types of skills and knowledge acquisition must be clearly
identified. Third is the absolute requirement that the testing instrumentation be
calibrated to ensure validity of each testing item. Fourth, there should be several
ways of testing for the same type of skills and knowledge. Failure on any one of
these processes means that the assessment cannot be guaranteed to reveal the
true nature of cognitive performance.
Argument about Intellectual Skills
Currently, interactive multimedia appears to offer a generic approach towards
intellectual context. An individual learns to interact with the environment using
symbols, otherwise described as knowing (or procedural knowledge). This
includes being able to translate simple instructions like finding a bus stop or
dealing with a more complex procedure to distinguish hierarchical relationships
necessary for problem solving and organization, like knowing which bus to catch
home in rush hour. If the courseware does not include instructions or explanations relating to the visual effects of the information presented, there can be no
guarantee that the intended message will be obvious to many people.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
229
Argument on Cognitive Strategies
Go to any Web site and see the variety of attractive screen displays that involve
multimedia. How many of these Web sites invite you to stop and reflect on the
information presented. Instead, there is more often a range of colorful objects
designed into the screen display, urging a quick click of the mouse to dive into
cyberspace. It is proposed that this type of instant information grab bag will
weaken the particular ways people choose to make decisions—knowing what
about a process. This includes how people remember and think about past
learning events. Moreover, the stigma of a bad experience can be long lasting;
therefore, matching learner/facilitator cognitive understanding is preferable
(Sonnier, 1989). Therefore, there is great risk in developing the quick-click
approach to designing interactive multimedia for education and training.
Argument with Verbal Information
Web-mediated material that presents textual descriptions of concepts in a short
precise manner may well have a place within multimedia courseware. However,
even the term “interactive multimedia” provides an invitation for instructional
designers to rush away from taking a finer-grained approach to presenting simple
rules uncluttered by the technology. There are specific times when a learned
capability for knowing that (otherwise described as declarative knowledge),
requires the most basic statements about the underlying rules. This includes
knowing how to read words without fully understanding what they mean.
Argument with Motor Skills
Research needs to be conducted to determine the extent of damage that occurs
to humans when they sit for hours, looking into a computer screen, moving only
their fingers, and perhaps elbows. This is perhaps the most profound change in
the way individuals spend their waking hours. By spending long hours in one
position, it is proposed that we will lose our capacity to execute particular
movements that involve eye-hand coordination. Quite apart from the concentration needed to carry out a particular task, these types of movements involve
multiple muscle responsiveness. For instance, take the small muscle coordination, like holding a pair of scissors or typing, or larger muscle control for folding
paper or cutting pictures out of a magazine and pasting them into a book.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
230 McKay
Argument Surrounding Attitudes
There can be no doubt that vital to any learning experience is mindset. People
who show an aversion to computer systems, for instance, will need to have
alternative instructional resources available to balance the intensity of interactive multimedia. There is great risk that such a person will just shut off and not
wish to engage with the technology. Consequently, the mental beliefs an
individual has acquired will be affected for things such as choosing particular
personal actions that include his or her ability to decide which topic to study next
or having enough motivation to try new things.
Unfortunately, while modern communications technology may appear to offer
enhanced accessibility to information and the subsequent potential for acquisition
of new knowledge, it does not really follow that there is any increase in
accessibility for large sections of society. Indeed, there is an emerging international trend for researchers to focus on corporate training and workforce
accessibility (Section508, 2001).
The Issue of Accessibility and Exclusivity
While some fine research is being conducted, unfortunately, this work mostly
involves physical impairment. While there are many types of human functional
disability—some of which are the result of the aging process (Vanderheiden,
1990)—the focus is mainly towards catering to the more definable functional
limitations of computer users, with only limited research specifically designed to
assist those recovering from a severe medical condition that hinders concentration and motivation (Fuller, 1998). Australia is following the movement brought
about by the Disability Discrimination Act 1992, with some work currently
underway towards improving general accessibility to information. Current
initiatives include the draft Schools Online Curriculum Content Initiative (SOCCI)
accessibility standard, and a review by the W3C to develop enhanced technologies that include specifications, guidelines, software, and tools. The Web Access
Initiative (WAI), in coordination with organizations around the world, pursues
accessibility of the Web through five primary areas of work: technology,
guidelines, tools, education and outreach, and research and development (http:/
/www.w3.org). However, this collective understanding still mainly addresses
the issues surrounding the interactive effect of physical impairment and accessibility to information (http://www.w3.org/ 2001, November 13–14).
Problems that have surfaced for the instructional designers wishing to implement
interactive courseware with multimedia in education and training, involve
knowing where to go for advice and having enough funding to build effective
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
231
instructional systems. Good work exists in pockets of excellence around the
world. However, there is a distinct lack of designers who understand educational
pedagogy as well as international best practice. Despite this limitation, there can
be no doubt that aspects of Web-mediated instruction or e-learning have
emerged as effective tools to bring about a knowledge-sharing culture, linking
professional practice and the education sectors (Driscoll, Bucceri, Reed, & Finn,
2001). The increasing demand for effective HCI is forcing courseware providers
to think of new ways to understand the social, historical, and contextual nature
of learning (Moreno, 2001). However, following the technological advances in
instructional delivery media made during the past decade, there can be no doubt
that a major dilemma faces the education and corporate sectors this decade.
How do we provide cost-effective Web-mediated instruction? Courseware
design is problematic when novice designers eagerly develop online learning
programs, often assuming that conversion of textual material to a digital format
is a relatively simple process.
Argument over Accessibility and Exclusivity
Unfortunately, research is currently ignoring the importance of sociocultural
interaction and Web-mediated knowledge exchange. Consequently, there is an
expectation that the Web somehow has a natural propensity to facilitate the
engagement of people in cognitive processes through collaborative team work
(Kearsley & Shneiderman, 1999). Research needs to deal with the complexity
of the interactivity between humans and technology (Sims, 2000) and learning
intelligence environments (Garner, 2002). Work has commenced to investigate
the ontological complexity in Web-mediated collaborative networks (McKay,
Garner, & Okamoto, 2002). The Web-mediated learning environment should be
about providing open, flexible, and distributed learning environments (Laurillard,
1993). However, without adequate learning management processes embedded
within the courseware, this type of distributed learning experience will remain
just that, distributed (McKay & Martin, 2002).
Design Aspects with Accessibility and Exclusivity
Instructional design relating to multimedia education for those suffering the
effects of inaccessibility due to socio-cultural factors requires commitment from
the government and corporate sectors. Moreover, academic researchers also
have an important leadership role. As such, they have the opportunity to liaise
between funding bodies, providing the investigative means to facilitate welltargeted research projects. Unfortunately, this is not the current state of affairs.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
232 McKay
Economic factors dictate how much research is funded for community projects.
Instead of increasing accessibility to information and knowledge sharing, it may
well be that the machinery required to support interactive multimedia learning
platforms is so expensive that the reverse occurs. Although several philanthropic
ventures are underway to redress this prospect, much more funded research
activity is needed to increase accessibility for those sections of the community
in most need. When more is known about how individuals react to multimedia,
the current trend to offer generic instructional platforms could diminish.
The Issue of Health and Safety
It is proposed that an HCI syndrome that involves the compulsive overuse of
computers is becoming more noticeable since the advent of Web-based technologies. It should not be surprising to note the health and safety issues related
to spending many hours in front of a computer screen, often isolated from other
people. The amount of research on this issue is limited. However, there are some
researchers who have identified that computer overuse can lead to some
individuals requiring careful counseling to maintain a lifestyle that involves
healthy socio-interaction. While ergonomics issues may be covered well, where
are the warnings on both physical and virtual computerized products offered for
sale? It could be said that enough is already known about the harmful effects of
spending too much time working/playing with interactive multimedia programs.
Consequently, the attractiveness of multimedia may outweigh the many negative
effects that some individuals experience when concentrating in such a unilateral
manner for long periods of time.
The social consequences of computer overuse are being documented. Perhaps
it is not surprising to see that interest in the psychological effects of spending long
hours in front of a computer screen is emerging from within social science.
Problems associated with addictive disorders have been identified, with the
Internet cited as the cause. Consider though, how damaging it must be for young
children to spend long hours playing with computerized play stations. Perhaps it
is only a matter of time before there is a voice rising from the researchers that
calls for health warnings to be printed on the packaging of computerized
multimedia toys. Much needs to be done to convince the manufacturers of
computer games that having a healthy mind and body cannot be achieved by
spending many hours in front of a computer. There is also a place for ergonomic
lessons to be a functional part of every interactive multimedia module that is
presented in an educational or training session.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
233
Design Aspects with Health and Safety
The attractiveness of the visual platforms creates a whole new set of worrisome
issues. Strategies that involve awareness of the ergonomic problems of incorrect
physical conditions are perhaps more easily put in place than ones that are
designed to reduce the dangers of addictive behaviors. Courseware design must
take on a holistic framework that includes the delivery mechanisms (ergonomics)
and appropriate psychological strategies that deal with the detrimental aspects
of spending too much time with interactive multimedia.
The Issue of Mind Over Machine Mentality
Should this discussion on the interactivity of multimedia in education and training
include any of the predictions from earlier debates over artificial intelligence (AI)
(Koschmann, 1996), and the dire warnings from that debate about machines
taking over many of the things people normally do? Furthermore, in looking at the
publicity that surrounds the debate on the drive to include multimedia as a
significant instructional modality, can the issue of distributed cognition also be
aligned to this chapter? Distributed cognition may be quite relevant when looking
into the effectiveness of interactive multimedia in education and training. This is
still a relatively new idiom requiring careful scrutiny. Therefore, it is necessary
to clarify the usage of this term in relation to the need for instructional design in
this environment. With the rapidly expanding distribution of information through
the Web, we have become accustomed to think in mechanistic terms. Is the
tendency for some to visualize the importance of machinery over man still as
apparent as it was when first recognized by Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986), long
before the Internet? Prior to the evolution of global communication networks,
distribution was clearly a human interaction necessary for the sharing of tasks,
language, experiences, and cultural heritage (Salomon, 1993). Cognition and
ability are certainly inherent internal human processes. As a consequence,
distribution cognitions should not reside in a unilateral sense in a Web-mediated
environment. Instead, they should be thought of as stretched and jointly existing
between each individual engaged in electro-communications (McKay, Okamoto,
& Kayama, 2001).
The reliance on machinery may be on the increase. The suggestiveness of
interactive multimedia may turn out to reduce cognitive outlay to such an extent
that upcoming generations will not have the background knowledge to make
sensible judgments. Steps need to be taken now to preserve historical events that
have previously been handed from one human being to another (McKay,
Nishihori, & Garner, 2003), including the learning process itself.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
234 McKay
Design Aspects with Mind Over Machinery
The question must be put forward that asks how much emphasis should be placed
on the benefits of engaging with interactive multimedia in education/training,
without exposure to the same instructional context devoid of the technological
trappings. What are the long-term issues of reducing the cognitive effort required
to gain background knowledge? Evidence of the reliance on technological
solutions to everyday problems is easy to find. For instance, in the banking sector,
it has become mandatory for Internet banking to take precedence over the faceto-face contact expected when visiting the local branch.
Customizable Interactive Multimedia
Educational Resources
To see what others are doing in relation to the interactivity of multimedia in
education and training, there are few examples of research that make a
connection between learning abstract concepts (which forms much of the
pedagogical focus of Web-mediated instruction) and graphical representation as
an instructional strategy. Consider, for example, a color coding process to trace
programming logic flow (Neufeld, Kusalik, & Dobrohoczki, 1997), an interactive
system that traces the hidden activities of a computer-programming interpreter
(Smith & Webb, 1998), and an interactive learning shell that uses a cognitivestyle screening test to direct users to the optimal instructional material for them
(McKay, 2000c). In keeping with the notion that first principles of instructional
design should always be followed, before there is any more discussion of the
effectiveness of multimedia in an educational environment, it is necessary to look
at how the literature has dealt with the learners’ perceptual differences across
a number of instructional environments.
A review of the literature that disseminates current professional practice in
Web-mediated courseware reveals an awareness of the importance of following
sound design principles (Rosenberg, 2001; Hedberg, Brown, Larkin, & Agostinho,
2001). Moreover, with the advent of the graphical user interface (GUI), it has
brought with it a renewed interest in analyzing text and pictures. The GUI has
also opened the way for investigations into the many ways of using signs to
represent reality (Chandler, 1999). Investigations have emerged into the differing ways people form mental constructs to deal with the GUI environment. There
is some evidence relating to how an individual’s initial mental construct might
take the form of a graphical image (Klausmeier, 1992). It was shown that images
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
235
could serve as a device for mental recognition only if the actual object was seen
earlier. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that mental constructs include the
perceptible and non-perceptible attributes of the concept and the cultural
meaning given to the name of that concept.
Therefore, instructional strategies that accommodate different cognitive styles
have surfaced. Some learners need help to develop their cognitive skills, while
others merely need help in increasing their elaborative skills (Rohwer, 1980).
Although there are vast numbers of well-respected theories of intelligence in the
literature, opinion is divided according to the personal orientation of the researcher. There are several researchers who proposed new and unsettling
explanations about human information processing that completely refute a
traditionalist approach (Jenkins, 1980; Baine, 1986; Bruner, 1990). There are
several supporters of the notion that contextual considerations play a vital role
in the information processing operations of the human mind (Jenkins, 1980).
There were others who proposed a purely internal orientation (Scandura &
Dolores, 1990), describing the human mind in terms of a closed processing
system receiving continual input from the world around us. AI research is driving
the focus of instructional science research to find the means to replicate the
information processing of the human mind (Tennyson & Spector, 1998). However, there are a growing number of prominent researchers who no longer want
to follow the traditional attempts to depict memory as a box in a flow diagram
(Ortony, 1979).
Baddeley (1990) has written several interesting and informative books and
papers on human memory. He believes it is a collection of interacting systems
that combine to store and subsequently retrieve information. It is our capacity to
learn and remember that has enabled us to develop tools, communication skills,
and technologies. Consequently, it is through this interaction of communication
with technology that humans now have an even greater capacity to store and
retrieve vast quantities of information. The progression of our ability to communicate through writing, filmmaking, and television, can thus be regarded as an
extension of human memory.
Trying to categorize human memory becomes too theoretical (Baddeley, 1982).
There are no true answers, only interpretations of available evidence. In
organizing information mentally, one of the most common techniques humans
draw on is their visual imagery ability. This is implemented with effective use of
peg words (Reigeluth, 1983) to recall sequences of unrelated items in an
appropriate order.
Conducting research that deals with the interactivity of cognition and instructional format has been problematic. Most of the past research on memory was
highly controlled, with results reflecting the contrived experimental laboratory
conditions (Baine, 1986). In reviewing memory models and research, Baine
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
236 McKay
warned against generalizing laboratory findings from past research on memory
to the natural environment, unless the exact nature of the experimental procedures is known. Mnemonic strategies are practical techniques that have the
potential to make information more memorable and easier to retrieve (Baine,
1986). To arrive at this understanding, Baine drew on other well-known
research, such as the Rosch principle of cognitive economy (Rosch, 1978), in
identifying labeling, visual imagery, and maintenance rehearsal as mnemonic
strategies. In relation to visual imagery research, Baine referred to numerous
studies that involved children. Most of these studies directed the visual imagery
behaviors, with participants being instructed to create their own images.
However, such instructions have been shown to be an unsuccessful type of selfreporting test (Thompson & Riding, 1990).
As the cognitive approach tackles the great complexities of learning processes
(Winn, 1980, 1982a), cognitive theories may offer a more comprehensive
account of learning. Because of the extent to which cognitive theories extend
into human learning, this, in turn, permits a more complete repertoire of
instructional strategies that can be developed for designers to use and refine.
Furthermore, Winn suggested that the cognitive approach offers the opportunity
for research and practice to move closer together, given that research findings
often take some time to filter through as practice. This is due, once again, to the
complex nature of learning. The aspects of the learning processes that provide
the most influence are instructional strategy or mental skill; knowledge of task
(Ausburn & Ausburn, 1978); and the information presentation form, or general
ability (Winn, 1982b). However, it was postulated that a factor such as
knowledge of task is so important in the learning process that it overshadows
other aspects of instructional strategies, to the extent that telling learners
anything more elaborate than what is expected of them would be a waste of time.
Tennyson and Rasch (1988) described a Learning Environment Model, as an
instructional design model to link cognitive processes and objectives to specific
instructional methods. This model was proposed to focus on the planning of a
learning environment to encourage students not only to acquire knowledge but
also to improve their cognitive ability to extend their knowledge acquisition skills.
They expanded on earlier research, in which the structuring of concept variables
could be divided into two separate learning conditions (Tennyson & Cocchiarella,
1986). The first learning condition was a relational structure within a domain of
information; the second was the attribute characteristic, which defines the
concept’s attribute characteristics, within a schema, along a constant/variable
continuum. They suggested that 55% of a learning environment needs to be
planned to encourage acquisition of the student’s knowledge base (storage to
memory), while the remaining 45% of the learning time needs to be allocated to
employment and improvement of the student’s knowledge base (retrieval from
memory).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
237
Future Trends
It would appear that instructional design involving multiple modalities has gone
around a full circle. This is due to the intrinsic complexity of the dilemmas that
face an instructional designer dealing with interactive multimedia within educational and training settings. At the very least, researchers are asking whether all
the hype is worth it (Freeman & Capper, 1999). This is a very good sign; the
reality may of course be a very different matter. It will come as no surprise that
the corporate giants will try and lead the way. Looking at the amount of corporate
dollars spent, it is not difficult to see that short-term cost recovery is not
necessarily foremost in their thinking. It certainly will not involve rocket science
to uncover the trend toward global corporations investing in their own platforms
to enhance profit margins long term. As strong as the push from industry training
may be, there will be an equally interested camp that pulls just as hard in the
opposite direction, to uncover the best way to gain advantages for those
circumstances where access to the educational forum has not been forthcoming.
This egalitarian approach is already taking place within the virtual learning
communities that are springing up (Miller, 2000; Suzuki, 2000; Ellis, 2000).
We are at a turning point in the design and development of multimodal
courseware. There are already collaborative relationships between industry and
academic institutions, providing research with excellent models upon which to
work. Designers are just beginning to think and design instruction in terms of
cognitive processes (von Wodtke, 1993), rather than in terms of overt learner
performance (Winn, 1982a). This means that over time, awareness of cognitive
research will become commonplace. On the other hand, researchers will still
need to deal with learners in natural settings, and because of this, they will need
to work more closely with LMS designers. This is because the cognitive
approach takes into account things like existing knowledge and interaction with
the learning environment, permitting a more comprehensive assessment of
learning in the real world (Winn, 1981).
Following the premise that a multisensory approach is beneficial to learning, early
LMS are already on the horizon. One such system, called Cogniware, has been
developed using an instructional design authoring development tool. It consists
of a front-end module to determine the learner’s cognitive style (Riding &
Rayner, 1998) and a choice of instruction method for the acquisition of
programming concepts. Cogniware is multisensory in the sense that the instructional strategies offered provide the learning material in a range of alternative
instructional conditions. Figure 4 depicts a typical Cogniware screen interface
with three instructional formats or separate viewing areas: graphical, textual, and
voice. In addition, there are cueing mechanisms for guided exploration, such as
directional icons, a learning module name tag, and an advance organizer screen.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
238 McKay
Figure 4: Towards a metaknowledge agent
About your
cognitive style
Welcome to your personalised training
program for the acquisition of basic
programming skills.
In order to customise your learning
environment, we needed to establish
your cognitive style. This process was
designed to be a fun way to establish
which instructional strategy may suit
you best. We suggest you try each
instructional format to see which one
Cogniware
Learn About Program ming Concepts
M odule
M odule
M odule
M odule
M odule
M odule
1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
6:
Background
Identify the problem
Developing solution
W riting algorithm s
W riting a new program
Check your understanding
Source: McKay (2000c).
Cogniware provides the background material on different modes of learning in
a textual description interface, while at the same time, a voice description can be
heard.
Choice of Instructional Format
It is now possible to provide learners with multiple modality learning environments. For instance, Cogniware has three types of instructional formats available—graphical, textual, and voice (see Figure 4)—thereby providing the learner
with the format that best suits his or her cognitive style. However, Cogniware
is also flexible enough such that a learner can over-ride the default for the chosen
format and select any other format.
Textual Modality
There are a number of ways in which we can aid the comprehension of the
written word. To overcome one of the central difficulties associated with text
processing, LMS developers will provide the reader with the best possible means
to select important information from the text (Preece, 1994). Hotwords can be
included as pedagogical cues to navigate a novice learner through a new concept.
Text should not be considered as a flat structure, where all ideas are expressed
with equal importance. For instance, the Cogniware text is a highly structured
communication tool, in which ideas are expressed hierarchically, where certain
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
239
parts of the message can receive more attention than others. As a consequence,
particular display techniques enable the reader to focus on the full context of the
message by selecting the important issues without being overwhelmed by poorly
structured text.
Graphical Modality
In the future, courseware designers will involve carefully chosen graphical
metaphors for their recognizable and distinguishing (or salient) features, to depict
each concept to be learned. These visual metaphors serve to elicit prior
experiential knowledge, enabling the learner to recognize the distinguishing
features of the new concept and to interpret the instructional context without
specific prior learning (Merrill, Tennyson & Posey, 1992).
Voice Modality
Video clips are another futuristic modality gaining popularity. Audio permits the
hearing of verbal descriptions of the learning content. Advice and reassurance
are also provided to ensure maximum coverage of the multisensory platform.
Voice directions for dealing with the LMS navigation will be designed to reduce
the cognitive effort required in dealing with the complexities of multimedia
instruction. Reminders can be seen as a useful technique to keep the novice
learner on track.
Another important futuristic trend for interactive multimedia is the awareness
that corporate training has become a business imperative. Invoking Webmediated knowledge representation is crucial in the two trillion dollar global
education and training industries. Online training and skill acquisition processes,
such as collaborative e-learning networks, have not addressed problem-solving
and professional practice requirements. Researchers are expending energies to
implement linkages between learning investments and professional practice,
through an innovative approach to capitalize on a natural desire for lifelong
learning. Expected outcomes include an understanding of the ontological complexities involved in online, collaborative learning networks and the contextualmediation effects of HCI suited to effective knowledge exchange between
learners (McKay, Garner, & Okamoto, 2003).
Along with the increased interest in Web-mediated instructional design, and the
maturation of thought on the effects of multimodal instructional formats, at some
point, researchers must encounter the rich dialogue on semiotics. Semiotics is
often encountered during textual analysis (Chandler, 1999). Often it can involve
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
240 McKay
taking a philosophical view on the nature of signs in the construction of reality.
Semiotics involves studying representations and the processes involved in
representational practice. The time is right for the earlier work on mental models
and creativity to be brought to center stage (Schank, 2002). The future looks
bright. The hopes are high for customized learning becoming reality. The
increased interest in multimodal educational resources will herald the benefits
that, until now, were only in some researchers’ dreams.
Conclusion
This chapter began by asking whether a WBES can really facilitate cognitive skill
acquisition. There are several misunderstandings with common attitudes toward
learning that should occur through interactive multimedia. One of the strongest
reveals the hope that HCI will activate lifelong learning and knowledge transfer.
Sadly, current multimedia courseware reveals the opposite is true. Most of the
responsibility for this can be laid at the feet of the LMS providers. That is not to
say they deserve being sent to Coventry. The ontological complexity of the
interactive multimedia learning context is immense. Even if all the answers to the
numerous problems relating to Web-mediated courseware design were known,
new problems will continue to arise for the multimodal instructional designer. The
pressing problems for implementing interactive multimedia identified in this
chapter can, in time, be overcome by newly created resource management
strategies. Issues relating to health and safety must be addressed to ensure
individuals’ minds do not take off into cyberspace, never to return. The common
expectations of machine learning have to be engineered such that the humans are
returned to the focal point of the HCI environment. A much closer look should
be made between the differences of providing the right amount of information to
generate an individual’s knowledge acquisition (the educational aspect) and
providing the right amount of training to generate the correct performance
outcomes (the training aspect) (McKay & Martin, 2002). The Metaknowledge
Processing Model has been put forward as an important tool for courseware
designers to use to overcome many of the vexing issues when determining
delivery methods, measurable instructional outcomes, and customizing electronic instructional media.
The main purpose of this chapter was to discuss the interactivity of how people
think and react to instructional materials in general and how this interaction may
be affected by multimedia. Although the amount of research related to how
individuals react to traditional learning materials is increasing, not much is known
about how people react to multimodal instructional environments. Work has
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
241
progressed thus far through intuition. The time is ripe for innovative research
projects to delve into cyberspace to engineer more effective WBES solutions.
References
Angus, R. (Ed.). (1986). The Angus & Robertson dictionary and thesaurus
in one volume. Sydney: HarperCollins.
Ausburn, L. V., & Ausburn, F. B. (1978). Cognitive styles: Some information and
implications for instructional design. Educational Communications and
Technology Journal, 26, 336–354.
Baddeley, A. (1982). Your memory: A user’s guide. New York: Macmillian.
Baddeley, A. (1990). Human memory. Hilldale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Baine, D. (1986). Memory and instruction. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
Bhattacharya, M. (2000). In S. S. -C. Young, J. Greer, H. Maurer, and Y. S.
Chee (Eds.). Collaborative learning vs. cognition (pp. 1496–1503). 8th
International Conference on Computers in Education/International
Conference on Computer-Assisted Instruction (ICCE/ICCAI 2000):
New human abilities for the networked society, Taipei, National Tsing
Hua University, Taiwan.
Bourne, J. (2000). On-line education: Learning effectiveness and faculty satisfaction (p. 288). Proceedings of the 1999 Sloan Summer Workshop on
Asynchronous Learning Networks, Nashville, ALN Centre, Vanderbilt
University.
Brogan, P. (2002). Using the Web for interactive teaching and learning.
Macromedia Inc. White Paper, http://www.eduport.com/community/kiosk/
20002/interactive_teaching_wp.PDF. Accessed February 4, 2004.
Bruner, J. (1990). Acts of meaning. Harvard, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bush, M. D. (2002). Connecting instructional design to international standards
for content reusability. Educational Technology, 42, 5–12.
Cadena Smith, S. R., & Shelley, J. O. (2002). A vision of education in the Year
2010. Educational Technology, 42, 21–23.
Chandler, D. (1999). Semiotics for beginners: The basics. UK: Routledge
(http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/S4B/the_book.html). Accessed
February 4, 2004.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
242 McKay
Clements, M. A. (1983). The question of how spatial ability is defined and its
relevance to mathematics education. Zentralblatt fur Didaktik de
Mathematik, Sonderdruck, (Ger.Fed.Repub), 1(1), 8–20.
Dillenbourg, P. (1999). What do you mean by collaborative learning. In P.
Dillenbourg (Ed.), Collaborative learning: Cognitive and computational approaches (pp. 1–19). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
Douglas, G., & Riding, R. J. (1993). The effect of pupil cognitive style and
position of prose passage title on recall. Educational Psychology, 3(3 &
4), 385–393.
Dreyfus, H. L., & Dreyfus, S. E. (1986). Mind over machine: The power of
human intuition and expertise in the era of the computer. New York:
Free Press.
Driscoll, J. -A., Bucceri, M., Reed, A., & Finn, A. (2001). Fast path to success
with Centra: Best practices, tips and techniques in live Elearning.
Massachusetts: Centura Software, Inc.
Ellis, W. N. (2000). Community lifelong learning centres. In R. Miller (Ed.),
Creating learning communities: Models, resources, and new ways of
thinking about teaching and learning (pp. 14–21). Brandon, VT: The
Foundation for Educational Renewal, Inc.
Fredericksen, E., Pickett, A., Shea, P., Peiz, W., & Swan, K. (2000). Student
satisfaction and perceived learning with on-line courses: Principles and
examples from the SUNY learning network. In J. Bourne (Ed.), On-line
education: Learning effectiveness and faculty satisfaction, Proceedings of the 1999 Sloan Summer Workshop on Asynchronous Learning
Networks (p. 288). Nashville, TN (ALN Center): Vanderbilt University.
Freeman, M., & Capper, J. (1999). Educational innovation: Hype, heresies and
hopes. ALN Magazine, 3(2).
Fuller, A. (1998). From surviving to thriving. Melbourne: ACER Press.
Gagne, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning: And the theory of
instruction. New York: Holt/Rinehart/Winston.
Garner, B. J. (2002). In E. McKay (Ed.), Role of solutions architects in learning
intelligence (pp. 18–25). Invited paper in eLearning Conference on
Design and Development: International Best Practice to Enhance
Corporate Performance, Oct 21–25, Melbourne, Australia, RMIT Informit
Library.
Gay, L. R. (1992). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and
application. New York: MacMillan.
Gibbons, A., & Fairweather, P. (1998). Computer-based instruction: Design
and development. New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
243
Gonzalvo, P., Canas, J. J., & Bajo, M. T. (1994). Structural representations in
knowledge acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1[86(4)],
601–616.
Goodman, N. (1968). The languages of art: An approach to a theory of
symbols. New York: Bobbs-Merrill.
Hedberg, J. G., Brown, C., Larkin, J. L., & Agostinho, S. (2001). Designing
practical Websites for interactive training. In B. H. Khan (Ed.), Webbased training (pp. 257–269). New Jersey: Educational Technology
Publications.
Hoffman, R. R. (1998). AI models of verbal/conceptual analogy. Journal of
Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence, 10(2), 259–286.
http://www.w3.org/ (2004, February 4). Web content accessibility guidelines,
Working Group Meeting. Melbourne, Australia.
Hunt, E. (1997). The status of the concept of intelligence. Japanese Psychological Research, 39(1 March), pp. 1–11.
Jenkins, J. J. (1980). Remember that old theory of memory? Well, forget it! In
J. G. Seamon (Ed.), Human memory: Contemporary readings. Oxford,
UK: Oxford University Press.
Kearsley, G., & Shneiderman, B. (1999). Engagement theory: A framework for
technology-based teaching and learning, Naval Sea Systems Command:
Contract No. N00024-97-4173 (http://home.sprynet.com/~gkearsley/
engage.htm, accessed February 4, 2004).
Klausmeier, H. J. (1992). Concept learning and concept teaching. Educational
Psychologist, 27(3), 267–286.
Kline, P. (1991). Intelligence: The psychometric view. United Kingdom:
Routledge.
Koschmann, T. (1996). Of Hubert Dreyfus and dead horses: Some thoughts on
Dreyfus “What computers still can’t do.” Artificial Intelligence, 80, 129–
141.
Laeng, B., Peters, M., & McCabe, B. (1998). Memory for locations within
regions: Spatial biases and visual hemifield differences. Memory & Cognition, 26(1), 97–107.
Landa, L. N. (1983). The algo-heuristic theory of instruction. In C. M. Reigeluth
(Ed.), Instructional-design theories and models: An overview of their
current status (pp. 163–211). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Laurillard, D. (1993). Rethinking university teaching: A framework for the
effective use of educational technology. United Kingdom: Routledge.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
244 McKay
Loiacono, E. T. (2003). Improving Web accessibility. Computer: Innovative
technology for computer professionals. IEEE Computer Society, 36(1),
117–119.
Lowenfeld, V. (1945). Test for visual and haptic aptitudes. American Journal
of Psychology, 58, 100–112.
Lukose, D. (1992). Goal interpretation as a knowledge acquisition mechanism (p. 426). Faculty of Science and Technology, School of Computing and
Mathematics. Deakin University, Geelong, Australia.
Maddux, C. D. (2002). Information technology in education: The critical lack of
principled leadership. Educational Technology, 42(3), 41–50.
McKay, E. (2000a). Instructional strategies integrating the cognitive style
construct: A Meta-Knowledge Processing Model (contextual components
that facilitate spatial/logical task performance). Com. Sci. & Info. Sys.
(Ph.D. thesis). Deakin University, Geelong, Australia (3 Volumes).
McKay, E. (2000b). Measurement of cognitive performance in computer
programming concept acquisition: Interactive effects of visual metaphors
and the cognitive style construct. Journal of Applied Measurement, 1(3),
257–286.
McKay, E. (2000c). In S. S. -C. Young, J. Greer, H. Maurer, & Y. S. Chee
(Eds.), Toward a meta-knowledge agent: Creating the context for thoughtful instructional systems (pp. 200–204). Paper presented at the 8th
International Conference on Computers in Education/International
Conference on Computer-Assisted Instruction (ICCE/ICCAI 2000):
New human abilities for the networked society, Taipei, National Tsing
Hua University, Taiwan.
McKay, E. (2002a). Grant submission: Academic skills evaluation: Enhanced
opportunities for young people returning to study or vocation training. March 2002. Telematics Course Development Fund. Melbourne.
(Announced December, 2002). Successful.
McKay, E. (2002b). Cognitive skill acquisition through a meta-knowledge
processing model. Interactive Learning Environments, 10(3), 263–291
(http://www.szp.swets.nl/szp/journals/il103263.htm).
McKay, E. (2003). Managing the interactivity of instructional format, cognitive
style construct in Web-mediated learning environments. The 2nd International Conference on Web-Based Learning (ICWL 2003), held August
18–20, in Melbourne, Australia, pp.308–319.
McKay, E., & Martin, B. (2002). In B. Boyd (Ed.), The scope of e-learning:
Expanded horizons for lifelong learning (pp. 1017–1029). Conference
Informing Science 2002 + IT Education, Cork, Ireland, Mercer Press/
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
245
Marino Books. Refereed article available from: ublisher@Informing
Science.org
McKay, E., Garner, B. J., & Okamoto, T. (2002). In Kinshuk, R. Lewis, K.
Akahori, R. Kemp, T. Okamoto, L. Henderson, & C. -H. Lee (Eds.),
Understanding the ontological requirements for collaborative Web-based
experiential learning (pp. 356–357). International Conference on Computers in Education 2002, Auckland, NZ, IEEE Computer Society.
McKay, E., Garner, B. J., & Okamoto, T. (2003). Management of collaborative
Web-based experiential learning. Computers and Advanced Technology
in Education (CATE 2003), June 30–July 2, Rhodes, Greece, IASTED,
pp. 409-414.
McKay, E., Nishihori, Y., & Garner, B.J. (2003). Grant submission: Global emuseum system (GEMS): Innovative adult literacy acquisition platform.
Category ii. Australian National Training Authority (ANTA). Canberra.
McKay, E., Okamoto, T., & Kayama, M. (2001). In C. -H. Lee, S. Lajoie, R.
Mizoguchi, Y. D. Yoo, & B. D. Boulay (Eds.), Ecological design technology in distance learning (pp. 1763–1769). International Conference on
Computer in Education (ICCE/SchoolNet 2001): Enhancement of
Quality Learning Through Information and Communication Technology, Seoul, Korea, Incheon National University of Education.
Merrill, M. D. (2002). Pebble-in-the-pond model for instructional development.
Performance Measurement, 41(7), 41–44 (http://www.ispi.org/pdf/
Merrill.pdf, accessed February 4, 2004).
Merrill, M.D., Tennyson, R.D., & Posey, L.O. (1992). Teaching concepts: An
instructional design guide (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
Merrill, P. F. (1980). Analysis of a procedural task. NSPI Journal (February),
11–16.
Miller, R. (Ed.). (2000). Creating learning communities: Models, resources,
and new ways of thinking about teaching and learning. Brandon, VT:
The Foundation for Educational Renewal, Inc.
Moreno, R. (2001). In T. Okamoto, R. Hartley, Kinshuk, & J. P. Klus (Eds.),
Contributions to learning in an agent-based multimedia environment: A
methods-media distinction (pp. 464–465). IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT 2001): Issues,
Achievements, and Challenges, Madison, Wisconsin. IEEE Computer
Society, LTTF:IEEE.
Neufeld, E., Kusalik, J., & Dobrohoczki, M. (1997). Visual metaphors for
understanding logic program execution. Graphics Interface ‘97, 114–120.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
246 McKay
Nonaka, I. (1994). A dynamic theory of organizational knowledge creation.
Organizational Science, 5(1), 14–37.
Okamoto, T., Kayama, M., & Cristea, A. (2001). In T. Okamoto, R. Hartley,
Kinshuk, & J. P. Klus (Eds.), Proposal of a collaborative learning standardization (pp. 267–268). IEEE InternationaI Conference on Advanced
Learning Technologies (ICALT 2001), Madison, Wisconsin, USA,
LTTF:IEEE.
Ortony, A. (1979). Beyond literal similarity. Psychological Review, 86, 161–
180.
Preece, J. (1994). Human-computer interaction. Harlow, England: AddisonWesley.
Quigley, A. (2002). Closing the gap. eLearn magazine: Education and
technology in perspective (http://elearnmag.org/subpage/sub_page.
cfm?article_pk=2761&page_number_nb=1&title=FEATURE%20STORY.
Accessed February 4, 2004).
Raban, R., & Garner, B. J. (2001). Ontological engineering for conceptual
modeling. KI-2001, Vienna.
Reigeluth, C. M. (1983). Meaningfulness and instruction: Relating what is being
learned to what a student knows. Instructional Science, 12, 197–218.
Reigeluth, C. M. (Ed.). (1983). Instructional design theories and models: An
overview of their current status. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Riding, R., & Cheema, I. (1991). Cognitive styles—An overview and integration. Educational Psychology, 11(3&4), 193–215.
Riding, R. J., & Rayner, S. (1998). Cognitive styles and learning strategies.
United Kingdom: Fulton.
Rohwer, W. D. J. (1980). An elaborative conception of learner differences. In
R. E. Snow, P. A. Federico, & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Aptitude, learning
and instruction (Vol. 2; pp. 23–46). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rosch, E. (1978). Principles of cognition and categorization. In E. Rosch, & B.
Lloyd (Eds.), Cognition and categorization. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Rosenberg, M. J. (2001). E-Learning: Strategies for delivering knowledge
in the digital age. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Salomon, G. (2002). Technology and pedagogy: Why don’t we see the promised
revolution? Educational Technology, 42(2), 71–75.
Salomon, G. (Ed.). (1993). Distributed cognitions: Psychological and educational considerations. Cambridge: University Press Syndicate.
Scandura, J. M., & Dolores, J. (1990). On the representation of higher order
knowledge. Special issue: Cognitive perspectives on higher order knowledge. Journal of Structural Learning, 10(4), 261–269.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cognitive Skill Capabilities in Web-Based Educational Systems
247
Schank, R. C. (2002). Designing world-class e-learning: How IBM, GE,
Harvard Business School, & Columbia University are succeeding at elearning. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Section508. (2001). Workforce Investment Act of 1998, Electronic and Information Technology (http://www.section508.gov/, accessed February 4,
2004).
Sharpe, L., Hu, S., Crawford, L., Gopinathan, S., Moo, S. N., & Wong, A. F. L.
(2001). Multipoint desktop videoconferencing as a collaborative learning
tool for teacher preparation. Educational Technology, 40(5), 61–63.
Sims, R. (2000). An interactive conundrum: Constructs of interactivity and
learning theory. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 16(1),
45–57.
Smith, P. A., & Webb, G. I. (1998). Evaluation of low-level program
visualisation for teaching novice C programmers. Deakin University,
Geelong, Australia: Faculty of Science & Technology: School Computing
and Mathematics.
Sonnier, I. L. (1989). Affective education: Methods and techniques. New
Jersey: Educational Technology Publications.
Suzuki, M. (2000). The International University, Japan: A 25-Year Experiment
in Restructuring University Education. In R. Miller (Ed.), Creating learning communities: Models, resources, and new ways of thinking about
teaching and learning (pp. 80–89). Brandon, VT: The Foundation for
Educational Renewal, Inc.
Tennyson, R. D., & Bagley, C. A. (1991). Structured versus constructed
instructional strategies for improving concept acquisition by domain-experienced and domain-novice learners. Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, Illinois.
Tennyson, R. D., & Cocchiarella, M. J. (1986). An empirically based instruction
design theory for teaching concepts. Review of Educational Research,
56, 40–71.
Tennyson, R. D., & Rasch, M. (1988). Instructional design for the improvement
of learning and cognition. Annual Meeting of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology, Louisiana.
Tennyson, R. D., & Spector, J. M. (1998). System dynamics technologies and
future directions in instructional design. Journal of Structured Learning
and Intellegent Systems, 13(2), 89–101.
Thompson, M. E. (1990). In D. G. Beauchamp (Ed.), The effects of spatial
ability on learning from diagrams & text (pp. 99–103). Annual Conference of the International Visual Literacy Association, (22nd), Illinois.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
248 McKay
Thompson, S. V., & Riding, R. J. (1990). The effect of animated diagrams on
the understanding of a mathematical demonstration in 11- to 14-year-old
pupils. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 60, 93–98.
Vanderheiden, G. C. (1990). Thirty-something (million): Should they be exceptions? (trace.wisc.edu, accessed August 2003).
von Wodtke, M. (1993). Mind over media: Creative thinking skills for
electronic media. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Winn, W. (1981). Effect of attribute highlighting and diagrammatic organization
on identification and classification. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 18(1), 23–32.
Winn, W. (1982a). Visualization in learning and instruction: A cognitive approach. ECTJ, 30(1), 3–25.
Winn, W. (1982b). The role of diagrammatic representation in learning sequenced, identification and classification as a function of verbal and spatial
ability. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 19(1), 79–89.
Winn, W. D. (1980). Visual information processing: A pragmatic approach to the
imagery question. Educational Communication and Technology Journal, 28, 120–133.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
249
Chapter XII
Usable and
Interoperable
E-Learning Resources
Repositories
S. Retalis, University of Piraeus, Greece
Abstract
The Web puts a huge number of learning resources within reach of anyone
with Internet access. In many cases, these valuable resources are difficult
for most users to find in an efficient and effective manner. What makes an
e-learning resources repository much more than a portal is the ability to
discover a learning object and put it to a new use. The purpose of an elearning resources repository is not simply safe storage and delivery but
the ability of their administration, in terms of updating, identifying, utilizing,
sharing and re-using them, which remains a great challenge. Moreover, the
various repositories are either closed systems or systems that allow user
access only through proprietary interfaces and data formats. In brief, there
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
250
Retalis
is lack of interoperability. The aim of this chapter is to present the
requirements of an ideal e-learning resources repository that will provide
services for covering the aforementioned critical issues. We will also
describe such an ideal system could be non-centralized, which is the main
difference from all the system that exists today in the WWW. Peer to Peer
(P2P) based approaches are more flexible than centralized approaches
with several advantages.
Introduction
The Web puts a huge number of learning resources within reach of anyone with
Internet access. One can mention a lot of Web sites that hold learning resources,
such as Canada’s SchoolNet (http://www.schoolnet.ca/), MathGoodies (http://
www.mathgoodies.com), or the U.S.-based site maintained by the Educational
Object Economy Foundation (http://www.eoe.org/), and many more. The National Governors Association in the United States published a report in 2001
mentioning that “58% of all two- and four-year colleges offered distance learning
courses in 1998, while 84% of all colleges expected to do so by 2002” (NGA,
2002). As the number of Web sites continues to grow, search engine retrieval
effectiveness is likely to decline, and there is a need to consider alternative
resource discovery mechanisms (Milstead & Feldman, 1999).
Apart from the “discovery” problem, the learning resource sharing appears as
a major challenge and necessity, because development costs are becoming
significant (Zlomislic & Bates, 2002). Since the old days, educators have been
reusing learning resources. Textbooks, wall maps in geography classes, periodic
tables of the elements in science classes, filmstrips and videos, etc., are
resources that appear in many K–12 classrooms worldwide (Downes, 2001).
Nowadays, coming into the e-learning era, educators and learners need to have
access to as well as to reuse e-learning resources of their interests, needs, and
preferences.
This is why e-learning resources repositories or e-Learning Resources Brokerage Systems (LRBS) have emerged. In very generic terms, an online “brokerage
system” is an online entity that acts as a one-stop electronic marketplace. A
brokerage system has two types of users: those who offer their products for sale
(providers) and those who buy the products offered (consumers). An e-learning
objects brokerage system facilitates the exchange of learning objects among
organizations and individuals.
The term “learning object” is not intended to be restrictive but refers to any digital
asset that can be used to enable teaching or learning (IEEE, 2001). A learning
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
251
object does not imply some specific size or modularity. It may refer to many
different types of objects from simple images or video clips, through complex
questions, to collections of objects arranged in one or more sequences. One
critical issue about learning objects concerns the ability of their administration,
in terms of updating, identifying, utilizing, sharing, and reusing them, which
remains a great challenge, as their number continues to grow at a fast rate. The
only viable solution proposed to this problem is to define a set of metadata on
them, that is, a set of attributes required to fully and adequately describe them
(IEEE, 2001). There are several, highly active, standardization initiatives today
that are concerned with the definition of specifications for learning resources
metadata.
The LRBS usually offer learning objects stored in digital repositories. While
digital repositories, in the broadest sense, are used to store any digital material,
digital repositories for learning objects are considerably more complex, both in
terms of what needs to be stored and of how it may be delivered (Duncan, 2002).
Digital repositories are not mere portals, i.e., gates of access to learning material.
What makes a digital repository much more than a portal is the ability to discover
a learning object and put it to a new use. The purpose of a digital repository is
not simply safe storage and delivery but also reuse and sharing. In a few cases,
LRBS contain digital repositories, but this is not always the case.
An important aspect of LRBS is the categories of users that benefit from them,
by performing certain usage scenarios. Users of digital repositories are mostly
educators and, in general, authors of learning content. They may produce Webbased courses or classroom courses, face-to-face or distance learning, or full
courses or short digital “nuggets.” The LRBS should be neutral to the pedagogic
purposes of the material, just as a library has no influence over where or when
a book is read.
One can mention a lot of e-learning resources repositories. Unfortunately, the
various repositories are either closed systems or systems that allow user access
only through proprietary interfaces and data formats. In brief, there is lack of
interoperability. Interoperability can be defined (IEEE, 1990) as “the ability of
two or more systems or components to exchange information and to use the
information that has been exchanged.” To a user, the lack of interoperability
means the following:
•
•
Applications and their data are isolated from one another.
Redundant data entry is common.
On the contrary, interoperability
•
Ensures that data are entered only once in one application and automatically
propagates to other applications.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
252
Retalis
•
•
Allows applications to exchange data more effectively.
Defines the rules of interaction among software applications.
The aim of this chapter is to present the requirements of an ideal e-learning
resources repository that will provide services for covering the aforementioned
critical issues. We will also describe how this system could be noncentralized,
which is the main difference from the system that exists today in the World Wide
Web (WWW). Peer-to-peer (P2P) based approaches are more flexible than
centralized approaches and have several advantages. For example, imagine that
content consumers, both teachers and students, will benefit from having access
not only to a local repository, but to a whole network, using queries over the
metadata of learning objects that will be distributed (Nejdl et al., 2002).
The structure of this chapter is as follows. We start by analyzing and comparing
the functionalities of various e-learning resources repositories under evaluation.
This analysis and comparison lead to the extraction of the tasks and the
requirements that an ideal e-learning resources repository should support. We
continue by focusing on the special features that an ideal system should present.
The special features will be illustrated by using case diagrams and scenarios in
order to make them more clear to the reader. In the sequence, we will describe
architecture for interoperable repositories. Apart from a central repository
where the user can find learning resources, several other repositories located in
different places in the Internet can be accessed in order to allow the user to
perform a request for specific-learning resources at a network of repositories.
The communication among the repositories can be performed via designated
interfaces, which can import and export the metadata of their learning resources.
The exchange of the metadata can be accomplished through a descriptive and
extensive language such as XML.
E-Learning Resources
Brokerage System
In this section, we focus on the requirements that an e-Learning Objects
Brokerage System must satisfy, after having examined several e-learning
objects brokerage systems. The requirements are grouped in tasks that the
system has to perform. The type of task analysis we have chosen is hierarchical
and borrows ideas from several sources, including Wigley (1985). In a hierarchical task analysis, according to Stammers et al. (1990), each task is analyzed by
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
253
“breaking it into task elements or goals which become increasingly detailed as
the hierarchy progresses.” The most general information is placed at the top of
the hierarchy, with the more specific information following on lower levels.
Currently, there are several e-learning objects brokerage systems operating on
the WWW. Each offers certain functionalities, such as browsing and searching
in a catalog of resources, managing an e-portfolio of favorite resources, booking
resources, annotating resources, contributing resources, etc. Typical examples
of such systems are as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
SeSDL (http://www.sesdl.scotcit.ac.uk)
•
European Knowledge Pool System (http://rubens.cs.kuleuven.ac.be:8989/
lkptm5/intro.jsp)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
World Lecture Hall (http://www.utexas.edu/world/lecture/)
LearnAlberta Portal (http://www.learnalberta.ca/)
CAREO (http://careo.netera.ca)
COLIS (http://www.edna.edu.au/go/browse/0)
SMETE (http://www.smete.org/)
MERLOT (http://www.merlot.org)
Heal (http://www.healcentral.org/index.htm)
Universal Brokerage Platform for Learning Resources (http://
www.educanext.org)
Globewide Network Academy (http://www.gnacademy.org/)
Element K (http://www.elementk.com/)
Online Learning Network (http://www.onlinelearning.net/)
DigitalThink (http://www.digitalthink.com/)
McGraw-Hill Learning Network (MHLN) (http://www.mhln.com/)
IntraLibrary (http://www.intrallect.com/)
Table 1 summarizes the functionality of all the LRBS that have been examined
and gives a comparative view. In Table 1, if a system performs a certain task,
it is given a value of 1; otherwise, it is given a value of 0. In the same table, there
is a column that illustrates the percentage of systems that perform each task.
Some immediate and useful remarks can be drawn from Table 1. First, almost
all the general tasks appear in most LRBS in the sample set. Some general tasks,
such as “contribute resource,” appear to have a lower percentage. This can be
easily explained if we consider that some of the systems in the survey’s set are
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
254
Retalis
Table 1: Comparing brokerage system tasks
TASKS
PLATFORMS
STATS (%)
UBP WLH GNA EL.K OLn Dig.Th McGr SeSDL IntL Heal Colis Careo Merlot Smete LearnA.
Browse catalog of learning objects
93
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
View catalog of learning objects
80
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
Browse learning objects by area/category
93
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
Search learning objects
93
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Simple text search
93
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Advanced search
80
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Customized query search
7
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Sort results
47
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
View learning object details
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
View learning object metadata
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
View comments, reviews, and ratings
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
View cross-referenced learning objects
13
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
Reserve learning object
47
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
Agree with license agreement
13
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
Book learning object
33
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
Add to shopping cart
13
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Manage reserved learning objects
67
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
View list of booked learning objects
33
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
View shopping cart
13
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Commit reservation
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
View history of all reserved learning objects
40
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
Categorize learning objects (e.g., favorites)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Comment, review, or rate a learning object
20
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
Buy learning object (payment)
27
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Learning object delivery
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Connect to system server
60
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
Connect to another site (provider)
60
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
Send to customer (via mail)
13
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
255
Table 1: (continued)
TASKS
PLATFORMS
STATS (%)
UBP WLH GNA EL.K OLn Dig.Th McGr SeSDL IntL Heal Colis Careo Merlot Smete LearnA.
Contribute learning object
60
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
Upload to system server
27
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
Provide link to another site
47
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
Define terms (license agreement)
20
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
Manage contributed learning objects
47
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
View list of contributed learning objects
40
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
Edit/cancel contributed learning object
47
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
Commit contribution (make available)
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
Personal user account
80
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
User profile and preferences
80
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
My library/portofolio of learning objects
60
1
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
Site personalization
7
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Update notification
80
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
Mailing list
20
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
Newsletter
33
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
What´s new/upcoming updates
60
1
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
System informative material
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Help manual
73
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
F.A.Q.
73
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
Site map
53
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
Terms of use
73
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
Glossary (of technical terms)
20
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
Company informative material
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Company profile (about us)
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Partners and alliances
87
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
News and events/calendar
67
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
Contact system personnel
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
E-mail (contact us)
100
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
256
Retalis
Table 1: (continued)
TASKS
PLATFORMS
STATS (%)
UBP WLH GNA EL.K OLn Dig.Th McGr SeSDL IntL Heal Colis Careo Merlot Smete LearnA.
Support request form
13
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Provide feedback form
40
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
Multilanguage support
73
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
Multilanguage learning objects
67
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
Multilanguage system
13
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
Specialized features
53
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
Discussion forum
33
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
Advising services
13
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Educational tools/other material
33
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
actually “providers” of e-learning content and not open “brokers,” and thus, they
do not support contribution of user material.
Regarding “browsing,” there is nothing much to be said, because, as expected,
almost all systems support this feature. Regarding the issue of searching the
learning content, almost all systems provide some sort of simple text search.
However, only about three out of four of the systems provide an option for
advanced search and sorting of the results, and even worse, only a small
percentage allows for actual customized query-based search. Although “viewing
a resource’s details” is also implemented by all systems, this feature is limited
to viewing a resource’s metadata. Only few systems offer “previewing” of the
material or an adequate summary. Comments and ratings from other users and
cross-referenced resources are also absent from most systems.
As Table 1 indicates, about half of the systems support “reservation of
resources.” The user is therefore forced to commit to his or her choice and
proceed to the resource delivery or payment, without having the option of
collectively reviewing his or her choices. Systems that have implemented the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
257
resource-reserving feature provide only a limited functionality on managing the
reserved resources, by providing an option to view the reserved resources and
cancel a reservation. No system provides functionality about viewing all the
reserved resources (and not just those of the last transaction), annotating them
and categorizing them.
We can, also, observe that some systems that sell e-learning content do not
support a very critical feature in the selling process, namely, the “online
payment” feature. This should be considered as a drawback for such systems,
because it forces the user to interrupt a process and get involved in a separate
process in order to achieve his or her goal. “Resource delivery” is implemented
by all systems, because this is the ultimate goal of an LRBS. The delivery of the
resource can be either by downloading from the system server or by connecting
to some external site, depending on the system’s architecture and goals. It is also
possible that some material may be delivered via mail to the customer.
“Contribution of resource” is a feature that clearly does not refer to all LRBS.
But even systems that allow the contribution of resources usually do so partially,
because most of them do not allow the user to specify the conditions under which
the resource is distributed or do not allow the removal of a contributed resource.
Again, the user is forced to commit early to his or her choice. It should be possible
for the user to contribute a resource and keep it private, until the user decides
to offer it openly.
Although a significant percentage of the systems provide personal user accounts,
most of them do not utilize this beyond some basic level. Only few systems allow
for personalization based on the users’ preferences. LRBS update their content
often and should therefore provide some mechanism for notifying their users.
Some systems do not comply with this requirement, while others do so in more
than one way.
All the systems provide “help” in more than one form, predominantly, the FAQ
form. It is, however, surprising that only about three out of four of the systems
provide an actual system manual, and that only one out of four systems provide
a glossary of technical terms that may be abundant in LRBS. All systems provide
an e-mail address so to the user can contact the system’s personnel for support
or feedback. However, only a small percentage provides more sophisticated and
structured ways to submit a support request or provide feedback.
An interesting point is that although nearly three out of four of the systems allow
and properly support multilingual content, only a small percentage of the systems
account for multilingual support within the system itself. Finally, we see that
more than half of the systems provide additional specialized features of some
sort, with the ones most popular being the option for discussion forums and
educational tools.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
258
Retalis
Functionality and Services
When examining the functionality and the services offered by the brokers, one
can create a superset of these functions and form the ideal functionality. This
superset is presented in this section and can be considered the requirements
specifications for an “ideal” e-learning objects brokerage system.
The major tasks that LRBS perform are as follows:
1.
Browse catalog of resources
2.
Search resources
3.
View resource details
4.
Reserve details
5.
Manage reserved resource
6.
Buy resource (payment)
7.
Deliver resource
8.
Contribute resource
9.
Manage contributed resources
10. Annotate resource
11. Offer personal user account
12. Update notification
13. Provide system informative material
14. Provide company informative material
15. Contact system personnel
16. Offer multilanguage support
17. Offer specialized features
It is evident that every system should provide some way of browsing and
searching for the offered resources. It is cleared that a simple text search is
not sufficient, and some sorting of the search results should be available.
Therefore, we propose that an ideal e-learning objects brokerage system
implements the following two general tasks: “browse catalog of resources” and
“search resources.” Browsing should concern all resources on a specific (easily
selected) area/category. As for searching, in addition to the simple text search,
an advanced and customized search option should be available. The results
should be presented, after being sorted, either alphabetically, by relevance, by
category, by last update, or by any other metadata information available for the
resources.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
259
When viewing the details of a selected resource, it is useful for the user to view,
in addition to the metadata available for the resource, some other indicative
information. This includes some sample material or a summary/abstract of the
resource, depending on each case. Users also seem to find comments and ratings
by other users that have used the same resource to be useful. The e-learning
objects brokerage system should also offer cross-references to other resources
that were also used by users of a given resource. This seems to provide the user
with a very focused and high relevancy search option, as illustrated by sites like
“Amazon” and “Google” (with the option “Find similar pages”).
In the case that an e-learning objects brokerage system requires some form of
resource reservation (as in brokerage platforms or providers of e-learning
content), the system should provide the user with the option to view the “license
agreement” under which the reservation (or buying) of resources takes place, at
any time (before, during, or after the reservation takes place). The “license
agreement” can be either specific to each resource (as in brokerage platforms,
where resources have different providers) or common to all resources (as in
providers of e-learning content, where the provider offers all resources). The
user should have the “Reserve resource” option available, without being forced
to commit to his or her choice, until the user is ready to proceed to the next step
(resource delivery or payment).
Except for reserving a resource, the user should also be able to somehow
manage the reserved resources. This option is not limited to viewing the
resources reserved during the user’s last transaction but may (preferably)
include all the reservations (that were actually committed) by the user in the past.
This allows the user to manipulate this list by designating his or her favorite
resources, recommend a resource for other users, rate a resource, and comment
(on usefulness, relevance to some topic, or any other useful criterion). The user
can also categorize the resources to custom categories and manage the
resources (actually links to the resources). This includes canceling an already
reserved resource or committing to the reservation (at which time the resource’s
provider should be notified, and not prior to that time).
The option to buy a resource is critical in LRBS that “sell” e-learning content
online. Although the payment stage of a transaction can be carried out via
alternative offline methods (e.g., telephone or mail order), we feel that because
the rest of the transaction is completed online, so must the payment stage. The
subtasks for implementing this requirement are well known and need not be
discussed here. We should note, however, that the payment stage should be in
accordance with the reservation of resources and the commitment requirement
as explained above. Hence, the user should be allowed to reserve and cancel the
reservation for any number of resources before committing and paying for them.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
260
Retalis
Regarding the delivery of resources, this can be implemented depending on the
resource type, system category, terms of resource sharing (e.g., use once,
unlimited use), and its digital rights, in general. This could include presenting the
e-learning material onscreen, downloading the material to a local media, or
linking to a Web site. In case an e-learning brokerage system contains a digital
repository, it will be able to provide access to the e-learning content by itself. In
any other case, it should provide only access details that should have already
been given by the content provider as an addition to the standard learning object
metadata.
Complementary to the resource delivery is the option to contribute a resource.
This is not required by all LRBS, but it is necessary for digital repositories. When
contributing a resource, the user should be able to either provide a link to the
resource or upload the material to the system server, according to the desired
functionality of the system. In any case, the user should be able to clearly define
the intended viewers of the resource and the conditions under which the resource
may be used, i.e., the digital rights. The system is responsible to uphold any
constraints defined on the resources, provided that these comply with the
system’s policy.
An assistant functionality to contributing a resource is the “Manage contributed
resources” feature. In addition to viewing the resources contributed by a userprovider, the user should have the option to edit a contributed resource or even
cancel a contribution and withdraw the resource, again given that this complies
with the system’s policy. Last, the user has the option to make a contribution
public and thus commit to his or her contribution.
The user should be provided with an option to annotate a resource and store the
annotations in an annotation repository. The user should be able to comment on
the resource, using either free text or specific notations, e.g., “star system” for
rating the quality of the resource. There should be an authentication mechanism
for each user, because there can be two kinds of annotations: the private ones
and the public ones. Each annotation object should be accompanied by metadata
specifying the author, a time stamp, the kind (e.g., “criticism,” “praise,” etc.).
Additionally, other relevant subtasks are to filter and retrieve annotation sets
based on their metadata.
The option to create a personal user account is almost a necessity in e-learning
objects brokerage systems. This allows the system to keep personal user
information (e.g., the reserved resources), to contact the user for updates, and
to adjust to each user’s individual needs. The latter is important in order to
provide a personalized and thus efficient and focused use of the system, because
each user has unique expectations from the system.
Regarding the “Update notification” option, this should be provided upon the
user’s request only, and the user should be able to terminate it at any time. The
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
261
information provided should be relevant to the user as possible, something that
can be achieved by utilizing the user’s personal preferences. The notification
should be made both online (e.g., in the home page or some specific news page)
and via e-mail (e.g., mailing list or newsletter), according to the user’s request.
An important feature of any system is to provide informative material about the
system. This material can and should take many different forms, including
manual, FAQ, site map, and glossary. The user should have the option to select
the form with which he or she feels most comfortable with and believes it can
most efficiently and accurately provide the needed information. It is also
important that the information be presented modularly, starting from help on the
basic system functionality and moving to the more advanced functionality upon
user request. Lists of steps that guide the user should be used whenever possible,
instead of plain text.
The systems should also provide company informative material that although
not directly related to the system itself, may provide useful information to some
users. This information should be clearly marked and accessible but should not
interfere with the system’s functionality and documentation. The latter will result
in confusing the user and blurring the system’s intended goals and capabilities.
Besides reading precompiled help material, the system should also provide an
option to contact the system personnel. The user should have the option to
contact (via e-mail, phone, or online live chat, according to the importance of the
request) the system personnel and get answers to specific questions or provide
feedback about the system. Support and feedback should be preferably implemented via form completion. The structured input guides the user and allows for
better processing of information.
The multilanguage support feature should be considered among the most
important features of an LRBS. A system that provides e-learning content should
be able to also address the needs of foreign users that may not master the
language of the system. This, of course, is not limited to providing multilanguage
resources, which is equally important. The entire system documentation and
online information (except contributed resources) should be able to be translated
to other languages. A clearly marked way should be provided to toggle between
languages, appearing (preferably) on the home page (or every page) through
icons (e.g., country flags).
The above covers the basic requirements of LRBS. In addition, some specialized features may also be present, depending on the system’s goals. Such
features include discussion forums, glossaries, etc. Although these features are
not considered to be essential, when implemented and integrated correctly, they
can advance a system’s overall image.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
262
Retalis
Designing an Ideal
Decentralized System
Most of the existing LRBS are based on a centralized, nondistributed architecture. All the offered learning resources can be found in a central repository of
data to which the broker has access. The research and development challenge
is to build systems with architectures of distributed data repositories. Apart from
a central data repository, where the broker can find its own learning resources,
several other data repositories located in different places on the Internet can
connect to such a decentralized brokerage system. In particular, each e-learning
resources brokerage system or any other independent digital repository can
register to this brokerage system. Whenever a user performs a request to the
broker for specific learning resources, the broker will search in its digital
repository and communicate with the external brokerage systems or digital
repositories. The communication with the other systems can be performed via
designated interfaces, which can import and export the metadata of their learning
resources. The exchange of metadata can be accomplished through a descriptive
and extensive language such as XML. Importing the XML representation of
metadata, the broker can be informed about the kinds of learning resources that
other systems possess. Figure 1 illustrates an overview of the design of a
decentralized e-learning objects brokerage system.
Another additional functionality that LRBS should support is the synchronization of the metadata descriptions of their learning resources. A synchronization process means that a LRBS could decide to provide a replicate of the
metadata descriptions of their learning resources to another system, e.g., for
Figure 1: Overview of the design of a decentralized e-learning brokerage
system
Digital
Repository 1
synchronise
metadata
User 1
request
response
request
response
response
request
User 2
Broker Agent
request
response
response
synchronise
metadata
response
request
Digital
Repository 2
synchronise
metadata
User n
request
Digital
Repository n
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
263
wider dissemination of their resources. In this case, each alteration, creation, and
deletion of the metadata description of a learning resource could appear in more
than one LRBS. The LRBS will collaborate in order to perform an update or an
insert or delete command at their remote metadata repositories.
Following this design principle, a brokerage system can be characterized from an
open and interoperable architecture, where various and different delivery
systems and repositories that offer learning resources can communicate. The
basic prerequisite for enabling interoperability is that each digital repository
should fully support the same metadata standard (e.g., IMS LOM, IEEE LOM,
etc.).
System Implementation
In order for the above communication to be established, a specific interface for
each digital repository must be developed. Each interface is being implemented
as a “Java Web Service” and is responsible for the achievement of the
Figure 2: System architecture and application flow
Broker Agent
Java Web
Client
Import
LOM System
Metadata
XML file
XML
Request
LR
Metadata
XML
Request
Import
LOM System
Metadata
XML file
User 1
Results
Results
Results
Request
Export
LOM System
Metadata
XML file
Internet
XML
LR
Metadata
Interface
XML
Request
Java
Web Service
LOM
metadata
Query
LRBS
System 1
Digital Repository
Export
LOM System
Metadata
XML file
XML
LR
Metadata
XML
Request
Java
Web Service
User n
Request
Interface
LOM
metadata
Query
LRBS
System n
Digital Repository
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
264
Retalis
communication between the repository and the broker. This communication will
be based on the interchange of metadata files. The broker-agent will compose
a Java Web client that will communicate with each Java Web service. Figure 2
illustrates the architecture of the described system, presenting the information
flow inside the application.
The first thing that has to be done is the registration process. Through that
process, each digital repository registers to our system. The administrator of the
repository has to define the information that the search engine needs in order to
communicate with the repository. The information contains the IP address or
host name of its interface and the port number in which the interface will listen
for queries from the search engine. In a future version of the implementation
work, the interface will also be able to export the taxonomy of its metadata
structure. The search engine will register the repository and provide “guidance”
on the communication protocol. Particularly, the search engine will give the
method name that each interface must implement in order to be able to provide
the requested metadata. It will also give the way it will call that method and the
arguments that needed to be passed through the call. That method will be
standard for all the interfaces that want to communicate with our system.
The application flow starts from the time a user wants to search for learning
resources (Request). After the user enters the selection criteria, the broker
agent (or search engine) calls the interface of each digital repository (through the
given IP address and port number) and passes, through the predefined method,
the user request/query through an XML file (XML Request).
The interface of the LRBS interacts with its LOM subsystem when passing its
query (Query). The LOM subsystem responds to the interface returning the
LOM Metadata that satisfy the query (LOM Metadata). Once the interface has
the requested metadata, it transforms the metadata into an XML format and
returns them to the broker agent (XML LR Metadata). Eventually, the broker
agent returns the metadata on the user’s screen in a readable format (Results).
Each one of the LRBS has an interface, which is implemented as a Web service.
The interface implementation is based on the LOM System and is independent
from the search engine’s implementation. The only requirement in order for the
search engine–interface communication to be established is the existence of a
method that is called “getLRMetadata(XMLQuery)”. The method gets as an
argument an XML file that contains the query of the metadata that the user
requests and returns to the search engine an XML file that contains the LR
Metadata that the LOM System returns to its interface/Web service. Figure 3
illustrates a sequence diagram that describes the exchange of the metadata.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
265
Figure 3: Metadata exchange
: User
: SearchEngine
: Web Service
: LOM System
searchForMetadata(SearchForm)
getLRMetadata(XMLQuery)
getLom(SQLQuery)
LOM Metadata
XML LR Metadata
LR Metadata
Discussion
The idea of interoperable LRBS is becoming popular. Several groups have
started experimenting and standardizing the interoperability process. The IMS
Digital Repositories Interoperability (DRI) specification aims to provide recommendations for the interoperation of the most common repository functions. The
ultimate aim is to make recommendations that could be turned to implementable
services via common interfaces (IMS, 2001). DRI defines a general reference
model that captures all instances of possible implementations, such as the following:
•
•
A user searching a repository directly
•
A user conducting a search across repositories via a Harvest intermediary
(acting as an aggregator)
A user conducting a search across repositories via a Search Gateway
intermediary (acting as a translator)
At technical level Z39.50 (http://lcweb.loc.gov/z3950/agency/), which is widely
used for searching at digital libraries, a searcher is permitted to use the familiar
user interface of the local system to search the local library catalog as well as
any remote database system that supports the standard. While Z39.50 is
assumed to be used for searching systems such as digital libraries, XQuery is
recommended as the preferred query mechanism for XML-based learning object
repositories.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
266
Retalis
Another group that is working on a test bed for a network of distributed
repositories using SOAP-based messaging is the Learning Objects Network,
Inc. (http://www.learningobjectsnetwork.com/). Learning Objects Network,
Inc. (LON) demonstrated a working model using messaging and metadata
search capabilities like that recommended in the IMS DRI specifications at the
January 2002 IMS meetings in Cambridge, MA.
Furthermore, The OpenURL is a framework for an open and context-sensitive
method of reference linking that is gaining widespread acceptance in the
publishing and library communities. Rather than seeking to be independent of
physical location, the advantage of OpenURL resolution is finding the appropriate copy or copies of an item that are stored in multiple locations (see http://
www.sfxit.com/openurl/openurl.html for more information). Although OpenURL
has been developed in the context of scholarly literature, a framework for
generalizing the model to other domains has been put forward (the ‘Bison-Futé’
model—see http://www.dlib.org/dlib/july01/vandesompel/07vandesompel.html).
This generalized model could be used as the basis for adoption within the IMS
DRI community.
On the JISC-funded OLIVE project, there is ongoing research and development
in the distributed querying of learning object repositories. Basically allowing
LMS and, in their case, OpenURL resolves to find and retrieve learning objects
such as online courses. OpenURL has been fast-tracked by NISO for adoption
as a NISO standard (http://www.niso.org/).
Recognizing the fact that learning objects are still a new concept as well as the
reusability, exchange, and interoperability of learning resources are significant
issues, we have to think of possible obstacles that delay the R&D achievements.
These obstacles are as follows:
1.
The lack of consensus about the definition and description of learning
objects as well as their granularity. Perceptions about the nature and size
of learning objects differ. One could easily find out that the main learning
objects repositories do not conform to the LOM standards. For example,
while IntraLibrary (http://www.intrallect.com/) and Merlot (http://
www.merlot.org/) are IMS compliant, Belle/Careo (http://careo.netera.ca/)
is using the CanCore protocol, which is a simplification and interpretation
of the 86 elements of the IMS Learning Resource Metadata Information
Model. Moreover, Colis (EdNA) (http://www.edna.edu.au/go/browse/0/)
depends on the EdNA Metadata Standard, which is based on Dublin Core
Metadata Element Set. Other R&D groups have proposed quite different
sets of metadata (in the best case, some of them are extended versions of
the IMS standard) in order to describe Web-based multimedia teaching
materials in a specific domain. For example, Heal (http://
www.healcentral.org/) has developed a standard metadata specification
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
267
for sharing medical education multimedia based on the IMS standard. Other
ideas come around, like the ones proposed in the UNIVERSAL project
(http://www.educanext.org): “LOM does not propose learning resource
types, which would be required for categorizing educational activities. At
the Universal Brokering Platform, the following educational activity types
are introduced: case study, course, course unit, exam, exercise, experiment,
group work, lecture, presentation, and project.” Furthermore, despite the
fact that sites like Math Goodies, which is a free math help site featuring
interactive lessons, homework help, worksheets, etc., do not use LOM
description, they are very popular. Users prefer resources like lesson plans
that do not entirely fit into a LO category.
2.
The lack of clarity on how to reuse learning objects and create new
learning resources. It is evident that learning objects cannot work like
Lego. On the one hand, we could affirm that instructional design methods,
which could effectively support the process of aggregating course content,
do not exist. In fact, there are some ideas similar to that presented by
Douglas (2001) that propose a component-based instructional development
process, and Douglas argues that we should adopt/adapt object-oriented
software design methods. On the other hand, authoring tools and learning
content management systems (or even learning management systems) are
not advanced enough to create content “on-the-fly” from learning objects.
Very few commercial products of this type exist. One prominent example
of such a tool could be the Designer’s Edge (http://www.allencomm.com/
products/authoring_design/designer/). The unavailability of usable tools is
surprising, because research efforts have only started with the European
Union DELTA program [e.g., DIScourse project (http://www.itd.ge.cnr.it/
sarti/papers/mispelkampsarti.html)]. The reusability of LOs is still a tacit
knowledge.
3.
The insufficient description of the “behavior” of learning objects.
Despite the fact that there are many attributes in learning object metadata
description, they do not fully capture the “behavior” of a learning object. A
learning object is created with specific learning objectives in mind, holds
specific behavior, and interoperates with surrounding learning objects.
Isolating a learning object and reusing it means that either this learning
object can remain intact, because it might fit well to the new learning
context, or this learning object needs changes. In the latter and most usual
case, not only do technological problems arise but also instructional. A
learning object does not only have its own characteristics and learning
value, but its relationship with other learning objects offers additional
learning experiences. Descriptive models such as CLEO or educational
modeling languages such as EML have been suggested. However, we
should also design models for the authoring/aggregation of learning content.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
268
Retalis
We need to adapt formal design models and methods from the field of
hypermedia engineering (e.g., OOHDM, RMM, etc.). Such models will
show which learning object consists of a learning application and how these
learning objects are interrelated. Of course, these models as well as their
formal notations (and bindings) should be compatible with the existing (or
the ones that might arise) learning technology standards like the Content
Packaging, Learning Design, etc. One approach akin to a modeling notation
in education is concept mapping (Gaines & Shaw, 1996), which might be
proven valuable if combined by the unified modeling language (UML)
(probably extended using its extension mechanisms).
Concluding, the positive answer to the question of whether it is feasible to aim
at interoperation of LRBS for the automatic learning resources reusability and
recreation depends on progress in conceptual, learning, social, and technological
issues. The technological issues are the easiest to be solved. Consensus at
conceptual, learning, and social levels is difficult to achieve but not impossible.
Standardization can help, as well as research attempts along road maps, as the
one published by Duval and Hodgins (2003).
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of the European Commission
through grants HPRI-CT-1999-00026 (the TRACS Programme at EPCC) and
the IST UNIVERSAL project. Many thanks to P. Avgeriou, P. Constantinou, I.
Stavrou, and L. Michael for their reviews and valuable feedback on the draft
versions of this chapter.
References
Douglas, I. W. (2001). Instructional design based on reusable learning objects:
Applying lessons of object-oriented software engineering to learning
systems design. Proceedings of the 31st ASEE/IEEE Frontiers in
Education Conference, October 10–13, 2001. Reno, NV.
Downes, S. (2001). Learning objects: Resources for distance education worldwide. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, July.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Usable and Interoperable E-Learning Resources Repositories
269
Duncan, C. (2002). Digital repositories: The back office of e-learning or all
learning. 9th International Conference ALT-C 2002: Learning technologies for communication, September 9–11. University of Sunderland,
Sunderland.
Duval, E., & Hodgins, W. (2003). A LOM research agenda. The 12th International World Wide Web Conference, May 20–24, 2003. Budapest,
Hungary.
Gaines, B. R., & Shaw, M. L. G. (1996). Web map: Concept mapping on the
Web. Proceedings of the fourth international World Wide Web conference (Vol. 1, Issue 1). Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://
www.w3j.com/1/gaines.134/paper/134.html
IEEE. (1990) IEEE standard computer dictionary: A compilation of IEEE
standard computer glossaries. New York: IEEE.
IEEE, Learning Technology Standards Committee (LTSC). (2001). Draft
standard for learning object metadata (LOM), Draft 6.4, 2001.
IMS. (2001). IMS digital repositories interoperability—Core functions
information model. Revision: January 13, 2003.
Milstead, J., & Feldman, S. (1999). Metadata: Cataloging by any other name...
Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http://www.onlinemag.net/OL1999/
milstead1.html
National Governors Association. (2001). The state of e-learning in the states,
NGA report. Retrieved June 6, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://
www.nga.org/cda/files/060601ELEARNING.pdf
Nejdl, W., Wolf, B., Qu, C., Decker, S., Sintek, M., Naeve, A., Nilsson, M.,
Palmer, M., & Risch, T. (2000). Edutella: A P2P networking infrastructure
based on RDF. WWW2002, May 7–11. Honolulu, Hawaii. (ACM 1-58113449-5/02/0005)
Stammers, R., Carey, M., & Astley, J. (1990). Task analysis. In J. Wilson, &
E. N. Corlet (Eds.), Evaluation of human work (Chapter 6). Bristol, PA:
Taylor & Francis.
Wigley, W. (1985). INPO/Industry job and task analysis efforts. Proceedings
of the IEEE Third Conference on Human Factors and Power Plants.
Zlomislic, S., & Bates, A. W. (2002). Assessing the costs and benefits of
telelearning: A case study from the University of British Columbia. Reports
from the NCE-Telelearning project entitled “Developing and Applying a
Cost-Benefit Model for Assessing Telelearning,” Telelearning Networks
of Centers of Excellence (http://research.cstudies.ubc.ca/nce/
EDST565.pdf).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
270
Retalis
Part III
Applications and
Case Studies
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia and AIDS Prevention: A Case Study 271
Chapter XIII
Interactive Multimedia
and AIDS Prevention:
A Case Study
José L. Rodríguez Illera, University of Barcelona, Spain
Abstract
Using multimedia applications to inform or to train is very different than
using them for changing attitudes. The documented and discussed project
started with the perspective that a large proportion of young people,
despite knowing how AIDS might be contracted, still adopt risk behaviors.
A multimedia role play application was designed to include both information
and game layers. The game introduces complex situations using video
stories, and then lets the users construct different narratives by choosing
between behavior alternatives. The result of each narrative is related to
contracting the disease or not. A discussion about role playing games
follows, on the limits of this approach, as well as the kind of interactivity
and the forms of delayed feedback given.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
272 Rodríguez Illera
Introduction
This chapter provides a detailed description of a multimedia AIDS prevention
project undertaken jointly by research teams in Italy and Spain. The project,
“AIDS: Interactive Situations,” was funded by the European Union and resulted
in the setting up of a Web site and the production of a hybrid CD-ROM, of which
more than 40,000 copies were distributed, through both public and private
channels, in the two participating countries between 1999 and 2000. The chapter
is divided in five parts: a description of the project rationale and an outlining of
its objectives; a description of the project’s contents; a description of the
multimedia technology used and the interactive approach incorporated; a discussion of the project; and conclusions reached.
Project Rationale and Objectives
AIDS prevention is a constant concern of the education and health authorities.
Prevention campaigns are frequently mounted, and wide use of the mass media
is made in conveying the message. However, interactive media have only rarely
been used for this purpose.
At the start of the 1990s, the only software available were HyperCard stacks and
similar programs containing AIDS fact files and information about the ways in
which the disease might be contracted, and a number of simulation programs
based on system dynamics models that demonstrated the evolution of the disease
at a time when it was thought to be fatal in a period between 10 and 15 years
(González, 1995). Multimedia programs were later developed, but their primary
purpose was as a source of medical information (AIDS 2000 Foundation). Other
programs included a computer game that allowed the study of epidemics
throughout history (Fundació LaCaixa, 1995).
In developing this project, “AIDS: Interactive Situations,” the aim was to provide
a different focus. In fact, by the mid-1990s, most adolescents (here, and
throughout the chapter we refer solely to adolescents in the Western world) had
a good grounding in the basics of AIDS prevention, thanks in large measure to
the prevention campaigns. Yet, despite knowing how the disease might be
contracted, a large proportion of adolescents still adopted risk behaviors. This
discrepancy between the information received and the attitudes that guide their
behavior is a constant feature among adolescents.
The main aim of this project was, therefore, to focus on the subjects’ perceptions
of risk situations and the consequences of their behaviors. The other objective
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia and AIDS Prevention: A Case Study 273
of the project involved the provision of decision-making techniques in situations
of risk, always exemplified by the failure to use a condom in heterosexual
relations.
Contents and Educational Design
The results of the project’s psychological and educational analyses indicated the
type of contents and transformations required. We concluded that the best
approach was to include a purely informative content, offering information about
the disease and the ways in which it might be transmitted, plus information
describing its psychological and social features. This information serves as a
ready reference for schools and can also be consulted on an individual basis. As
we shall see later, it serves an additional function, one that we consider to be of
considerable importance. This information “layer” is included in a straightforward hypertext format and aims above all to be user friendly. It also incorporates
a number of further multimedia tools, including a map of AIDS information
centers. The contents are organized in five sections:
1.
The disease: This section contains information about HIV, how the virus
is produced, how it acts on the organism, etc.
2.
Prevention: This section allows the user to acquire information about how
to prevent AIDS, which sexual practices involve the greatest and least risk,
and how to use male and female condoms.
3.
The AIDS test: This section explains when one should take the AIDS test,
how to go about taking it, and how to interpret the results.
4.
Ideas and behaviors: This section focuses on techniques to become more
assertive, including negotiation and dialogue at times of conflict, understanding oneself better, etc.
5.
To find out more: this section lists books, songs, films, and Internet Web
sites that contain information about AIDS.
The main content, however, comprises an interactive role-playing game. This
format was selected as it was considered the best way to meet the aims of
changing attitudes and of simulating the negotiation and dialogue that occurs in
situations of risk. In Tonks’ (1996) review of techniques for providing information about AIDS and changing attitudes about the disease, role-playing games
appear as the basic tool, although not as part of a multimedia application—which
in Tonk’s review are considered only in their audiovisual format. Role-playing
games offer many advantages, above all the possibility of testing the skills that
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
274 Rodríguez Illera
are being learned or developed in a safe environment. Furthermore, role play
allows great flexibility in terms of content, and it is typically used without any
multimedia components.
The role play is based around the metaphor of a summer trip taken by a group
of friends around Europe. In this group, there is a couple in a steady relationship
who have to deal with a number of different situations. The program user has to
choose at the outset whether to be the male or female character and has to
behave in accordance with this choice throughout the journey, as the content
varies depending on the role that has been selected. The choice of character does
not depend on the sex of the player, given that the game can be played in a group
or as part of a class activity within a school, but it conditions the way in which
the game develops, presenting a particular point of view in each situation. In fact,
we believe that this initial choice constitutes the user’s main point of identification with the game, because the player then has to interact in the program as if
he or she were one of the characters and to adopt what they consider to be the
character’s point of view.
The role play is organized around six situations: the first acts as an introduction,
the next four present risk situations, and the last tells the user the results of the
decisions he or she has taken. Each of the four risk situations is organized in a
similar manner: first, a narrative section is presented in which a complex situation
is introduced, followed by an interactive section in which decisions are made.
Figure 1: Flow diagram of the game
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia and AIDS Prevention: A Case Study 275
This common format ensures that the main story line in the game is easily
followed, as the metaphoric journey is always brought to a halt by a situation that
is presented in a similar way, and after the user has made the required decisions,
he or she can continue on the journey, whatever happens. Decisions have to be
taken: the user cannot proceed with the game if decisions are not made, and the
user’s results are stored and not shown until the end of the game. Figure 1 shows
the overall organization of the game, although the decision-making tree diagram
only shows the first two levels.
Each situation involves the use of condoms in heterosexual relationships, but
each emphasizes a different ability that we wish to strengthen within the general
framework of negotiating condom use: the first is the ability to stand by one’s
opinions in a dialogue with one’s partner, the second is resisting group pressure,
the third includes the situations that arise when changing partners, and the fourth
includes the decisions that are made under the influence of alcohol and drugs. In
addition to these main abilities, each situation presents a considerable amount of
informative material contained within the dialogues, both in the video and in the
decision-making section. This information, at times debatable as it is presented
as the opinion of one of the characters, is contained within the project’s
hypertext.
The choice of content is important in several respects: first because of the
abilities described above, second because of the physical settings in which the
story unfolds, third because of the overall credibility of the situations, and fourth
because of the language presented within the dialogues.
The Educational Design
Given the complexity of the psychological and pedagogical aspects of the project,
it is extremely difficult to find one conceptual framework that can support its
educational design. In general, educational multimedia applications tend to use
a cognitive theoretical framework or, on occasion, a constructivist one (Duffy et
al., 1992; Duffy & Cunningham, 1996). However, in most cases, applications are
not designed on the basis of a single theoretical viewpoint but use several to try
to resolve a specific instructional problem.
The main feature that distinguishes multimedia projects such as the present one
from approaches that seek to automate instructional design is that they are driven
both by the problem and by the theoretical frameworks of the designers. That is,
inside specific theoretical orientations, instructional and learning strategies are
sought that make it possible to resolve the problem—a bricolage-type activity.
Determining what is most important is only possible if the characteristics of each
particular case are taken into account.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
276 Rodríguez Illera
For the most part, multimedia role plays such as “AIDS: Interactive Situations”
use general educational principles of constructivist type, albeit in combination
(bricolage) with other related approaches. These principles have been studied
on many occasions, though the analysis has been largely generic and has not been
applied to specific cases of educational multimedia applications. We can speak
of three fundamental principles that guide the educational design:
1.
The individual construction of meaning
2.
The situated character of cognition and learning
3.
The play environment as a construction of the player’s identity
The Individual Construction of Meaning
This is the fundamental principle of constructivist approaches and is what
distinguishes them from teaching models that are based on the transmission of
knowledge. Knowledge is constructed by integrating meaning (or sense) into
preexisting, personal structures.
In our case, the content is structured according to the model of interaction
discussed above, that is, by allowing the pupils to select their own paths by means
of the choices that they make. Participants construct their own path, or narrative,
by choosing from the many alternatives that the game allows. In contrast, many
of the programs that merely provide information on AIDS, without offering other
activities (interesting as they are in their own right) can be considered as merely
transmitting a particular type of knowledge (medical, psychological, or social).
The construction of meaning requires the involvement of the learner so that the
new knowledge is integrated and internalized, even in the case of a simple activity
such as deciding how a story is going to develop.
The Situated Character of Cognition and Learning
The concept of “situated learning and cognition” (Lave, 1988, 1990) which is a
radical critique of the cognitivist vision, stresses the need to place learners in
situations that are meaningful to them. It considers that all learning is linked to
the social situation or context in which it is produced. In the case under analysis
here, this view of learning has developed into the current notion of “learning
communities” and finds its expression in the attempt to make the role play a
“situated activity.” “Situated activity” is an activity that is both meaningful and
credible: meaningful because it focuses on a problem that is important to the
subjects and credible because it is life-like (in spite of the inevitable fact that it
is presented by means of a computer screen).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia and AIDS Prevention: A Case Study 277
Credibility is the main characteristic in each of the situations contained within a
role play, because it is impossible to get a subject involved if he or she does not
consider the situation to be realistic. This realism is achieved by the careful study
and use of three types of factors: physical, linguistic, and narrative:
1.
Physical. The situations are credible as far as the physical setting and the
characters’ ways of dressing and moving are concerned. The actors
chosen were of ages between 16 and 20 and were encouraged to give their
performances as spontaneously as possible. Furthermore, the interactive
situations were played out in settings not unfamiliar to young people: a hotel
room, a beach after sunset, a discotheque, and a party in the house of
friends.
2.
Linguistic. As in other simulations or pseudosimulations, in role plays such
as this, it is the content that conditions the simulation and the realism of the
situations, and this is primarily language-based: the game is largely concerned with taking decisions but also with following the reasoning that leads
to a decision and, finally, opting between two alternatives that represent
opposite, or markedly different, points of view. For this reason, the
characters’ ways of speaking had to be selected with particular care in
order to capture as closely as possible the way young people express
themselves.
3.
Narrative. The game’s story line is organized around the metaphor of a
journey. To ensure realism, the journey involves a group of friends visiting
various European cities one summer by train. At each stop, a new situation
can be introduced, and in this way, the journey serves as a narrative thread
linking each situation (a thread that would have been difficult to find if the
situations had occurred as isolated incidents). Having said this, however,
each situation is independent of those that precede it and stands as a
separate situation in its own right, with its own problem and solution.
The outcomes of each decision are not revealed, however, until some months
after the holiday. On the one hand, it needs to be like this in order to give greater
realism to the game, as there exists the so-called “window period” during which
infection with the AIDS virus cannot be diagnosed, even when it has occurred.
On the other hand, it captures the particular characteristic of the apparent
disconnection between the risk behavior and the onset of awareness: when the
antibody test can be performed, the subjects have forgotten the practices that
have led to the results they are given. In this case, the game indicates the
situations and practices of risk during which the infection could have occurred.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
278 Rodríguez Illera
The Play Environment as a Construction of the Player’s Identity
This aspect is common to games in general, and is particularly relevant in
computer games, including role plays. The setting provides a safe environment
in which players can experiment with activities that involve a certain risk; they
can break the rules in some way, or they can improvise their reactions to an
unexpected situation. In role plays, participants represent different personalities
and act accordingly but are not liable to suffer from any negative consequences
of the decisions they take. The role-play scenario is a safe environment, but it is
also a learning environment in which the participants’ identities are modified by
the ways in which they play the roles of the imaginary characters. This
connection between learning and identity has been highlighted by Wenger (1998)
and more recently by Gee (2003) with respect to video games.
In the case of AIDS prevention, role play allows participants to create a situation
in which they play the parts of adolescents through their identification with their
roles, but at the same time without the risk of suffering the negative consequences of the decisions they make. The play environment, the identification
with the character, the active choices made in selecting a narrative and
constructing meaning, and the “realistic,” credible nature of the situations act
synergistically in the educational design.
Interactive Multimedia Applications
The decisions taken regarding project aims and content have a direct bearing on
several aspects of the multimedia production, as well as the interactive applications.
Multimedia Production
The multimedia production typically includes the graphic interface design, the
media, and the programming. The graphic interface was designed following
criteria similar to those adopted in the content specifications, which seek to make
them suitable for a young end user. The overall design comprises several points
of focus that vary as the journey takes its course, and this, in part, reflects the
distinctive sections of the project: the hypertext reflects a more conventional
presentation of the project’s contents, the role play uses a black background
combined with a number of innovations (which are described below in the
description of the interactive applications), and, interestingly, a small game
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia and AIDS Prevention: A Case Study 279
serves to introduce the various characters, each using a variation in the graphic
interface.
The overriding idea in determining the graphic interface was to come up with a
product that was as close as possible to the aesthetic design that young people
are used to seeing in computer games, multimedia leisure activities, and even in
video clips and television. Unlike many adult users, children and young people are
particularly critical of graphic interface features, and many educational programs fail to make any attempt to capture the graphic aesthetics that appeal to
them. It is also true that the cultural similarity between the two countries in which
the CD-ROM was distributed, Italy and Spain, helped unify the graphic criteria
used.
The media used included video (nine sequences of around 5 minutes each,
bearing in mind that the last sequence had to be divided in four: two depending
on the selection of the sex of the character, one showing infection with the virus,
and the other showing a situation in which the disease is not contracted), several
hundred stills for the simulated dialogues, and music.
The decision to use video, as well as that to use photographs, was made to
promote user identification with the characters in the role play. Unlike animated
images, which have to be extremely realistic or of high quality, video encourages
identification with the characters, and with the story, more easily and more
directly. The performances of the actors, and their facial expressions, ensure
that in the mind of the user the actors and the characters are inseparable. The
stills were taken using conventional photographic techniques, predominantly in
close up, with some shots taken at a slightly longer range. The reasons for this
are well known in the cinema, as close-ups of the face, capturing the actor’s
facial expressions and eyes, help the viewer identify with the character.
In short, the choice of the media was based on the need to make the story as
realistic as possible, and as such, both video and photography were seen as
essential elements in capturing the emotional impact of the story.
The computer technology and programs used were conventional: we used
Macromedia Director for the design, given its versatility and the ease with which
different media can be integrated, in addition to its multiplatform capacity, linked
to QuickTime. A special Internet version was not designed, given the video size
(an average of 50 MB), which would have meant it could not even be used on
wideband networks. Furthermore, most of the users are secondary schools, or
citizen support groups, or young people in general, who typically only have access
to an ISDN or ADSL modem connection with a capacity to download video
images that is extremely limited.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
280 Rodríguez Illera
Interaction
At its most basic, the interaction element is organized around a simple navigational structure in which the user must choose between the information section
and the role play. Below we shall see how these two options are interconnected.
The information section consists of a hypertext comprising graphics and text,
which provide basic information. The text is adapted to the users and is extremely
user friendly.
The role play, however, has a more complex interactive format, as it combines
a story told in video images with the need to make decisions (stills). The video
story is interrupted when a conflict arises between the characters, and the user
is left not knowing how it will evolve. The audiovisual story serves, then, to
Image 1: Decision-taking structure in the role-playing game. The video still
on the left allows the player to view the whole situation. The small circular
images show the previous decisions that have been taken. The player can
return to these if he or she wishes to reconsider the decision. The two main
images in the middle show the options that the player has to choose between
for the situation just viewed: by placing the mouse over each image a text
appears summarising the option, while the other image fades out. The small
image of the main character at the bottom of the screen reminds the player
that they have adopted the role of the female character.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia and AIDS Prevention: A Case Study 281
motivate the user and also to present an unresolved problem. The user then needs
to respond to this problem according to the role he or she has adopted in the game,
which is the character with which the user by now identifies. Therefore, the
interaction with the content of the program centers on the choice of various
options in a simulated conversation with the main characters—depending on
which of two options given is selected, the subsequent options presented will
vary.
As described above, once the interaction has been initiated, an internal narrative
is constructed in accordance with the options selected: the course taken by the
dialogue is determined by the choices that are made. In other words, the
application itself constructs the narrative and the course taken by subsequent
choices, using a preprogrammed dialogue that is inserted between nodes in the
decision tree. This dialogue takes the form of various screens, very much in the
style of a photo-novel.
One of the most interesting aspects of this system is that it allows the decisions
to be thought through. In other words, there is no time pressure whatsoever on
the user, who is free to make his or her decision when they feel fit. This means
that the dialogues between one decision and the next can be read and given due
thought, as they result in the need for a new choice to be made. The application
includes the possibility of returning to the video sequence at any time, as well as
changing the choices made, should the user feel he or she made a mistake or
wishes to select the other option. The decisions taken are depicted in the form
of mini graphic images, so that it is always possible to go back to one of them
(although, of course, changing the earliest decisions means that all subsequent
decisions are lost).
Interaction during the game enables the more complex decisions, or those that
require factual information, to be linked up with the hypertext system in the
information section of the program. If the young user wishes to receive
information before taking a decision, he or she can launch the information
system, although the hypertext capacities of the system are restricted: it is only
possible to navigate those screens containing relevant information for the
decision that has to be taken at that moment. This is a design choice, implemented
so that the user does not cast the net too wide when searching for information
and so as to give contextualized support only.
Educational Applications and User Tests
The project was distributed with the national newspapers and was also sent to
educational resource centers. This distribution plan ensured a wide audience but
made it difficult to conduct any evaluation of its impact. However, an informal
method of evaluation was employed by conducting interviews with the users.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
282 Rodríguez Illera
The results of this (for a detailed account see Rodríguez Illera et al., 1999)
revealed a very high approval rating, while respondents claimed that they had
identified easily with the role play. The only criticisms received concerned
features of the interface, in particular, in the information section, where some
users felt the text was too dense and the letter size too small.
This somewhat limited analysis concerned the programs used in groups with a
teacher. For such purposes, the program is accompanied by a detailed guide for
educational contexts, one for teachers and another for the end users [http://
www.noaids.org]. The latter suggests various activities and means of comprehension for users working by themselves. This possibility was specifically
included so as to allow those young people who feel uneasy or who are reluctant
to express their opinions in public use the program.
Discussion
We believe that the project demonstrates the means of integrating multimedia
capabilities within an instructional design that has clear educational objectives,
incorporating elements of interaction to reinforce these objectives within an
overall framework that comprises a role-playing game. We would highlight the
following aspects of the project:
1.
The search for design simplicity at all times: Rather than use multimedia
capabilities for their own sake—including animation, audio elements, and
music—with little bearing on the educational purpose of the project, we
sought to use only those elements necessary to meet the project’s specific
educational aims. This does not mean that we ruled out the use of more
complex interactive capabilities, in particular, given the type of end user we
are dealing with. Indeed, the program incorporates a section in which a
wide range of multimedia capabilities is used with the primary purpose of
entertaining the user: before embarking on the journey, the program allows
the user to get to know the main characters of the story better by using a
number of short interactive games that differ for each of the six characters.
However, this part is clearly isolated from the rest of the program and does
not interfere with either the information section or the role-playing game
itself.
2.
The use of multimedia is designed to facilitate the telling of the story, to
create dramatic tension and climatic situations, and to introduce the
conflicts. In other words, the features of audiovisual language are used—
in this case, features that are more emotive than informative and features
that ensure the user identifies with the story’s characters.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia and AIDS Prevention: A Case Study 283
3.
It is true that we do not have an institutionalized means of representing the
language of multimedia (Plowman, 1994), and that, therefore, it is difficult
to know the significance of certain multimodal configurations (Kress,
2003), such as those that are present in designing complex screens.
However, in the case we are concerned with here, the central place of the
video in the construction of the story, as well as the absence of the
simultaneous appearance of text, means that it can be considered as the
dominant component of multimedia, and it can be thought of as being largely
responsible for constructing the meaning.
4.
The program combines a story, which has its own predefined meaning, with
elements of interaction that provide a new meaning and a situation that each
user constructs via the decisions that he or she makes, creating a personal
narrative along the path that is taken. This format employs interactive
multimedia capabilities, while putting them at the service of educational
objectives.
The Limits of Role Play
This project description has highlighted what we consider to be its successes, but
a subsequent analysis enabled us to see where its limitations lay, in particular,
those concerning its instructional design. As indicated, role play is a type of
simulation, albeit without any underlying mathematical model, in which it is easy
to rehearse certain skills in a safe environment. The strength of the simulation
lies in user identification with the characters (and with all the other aspects that
are constructed using the multimedia). Once this has been achieved, it becomes
virtually independent of the multimedia format that the subsequent interactive
program adopts, though not of the logic underlying the choices that are made
throughout the program and the story that develops. We believe that this principal
feature of the project can be seen in terms of a theoretical construct similar to
that present in situated learning and cognition: the attempt to get the young users
to see it as something that they have to resolve in a particular way, using the
elements that appear on the screen. The “magic” of multimedia applications is
in the complete engagement of the user, in a similar way to that in which a book
absorbs its reader (Hill, 1999), in other words, its ability to transport the reader
or the user to a very high level of cognitive involvement, centered on the activities
that they have to carry out. In short, it is the ability to make the user believe that
the role play is a real and engaging situation.
The underlying logic of a multimedia role play differs from that of the goal-based
scenarios proposed by Schank (1998), which might be considered as another
strategy of situated learning. It responds more closely to those cases of illdefined problems that are so typical of informal teaching and learning situations.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
284 Rodríguez Illera
The inadequate definition of the situation or the problem is characteristic of real
problems, which, removed from experimental situations, need to be analyzed
using multiple perspectives and argumentations and descriptions designed to
capture their meanings. In the case of role plays, this need is apparent in the
narratives of decision building (Cho & Jonassen, 2002): the characters resituate
the choice taken using a simulated dialogue that follows a line of argument until
a new decision is made.
If the objective of the role play were to be made explicit from the outset, such
as “always use a condom in a risk situation,” it would probably lose all interest,
in particular for young people. However, if we had to teach skills that had been
previously agreed upon with adult subjects, the choice of a scenario based on
explicit objectives would be a more recommendable option. Yet, one of the
characteristics of games that seek to simulate real situations is that the player
does not always know the objective of the game, at least the first time it is played.
This gives rise to a certain ambiguity between the objectives of the instructional
design (which include a modeling of behavior in risk situations, as well as a set
of negotiation skills via the choices to be made and the story that unfolds between
the decisions) and those of the player playing the role game for the first time, who
does not know very well what it comprises—identify with one of the characters,
accompany him or her throughout the journey, and make decisions along the
way—but without an explicit objective as to the target that needs to be reached.
This ambiguity, or lack of definition as far as the player is concerned, results in
a much more situated performance, as the player plays “as if” he or she were
one of the characters, making the decisions that they consider to be “normal”
whenever required to do so. If the game leads to the player contracting the
infection because he or she has engaged in unsafe sexual practices, this simply
emphasizes the need for reflection on these practices, reminding the player when
and how the behavior occurred but giving the player the opportunity to make
mistakes.
The Question of Feedback
Furthermore, as discussed earlier, in the case of AIDS, there is a marked time
lag between the occurrence of the risk behavior and the realization of its
consequences, which means it is not possible to offer immediate corrective
feedback (which would be the most efficient way of doing so).
Several techniques are available for making subjects aware of the anticipated
effects of their behavior: one such technique is that used by González (1995),
who constructs a graphic simulator of the spread of an infection in a given
population (a discotheque) based on sexual relation profiles. The simulator
clearly shows how the infection spreads over time and its consequences in the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia and AIDS Prevention: A Case Study 285
medium and long terms. This technique is very useful for showing the effects on
populations or groups and for understanding the epidemic nature of many
diseases.
A further didactic technique for individual use, and which was in fact analyzed
for use in this project, is that which is used in the application: If you love me,
show me (Family of the Americas, 1995). Although it does not deal directly with
AIDS but rather with sexual relations among young people, it uses an animated
narrative to show the ups and downs in a date between a boyfriend and girlfriend.
Told from the perspective of the girl, it adopts a highly conservative ideology.
This undermines somewhat the veracity of the situation described, and the fact
that it has few opportunities for interaction means that it is not of direct interest
for us. However, it does introduce a form of behavior modeling that might be
considered a form of anticipatory feedback: an imaginary character acts as “the
conscience” of the teenage girl, pointing out to her when having to make a
decision the hidden intentions of the male character and the consequences of a
particular action. What is surprising about the technique is that it operates as an
unsolicited source of help before the action occurs.
Both techniques are responses to very different approaches but are not
especially applicable to the design of our project: in the first case, the simulator
is applied to a group in which the profiles of sexual behaviour determine the
consequences. It is not possible for subjects to place themselves within a group
and experience the evolution for themselves, as the situation does not depend on
their own decision-making skills. Furthermore, the behavior profiles are not
necessarily recognizable by the individuals as being their own. In the second
case, it is virtually impossible for the user to commit mistakes given its preventive
nature, with the result that the type of learning is unlikely to be integrated within
the subject’s action schema. Schank (1999), following a long tradition of “active
pedagogy,” insists, rightly we believe, in the need to make mistakes and then to
rectify these errors so that the actions committed become true learning experiences and modify our prior schema or scripts.
The solution adopted here is for the role play to reduce the period of real time (in
fact, the so-called “window period” extends from three to six months), by using
a time step that is resolved in the final situation. This means of representing the
passing of time allows the player to receive delayed feedback, though it is in fact
given during the same session in which the game is played. Given that the success
of the game depends on it being as realistic as possible, this time difference does
not have any major effect on the game’s realism: first, it is a typical technique
of audiovisual media and the language of the cinema; and, second, the final
situation is not interactive and is used to reveal to each player the results of the
game, depending on the character he or she has adopted. This technique allows
us, albeit with some limitations, to overcome the problems of the apparent lack
of connection between an action and its delayed consequences, as well as to be
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
286 Rodríguez Illera
able to give feedback on the choices made in a very brief period of time (in the
real game time). Furthermore, it does away with the need to introduce other
solutions such as those mentioned, which would lead to interactions that are not
always cohesive with the educational objectives.
However, any application such as the one analyzed here raises many unanswered questions. To what extent are the skills actually learned? Can we really
speak of changes in attitude? Are the skills and attitudinal changes transferred
to other situations? Clearly, it is not possible to answer these questions directly,
as we are dealing with complex skills. What is required is a longitudinal study,
which in this case, as in others before, has been ruled out.
Conclusion
Role-playing games are complex multimedia applications, not just because of the
technology they use but also because of the way in which this technology
responds to an educational framework design that combines a constructivist
approach with other concepts, such as the sociocultural modeling of the action
and dialogues of argumentation. It would seem that some of the most recurring
and justified criticisms that have been made of educational multimedia packages—namely, their technological and multimedia excesses, combined with a
lack of pedagogic underpinnings—can be overcome when the educational design
is central to the project and the technologies and the production of various
multimedia elements are put at the service of the project.
Perhaps the most general conclusion is that each project requires a specific
educational design. Just as different subjects are taught in different ways,
multimedia applications should be far more specific in their instructional designs,
whether their theoretical backgrounds are cognitivist or constructivist.
Equally, it does not appear that the changes in attitude or the transfers of skills
are solely attributable to the use of multimedia tools, however complex or well
designed they might be. Rather, they would seem to be the result of more than
one educational action. From the perspective of health education and, in
particular from that of AIDS prevention in the young, it would appear that
multimedia role-playing games need to be complemented with more formal
instruction techniques backed with a range of additional activities.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Multimedia and AIDS Prevention: A Case Study 287
Acknowledgment
The project was funded by the EU programme “‘Europe against AIDS,” and was
a joint undertaking between the cooperative group, CLAPS, of Pordenone, Italy,
and the University of Barcelona (ICE), Spain. The author wishes to express his
gratitude to Carlo Mayer, co-director on behalf of CLAPS, and to the Spanish
team of Begoña Gros, Cristina Martínez, and María José Rubio.
References
Andreu, O. A. (1991). Sida y Antropologia social, en Jano, Marzo, 1(942), 51.
Bandura, A. (1987). Pensamiento y acción. Barcelona: Martínez Roca.
Bayés, R. (1987). Factores de aprendizaje en salud y enfermedad. Revista
Española de Terapia del Comportamiento, 5(2), 119–135.
Bayés, R. (1994). Sida i Psicologia. Barcelona: Martínez Roca.
Brooks-Gunn, J., Boyer, C. B., & Hein K. (1988). Preventing HIV infection and
AIDS in children and adolescent. American Psychologist, November,
1(11), 958–964.
Cho, K. L., & Jonassen, D. H. (2002). The effects of argumentation scaffolds
on argumentation and problem solving. Educational Technology: Research & Development, 50(3), 5–22.
Duffy, T. M., & Cunningham, D. J. (1996). Constructivism: Implications for the
design and delivery of instruction. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of
research for educational communications and technology (pp. 170–
198). New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.
Duffy, T. M., Lowyck, J., & Jonassen, D. H. (Eds.). (1992). Designing
environments for constructivist learning. Heidelberg: Springer.
Fundació LaCaixa. (1995). Sida. Saber ayuda. Barcelona: La Caixa.
Gee, J. P. (2003). What videogames have to teach us about learning and
literacy? New York: Palgrave-MacMillan.
Gonzalez, J. J. (1995). Computer assisted learning to prevent HIV spread:
Visions, delays and opportunities. Machine-Mediated Learning, 5(1), 3–
11.
Green, L. W., Kreute, M. W., Deedds, S. G., & Partridge, K. B. (1980). Health
education planning: A diagnostic approach. Palo Alto, CA: Mayfield.
Hill, B. (2000). The magic of reading. Redmon: Microsoft.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
288 Rodríguez Illera
Jonassen, D., Peck, K., & Wilson, B. (1999). Learning with technology. A
constructivist perspective. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Kress, G. (2003). Literacy in the new media age. London: Routledge.
Lave, J. (1988). La cognición en la práctica. Barcelona: Paidós.
Lave, J. (1990). The culture of acquisition and the practice of understanding. In
D. Kirshner & J. A. Whitson (Eds.), Situated cognition (pp. 17–36).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Plowman, L. (1994). The “Primitive Mode of Representation” and the evolution
of interactive multimedia. Journal of Educational Multimedia and
Hypermedia, 3(3/4), 275–293.
Rodríguez Illera, J. L., Gros, B., Martínez, C., & Rubio, M. J. (1999). Un
software multimedia para la prevención del SIDA en adolescentes. Multimedia educativo 99. Barcelona: Universitat de Barcelona.
Schank, R. C. (1998). Inside multi-media case based instruction. Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum.
Schank, R. C. (1999). Dynamic memory revisited. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
University Press.
Tonks, D. (1996). Teaching aids. New York: Routledge.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
University Press.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Learning in Engineering Education
289
Chapter XIV
Interactive Learning in
Engineering Education
Katia Tannous, State University of Campinas – Unicamp, Brazil
Abstract
In the process of teaching and learning, computers as a tool help the
students to develop their reasoning and intelligence. In engineering
education, computational packages are usual but somewhat didactic and
require specific knowledge on the part of the student. Motivation, creativity
and autonomy are important for success in chemical engineering courses.
This chapter presents novel experience of a chemical engineering education,
including a technique and object-oriented programming system applied
mainly to undergraduate and graduate students.
Introduction
Technologies as conveyors of information have been used for centuries to
“teach” students, whereas interactive technologies began to be introduced early
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
290
Tannous
in the 20th century to “engage” students in the learning process. Educational
communications and the technologies in which they are encoded are conceived,
analyzed, and designed by educational specialists (often referred to as educational or instructional technologists). Historically, teams of educational technologists, including instructional designers, media producers, and media managers, in
collaboration with other specialists, e.g., subject matter experts and teachers,
have developed educational media. These teams often employ systematic
instructional design models to guide their efforts to analyze, develop, produce,
and evaluate instruction. Sometimes it is difficult to get in the academic
institutions. The teachers still remain the great Masters and the keys to the
development of learning processes. Excellent teachers use varying lecture styles
that actively engage students in the learning process.
To make this explanation more concrete, it will present in this chapter computedbased cognitive tools and interactive learning environments with chemical
engineering examples in different courses.
Computers in the Process of
Teaching and Learning
In the process of teaching and learning, computers as a tool help the students to
develop their reasoning and intelligence. The progress of computer usage in the
teaching and learning process can be observed following this order: programmed
instruction, simulation, educational games, programming language, application
packages, and intelligent tutorial systems. The components of this evolution are
described below (Notare et al., 2003).
Instructional Program
This was the first form and the most widely used. It is also known as CAI
(computer-assisted instruction). The instructional program consists, basically, of
repetitive exercises, tutorials, or demonstrations. The programs lead the student
to carry out a series of exercises with increasing degrees of difficulty. Some
information is displayed on the screen, and then the learning is tested. Questions
are introduced as multiple choices or with blank spaces to be filled. After each
answer, the student is praised for a correct answer or a new change in case of
a wrong answer. This kind of instruction can be used at all levels of education.
Other types of instructional programs are the tutorials, which make the computer
replace the function of the teacher. Usually, a tutorial supplies little information
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Learning in Engineering Education
291
to the students and then suggests questions related to the topic, with possible
answers that are known by the system. A good-quality tutorial considers all
possible answers. Multimedia-based instructional programs have the potential to
appeal to a greater number of senses than traditional instructional programs
(Basu et al., 1996). These programs can excite students with animation, sound,
and video. They can present complex processes, theories, and facts in a manner
that is second only to actual situations. In engineering, the subjects are much
more mathematically oriented, and they must contain more graphs, technical
drawings, and equations.
Simulations
This is a model that pretends a system, real or not, based on a theory. Today,
computers have the ability to simulate very complex systems. With the aid of a
computer, a student can test complex hypotheses, manipulate variables, and
verify model behaviors under several conditions. It is a powerful tool with which
to stimulate reasoning. A good simulation can resort to graphs and animation. A
good model should represent well the real behavior, with a considerable amount
of detail and without being oversimplified.
Educational Games
These have great educational value, in addition to being fun to promote learning.
Some demand logical rules from the players. This makes the student regard
reasoning, logic, and language seriously. The student learns to process information and logic and make conjectures.
Programming Languages
For many years, people have theorized that learning to program is an activity that
develops higher-order thinking skills. The languages that have most often been
taught to learners for developing reasoning and thinking skills are BASIC,
PASCAL, and LOGO, and artificial intelligence, Prolog. LOGO is the oldest and
most widely known. It is friendly and interactive and emphasizes self-learning.
It gradually became the most used language in education. Several studies have
indicated that learning through discovery, exploration, and investigation do not
only have a special meaning in developing cognitive structures, but also knowledge is retained for longer periods. LOGO was devised to work as an important
tool to promote active, dynamic, and meaningful learning. When drawing upon
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
292
Tannous
a computer screen, the student is encouraged to think about what he or she is
doing, to consider his or her own mistakes, and to change his or her ideas
whenever necessary.
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is another procedural language that treats
reusable objects combined with a construct in a program. OOP languages can
help to promote critical thinking as well as programming efficiency because of
their inherent structures and more clearly defined interfaces and usage declarations (Jonassen & Reeves, 2000). OOP may encourage more effective collaboration in defining interfaces, and the skills students learn may be more marketable, because most businesses are using object-oriented versions of popular
programming languages.
Rather than procedures and functions as sequences of actions, in OOP, these are
treated as reusable objects that can be combined like building blocks to construct
a program. The building block approach is especially important in defining screen
objects like scroll bars, windows, buttons, icons, and menus in window-type
environments that comprise the user interface to the program. So, when the user
points and clicks at an icon, the icon object responds depending on its location and
program. Languages like Smalltalk were originally designed as OOP environments; however, object-oriented versions of procedural languages like BASIC
(Microsoft’s Visual Basic), Pascal (Borland Delphi), and C (Borland’s C++) are
preferred by most programmers today. Another useful language is Java that is
in the driver seat of the current trend toward delivering information and services
via the Internet.
Software Packages
These are general packages to be used in learning, like word processors,
spreadsheets, data bank managers, among others. These packages may have
high educational potential. The use of these computational packages, in the
chemical engineering courses, has shown potentials and opportunities in the
development of new methodologies for independent student learning (Mackenzie
& Allen, 1998; Abbas & Al-Bastaki, 2002).
Until now, engineering courses have been applying commercial software packages as teaching aids, such as MathCAD, MATLAB , Mathematica, and Maple.
MathCAD combines some of the best features of spreadsheets (like MS Excel)
and symbolic math programs. It provides a good graphical user interface and can
be used efficiently to manipulate large data arrays, to perform symbolic
calculations, and to easily construct graphs.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Learning in Engineering Education
293
Intelligent Tutorial Systems (ITS)
These are an evolution from the computer-assisted instruction (CAI). ITS
computer programs make use of artificial intelligence to represent knowledge
and promote better interaction with the student. The main objective of ITS is to
make the computer behave cleverly enough to control the student learning
process and provide adapted instructions.
Chemical Engineering Education
This section presents some examples of chemical engineering educational
techniques and novel experiences applied in interactive learning environments.
New educational experiences introduce changes in an established culture by
using new procedures. These changes should be carried out through a logical
sequence of steps in order to reach definite targets. Motivation, creativity, and
autonomy are important for success in chemical engineering courses.
Tannous (2003), Tannous and Donida (2003), and Tannous and Rodrigues (2003)
developed some learning techniques applying the authorship system to distance
learning in undergraduate courses (Fluid Mechanics) and graduate courses
(Momentum Transfer and Fluidization Applications). The courses were adapted
to make use of the WebCT software. The software allowed easy access to the
contents taught in the classroom, promoting better interactions among the
participants.
The courses, introduced virtually, have the following links (www.ead.unicamp.br:
8900):
•
•
•
•
General information about the course: instructor information, objectives
•
•
•
•
Group work
Required disciplines, textbooks
Calendar of suggested activities
Course content with texts and complementary texts according to student’s
answers
Virtual library containing links
Communication tools (e-mail and chat room)
Periodic assessment
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
294
Tannous
Figure 1: Activities planning
The software allowed the instructor to follow the students’ learning through
recorded access to the site, acquisition of communication tools, and visits to the
sites.
In particular, the courses on “Fundamentals and Applications of Fluidization and
Momentum Transfer” involved group work that showed technical/scientific
abilities and exercised communication abilities and collaboration among the
participants and the instructor.
Figure 1 shows a scheme of the activities undertaken during the course on
“Fundamentals and Applications of Fluidization”.
Technical Knowledge
At this step, the acquired knowledge and abilities are evaluated. The instructor
should master the technical knowledge and tools that are used, including
computational ones (FORTRAN, Pascal, M ATLAB). The tools that might be used
to assess this step are as follows:
1.
Project elaboration: Students will develop their own technical and computational knowledge through practical assignments, which will be available
to all participants. This process may also be carried out in groups.
2.
Self-assessment: Students will apply their knowledge to a specific assignment, chosen by themselves, from the course subjects. The students will
present their work to the instructor and to other participants in a seminar.
A conclusive integrated project ends the assessment of knowledge.
3.
Chat and discussion list: The teacher will submit a special topic for
discussion between students at the end of every convenient set of chapters.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Learning in Engineering Education
295
A deadline is set that provides enough time for discussion among students.
The same happens to the chat, with a stricter schedule.
Interaction
The interaction among participants is assessed during the course. Motivation,
creativity, and autonomy are observed and marked. Interactivity is associated
with the course dynamics. As the students advance in the course, their progress
can be observed. The tools used in this step are the chat, the discussion list, and
the log-in records. The course required an amount corresponding to 25% of total
lectures in which all people involved in the course were together. These meetings
provided ground for discussions about the course content to strengthen the
acquired knowledge, to develop the communication among participants and
instructor, as well as to help to assess the participation of each member.
Collaboration and Decision Making
To assess these features, the students’ contributions and suggestions to solve the
assignments are taken into account. The students are also evaluated for their
participation in the interactive projects and in the individual assignments. These
experiences are evaluated considering student profile, software assessment,
interactions between student and interface, course content, instructor, and other
students.
Engineering Educational
Learning Object
Computational packages are didactic and require knowledge of the utilization of
software on the part of the student. Another inconvenience of commercial
packages is the high price that frequently inhibits their use. Institutional reusability is also important as far as educational software is concerned. OOP systems
can help to promote critical thinking, motivation, creativity, and autonomy
because of their inherent structures.
Basu et al. (1996) presented the development of a multimedia-based instructional
program, for graduate and senior-level classes, in Visual Basic applied to
hydrodynamics process and heat transfer. The multimedia developed shows
different levels with animation, video, and graphs to explain all that the students’
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
296
Tannous
need. Also, they present assessment as an important part of the learning process
at the end of most chapters. The quizzes contain yes-or-no questions, multiplechoice questions with a single correct answer, and multiple-choice questions
with multiple correct answers. The computer clock controls the time of execution
of quizzes.
The Department of Thermal-Fluid-Dynamics in the Chemical Engineering
School at Unicamp, in collaboration with undergraduate and graduate students,
developed some software based in OOPS. Some of these experiences in the
Chemical Engineering courses are described in this chapter.
The object-oriented languages used to develop the software were Basic
(Microsoft’s Visual Basic) and Pascal (Borland Delphi). The interactive approach adopted was based on the degree of complexity of the topic as well as
on the targeted public, mostly undergraduate and graduate students.
Fluid Mechanics Simulator
In order to provide practical application to the students, a course on Transport
Phenomena I was developed with a friendly interface (Tannous et al., 2002). The
software consists of two independent modules, one applied to pressure drop
calculation in industrial pipes and the other to the study of boundary layer on flat
sheets. Both modules are simulators.
Head-Loss
The Head-Loss module has access to a data bank in which it is possible to vary
the flowing stream and the pipe material and diameter, and it considers many
accidents along the pipe. Pressure drop is obtained by classical Bernoulli
equation, in which the friction factor is calculated by Colebrook equation (Welty,
1984). When accidents are present, they can be considered either by an
equivalent length or by the parameter K (Escoe, 1989). To simulate the flow, the
other inputs are flow rate, pipe length, and heights of pipe entrance. The software
supplies the Head-Loss, Reynolds number, friction factor, and the equivalent
length of accidents.
The visual interface of the software is shown in Figure 2. The software allows
for several different operating conditions to be considered, allowing more time
for analysis of results, instead of losing time with repetitive calculations, which
many times results in loss of attention during the class.
After filling in the mentioned fields on the screen, the pressure drop calculation
is made by pressing the button “Calcular” (calculate). The educator invites the
student to make a critical analysis of the results.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Learning in Engineering Education
297
Figure 2: Visual interface of Head-Loss simulator
Boundary Layer
The boundary layer module provides visual development of a boundary layer on
a plate, allowing for the detection of the change in thickness between the laminar
and turbulent conditions. The visual interface for this module is shown in
Figure 3.
The input data for this module are the flow speed and the length of the plate. The
laminar boundary layer is calculated according to Blasius, while the turbulent one
is calculated according to von Karman (Coulson & Richards, 1999). The
software allows for the visualization of the laminar sublayer. Furthermore, it
allows students to analyze the influence of viscosity on the boundary layer
thickness and on the length required to develop the turbulent flow.
It is also possible to change the flow velocity and the plate length to study how
these affect the boundary layer. The software produces a graph indicating the
boundary layer thickness as a function of the plate length. This plot can be copied
and pasted into other documents, such as reports. The case illustrated in Figure 3
considers a 100 cm plate length, with water flowing at 30 cm/s.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
298
Tannous
Figure 3: Visual interface of Boundary Layer
The simulators were used in an experimental condition in 2001. To verify the
acceptance of these simulators and computational classes in the theoretical
course, feedback from the students was obtained. The students evaluated the
following aspects:
•
•
•
•
•
Introduction of computational classes at Transport Phenomena I
Contribution of classes for learning in the course
Quality of visual presentation of simulators
Difficulty of utilization of simulators
Implementation in other courses
The evaluation of this work revealed that the students considered these
simulators as good and excellent, contributing toward relevant learning. The
simulators were classified as a good visual presentation with ease of use. Also,
it was observed that most of the students recommended the implementation of
computational classes in other chemical engineering courses.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Learning in Engineering Education
299
Momentum Transport
This experience is from a graduate course on Momentum Transfer (Tannous,
2003), where the constructivism approach is applied in the course, where
students conducted a building of software in the graphic interface. Despite the
common curriculum among chemical engineering schools in Brazil, student
potential are different. Thus, the students were grouped into three groups
according to their backgrounds. The dynamics promoted a live interaction among
team members, from definition of the project, group organization, group integration, delivery of final project, and assessment of the work after presentation. The
result of this technique was the development of a simulator. The software was
developed using Delphi language with a graphical interface.
One module focused on the theory and employed text editors (Figure 4), while
another employed mathematics (Figure 5). Mathematical expressions and
equations are an integral part of any transport phenomena textbook (Bird, 1960).
Another developed numerically a solution using FORTRAN language. The
student can simulate the velocity profiles for cylinder pipes as a function of time.
The simulator (Figure 6) has as input data the following: density and fluid speed,
pipe diameter and length, and pressure drop. Two examples can be seen, in
Figure 6, considering a flow in the simple pipe and the annular flow between two
concentric pipes.
Figure 4: Theoretical approach
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
300
Tannous
Figure 5: Mathematical approach—Analytical solution
Figure 6: Mathematical approach—Numerical solution (simulator)
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Learning in Engineering Education
301
For proper comprehension, a student needs to use the model to arrive at the final
result. A parametric study showing the sensitivity of the final result to an input
parameter helps the students to understand the model and allows them to explore
the model from different perspectives.
Polymer Processing
The software ANAPRO was developed to study the polymerization reactors. It
was elaborated using the Delphi language (OOPS). The instruction program
allows self-study and considers fluidized-bed and stirrer reactors, including
polymer types, stirrer types, chemical reactions, and catalysts. Figure 7 shows
the main screen that provides access to several screens of the software (Massa,
2003). There are buttons to access chemical properties, type of reactor,
polymerization reaction, suggested exercises, and a help function. This proposal
is in development but can show a clear example of an instructional program. We
can also evaluate the dimension and the limitation of this kind of software when
the subject is large in the Chemical Engineering context.
Figure 8 shows the details of the software for the process components and
processes. The process components (distributors and stirrers) are specific for
each kind of reactor, as fluidized and agitated bed.
Figure 7: Initial screen of the project
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
302
Tannous
Figure 8: Software details: Process components
Figure 9: Software details: Process
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Learning in Engineering Education
303
Figure 9 shows an example of software details for the one process between high
pressure, solution, slurry, modified high pressure, and gas-phase polymerization.
Conclusion
Information science applied to education in Brazil is still developing. One can find
all steps of development of an application within the academic community. The
private sector is more advanced than the public schools in the use of information
science.
Universities are a step ahead in the development of information science for
education. Most virtual environments were developed by universities (TelEduc,
Aulanet). Nonetheless, there is still great resistance by academic professionals
to incorporate this technology.
In this chapter, we showed and analyzed the following:
•
In distance education environments, the choice to employ information
science will depend on the instructor objectives. Most used are those
programs that provide free access, such as TelEduc/Unicamp. Few
systems are not available in Portuguese, making it difficult to use them in
Brazil.
•
Teaching and learning processes with emphasis on the use of programmed
instruction and simulators together with a learning object programming
language were discussed.
•
Steps involved in programming as a model for future educational projects
were discussed.
•
Learning techniques and methodologies applying the authorship system to
distance courses were presented. The adopted methodology proved of
great value for present (or local) and distance courses.
•
The goodness of the technology should not disregard the essential role of
the instructor.
•
The computer has become an integral part of engineering education. The
use of multimedia and software packages enhances teaching and learning.
The information technology tools have a large number of benefits as
invaluable tools for Web-based education and distance learning and training.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
304
Tannous
Acknowledgment
The author is grateful to the participants in the course IQ 100 Momentum
Transfer/2002 for acceptation of the methodology applied.
References
Abbas, A., & Al-Bastaki, N. (2002). The use of software tools for ChE
education. Chem. Eng. Education, 36(3).
Basu, P., De, D. S., Basu, A., & Marsh, D. (1996). Development of a
multimedia-based instructional program. Chem. Eng. Education, 30(4).
Bird, R. B., Stewart, W. E., & Lightfoot, E. N. (1060). Transport phenomena.
New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Coulson, J. M., & Richardson, J. F. (1999). Chemical engineering—Fluid
flow, heat and mass transfer (Vol. 1). Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.
Escoe, A. K. (1986). Mechanical design of process system: Piping and
pressure vessels (Vol. 1). Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.
Horton, W. K. (2001). Designing Web-based training. New York: John Wiley
Computer Inc.
Jonassen, D. H., & Reeves T. C. (1996). Learning with technology: Using
computers as cognitive tools. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of
research on educational communications and technology (pp. 693–
719). New York: Macmillan.
Mackenzie, J. G., & Allen, M. (1998). Mathematical power tools—Maple,
Mathematica, MATLAB, and Excel. Chem. Eng. Education, 32(3),
Spring.
Massa, R. S. (2003). Development of software in polymerization processes in
fluidized and agitated reactors. Scientific report, Laboratory of Particles
Technology and Multiphase Processes (in Portuguese).
Moraes, M. C. (2003). Computer education in Brazil: A history lived, some
lessons learned (April, 1997). Retrieved from the World Wide Web: http:/
/www.inf.ufsc.br/sbc-ie/revista/nr1/mariacandida.htm
Notare, M.R., Mendes, S.C., & Diverio, T.A.(2000), Historical Overview of
Computer Usage in Brazilian Teaching, Proceeding of Computer of
Median Upland, Passo Fundo/Brazil. In Portuguese.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Interactive Learning in Engineering Education
305
Tannous K., & Mejoria. (2003). en Calidad de la enseñanza de ingeniería:
Transformación de comportamiento entre docente y discente. 3 rd
Internacional Conference on Engineering and Computer Education—
ICECE (published on CD-ROM, in Spanish), March 16–19. São Paulo,
Brazil.
Tannous, K., & Rodrigues, S. (2003). Aplicación de herramienta de educación
a distancia como soporte didáctico a la enseñanza en ingeniería química.
Revista de Educação a Distancia (Online Journal, in Spanish:
www.abed.org.br), 1(2).
Tannous, K., & Donida, M. W. (2003). Evaluation of e-learning engineering
graduate courses. TehKnowLogia—International Journal of Technologies for the Advancement of Knowledge and Learning, 5(1), January–
March.
Tannous, K., Rodrigues, S., & Fernandes, F. A. (2002). Utilization of computational software directing learning of fluid mechanics. XXX Brazilian
Congress in Engineering Education—COBENGE2002, September (CDROM, in Portuguese).
Welty, R. J., Wicks, C. E., & Wilson, R. E. (1984). Fundamentals of momentum, heat, and mass transfer. New York: John Wiley.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
306 Balram & Dragicevic
Chapter XV
An Embedded
Collaborative Systems
Model for
Implementing
ICT-based Multimedia
Cartography Teaching
and Learning
Shivanand Balram, Simon Fraser University, Canada
´ ´ Simon Fraser University, Canada
Suzana Dragicevic,
Abstract
Information and communication technologies (ICT) have created many new
opportunities for teaching, learning and administration. This study
elaborates a new embedded collaborative systems (ECS) model to structure
and manage the implementation of ICT-based pedagogies in a blended
learning environment. Constructivist learning, systems theory, and
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Implementing ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning
307
multimedia concepts are used in the model design and development. The
model was applied to a third-year undergraduate multimedia cartography
course. The findings show that regardless of student background,
implementing effective ICT-based learning pedagogies can be managed
using the ECS model.
Introduction
Integrating information and communication technologies (ICT)—specifically
computers, networks, and the Internet—into higher education has created new
opportunities for teaching, learning, and administration. Indeed, the role of ICT
in the administration of the higher education process has been reflected in
national initiatives such as the 1997 Dearing Committee of Inquiry into Higher
Education in the United Kingdom (Dearing, 1997). One of the recommendations
of the Dearing Committee was the adoption of national and local ICT strategies
to improve the effective and efficient use of resources by U.K. education
institutions. Canadian higher education has echoed these strategies and has also
increasingly used ICT in the improvement of the quality of distance-education
models (Farrell, 1999). The diffusion of information and communication technology into higher education can be attributed to its potential to leverage education
processes toward richer and more rewarding learning and management environments (Mitchell, 2002).
In teaching and learning, ICT is a platform on which key learning skills can be
efficiently integrated into existing curriculum to boost learner motivation, deepen
inquiry, accelerate learning, and widen participation among traditionally isolated
groups (Hassell, 2000). Moreover, teaching core ICT skills such as computer
operation and programming prepares students to function and succeed in an
increasingly information-based society. However, some authors have pointed
out that excessive optimism about the micro and mega benefits of ICT in
education can develop into broken promises (Selwyn, 2002). These broken
promises can adversely influence the adoption of ICT in educational contexts.
While most educators agree that ICT has transformed the traditional education
process and, hence, demands a new way of thinking, some have pointed out that
achieving and verifying useful ICT educational benefits will require strong
theoretical evidence, embedded analysis, and research to surmount the associated structural and cultural barriers (Kenway, 1996).
The utility of ICT in providing and retrieving information is of immense value to
educators. Instructional designers are now better able to include a range of ICTbased pedagogy into curriculum design and delivery. Many accept that the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
308 Balram & Dragicevic
technology itself does not ensure learning but acknowledge that it enhances
traditional instructional systems to deal with modern-day literacy that is a key
component of all education goals. Literacy is now generally considered as a
multimedia construct (Abbott, 2001). Multimedia improves upon the traditional
text and speech formats of interacting with knowledge by integrating other forms
of media, such as audio, video, and animations into the learning experience. This
has made information more accessible and understandable. But the benefits of
multimedia have also come with new challenges. Using multimedia in the
classroom is a clear departure from traditional expectations and requires a new
mindset and commitment from educators and administrators to ensure effective
implementation. Challenges also arise due to the lack of consistent baseline
experience to guide the integration of multiple media into the curriculum.
Moreover, the wide range of multimedia tools available present a technical
challenge to educators who must select instructional technologies to match
pedagogical strategies and desired learning outcomes (Abbott, 2001). These
challenges demand a flexible and systematic mechanism for managing multimedia tools in traditional learning. Systems theory provides a useful foundation to
develop such a management mechanism. In systems theory, the key components
of the process are identified and managed separately but as a part of an
integrated and functional whole. The resulting systematic structuring ensures
that valid models for pedagogy inform the learning process, and that the quality
of education is maintained and improved through dynamic interactions between
learners and educators.
The utility of ICT in promoting sharing and collaboration among learners is also
highly desired. This is reflected in the many content management systems
(CMS), such as WebCT (http://www.webct.com), that empower educators to
implement synchronous and asynchronous collaborative environments in distance-learning models and in online support for face-to-face instruction or
blended-learning models. Socially mediated constructivist learning theory, where
learners explore and discover new knowledge, is the foundation for the collaborative learning paradigm. In face-to-face collaboration, individual and group
interactions take place to varying degrees, and finding the appropriate balance
is one factor that influence teaching and learning effectiveness (Norman, 2002).
Mediating these interactions with technology also presents challenges. Research
has shown that non-technology learners in traditional learning settings who do not
have access to desired levels of technology support are less willing to use and
interact with the learning technology (Watson, Blakeley, & Abbott, 1998). This
challenges educators to embed the ICT-based collaborative learning pedagogies
into the curriculum structure and design.
The goal of this study is to elaborate on a new embedded collaborative systems
(ECS) model for structuring and managing the implementation dynamics of ICTbased pedagogies in a blended learning environment. The specific questions
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Implementing ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning
309
addressed are as follows: How can we engage students in more meaningful
learning activities to develop multiple skills of relevance? How can we achieve
a useful balance between teacher-centered learning and student-centered
learning? The literature on constructivist learning, systems theory, and multimedia education provides the theoretical basis for developing the model. The model
was applied to a third-year undergraduate multimedia cartography course of 47
students with no prior knowledge of multimedia and with basic computing skills.
The results show that regardless of student background, implementing effective
ICT-based learning pedagogies can be managed using the ECS model.
Promoting Multiple Skills
of Relevance
The focus on the mastery of cognitive and technical skills in the modern-day
classroom is a tendency inherited from traditional learning systems. There is now
increasing evidence in the workplace to suggest that in the complex problemsolving environment of the real world, the ability to link classroom knowledge
with soft skills is a requirement for success. The capability to work in teams,
being an enthusiastic and good communicator, infectious creativity, initiative,
willingness to learn independently, critical thinking, analytical abilities, selfmanagement, and ethical values are the main soft skills that are highly valued by
employers. These new requirements place additional responsibilities on educators to impart knowledge or hard skills together with soft skills in teaching and
learning activities so as to prepare learners to function beyond the classroom.
This raises the question: How can we engage students in more meaningful
learning activities to develop multiple skills of relevance? This question can be
examined using a foundation of constructivist learning theory. In this theory,
learning is characterized by shared goals and responsibilities, and knowledge is
constructed in a discursive environment. Social networking and peer encouragement help motivation and aid individual learning experiences.
Collaborative and cooperative learning have their origins in constructivist
learning theory. The goal of collaborative learning is to help learners display
individuality and creativity in working with a group toward achieving targets. For
collaborative tasks, rewards for achievements are allocated by comparative or
normative evaluation systems. In cooperative learning, the focus is on efficiency
and effectiveness in achieving a common goal in socially interactive settings
(Piaget, 1926; Vygotsky, 1978). In this approach, rewards are allocated based
on the quality or quantity of the group product measured against a predefined
standard. Although collaborative and cooperative learning share similarities,
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
310 Balram & Dragicevic
they differ in their assumptions about competition. Collaborative learning assumes conflict as a part of learning, while cooperative learning tries to minimize
this conflict (Bruffee, 1995). One way to resolve this contradiction is to
implement the learning approaches in a way so as to extract the positive learning
benefits from each.
Balancing Teacher-Centered and
Student-Centered Learning
Implementing multiple learning skills activities requires a balance between
teacher-centered and student-centered learning within the contact time limitations of the face-to-face classroom. Thus, efficient course management and
structuring become important needs with which to keep track of the evolving
course dynamics. Norman (2002) outlined a model that defines the interaction
space among a set of agents and objects in the learning process. In the model,
two sets of agents (instructors and students) and two sets of objects (course
materials and course products) overlap to form a complex interaction space. This
results in six intersecting areas that form regions where a combination of two or
more agents or objects exists. The usefulness of this interaction model is that it
shows the variety of interacting elements that require management during the
learning process. But while the model provides a comprehensive description of
the interactions, it does not deal explicitly with how to balance these dynamic
interactions during the learning process. This raises the question: How can we
achieve a useful balance between teacher-centered learning and studentcentered learning? This question can be examined using a systems theory
approach.
Systems theory can be used to manage the instructional tools used to facilitate
teaching and learning among the agents. In this way, the theory guides the efforts
in balancing the load between student-centered and teacher-centered learning.
The theory considers the teaching and learning process to be composed of a set
of tightly interrelated pedagogies that can be used to communicate and deliver
educational content (Bertalanffy, 1969). Based on the systems approach,
together with the constructivist paradigm, a wide range of possible pedagogies
can be identified. Examples of these pedagogies include learning contracts,
brainstorming, debate, observation, simulation, case study, discussion, and
forum. By integrating these approaches systematically, an equitable balance
between teacher-centered learning that communicates knowledge and studentcentered learning that integrates all levels of Blooms Taxonomy (knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation) can be achieved.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Implementing ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning
311
Multimedia Cartography Teaching
and Learning
The use of computer-based technologies in geography teaching and learning has
a long and rich tradition (Gold et al., 1991). This stems from the influence of the
quantitative revolution on many areas of the subject. Spatial information studies
(encompassing geographic information systems and science, remote sensing,
digital cartography, and spatial analysis) are a product of that quantitative
influence. Over the last decade, ICT and specialized research software for
geography, in general, and spatial information studies, in particular, has caused
many changes to the community of research, learning, and teaching practices in
these areas. Spatial information studies educators are now battling with how best
to balance knowledge transmission with the necessary software practice in the
learning process. The “cookbook” approach of traditional lectures and independent student learning of computer skills are two extremes in the learning
spectrum of an increasingly computer-driven curriculum. Clearly, any solution
must deal with establishing structures for an equitable distribution of the
pedagogies across the curriculum and focus the pedagogies on skills students
need for success in further studies and the workplace.
Cartography encompasses the art, science, and technology of making maps and
requires diverse technical and creative skills for effective practice. The use of
multimedia in cartography education serves two interrelated functions: as an
instructional tool and as a product development tool. Instructional frameworks
to incorporate multimedia-based instruction into the curriculum must be consistent with existing theories of teaching and learning. This has been emphasized
by a number of researchers (Alessi & Trollip, 2001; Benyon, Stone, & Woodroffe,
1997; Ellis, 2001; Najjar, 1996). The multiple representation (MR) framework
allows the inclusion of knowledge domains within multimedia (Kinshuk & Patel,
2003). The MR approach involves the selection of multimedia objects, navigational objects, and the integration of multimedia objects in the representation of
the knowledge domains. Teaching strategies and styles are also important
factors in multimedia learning, as they impact learning. The benefits of multimedia education include improved learning retention, portability, modularity, enhanced visualizations, efficiency in instructional design, and learning consistency
(Hede, 2002; Yildirim, Ozden, & Aksu, 2001).
The use of multimedia authoring tools in designing course products enables
learners to develop and construct enhanced mapping products. This forms the
basis of multimedia cartography, in which the paper map is transformed into an
enhanced digital map that integrates multiple media to communicate visual and
oral expressions of spatial information to the map reader (Cartwright, Peterson,
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
312 Balram & Dragicevic
& Gartner, 1999). These multimedia maps are accessed through CD-ROM, the
Internet, or specially designed Web-mapping services. The benefits of multimedia maps include dynamic and multifaceted representation of space and time,
superior map production and dissemination, improved information and knowledge transfer, and greater map accessibility.
Embedded Collaborative
Systems Model
The embedded collaborative systems (ECS) model is designed based on principles from constructivist learning theory and systems theory. The goal of the
model is to improve the quality of student learning in the face-to-face classroom.
This is achieved with a focus on the development of multiple learning skills and
on independent learning. The model’s structure is shown in Figure 1.
The collaborative, knowledge management, and cooperative working spaces are
three distinct overlapping interaction spaces that are defined in the model. The
overlapping structure strengthens the process and provides connectivity among
the stages of focal planning of projects, delivery of course content, and
Figure 1: The embedded collaborative systems (ECS) model
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Implementing ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning
313
preparation of final course products. The knowledge management workspace
occurs in the classroom, where all students receive the same content through
lectures and seminars. The collaborative and cooperative workspaces occur
during small group laboratory sessions or alternatively in informal meetings
among students.
The teaching (AB) and learning (CD) axes serve as both workflow and
information flow pathways in the model. These axes control the levels of hard
and soft skills that are integrated in the learning experience. The hard skills or
teaching axis deals with the substantive course content. This content is normally
stipulated by institutional curriculum policies and is implemented using traditional
pedagogical tools such as lectures, seminars, and panels. The knowledge
management phase of the process is implemented in large groups to encourage
critical thinking and discussions. Students develop individual and active learning
habits during all stages of the hard skills implementation. The course outline and
content together with the assessment requirements drive the nature of the
interactions that occur along the teaching axis.
The soft skills or learning axis characterizes the collective and social interaction
experiences of students working to achieve targets in a group environment.
Examples of pedagogies that can be used involve group projects, learning
contracts, brainstorming, simulation, forum, discussions, and case studies embedded in real problem-solving contexts. The intersection of the learning and
teaching axes provides an opportunity for formative evaluation. Formative
evaluation is an important component of the process, as with it, we are able to
establish how students are integrated into the learning experience and how
satisfied they are with the learning environment. Formative evaluations include
interviews and survey questionnaires, and corrective action is immediately
implemented to control any identified imbalances. Evaluations take the traditional
form of cognitive assessments using normative testing instruments.
The use of multiple pedagogies provides students with the opportunity to
experience deeper learning as they master new concepts by manipulating and
refining previous knowledge. The pedagogical tools and the instructional medium
appropriate for each stage of the learning process are described and explained
in Table 1. The flexibility of ECS model allows students to pursue topics of
general interest during the group projects. This supports the assumption that
learning is a lifelong process, and learners have a role in designing what they
learn.
Achieving a balance between student-centered and teacher-centered learning is
inherent in the ECS model. During the initial stages of the model implementation,
teacher-centered cognitive learning is at a high level, whereas student-centered
learning is at a low level (Figure 2). At the beginning of the collaborative stages,
a progression is seen through a fuzzy period of mixed learning toward an equal
partnership in learning between teacher and learner. Thereafter, students
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
314 Balram & Dragicevic
Table 1: Pedagogies and instructional media used in the ECS model
Pedagogy
Description of the Pedagogy
Instructional
Media
Stage in
the
ECS
Model
Targeted
Skills
Presentation
Instructor-centered lecture notes and student-centered
communication of project results
Multimedia, videotape, graphic
visuals, text
1,2,3
Hard and soft
skills
Discussion
Exchange of ideas and opinions among students–students
and teacher–students; discussions are guided by reflective
questions
Graphic visuals, text
1,2,3
Soft skills
Demonstration
Instructor-centered presentation of example of skills to be
learned; use of expert to present case study
Software, the Internet,
graphic visuals
2
Hard skills
Drill and
Practice
Exercises such as assignments to reinforce skills
Software, text
2
Hard skills
Tutorial
Individual learning through practice and feedback
Software, text, the Internet
1,2,3
Hard and soft
skills
Group work
Small group work on defining projects and allocating tasks
Software, graphic visuals, text,
multimedia
1,3
Soft skills
Simulation
Experimentation with small version of reality that is to be
described and understood
Software, graphic visuals, text,
multimedia
1,3
Soft skills
Gaming
A user-friendly environment for testing specific rules and
their effects on determined goals
Software, text
3
Soft skills
Discovery
Problem solving through trial and error
Software, graphic visuals, text,
multimedia
1,3
Soft skills
Problem
solving
Applying skills to find solutions to real problems
Software, videotape, graphic
visuals, audio, text, multimedia
3
Hard and soft
skills
Figure 2: The dynamic phases of the group learning process
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Implementing ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning
315
gradually become equipped with the skills and motivation to undertake active and
independent learning. Eventually, instruction is replaced with independent learning, as the full spectrum of Blooms Taxonomy is covered. The timing of the
introduction of the collaborative and cooperative tasks coincides with the stages
of the learning processes shown in Figure 2.
The ECS model is optimized for blended learning environments, where face-toface instruction is supported and complemented by online instruction. Content
management systems (CMS) such as WebCT (http://www.webct.com) offer
comprehensive administration tools with which to deploy complex pedagogies
that can emerge using the ECS model. The use of systems theory allows the
educator to identify the major pedagogical components that will best achieve the
desired learning outcomes. In addition, systems theory integrates the knowledge
and pedagogy of the process through rigorous alternatives assessments. Each
separate component of the process is analyzed for relevance and then integrated
to consolidate and expand individual learning. This framework structures the
learning environment, provides a mechanism for understanding interrelationships, and provides task balancing and process management benefits among
others. The central aspect is that a systematic framework for group interactions
is established that allows teams to define roles, define protocols for independent
working, and devise strategies for individual accountability.
Application of the ECS Model
Cartography Course Background
The multimedia cartography course used to test the model was at the third-year
undergraduate level and consisted of 47 students. The total contact duration was
13 weeks. Two hours of formal lectures and two hours of computer lab work
were compulsory, guided sessions each week. The lectures were delivered to all
students at the same time, while the computer labs were conducted in three
sessions with not more than 20 students attending per session. The rationale for
multiple lab sessions was to ensure that students had access to computer
resources and were able to receive individualized attention from the teaching
assistant. The classroom and lab settings exposed students to both teachercentered instructions and learner-centered instructions. Students initially had
little knowledge of multimedia concepts, cartography theory, or relevant software tools. But this situation was ideal for investigating the ECS model for
learning effectiveness among students and the management of the learning
process.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
316 Balram & Dragicevic
Table 2: Motivation of students in the multimedia cartography course
What do you expect to achieve by attending this course?
Frequency of Statements (%)
(Number of Statements = 47)
Better understanding of mapping on the Internet
Expand my knowledge of cartographic techniques
Greater familiarity with the software to be used
Academic credits and knowledge
Others
13 (27.7)
12 (25.5)
7 (14.9)
5 (10.6)
10 (21.3)
Designing learning structures that stimulate and promote enhanced student
motivation is perhaps the most crucial aspect of learning (Edstrom, 2002).
Identifying motivations allows instructors to develop strategies for redirecting
student goals toward more meaningful and rewarding learning experiences. A
questionnaire survey was implemented at the beginning of the cartography
course to determine student motivation and rationale. The open-ended anonymous question: “What do you expect to achieve by attending this course?”
provided valuable responses (Table 2). Learning about Internet mapping and
cartography principles was the most frequent statement given by students who
responded. This indicated that student motivation was generally aligned with the
course objectives, and hence, more time would be available for the instructor to
focus on preparing engaging content. As is expected, some students were
interested in software learning to improve their job prospects and others on
obtaining the necessary credits toward graduation.
The open-ended anonymous question: “What can the instructor and teaching
assistant do during the lectures and labs to make you learn better?”
indicated that the most frequent expectation was for clearly explained examplebased content (Table 3). The information obtained from the two questions guided
Table 3: Students’ suggestions for a better learning environment
What can the instructor and teaching assistant do during the lectures
and labs to make you learn better?
Frequency of Statements (%)
(Number of Statements = 46)
Give clear and concise explanations
Provide many examples during teaching
Present the materials at a reasonable pace
Make the content relevant and interesting
Give well-organized lecture notes
Make notes available ahead of lectures
Others
8 (17.4)
7 (15.2)
4 (8.7)
3 (6.5)
3 (6.5)
3 (6.5)
18 (39.1)
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Implementing ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning
317
the selection of pedagogical components in the ECS model, so that the learning
process was balanced by student expectations and institutional curriculum
policies.
Content Structuring and Knowledge Management
The first 4 weeks were dedicated to formal lectures and guided practice on the
use of software tools. Moreover, cases were analyzed and best practices
extracted such that students became familiar with general practices in the
subject area. This forms the knowledge management phase of the model, in
which learning proceeds through incremental steps, and individual learning is
emphasized. The subsequent weeks were structured so that knowledge management at an individual level and collaborative project at a group level reinforced
each other for an enhanced learning experience. Formal lectures included
concepts related to cartography, multimedia, Web mapping and project management theory (Figure 1). The focus of the lectures was on case studies, and
students were exposed to analytical, application, creative, communication,
social, and self-analysis skills (Easton, 1982). Moreover, students were able to
discuss their views freely and to listen to the views of peers. The group work and
peer support operated both as additional instructions for students and as a forum
for wider discussions within the course framework.
Of significance in this stage is the concept of Web-based mapping, which
involves some level of computer networking knowledge (Figure 3). In a Webmapping multimedia application, a digital map, once created, becomes a dynamic
index to multimedia content. The map is hosted on a Web server, and a map
server provides a dynamic link to a database to allow end users to query and
interact with the map in the browser window. Although the learning curve for this
particular type of mapping technology is steep, it was surprising to find that
students were extremely motivated and committed to learning the software.
Informal interviews revealed that the general source of this motivation came
from the structuring of the learning outcomes at each stage of the process and
the out-of-class support and help provided by the teaching assistant. Students
were more committed and motivated when they could control how and when they
learned.
Accessing notes and supplementary materials before lectures ensures that
students concentrate on synthesis and analysis rather than on note taking. The
new electronic media make it easy to provide additional readings based on
student needs, and the online environment provides a social space for continuous
conversations and support among peers. Optimal learning occurs when students
share knowledge among peers in a community of practice where ideas are
evaluated and adapted. In order to manage the implementation of the model, the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
318 Balram & Dragicevic
Figure 3: Levels of use of relevant software
Figure 4: Model implementation using the WebCT content management
system
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Implementing ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning
319
content management tool WebCT was used for managing mailing lists, discussions, and presentation of knowledge content (Figure 4). The real-time facilities
of the management tools were useful in fostering the “community spirit” outside
of the classroom setting. The final multimedia cartography atlas products
developed and implemented by students are documented on the Web (http://
www.sfu.ca/geog351fall02/).
Collaborative and Cooperative Learning
In the collaborative learning exercise, learners were divided into nine groups
(average of five students per group, some randomly and some based on individual
preference), and step-by-step guidelines were given to each group on the final
product to be achieved (designing and creating a professional multimedia atlas),
and resources (books, journal papers, Internet Web sites) available for unraveling what is to be achieved. Tasks included mastering sets of specific learning
objectives and finding ways to transfer that learning to the class as a whole.
There was no briefing to students on group roles. Students reported that the first
set of group discussions was difficult. This was expected, but students needed
to learn how to cope in a new and unfamiliar social and learning environment. The
leadership role was usually assigned to the student with much to say. That leader
then assigns tasks, facilitates the discussions, and ensures that meaningful
results emerge from the discussions. The weekly meetings provided time for
critical reflections and perusal of new materials, ideas, perspectives, and further
research. Each week, the instructor met with the group to evaluate problems and
progress and to offer solutions strategies. Ideas were not imposed on the groups,
and this was much appreciated by the learners. Moreover, learners agreed in
principle to abide by “moral and ethical” conduct during the course.
Students were involved in the initiation and definition of a relevant project.
Support was provided in the form of guidance about the format of the final
products to be produced, potential areas for projects, course aims and expectations, time schedules, data resources, and project management information. In
the design stage, students were encouraged to develop a concept sketch of their
product and to begin the process of tool selection and task allocation. There were
many opportunities for students to consult with the course instructor and teaching
assistant during this stage and, indeed, for the entire course. All members of the
group were encouraged to participate in the creation, assembly, and layout of
content so as to ensure a uniform individual learning experience. Internet
resources and books were provided to help further the process. Each group
identified a member to coordinate their activities and to maintain close liaison
with the instructors. The final course products were presented to peers for
review, and comments were gathered by the instructor and given to each group.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
320 Balram & Dragicevic
This feedback was useful in improving the quality of the products and establishing a standardized level. This peer review also introduced critical and reflective
practices into the process (Bazeli & Robinson, 2001).
The use of information technology together with communicating and working
with peers was identified by students as contributing to the success of the
project. There were instances in which some students were more focused on the
technological tools and less on the content. The group-learning format ensured
that group members provide focus and guidance to individuals. Evidence of this
peer learning was reflected in the sophistication of the cartographic products and
how these products quickly diffused and were adopted by other groups. The
professionalism of the final products helped in motivating students toward
greater learning and explorations.
Assessment and Evaluation
Evaluations have substantial gains for individual projects and progress in the
field. Moreover, the use of new ICT technology has resulted in curriculum
changes and may require new ways of evaluating students. In the collaborative
modes of learning, the focus is on teamwork and communication skills, and
appropriate measures of these are needed. An interim way of dealing with this
is to use outside evaluators and student questionnaires. Also, multiple levels of
evaluation can yield richer feedback from external, internal, and peer sources.
Logging usage statistics and student interviews is another way to identify
features of the course that are good and what improvements can be made so that
future refinements of the process can be made.
Assessment materials were returned to students quickly, showing where improvements can be made. The exercise involved students preparing work
individually and bringing it to the group. The small groups then integrated the
materials using e-mail and face-to-face meetings. The small group work was
then shown to the groups in a large-format presentation. The assessment also
allows educators to learn about their work in a critical and reflective way so that
rapid improvements can be instituted for the benefit of learners (Gerber, 2002).
The assessment for the cartography course was comprised of individual assignments, group mini-project presentations, individual participation, examination,
and production of a final working group electronic atlas.
All students completed a questionnaire during the formal group presentations,
and some students were randomly interviewed at the midway point in the course
to obtain feedback toward formative evaluations. In the group presentations,
each student was required to judge the presentations of the others on a 5-point
verbal scale ranging from poor to excellent. Moreover, reasons for the judgments
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Implementing ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning
321
were also requested. The general trend of the responses was toward the
favourable end of the judgment scale and was justified by the respondents on two
main grounds—the sophistication of the tools and techniques used for creating
the atlases and the non-duplication of these techniques across the groups.
Students clearly indicated that these were attributed to the efficient small-group
work and the collaborative settings in which they occurred. However, one
shortcoming identified was the lack of time. While this was unavoidable given the
constraints of the semester and curriculum, techniques and tools for time and
project management were again reinforced such that facilities for handling this
shortcoming were available to them beyond the course. Another shortcoming
identified was the variation in skills within the groups. Although students
recognized the difficult logistical problems that this can cause, they nevertheless
felt that the group’s experience would probably have been more rewarding with
balanced skills. One way to deal with this is to make greater use of learning styles
and skills inventory to categorize students into the small project groups. However, this will demand a trade-off between efficiency in the course logistics and
effectiveness in implementing the ECS model. The two comments below
characterize the general attitude of students:
“The projects and presentations overall were very impressive and
obviously well thought out. The presentations give an overall view of the
work-effort placed within each group.”
“In general I would like to say that all the atlas were very different
concerning layout and information, but most of them were really very
good.”
A summative evaluation in the later stages of the course elicited responses on
the following questions using a 4-point scale (4 being most favourable):
•
The assignments and lectures were [unrelated—well related]; mean score
= 2.61 (n = 36)
•
The exams and assignments were on the whole [unfair—fair]; mean score
= 2.81 (n = 36)
•
The marking scheme was on the whole [unfair—fair]; mean score = 2.92
(n = 36)
These results from the summative evaluations are inconclusive. While they
indicate a general positive weight to the statements, the aggregations of different
student backgrounds and experiences makes any interpretation uncertain. The
issue of a learner capability to judge curriculum content and implementation is
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
322 Balram & Dragicevic
still unresolved in the literature. Nevertheless, the informal interviews and the
level of accomplishment in the final atlas products provide strong indication that
the collaborative learning process, as implemented using the ECS model, was
indeed effective in managing and task balancing the components toward the
intended products.
Future Trends
The further development and integration of ICT into multimedia cartography
education is dependent on three factors: access to ICT tools, instructors’
knowledge of effective ICT use, and more studies on the benefits of ICT and
multimedia in student learning. Access and instructor knowledge are issues best
handled from the wider policies and practices of higher education administration.
Systematic research is needed to further establish the role of ICT in learning.
The software and hardware needs for geography education are enormous.
Centralized servers for demonstrating and hosting Web-mapping services, the
multiplicity and constantly changing software tools, and the need to redesign
current computer laboratories to accommodate collaborative group learning are
some of the central considerations that will influence the wider adoption and
diffusion of an ICT in the geography curriculum. A troubling issue for multimedia
cartography teaching and learning is software licensing arrangements that can
sometimes be a barrier to using certain software tools in the learning process.
This, in some ways, dictates the eventual skills that students can achieve.
Technology providers will need to seriously consider pricing mechanisms so that
academic institutions are better able to afford and maintain basic technological
infrastructures to implement core teaching and education programs. There has
been some progress in this area, with mechanisms such as university campus
licensing that enable widespread use of some software tools for teaching and
research.
With the gradual expansion of the home as a center of learning, arrangements
for students to use university resources at home promise to be a major issue,
especially with respect to copyrights and off-campus licensing agreements.
University libraries hold a key position in this regard. Already, electronic books,
or e-books, are a common feature of many western university library catalogs,
and there has been growing evidence to suggest that some of the more
progressive university libraries have already begun to redefine their roles as
information gateways to act as the intermediary between the user and information (Dowler, 1997). Electronic data archives, multimedia reuseable learning
object databases, subject portals, and continuing skills training for students are
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Implementing ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning
323
ways libraries have begun to accept their changing roles in university teaching
and learning. A common thread in all the transformations has been the impact
that ICT has brought to the university and classroom with respect to administration, teaching, and learning.
Existing models of multimedia cartography teaching and learning have been
mostly descriptive. These models have been useful in understanding the mechanisms in operation and in enabling comparisons to be made across different
learning contexts. The results from these studies have enabled educators to
generally conclude that ICT and multimedia have positive benefits for learning.
However, not much is known about the critical factors and how they influence
learning. Systematic investigations of predictive models in diverse contexts
provide the next steps for understanding the factors of ICT and multimedia that
affect learning. Following along this line will be new learning tools, with which
intelligent agents will guide learners through knowledge nodes and learning
activities using hypermedia and multimedia in much the same way as the
intelligent help assistant acts in the Microsoft Office software products.
Conclusion
The ECS model presented is based on a holistic perspective of learning as
complex interactions between multiple agents, physical and social spaces, and
instructional technologies. Although the model can be used in hypothesis testing,
the main goal is to provide instructional designers and educators with a tool for
managing the main factors that need to be considered when designing ICT-based
pedagogies. This model provides the framework for good instructional and
course-structuring design that takes into account the diversity of learner styles
and provides engaging interactions among students.
The use of ICT and multimedia pedagogy in cartographic education is still in the
early stages of understanding and development. There are numerous possibilities
and pitfalls. But given the early stages of diffusion of multimedia tools in
education, the current focus among practitioners is on developing strategies and
standardized protocols to produce effective multimedia components that blend
engagement and entertainment into a single learning environment. Moreover,
collaborative processes aid the pedagogical move toward student-centered
learning.
The embedded collaborative systems model was developed to structure and
understand the dynamics involved in the implementation of multiple learning skills
activities. The implementation involved 47 students in a multimedia cartography
course. The course was conducted in a blended learning environment, and
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
324 Balram & Dragicevic
discursive group learning was the foundation of the learning experience (Thorne,
2003). Each group defined project content, prepared a proposal, defended their
proposal in front of their peers in a formal conference-type presentation,
received feedback from peers, and used the feedback to improve their group’s
project. Also, the other groups judged each group on presentations. This forms
the cooperative phase, where individuality and group opinions are merged for
consensual learning.
In summary, the issues in this study, namely, how to implement effective (content
and experience) multimedia cartography training and education to learners of
diverse backgrounds, was addressed by the development and testing of a
systems model for integrating the multiple facets involved in the education and
training process. Within the systems model, the collaborative and cooperative
learning strategies were integrated to promote individual and group development
for effective multimedia cartography education and product development. The
benefits of the ECS model include the following:
•
Improves connectivity among the actors by embedded and continuous
interaction
•
Cultivates an attitude of independent learning through peer guidance and
motivation
•
Integrates multimedia information, thereby catering to a range of learning
styles
•
Provides ownership of the learning process through group and individual
project management
•
Develops individual social and learning skills and accountability
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the following sources: an
International Council for Canadian Studies (ICCS-CIES) Scholarship and a
Department of Geography (Simon Fraser University) Teaching Assistantship to
S. Balram; and a Simon Fraser University President Research Grant to S.
Dragicevic. The comments of Dr. David Kaufman, LIDC, Simon Fraser
University are gratefully appreciated. The authors thank two anonymous
referees for their comments and suggestions toward improving an earlier draft
of the manuscript.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Implementing ICT-based Multimedia Cartography Teaching and Learning
325
References
Abbott, C. (2001). ICT: Changing education. London; New York: Routledge
Falmer.
Alessi, S. M., & Trollip, S. R. (2001). Multimedia for learning: Methods and
development. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Bazeli, M. J., & Robinson, R. S. (2001). Critical viewing to promote critical
thinking. In R. Muffoletto (Ed.), Education and technology: Critical and
reflective practices (pp. 69–91). Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press.
Benyon, D., Stone, D., & Woodroffe, M. (1997). Experience with developing
multimedia courseware for the World Wide Web: The need for better tools
and clear pedagogy. International Journal of Human–Computer Studies, 47, 197–218.
Bertalanffy, L. v. (1969). General systems theory; Foundations, development, applications. New York: G. Braziller.
Bruffee, K. A. (1995). Sharing our toys: Cooperative learning versus collaborative learning. Change, (January/February), 12–18.
Cartwright, W., Peterson, M. P., & Gartner, G. F. (Eds.). (1999). Multimedia
cartography. Berlin; New York: Springer.
Dearing, R. (1997). The National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education. Retrieved April 10, 2003 from the World Wide Web: http://
www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/ncihe/
Dowler, L. (Ed.). (1997). Gateways to knowledge: The role of academic
libraries in teaching, learning, and research. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press.
Easton, G. (1982). Learning from case studies. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall International.
Edstrom, K. (2002). Design for motivation. In S. Hailes (Ed.), The digital
university: Building a learning community (pp. 193–202). London; New
York: Springer.
Ellis, T. J. (2001). Multimedia enhanced educational products as a tool to
promote critical thinking in adult students. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 10(2), 107–123.
Farrell, G. (1999). The development of virtual institutions in Canada. In G. Farrell
(Ed.), The development of virtual education: A global perspective (pp.
13–22). Vancouver, Canada: The Commonwealth of Learning.
Gerber, R. (2002). Understanding how geographical educators learn in their
work: An important basis for their professional development. In M. Smith
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
´ ´
326 Balram & Dragicevic
(Ed.), Teaching geography in secondary schools: A reader (pp. 293–
305). London: Routledge Falmer.
Gold, J. R., Jenkins, A., Lee, R., Monk, J., Riley, J., Shepherd, I., & Unwin, D.
(1991). Teaching geography in higher education: A manual of good
practice. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell.
Hassell, D. (2000). Issues in ICT and geography. In T. Binns (Ed.), Issues in
geography teaching (pp. 80–92). London; New York: Routledge.
Hede, A. (2002). An integrated model of multimedia effects on learning.
Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 11(2), 177–191.
Kenway, J. (1996). The information superhighway and post-modernity: The
social promise and the social price. Comparative Education, 32(2), 217–231.
Kinshuk, & Patel, A. (2003). Optimizing domain representation with multimedia
objects. In S. Naidu (Ed.), Learning and teaching with technology:
Principles and practice (pp. 55–68). London and Sterling, VA: Kogan
Page Limited.
Mitchell, B. R. (2002). The relevance and impact of collaborative working for
management in a digital university. In S. Hailes (Ed.), The digital university: Building a learning community (pp. 229–246). London; New York:
Springer.
Najjar, L. J. (1996). Multimedia information and learning. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 5(2), 129–150.
Norman, K. (2002). Collaborative interactions in support of learning: Models,
metaphors and management. In S. Hailes (Ed.), The digital university:
Building a learning community (pp. 41–56). London; New York: Springer.
Piaget, J. (1926). The language and thought of a child. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul.
Selwyn, N. (2002). Telling tales on technology: Qualitative studies of
technology and education. Aldershot, Hants, England; Burlington, VT:
Ashgate.
Thorne, K. (2003). Blended learning: How to integrate online & traditional
learning. London; Sterling, VA: Kogan Page.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Watson, D., Blakeley, B., & Abbott, C. (1998). Researching the use of
communication technologies in teacher education. Computers and Education, 30(1–2), 15–21.
Yildirim, Z., Ozden, M. Y., & Aksu, M. (2001). Comparison of hypermedia
learning and traditional instruction on knowledge acquisition and retention.
The Journal of Educational Research, 94(4), 207–214.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 327
Chapter XVI
Cave Automated
Virtual Environment:
A Supercomputer-based
Multimedia System for
Learning Science in a
Science Center
Leo Tan Wee Hin, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
R. Subramaniam, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Sharlene Anthony, Singapore Science Centre, Singapore
Abstract
A multimedia system based on the Cave Automated Virtual Environment is
shown to be useful for learning science in the informal setting of a science
center. Using the theme of water, concepts such as atomic structure,
electron precessing, bonding and phase transformations have been used to
provide a framework for scaffolding content in a dynamic manner among
students. The high quality visualizations, immersive experiences, interactivity
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
328 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
and stereoscopic imagery in this virtual environment also contributes
towards experiential learning, and it is suggested that this has constructivist
implications.
Introduction
Traditional pedagogical environments such as classroom-based teaching continue to play useful and effective roles in delivering education to students. While
it is perceived to have a number of disadvantages, for example, it is teachercentric, it generally involves the passive assimilation of content by students, and
it does not maximize learning efficiency in large groups, it still constitutes the
bedrock upon which teaching and learning are premised. In more recent times,
the role of science centers in complementing science teaching in schools has
become important (Tan & Subramaniam, 1998, 2003a, 2003b, 2003c). By
providing a learning environment in which knowledge transmittance occurs
informally, considerable scope is afforded for students to expand their mental
paradigms through participatory experiences in science exhibitions, large-format
theatres, and other mass-based promotional activities. In many of the exhibits as
well as in the programs shown in the large-format theatres, there is the mediation
of technology to drive the learning experience. The communal dynamics inherent
in these informal educational environments also provides a social context for
learning.
In using technology to mediate the learning experience, multimedia systems offer
tremendous potential. This is based on the recognition that the use of audio, video,
and text technologies provide a stimuli-rich initiation into the learning process.
Whereas traditional learning is dependent predominantly on oral narratives, the
insertion of multimedia permits an expansion of the sensory dimension that is
brought to bear on the learning process. And this has cognitive implications. Early
versions of multimedia systems were restricted to programs on monitor screens,
which provide the necessary audiovisual experiences through computer-generated graphics (Bryson, 1992). In later versions, there was the availability of 3-D
images, but these need to be relished using 2-D media, that is, a desktop monitor
screen in conjunction with stereographic glasses. While permitting navigation
capabilities through the learning worlds generated, they do not have the capability
to foster immersive experiences.
Technological advances in computational processing, image rendering, and
scientific visualization have contributed immensely to the advent of more
complex multimedia systems, notably virtual reality (Bryson, 1996). This has
allowed the creation of compelling learning experiences that are participatory in
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 329
nature. Until recent times, the use of virtual reality interfaces was constrained
by factors that precluded their wider use. Initial versions required the use of
Head-Mounted Display sets to showcase the visualization of learning scenarios
(Teitel, 1990; Chung & Harris, 1990). This had the drawbacks of single-user
experience at any one time, use of technical manpower to manage the logistics
of the exercise, use of small video screens in the headset, and the fragility of the
system. Also, these versions do not permit direct interaction with the artificially
generated objects in the virtual world. The use of data glove sets also had similar
drawbacks when fostering tactile experiences in various knowledge domains
(Burdea, 1996).
A quantum leap in virtual reality technology was attained with the advent of the
Cave Automated Virtual Environment (CAVE) (Cruz-Neira et al., 1992, 1993a,
1993b; DeFanti et al., 1993). Comprising a cubic room with multiscreen
projection systems that project stereographic (3-D) images, it afforded, for the
first time, a generational advance in immersive and participatory experiences for
large groups of people at any one time. The wide field presentation permits
scaling up of processes and phenomena as well as navigation through these
environments to an extent hitherto thought not possible. This navigation can be
done without the need for any physical movement by the user. It soon becomes
apparent that virtual learning environments for a variety of applications and
topics can be built using the CAVE. The level of visualization made possible
through the CAVE also helps to simulate virtual representations of complex
processes and architectural designs. Compared to Head-Mounted Display
systems and data glove sets, the CAVE systems are robust and rugged.
Generally, multimedia systems have the projection plane orthogonal to the
viewer, for example, as in conventional theatres. This constrains the utility of the
media to a single plane. In the CAVE, the use of multiple projection paradigms
affords users new perspectives of the scenario from different positions. This is
a key factor that contributes to the feeling of presence in the virtual environment
and, concomitantly, greater sensory immersion in the 3-D imagery conjured up
in the CAVE.
Because of the cost and technical expertise needed to run CAVE systems, it is
found mainly in leading research establishments and universities. Cutting-edge
research and sophisticated visualization experiments are done in these CAVEs.
More recently, schools have been exposed to the CAVE for their learning needs
(Roussos et al., 1997; Moher et al., 1999; Johnson et al., 2000). The Singapore
Science Center is the only public access setting in the world to have a CAVE as
part of its menu of attractions for students and the public.
In this chapter, the use of the CAVE to learn science in the informal setting of
a science center is explored. No previous work on such settings has been
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
330 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
reported in the literature. More specifically, the purpose of this chapter is fourfold:
1.
To describe the systems architecture of the CAVE used at the Singapore
Science Center
2.
To briefly review the applications literature related to CAVE
3.
To highlight the design and pedagogical aspects of two of the educational
programs used in the CAVE for students and the public, respectively
4.
To assess the learning efficacy of this new learning environment for one of
the programs offered to schools
Systems Architecture of the CAVE
The CAVE at the Singapore Science Center is a cube of dimensions 3 m × 3 m
× 3 m, and it comprises the following principal components:
1.
Projection systems: Three rear projection systems for the walls (front, left,
and right) and one down projection system for the floor are used. For the
latter, the projector is mounted at the top on a horizontal plane, and the
images are projected onto an angularly aligned mirror that reflects them
onto the floor. These systems project stereographic images onto the
respective screens. Images are projected at a frame rate of 96 Hz. This
helps to minimize visual fatigue among users. The multicolor visual fields
(1024 × 768 dpi) provide a resolution of about 2000 linear pixels.
2.
Stereo glasses: When the projectors project the multicolor visual fields
onto the screens, the images appear as doublets bereft of stereographic
integrity. To resolve these alternate fields as well as to elicit the 3-D effect,
the use of stereo glasses (Stereographics’ CrystalEyes) by users is
necessary. The stereo glasses are battery operated.
3.
Tracking sensors: The lead user in the CAVE wears a pair of stereo
glasses, which has sensors to electromagnetically track the orientation and
location of his head. It has six degrees of freedom of movement corresponding to the Euclidean x, y, and z coordinate systems as well as the pitch,
roll, and yaw orientations. What the lead user sees is also what the others
in the CAVE see. Signals from the sensors are relayed to the computer that
constantly auto-adjusts the projection of the images from the lead user’s
perspective.
The lead user also holds a wand that comprises a joystick and three buttons.
The wand has a sensor based on the Ascension Flock of Birds Tracking
System, and it is interfaced by a cable to a serial port on the Onyx
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 331
supercomputer via a PC. The joystick is used to navigate through the virtual
environment in the CAVE, while the buttons are used to trigger modes of
interactivity, for example, grabbing an object.
The lead user’s stereo glasses and wand are tethered to cables, and this can
constrain his mobility in the CAVE to some extent.
4.
Screens: The display screens used are mounted orthogonally to the plane
of projection of the images. They are translucent and of low emissivity.
5.
Sound systems: Placement of acoustic speakers at the top vertices of the
CAVE generates sonification effects that add to the immersive and
interactive experience in the CAVE. The sound can be triggered at any
speaker so as to make it appear to be coming from a discrete location of the
3-D imagery in the CAVE.
6.
Stereo emitters: Small stereo emitters placed around the edges of the
CAVE have the function of synchronizing the configuration of the stereo
glasses to the frame rate used for image projection.
7.
Supercomputer: The overall operations of the CAVE are directed and
coordinated by a supercomputer (Silicon Graphics Onyx 2 Reality Engine).
Figure 1: Schematic of Cave Automated Virtual Environment
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
332 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
Figure 2: Students inside the Cave Automated Virtual Environment
In a typical CAVE program at the Singapore Science Center, up to 12 persons
can be comfortably accommodated inside the CAVE. The duration of each
program is variable, but it is typically restricted to not more than 15 minutes.
Figure 1 shows a schematic of the setup of the CAVE. In Figure 2, a scene from
the CAVE is depicted.
Brief Review of CAVE
Applications Literature
The concept of CAVE has its origins in 1991 in the ideas of Thomas DeFanti and
Don Sandin of the Electronic Visualization Laboratory at the University of
Chicago. An initial prototype based on their ideas was developed by Carolina
Cruz-Neir in 1992 (Cruz-Neir et al., 1992, 1993).
Presenting computer-generated and multisensory data as visual sets, the utility
of the CAVE was soon recognized by other workers for the simulation of
scientific phenomena as well as for the creation of walk-throughs of various
virtual environments. Much of the advances in the utility of the CAVE for various
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 333
learning and training needs was, and is still, being done in the Electronic
Visualization Laboratory at the University of Chicago.
Among the numerous applications that have been developed for the CAVE
include the following:
1.
As a children’s activity to collaboratively construct, cultivate, and tend a
healthy virtual garden (Roussos et al., 1997)
2.
As an activity to explore a large “natural” terrain populated by different
plant types (Moher et al., 1999)
3.
To provide immersive experiences of distributed data using high-performance networks (Lascara et al., 2002)
4.
To study an ant, the interior of the Earth, a volcano, an iceberg, the solar
system, and the human heart (Johnson et al., 2000)
5.
To prototype a new virtual reality device (Johnson et al., 2002)
6.
To educate about cultural heritage (Pape et al., 2000)
7.
As a construction, preplanning tool for modeling basic elements of mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems in buildings (Roy, 1998)
8.
To virtually prototype product development, for example, design a ship
passenger cabin and build a promenade (Broas, 2001)
The suite of applications that can be developed is limited only by the requirements
of the clients and the creativity of the programmer.
CAVE Programs at the
Singapore Science Center
Two programs are the subject of this chapter. A brief description of these
programs is necessary in order to appreciate the potential of the CAVE for
educational needs in the informal setting of the science center.
Molecular Structure of Water
The topic of water is a curriculum requirement in both primary and secondary
school science in Singapore (Tan & Subramaniam, 2003d). As it is taught, there
are certain problems encountered in getting students to clearly understand its
molecular geometry, crystal structure, and dynamics of its phase transforma-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
334 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
tions. It was in this context that the topic of water was specially developed as a
CAVE application.
The programming was done at the Institute of High Performance Computing in
Singapore based on the brief provided by the Singapore Science Center. The
brief calls for specific pedagogical elements and instructional tools to be built into
the program in order to meet various teaching and learning needs. In developing
the conceptual framework for this program, particular attention was paid to
ensure that the relative sizes of the atoms as well as the values of the atomic radii,
bond angles, bond lengths, and other parameters were modeled as accurately as
possible, within the constraints of the system, in the virtual representations, so
that they can stand up to scientific scrutiny. This has been a key factor in
dynamically configuring the various structures and processes in the topic and in
imposing a coherent format on the program. It was also deemed important that
creative interpretations of the ideas as well as game elements be included so as
to foster an edutainment experience for students coming for this program. This
stems from the popularization philosophy employed by science centers—that is,
learning has got to be fun and enjoyable. Initial versions of the program were
tested on the CAVE with small groups of users in order to obtain feedback as
well as to assess the accuracy of the representations. The feedback was
incorporated into later versions of the program.
The program currently being shown allows for the relishing of the following
stereographic scenarios:
•
Electrons precessing around the nucleus of the hydrogen and oxygen
atoms. Visitors also get a chance to navigate into the heart of these atomic
configurations in order to view different perspectives.
•
Combination of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom through covalent
bonding to form a molecule of H2O, which floats as a 3-D structure in
space. A walk-around of this molecule is also made possible, as is the scope
for “touching” it.
•
Differential aggregation of H2O molecules to form its three states of
matter—solid ice, liquid water, and water vapor
•
•
Crystal structure of ice, including a walk-through to its interior
Demonstrating phase transformation through temperature-induced changes.
For this purpose, there is a virtual transducer that can be manipulated by the
lead user to increase or decrease the temperature. As the temperature
increases, absorption of heat by the H2O molecules in the liquid state is
cognized through an increase in its freedom of movement. With further rise
of temperature, more of the H2O molecules are seen to break free from the
hydrogen bonds that bind them together in the liquid state and escape into
the CAVE environment. An increase in temperature further manifests as
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 335
an increase in the collision frequency of the H2O molecules in the gas
phase. More of these molecules escape into the CAVE environment and
“knock” against the visitors inside. Appropriate sound effects are generated during such interactions in order to accentuate the immersive and
interactive experiences of visitors.
Walk-through of Virtual Outdoor Field
This program is commonly used to showcase the technological capabilities of the
CAVE to a generalist audience. It is recognized that not all visitors would want
to be treated to a content-heavy presentation such as the molecular structure of
water.
The program, better known as Crayoland, conjures up a scenario of an outdoor
field environment, as seen through the eyes of a three-year-old child, using
pastel-colored drawings (http://www.evl.uic.edu/pape/CAVE/demos/
crayoland.html). The scenery is replete with trees, lakes, flowers, log cabin,
streams, and mountains. Users can navigate through the woods and relish the
sights along the way. Some of the scenarios in the program include the following:
•
Navigating between trees in the woods—if a visitor bumps into a tree,
appropriate sound effects are generated
•
Disturbing a beehive on a treetop with the lead user’s wand, whence the
bees disperse among the visitors with a buzzing sound
•
“Entering” a log cabin in the woods, either through the door or through the
window, and relishing its interior. This sequence tellingly demonstrates to
participants that it is the lead user who controls what they see. Others can
try to “enter” the log cabin, but it would not be possible, even though it is
realistically in 3-D and within reach. It is only when the lead user “enters”
the house that others “feel” at home.
•
•
•
•
Plucking a flower from the woods and dropping it
Walking around a well
Splashing water when wading through a pond
Encountering buzzing bees, flying butterflies, chirping birds, and quacking
ducks in the ecosystem of the virtual environment
At all times, participants can “touch” the 3-D objects in the virtual environment
and, thus, add to the grandeur of their experience.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
336 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
Design of Evaluation Instrument
To assess the efficacy of the CAVE as an educational tool, an evaluation
instrument was developed for the program on water. A draft list of 20 statements
was first generated, based on the authors’ experiences as well as drawing ideas
from the literature. These statements covered three categories: learning climate,
effectiveness of learning, and educational potential. The statements were edited
for clarity, ambiguity, and redundancy. Based on this screening process, the
number of statements was pruned down to 16. After obtaining feedback from
validators, the 16 statements were slightly refined. For the purpose of this study,
it was felt that these 16 statements were adequate. A longer evaluation
instrument was not desirable, as it can lead to respondent fatigue.
For ease of administration, the scalability of the statements was set on a fivepoint Likert-type scale, ranging from Strongly Agree (SA) to Strongly Disagree
(SD). The corresponding numerical measures ranged from 5 for SA to 1 for SD.
For the negatively worded statements, the numerical measures were reversed.
Two groups of students of mixed gender were used for this study. One group was
a class of 35 students (16 males and 19 females) studying in Secondary 3
(Express), while another group was a class of 33 students (16 males and 17
females) studying in Secondary 1 (Express). Both groups were from different
schools, and they were exposed to the CAVE program on water on separate
days. (The medium of instruction in schools in Singapore is English.) The
evaluation instrument was administered to the students after the CAVE experience. Prior to completion of the evaluation instrument, the groups were briefed
about the purpose of the study, the scoring used in the instrument, and also
provided clarifications on terms such as immersive experience, etc. The evaluation instrument took about five minutes for completion.
Discussion
There is compelling evidence in the multimedia literature that technology-based
environments provide good instructional support for meeting learning needs (De
Jong et al., 1998; Edelson et al., 1999; Guzdial, 1995; Jackson & Winn, 1999;
Johnson et al., 1999, 2002; Taxen & Waeve, 2001). The multisensory experience
created in such environments can be contrasted with that prevailing in traditional
learning environments, where there is impoverishment of the experiential factor.
The CAVE at the Singapore Science Center was conceptualized as a dualpurpose teaching tool—one that is intended to complement the science curricula
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 337
in schools and, another, to promote an edutainment experience for the general
public. It was recognized that the promotion of both of these aspects is an integral
aspect of justifying the investment on the CAVE.
Aligning the program on the molecular structure of water with classroom
teaching practice affords a context for reaching out to schools. The topics of
electronic structure, bonding, and phase transformations are central to the
understanding of a number of basic concepts in chemistry. By integrating these
concepts in a unifying theme such as water, a rational framework is afforded for
showcasing the capabilities of the CAVE. As the complexity at the microlevel
is solubilized by the scaling-up potential afforded in the CAVE, visualization of
complex phenomena and geometry at the atomic level takes on greater meaning.
Importance of Lead User
In presenting the CAVE experience on the molecular structure of water, the lead
user acts as a pedagogical agent for content delivery in a dynamic environment.
The lead user is usually a trained staff member of the science center who has
both content knowledge of the subject matter as well as the level of presentation
experience expected of science center/science museum professionals. At each
stage in the virtual reality excursion, the running commentary by the lead user
during gaps in the audio commentary in the program helps to ensure that the
CAVE experience does not regress to that of an entertainment session bereft of
teaching value but instead fosters the attainment of cognitive goals as well. It
may be argued that an on-screen pedagogical agent can as well perform the task.
While there are merits in such an arrangement, the use of a human pedagogical
interface has a number of distinct advantages. These are elaborated below:
1.
As technical navigating and learning simultaneously imposes heavy cognitive load on users, guided access in a domain of inquiry helps to lessen the
dependency on the former factor while augmenting the latter factor.
2.
The show can be temporarily stopped at any time to insert an extended
narrative or to clear misconceptions among students on various aspects of
the topic.
3.
The program can be rewound to certain sequences so as to recapture
salient aspects of the learning.
4.
The participatory elements embedded in the program can be extended to
inject further fun elements in the learning experience.
5.
It helps to provide directedness of the learning experience.
6.
It permits dwelling on particular abstractions in the conceptual framework.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
338 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
7.
Guided access helps to pitch the presentation according to the academic
level of the students.
It is the considerable latitude that the lead user brings to the virtual environment
that adds to the value of the show experience for students. Both primary and
secondary school students come for the CAVE presentation, and the lead user
varies the level of abstraction of the presentation accordingly. It needs to be
emphasized that the CAVE at the Singapore Science Center is the only system
in the world where the lead user inserts a narrative at appropriate gaps in the
audio commentary. While the recorded audio commentary is often sufficient for
many purposes to comprehend what is happening in the CAVE, the lead user’s
inputs constitute a value-added enhancement to the learning experience of
students. In the case where a trained lead user is not available for some reason,
another person can still guide the CAVE participants on a navigational basis with
the audio commentary sufficing.
Typically, a 15-minute duration for the virtual reality program on the molecular
structure of water is sufficient. Any further extension is not desirable for three
reasons: it can affect the user’s sense of orientation in the virtual environment;
it imposes cerebral indigestion on students; and it affects turn-around time for
other student groups in the queue.
Generally, teachers bring student groups to attend the CAVE experience after
completing the relevant topics in class. As the nature of the CAVE program on
water is organized in a hierarchical manner, the learning journey provides a
context for building the concept base of students further.
Evaluation of CAVE
Informal feedback solicited from teachers and groups of students coming for
such visits over a period of a year have shown that the CAVE experience helps
to complement what is taught in the topic of water in the school science curricula.
The verbalization data obtained from this feedback also attest to the fact that the
technological mediation afforded in treating the topic of water provides a useful
cognitive delivery system for appreciating complex processes and mapping these
onto the learners’ cognition.
The informal feedback is validated by the more formal study undertaken with the
use of an evaluation instrument. Overall, the feedback was very positive on the
use of the CAVE as a teaching tool.
For the purpose of this study, our intent has been to show that the CAVE is a
viable educational tool. In this context, our emphasis has been on the develop-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 339
ment of a suitable evaluation instrument as well as the use of simple statistical
analyses and reliability analyses of the data. The use of more sophisticated data
analysis as well as the exploring of effects such as gender, etc., are not the
motivating concerns of this study, and are thus not addressed. Table 1 presents
descriptive statistics for each of the 16 statements in the evaluation instrument
after analysis of the responses from the Secondary 3 pupils. The means of the
statements ranged from 3.57 to 4.40; standard deviations ranged from 0.35 to
0.91. Internal consistency of the evaluation instrument was obtained by extracting the Cronbach Alpha coefficient (Cronbach, 1951). The value of 0.85 is well
above the norm of 0.70 recommended by Nunnaly (1978), and thus indicates
good reliability of the instrument developed.
Table 2 summarizes the descriptive statistics for the CAVE experience with the
Secondary 1 pupils. Again, a similar trend is observed. The means of the
statements ranged from 3.75 to 4.36; standard deviations ranged from 0.56 to
0.93. The Cronbach Alpha coefficient of 0.83 for this study further indicates
good reliability of the evaluation instrument.
Some of the important findings emerging from this survey are as follows:
•
There is strong validation for the philosophy employed by the Singapore
Science Center in presenting the CAVE experience on the structure of
water. The mean for Item 1 in the survey instrument is 4.40 for the
Secondary 3 pupils and 4.27 for the Secondary 1 pupils, the highest among
all the 16 statements, thus reiterating the point that learning has got to be
fun and enjoyable.
•
The CAVE experience not only complements what students learn in school,
but it is also more than what they have learned from science textbooks. The
effect is especially pronounced for the Secondary 3 pupils (means of 4.14
for Item 9 and 3.71 for Item 8) than for the Secondary 1 pupils (means of
3.81 for Item 9 and 3.94 for Item 8). This could be due to the fact that the
Secondary 3 pupils have studied the topic in greater depth than the
Secondary 1 pupils.
•
The interactive and immersive environment in which the topic was taught
has found good support from both groups of students. The mean for Item
5 relating to the immersive environment was higher for the Secondary 1
pupils (4.36) than for the Secondary 3 pupils (4.09). In respect to Item 11
on the interactive nature of the CAVE, again, the mean was greater for the
Secondary 1 pupils (4.09) than for the Secondary 3 pupils (3.91). This
suggests that younger pupils are more fascinated by the play elements
embedded in the interactivity for learning, a finding which needs to be borne
in mind when developing more applications for the CAVE.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
340 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
•
The role of technology as a motivator for learning is strongly borne out by
the mean of at least 4.0 for Item 16 for both groups. This is of significance,
as motivation has long been recognized as an important factor affecting
student achievement (Karlsson, 1996). The role of the teacher in exposing
students to new learning environments in order to make learning enjoyable
is thus of paramount significance (Barry & King, 1993). In Singapore, it is
the teacher who makes the decision on what out-of-school learning
experiences, such as, for example, the CAVE, their students are exposed
to.
•
There was a strong expression of interest by both groups of students in
wanting to learn other science topics through the CAVE – mean for Item
Table 1: Descriptive statistics for CAVE experience with Secondary 3
students
S/n
Item
Min
Max
Mean
1
2
3
The CAVE makes learning fun and interesting
The design of the CAVE is appropriate for learning
The amount of material used in the multimedia
presentation in the CAVE was just right
The sequence of material shown in the multimedia
presentation in the CAVE was logical and systematic
I liked the immersive environment in which the topic
was taught
The way in which information was
presented in the CAVE was confusing (R)
The use of multimedia technology in the CAVE
helped to illustrate concepts in a way that facilitated
my understanding
I learned more about the structure of water from the
CAVE than from my science textbook
The CAVE experience on water complements what I
learned in class
The CAVE builds on my knowledge of water learned
from textbooks and in the classroom
The interactive environment in which the topic of
water was explored in the CAVE contributed to
greater learning
The guide who led the CAVE presentation facilitated
effectively my learning
The CAVE is not a good teaching tool to learn
science (R)
I would like to learn other science topics through the
CAVE
The CAVE is not an exciting media for learning (R)
The use of technology in the CAVE increased my
motivation to learn
3
2
2
5
5
5
4.40
4.09
3.57
Standard
Deviation
0.55
0.82
0.92
2
5
4.26
0.74
2
5
4.09
0.85
1
3
3.83
0.62
3
5
4.09
0.56
2
5
3.71
0.79
4
5
4.14
0.36
3
5
4.11
0.53
3
5
3.91
0.51
2
5
4.00
0.64
1
3
3.91
0.61
3
5
4.23
0.49
1
3
3
5
4.06
4.03
0.59
0.66
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Notes: Items 1–6 are on learning climate; Items 7–12 are on effectiveness of learning; and Items
13–16 are on educational potential. (R) indicates reversed score item. Cronbach Alpha = 0.85.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 341
14 in respect of this is 4.23 for the Secondary 3 pupils and 3.91 for the
Secondary 1 pupils.
Clearly, the learning climate, the effectiveness of learning, and the educational
potential of the CAVE are rated positively by both groups of students in this
study. This is not surprising, as the CAVE program on water was specifically
developed as an application to complement this topic in the science curricula in
schools in Singapore. In particular, both groups of students have commented
favorably on the use of technology to mediate their learning experience (Item 10
of evaluation instrument). It may be of interest to add that in a previous study of
Table 2: Descriptive statistics for CAVE experience with Secondary 1
students
S/n
Item
Min
Max
Mean
1
2
3
The CAVE makes learning fun and interesting
The design of the CAVE is appropriate for learning
The amount of material used in the multimedia
presentation in the CAVE was just right
The sequence of material shown in the multimedia
presentation in the CAVE was logical and systematic
I liked the immersive environment in which the topic
was taught
The way in which information was
presented in the CAVE was confusing (R)
The use of multimedia technology in the CAVE helped
to illustrate concepts in a way that facilitated my
understanding
I learned more about the structure of water from the
CAVE than from my science textbook
The CAVE experience on water complements what I
learned in class
The CAVE builds on my knowledge of water learned
from textbooks and in the classroom
The interactive environment in which the topic of
water was explored in the CAVE contributed to greater
learning
The guide who led the CAVE presentation facilitated
effectively my learning
The CAVE is not a good teaching tool to learn science
(R)
I would like to learn other science topics through the
CAVE
The CAVE is not an exciting media for learning (R)
The use of technology in the CAVE increased my
motivation to learn
3
3
2
5
5
5
4.27
4.24
3.76
Standard
Deviation
0.63
0.71
0.83
3
5
4.15
0.57
3
5
4.36
0.60
1
4
3.97
0.88
2
5
4.00
0.66
1
5
3.94
0.93
1
5
3.81
0.88
1
5
3.91
0.88
1
5
4.09
0.80
2
5
4.06
0.75
1
4
3.85
0.83
1
5
3.91
0.91
1
1
4
5
3.85
4.00
0.76
0.87
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Notes: Items 1–6 are on learning climate; Items 7–12 are on effectiveness of learning; and Items
13–16 are on educational potential. (R ) indicates reversed score item. Cronbach Alpha = 0.83.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
342 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
the CAVE for simulating science activities for school students, Moher et al.
(1999) noted the tremendous scope that technology provides for scaffolding
learning as well as broadening the domains of inquiry.
Comprehending the 3-D spatial geometry of atoms, molecules, intermolecular
bonding, and the crystallographic structure of ice poses some problems when
traditional media and conventional texts are used to teach these topics. The
CAVE experience furnishes an alternative platform in rendering accessible
these inaccessible phenomena as well as in visualizing molecular geometries.
The high quality of the graphics and the level of visualization afforded stereographically are important considerations in this regard. Instructional mentoring
by the lead user has also been favorably commented upon by users. All these
provide the scaffolding necessary to entrench the concepts in the cognitive
psyche of students to a reasonable extent. More importantly, the shared learning
experience in the communal setting of the CAVE is a factor that has found
support among students coming for such experiences. Teachers have also
commented favorably on the realistic portrayal of the various processes and
structures.
One drawback that we have found is the penchant for students to fixate attention
on the gimmicky elements embedded in the presentation as well as indulging in
gestural antics. Though these are necessary to make the presentation interesting
in that they afford scope for playful antics, they are recognized to be subservient
to the locus of their understanding. Moher et al. (1999) have, in fact, cautioned
that the introduction of new technologies such as the CAVE to educational
processes has the risk of transforming the nature and focus of the learning, and
that this may engender different learning outcomes. We suspect that the veering
off of emphasis from content to action, as indicated in our study here, is an
example in this regard, even though there was little evidence to show that it has
affected the cognitive transfer of knowledge. This could be due to the fact that
the CAVE experience was allied to the teaching programs in schools, and that
student experiences have been carefully structured to ensure that learning takes
place.
The novelty of the CAVE experience has been a factor in drawing school groups.
It is the feeling of sense of presence in the CAVE that endears it as a learning
medium for students and visitors alike. Several factors contribute to the creating
of sense of presence: use of high-resolution graphics, wide field view contributing to immersion, stereographic imagery, and auditory rendering of sonification
effects. While not their first experience with virtual reality, because virtual
reality arcades and home PC-based VR games are common in Singapore, the
feeling of immersion is powerful as is also the stereographic reality of the
imagery. It may well be that the novelty factor has a contributory factor in
enhancing the learning experience. Moher (1999) contends that the novelty
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 343
effect can sometimes confound assessment and, that when this wears off,
visualization takes center stage in the CAVE and contributes to greater learning.
Roussos (1997) has also commented that distraction, fatigue, and cognitive
overheads are factors that need to be borne in mind when assessing the influence
of learning in the CAVE. To what extent this has implications in our study is not
clear but is worthy of further study. We stress that the feedback from teachers
and students has been very positive in terms of the learning potential of the
CAVE program on water as well as the extent to which it complements their own
teaching of this topic.
Constructivist Learning in the CAVE
It is of interest to explore whether the multimedia experience in the CAVE
supports constructivist learning. There are several theories of constructivism,
but we will focus more on the cognitive constructivist approaches of Bartlett
(1932), Piaget (1977), and Taylor (1998), all of whom emphasize responsibility
on the part of the individual in constructing knowledge. According to these
theories, learning takes place in incremental steps shaped by the preconceived
notions of students about a topic. Exposing students to new situations or
frameworks for learning, where there are opportunities to build links with their
preconceived notions on a topic and thus connect at the intellectual level, meshes
with constructivist approaches. Shu (2001) has cautioned that not all multimedia
environments meet the learning philosophies of constructivists—the cognitive
framework in which the design of the multimedia is built is a crucial consideration
for such learning to take place.
In the context of the foregoing, the CAVE can be considered to be a new
framework on which to build on the previous knowledge of students on the topic
of water. The CAVE program on water drew inputs from educationists,
designers, and scientists at the formative stage, with the express aim of
complementing the topic as covered in the school science curricula in Singapore
and embedding constructivist elements. More importantly, it was conceptualized
by cognizing the curricular constructs of the topic and seeing how the potentialities of the CAVE can contribute toward furthering the process of learning.
Further support for the constructivist attributes of the CAVE learning is indicated
by the high weightage assigned, in particular, for Item 10 in the evaluation
instrument as well as for Items 7, 8, 9, and 11. Clearly, both groups of students
felt that the CAVE experience builds on their existing ideas on the structure of
water. The opportunities presented for resolving cognitive conflicts when the
learner’s preexisting knowledge construct cognizes new information in the
setting of the CAVE are broadly in sync with the requirement that stimulus for
learning needs to be provided as a basis for gearing learning toward constructivism
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
344 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
(Piaget, 1977; Fosnot, 1984). Indeed, Shu (2001) has commented that “learning
is a series of encounters with cognitive conflicts and the process of restoring
cognitive equilibrium, leading to the construction of understanding.” The fact that
hypermedia, of which CAVE is an example, has been shown to act as a vehicle
for stimulating learners to think (Barrett, 1989) and reflect (Zimmerman, 1989)
is also of significance in furthering the constructivist potential of the CAVE.
At each learning opportunity in the program in the CAVE, students’ existing
ideas are reformatted in light of new knowledge gained, eventually leading to the
entrenching of a firmer concept base on the topic. The immersive experience in
the knowledge environment of the CAVE is also an additional factor in
formatting the knowledge construct of students in constructivist ways. Additionally, the mediation of the learning experience by the pedagogical agent in the form
of the lead user provides opportunities for students to attain a firmer grasp of the
scientific principles following their initiation into the topic by their school teacher.
CAVE Experience for the Public
For the public, the CAVE program generally focuses on the virtual field
experience. It facilitates a good introduction to the capabilities of the system
without the need to embed traditional pedagogical elements in the presentation.
The latter can, in fact, be heavy going for the general public—another reason
why the program on the molecular structure of water is generally not screened
for them. There is no audio commentary for this program, and the lead user
provides navigational assistance to participants as well as demonstrates the
capability of the system in this environment.
The intent behind the offering of the CAVE experience to the public on a
showtime basis is to put in place an additional attraction on top of the regular
offerings at the Singapore Science Center. With the mushrooming of new
attractions, competition from existing attractions and the lure of home entertainment programs, institutions such as science centers face a constant challenge in
increasing visitor numbers. The availability of a leading-edge research tool,
found only in research establishments and universities, has been found to be a
strong selling point in drawing people to a public domain in order to experience
the hi-tech attraction for the cost of an admission ticket; there is no extra cost
imposed for the CAVE experience.
Affective Dimension of Learning in the CAVE
In a science center environment, the affective dimension of learning is generally
more important because of the informal approaches used. Examples of affective
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 345
processes include play experiences, increased level of engagement, and enhanced scope of interactivity. There is support in the educational literature on the
need to also foster affective gains in the learning process in the overall
educational development of students (Koran, 1984). The use of the CAVE in
contributing toward affective enhancements in the learning process among
students can be seen from the high weightage assigned by both groups for Item
1 in the evaluation instrument. In fact, the mean for Item 1 is the highest among
all items for both groups—4.40 for the Secondary 3 pupils and 4.27 for the
Secondary 1 pupils.
Conclusion
The creation of new user interfaces to aid conceptual and functional understanding of a scientific concept among students contributes significantly to the
attainment of cognitive outcomes of the learning process. Empowerment through
the mediation of technology can augment the traditional pedagogical approaches
in this regard.
The addition of a CAVE to the Singapore Science Center has enabled it to offer
a new and exciting science-based program that leverages the attributes of
creativity and innovation in order to make learning fun and enjoyable. By tying
with schools for the offering of this program, an opportunity is afforded to
complement the traditional learning approach and further cement links with the
education system.
There is no doubt that multimedia technologies present tremendous potential for
use in educational and training settings. Permitting visualization of complex
phenomena and simulation of discrete processes on a variety of topics and
subjects, the scope for interactivity and immersion in the 3-D environment of the
CAVE is a novelty factor that has been capitalized to good effect in extending
its educational potential. Immersion in the virtual environment has the advantage
that students connect with the knowledge representation more purposefully and,
in the process, cognize some of the epistemological connotations inherent in
these environments more effectively.
The present study adds to the growing body of literature supporting the
educational potential of the CAVE for school students, for example, the studies
by Roussos et al. (1998) on using the CAVE as a learning medium in biological
domains with high conceptual and social content; the work of Moher et al. (1999)
in using the CAVE to promote collaborative investigations in biology among
students; and the research of Johnson et al. (2000) in using the CAVE for
teaching the solar system and the human heart.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
346 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
Our study further reiterates the point that for technology to mediate the learning
experience, it has got to be embedded in a pedagogical framework, where the
learning outcomes and educational goals are clearly articulated from curricular
considerations. Without this requirement, there is the possibility of the session
degenerating to an entertainment session bereft of educational value.
Recognizing the success of the CAVE program on water with schools, plans are
underway to develop an extensive range of programs on various topics in order
to aid the efforts of schools—an immediate priority is the topic of DNA. Students
have expressed positive feedback on their desire to learn more science through
the CAVE.
Our experience shows that for the CAVE to be used as an educational facility
for schools, it is desirable to locate it in a science center or even a science
museum. Such institutions make natural partners with schools because of the
convergence of aspects of their mission objectives. Given the cost and technical
expertise needed to man such hi-tech facilities, it is neither viable nor desirable
for schools to have such facilities. The placement of this facility in a public access
setting contributes to better utilization as well as helps the host institution serve
the needs of schools more effectively.
References
Barrett, A. (1988). Introduction: A new paradigm for writing with and for the
computer. In E. Barrett (Ed.), Text, context and hypertext. Cambridge,
MA: The MIT Press.
Barry, K., & King, L. (1993). Beginning teaching. Sydney: Social Science
Press.
Bartlett, F. C. (1932). Remembering. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University
Press.
Broas, P. (2001). Advantages and problems of CAVE: Visualization for design
purposes. Virtual Prototyping Seminar, Otaniemi, Finland.
Bryson, S. (1992). Virtual reality takes on real physics applications. Computers
in Physics, 6(4), 346–352.
Bryson, S. (1996). Virtual reality in scientific visualization. Communications of
the ACM, 39(5), 62–71.
Burdea, G. (1996). Force and touch feedback for virtual reality. New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 347
Chung, J. C., Harris, M. R., Brooks, F. P., Fuchs, H., Kelley, M. T., Hughes, J.,
Ouh-young, M., Cheung, C., Holloway, R. L., & Pique, M. (1989).
Exploring virtual worlds with head-mounted displays. Proceedings of the
SPIE Conference on three-dimensional visualization and display
technologies, 1083 (pp. 42–52).
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests.
Psychometrika, 16, 297–334.
Cruz-Neira, C., Leigh, J., Papka, M., Barnes, C., Cohen, S., Das, S., Engelman,
R., Hudson, R., Roy, T., Siegel, L., Vasilakis, C., DeFanti, T. A., & Sandin,
J. (1993b). Scientists in wonderland: A report on visualization applications
in the CAVE virtual reality environment. Proceedings of the IEEE
Symposium on Research Frontiers in Virtual Reality (pp. 59–66).
Cruz-Neira, C., Sandin, D., & and DeFanti, T. (1993a). Surround-screen
projection-based virtual reality: The design and implementation of the
CAVE. Proceedings of ACM SIGGRAPH ’93 (pp. 134–142).
Cruz-Neira, C., Sandin, D., DeFanti, T., Kenyon, R., & Hart, J. (1992). The
CAVE: Audio visual experience automatic virtual environment. Communications of the ACM, June, 64–72.
DeFanti, T., Sandin, J., & Cruz-Neira, C. (1993). A room with a view. IEEE
Spectrum, October, 30–33.
De Jong, T., van Joolingen, W., Swaak, J., Veermans, K., Limbach, R., King, S.,
& Gureghian, D. (1998). Self-directed learning in simulation-based discovery environments. Journal of Computer-Assisted Learning, 14, 235–
246.
Edelson, D., Gordon, D., & Pear, R. (1999). Addressing the challenges of
inquiry-based learning through technology and curriculum design. Journal
of Learning Sciences, 8, 391–450.
Guzdial, M. (1995). Software-realized scaffolding to facilitate programs for
science learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 4, 1–44.
Jackson, R., & Winn, W. (1999). Collaboration and learning in immersive virtual
environments. In C. M. Hondley, & J. Roshelle (Eds.), Proceedings of
Computer Support for Collaborative Learning ’99 (pp. 260–264).
Johnson, A., Moher, T., Cho, Y. J., Lin, Y. J., Hass, D., & Kim, J. (2002).
Augmenting elementary school education with VR. IEEE Computer
Graphics and Applications, March/April, 6–9.
Johnson, A., Moher, T., Leigh, J., & Lin, Y. J. (2000). Quickworlds: Teacherdriven VR worlds in an elementary school curriculum. Proceedings of
ACM SIGGRAPH ’00 Education Program (pp. 60–63).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
348 Tan, Subramaniam & Anthony
Johnson, A., Moher, T., Ohlsson, S., & Gillingham, M. (1999). The round earth
project: Collaborative VR for conceptual learning. IEEE Computer Graphics
and Applications, 19(6), 60–69.
Johnson, A., Sandon, D., Dawe, G., DeFanti, T., Pape, D., Qiu, Z., Thongrong,
S., & Plepys, D. (2000). Developing the PARIS: Using the CAVE to
prototype a new VR display. Proceedings of IPT 2000: Immersive
Projection Technology Workshop, Ames, Los Angeles.
Karlsson, M. R. (1996). Motivating at-risk students. Westminster, CA:
Teacher Created Materials.
Koran, J., Morrison, L., Lehman, J., Koran, M., & Gandara, L. (1984). Attention
and curiosity in museums. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
21(4), 357–363.
Lascara, C., Wheless, G., Cox, D., Patterson, R., Levy, S., Johnson, A., Leigh,
J., & Kappor, A. (1999). Tele-immersive virtual environments for collaborative knowledge discovery. Advanced Simulation Technologies Conference, San Diego, California.
Moher, T., Johnsoon, A., Yongjoo, C., & Ya-Ju, L. (1999). Observation-based
ambient environments. In B. Fisherman, & S. O’Conno-Divekbiss (Eds.),
Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference of the Learning
Sciences (pp. 238–145).
Nunnaly, J. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw Hill.
Pape, D. (1996). A hardware independent virtual reality development system.
Computer Graphics and Applications, 16(4), 44–47.
Pape, D., Anstey, J., Carter, B., Leigh, J., Roussous, M., and Portlock, T. (2000).
Virtual heritage at iGrid 2000. Proceedings of INET 2001, Stockholm,
Sweden.
Piaget, J. (1977). The development of thought: Equilibration of cognitive
structures. New York: Viking.
Roussos, M., Johnson, A., Leigh, J., Vaslakis, C., Barnes, C., & Moher, T.
(1997). NICE: Combining constructivism, narrative and collaboration in a
virtual environment. Computer Graphics, 31(3), 62–63.
Roy, M. (1998). Using virtual reality modeling and CAVE technology as a
construction pre-planning technique with a focus on building system
integration design coordination. M.Sc. thesis, Virginia Tech., USA.
Shu, C. Y. (2001). Synergy of constructivism and hypermedia from three
constructivist perspectives—social, semiotic and cognitive. J. Educ. Comp.
Res., 24(4), 321–361.
Tan, W. H. L., & Subramaniam, R. (1998). Developing nations need to
popularize science. New Scientist, 2139, 52.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Cave Automated Virtual Environment 349
Tan, W. H. L., & Subramaniam, R. (2003a). Science and technology centers as
agents for promoting science culture in developing nations. Int. J. Tech.
Management, 25(5), 413–426.
Tan, W. H. L., & Subramaniam, R. (2003b). Virtual science centers: Web-based
environments for promotion of non formal science education. In A. K.
Aggarwal (Ed.), Web-based education: Learning from experience (pp.
308–329). Hershey, PA: Idea Group Inc.
Tan, W. H. L., & Subramaniam, R. (2003d). Earth systems science and global
science literacy: The Singapore experience. In V. J. Mayer (Ed.), Implementing global science literacy (pp. 167–186). Ohio: Earth Systems
Education Program, The Ohio State University Press.
Tan, W. H. L., Subramaniam, R., & Aggarwal, A. K. (2003c). Virtual science
centers: A new genre of learning in web-based promotion of science
education. Proceedings of the 36 th Hawaii International Conference
on System Sciences, Hawaii, January 6–9, 2003. California: IEEE Computer Society.
Taxen, G., & Naeve, A. (2001). CyberMath: Exploring open issues in VR-based
learning. Proceedings of ACM SIGGRAPH ’01 Education Program (pp.
49–51).
Taylor, P. (1998). Constructivism: Value added. In B. J. Fraser, & K. Tobin
(Eds.), The international handbook of science education (pp. 1111–
1123). Dordecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Teitel, M. (1990). The eyephone: A head-mounted stereo display. Proceedings
of the SPIE Conference on Stereoscopic Displays and Applications,
1256 (pp. 168–171).
Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). Models of self-regulated learning and academic
achievement. In B. J. Zimmerman, & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated
learning and academic achievement: Theory, research and practice.
New York: Springer-Verlag.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
350 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
Chapter XVII
Multimedia
Learning Designs:
Using Authentic Learning
Interactions in
Medicine, Dentistry
and Health Sciences
Mike Keppell, Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong
Jane Gunn, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Kelsey Hegarty, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Vivienne O’Connor, The University of Queensland, Australia
Ngaire Kerse, University of Auckland, New Zealand
Karen Kan, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Louise Brearley Messer, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Heather Bione, The University of Melbourne, Australia
Abstract
This chapter describes the learning design of two multimedia modules
which complement a problem-based learning health sciences curriculum.
The use of student-centred, authentic learning design frameworks guide
academics and instructional designers in the creative pedagogical design
of learning resources. The chapter describes the educational context,
learning design of two multimedia modules and suggests a number of
strategies for improving the design and development of multimedia resources.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
351
Introduction
This chapter examines the instructional design of two multimedia modules that
utilize authentic learning interactions to teach medical, dental, and health science
concepts. Interactive multimedia modules complement the broader goals of a
problem-based learning curriculum and enrich the health science curriculum by
addressing conceptually difficult content areas. It is essential that the learning
design (Koschmann, Kelson, Feltovich, & Barrows, 1996) of self-directed
learning modules “should be informed from its inception by some model of
learning and instruction” (p. 83). The use of student-centered learning approaches is becoming increasingly popular in medicine, dentistry, and health
science curricula as the teaching of problem-based learning and case-based
learning assure a close match with real-world clinical cases. This chapter
outlines the educational context and then examines two multimedia modules that
utilize a case-based learning design. As educators, it is essential that we
articulate our learning design for educational interventions from the earliest
stages so that we are able to integrate the module into the educational setting and
also provide a framework for evaluating the innovation (Koschmann, Kelson,
Feltovich, & Barrows, 1996).
Educational Context
The medical course at the University of Melbourne had traditionally been taught
using a discipline-based approach. Internal review mechanisms and student
feedback in recent years had highlighted a number of deficiencies in the
traditional course. In broad terms, these included insufficient integration between the basic and clinical sciences, insufficient attention to teaching communication skills, problem-solving skills, and social aspects of health, and an
overload of biomedical detail that was duplicated in subjects originating from
different departments. In an effort to remedy these deficiencies and also to
incorporate current theories of medical education, a new medical curriculum was
introduced in 1999. The pedagogical model for the new medical curriculum
incorporates elements of problem-based learning (PBL) and self-directed
learning (SDL) (Koschmann, Kelson, Feltovich, & Barrows, 1996). The primary
focus of learning in semesters 2 through 5 is through medical problems (known
as problems of the week), which are presented to students in small group tutorial
settings. A key feature of the new curriculum is the horizontal integration across
disciplines and the vertical integration of clinical situations with basic scientific
material (Keppell, Kennedy, Elliott, & Harris, 2001).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
352 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
The transformation of a medical course by the faculty involved considerable
analysis, planning, investment of resources, staffing, and fundamental changes
to teaching and learning approaches. Changing a traditional teaching and
learning approach to a PBL approach represented a major pedagogical shift for
academics within the faculty. In addition to this fundamental change, the
curriculum also placed considerable emphasis on Web-based and multimedia
teaching resources. This major departure from a traditional medical curriculum
required support from academic staff across a wide range of diverse disciplines.
A number of researchers have examined the importance of context in supporting
major change like the faculty’s curricular transformation. According to Altschuld
and Witkin (2000), the following was found:
…implementation of innovations required awareness on the part of and
strong support from administrators, a dedicated and critical mass of staff
working with the change, communication channels that were frequently
used by that staff to promote change, and a climate that makes
nonadopters feel as though they are “out of it” unless they begin to adopt
or move forward (p. 182)
These factors will make or break the implementation of the innovation.
Use of Information and Communication Technology in
the Curriculum
The use of information and communication technology (ICT) is an important
feature of the problem-based learning curriculum. ICT is utilized to deliver
medical content in two ways. These include the use of the Web-based problem
of the week embedded in the TopClass learning framework and stand-alone,
computer-facilitated learning modules. The TopClass learning framework provides a central access point for students to enter the online course work,
complete self-assessment tests, view class announcements, participate in discussion groups, and send and receive messages from teachers or peers. In the
first three years of the medical curriculum, the medical student needs to complete
60 problems of the week. Approximately 120 problems of the week will be
required for the entire curriculum. Self-directed learning resources, in the form
of computer-facilitated learning modules, are also required to support the core
content of the problems. Approximately 70 modules are in use or are currently
under development within the faculty, and it is envisaged that 100 modules
will be required to support the curriculum in its entirety.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
353
Self-directed learning resources have a unique role in the curriculum. These
resources are often initiated by clinicians who teach conceptually difficult
content areas. A conceptually difficult content area (usually one to two hours)
is often identified and developed by academics and multimedia teams. For
instance, a module on pediatric dentistry focusing on a diabetic child complements a dental curriculum; a module on sensitive examination technique (SET)
cervical screening is used to complement the teaching of cervical cancer. These
resources may be used independently of the PBL curricula or they may be
developed to complement the content within a problem of the week. Often, these
computer-facilitated learning modules support the core content of the problems.
Figure 1 portrays the use of ICT in the curriculum and the use of computer
technology to complement, enhance, and support teaching and learning in the
curriculum. The focus of this chapter is on the self-directed learning component
of Figure 1.
Figure 1: Use of computer technology in the medical curriculum
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
354 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
Figure 2: Multimedia and online modules utilized within the faculty
Multimedia and Online Modules
Figure 2 shows the variety of modules developed by the faculty as of December
2002. Each content area is outlined with the number of modules per discipline
area. This graphic provides an overview of the diversity of content areas that
utilize multimedia to enhance teaching and learning. Many modules utilize
student-centered teaching and learning approaches. In some instances, instructional designers have worked with the academics to develop their module utilizing
constructivist teaching and learning principles, including case-based learning.
The following aspects of this chapter examine the application of these principles
to the design of two multimedia modules.
Student-Centered Learning
There has been a trend away from teacher-directed instructional approaches to
student-centered learning environments. Jonassen and Land (2000) compare the
two methods in Table 1. In particular, in student-centered learning environments,
contextualized, authentic, and situated learning interactions are emphasized.
These principles have been adopted in the learning design of the two specific
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
355
Table 1: A comparison of instructive and student-centered learning
environments
Instruction
Student-Centered Learning Environments
Transmission, acquisition
Interpretation, construction
Mastery, performance
Meaning making
External reality
Internal reality
Abstract, symbolic
Contextualized, authentic, experiential
Individually interpreted
Socially negotiated, coconstructed
Individual
Collaborative
Encoding, retention, retrieval
Articulation and reflection
Symbolic reasoning
Situated learning
Psychology
Anthropology, sociology, ethnography
Laboratory
in situ
Well-structured
Ill-structured
Decontexualized
Embedded in experience
Source: Adapted from Jonassen and Land (2000).
modules that will be discussed in this chapter, which utilize authentic learning
interactions.
Learning Design
Although, as stated in Herrington, Oliver, and Reeves (2002), “it is impossible to
design truly authentic learning experiences” (p. 60), we attempted to develop
learning experiences that would complement and enhance the professional
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
356 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
practice of doctors and dentists. We considered a range of factors including the
intent of the curriculum, lecturer teaching style, and learning outcomes in
designing the multimedia modules. Authentic learning experiences, according to
Jonassen, Mayes, and McAleese (1992), are “those which are problem- or casebased, that immerse the learner in the situation requiring him or her to acquire
skills or knowledge in order to solve the problem or manipulate the situation” (p. 235).
And, according to Young (1993), “Authentic tasks enable students to immerse
themselves in the culture of the academic domain, much like an apprentice” (p.
43). Authentic learning contexts such as the virtual dental clinic and cervical
screening module may have a number of advantages over more decontextualized
teaching and learning settings. The authentic nature of the technology-enhanced,
student-centered learning environment may anchor knowledge in authentic
contexts. An effective learning environment enables learners to use its resources and tools to process more deeply and extend thinking (Jonassen, 1996;
Jonassen & Reeves, 1996; Kozma, 1987).
In order to create realistic learning experiences for the students, it was essential
that we immerse the student in authentic cases to guide our creation of the two
modules. Herrington, Oliver, and Reeves (2002) outlined 10 characteristics of
authentic activities. These comprise the following:
•
•
Authentic activities have real-world relevance.
•
Authentic activities comprise complex tasks to be investigated by students
over a sustained period of time.
•
Authentic activities provide the opportunity for students to examine the task
from different perspectives, using a variety of resources.
•
•
•
Authentic activities provide the opportunity to collaborate.
•
•
Authentic activities are seamlessly integrated with assessment.
•
Authentic activities allow competing solutions and diversity of outcome.
Authentic activities are ill-defined, requiring students to define the tasks
and subtasks needed to complete the activity.
Authentic activities provide the opportunity to reflect.
Authentic activities can be integrated and applied across different subject
areas and lead beyond domain-specific outcomes.
Authentic activities create polished products valuable in their own right
rather than as preparation for something else.
Two modules will be analyzed to demonstrate how the above principles have
been utilized to design authentic learning interactions. In the first instance, Tables
2 and 3 outline an overview of the principles and their concrete applications.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
357
Table 2: Authentic learning design principles and their concrete applications
within the design of the virtual dental clinic (see Figures 3 and 4)
Principle (Herrington,
Oliver, & Reeves, 2002)
Authentic activities have
real-world relevance.
Concrete Application (Virtual Dental Clinic)
•
•
•
Authentic activities are illdefined, requiring students
to define the tasks and
subtasks needed to complete
the activity.
•
•
•
Authentic activities
comprise complex tasks to
be investigated by students
over a sustained period of
time
Authentic activities provide
the opportunity for students
to examine the task from
different perspectives, using
a variety of resources.
•
•
•
•
Authentic activities provide
the opportunity to
collaborate.
•
•
•
Authentic activities provide
the opportunity to reflect.
•
•
•
Authentic activities can be
integrated and applied across
different subject areas and
lead beyond domain-specific
outcomes.
Authentic activities are
seamlessly integrated with
assessment.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Authentic activities create
polished products valuable
in their own right rather than
as preparation for something
else.
Authentic activities allow
competing solutions and
diversity of outcome.
•
•
•
•
The clinical case on diabetes was developed in conjunction with experts from medicine and dentistry.
The virtual dental clinic was designed using photographs of the actual clinical setting. Photographs of the
clinic were used to build the setting in order to keep the real-world relevance.
Actual case information from real-life patients was used to develop the scenario. This clinical information
included actual photographs, radiographs, and medical case information in relation to a child with
diabetes.
The diabetes scenario is presented to the students as an actual case. They complete sections on pathophysiology, medical management, and dental management and then apply their knowledge in a realistic
case.
There is no step-by-step sequence to completing the clinical case. Students are expected to determine the
most appropriate strategies and sequence for completing the treatment plan.
The case information is accessible in any order. The students must make a decision as to the information
they require at a particular point in the clinical case.
The clinical case requires students to concentrate their energy toward the case for a period of
approximately 45–60 minutes.
It is expected that the student would return to the case over a period of time as their knowledge is
elaborated in the area.
A wide variety of resources assist the student in obtaining an in-depth examination of the case.
These resources include the following:
o Seven clinical photographs
o Three radiographs
o Patient history
o Medical history
o Dental history
o Height/weight
o Social history
o Expert opinions from a teacher, psychologist, and endocrinologist.
This module was created as a self-directed learning activity that is used by the professors in a lab setting.
Students complete the module and are provided with expert assistance as required.
Collaboration with other students is not explicit, although teaching staff could complete collaborative
group activities at certain points in the tutorial.
Explicit reflective activities have not been included in the design of the module.
The use of questions immediately following the presentation of the virtual dental clinic may encourage
students to backtrack and re-examine information.
The use of an electronic reflective journal at appropriate points would foster reflection. This feature may
be considered at a future time.
This case is focused on dental students who will learn generic case-based strategies.
Generic skills of observation, analysis, synthesis, and professional practice would be fostered.
This is a major strength of the virtual dental clinic.
Students complete a treatment plan that contains all treatment procedures used by an Australian dentist.
The treatment plan encourages the students to re-examine the clinical information (case information,
photographs, radiographs) and complete a legitimate treatment plan for the diabetes child.
Students submit their treatment plan and compare their plan to an expert treatment plan.
Students can confirm their treatment plan or re-examine the clinical photographs and radiographs to
determine where they may have been incorrect in their initial judgement.
This module is valuable in its own right as a clinical case. Future cases may be developed around the
virtual dental clinic.
The clinical case is also the fundamental interaction utilized by the dentist in clinical practice.
Students examine the clinical information and create a treatment plan based on their clinical judgement.
Students may clearly perceive all relevant clinical information and complete the case successfully.
However, the design of the case encourages the student to backtrack and re-examine the clinical
information and to adjust their treatment plans after submitting to obtain an expert treatment plan.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
358 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
Table 3: Authentic learning principles and their concrete application in the
design of the SET module (see Figures 5, 6, and 7)
Principle (Herrington, Oliver,
& Reeves, 2002)
Authentic activities have realworld relevance.
Concrete Application (Cervical Screening Module)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Authentic activities are illdefined, requiring students to
define the tasks and subtasks
needed to complete the activity.
•
•
•
•
Authentic activities comprise
complex tasks to be
investigated by students over a
sustained period of time
•
•
•
Authentic activities provide the
opportunity for students to
examine the task from different
perspectives, using a variety of
resources.
•
•
Authentic activities provide the
opportunity to collaborate.
•
•
•
Authentic activities provide the
opportunity to reflect.
•
•
•
•
Authentic activities can be
integrated and applied across
different subject areas and lead
beyond domain-specific
outcomes.
Authentic activities are
seamlessly integrated with
assessment.
Authentic activities create
polished products valuable in
their own right rather than as
preparation for something else.
Authentic activities allow
competing solutions and
diversity of outcome.
•
•
•
The clinical case on cervical screening was developed in conjunction with experts in medicine from three different
universities in Australia and New Zealand.
State health departments involved in cervical screening also participated in the design of the module.
Topic 1 examines five cases from different cultural and ethnic backgrounds and the barriers that differ across these
cultures.
Topics 2, 3, and 4 follow one woman into the communication, examination, and follow-up stages.
The virtual clinic was based on an actual clinical setting. Photographs of the clinic were used to build the setting in
order to keep the real-world relevance.
Actual case information from real patients was used to build the scenario. This included actual photographs and
video and case information in relation to medical history.
The cervical screening cases presented in Topic 1 require the student to examine the different types of barriers of
different women from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds.
Students should begin to understand the influence of personal factors, previous experience with cervical screening,
and cultural norms in relation to treating different women in the clinical setting.
Questions are open-ended, which requires the student to examine a variety of information resources to determine
appropriate responses.
The case information is available for students to access as needed. A glossary and library provide additional
resources for examination.
The clinical case requires students to concentrate their energy toward the case for a period of approximately 3–4
hours.
It is expected that the student would return to the case over a period of time as their knowledge is elaborated in the
area.
The video examples of communication and examination provide a means for the student to view best-practice
examples before clinical practice and as revision after clinical practice. Used in these two ways, the student should
be able to reflect on appropriate strategies for improving the clinical practice of this sensitive area.
A wide variety of resources assist the students in obtaining an in-depth examination of the case.
These resources include the following:
o Clinical photographs
o Video of ideal communication between the doctor and the woman
o Video of ideal examination procedures
o Patient history
o Medical history
o Social history
o Expert opinions from practicing doctors
o Definitions of key words in the glossary
o Extended information in the library
o Expert feedback
This module was created as a self-directed learning activity and as an adjunct to the cervical screening program in
Victoria.
It is expected that participants in the clinical screening program will discuss key issues and concerns using aspects
of the module as a trigger for activities.
Collaboration with other students is not explicit at this point in time, although teaching staff could complete
collaborative group activities at certain points in the tutorial.
Explicit reflective activities have been included in the design of the module.
A reflective notebook allows the students to document reflections and ideas throughout the module. This can be
saved as an electronic file or printed out at the end of the session. The use of an electronic reflective journal at
appropriate points would foster reflection.
Open-ended questions require the student to complete a detailed response before proceeding. This can be saved as
an electronic file for future examination.
The use of questions immediately following the presentation of the video segments may encourage students to
backtrack and re-examine information.
The module examines a difficult and sensitive area in which students may experience some awkwardness.
It is hoped that students will begin to learn skills in empathy and improve communication skills that can be applied
to other sensitive areas in medical clinical practice, such as breast examinations.
Generic skills of observation, analysis, synthesis, and professional behavior would be fostered.
•
•
Formal assessment has not been determined. Future implementation will determine this assessment.
Self-assessment activities are embedded throughout the module. Students are asked to complete activities after
viewing each video segment.
This module is valuable in its own right as a clinical case.
The clinical case is also the fundamental interaction utilized by the medical doctor in clinical practice.
•
•
Students examine the clinical information and create a schema for future medical consultation.
The design of the case encourages the student to backtrack and re-examine the clinical information.
•
•
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
359
Authentic Activities have Real-World Relevance
In designing the two modules, we considered the “real-world tasks of professionals” (Herrington, Oliver, & Reeves, 2002, p. 62) as a basis for the module. For
instance, in the field of pediatric dentistry, there are concerns that dental students
are not competent in combining preventive and restorative management philosophies while integrating diagnosis and treatment planning (Suivinen, Messer, &
Franco, 1998). Declining patient numbers and a need to focus on integration
suggested that the use of multimedia case simulations were a viable alternative,
as they replicate the dental clinic without requiring live patients. A module on
diabetes and its implications for dentistry provides an opportunity to develop and
consolidate the concept of integrated patient care. The diabetes case created
unique challenges for the design team. A virtual pediatric diabetic patient was
created in order to address the difficulty of obtaining relevant patient photoFigure 3: Virtual dental clinic
Figure 4: Virtual dental office
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
360 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
graphs. Our explicit learning design focused on increasing the level of student
engagement with the content by contextualizing the scenario content within a
virtual dental clinic (Keppell, Kan, Messer, & Bione, 2002).
The SET project attempts to examine a real-world clinical case of cervical
screening so that medical students can decide which women should be screened
on the basis of evidence-based screening recommendations. It also discusses the
barriers to cervical screening from the patient’s and doctor’s perspectives and
effective communication skills to explain how a Pap test is performed. Videos
are sequenced to explain and demonstrate the steps involved in taking a Pap test
and how to communicate the results to a woman. Currently, medical students
have few opportunities to observe or perform Pap tests, and current literature
documents negative screening experiences by women as a major barrier to
participation in the cervical screening program. Participation in a cervical
screening program has been shown to prevent most cases of cervical cancer
(Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, Madden, O’Connor, Kerse, & Judd, 2003).
Figure 5: Situated learning environment utilized for the SET Project—1
Figure 6: Situated learning environment utilized for the SET Project—2
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
361
Figure 7: Situated learning environment utilized for the SET Project—3
Authentic Activities are Ill-Defined, Requiring Students
to Define the Tasks and Subtasks Needed to Complete
the Activity
In the SET project, we specifically attempted to engage the students by providing
cases that the student would need to examine from a clinical perspective. Topic
1 examines five mini-cases and provides perspectives on the barriers of cervical
screening from the woman’s different cultural background. Learners may have
insufficient knowledge and will need to examine additional clinical information in
the form of a glossary of key medical terms and the library that provides detailed
information about cervical screening. This additional information may assist the
student in interpreting and analyzing each case more effectively. Students can
Figure 8: Glossary utilized in the SET module
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
362 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
identify their own knowledge deficiencies and supplement their ideas via the
additional resources provided (see Figure 8).
Authentic Activities Comprise Complex Tasks to be
Investigated by Students over a Sustained Period of
Time
SET will be used by universities in Australia and New Zealand to introduce the
concepts of cervical screening and intimate examinations in a consistent way
that emphasizes the importance of sensitive communication and examination
skills. It should be noted that many students are nervous about performing
intimate examinations, and the SET module will attempt to demystify the clinical
process. Because the module focuses on communication skills in conjunction
with clinical skills, students will need to examine the module over a period of time.
Initially, students may obtain an overview of the cervical screening pathway
before undertaking clinical practice. They may also revise certain sections after
clinical practice. While practicing as a general practitioner, the doctor may revisit
appropriate sections of the module and examine best-practice processes and
procedures in the field. For this reason, the four to five hour module will require
sustained attention over a period of time and for different purposes. Specifically,
the SET module will be utilized in different ways in the medical program of
Melbourne, Queensland, and Auckland. The module will be used to compliment
face-to-face teaching as well as allow students to explore the “learning loops”
provided on SET both in the tutorial and self-directed learning (SDL) setting. The
SET module will be available for students to use in the computer labs/PBL rooms
at each site.
Authentic Activities Provide the Opportunity for Students
to Examine the Task from Different Perspectives, Using
a Variety of Resources
The use of different cases provides the students with an ability to examine
different barriers that may affect cervical screening. The library resources also
provide additional information and a variety of resources that should assist the
student (Herrington, Oliver, & Reeves, 2002) to “examine the problem from a
variety of theoretical and practical perspectives, rather than allowing a single
perspective that learners must imitate to be successful” (p. 281) (see Figures 9
and 10).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
363
Figure 9: Clinical visuals and radiographs that can be enlarged for further
detail within the virtual dental clinic
Figure 10: Library resources utilized by the student for additional clinical
information about cervical screening
Authentic Activities are Ill-Defined, Requiring Students
to Define the Tasks and Subtasks Needed to Complete
the Activity
Both modules examine complex content areas in the areas of dentistry and
medicine. Due to the complexity of the content, a range of resources provides
definitions of key terms and more elaborate content in the library. Key dental,
medical, and physiological concepts are defined in a glossary. Users can choose
to browse all glossary terms or select specific terms that require clarification at
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
364 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
the relevant point in the module. In addition, resources are provided in a library
section in the SET module. The virtual dental clinic has a range of clinical images
and case information available within the clinical setting, allowing students to
access as required in the examination of the dental case. We specifically attempt
to engage the students by providing cases that the student will need to examine
from a clinical perspective. This means that they may need to search for relevant
content in other sections of the module to achieve a deep understanding of the
content.
Authentic Activities Comprise Complex Tasks to be
Investigated by Students over a Sustained Period of
Time
Each module focuses on 1 to 3 hours of difficult dental, clinical, and physiological
content that is used to complement face-to-face teaching. The modules will also
be used to support lectures by allowing lecturers to recommend that students
examine the self-directed learning module located in a lab setting. The students
may also be asked to utilize the modules as a revision tool before examinations.
Because the modules focus on conceptually difficult content, they will require
multiple exposure and viewing by the students. For example, students can review
communication practices before they complete cervical screening in a clinical
setting and then after clinical practice to review their communication and
examination methods. Dental students can reinforce clinical treatment protocols
in treating a pediatric dental patient by working through a legitimate case on
diabetes.
Authentic Activities Provide the Opportunity for Students
to Examine the Task from Different Perspectives, Using
a Variety of Resources
Within the virtual dental clinic, we provide multiple entry points into the clinical
information. This allows the user to explore the clinic and obtain the necessary
clinical information about the patient. We wanted the student to “criss-cross the
landscape of knowledge” in order to obtain information that will enable them to
complete the relevant treatment plan (Young, 1993, p. 46). The user can navigate
around the clinic and find information in two ways. By traveling around the clinic,
they will find hotspots that provide clinical information. A site map also provides
clinical information enabling the student to access patient records (patient
information, medical history, height and weight, dental history, and social
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
365
history), seven clinical slides, three radiographs, and expert information from a
teacher, psychologist, and endocrinologist. By providing the necessary scaffolding for the novice learner, we attempt to move the learner toward expert case
management (see Figure 11–14).
The use of different cervical screening cases provides the students with an
opportunity to examine different barriers that may affect cervical screening. The
library resources also provide additional information and a variety of resources
Figure 11: Student response to an open-ended question with an expert
answer within the SET project
Figure 12: Reflective notebook utilized in the SET project
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
366 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
Figure 13: Electronic treatment plan utilized for the diabetes clinical case
Figure 14: Expert answers for the diabetes treatment plan
that should assist the student (Herrington, Oliver, & Reeves, 2002) to “examine
the problem from a variety of theoretical and practical perspectives, rather than
allowing a single perspective that learners must imitate to be successful” (p.
281).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
367
Authentic Activities Provide the Opportunity to
Collaborate
Within the virtual dental clinic, the learning context allows the student to learn
within an expert-supported learning environment. Lab sessions have been
scheduled in which students interact with the module and were supported by
pediatric dentists. According to Young (1993), “From the perspective of situated
cognition, the teacher’s role should be to ‘tune the attention’ of students to the
important aspects of the situation or problem-solving activity, specifically those
attributes that are invariant across a range of similar problems and therefore will
transfer to many novel situations” (p. 47). The advantage of utilizing expert
support is that some information about the case can be clarified and explained
by the expert tutors. Their roles in the learning process are as a coach,
collaborator, and mentor for student learning. According to Choi and Hannafin
(1995), coaching focuses on “directing learner attention, reminding of overlooked steps, providing hints and feedback, challenging and structuring ways to
do things, and providing additional tasks, problems, or problematic situations” (p.
62). The SET module will also be used in a collaborative setting.
Authentic Activities Provide the Opportunity to Reflect
Many of the activities embedded throughout the SET module ask the student to
type in extended responses to questions. These responses are then submitted,
and the student is provided with expert feedback. In addition, these typed
responses can be saved by the student and referred to at a later point in their
study. This approach was adopted to encourage students to engage with the
content and synthesize ideas in their own words. Students are also encouraged
to write their own notes and ideas in their personal notebook that can be printed
or saved as a Microsoft Word file for review at a later point in the semester.
Authentic Activities can be Integrated and Applied
Across Different Subject Areas and Lead Beyond
Domain-Specific Outcomes
Students will be able to view the cervical screening cases from different
perspectives. Medical students, nurses, and other health professionals should
become aware of different disciplinary approaches and roles in cervical screen-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
368 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
ing. Students should begin to see the cervical screening process from the
woman’s perspective as opposed to the clinical perspective.
The case-based approach utilized in the virtual dental clinic allows students to
examine a process for examining other similar cases in dentistry.
Authentic Activities are Seamlessly Integrated with
Assessment
Young (1993) suggested that traditional forms of assessment in situated learning
may prove to be inadequate. Authentic learning tasks must be assessed using
methods that best align with the task. Within the virtual dental clinic, we
attempted to do so by asking the students to develop a treatment plan using an
electronic version of the protocols utilized in a traditional clinic. Our aim in
developing this method of assessment was to foster higher-order thinking skills.
We were also conscious of providing a method of formative assessment that
allowed (Choi & Hannafin, 1995), “generation of ideas and the presentation of
problem-solving processes such as planning, implementing, and revising” (p. 65).
In order to simulate the use of the treatment chart, an electronic dental chart was
created to allow users to create treatment plans. The electronic dental chart
allows the trainee dentist to select a category of dental services and allocate a
specific treatment for individual teeth. This chart also allows the user to complete
cases and submit information to obtain expert feedback. The expert feedback
provides precise information about the treatment protocol for each tooth. The
students can compare their treatment plans to the experts’ plans and then reenter
the virtual clinic to rectify any inaccuracies and misconceptions. This concept of
authentic assessment tasks is essential in the instructional design of authentic
learning tasks. As stated in Young (1993), “Assessment should be a seamless,
continuous part of the activity (a learning/assessment situation)” (p. 48). The
final exam paper also mirrors the authentic learning task in the multimedia
package by utilizing a case-based learning approach.
Although not a formal part of assessment, the SET module will be gradually
utilized in all parts of the medical curriculum. Activities have been embedded that
reflect real-world decisions and clinical encounters. Students will be given the
opportunity to complete a number of on-screen sequencing and clinical interpretation tasks. To assess whether they are able to identify the barriers to cervical
screening, they will be required to respond to a number of questions relating to
the video sequence. Student assessment will be via the above self-assessment
activities and tutor feedback during the tutorial setting. As the assessment is
developed, we will utilize principles as outlined by Young (1993).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
369
Authentic Activities Create Polished Products Valuable
in Their Own Right rather than as Preparation for
Something Else
Both modules are polished products in their own right, which focus on specific
content relevant for treatment in dentistry and cervical screening. By studying
each of the modules, the students will learn in-depth knowledge about the topic.
Because the modules focus on a difficult content area, they act as stand-alone
modules or complement other aspects of the curriculum. For instance, the SET
module will be utilized to complement the existing forms of teaching cervical
screening, which include face-to-face settings, video, pelvic models, observation, and clinical practice.
Authentic Activities allow Competing Solutions and
Diversity of Outcome
The virtual dental clinic focuses on the examination of clinical information to
develop a treatment protocol, whereas the SET module emphasizes communication, process, and procedures in relation to cervical screening. In examining the
SET module, students should be able to learn about communication practices that
can be transferred to other clinical areas, particularly, of a medically sensitive
nature. Students should be able to interpret content in a diversity of ways and
begin to assimilate some of these concepts into their own process of completing
cervical screening.
Evaluation
An initial evaluation was undertaken to determine user perceptions in relation to
the virtual dental clinic. Three practicing pediatric dentists participated in a focus
group. A number of insights were gained into the design of the virtual clinic and
its authenticity. We examined the match between the actual clinical setting and
the virtual dental clinic. It appeared that presenting all relevant clinical information in one session may overwhelm the student:
If we think about the diabetes case and ... the virtual clinic, what do
you think about that case in terms of how realistic it was…
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
370 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
It would be quite different. You would probably have more than one
appointment and that was quite tricky deciding—on the first day I
probably wouldn’t do all these things. You could put them under
general anaesthetic. Apart from that it was quite difficult if you had
to write the whole lot out on the same day you would probably do
something after the general anaesthetic get them back two weeks
later and say okay, how’s the toothbrush going.
Navigation also appeared to be an issue in the virtual clinic. We provided two
methods of navigation. These included a site map and hotspots in the clinical
setting. Although we provided a brief tutorial for the students, all three students
still failed to utilize the hotspot information.
When I moved the mouse it came up and I didn’t realise what I could
click. I think if you want us to get the picture on the top of the menu,
you should have it flashing or something like that. So that it shows
up.
Further design work is being undertaken to address this misunderstanding. An
animation will be utilized instead of the existing help screens to highlight relevant
information in the virtual clinic. Our design attempted to provide an open
exploration of the clinic. However, this proved too advanced for the users.
Although we provided flexible access to the resources to solve the clinical case,
the students still utilized the site map in a traditional top-to-bottom and left-toright reading pattern as opposed to clicking on information that they considered
relevant at that point in the case:
When you went into the office?
I went back to the menu and went to help. I couldn’t understand. So
then I went back to the other picture and found it by accident. I
clicked on the telephone or something.
The sequence of information was also important to the user:
Did you actually read about the teacher; the specialist information?
Don’t you think this information should go before the examination?
You are talking about the medical history and social history. It
should go before the examination.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
371
If it was a referral, you would get a note from a doctor before she
actually comes in, which gives you the whole..., and you don’t have
to look for anything.
Our goal of designing the module so that students would need to revisit some
clinical information appeared to be successful in some instances:
Did you go back to the visuals when you were completing the
treatment plan?
Did you need any other information at that point?
Patient file, complaints and history. I did use it, but I did go back to
the pictures quite a lot. How many times? Three, five times. I think
I wrote it down which made it a bit easier. I don’t know the numbers
so it made it a lot harder.
However, it appeared that the students had difficulty providing a treatment
number from the electronic treatment plan as opposed to the usual paper-based
booklet. It also appeared that obtaining expert feedback could have been
optimized:
Did you all submit and get the expert answers? I didn’t get the
answers. I went to next. That’s why I didn’t find the expert…. Maybe
it’s a good thing to put the expert under next. Down the bottom. So
you go to the next phase.
Further evaluation with a subsequent group should also inform the design and
provide feedback to the development team. However, it appears that there is a
fine line between authentic myth and reality.
Although the SET module has not been formally evaluated, our next step in the
process is to complete extensive evaluation on the module from different
perspectives. In the first instance, we will evaluate the module with clinicians
experienced in the process. Some formative evaluation has already been
undertaken with this group. In the second instance, a number of multimedia
experts will be asked to evaluate the learning design of the module. Student
evaluation will be undertaken over the next 12 months. We are also examining
the evaluation of the module in cross-cultural settings to determine its applicability for different international usage. The module examined one woman’s
journey through the cervical screening process. In the future, we intend to
examine modules for different ethnic groups.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
372 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
Major Problems Encountered
The examination of the two modules within this chapter demonstrates a studentcentered approach to their design. They represent rich teaching and learning
resources that address conceptually difficult content areas. However, there are
also cases of projects that have not been successful in developing viable
educational resources. We cannot assume that design and development processes adopted by many development teams are sufficient to assure the success
of a project. Burford and Cooper (2000) support this view and suggested that
“most academics are not skilled in interface design, multimedia, selecting
appropriate technologies for online teaching, nor project management” (p. 207).
For this reason, they suggested that “whatever the developmental model, it must
be achievable within the confines of established practice and available resources” (p. 209). However, it is important to remember that online and
multimedia design and development are highly creative processes. Design and
development models help to minimize potential difficulties in projects, but they
never eliminate all constraining factors. According to Burford and Cooper
(2000), “Whatever the model used, however well defined the process, the
development process itself is a diffuse and difficult one. From its first conception
to a final product, a development process is fraught with undefinable influences
and unpredicted contributing factors” (p. 210). This section examines some of
the consistent problems encountered in the transformation of a curriculum with
multimedia and online learning:
•
A consistent problem encountered in designing and developing multimedia
modules is that academic staff members are over ambitious with their
goals. Through a process of coaching and educating academic staff, it is
possible to change this perception. Because it often requires 300–800 hours
of development per course hour, multimedia should only be used for areas
where it is appropriate. The virtual dental clinic and the cervical screening
module represent conceptually difficult content that warrant the above time
and effort on the part of the development team. The first two questions we
ask are as follows: Can this be completed using another teaching method?
And why multimedia? Technology must enhance the teaching and learning
process and should be used for addressing learning misconceptions and
complex and difficult content that cannot be easily explained in another
form.
•
Another common problem is that many academic staff members apply their
traditional teaching styles in designing and developing multimedia and online
learning. Academic staff often focus on instructivist teaching models in
developing their online or multimedia modules. The challenge in this
situation is for the instructional designer to provide other pedagogical
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
373
perspectives and suggest alternative approaches such as case-based
reasoning, PBL, and authentic learning environments. There are a number
of factors that need to be considered in this situation. For instance: What
are the learning outcomes of the module? What pedagogical methods best
suit the attainment of these outcomes? It is important to always take an
eclectic approach to the teaching and learning process and suggest methods
of teaching best suited to the entire learning context. There is a delicate
balance between implementing the content expert’s approach and coaching
the academic in other pedagogical possibilities, which may enhance the
learning of the content by the user.
•
It is important not to underestimate the time required to design and develop
online and multimedia products. As suggested by the above formulas, there
must be an excellent pedagogical reason for justifying the resources
required for multimedia and online learning.
•
Working in teams is both a rewarding and challenging experience. It is
important to employ a dedicated manager who can coach the design and
development team in appropriate processes, and who has the ability to
harness creative energy and deal with the inevitable tensions that arise in
creative teams. By focusing on the goal as opposed to personal ownership,
tensions can often be dissipated.
A potential bottleneck exists between the content expert and design and
development staff (instructional designers, graphic designers, programmers,
etc.) in terms of translating content into a form that embodies sound educational
design. A process or strategy is required to streamline the interaction between
the instructional designer and subject matter expert (Keppell, 2001). One of the
most important principles in any project is to clarify the roles and expectations
of the client/SME. Many projects fail due to an inappropriate consideration of
what the client/SME expects from the project. According to Coscarelli and
Stonewater (1979–1980), “An understanding of client psychological types and
an ability to differentially respond to various types is a particularly effective
designer strategy for relationship building and managing” (p. 16). It is therefore
essential to establish a successful working relationship with an SME by determining philosophical assumptions of the SME before beginning the instructional
design (Davies, 1975), as “a great deal of what is accomplished depends on the
quality of the client–consultant relationship” (p. 351).
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
374 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
Conclusion
Learner-centered approaches emphasize problem-based and case-based learning, which attempt to create realistic learning interactions in order to replicate
professional practice. The above discussion demonstrates how authentic learning multimedia modules have been used to complement a medical, dental, and
health science curricula. The learning design for each module is carefully
articulated in order to provide an insight into the process of instructional design
that can be transferred to other learning settings and other content areas. The
articulation of the learning design also demonstrates the explicit instructional
design decisions that were made in the two modules, each of which are based
on a constructivist teaching and learning model. It is also suggested that
interactive, media-rich multimedia modules are relevant for difficult content
areas or areas where misconceptions may be prevalent in the curriculum. The
articulation of this model of teaching and learning allows other designers and
researchers to examine the applicability of these designs for their own setting and
circumstances.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to acknowledge the graphic designers on both projects:
Jennifer Kirk, Avril Martinelli, Jacqui Jewell, Andrew Bonollo, and Carolyn
Casey from the Biomedical Multimedia Unit.
References
Altschuld, J. W., & Witkin, B. R. (2000). From needs assessment to action:
Transforming needs into solution strategies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, Inc.
Burford, S., & Cooper, L. (2000). Online development using WebCT: A faculty
managed process for quality. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 16(3), 201–214.
Choi, J. -I., & Hannifin, M. (1995). Situated cognition and learning environments:
Roles, structures, and implications for design. Educational Technology,
Research and Development, 43(2), 53–69.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Multimedia Learning Designs
375
Coscarelli, W. C., & Stonewater, J. K. (1979–1980). Understanding psychological styles in instructional development consultation. Journal of Instructional Development, 3, 16–22.
Davies, I. K. (1975). Some aspects of a theory of advice: The management of
an instructional developer–client, evaluator–client, relationship. Instructional Science, 3, 351–373.
Herrington, J., Oliver, R., & Reeves, T. C. (2002). Patterns of engagement in
authentic online learning environments. In A. Williamson, C. Gunn, A.
Young, & T. Clear (Eds.), Winds of change in a sea of learning.
Proceedings of the 19th Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Tertiary Education (pp. 279–286). Auckland, New
Zealand: UNITEC: Institute of Technology.
Jonassen, D. (1996). Computers in the classroom: Mindtools for Critical
Thinking. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.
Jonassen, D., & Land, S. M. (2000). Theoretical foundations of learning
environments. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Jonassen, D., & Reeves, T. (1996). Learning with technology: Using computers
as cognitive tools. In D. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on
educational communication and technology (pp. 693–719). New York:
Scholastic.
Jonassen, D., Mayes, T., & McAleese, R. (1993). A manifesto for a constructivist
approach to uses of technology in higher education. In T. M. Duffy, J.
Lowyck, & D. H. Jonassen (Eds.), Designing environments for constructive learning. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Keppell, M. (2001). Optimising instructional designer—Subject matter expert
communication in the design and development of multimedia projects.
Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 12(2/3), 205–223.
Keppell, M., Gunn, J., Hegarty, K., Madden, V., O’Connor, V., Kerse, N., &
Judd, T. (2003). Using authentic patient interactions to teach cervical
screening to medical students. In D. Lassner, & C. McNaught (Eds.),
Proceedings of ED-Media 2003 World Conference on Educational
Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications (pp. 1431–1438).
Honolulu, Hawaii, Association for the Advancement of Computing in
Education.
Keppell, M., Kan, K., Brearley Messer, L., & Bione, H. (2002). Authentic
learning interactions: Myth or reality? In A. Williamson, C. Gunn, A.
Young, & T. Clear (Eds.), Winds of change in a sea of learning.
Proceedings of the 19th Annual Conference of the Australasian Society for Computers in Tertiary Education (pp. 349–358). Auckland, New
Zealand: UNITEC: Institute of Technology.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
376 Keppell, Gunn, Hegarty, O’Connor, Kerse, Kan, Messer & Bione
Keppell, M., Kennedy, G., Elliott, K., & Harris, P. (2001, April). Transforming
traditional curricula: Enhancing medical education through multimedia and
web-based resources. Interactive Multimedia Electronic Journal of
Computer-Enhanced Learning (IMEJ), 3(1). Retrieved March 2002
from the World Wide Web: http://imej.wfu.edu/articles/2001/1/index.asp
Koschmann, T., Kelson, A. C., Feltovich, P. J., & Barrows. H. S. (1996).
Computer-supported problem-based learning: A principled approach to the
use of computers in collaborative learning. In T. Koschmann (Ed.),
Computer supported collaborative learning: Theory and practice in
an emerging paradigm. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Kozma, R. B. (1987). The implications of cognitive psychology for computerbased learning tools. Educational Technology, 27(11), 20–25.
Suivinen, T., Messer, L. B., & Franco, E. (1998). Clinical simulation in teaching
pre-clinical dentistry. European Journal of Dental Education, (2), 25–
32.
Young, M. (1993). Instructional design for situated learning. Educational
Technology Research and Development, 41, 43–58.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 377
Chapter XVIII
Using an Interactive
Feedback Tool to
Enhance Pronunciation
in Language Learning
Felicia Zhang, University of Canberra, Australia
Abstract
This chapter focuses on the effect of a learning environment in which
biological, physical and technological ways of perceiving Mandarin Chinese
sounds have been used. One of the most important tools of this environment
is the use of a speech analysis tool for audio and visual feedback. This is
done by way of incorporating a visual representation of student’s production
that can be easily compared to the speech of a native speaker. It is the
contention of this chapter that such an interactive feedback tool in
conjunction with other feedback mechanisms can provide opportunities for
increasing the effectiveness of feedback in language learning.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
378 Zhang
Introduction
This chapter reports on an experiment of restructuring the learning environment
using a variety of computer-enhanced language tools with the explicit aim of
training students to perceive Mandarin (hereafter referred to as “MC”) sounds.
It focuses on the effect of creating a learning environment in which biological,
physical, and technological ways of perceiving MC sound have been taught to
students. It is hoped that access to these different approaches to perception will
help students to know how to better perceive MC sounds outside the classroom
context. One of the most important parts of this environment is the use of a
speech analysis tool for offering audio and visual feedback by way of incorporating a visual representation of student’s production that can be easily compared
to the speech of a native speaker. It is the contention of this chapter that an
interactive feedback tool such as this can provide opportunities for increasing the
effectiveness of feedback in language learning. It is hoped that through the
exploration of the results of this research, clearer directions on how this
technology can be generalized to other learning contexts with other languages
can emerge.
Critique of Various Ways of
Teaching Pronunciation
Practitioners of both “traditional” and “modern” approaches of language teaching have generally acknowledged good pronunciation as a very important
objective in learning a second language (L2). As perception is intricately
connected to speech production, training to perceive sounds necessarily becomes an important part of language acquisition and good pronunciation acquisition. However, in the history of foreign language instruction, pronunciation has
not always been regarded in this light.
The grammar translation method, which focuses almost entirely upon written
texts, has always considered pronunciation nearly irrelevant. The cognitive code
approach also de-emphasized pronunciation in favor of grammar and vocabulary,
because it was thought in the late 1960s and early 1970s that native-like
pronunciation could not be taught anyway (Scovel, 1969).
Subsequent approaches, however, put more emphasis on oral communication.
For example, the direct method has claimed that pronunciation is very important
and presents it via teacher modeling. This methodology assumes that sounds
practiced in chorus or even individually will automatically be transformed into
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 379
“correct” production by the students. Similarly, the immersion method assumed
that students would acquire good pronunciation through exposure. In the
audiolingual approach, pronunciation is also very important. In this approach, the
teacher models and the students repeat, usually with the help of minimal pair
drills. However, by making students “improve” their pronunciation through a set
of minimal pair drills suggests that every learner will make a particular error
through a particular trajectory. For example, if an English as a foreign language
(EFL) learner makes an error with the word “beach,” it will inevitably be that he
or she will say it as “bitch.” This predetermination of what kind of errors students
will make when learning a L2, not only denies a student’s individuality, it also
excludes many other possible causes that may lead a learner to make that
particular error.
Even in the teaching approaches that focus on oral communication cited above,
relatively scanty attention has been paid to the complex nature of phonation and
auditory perception in a L2. In fact, teaching people to perceive in a L2 is
considered so difficult that most teaching methodologies have based their
approaches for teaching pronunciation on the teaching of elements that are
relatively easy to define (e.g., vowel and consonant sounds). Elements that are
relatively unstable and hard to define, such as intonation patterns, are usually left
out of the teaching process. The teaching of intonation and rhythm has hardly
been explored. The logic behind this is easily understood: one must first put
together the elements of language and then, later, somehow add the intonation.
These methods of teaching pronunciation have been widely used in language
teaching. However, they have not yielded particularly useful results, for instance,
in the field of teaching English as a second/foreign language. This led Jenkins
(Jenkins, 2000) to argue that in the case of the English language, as many nations
in the world use a variety of English as their own native or official language,
rather than measuring native-like pronunciation or intelligibility against any
particular form of the English language from say, the United Kingdom or the
United States of America, it might be worthwhile to set up an international core
for phonological intelligibility for the English language. It suffices to say that
within this core for phonological intelligibility for English, prosodic features such
as intonation were the least important according to Jenkins’ reasoning. Yet this
might, in fact, be approaching the problem from the wrong direction entirely.
Moreover, one cannot possibly dismiss the relationship between good pronunciation and social power. If one wants to be accepted and respected in the target
language culture, the first testament of one’s worth is one’s pronunciation and
fluency in that particular target language. Thus, mastery of intonation patterns
of that L2 is actually an integral and crucial part of language proficiency.
Finally, research by Hinofotis and Bailey (Hinofotis & Bailey, 1980) has
demonstrated that “there is a threshold level of pronunciation in English such that
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
380 Zhang
if a given non-native speaker’s pronunciation falls below this level, he or she will
not be able to communicate orally no matter how good his or her control of
English grammar and vocabulary might be.” It is then reasonable to assume that
there might also be a similar threshold level of pronunciation in MC for non-native
speakers of MC. Tones in MC, as an indispensable part of intonation, perform
the function of differentiating word meaning. The importance and endurance of
tones in MC is such that native speakers will still find your speech intelligible,
even if the vowels and consonants are unintelligible (Chao, 1972). This is why
recognition bestowed upon a non-native speaker’s mastery of MC is almost
entirely based on native speakers’ perceptions of their tones. In other words,
intelligibility of non-native MC is based very much on the speaker’s correct tonal
production. For this reason, mastery of tone proves to be one of the most
worthwhile tasks in learning spoken MC. This is true not only of a tonal language
such as MC; it is also true of a nontonal language such as French (James, 1976).
In short, it is maintained that instead of focusing on the easily definable and
discrete elements that make up speech, perhaps a worthwhile experiment would
be to start with the intonation and the melody of a language and the process of
training L2 students to perceive sounds in a L2. The study described in this
chapter reports on an experiment based on this orientation of pronunciation
training.
Objectives of Feedback
Getting good-quality feedback is an important aspect of language learning (and
learning in general). For many educationalists, feedback is important, because it
is essential for learning and can play a significant role in students’ development
by providing knowledge required for improvement (Hinett, 1998; Hyland, 2000).
The objectives of providing feedback are as follows:
1.
To enable students to understand feedback and to make sense of it;
2.
To establish a common understanding of how this feedback may be
implemented or acted upon by students between students and teachers.
Toohey (2000, p.154) gave a model of a learning process involving feedback:
initially the student encounters or is introduced to an idea, this is followed by the
student becoming aware of the idea, the student then tries the idea out, receives
feedback and then reflects and adjusts the implementation of the idea. Feedback
as described in this model takes place in a language teaching classroom on a daily
basis. In a communicative classroom, students are frequently called upon or
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 381
volunteer to try out a new sentence, conversation, or structures. The student then
receives feedback from the teacher or his or her fellow classmates almost
instantly in many ways. In the classroom, many channels are used for communicating feedback, through error correction and other channels, such as body
language, nonverbal behavior, facial expressions, gestures, tone of voice, and so
on. Such feedback is usually instantaneous, involuntary (from the feedback
provider), episodic, and disappears very quickly from the memory of everyone
involved. So in a traditional classroom, while we receive a huge amount of
feedback on our production, the feedback received seldom becomes guidance or
long-term learning in a real, face-to-face communicative interaction outside the
classroom.
First, can we expect the classroom situation to provide feedback that is able to
achieve the objectives listed above? Clearly, the episodic nature of the feedback
offered in the classroom can have minimal effect on student learning. Second,
understanding what the feedback contains and how to act on it are not as easy
as they seem. The feedback offered in a L2 language classroom does not only
contain information on the correct way of pronouncing or writing something. In
some cases, error correction offered can be as detrimental as not offering any
feedback at all. An excellent example is in the teaching of MC tones. In a
character-based language such as MC, each character has a lexical tone that is
stable when it is isolated from other words. However, in a sentence situation, a
lexical tone of a character is influenced by other characters and their tones
before and after it. In other words, a character might lose its stable lexical tone
in a larger stretch of discourse. In the MC language, changes in tones across
sentences and longer stretches of discourse are very hard to predict and
describe. Yet, in every classroom in the world where students are learning MC
as a foreign language, teachers are constantly pulling students up on their tones
by demonstrating the right tones for individual characters and telling them the
tone for a particular character is a fourth tone not a first tone and so on. The
problem is that such corrective effort is usually ineffective, as the immediate
context (influence of words left and right to the character in question) of the
correction for that particular character is ignored, and the effect is usually shortlived and transitory.
The Contribution of Computer
Technology in Feedback Provision
The advent of computer technology in language learning has added a very
interesting dimension to the role of providing feedback. Computer technology
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
382 Zhang
can provide an environment in which certain memory traces that work for a
particular learner can stay longer in that students’ consciousness or sometimes
unconsciousness. In a real-life situation, such memory traces can be called upon
to help facilitate the communication involved. The advantages of feedback
offered by a computer are that the feedback is constant; it can be repeated over
and over; and it allows students to control their own learning.
However, the design of CALL tools for providing feedback still depends on the
theoretical framework that conceptualizes the tools. For instance, in a SpeechRecognition-Based pronunciation training experiment conducted by Tomokiyo et
al. (2000), the feedback offered still follows the model of offering explanation
using diagrams of articulatory position and minimal pair practice. Many CALL
tools still tend to focus on the production side of pronunciation rather than on
exploring how students perceive sounds. Thus, the criticisms that are put
forward against the various approaches of teaching pronunciation in language
teaching are equally pertinent here as well. The present study proposes that
instead of conducting research based on the more stable aspects of pronunciation
(i.e., vowels and consonants) that are constrained by particular theories of
linguistics, it might be more productive for students if we conduct research based
on sound theories of learning. The speech tool we developed, and which will be
discussed in more detail shortly, is based on verbo-tonal system of phonetic
correction, developed by the late Professor Guberina in connection with his work
with people whose hearing was impaired (Renard, 1975). This is a system that
brings the human brain and the human body as a whole to the forefront of the
study of auditory perception. The computer software is used in a language
learning environment that has been designed to use all the sensory organs of the
body to facilitate auditory, visual, and other perceptions and to contribute to the
brain’s realization of every perception.
Most of the feedback that is currently offered in computerized multimedia
environments is focused on the product of student’s performance rather than
upon the process. For instance, we are familiar with many language-teaching
exercise makers that allow you to offer feedback such as “try again” or “well
done.” However, such feedback is pointless, and students are unlikely to benefit
from it if they do not change their actions during the process of production. In the
case of getting better pronunciation in any language, this amounts to getting
students to try to say a sentence differently. Most feedback mechanisms, while
offering feedback in terms of judgment, do not offer any feedback that
contributes to the process of production. The speech tool we developed, by
contrast, is designed to offer feedback that is nonjudgmental and allows students
to explore and reflect during the process of learning, not just at the end of the
learning process. Reflection occurs when students can observe visually the
differences between their productions and the native speaker model. When this
is combined with the biological and physical memory traces built up in the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 383
classroom context, students can act upon their reflections and change the
processes of production. It is the contention that this way, students will be able
to turn feedback to students into learning in the long run.
Providing Feedback Using Sptool
A few attempts have been made to teach melody and intonation in a new and
original way by displaying the melodic contours on a screen. The students hear
a model sentence and, at the same time, they watch the melodic pattern form on
the screen where it is “frozen.” They then attempt to match the model melody
by speaking. As their melodic pattern is also “frozen,” they can compare their
productions with the model. Students can then employ auditory and visual stimuli
for assistance in the comparison process. Such methods, overall, have had good
results (James, 1976). In the past, this kind of feedback machine was relatively
expensive and, as only one person could be trained on any single machine at any
one time, not really feasible for widespread educational use. However, computer
technology has made it possible that such a feedback mechanism can be provided
at the click of a button. The Sptool (Zhang & Newman, 2003) used in this
research is such a feedback mechanism.
The Sptool program is produced with a windows component called dotnetfx.exe;
it is 20 megabytes in size. It is most stable for Windows 2000 and XP; a bit
unstable for Windows 98. When you open the program, you can see the open
icon, which allows you to import any other prerecorded audio file saved in the
.chwav, .mchwav, or .wav formats. If you have a prerecorded sound file, saved
in Windows .wav format, you should be able to open it and run through the
program. If you record a male voice in Cooledit (Syntrillium, 2002) or any other
recording software, save it under the Windows .wav format to .mchwav. If you
record a female voice, save it to .chwav, and then Sptool should play and measure
your recorded sentence. At the moment, the program is not able to work with
large files over 10 megabytes due to the limitation imposed by the Microsoft
component.
Other Speech Analysis Tools
There are other speech analysis tools on the market. The commercial product
Winpitch (Martin, 2003) is such a speech analysis tool. Praat (Boersma &
Weenink, 2003) is free and also available. However, these software programs
are far too complex for beginning language students to use. As the students
involved in this research are zero-level beginners of MC with varying computer
literacy levels, the complexity of the programs described above made the
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
384 Zhang
creation of a more user-friendly speech analysis tool integrated into the teaching
material a necessity.
The Tell-Me-More series (Auralog, 2000) of language-learning programs also
have built within them a speech comparison tool. However, the speech comparison chosen by the creator of Tell-Me-More is using phoneme matching. In other
words, while the sentences contained in the language program can be verified by
the speech comparison tool attached to the program, it cannot verify any other
sentences outside the program. This means the usefulness of their speech tool
is really limited.
Theoretical Framework Underpinning
the Current Research
The use of Sptool is embedded in a larger learning theory based on the theory of
the verbo-tonal system of phonetic correction. This theory is mainly concerned
with the way students perceive sounds of a L2. The starting point of this theory
is the complex nature of phonation and auditory perception of a language. From
the verbo-tonal point of view, auditory perception develops synchronously and
synergistically with the development of the motor, proprioceptive, and visual
abilities (Guberina, 1985). One of the senses in audition is through the ears. A
person with normal hearing in his mother tongue will behave, in a foreign
language, as though he or she were hard of hearing. Each language sound carries
all frequencies from about 50 Hz to about 16,000 Hz (albeit at various intensities).
Theoretically, at any rate, each sound can be heard in many different ways. The
ear seems to have a “choice” as to what to hear, in practice, depending on the
way in which the ear has been trained. L2 students tend to make “choices” in the
target language based on what they are familiar with in their mother tongue. Each
sound has a particular “optimal” frequency (i.e., the frequency band, or
combination of frequency bands, at which a native speaker best recognizes and
perceives the sound in question). This is what Troubetzkoy (1969) referred to as
the mother tongue “sieve.”
Students who experience difficulty with a particular foreign language sound are
considered as not having recognized its optimal. Hence, they are unable to
reproduce the sound correctly. One of the ways in which students can be made
to perceive the optimal of each sound is to remove (e.g., through electronic
filtering) any interfering frequencies that might prevent it from being perceived.
In this way, it is possible, in theory, to bypass the mother tongue “sieve”
(Troubetzkoy, 1969). Once this has been achieved, students will be able to
perceive, for the first time, the specific quality of the troublesome sound.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 385
However, exposing the students to the native speaker optimal may still be
insufficient. A set of “corrective” optimals then needs to be determined. These
will be such as to direct a student’s audition away from its natural tendency to
structure as it has always done.
Verbo-tonalism postulates that the articulation of sounds poses relatively little
difficulty once the specific quality of the sound has been heard. Consequently,
the determination of corrective optimals for any one student will be established
on the basis of his or her pronunciation. It is through exposure to corrective
optimals, followed by intensive articulatory practice, that students will carry with
them valid acoustic models constituting the normal range for the phonemes of
language. The intense exposures to the sentences in this course via the Sptool
plus the intensive articulatory practice carried out in the two-hour lecture provide
students with such valid acoustic models of the phonemes of the L2.
Audition is a form of total behavior that occurs on the level of the body as a whole.
In the present course, nine steps in the lecture sequence have been designed to
integrate phonation and expressiveness that occur in the space between the lungs
and the nasal cavity, with the breathing, moving, feeling patterns of a person in
entirety so that a multitude of memory traces will be retained in different parts
of the body.
Given the complexity of the various processes involved in perception and
phonation, an intellectualization of these processes is unlikely to be successful.
Learning processes must therefore operate at the “unconscious” level. Rather,
it is essential that proprioceptive powers be called into play in the development
of good pronunciation so that students might become conscious and perceptive
of the rhythms and stresses of the target language. The fact that translation into
English, romanization in Pinyin, etc. are not emphasized or used at all in this
course suggests that the course is especially designed to allow new language to
be processed “unconsciously”—or perhaps intuitively would be a better word—
first and foremost. In other words, we are not really talking about unconscious
learning but the more intensive utilization of the language centers through the
exploitation of different parts of the nervous system, such as the parts that are
concerned with proprioception and bodily sensation.
The elements described in the following lecture sequence and the audiovisual
materials contained in the teaching materials represent the pedagogic measures
that integrate the senses of the body with movement with the process of ear
training through working on a system of errors rather than isolated elements of
the language. It is proposed that starting an audition process from intonation
would result in the proper training of several systems at once in MC. These
pedagogic measures also are designed to instill in students certain memory traces
by physically “marking” on their brains so that these memory traces can be
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
386 Zhang
reactivated once feedback either from Sptool or from any other sources has been
received.
These memory traces are essential in enabling students to act upon the feedback
received. This is the second important objective of any feedback system: to
create a set of memories that are not merely cognitive records but feelings of
relaxation and muscular tension that are distributed through the students’
experience of his or her bodily sense. What follows is a brief description of a
teaching method that, in helping to create such somatic traces, provides an
environment suitable to the inclusion of the Sptool and assists students in the
exploitation of that resource.
A New Method of Teaching Mandarin
Chinese Pronunciation to Beginners
It is 5:30 pm on a Tuesday afternoon, in a large room capable of holding
up to 50 students; the lecture chairs with attached arms have been pushed
to the perimeter of the room. The students are randomly slouched on their
chairs relaxing after a tired day of either work or lectures.
The teacher walks into the room carrying the necessary computer gear, CDROMs and so on. She greets the class cheerfully with “ni3men hao3” (hello,
everyone) and puts the CD-ROM in the computer. “Now, leave your seat
and lie comfortably on the floor and listen.” Then the following audio file
is played:
“Imagine that you are lying on your back on the grass on a warm
summer day and that you are watching the clear blue sky without a
single cloud in it (pause). You are lying very comfortably, you are
very relaxed and happy (pause). You are simply enjoying the
experience of watching the clear, beautiful blue sky (pause). As you
are lying there, completely relaxed, enjoying yourself (pause), far
off on the horizon you notice a tiny white cloud (pause). You are
fascinated by the simple beauty of the small white cloud against the
clear blue sky (pause). The little white cloud starts to move slowly
toward you (pause). You are laying there, completely relaxed, very
much at peace with yourself, watching the little white cloud drift
slowly toward you (pause). The little white cloud drifts slowly
toward you (pause). You are enjoying the beauty of the clear blue
sky and the little white cloud (pause). Finally the little white cloud
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 387
comes to a stop overhead (pause). Completely relaxed, you are
enjoying this beautiful scene (pause). You are very relaxed, very
much at peace with yourself, and simply enjoying the beauty of the
little white cloud in the blue sky (pause). Now become the little white
cloud. Project yourself into it (pause). You are the little white cloud,
completely diffused, puffy, relaxed, very much at peace with yourself (pause). Now you are completely relaxed, your mind is completely calm (pause), you are pleasantly relaxed, ready to proceed
with the lesson (pause).”(Step 1)
“Now, get up and stand in a circle.” The teacher joins the circle.
The teacher says “I will hum to the rhythm of the sentence and please hum
with me while walking slowly in a circle.” This is done five times. (Step 2)
“Now, I will clap to the rhythm of the sentence and then you can clap after
me.” (Step 3) Again, this is done five times.
“Notice the high sounds and the low sounds in the sentence? With your palm
up, push your hands above your head as high as possible for the high
sounds. For the low sounds, stamp your feet done as hard as possible. Now
let’s hum the sentences again.” (Step 4) This is again done five times.
“Continuing with the movements, now mouth the sentences while I say them
out loud.” (Step 5) Of course, at every lesson, at this stage, one or two
people always end up repeating the sentences rather than mouthing them.
This is again done five times.
“Now repeat after me, and then add words to the intonation.” This again
is done five times. (Step 6)
Now the teacher instructs each individual to repeat the sentence by
themselves; checking that each student is reproducing the sentence correctly. (Step 7)
“Now what is the meaning of the sentence?” Students enthusiastically
volunteer the meaning in English, and the meaning of the sentence is
usually established in seconds. (Step 8)
In each two-hour lecture sequence, every sentence is presented and
practiced using the above procedure. At the end of each lecture, the whole
class engages in a pair or group work conversation activity using the
materials covered in the lesson. (Step 9)
At the end of the lesson, students are instructed to sit and write the meaning
or whatever notes they want to make themselves.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
388 Zhang
In the lecture sequence described, several rather unconventional elements make
an appearance. For instance, relaxation exercise, humming, mouthing to the
words, body gestures, and mouthing the words and then repetition, are all present
in the learning sequence. How are these related to each other? How do these
elements relate to the Sptool under discussion?
Focusing on the Rhythm and Intonation of the Language
The activities described in the above lecture sequence all have to do with
focusing on the rhythm and intonation of the language. Intonation is a universal
feature of all languages. Melody (which includes tones and intonation) holds the
units together and arranges them with respect to one another. It is a very special
kind of glue. Attempting to arrange the sounds with the wrong “glue” is like
building structures of the wrong kind.
The smallest unit of the language being presented is a sentence rather than
individual words or compounds. This is because in MC, the acoustic characteristics of the words change when they are in a sentential environment. For
instance, when a word is read in isolation, the frequency of the word is different
from when the word is part of a sentence. So concentrating one’s effort in
mastering the tones of individual words or compounds does not guarantee
success in producing the sentences containing those words. This is true of MC
as well as other nontonal languages.
Step 1: In this step, the imagery of the “little white cloud” is used to relax the
students and the teacher. This constitutes the relaxation phase. This sets
up a relaxed atmosphere for learning for the rest of the lesson. Stevick
(1986) has stressed the usefulness of working with imagery in language
teaching. In education, visualization can facilitate the interiorization of
knowledge by creating a more receptive state of awareness, permitting the
affective and creative functions of a more holistic nature to participate in
and strengthen the learning experience (Murdock, 1987). According to
Neville (Neville, 1989), “the fragmented, dispersed, chaotic energies of our
organism are aligned, harmonized and made purposive by the imagined
experience, just as they would be by a ‘real one’, possibly leading to
important changes in our ‘self-image, attitude and behavior’ (p. 95).
Step 2: This step involves humming along to the rhythm of the sentences without
the vowels and consonants (five times). This is used to highlight the
intonation and tones of MC.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 389
Step 3: Clapping to the rhythm allows students to experience the rhythm of the
sentence and observe different groupings of the words in a sentence. This
also allows the students to observe how stress, realized by length and
loudness in MC, is tied to meaning. This also allows them to observe the key
words in a sentence and realize that not all words are of equal value and that
in making oneself understood, one only needs to get the key words right.
This training is essential in training them the strategy of prediction and
advanced planning in listening comprehension.
Step 4: In this step, walking about with feet coming down on every syllable is
practiced in order to get the body used to producing a tense downward tone
that is also loud. Raising or stretching upwards as though attempting to
touch the ceiling to experience the tenseness of the body in producing the
first high level tone is also done. Instruct the students to adopt a forward
lumping of the shoulders for the second and third tones in MC that need a
relaxed posture.
Research shows that Chinese speakers have a much wider voice range
when speaking MC than English speakers speaking English (Chen, 1974).
As the first tone starts at a higher frequency than what most Australian
speakers are used to, extra physical efforts need to be made to remind one
that one must start high. To stretch one’s muscular system to express these
MC tones, one must not slouch in seats. By asking students to stand up
straight and walk in a circle with various gestures, students are experiencing the coordination and synchronization of various muscles with the sounds
uttered.
Steps 5 through 9 are steps that further highlight the melody of the sentences
involved. Notice that throughout the learning sequence, translation and
writing down the sentences are not needed until the last moment. By the
time students come to write down the meaning, they will have already
internalized the melody of the sentences.
The nine steps of the lecture sequence offer students a range of physical ways
for remembering tones beyond the set contact hours every week. These
measures set up a series of learning steps that can be used for self-access
learning at home.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
390 Zhang
Role of the Speech Tool and the Course
Data CD and Audio CD
Course Data CD
Each new vocabulary item, new sentence, or new phrase in the teaching
materials is linked to a normal sound file. Only the sentences are linked to both
a normal sound file and a filtered sound file.
All the sound files in the materials can be passed through the Sptool (Figure 1).
Once passed through the Sptool, the learner can listen to the teacher’s model
pronunciation by clicking on the “teacher” icon. With one click, the student can
hear the model sentence, and the pitch curves of the model sentence are
displayed. If the learner wants to hear a smaller chunk of the sentence, then he
or she can select that bit of the curve by dragging the cursor over the portion they
want to hear. After listening to the sentence numerous times, the learner can
decide whether he or she wants to record his or her own production.
Before clicking on the record button, however, it is necessary for the student to
tell the program whether he or she is female or male. This is necessary because
Figure 1: Picture of the teaching material
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 391
females generally have higher fundamental frequencies than males. The difference is sometimes as much as over 100 Hz. If the program is configured to
measure a female voice, the pitch curve of a male learner will not be able to be
displayed. However, once configured correctly, the pitch curve of the learner’s
recording will then be displayed properly.
The course data CD also contains teaching materials in html format; all the
associated sound files, the Speech tool, and short video skits with which students
can test their comprehensions of the new language can be learned by watching
these video skits. An audio CD of the sound files is also provided with the course
materials. In 2003, a weekly compulsory class using computer-enhanced teaching materials was arranged. Other computer-enhanced learning materials such
as Tell-Me-More (Auralog, 2000), VCDs, movies, and videos with similar
content are also available in the computer center.
The Role of Sptool
Steps 2 to 7 in the lecture sequence are duplicated in different forms through the
use of the Sptool. While the classroom sequence is more or less teacher driven
and physical, the Sptool allows the lecture sequence to be experienced in a
different way. It also allows other choices to be made:
•
The beat, stress, word groupings, key words, and sentential intonation are
all indicated in the speech curve and the sound file. In the sample sentence,
zai4 nar3 you3 mai4 bi3 de0 (Where can one buy some pens?) shown in
Figure 2 on the next page, “zai4 nar3” is the key word and the curve clearly
shows that the three characters are in a group together and should not be
separated.
•
The height (related to the muscular tenseness of the body) of both first and
fourth tones is indicated clearly with respect to other tones. The height of
the first and fourth tones reminds the students of the need to stretch their
voice range beyond their normal voice range. This information is very
useful in enabling students to change their ways of producing the target
sentences after observing the differences between the native speaker’s
production and theirs.
•
Comparison of the pitch curves of individual words in the vocabulary
section with the same words used in sentences is possible.
•
Students can select any portion of the sentence for listening practice and
repetition.
•
The links between words are easily observable. For instance, in the
sentence,
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
392 Zhang
Wo3 sheng1yu2 yi1 jiu3 wu3 ling2 nian2.
I was born in the year 1950.
The production of “sheng1yu2” requires the body to be tense and to be kept tense
in order to produce the next “yi1: one.” Students can select the three syllables
“sheng1yu2yi1” in order to explore how physically one has to keep one’s body
tense in order to produce this group of words using the physical gestures
practiced in the classroom.
The use of Sptool encourages students to reflect on and explore the process of
learning. Many of the explorations are usually impossible to be predetermined by
a teacher, as most teachers, even the most able, do not have an extensive list of
rules about how the different combination of words are produced physically in
MC. Many of the things that can be done using the program may not be initiated
by teachers but are being explored by the students through use. Furthermore,
being able to experience each sentence repeatedly through the Sptool creates an
environment in which students can totally immerse themselves consciously and
unconsciously in the language.
Figure 2: Picture of the Sptool showing the sample sentence: Where does
it sell pens?
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 393
The Study
Sample
The progress of three groups of beginners of Mandarin Chinese has been
followed. The first group (hereafter referred to as “Group 1”) consists of two
other groups of total beginners from 1995 and 1996 who were taught pinyin (the
Chinese romanization) from the beginning of their MC study. The oral test data
collected from this group represent the baseline data.
The second group (hereafter referred to as “Group 2”) of beginners finished their
two semesters of study in Mandarin in 2001. These participants were students
enrolled in Chinese 1a: Language and Culture and Chinese 1b of the firstyear Chinese course at the University of Canberra in 2001. By the end of the
experiment, they had completed 130 contact hours of lectures and tutorials over
two semesters.
The third group (hereafter referred to as “Group 3”) consisted of students who
studied MC in the first semester, 2003. Students in Group 3 were zero-level
beginners when they started and were taught exclusively by the use of the Sptool.
These participants in this study were 15 students enrolled in Chinese 1a:
Language and Culture in 2003. There were three students from Japan, one
student from Korea, and 10 Australian students. By the end of the experiment,
they would have completed 65 contact hours of lectures and tutorials over one
semester. They were all zero-level beginners of MC at the beginning of the
course.
Data Collection Methods
A configuration of data methods was used to explore the experiences of Groups
2 and 3 students as they learned MC through this technology-rich learning
environment. The configuration of methods is as follows:
Qualitative:
•
•
One-to-one oral tests (four of them for Group 2; one for Group 3)
•
Written examination tests (four for Group 2; and one for Group 3)
Self-scripted video segment done in small groups (four for Groups 1 and 2;
one for Group 3)
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
394 Zhang
Quantitative:
•
•
Computer-technology-related questionnaires from Group 2 students
One-to-one interviews with Group 2 students
Results and Discussion
Qualitative Data
Group 2:
Data collected from the 2001 group of students were compared with two other
groups of total beginners from 1995 and 1996. The fundamental difference
between the groups was that the 2001 group of students was not taught pinyin
from the very beginning. Analysis of students’ oral performances revealed that
the rate of acquisition of MC initials (consonants) and finals (vowels) was faster
for these students. For instance, in the data from students in Group 1 (the pinyin
group), a large number of errors with palatals [x] and [j] and [q] were present.
While the Group 2 students made some errors with [x] and [q], errors with [j],
after only six weeks of instruction, did not occur. Furthermore, by the time the
second oral (after 65 hours of instruction) was conducted, no errors were made
with respect to these initials.
Group 3:
Students in Group 3 started learning Mandarin only since the end of February
2003. This group is the only group that benefited with a verbo-tonal-theorydriven teaching methodology combined with a fully developed software package
that included course data and audio CDs and the speech tool. By the end of May
2003, this group of students had completed their first written and oral tests.
Oral test:
The first oral performances of eight students in Group 3 had been analyzed. Out
of 1827 words (MC characters) uttered, 77 errors were made with consonants
and vowels. In other words, only 4.2% of errors were made. Out of the 77 errors,
students from a non-Australian background, i.e., one Korean, one Thai, and one
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 395
Cantonese speaker of Chinese made the majority of the errors. In terms of
consonants, only one Australian student made two errors with “zhi3.” He
pronounced it as “zi3.” Again, errors with palatals [x] and [j] and [q] were not
present. After only 30 hours of face-to-face instruction, all the Australian
students had gained complete control of the initials of MC. Similar to previous
groups of students, pinyin and non-pinyin groups, the problematic errors were
with the vowels and diphthongs rather than with consonants.
The faster rate of Mandarin sound system acquisition can be attributed to the
removal of romanization and the availability of sound files on CDs and the speech
tool. The combined effect of both tools appeared to have helped to reduce the
transfer effect from the students’ mother tongue—English. A close examination
of the audio recordings of Group 3 students’ oral also suggests that Group 3
students were more fluent. Though they still had tone problems, the rhythm of
their speech was much more natural when compared with a native speaker’s
rhythm.
Furthermore, anecdotal reports from students suggested that students were
confident with their listening comprehension ability, citing that the use of
humming, clapping, and so on in class combined with the use of Sptool, allowed
them to hear and remember more distinctly the rhythm and stress of the
language. This meant that they were able to hear familiar key words that enabled
them to predicate what was coming up more accurately. Evidence of this came
in the form of the ranking of students in different parts of their written tests. For
this group, the top three ranks were occupied by Australian zero-level beginners
overall. For the entire group, for the listening comprehension section, even the
weakest student (the student who scored the lowest for the entire written test)
scored well for this section. This was very different from the results of previous
years. As one student remarked, this course was more like an immersion
language program in which students were expected to use the whole body in the
process of learning.
Quantitative Data
Group 2: Results of the Computer Technology Questionnaires:
The reaction to the computer-based materials was extremely positive with this
group of students. Many, 85%, of the students regularly used the audio and data
CDs for at least one to three hours per week in an evaluation survey conducted
at the end of the first semester in 2001. At the end of the first semester, students
requested that in the written text on the data CD, each line of each dialogue be
linked to its corresponding sound file, thus making the practice of the target
language, line by line, easier.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
396 Zhang
A similar technology-oriented questionnaire was also administered at the end of
the second semester. All students used the course data and audio CDs regularly
to prepare and review the materials covered. Two out of six students requested
each item of the vocabulary each week to be linked to its own audio file. Two
students requested more regular use of VCD, and some requested more regular
use of the Tell-Me-More CD in class.
Group 3:
No quantitative data had been collected from this group of students at the time
of writing this chapter. Both questionnaire and interview data have been
collected in late June of 2003 but are yet to be analyzed. A brief glimpse of the
questionnaires completed by Group 3 students suggests that, on average, these
students spent around 10 hours per person outside class contact time on their
Chinese learning. This kind of devotion to the learning of MC has not been
experienced by the researcher in her entire teaching career.
The availability of such an array of computer-enhanced learning materials
encouraged students to engage in more autonomous learning behavior. As
pronunciation could only be obtained either through looking in the dictionary or
listening to the accompanying course CDs, all students spent time on a regular
basis to listen to the CDs to prepare for the week’s materials. This autonomous
learning pattern actually forced students to open their ears to the target language
in and outside of class, thus enormously increasing exposure to the target
language. Autonomous behaviors happen every time each student listens to a
string of sounds in Mandarin, as each student has to perceive the sounds
according to his or her individual perception and translate them in a way that is
recognizable to each student, individually.
Future Directions
It is important to note that Sptool can be used with any language, whether mother
tongue, L2, or languages in danger of becoming extinct. It can be used with
languages or any sound wave. Therefore, it can be used to enhance the teaching
of the prosodic aspect of any language. For instance, in the teaching of English,
the Sptool described in this chapter makes it possible for different models of
native English sentences to be made available to teachers and students.
The Sptool used in the learning process is by no means perfect and, therefore,
can be further improved in several aspects:
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 397
1.
At the moment, it can only work with preproduced sound files of a fairly
small size. This means that a sound file has to be prerecorded before it can
be run through this tool. It will be a huge improvement if as soon as someone
speaks, the speech is recorded and automatically analyzed with the pitch
wave displayed on the screen instantly. In other words, this tool should be
able to process speech in real time.
2.
Another icon called “filtered” can be built into the program to display the
filtered version of any sentences.
3.
This program should be able to talk to other programs, such as a video
database, so that the sound file from any movie can also be measured and
displayed instantly.
4.
Band passes can be built into the program so that students can investigate
the “optimal” frequency of a particular consonant or vowel.
5.
A Web-version of the course should be created, and flash technology
should be used so that once students point on a sound file, the speech tool
opens automatically.
While Improvements 1 through 3 will not make the program too complicated to
use, a large amount of research needs to go into investigating the possibility of
Improvement 4. Improvement 5 is also possible, but the use of the World Wide
Web itself already restricts its use. However, a Web version of the Sptool is being
planned.
One of the most promising research directions at the moment with regards to this
program is further improvement of the program and then testing of the tool with
a larger group of students in different languages.
Conclusion
Limited findings described in this article demonstrated that a well-thought-out
and properly implemented curriculum involving computer technology can make
feedback to students more effective. This kind of environment is instrumental to
produce students with better pronunciation in a L2 and can increase students’
motivation for learning the language and culture of an L2. One significant
consideration of creating this environment is the fact that the technology chosen
is of a “low-tech” nature, utilizing mainly CD-ROM technology. While it has
been acknowledged that adding the Net to this learning process may also be
beneficial for students, at the beginning stage of language learning, the use of the
Net only serves to increase the cognitive load on students.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
398 Zhang
Another significant characteristic of this environment is its modularity. I would
like to refer to all the elements within the environment metaphorically as
“machines.” The “machines” used in the environment are easily accessible and
user friendly and adaptable. The non-technology-driven elements such as one’s
body, voice, movement, and gesture are already available to every student. The
technological elements, such as the sound, video, text files, and filtered sound
files, are not hard to produce. The frequency of interaction and ease of access
afforded by the Sptool and other sound files have been extremely motivating for
students. Through the use of various machines in this environment, feedback,
offered through physical, biological, and technological means, has acted in
concert to motivate students and convert feedback in learning.
Acknowledgment
The investigation described in this chapter is sponsored by a University of
Canberra research grant, 2002–2003 from the University of Canberra, Australia. I would like to thank Professor Michael Wagner for participating in the grant
and offering me useful feedback and advice throughout the grant.
I would also like to thank Kate Wilson and two anonymous reviewers for helpful
feedback on a previous version of this chapter. I am, however, entirely
responsible for the good and bad herein.
References
Auralog. (2000). Tell Me More (Asian). Auralog S.A.
Boersma, P. A., & Weenink, D. (2003). Praat. Institute of Phonetic Sciences,
Institute of Phonetic Sciences, University of Amsterdam.
Chao, Y. R. (1972). Mandarin primer: An intensive course in spoken
Chinese. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Chen, G. T. (1974). The pitch range of English and Chinese speakers. Journal
of Chinese Linguistics, 2(2), 159–171.
Guberina, P. (1985). The role of the body in learning foreign languages. R. P. A.,
73, 74, 75, pp. 38–50.
Hinett, K. (1998). The role of dialogue and self assessment in improving
student learning. British Educational Research Association Annual Conference, The Queen’s University of Belfast.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Using an Interactive Feedback Tool 399
Hinofotis, F., & Bailey, K. (1980). American undergraduates’ reactions to the
communication skills of foreign teaching assistants. In J. C. Fisher, M. A.
Clarke, & J. Schacter (Eds.), TESOL ‘80 (pp. 120–133), Washington, DC,
Teachers of English to speakers of other languages.
Hyland, F. (2000). ESL writers and feedback: Giving more autonomy to
students. Language Teaching Research, 4(1), 33–54.
James, E. F. (1976). The acquisition of prosodic features using a speech
visualiser. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language
Teaching, 14, pp. 227–243.
Jenkins, J. (2000). The phonology of English as an international language.
New York: Oxford University Press.
Martin, P. (2003). Winpitch. Pitch Instruments Inc.
Murdock, M. (1987). Spinning inward. Boston, MA: Shambhala.
Neville, B. (1989). Educating psyche: Emotion, imagination and the unconscious in learning. Victoria: Collins Dove.
Renard, R. (1975). Introduction to the verbo-tonal method of phonetic
correction, Didier.
Scovel, T. (1969). Foreign accents: Language acquisition and cerebral dominance. Language Learning, 19(3,4), 245–254.
Stevick, E. W. (1986). Images and options in the language classroom.
Cambridge: University Press.
Syntrillium. (2002). Cooledit 2000. Syntrillium software.
Tomokiyo, L. M., Le Wang, et al. (2000). An empirical study of the effectiveness of speech-recognition-based pronunciation tutoring. Proceedings of ICSLP, Beijing.
Toohey, S. (2000). Designing courses for higher education, Buckingham:
The Society for Research into Higher Education and Open University.
Troubetzkoy, N. S. (1969). Principles of phonology (Grundzuge de
Phonologie, Travaux du cercle linguistique de Prague). University of
California Press.
Zhang, F., & Newman, D. (2003). Speech tool. Canberra: University of
Canberra, Australia.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
400 About the Authors
About the Authors
Sanjaya Mishra holds a Ph.D. in Library and Information Science in the area
of library networks. He has been a teacher of communication technology to
distance educators. He has been involved in successful implementation of many
multimedia and Internet-based courses, including a multimedia CD on multimedia. With professional training in distance education, television production, and
multimedia, he is actively involved in collaboration at the international level.
Currently, he is a senior lecturer at the Staff Training and Research Institute of
Distance Education (STRIDE) at Indira Gandhi National Open University
(IGNOU), New Delhi (India). Previously a programme officer of the Commonwealth Educational Media Centre for Asia (CEMCA) at New Delhi, he was
engaged in conducting training programs in the application of multimedia in
education in the Asian region. He has served as consultant to UNESCO, UNESCAP, and the World Bank. He was book review editor of the Indian Journal
of Open Learning (1997-2000) and also edited a few special issues of the same
journal. He is author/editor of five books and has contributed more than 60
research papers in reputed professional journals. He is on the editorial advisory
boards of many reputed journals including Distance Education, Malaysian
Journal of Educational Technology, International Review of Research in
Open and Distance Learning, Educational Technology and Society, and
PUP Journal of Distance Education. He is founder editor of the Asian
Journal of Distance Education.
Ramesh C. Sharma holds a Ph.D. in Education in the area of Educational
Technology and is currently working as regional director in Indira Gandhi
National Open University (IGNOU) (India) (since 1996). Before joining IGNOU,
Dr. Sharma was a senior faculty in a Teacher Training College for nearly 10
years and taught Educational Technology, Educational Research and Statistics,
Educational Measurement and Evaluation, and Psychodynamics of Mental
Health Courses for the B.Ed. and M.Ed. programs. He has conducted many
training programs for the in- and pre-service teachers on the use of multimedia
in teaching and instruction. He is a member of many committees on implemenCopyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
About the Authors 401
tation of technology in the Open University. His areas of specialization include
ICT applications, computer networking, online learning, student support services
in open and distance learning, and teacher education. He is on the editorial board
of referred and international journals in distance education. Dr. Sharma is on the
editorial board of many reputed journals like Distance Education, International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, and PUP
Journal of Distance Education. He is an editor of the Journal of Information
Technology Education (Informing Science Institute, USA). He has co-authored
one book on distance education research and contributed articles to referred
journals. He is founder editor of the Asian Journal of Distance Education.
* * * * *
Sharlene Anthony is a senior scientific officer in the Life Sciences Department
of the Singapore Science Centre. A marine biologist by training, she previously
worked with marine mammals at Underwaterworld Singapore, with sea turtles
at the Universiti Putra Malaysia, and with sea urchins at Dalhousie University,
Canada. Currently, she is pursuing a master’s degree at the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, where she is exploring the linkages of the
Singapore Science Centre with the formal education system.
Shivanand Balram is a lecturer in the Faculty of Natural Sciences, University
of Guyana. At present, he is a researcher in the Department of Geography,
Simon Fraser University, Canada. His nearly 12 years of academic, industry, and
consulting experience have focused on geographic information systems and
science, university teaching and learning, and physics. Shivanand has published
in these areas and has developed “the embedded collaborative systems model for
cartography education,” “the 18i interactions model for blended learning,” and
“the collaborative spatial Delphi methodology for group learning and decisionmaking.” His other interests include constructivist learning and Web-based
instruction.
Ashok Banerji is an electrical engineer, who integrated management science
and then multimedia computing to his professional attainments. His interest in elearning, simulations, and just-in-time skill support led to one of the earliest Ph.D.
research on Electronic Performance Support Systems (EPSS) at the University
of Teesside, UK. He was director of Performance Consulting with a company
based in Virginia (USA). As senior lecturer at the Education and Staff
Development Department in Singapore Polytechnic in Singapore, he introduced
courses on Educational Technology and Multimedia for Business and had R&D
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
402 About the Authors
funding for several projects on EPSS and multimedia-based training for semiconductor, marine industry, and virtual laboratory development. Currently, he is an
adjunct professor in multimedia computing in Calcutta, and as a member of a
philanthropic organization, he is working toward promotion of education leveraging technology. He was a consultant for International Telecommunication
Union for a project on ICT for development.
Heather Bione is a dentist with a MDSc (Melb), who became interested in
computer-assisted teaching and learning while working in research with the
Department of Restorative Dentistry, The University of Melbourne (Australia).
In 1999, she developed seven treatment planning cases for restorative dentistry
using the Pathfinder program. Since that time, she has been involved as a content
expert, in all four modules, for the pediatric multimedia project developed by the
Department of Pediatric Dentistry, The University of Melbourne.
Alfred Bork is professor emeritus of Information and Computer Science at the
University of California, Irvine (USA). His degrees are from Georgia Tech and
Brown University. Dr. Bork has been at the Dublin Institute for Advanced
Studies, the University of Alaska, Reed College, and Harvard University. He
directs the Educational Technology Center, a research and development group,
in highly adaptive technology-based learning. He is vice president of A Bork
Endeavors. Recent projects include production systems for highly adaptive
learning, learning about the methods of science, improving reasoning capability,
voice input to computers, learning Japanese, and education for all. The Scientific
Reasoning Series and Understanding Spoken Japanese are commercially available. Bork is interested in the effective use of highly interactive multimedia
technology to make order of magnitude improvements in learning at all levels. He
has published hundreds of papers and books about these issues. The most recent
book, with Sigrun Gunnarsdottir, is Tutorial Distance Learning (Kluwer).
Loreen Marie Butcher-Powell is an assistant professor of Business Education and Office Information Systems at Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania,
USA. Within the last two years, she has presented or published more than 15
publications on security and pedagogical techniques. She is NASA’s International Advanced Spaceport Technology Working Group (ASTWG) Education
and Outreach Committee board member, an international board of editors for the
Journal of Information Technology and Education, a program committee
member and international reviewer for the Informing Science and IT Education
Conference in Pori, Finland (June 24-27, 2003), and an expert panelist for the
AECT Project for the Pennsylvania State University at University Park,
Pennsylvania (USA). Loreen has received the 2002 Teaching Academy Grant
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
About the Authors 403
from the Pennsylvania State University at Hazleton, Pennsylvania, and was a
2002 committee member for the $100,000 Common Wealth College Networking
Mini-Grant at Pennsylvania State University.
Vassilios Dagdilelis is assistant professor in the Department of Educational
and Social Policy, University of Macedonia, Greece. With a Ph.D. in Applied
Mathematics, Dr. Dagdolelis’s current interest area includes use of computers
in education and training, didactics of informatics, and e-learning.
Peter E. Doolittle is an assistant professor and current head of the Educational
Psychology Program in the School of Education at Virginia Tech, Blacksburg,
VA (USA). He is also co-director of the Metacognition and Multimedia Project
(MMP) at Virginia Tech. His research focus includes the investigation of the
development of cognitive and metacognitive strategies within multimedia environments.
´ is an assistant professor in the Department of Geography,
´
Suzana Dragicevic
Simon Fraser University, Canada. She has 16 years of academic, governmental,
and industry experience focusing on geographic information systems and
science, geodesy and surveying, and university teaching and learning in multiple
language settings. Her research and teaching interests include spatial data
analysis and modeling, fuzzy sets, multimedia cartography, and Web-based GIS.
She has published widely on technical and teaching aspects in her research
areas. In addition, she has organized special issues for reputable journals,
bringing together experts in her field of research.
Patrick J. Fahy is associate professor, Centre for Distance Education, Athabasca
University (Canada). His career began with teaching in the public schools of
rural Western Canada. From there, he moved to the Alberta college system,
spending 20 years in teaching, administration, and research positions ranging
from adult basic literacy to graduate-level programs. During this period, he
served as newsletter editor and president of both the Movement for Canadian
Literacy, and the Alberta Association for Adult Literacy. In the 1990s he moved
to the private sector, spending over five years in a multinational technologybased training company, where he managed regional activities in maritime and
western Canada. He has engaged in private consulting in the areas of program
evaluation and project management across North America for over 25 years.
Presently, in addition to developing and teaching educational technology courses
in Athabasca University’s Master of Distance Education program, Pat coordinates the MDE’s Advanced Graduate Diploma in Distance Education (Technol-
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
404 About the Authors
ogy) program, and the annual MDE Distance Education Technology Symposium.
He is a former president of the Alberta Distance Education and Training
Association (ADETA).
Lisa Gjedde is an associate professor at the Danish University of Education
(Denmark), where she is affiliated with the Research Programme for Media and
ICT in a Learning Perspective. Her background includes a Ph.D. in Communications and Narrative Research, from the Department of Communications,
Computer Science and Educational Research, University of Roskilde, Denmark.
She has been a visiting research fellow at the University of Sussex, UK. She has
done extensive research and development work in the areas of narrative learning
processes, creative learning, and digital storytelling.
Jane Gunn is associate professor and research director in the Department of
General Practice, The University of Melbourne (Australia). Jane is involved in
women’s and mental health research and teaching in addition to working as a
general practitioner one day a week.
Kelsey Hegarty is a general practitioner and part-time senior lecturer responsible for postgraduate activities in the general practice department of The
University of Melbourne, Melbourne. Her research and teaching interests are in
women’s health and, in particular, women’s emotional well-being (partner abuse,
depression, counseling). Her research experience includes a doctoral thesis on
measurement and prevalence of partner abuse in general practice. She has had
extensive teaching experience at undergraduate and postgraduate levels in the
areas of communication skills, procedural skills, and management of common
clinical problems. She has practiced as a general practitioner for over 15 years.
Leo Tan Wee Hin has a Ph.D. in Marine Biology. He holds the concurrent
appointments of director of the National Institute of Education, professor of
Biological Sciences in Nanyang Technological University (Singapore), and
president of the Singapore National Academy of Science. Prior to this, he was
director of the Singapore Science Centre. His research interests are in the fields
of marine biology, science education, museum science, telecommunications, and
transportation. He has published numerous research papers in international
refereed journals.
Karen Kan is a specialist paediatric dentist in private practice in Melbourne,
Australia. She completed her Bachelor of Dental Science (1992) and her Master
of Dental Science (1996) at The University of Melbourne and gained her
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
About the Authors 405
Fellowship to the Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons in 1997. Karen
has been a clinical research fellow in the Department of Dentistry, at the Royal
Children’s Hospital in Melbourne (1996), and an assistant professor in the
Division of Pediatric Dentistry, School of Dentistry, University of Minnesota,
USA (1997). Her current university involvement includes teaching and developing multimedia-assisted learning in pediatric dentistry.
Fusa Katada (Ph.D., Linguistics, University of Southern California) is professor
of Linguistics and English at Waseda University, School of Science and
Engineering, Tokyo, Japan. Dr. Katada has Teaching Credentials for Mathematics (Tokyo Metropolis Educational Committee) and Certificate in Teaching
English as a Second Language (California State University, Long Beach). Dr.
Katada was a linguistic programmer at SYSTRAN Inc. in the early 1980s for its
English-Japanese machine translation system and was acknowledged as a
Scientific Linguist by the U.S. Department of Labor. She had worked for Applied
Computer Technology in Education: Upgrade directed by Robert Hertz at the
California State University, Long Beach, and Understanding Spoken Japanese
directed by Alfred Bork at the Educational Technology Center of the University
of California, Irvine. Dr. Katada received her Ph.D. for her work on anaphoric
relations in Logical Form. She specializes in formal linguistics: phonology,
morphology, and syntax, with allied interests in biological foundations for
language, atypical language, and dynamics of linguistic diversity.
Paul Kawachi has been teaching at universities for more than 20 years and is
currently at the Department of Informatics, Kurume Shin-Ai Women’s College,
Japan. He has recently been awarded Doctorate of Education by the University
of Hawai. An award-winning author, Dr. Kawachi is founder editor of the Asian
Journal of Distance Education.
Mike Keppell joined the Hong Kong Institute of Education (HKIEd) as
principal lecturer and head of the Centre for Integrating Technology in Education
(CITIE) in January 2003. He was the former head of Biomedical Multimedia
Unit, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Science, The University of
Melbourne (Australia). The CITIE is a design, development, evaluation, and
research-based center that has a focus on enriching teaching and learning
through educational technology. He is also the Information Technology Academic Development Coordinator for the HKIEd and coordinates the implementation of the e-learning platform—Blackboard. The research interests of Dr.
Keppell cover four areas: student-centered learning (problem-based learning,
case-based learning, project-based learning, and online communities); multimedia design (conceptualizing, concept mapping, design processes); processes
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
406 About the Authors
involved in optimizing the instructional designer–subject matter expert interaction; and knowledge management (project management, systems and processes). His current interests at the Institute focus on technology-enhanced
authentic learning environments, online communities, problem-based learning,
and learner-centered assessment.
Ngaire Kerse is a general practitioner at the University of Auckland, New
Zealand. Her Ph.D. from the University of Melbourne was an evaluation of a
comprehensive education program for doctors, and her continuing research
interests aim to improve education for doctors, improve primary care of older
people, and inform innovation in primary health care.
Elspeth McKay is a senior postdoctoral research fellow on Human-Computer
Interaction (HCI), at the School of Business Information Technology, RMIT
University, Australia. Elspeth has extensive industry-sector experience in
computer systems. Her Ph.D. (Computer Science and Information Systems)
thesis breaks new ground for effective learning from multimedia with innovative
approaches to visual instruction. She also has a Bachelor of Business, with
distinction (Business Information Systems), a Graduate Certificate of Applied
Science (Instructional Design), and a Graduate Diploma of Education (Computer
Studies). Her doctoral research identified that not all individuals cope effectively
with graphical learning. Elspeth’s research findings clearly identify the complexity of the visual learning environment, and outline prospects for customizing elearning shells, based on ontological requirements. The prospect of customizing
e-learning shells tailored dynamically to the requirements of individual learners
has stimulated contemporary research into knowledge mediation, and the
associated ontological strategies, of actual learning contexts with Web-enabled
asynchronous learning frameworks, design and development of enhanced accessibility through touch screen technologies. Elspeth’s continuing commitment
to mentoring scholastic achievement is also evident in the number of her
international invited Editorships.
Andrea L. McNeill is a doctoral student in the Instructional Technology
Program in the School of Education at Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
Her research interest lies in the development of multimedia learning environments designed to enhance learners’ cognitive and metacognitive skills.
Louise Brearley Messer holds a Ph.D. in Nutrition from the University of
Minnesota, USA, and is currently Elsdon Professor of Child Dental Health, and
Director of Graduate Studies at The University of Melbourne, Australia. She is
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
About the Authors 407
responsible for the teaching of undergraduate dental students and postgraduate
students in all aspects of pediatric dentistry. Much of this teaching today is done
using interactive preclinical lab activities and currently developed multimedia
modules such as those described in the chapter written by her in this book.
Alastair Milne has a B.Sc. in Computer Science from the University of
California, Irvine (USA). He is an adjunct faculty member at California State
University, San Marcos. Mr. Milne worked for more than 10 years with the UC
Irvine project at the Educational Technology Center, and later with the CUI
Geneva group, working on such areas as middleware support for programmers
(especially in computer graphics); implementation of scripts; consultation with
design teams on scripting procedures and strategy; and later with the incorporation of multimedia into Irvine’s middleware support. He has authored and
coauthored a number of documents on the system, some for programmers and
some for pedagogical audiences. He has led the porting of the entire middleware
system into a new operating system and the programming of prototype material
using live video on digital videodisc. His current work includes consulting with
Rika Yoshii at CSUSM on evolution of the whole strategy to improve scripting
automation and to provide development for, and delivery by, the Web.
Vivienne O’Connor is an obstetrician and gynecologist at The University of
Queensland, Australia.
S. Retalis is associate professor at the Department of Technology Education &
Digital Systems, University of Piraeus, Greece. He holds a diploma of Electrical
and Computer Engineer from the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering studies, National Technical University of Athens, Greece, an MSc
degree in Information Technology-Knowledge Based Systems from the Department of Artificial Intelligence, University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and a Ph.D.
from the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Greece. His research interests lie in the development
of Web-based learning systems, design of adaptive hypermedia systems, Web
engineering, and human-computer interaction. He has participated in various
European R & D projects. He serves on the editorial board of international
journals such as Computers in Human Behavior, Educational Technology
and Society, ACM Computing Reviews, and Journal of Information Technology Education. He participates in the ACM Web Engineering special interest
group, the IEEE Learning Technologies Standardization Committee, and CEN/
ISSS learning technologies workshop.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
408 About the Authors
José L. Rodríguez Illera is the director of the Research Center on Virtual
Learning of the University of Barcelona (Spain), where he also teaches courses
on Educational Multimedia at the Faculty of Pedagogy. His recent publications
include books on Multimedia Technology for Teaching and Learning in
Higher Education (2003), Virtual Learning (2003, in press), as well as articles
on “Electronic Reading,” “Collaborative environments and task design in the
University,” and “Multimedia Learning.” His work is also focused on research
and development. During the last 15 years, he and his group have developed both
educational multimedia applications and open tools addressed to teachers, many
of them related to language learning. Current interest is on the study of
comprehension strategies of digital multimodal texts.
Michael Sankey currently works at the University of Southern Queensland
(USQ) in Australia as an instructional designer at the Distance and eLearning
Centre and a teacher of Web Design in the Faculty of Education. Michael’s
current doctoral research is in the areas of the multiple representations of
concepts when utilizing multimedia technologies and how the use of these
electronic environments can enhance the learning opportunities for students,
particularly for those students studying at a distance. With a background in art
and design, Michael is passionate about the way in which aesthetically enhanced
learning environments can better transmit information and concepts to be
communicated to students of all backgrounds. He believes that the use of the
Internet and online education hold wonderful possibilities for the future of
education, particularly higher education.
Glenda Rose Scales is the assistant dean for Distance Learning and Computing
in the College of Engineering at Virginia Tech (USA), where she provides
leadership for implementing a world-class distance-learning program. She
earned her bachelor’s degree in Computer Science from Old Dominion University, her master’s degree in Applied Behavioral Science from Johns Hopkins
University, and her doctorate in curriculum and instruction from Virginia Tech.
Dr. Scales began her career working for the Department of Defense in Fort
Meade, Maryland, as a computer analyst. After completing her terminal degree,
she accepted a major leadership position at North Carolina A&T State University, where she, along with the distance-learning team, launched the University’s
virtual campus. She has presented her research in Electronic Performance
Support at national conferences and, most recently, a market research study on
graduate distance-learning programs for working engineers at the American
Society for Engineering Education national conference.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
About the Authors 409
Stephanie B. Scheer is an assistant professor and instructional designer in the
School of Continuing and Professional Studies at the University of Virginia,
Charlottesville, Virginia (USA). Her research interests include examining the
potential of various distance-learning modalities to create rich learning communities for distance learners.
R. Subramaniam has a Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry. He is an assistant
professor at the National Institute of Education in Nanyang Technological
University and Honorary Secretary of the Singapore National Academy of
Science. Prior to this, he was acting head of Physical Sciences at the Singapore
Science Centre. His research interests are in the fields of physical chemistry,
science education, theoretical cosmophysics, museum science, telecommunications, and transportation He has published several research papers in international refereed journals.
Katia Tannous is associate professor of Chemical Engineering at State
University of Campinas, Brazil. Working closely with undergraduate and graduate students, fellow faculty members, and other research associates, Dr.
Tannous has studied a wide range of problems that are fundamental in nature but
that have practical applications. Dr. Tannous has interest in educational technology, particularly the application of multimedia and the Internet for teaching and
learning.
Krista P. Terry is the director of Instructional Design and Technology and
assistant professor in the College of Education at Troy State University in Troy,
AL (USA). Her research interests include designing and evaluating multimedia,
visual literacy, and designing instruction for distance-learning environments.
Geraldine Torrisi-Steele is currently a lecturer in multimedia technologies at
Griffith University (Australia) Gold Coast Campus in the School of Information
Technology. Against a practical experience in the design, authoring, and delivery
of educational multimedia materials especially for remote communities, she has
developed a special interest in the application of multimedia and associated new
technologies to learning environments. Until recently, she worked as an educational designer within Griffith University assisting tertiary educators with the
design and development of flexible learning online materials.
Rika Yoshii (Ph.D., Computer Science, University of California, Irvine) is
associate professor and Department Chair of Computer Science at California
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
410 About the Authors
State University, San Marcos (USA). Dr. Yoshii received her Ph.D. for her
work on machine translation from Japanese to English. She had worked with
Alfred Bork at the Educational Technology Center of the University of California, Irvine, where she was the project manager of the Understanding Spoken
Japanese project. She specializes in computer-aided instruction of languages and
development of authoring tools for conversational tutoring systems. She has
developed computer-based tutoring systems for mathematics, ESL (articles and
noncountable nouns), and programming. In recent years, she has been leading
the development of authoring tools in Java. She has published many papers on
these topics in conference proceedings and journals.
Felicia Zhang has a B.A. (University of Queensland, Australia), Graduate
Diploma in Education (University of Melbourne, Australia); Certificate in
Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFLA) granted by the Royal Society
of Arts, United Kingdom; and Master of Arts in Applied Linguistics (Honors)
(University of Melbourne, Australia). Ms. Zhang has had more than 10 years of
teaching and research experience in the area of language teaching and learning.
Since 1994, she has been researching ways of incorporating computer technology into the classroom and teaching curriculum. Ms. Zhang is currently a
Lecturer in Chinese and Applied Linguistics at the University of Canberra,
Australia. She is currently doing her Ph.D. in the area of pronunciation teaching
in Mandarin using a methodology that combines the use of audiovisual materials
with a number of computer-enhanced learning software. One of her major
concerns in utilizing technology in teaching is the need to cater to a wide range
of student needs, i.e., from students with advanced computer skills to students
who do not have access at all to technology.
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Index 411
Index
A
B
A New Global Environment for Learning
(ANGEL) 64
accessibility 17, 230
active-processing assumption 197
adaptive hypermedia 177
“add-on” approach 29
ADDIE 117
ADSL 279
affordability 75
AIDS 273
AIDS prevention x, 271
AIDS test 273
ANAPRO 301
androgogy ix
animation 5, 145
appropriate technology 33
artificial intelligence 215
Ascension Flock of Birds Tracking
System 330
associative processing 190
asynchronous collaborative learning
166
attitudes 228
audio CD 390
audiolingual approach 379
auditory 136
authenticity 122
autonomy 75, 162, 295
bandwidth 12
behaviorism ix, 118
Blooms Taxonomy 65
boundary layer 297
bricolage-type activity 275
“brokerage system” 250
C
CAI (computer-assisted instruction)
290
CAL (computer-assisted learning) 11
CALL 382
cartography teaching 311
Cave Automated Virtual Environment
(CAVE) 327, 329
characteristics of educational software
114
chat 166
chat and discussion list 294
chat rooms 42
chemical engineering education 293
class structure 66
classroom-based teaching 328
CLEO 267
climate 16
CML (computer-manager learning) 11
cognition 185, 276
cognitive architecture 191
cognitive constraints ix
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
412 Index
cognitive equilibrium 344
cognitive load 186, 191
Cognitive Load Theory 146, 147, 191
cognitive skill acquisition 221
cognitive strategies 221, 228
cognitive style 216
cognitive style construct 215
cognitive theory of multimedia learning
197
cognitive tools 120
cognitivism ix
Cogniware 238
coherence principle ix, 14, 203
collaborative group learning 62
collaborative learning 62, 75, 102,
160, 220, 309
comments 80
computational packages 295
computational processing 328
computer literacy 27
computer-assisted instruction (CAI)
293
computer-based communication 196
computer-based training (CBT) 57
computer-mediated communication
(CMC) 2
computer-mediated communications
178
computer-technology-related questionnaires 394
computers and communication technology 48
conditions-of-the-learner 217
constructivism ix, 118, 343
constructivist approach 118
constructivist learning theory 309
content management systems (CMS)
308
content provider vi
context variation 219
context-mediated environment 219
contextual learning 102
contiguity principle x, 205
“contribution of resource” 257
Cooledit 383
cooperative group learning 62
cooperative learning 62, 160, 309
cost 17
course data CD 390
course management system (CMS) 64
creativity 295
critical thinking 309
cultural adjustments 83
culture 75
curriculum design 33
cyber-literacy 172
D
Dearing Committee 307
defining multimedia 2
delivery 76
delivery mechanisms 76
DELTA 267
DELYS 129
DEOS-L listserv 166
Design for Multimedia in Learning (DML)
ix, 160
development framework 33
development strategy 78
dialogue 174
didactic contract 129
didactic economy 123
didactic problématique 115
didactic situation 130
didactic use 117
digital repositories 251
Digital Repositories Interoperability
(DRI) 265
directive 80, 87
Disability Discrimination Act 230
discursive environment 309
distributed cognition 233
documentation node 87
dual channel assumption 197
dual coding 186
Dual Coding Theory 146, 148, 188
dual store model 186
E
e-examples 126
e-learning 57, 214
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Index 413
e-Learning Objects Brokerage System
252
e-learning ontology 217
educational design 273
educational games 291
educational multimedia technologies 28
educational software 114
educational software development
methods 116
educational television 48
educator development activities 33
electronic data archives 322
embedded collaborative systems (ECS)
306, 308
EML 268
engineering education x, 289
epistemological faithfulness 122
ergonomics 215
exclusivity 230
experiential learning ix, 102, 103, 328
experiential learning environments 101
expression 109
extraneous cognitive load 192
F
feedback 12
Finnish 85
flexible learning models 225
fluid mechanics simulator 296
frequency of interaction 79
functional ACT-R model 186
G
generalized script “comment” 87
Geneva Script Editor 86
GEOMLAND 127
germane cognitive load 193
global education 78
graphic designer vi
graphical modality 239
graphical user interface (GUI) 116
graphics and color 4
H
head-loss 296
hermeneutic 110
higher-order learning 4
HIV 273
human activity system (HAS) 50
human memory 186
human-computer interaction (HCI) 214
human-task interaction 50
HyperCard 272
hypermedia 5, 344
hypertext-enabled learning narratives
169
I
IDEAL 77, 86
image rendering 328
immersion 109
IMS 266
IMS DRI 266
independence 188
independent learning 62
individual construction 276
individual differences principle 14
individual learning 62
individualization 75, 79, 80
information and communication technology (ICT) 47, 114, 307, 352
information literacy 172
information-processing 186
initial scripting 83
instruction 185
instructional characteristics 216
instructional conditions 226, 227
instructional design (ID) 136, 216, 284
instructional designer vi, 13, 138
instructional media 215
instructional strategies 236
instructional technology 185, 308
intellectual skill 221, 228
intellectual skill development 221
intelligent tutorial systems (ITS) 293
interaction 12, 215, 280, 295
interactive electronic communities 48
interactive feedback tools xi, 377
interactive learning 289
interactive learning modules (ILM) 63
interactive multimedia 271
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
414 Index
interactivity 4
interdependence 163, 188
Internet 11
intonation 388
intrinsic cognitive load 192
Irvine-Geneva development strategy
viii, 74
ISDN 279
J
Japanese 85
Java language 93
JISC 266
jouissance 170
K
kinesthetic 136
know-how 228
knowledge construction 13
knowledge management infrastructure
57
“knowledge spaces” 35
knowledge transfer 221
knowledge worker 48
L
language learning 377
languages 75
learner-centered approach 196
learning 61
learning and performing 49
learning communities 276
learning design 355
learning environments 27
learning experience 328
learning management systems (LMS)
214
“learning object” 250
learning object databases 322
Learning Objects Network, Inc. (LON)
266
learning outcomes 6, 178
learning performance 61
learning styles ix, 11, 136
limited-capacity assumption 197
linguistic literacy 172
Logo 291
long-term memory 187
M
Mandarin 378
Mandarin Chinese 85
mastery 75
MathGoodies 250
Mayer’s model 13
measurable instructional outcomes 227
media characteristics 3, 6
melody 388
memory load 191
MENO-project 102
messages 84
metacognitive strategy 193
metaknowledge processing model 214,
227
method of delivery 216
methods 216
mindtools 115, 119
“mixed-mode” approach 27
mnemonic strategies 236
modality principle ix, 14, 201
model of learning 159, 160
momentum transport 299
motivation 75, 295
motor skills 228, 229
multicultural designs 82
multidimensional construct 191
multimedia 2, 84, 196
multimedia authoring tools 311
multimedia courseware 214
multimedia developer vi
multimedia educational environment
160
multimedia in cartography x, 306
multimedia in dental and health science
x
multimedia learning 1, 199
multimedia learning environment (MLE)
63, 136
multimedia learning model 160
multimedia literacy ix
multimedia pedagogy 190
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Index 415
multimedia principle ix, 12, 14, 199
multimedia production 278
multimedia system for learning science
x
multimedia technology 26, 29
multiple literacy 141
multiple representation ix, 128, 143
music 4
N
narrative 101, 102, 109, 277
narrative in educational media 104
narrative learning processes 110
narrative multimedia environments 101
narrative multimedia learning 106
narrative universes of children 105
navigation 370
NISO standard 266
nonverbal system 188
notational transfer 221
people subsystem 50
performance support systems 49
performance-centered design viii, 49
pervasive narrative experience 107
pictorial thinkers 219
planning for multimedia viii, 16
play environment 276, 278
player’s identity 278
power of expression 119
principle of cognitive economy 236
problem-based learning (PBL) 64, 352
procedural knowledge 228
ProgramLive 62
programming languages 291
project elaboration 294
projection systems 330
pronunciation 378
Q
QuickTime 279
O
R
object of learning 124
object-oriented programming (OOP)
292
objectification 126
OLIVE 266
one-to-one interviews 394
one-to-one oral tests 393
online modules 354
“online payment” 257
ontology 215
open and distance learning (ODL) 2
open environments 120
open microworlds 115, 121
organizational issues 16
outcomes 217
radio 48
radiographs 365
realism 277
redundancy principle ix, 14, 202
referential processing 190
reflection 110
reflective practice 32, 38
representational processing 190
research 109
“reservation of resources.” 256
“resource delivery” 257
resource reservation 259
retention 13
rote learning 13
P
Pap test 360
participatory content design 105
pedagogical basis 28
pedagogical design 78
peer-to-peer (P2P) based approaches
252
S
San Marcos Script Editor 89
scaffold efficacy 171
scaffolding 163, 365
SchoolNet 250
Schools Online Curriculum Content
Initiative (SOCCI) 230
scientific visualization 328
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
416 Index
Scottish 85
screens 331
script editing online 77
script notation 80
segmentation principle x, 206
self-assessment 294
self-directed learning (SDL) 351, 352
self-scripted video 393
sensitive examination technique (SET)
353
sensory memory 187
sensory modalities 61
shared cultural environment 108
short-term memory 187
signaling principle x, 204
simulations 84, 291
Singapore Science Center 333
situated activity 276
situated learning and cognition 276
software packages 292
sound 4
sound systems 331
spatial contiguity principle 14
spatially contiguous 206
speech analysis tools 383
speech tool 390
Sptool 383
stereo emitters 331
stereo glasses 330
storytellers 102
storytelling 108
structure 174
student autonomy 162
student learning 80
student responses 85
student-centered discussion (SCD) 64
student-centered learning 310, 354
subgraph 87
subject portals 322
supercomputer 331
symmetrical possibility 129
synthetic speech 4
system of learning software development 74
systems theory 310
T
tactual 136
task subsystem 50
teaching conditions 6
Teaching Integrated Learning Environment (TILE) 63
teaching noise 123
teaching situation 121
technological literacy 172
“technology infusion” 29
technology integration 30
Tell-Me-More series 384
temporal contiguity principle 14
text analysis 92
text-handling algorithms 91
textual modality 238
textual representations 129
Theory of Transactional Distance 158
thinking skills 159
tool logic 115, 122
tool subsystem 50
TopClass 352
tracking sensors 330
traditional learning environments 29
traditional pedagogical environments
328
transactional distance 162
translation process 91
translator 85
transportable software 77
tutorial software 117
tutoring design 74
U
unified modeling language (UML) 268
universal networking language 97
University of Geneva 77
UNIX-based interactive system 77
user interaction 26
user tests 281
V
verbal information 221, 228, 229
verbal representations 13
verbal system 188
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.
Index 417
verbal-thinking 219
verbo-tonal system 384
verbo-tonalism 385
video 5
virtual classroom 55
virtual dental clinic 369
virtual education vi
virtual environment 328
virtual pediatric diabetic patient 359
virtual reality 27, 328
virtual university 55
visual representations ix
visual thinking 140
visualization 139
voice modality 239
W
wand 330
Web Access Initiative (WAI) 230
Web-based educational systems
(WBESs) 214
Web-based multimedia viii
Web-based training 55
WebCT 308
WebCT software 293
“window period” 277
working memory 148, 186
working memory model 186
World Wide Web (WWW) 252
written examination tests 393
X
XML 262
Copyright © 2005, Idea Group Inc. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written
permission of Idea Group Inc. is prohibited.