IMMUNOLOGY
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Molecular mechanisms regulating CD13-mediated adhesion
Mallika Ghosh,1 Claire Gerber,1 M.
Mamunur Rahman,1 Kaitlyn M.
Vernier,1 Flavia E. Pereira,1
Jaganathan Subramani,2 Leslie A.
Caromile1 and Linda H. Shapiro1
1
Center for Vascular Biology, University of
Connecticut Health Center, Farmington,
CT, and 2Department of Anesthesiology,
Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center,
Lubbock, TX, USA
doi:10.1111/imm.12279
Received 20 January 2014; revised 05 March
2014; accepted 10 March 2014.
Correspondence: Mallika Ghosh and Linda
H. Shapiro, Center for Vascular Biology,
University of Connecticut Health Center,
263 Farmington Ave, Farmington, CT
06030, USA.
Emails: mghosh@uchc.edu;
lshapiro@neuron.uchc.edu
Senior author: Mallika Ghosh and Linda H.
Shapiro
Summary
CD13/Aminopeptidase N is a transmembrane metalloproteinase that is
expressed in many tissues where it regulates various cellular functions. In
inflammation, CD13 is expressed on myeloid cells, is up-regulated on
endothelial cells at sites of inflammation and mediates monocyte/endothelial adhesion by homotypic interactions. In animal models the lack of
CD13 alters the profiles of infiltrating inflammatory cells at sites of ischaemic injury. Here, we found that CD13 expression is enriched specifically on the pro-inflammatory subset of monocytes, suggesting that CD13
may regulate trafficking and function of specific subsets of immune cells.
To further dissect the mechanisms regulating CD13-dependent trafficking
we used the murine model of thioglycollate-induced sterile peritonitis.
Peritoneal monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells were significantly
decreased in inflammatory exudates from global CD13KO animals when
compared with wild-type controls. Furthermore, adoptive transfer of
wild-type and CD13KO primary myeloid cells, or wild-type myeloid cells
pre-treated with CD13-blocking antibodies into thioglycollate-challenged
wild-type recipients demonstrated fewer CD13KO or treated cells in the
lavage, suggesting that CD13 expression confers a competitive advantage
in trafficking. Similarly, both wild-type and CD13KO cells were reduced in
infiltrates in CD13KO recipients, confirming that both monocytic and
endothelial CD13 contribute to trafficking. Finally, murine monocyte cell
lines expressing mouse/human chimeric CD13 molecules demonstrated
that the C-terminal domain of the protein mediates CD13 adhesion.
Therefore, this work verifies that the altered inflammatory trafficking in
CD13KO mice is the result of aberrant myeloid cell subset trafficking and
further defines the molecular mechanisms underlying this regulation.
Keywords: adhesion molecules; cell trafficking; inflammation; transgenic/
knockout mice.
Introduction
Inflammation is a controlled response of the host to
infection or injury that involves various molecular,
cellular and physiological changes and is coordinated primarily by specific cell adhesion molecules and chemoattractants. Monocytes circulate in the blood, bone marrow
and spleen during homeostasis where they patrol for
inflammatory adhesion molecules up-regulated in
response to infection or tissue damage on the endothelium lining the blood vessels.1 Upon detection of
inflammation these patrolling cells migrate from the
blood into the tissues and produce cytokines to attract
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monocytes and a constellation of other inflammatory
cells, thereby establishing the particular inflammatory
environment of the tissue. In the mouse and in humans
two phenotypically and functionally distinct subsets of
monocytes have been identified either as inflammatory/
classical (CD11b+ Gr1hi) or reparative/non-classical
(CD11b+ Gr1lo) monocytes that traffic to the site of
inflammation in temporally distinct waves depending on
the tissue and type of injury.2,3 Although this model of
inflammatory trafficking is well established, the mechanisms and key players that control preferential monocyte
migration and their role in disease progression and healing remain to be elucidated.
ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
Mechanisms of CD13 adhesion
CD13 is a transmembrane ectopeptidase that is ubiquitously expressed in specific cell types of a variety of tissues and, pertinent to this study, CD13 expression is
induced on the endothelium lining blood vessels in
response to tissue injury or infection. Activation of
monocytic CD13 with cross-linking antibodies induces
CD13 phosphorylation by Src, leading to CD13-dependent homotypic monocyte/endothelial adhesion, so implicating CD13 as an inflammatory adhesion molecule.4,5 At
baseline, global CD13 knockout (CD13KO) mice are phenotypically unremarkable6 but demonstrate clearly altered
pathologies when challenged in different models of ischaemic injury.7,8 For example, we have seen that the
numbers and profiles of infiltrating myeloid populations
are skewed in CD13KO mice in response to permanent
coronary occlusion, contributing to adverse remodelling
and diminished cardiac repair.7 Furthermore, the lack of
CD13 leads to compromised reperfusion and muscle
regeneration after hindlimb ischaemia due in part to a
CD13-dependent reduction in specific myeloid cell subsets, in particular Gr1hi inflammatory monocytes and
dendritic cells.8 In the current study, using adoptive
transfer, antibody blocking and gain of function models
we demonstrate that both endothelial and monocytic
CD13 expression is essential for inflammatory cell infiltration in response to thioglycollate (TG) -induced peritonitis, confirming that altered trafficking contributes to the
phenotypes found in our in vivo studies.7,8 In addition,
species- and domain-specific chimeras verified that the
CD13 C-terminus determines monocyte/endothelial adhesion and myeloid cell trafficking. Therefore, this investigation confirms the requirement for CD13 expression for
adhesion and trafficking of myeloid cell subsets and further clarifies the molecular mechanisms underlying
CD13-mediated monocyte/endothelial adhesion during
the process of cellular migration in vivo.
Materials and methods
Animals
The global FVB CD13 CD13KO mouse was generated at
the Gene Targeting and Transgenic Facility as published.6
All animals were housed under specific pathogen-free
conditions with a 12 hr light/dark cycle and controlled
temperature at the University of Connecticut Health Center animal facilities and all procedures were performed in
accordance with Institutional and Office of Laboratory
Animal Welfare guidelines.
Cell lines
Mouse monocytic cell line, WEHI 78/24, human cervical
cancer cell lines, C33a and human leukaemic monocytic
cell line, U937 were used in this study.
ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
TG-induced sterile peritonitis
Wild-type CD13 (CD13WT) and CD13KO FVB/N, agematched male mice 6–8 weeks of age were injected with
1 ml of 3% TG intraperitoneally. Peritoneal lavage cells
were obtained after 48 hr for flow cytometric or immunofluorescence analysis.
Flow cytometry
Cells were isolated from peritoneal lavage, spleen, bone
marrow and peripheral blood 48 hr after TG administration and stained with a cocktail of antibodies at 4° for
30 min: anti-CD45.1-phycoerythrin (PE), anti-F480-FITC,
anti Gr-1-APCe780, anti-CD3/CD19/NK1.1/Ly6G-AF700,
anti-CD11c-PECy7 and anti-CD11b-Pacific blue and UV
live dead dye (to eliminate dead cells). Flow cytometry
was performed on LSRII (Becton Dickinson, Franklyn
Lakes, NJ) and the data were analysed with FlowJo software (Tree Star, Ashland, OR). Live/dead cells were negatively gated for T cells, B cells, natural killer (NK) cells
and Ly6G+ cells to eliminate lymphocytes, NK cells and
neutrophils, respectively. Next the CD45+ cells were analysed for macrophages (F480+ CD11b+), dendritic cells
(CD11c+ CD11b+), inflammatory monocytes (Gr1hi CD11b+) and reparative monocytes (Gr-1lo CD11b+).
Chimeric CD13 expression constructs
The murine/human (M/H) CD13 chimeric molecule was
created using the hCD13 TOPO vector and digested stepwise with NotI and then EcoRI to eliminate the N-terminal half. The NotI site is not conserved between species,
so a mouse CD13 forward primer was designed to introduce a NotI site. Digestion was performed by creating
forward primers and reverse primers for both the C-terminal and N-terminal half of the mouse cDNA. H/M
CD13 chimera used an EcoRI and PmeI site to eliminate
the C-terminal half of human CD13. All human, mouse,
M/H, H/M constructs/chimera cDNAs were cloned into
the pcDNA/V5/GW/D-TOPO (Invitrogen, San Diego,
CA) according to the manufacturer’s instructions.
Retroviral vector construction and infection
The V5 tagged CD13 was excised and cloned into the retroviral expression vector pBM-IRES-Puro. High titre
virus preparations were obtained using a Phoenix amphotropic packaging cell line (Orbigen, San Diego, CA) as
previously described.5 For infection of C33a, 50% confluent dish was treated with 10 ml virus stock in the presence of 5 lg/ml polybrene. C33a were subject to virus
medium for 24 hr and allowed to recover for 48 hr
before selection. For infection of WEHI 78/24 cells,
1 9 105 cells were resuspended in 5 ml virus stock in
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15 ml conical tube and centrifuged at 800 g for 30 min
at 32° in the presence of 5 lg/ml polybrene. After retroviral infection, cells were cultured for an additional 18 hr
in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium supplemented
with 10% fetal bovine serum, antibiotics and L-glutamine.
CD13-V5 over-expressing cells were enriched by puromycin selection (1 lg/ml for 36 hr).
Piscataway, NJ) and cells collected from the interface
(lymphocytes and myeloid cells) were incubated with
anti-CD3/CD19/NK1.1-PE antibodies followed by treatment with PE-conjugated-microbeads and passed
through a MACS column to exclude the T/B/NK1.1 cells
according to the manufacturer’s protocol (Miltenyi Biotec, Auburn, CA).
Quantitative PCR
Adoptive transfer of splenic myeloid cells and mCD13
WEHI 78/24
hi
int
lo
Gr-1 , Gr-1 and Gr-1 monocyte cell populations were
sorted by FACS and analysed for CD13 expression. RNA
was isolated using Trizol according to the manufacturer’s
instructions (Invitrogen Corporation, Carlsbad, CA). The
PCR primers for CD13 and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) were as follows:
CD13 F– 50 -TCACAGTGATAACGGGAAAGCCCA-30
CD13 R– 50 -ATAAGCTCCGTCTCAGCCAATGGT-30
GAPDH F– 50 -ACCACAGTCCATGCCATCAC-30
GAPDH R– 50 -TCCACCACCCTGTTGCTGTA-30
CD13WT and CD13KO splenic myeloid cells or WEHI 78/
24 transfectants were differentially labelled with the fluorescent dyes PKH67 (green) and PKH26 (red) as indicated according to the manufacturer’s instructions
(Sigma-Aldrich, St Louis, MO). The mCD13 WEHI 78/24
cells were either untreated or treated with 1 lg of SL-13
mAb. Equal numbers of differentially labelled cells were
adoptively transferred via tail vein followed by TG injection. After 48 hr, peritoneal lavage cells were subjected to
cytospin for immunofluorescence analysis and flow
cytometry.
Western blot analysis
WEHI 78/24 and C33a cell lysates were separated by
SDS–PAGE and probed for CD13. GAPDH and b-actin
were used as loading controls.
In vitro membrane dye labelling
C33a and WEHI 78/24 cells were stained with human
CD13 monoclonal antibody (mAb) 452 followed by goat
anti-rat Alexa488 and then analysed for human CD13 by
flow cytometry.
Fluorescence of differently labelled cells with PKH67
(green) and PKH26 (red) dye was quantified. Thirty nonoverlapping fields at 209 were individually counted for
green and red dye. Images were photographed with an
Optronics camera attached to Ziess Axioskop 2 plus
microscope using the Zeiss Achroplan 409 objective and
photographed with an Axiocam MRC camera (0639
magnification) attached to a Zeiss Axioplan 2 microscope
using a 109, 209, 409 and 639 objective.
Quantitative adhesion assay
Statistical analysis
C33a epithelial cell constructs were seeded (05 9 106/ml)
in 96-well plates and grown to confluency for 24 hr. Calcein-labelled (30 min labelling at 37°) WEHI 78/24 cell
constructs and treated with CD13 cross-linking mAb
(452) or IgG control (30 min at 37°) were allowed to
interact/adhere with C33a cells for 30 min at 37°.
Unbound WEHI 78/24 cells were washed extensively. The
adherent cells were lysed and fluorescence was quantified
by a fluorescence plate reader (Bio-Rad, Model 680; BioRad, Hercules, CA). Antibody cross-linking was also performed on the epithelial C33a layer to the various CD13
constructs used as specified in the figure legend. Each
condition was assayed in triplicate.
Results are presented as mean SEM. Statistical analysis
was performed using an unpaired, two-tailed t-test. Differences were considered significant at P < 005.
Flow cytometry analysis
Isolation of splenic myeloid cells
Total splenocytes from CD13WT and CD13KO mice were
run through a Ficoll-Paque gradient (GE Healthcare,
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Results
Inflammatory cell profiles are skewed in CD13KO
animals in response to TG-induced peritonitis
We have previously shown that CD13 acts as a homotypic
adhesion molecule regulating monocyte/endothelial adhesion in vitro and that mice lacking CD13 show altered
inflammatory cell profiles in injury models, suggesting
that it may participate in in vivo inflammatory processes
via its adhesive properties. To directly address this possibility, we initially evaluated inflammatory monocyte profiles in the bone marrow, spleen, peripheral blood and
peritoneal exudates of CD13WT and CD13KO mice 48 hr
ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
Mechanisms of CD13 adhesion
after TG injection by flow cytometry (Fig. 1a,b). At this
time point, monocyte trafficking predominates with little
contribution from neutrophils.9 Although profiles of
CD11b+ Gr1hi and CD11b+ Gr1lo cells from the bone
marrow and spleen were indistinguishable, a clear difference was observed in the cells infiltrating the peritoneum.
The CD11b+ Gr1hi pro-inflammatory monocyte population was diminished by nearly 70% in the CD13KO
(a)
animals compared with wild type, while there was no significant difference between the CD11b+ Gr1lo reparative
monocyte subsets (Fig. 1b,c). Importantly, analysis of
CD13WT and CD13KO bone marrow, spleen, peripheral
blood and lavage showed equivalent levels of immune
cells under resting conditions (data not shown). Interestingly, the inflammatory monocyte population was elevated in the peripheral blood of CD13KO animals,
103
95·6
94·2
102
CD45
95·2
T/B/NK/Ly6G
SSC-A
104
Live cells
105
0
31·7
0
50k 100k 150k 200k 250k
50k 100k 150k 200k 250k
0
0
50k 100k 150k 200k 250k
50k 100k 150k 200k 250k
0
FSC-A
(b)
Bone marrow
10
Spleen
Peritoneal lavage
104
7·12
28·8
10
Unstained cells
Peripheral blood
5
3·09
20·4
0
CD13WT
3
Gr-1
102
0
2·52
7·51
1·84
0·0917
9·07
0 102
104
103
105
0 102
103
104
105
0 102
103
104
105
0 102
103
104
105
0 102
103
104
105
105
104
7·76
6·88
6·72
25·8
1·6e-3
CD13KO
103
102
0
1·74
2·81
6·58
0·0864
16·8
2
0 10
10
3
10
4
10
5
0 10
2
3
10
4
10
5
10
0 10
2
3
10
4
10
5
0 10
10
2
3
10
4
10
10
5
0 10
2
103
104
105
CD11b
15
10
5
0
**
20
15
10
5
0
40
*
30
20
10
0
Peritoneal lavage
40
30
20
10
0
*
(d)
% Gr-1hi CD11b+ CD45+
20
25
Macrophages
DCs
% CD11chi CD11b+ CD45+
25
Reparative
monocytes
% F4/80hi CD11b+ CD45+
Inflammatory
monocytes
% Gr-1lo CD11b+ CD45+
% Gr-1hi/CD11b+ CD45+
(c)
Inflammatory
monocytes
10
8
CD13WT
CD13KO
*
6
4
2
0
Peripheral blood
Figure 1. Inflammatory cell profiles are altered in thioglycollate-elicited peritoneal exudate of CD13 knockout (CD13KO) mice. (a) Pseudo-colour
plots of thioglycollate-elicited peritoneal exudates show sequential gating to obtain a CD45+ haematopoietic cell population. T/B lymphocytes,
Ly6G+ neutrophils and natural killer cells were gated out of the live cell population and the remaining CD45+ cells were analysed. (b) Bone marrow, spleen, peripheral blood and 48 hr-post-thioglycollate injected peritoneal lavage of CD13 wild-type (CD13WT) and CD13KO animals were
analysed by flow cytometry. Pseudo-colour plots of infiltrating inflammatory monocytes-Gr-1hi CD11b+ and reparative monocytes- Gr1lo CD11b+, in the live CD45+ cell population were analysed in the different organs of CD13WT and CD13KO mice. (c) Quantification of percentage of infiltrating inflammatory monocytes-Gr-1hi CD11b+, reparative monocytes- Gr-1lo CD11b+, macrophages – F4/80hi CD11b+, and dendritic
cells – CD11chi CD11b+ in the live CD45+ cell population in the peritoneal lavage and (d) peripheral blood of CD13WT and CD13KO mice. Data
represent average of three independent experiments. Error bars represent mean SEM for CD13WT (n = 8) and CD13KO (n = 8) mice;
*P < 005, **P < 0.01.
ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
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M. Ghosh et al.
FACS-sorting and quantitative RT-PCR of peritoneal exudate cells isolated from CD13WT mice after 48 hr of TG
administration revealed that CD11b+ Gr1hi monocytes
expressed markedly higher levels of CD13 mRNA
(Fig. 2a,b) compared with the reparative CD11b+ Gr1lo
monocytes. This is consistent with our observations that
the lack of CD13 primarily affected infiltration of CD13positive immune cell populations including inflammatory
monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells and supports
the contribution of CD13 to preferential trafficking of
subsets of inflammatory cells in vivo.7,10
equal numbers of differentially labelled CD13WT (green)
and CD13KO (red) isolated primary splenic myeloid cells
(T/B/NK-depleted) or total bone marrow cells directly
into the circulation of wild-type animals immediately
before TG injection (Fig. 3a). Equivalent labelling with
the membrane dyes was confirmed by microscopic analysis of cytospun cells before injection (Fig. 3a). Flow cytometric analysis of inflammatory exudates after 48 hr
showed that fewer total CD13KO splenic myeloid cells
(Fig. 3b,c), or bone marrow cells (data not shown)
entered the peritoneum. Further analysis of the peritoneal
lavage revealed a specific reduction in the numbers of Gr1hi inflammatory monocytes, F4/80+ macrophages and
CD11c+ dendritic cells of CD13KO labelled cells compared
with the CD13WT cells (Fig. 3d), although ratios were
equivalent before injection.6 These results indicate that
monocytic CD13 was necessary for optimal trafficking
despite the fact that the wild-type endothelium expresses
CD13. Identical results in experiments where the dyes
were interchanged argued against dye-specific effects on
trafficking (data not shown). Therefore, CD13 regulates
inflammatory cell egress from the circulation into the
peritoneum.
Peritoneal infiltration of CD13KO myeloid cells is
reduced following adoptive transfer
CD13 expression in monocytes is a prerequisite for
optimal cell trafficking in vivo
While our results in intact animals are consistent with
impaired peritoneal infiltration, it is formally possible
that cells lacking CD13 are differentially released from the
bone marrow or other haematopoietic reservoirs.2 To
directly address whether CD13 controls inflammatory cell
infiltration in vivo, we adoptively transferred mixtures of
To determine whether enforced CD13 expression confers
a trafficking advantage to monocytes and confirm that
infiltration of myeloid cells into the peritoneal cavity is
indeed CD13 specific, we adopted a gain-of-function
approach. Adoptive transfer of pools of CD13-negative
murine monocytic WEHI78/24 cells infected with murine
perhaps indicating an inability of this subset to enter the
peritoneum (Fig. 1d). In agreement with this notion,
while the percentages of reparative monocytes were equivalent in either genotype, the percentages of F4/80+ macrophages and CD11c+ dendritic cells were also significantly
decreased in the peritoneal exudates of the null animals
(Fig. 1c) with a concomitant increase of these subpopulations in the blood (Fig. 1d and data not shown).
Mouse inflammatory monocyte subsets in the
inflamed peritoneum are highly CD13 positive
(a)
105
102
103
104
105
G
0
r-1
hi
0·00
lo
Gr-1 lo
0
0·02
t
102
r-1
Gr-1 int
0·04
in
103
**
G
Gr-1
Gr-1 hi
0·06
G
r-1
104
Relative CD13 mRNA expression
(b)
CD11b
Figure 2. (a) CD13 is highly expressed in the inflammatory monocytes isolated from the inflamed peritoneum. Thioglycollate (TG) -administered
peritoneal lavage was isolated from four CD13 wild-type (CD13WT) mice and pooled for FACS sorting. Pseudo-colour plot of infiltrating inflammatory
monocytes – Gr-1hi CD11b+, intermediate population – Gr-1int CD11b+ and reparative monocytes – Gr-1lo CD11b+ in the live CD45+ (T/B/Ly6G/
natural killer) cell population. (b) Relative CD13 mRNA levels in Gr1hi CD11b+, Gr1int CD11b+ and Gr1lo CD11b+ monocyte subsets; **P < 0.01.
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ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
Mechanisms of CD13 adhesion
(a)
Green WT cells
Pre-injection (63X)
0·803
0·247
104
103
102
0
103
104
105
Green WT
**
0·01
0·00
0·03
105
0·2
**
0·0
Gr-1 lo/Green WT
Gr-1 lo/Red KO
0·02
0·01
DCs
Macrophages
0·10
0·08
% labeled cells
% labeled cells
0·02
104
0·4
Reparative monocytes
Gr-1 hi/Green WT
Gr-1 hi/Red KO
0·03
103
Total cells
Red KO
Inflammatory monocytes
0·04
0 102
Green WT
Red KO
0·06
0·04
0·08
F4/80+/Green WT
F4/80+/Red KO
**
% labeled cells
0 102
(d)
(c) 0·6
% labeled cells
SSC-A
105
% labeled cells
(b)
Green WT and red KO cells
from peritoneal lavage (20X)
Red KO cells
Pre-injection (63X)
CD11c+/Green WT
CD11c+/Red KO
0·06
0·04
**
0·02
0·02
0·00
0·00
0·00
Figure 3. CD13 regulates trafficking of inflammatory cells to the peritoneum. Equal numbers of differentially labelled CD13 wild-type (CD13WT)
and CD13 knockout (CD13KO) splenic myeloid cells were adoptively transferred in thioglycollate-challenged CD13WT mice. (a) Microscopic
analysis of cytospun green-labelled CD13WT and red-labelled CD13KO splenic myeloid cells before injection and in the thioglycollate -and cellinjected peritoneal lavage of CD13WT mice. Objectives; 63 9 and 20 9. Blue = DAPI nuclear stain. (b, c) Flow cytometric analysis of total
green-labelled CD13WT and red-labelled CD13KO cells in the peritoneal exudates of CD13WT animals. The contribution of background autofluorescence for both red and green cells was subtracted from total cells. Data represent number of labelled cells SEM, n = 4 mice/group;
**P < 001. (d). Percent of labelled green-CD13WT and red-CD13KO cells in Gr-1hi CD11b+ inflammatory monocytes, Gr-1lo CD11b+ reparative
monocytes F4/80+ CD11b+ macrophages and CD11c+ CD11b+ dendritic cells. Data represent average of three independent experiments. Error
bars represent mean SEM for CD13WT (n = 5) mice; **P < 001.
CD13 cDNA expression vectors (mCD13; red) or control
cells infected with empty vector (EV; green) into the circulation of wild-type animals resulted in significantly
more peritoneal-resident mCD13-expressing cells than
vector control cells, suggesting that CD13 expression positively regulates monocyte trafficking (Fig. 4a). Similarly,
pre-treatment of mCD13-expressing WEHI cells with an
anti-CD13 blocking mAb (SL13; green) resulted in comparable reductions in the infiltration of treated cells, confirming that the effect is indeed CD13 dependent
(Fig. 4b). Importantly, adoptively transferred cells were
not cleared by the immune system as equal numbers of
both populations were present in the peripheral blood of
unchallenged animals (Fig. 4c).
ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
CD13 mAb binds in a species- and domain-specific
manner
To investigate if the binding of CD13 mAb is species and
domain specific, we used chimeras of mouse or human
CD13 constructs. CD13 is a type II protein comprised of
seven domains (Fig. 5a–f); domain I consists of a short
cytosolic tail, followed by the membrane spanning
domain II that is highly conserved among various species.11 Extracellular domains III–VII contain the catalytic
site of the enzyme and exhibit a greater degree of species
variability (Fig. 5f). We constructed two different chimeric expression constructs, one containing the murine
CD13 N-terminus (including domains I–V and 50% of
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M. Ghosh et al.
mCD13-WEHI 78/24; Red
EV-WEHI 78/24; Green
(a)
103
0·136
0·0117
% cells
104
0·20
0·05
**
0·00
0 102
103
104
105
mCD13-WEHI 78/24
Red
0 102
103
104
0·00
105
EV-WEHI 78/24
Green
0·15
105
Untreated mCD13; Red
SL13 tx mCD13; Green
0·10
Untreated mCD13; Red
SL13 tx mCD13; Green
0·08
0·125
103
9·33e-3
0·10
% cells
104
% cells
SSC-A
0·10
0·05
102
0
(b)
mCD13-WEHI 78/24; Red
EV-WEHI 78/24; Green
0·15
0·10
% cells
105
SSC-A
(c)
0·15
0·05
102
0
0·06
0·04
0·02
***
0 102
103
104
105
mCD13-WEHI 78/24
Untreated; Red
0 102
103
104
105
0·00
0·00
mCD13-WEHI 78/24
SL13 tx; Green
Peritoneal lavage
Peripheral blood
Figure 4. CD13 expression in monocytic cell line drives myeloid cell infiltration into the peritoneal cavity. Adoptive transfer of differentially
labelled murine monocytic WEHI78/24 cells infected with either (a) mouse CD13 (mCD13-red) and empty vector control (EV-green) or (b)
untreated mouse CD13 (mCD13-red) and SL-13 blocking antibody-treated mouse CD13 (SL13 tx mCD13-green) into thioglycollate-administered
CD13 wild-type (CD13WT) mice. (a, b) Preferential trafficking of cells expressing CD13 to the peritoneum was analysed by flow cytometry. (c)
Percentage of cells present in the peripheral blood of unchallenged CD13WT animals. Data represent average of three independent experiments.
Error bars represent mean SEM for CD13WT (n = 5) per mice group; **P < 001, ***P < 0001.
domain VI) fused to the human CD13 C-terminus
(including 50% of the remaining domain VI and domain
VII), designated as M/H (Fig. 5d–f). The reciprocal chimera is designated H/M and contains the human CD13
N-terminus and the C-terminus of murine CD13 (Fig. 5e,
f). WEHI monocytic and C33A adherent epithelial cells
were infected with chimeric or control constructs. Flow
cytometric and immunoblot analysis of the various cell
lines verified the expression of the infected molecules and
indicated that exogenous human and mouse CD13 was
highly expressed in both the adherent and monocytic
pools (Fig. 5g,h). The high degree of species specificity of
our CD13 reagents was apparent as the anti-hCD13 only
recognizes lines expressing hCD13 while the mouse antiCD13 mAb only recognizes mCD13 (Fig. 5g,h). Finally,
analysis of cell lines containing chimeric molecules indicated that these were expressed at lower levels than their
respective control lines and that both of these antibodies
recognize the C-terminal region of CD13 (Fig. 5g,h).
The C-terminal domain of CD13 participates in
cellular trafficking in response to inflammation
To identify the domain responsible for CD13-dependent
cell trafficking, we intravenously injected differentially
642
labelled cells from each of the CD13-expressing monocyte
lines or empty vector control cells into CD13WT mice followed by TG injection. Flow cytometric analysis of the
labelled peritoneal cells in the lavage indicated markedly
higher numbers of cells expressing the H/M CD13 chimera (murine C-term) compared with either vector control or M/H CD13 chimera (Fig. 6a,b). However, the
percentage of cells in the circulation in either chimeras
or the control vector remained the same (Fig. 6a,b).
These results directly demonstrate that the C-terminal
domain of CD13 participates in inflammatory cell trafficking.
The C-terminal domain of CD13 mediates homotypic
monocyte/endothelial cell adhesion
We have shown that basal adhesion of primary CD13KO
macrophages to endothelial cells is compromised and
that CD13 activation on either monocytes or endothelial
cells with cross-linking mAbs induces CD13-dependent
adhesion in vitro.4–6 To verify that the effects on trafficking obtained with our chimeric monocytic cell lines
in vivo are the result of CD13 homotypic adhesion, we
performed an in vitro adhesion assay using our engineered lines and the activating anti-hCD13 mAb 452.
ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
Mechanisms of CD13 adhesion
C33a
(g)
Unstained
EV
M
M/H
H/M
100
Domain sizes
23
4
5
6
7
(b) H CD13
N
C
(c) M CD13
N
C
(d) M/H CD13 N
Mouse
Human
C
(e) H/M CD13 N
Human
Mouse
C
80
% of max
(a)
WEHI 78/24
Unstained
EV
M
M/H
H/M
H
H
60
40
20
0
0 102
103
104
105 00
101
102
103
104
HCD13
(f)
M/H CD13
C33a
(h)
mCD13
NH2
NH2
β-actin
WEHI 78/24
H/M CD13
mCD13
GAPDH
NH2
NH2
Cell
EV
H
M
M/H
H/M
Figure 5. Species- and domain-specific constructs of CD13. Figure represents (a) the different domains of CD13, (b) full-length human CD13,
(c) full length mouse CD13, (d, f) M/H CD13 chimera containing mouse CD13 at the N-terminal and human CD13 at the C-terminal, (e, f) H/
M CD13 chimera containing human CD13 at the N-terminal and mouse CD13 at the C-terminal. (g) Representative histogram of C33a and
WEHI 78/24 expressing human CD13 and M/H CD13 chimera with anti-human CD13 monoclonal antibody 452 by flow cytometry. (h) Representative immunoblot analysis of C33a and WEHI 78/24 expressing mouse and H/M CD13 constructs with anti-mouse SL13 antibody. Data represent average of two independent experiments.
We added the various CD13-expressing monocyte cell
lines to hCD13-expressing adherent epithelial or vector
control cells that had been treated with the activating
anti-hCD13 mAb 452 or isotype control antibodies and
assessed adhesion (Fig. 7). Our results indicated that,
similar to our in vivo results, monocytes that express the
hCD13 C-terminus (hCD13 and M/H-CD13) mediate
homotypic adhesion to hCD13+ monolayer cells treated
with the activating anti-hCD13 mAb 452 (Fig. 7a). Similarly, activation of the U937 human monocytic cell line
with the 452 antibody induced homotypic adhesion to
monolayers expressing either hCD13 or M/H CD13, but
not to mCD13 or H/M-expressing monolayers (Fig. 7b).
Likewise, activation of the WEHI M/H CD13 with the
human CD13 mAb 452 induced strong adhesion in the
monolayer cells expressing total hCD13 or the chimera
containing the human C-terminus, although at decreased
levels (Fig. 7c), likely due to the reduced expression levels of CD13 protein produced from this chimeric construct (Fig. 5g,h). Therefore, the C-terminal domain of
CD13 on both monocytes and the monolayer cells mediates activated adhesion.
ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
CD13 expression on both monocytes and
endothelium is critical for optimal cell trafficking in
vivo
To further explore the requirement for CD13 expression
on both monocytes and the endothelium in immune cell
infiltration in response to injury, we intravenously
injected differentially labelled wild-type and CD13KO splenic myeloid populations (T/B/NK-depleted) into either
CD13WT or CD13KO recipients along with peritoneal TG
administration. Microscopic (Fig. 8a) and flow cytometric
(Fig. 8b) analysis of cells present in the peritoneal lavage
after 48 hr exhibited significantly reduced numbers of
CD13KO labelled cells in the CD13WT recipient, confirming a monocyte-specific role for CD13 (Fig. 8a,b). Further, there was a similar reduction in CD13WT cells in
CD13KO recipients (compared with CD13WT recipient) as
indicated by a significant decrease in infiltrating cells of
both genotypes (Fig. 8a,b). Therefore, in agreement with
our in vitro data, endothelial CD13 is also critical for
monocyte trafficking from the circulation, despite positive
CD13 expression on monocytes. Importantly, infiltrating
643
M. Ghosh et al.
(a)
105
104
103
Peritoneal
lavage
0·102
0·588
*
0·6
H/MCD13-WEHI 78/24; Red
**
% labeled cells
SSC-A
EV-WEHI 78/24; Green
102
0
105
104
Peripheral
blood
103
0·258
0·4
0·2
0·0
Peritoneal
lavage
0·226
Peripheral
blood
102
0
0 102
103
104
105
H/M CD13-Red
(b)
0 102
103
104
105
EV-Green
105
0·5
104
*
0·0708
0·391
102
0
105
0·4
% labeled cells
SSC-A
103
Peritoneal
lavage
H/MCD13-WEHI 78/24; Red
*
M/HCD13-WEHI 78/24; Green
0·3
0·2
0·1
104
Peripheral
blood
0·136
0·161
103
2
10
0
0 102
103
104
H/M CD13-Red
105
0 102
103
104
0·0
Peritoneal
lavage
Peripheral
blood
105
M/H CD13-Green
Figure 6. The C-terminal domain of CD13 is responsible for cell infiltration into the inflamed peritoneum. A mixture of equal number of (a)
WEHI 78/24 cells transfected with H/M CD13-red and empty vector-green or a mixture of (b) H/M CD13-red and M/H CD13-green were
injected into CD13 wild-type (CD13WT) mice and cell trafficking to the injured peritoneum and peripheral blood was analysed by flow cytometry
48 hr after thioglycollate injection. Data represent average of three independent experiments. Error bars represent mean SEM for CD13WT
(n = 5) mice; *P < 005, **P < 001.
CD13KO monocytes were further decreased in CD13KO
recipients, consistent with our in vitro findings that CD13
on both monocytes and the endothelium plays a functional role in inflammatory cell trafficking to the site of
injury.4
Discussion
CD13 was originally identified as a marker of myeloid
cells where it was shown to be expressed to varying
degrees on myeloid progenitors and their differentiated
644
progeny.12 Our subsequent investigations have demonstrated that in the haematopoietic system this molecule is
expressed at relatively higher levels on particular myeloid
cell subsets such as CD8+ dendritic cells where it regulates
receptor-mediated antigen uptake and subsequent crosspresentation to T cells.10 Similarly, the high CD13 expression on circulating monocytes led us to explore its potential role as an inflammatory adhesion molecule in models
of heart and skeletal muscle ischaemic injury.7,8 In these
studies we found that a global lack of CD13 led to distorted inflammatory cell profiles, so contributing to
ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
Mechanisms of CD13 adhesion
(a)
C33a EV 452/IgG
(b)
U937 452/IgG
C33a H CD13 452/IgG
8
15
**
**
RFU (452/IgG)
RFU (452/IgG)
6
**
4
**
10
5
2
0
0
WEHI
EV
H CD13
M CD13
M/H CD13
H/M CD13
C33a
EV
H CD13
M CD13
M/H CD13
H/M CD13
WEHI EV 452/IgG
(c)
WEHI H CD13 452/IgG
15
WEHI M/H CD13 452/IgG
RFU (452/IgG)
**
**
10
**
**
5
0
C33a
EV
H CD13
M CD13
M/H CD13
H/M CD13
Figure 7. The C-terminal domain of CD13 on both monocyte and the epithelium is necessary for homotypic cell adhesion. (a) C33a cells
expressing empty vector or human CD13 were cross-linked with control IgG or activating anti-hCD13 monoclonal antibody 452. Calcein-labelled
WEHI 78/24 expressing empty vector, human CD13, mouse CD13, M/H CD13 or H/M CD13 constructs were added to the activated monolayer
and homotypic cell adhesion was measured as fluorescence intensity at optical density at 485 and 530 nm. WEHI expressing H CD13 and M/H
CD13 showed significant increase in adhesion with 452-activated C33a expressing HCD13 compared with WEHI expressing EV, M CD13 and H/
M CD13. (b) Calcein-labelled human monocytic cell line U937, was cross-linked with IgG or 452 and extent of adhesion with the C33a monolayer expressing empty vector, human CD13, mouse CD13, M/H CD13 or H/M CD13 constructs was assessed as in (a). C33a expressing H CD13
and M/H CD13 showed significant increase in adhesion with 452-activated U937 cells. (c) Similarly, calcein-labelled WEHI 78/24 expressing
empty vector, human CD13 or M/H construct were activated with IgG or 452, followed by interaction with the monolayer, the C33a cells
expressing empty vector, human CD13, mouse CD13, M/H and H/M CD13 constructs. C33a expressing H CD13 and M/H CD13 showed significant increase in adhesion with 452 activated WEHI expressing HCD13 and M/H CD13 compared with C33a expressing EV, M CD13 and H/M
CD13. Homotypic adhesion of monocyte and the monolayer were determined fluorometrically. Data represent ratio of relative fluorescence unit
(RFU) measured upon activation with 452 to control IgG. Data represents average of three independent experiments. Error bars represent
mean SEM; **P < 001.
adverse healing and aberrant functional recovery. Interestingly, while the ratios of infiltrating cells were clearly
skewed in both tissues, myeloid subsets were differentially
affected, supporting the notion that myeloid cell trafficking patterns may be injury- and tissue-specific,3 and
importantly, that in part, CD13 expression may dictate
these patterns. In the current study we extend these
observations using the TG-induced peritonitis model and
directly demonstrate that CD13 is a physiological
regulator of cell trafficking in vivo and identify the
ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
particular domain(s) of the protein that mediates monocyte adhesion.
CD13 is identical to aminopeptidase N, a cell surface
peptidase that cleaves neutral amino acids from the
N-terminus of small peptides and participates in hydrolysis of bioactive peptides in various tissues such as neuropeptides, peptides of the renin–angiotensin system and
intestinal dietary peptides.13–15 However, studies from
our laboratory and others have determined that in addition to its ability to hydrolyse small peptides, CD13 is a
645
M. Ghosh et al.
(a)
CD13
75
recipient
**
Flow cytometry
1·5
CD13WT recipient
1·0
**
**
50
**
25
0
% labeled cells
**
CD13KO recipient
*
**
0·5
CD13KO recipient
**
ce
G
lls
re
en
-W
T
ce
lls
R
ed
-K
O
ce
lls
ce
lls
R
ed
-K
O
T
G
re
en
-W
R
ed
-K
O
T
G
re
en
-W
ce
G
lls
re
en
-W
T
ce
lls
R
ed
-K
O
ce
lls
0·0
ce
lls
Number of labeled cells/field
(b)
Immunoflourescence
WT
Figure 8. CD13 expression on both monocyte and the endothelium is essential for optimal cell trafficking in vivo. A mixture of equal number of
CD13 wild-type (CD13WT) and CD13 knockout (CD13KO) splenic myeloid cells differentially labelled with green and red dye respectively were
adoptively transferred to thioglycollate-administered CD13WT and CD13KO recipients. After 48 hr, peritoneal exudates from recipients of both
genotypes were isolated, cytospun and analysed by microscopy (a) and flow cytometry (b). (a) Total number of green-WT or red-KO cells was
calculated in the recipient mice (n = 5/genotype and 30 non-overlapping fields per animal were calculated). (b) Flow cytometric analysis of percentage of infiltrating green-WT and red-KO cells in the peritoneal lavage of CD13WT and CD13KO recipients (n = 3/mice per group) Data represent average of three independent experiments. Error bars represent mean SEM; *P < 0.05, **P < 001.
multifunctional protein that plays both enzyme-dependent and -independent roles (reviewed in ref. 16). CD13
serves as a species-specific receptor for a subtype of coronaviruses in a number of species, and this function is not
affected by inhibitors of its enzymatic activity.17 More
recently, we have identified CD13 as a homotypic adhesion molecule mediating monocytic/endothelial CD13
adhesion induced by activation upon cross-linking by
mAbs or virus binding, which is also enzyme-independent.4 We have further shown that cross-linking induces
Src-dependent phosphorylation of the CD13 cytoplasmic
tail and CD13 is phosphorylated in inflammatory tissues,
supporting the notion that CD13 activation and adhesion
is physiological and participates in inflammatory cell
mobilization.5 In the current study, flow cytometric
analyses of infiltrating cells isolated from CD13WT and
CD13KO TG-induced peritoneal exudates along with gain/
loss of function adhesion studies with cells engineered to
express mCD13 or treated with the blocking mAb SL13
strongly supports that the lack of CD13 directly affects
monocyte–endothelial cell adhesion and subsequent trafficking.
As mentioned above, mammalian CD13 is a receptor
for group 1 coronaviruses including the human coronavirus HCov229E, feline coronavirus, porcine transmissible
gastroenteritis coronavirus, canine coronavirus, each of
which exhibit highly species-specific binding to CD13 of
their natural host species.18,19 An extensive study using
cross-species chimeric expression constructs mapped the
CD13 residues dictating the host range to small, speciesspecific amino acid differences in the CD13 C-terminus.20
We have found that CD13-dependent adhesion is also
highly species-specific. We expressed chimeric expression
constructs of the N- and C-terminal domains of human
646
and mouse CD13 in adherent cells and monocytes to
identify the region of the protein that mediates adhesion.
In vitro monocyte/monolayer adhesion assays indicated
that the C-terminal half of the protein mediates adhesion
on both the monocytes and adherent cells. Furthermore,
adoptive transfer of differentially labelled cells expressing
the mixed chimeras determined that in vivo cell mobilization to the damaged tissue in peritonitis is also dependent
on this large C-terminal region. Further study will determine if the specific regions that dictate virus host range
also determine species-specific adhesion.
In acute inflammation, circulating monocytes migrate
across the endothelium to gain access to the site of infection or injury. This interaction involves initial monocyte
adhesion to activated endothelial cells and subsequent transendothelial migration by mechanisms mediated by adhesion molecules and activating chemokines. It has been well
established that two distinct subsets of monocytes exist in
mice and humans that are differentially channelled in
steady-state versus inflammatory conditions. The ‘inflammatory’ monocytes (Gr-1high Ly6Chigh, mouse; CD14+
CD16, human), home to sites of inflammation or infection and can differentiate into both activating or inhibitory
macrophage and dendritic cell subsets, depending on signals from the specific microenvironment or the nature of
the infection.3,21 The second group, the resident/reparative
monocytes (Gr-1lo CD11b+) populate resting tissues and
replenish tissue macrophages or dendritic cells. In rodents,
the numbers of inflammatory monocytes specifically
increase in the circulation in response to infection or injury
and infiltrate more readily or often exclusively compared
with the reparative subset.22–25 For example, studies have
demonstrated that only inflammatory/classical monocytes
migrate to sites of chemical injury of skeletal muscle26 or
ª 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, Immunology, 142, 636–647
Mechanisms of CD13 adhesion
the site of intracutaneous injection of latex beads,27 while
in the infarcted heart, both inflammatory and reparative
monocytes traffic in distinct temporal patterns to perform
their functions during inflammation and healing.2 Finally,
the reparative subset has also been demonstrated to perform a patrolling function in the steady state where these
cells monitor the healthy endothelium for sites of inflammation and rapidly extravasate to initiate the inflammatory
response induced by irritants, aseptic wounding, or infection.1 Trafficking of the two subsets has been shown to be
distinctly regulated by signals elicited by ligation of specific
chemokine receptors CCR2 and CX3CR1 as well as adhesion molecules such as LFA-1,1 contributing to coordinated
remodelling of injured tissue. However, given the complex
nature of subset trafficking, additional regulatory molecules
must be involved. In the current study, we have shown that
CD13 is more highly expressed on the inflammatory
monocyte subset and it is the migration of this population
that is predominantly affected in CD13KO animals, suggesting that CD13 may constitute one of these auxiliary regulatory proteins. Moreover, the relative contributions of the
distinct patterns of trafficking, differential differentiation of
cells once at the site of inflammation, and sequential trafficking strategies in the different tissues are currently
unknown and will require the identification of the markers
and mechanisms by which these are regulated. The possibility that the selective expression of CD13 on myeloid cells
as well as the inflamed endothelium may orchestrate some
element of this process is intriguing and is the subject of
active investigation in our laboratory.
Acknowledgements
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2007; 204:3037–47.
3 Ingersoll MA, Platt AM, Potteaux S, Randolph GJ. Monocyte trafficking in acute and
chronic inflammation. Trends Immunol 2011; 32:470–7.
4 Mina-Osorio P, Winnicka B, O’Conor C et al. CD13 is a novel mediator of monocytic/
endothelial cell adhesion. J Leukoc Biol 2008; 84:448–59.
5 Subramani J, Ghosh M, Rahman MM, Caromile LA, Gerber C, Rezaul M, Han D,
Shapiro LH. Tyrosine phosphorylation of CD13 regulates inflammatory cell–cell adhesion and monocyte trafficking. J Immunol 2013; 191:3905–12.
6 Winnicka B, O’Conor C, Schacke W et al. CD13 is dispensable for normal hematopoiesis and myeloid cell functions in the mouse. J Leukoc Biol 2010; 88:347–59.
7 Pereira FE, Cronin C, Ghosh M et al. CD13 is essential for inflammatory trafficking
and infarct healing following permanent coronary artery occlusion in mice. Cardiovasc
Res 2013; 100:74–83.
8 Rahman MM, Ghosh M, Subramani J, Fong GH, Carlson M, Shapiro LH. CD13 regulates anchorage and differentiation of the skeletal muscle satellite stem cell population
in ischemic injury. Stem Cells 2013; doi: 10.1002/stem.1610.
9 Tang J, Zarbock A, Gomez I et al. Adam17-dependent shedding limits early neutrophil
influx but does not alter early monocyte recruitment to inflammatory sites. Blood 2011;
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10 Ghosh M, McAuliffe B, Subramani J, Basu S, Shapiro LH. CD13 regulates dendritic cell
cross-presentation and T cell responses by inhibiting receptor-mediated antigen uptake.
J Immunol 2012; 188:5489–99.
11 Wong AH, Zhou D, Rini JM. The X-ray crystal structure of human aminopeptidase N
reveals a novel dimer and the basis for peptide processing. J Biol Chem 2012;
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12 Shipp MA, Look AT. Hematopoietic differentiation antigens that are membrane-associated enzymes: cutting is the key!. Blood 1993; 82:1052–70.
13 Look AT, Ashmun RA, Shapiro LH, Peiper SC. Human myeloid plasma membrane glycoprotein CD13 (gp150) is identical to aminopeptidase N. J Clin Invest 1989; 83:1299–
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14 Noren K, Sjostrom H, Danielsen EM, Cowell GM, Skovbjerg H. Molecular and Cellular
Basis of Digestion. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1986.
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reveals the presence of aminopeptidase N. Biochem J 1985; 231:445–9.
16 Mina-Osorio P. The moonlighting enzyme CD13: old and new functions to target.
Trends Mol Med 2008; 14:361–71.
17 Yeager CL, Ashmun RA, Williams RK, Cardellichio CB, Shapiro LH, Look AT, Holmes
KV. Human aminopeptidase N is a receptor for human coronavirus 229E. Nature 1992;
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18 Tresnan DB, Levis R, Holmes KV. Feline aminopeptidase N serves as a receptor for feline,
canine, porcine, and human coronaviruses in serogroup I. J Virol 1996; 70:8669–74.
This work was supported by Public Health Service grant
HL-70694 from the National Heart, Lung and Blood
Institute and the State of Connecticut Stem Cell Research
Program grant #09-SCA-UCHC-009.
19 Tresnan DB, Holmes KV. Feline aminopeptidase N is a receptor for all group I coronaviruses. Adv Exp Med Biol 1998; 440:69–75.
20 Tusell SM, Schittone SA, Holmes KV. Mutational analysis of aminopeptidase N, a
receptor for several group 1 coronaviruses, identifies key determinants of viral host
range. J Virol 2007; 81:1261–73.
21 Geissmann F, Gordon S, Hume DA, Mowat AM, Randolph GJ. Unravelling mononuclear phagocyte heterogeneity. Nat Rev Immunol 2010; 10:453–60.
Author Contributions
22 Geissmann F, Jung S, Littman DR. Blood monocytes consist of two principal subsets
with distinct migratory properties. Immunity 2003; 19:71–82.
23 Sunderkotter C, Nikolic T, Dillon MJ, van Rooijen N, Stehling M, Drevets DA, Leenen
PJ. Subpopulations of mouse blood monocytes differ in maturation stage and inflammatory response. J Immunol 2004; 172:4410–7.
24 Yrlid U, Jenkins CD, MacPherson GG. Relationships between distinct blood monocyte
MG, LHS, CG, KV designed experiments. MG, CG, MMR,
KV, JS, FP, LC performed experiments. MG, LHS, CG, KV
interpreted data. MG, LHS, CG wrote manu-script.
Disclosures
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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