Amerindian mtDNAs and Admixture in Siberian Populations: Examining Alternatives to Traditional Models of Ancient Human Migrations Alvah M. Hicks © 1999 Lakoya/Sespe Foundation 9200 Carmelita Way Atascadero, CA 93422 Phone (805) 930-5489 e-mail alvahhicks@gmail.com KEY WORDS: AMERINDIANS, MIGRATION, ADMIXTURE, PALEOINDIAN AND PALEOARCTIC TRADITIONS, "ESKIMO WEDGE THEORY", ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND GENETIC CORRELATES, MTDNA ANALYSIS, ATHAPASKANS, SIBERIANS, NENANA COMPLEX, LINGUISTICS, MYTH Abstract This is a "positional paper" according an Amerindian contribution to Athapaskan, Eskimo/Aleut and, as well, Siberians Population formation since these groups share "distinct genetic affinities with Native Americans (Torroni et al. 1993b, pg. 591)." Presumably, as Emoke Szathmary idientified in the Plenary Session for Chacmool 1998, Boas believed the removal of glacial barriers precipitated human contact between the Longitudinal Hemispheres that was, until-this-time, geographically encumbered. Boas further believed that Amerindians migrated into Siberia with widespread Holocene acculturation (also see Ackerman 1982; Dumond 1983; and Heizer 1943; and others), since earlier American Indian Tribal Populations were present before deglaciation. A second migration out of the Americas provides a backdrop for the later formation of Sea Mammal Hunting Cultures, an idea Franz Boas identified as "Eskimo wedge theory" (Boas 1905 and 1910; also see Ousley and others in, Human Biology, June 1995). Does the implied presence in Northeast Asia of founding or nodal mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotypes for each Amerindian haplogroup (Torroni et al. 1993a) preclude evidence of Holocene admixture between Northeast Asians and Amerindians? “Reverse migration” provides an alternative explanation to mtDNA analyses, challenging the idea that Amerindian mtDNA Lineages (AAM1, CAM43, and DAM88) found in Siberians are ancestrally linked to the initial colonizers of the Americas. Rather, mtDNA analysis could be seen to support the Boas data in that the formation of contemporary Circumarctic Populations in Siberia may have been influenced by post-glacial Amerindian movements into Beringia, Siberia, and Northeast Asia. Archaeologically based chronologies may imply that “back migration”, evidenced by the presence of common Amerindian mtDNAs in Siberians, links Circum-arctic Populations to the Americas. BACKGROUND The issues defining the scope of Amerindian mtDNA studies have centered on several key questions. These include: (i) were there American Indians in the Americas before the beginning of the last glacial epoch (arising ~ 40,000 y.b.p.), (ii) did the earliest human settlers discover the Americas during the last glacial Ice Age, (iii) were the immediate ancestors of the Paleoindian Traditions the first humans in the Americas (beginning < 12,000) and, (iv) did Paleoindian Industries develop in pre-existing Amerindian populations following deglaciation and the diffusion of Upper Paleolithic-like industries from the north? Archaeological evidence now confirms the existence of South American human habitation in Chile 13,565 y.b.p., long before the advent of Paleoindian Industries (Dillehay 1989, 1997). This and other evidence of mid-Pleistocene New World habitation suggest that novel hypotheses -- those accepting an earlier than Clovis habitation -- should be tested. This paper will investigate genetic correlates encompassing Boas' "Eskimo wedge theory" with earlier Amerindian Paleoindian migrations north into deglaciated North America (Dixon 1993) and beyond into Northeast Asia. Material And Methods Mitochondrial DNA studies and interpretations concerning the origins, affinities, and genetic diversity of the American Indians have been extensively reported (Bailliet et al. 1994; Torroni et al. 1993a, and 1994; Cann 1994; Merriwether et al. 1995, 1996), and have expanded the data base and implications generated in earlier publications (Wallace et al. 1985; Schurr et al. 1990; Ward et al. 1991; Chakrabority and Weiss 1991; and others including Johnson et al. 1983). Other studies provide comprehensive mtDNA data sets by including those of the Circumpolar Populations of Siberia, Beringia, North America, and Greenland (Torroni et al. 1993b; Shields et al. 1993). These genetic studies seem to concur that Western Circumpolar People and Amerindian Tribal groups have distinct genetic affinities ( see Table 1). Not surprising, but contrary to the "Clovis first" model, is the inference that the formation of the Circumpolar Populations (including the Eskimo and Athapaskans), appears to have occurred much more recently than the formation of individual Amerindian Tribal Groups, those inhabiting regions south of the deglaciated areas. It should be noted that; the tenets of this paper provide many novel interpretations contrasting data collected by the aforementioned authors. Specific "Materials and Methods" undertaken and the compilation of the data -- referred to in this positional paper -- can be found in the original papers cited. I am deeply indebted to the subjects studied, to the authors who have acknowledged their contribution and, to the researchers themselves who have compiled and analyzed the data used in this analysis. However, any inconsistencies that might be found in this paper, or interpretations that they may or may not share, should not be attributed to those researchers. ASSUMPTIONS and Mitochondrial (mt)DNA Data Cladistic analysis and assumptions used in this positional paper have been adopted from other studies (Johnson et al. 1983; Excoffier and Langaney 1989). The maternal heredity and high mutation rate of the mtDNA genome aids geneticists in determining the source for the initial movements of fully modern Homo sapiens providing strong support for archaeological assessments of a recent common origin for Modern Humans in the Old World. The presence of a distinctive allele (haplotype or lineage) in any given population can be measured against its potential to be identified as a regional founding haplotype. Alternatively, indications of admixture within a regional population can be measured by comparing the frequencies of specific mtDNA lineages within and outside the regional population being studied. Simply, the presence of an uncommon haplotype(s) in any given regional population could support evidence of migration and admixture suggesting an extra-regional origin for certain "rare" mtDNA lineages. “The author [Weiss] advocates thoughtfully planned experiments as the best investment. He writes: ‘Order can be found in the complexity if we know what to look for. I have tried to suggest that it is in the context of evolution that we are being led to such a synthesis (Weiss 1996 p. 1566) (Terwilliger 1997 p. 314).’” This analysis, of Holocene Amerindian migration into Northeast Asia, offers one example of the interplay (and resulting complexity) Weiss seeks to interpret. Examples suggesting that gene flow can be used to trace the recent arrival of humans from an outlying area can be cited in the detection of the mtDNA Region V 9bp deletion found in coastal New Guinea and coastal Melanesia where it appears as an admixed marker associated with the later arrival of Polynesians (Stoneking et al. 1989). By example, the 9bp deletion does not appear to be a founding lineage in New Guinea, Australia, and Melanesia since it is virtually absent in the interior aboriginal populations who presumably first settled Oceania. Type B mtDNAs incompassing the Region V 9bp deletion are, however, found in their highest frequencies in Middle and Equatorial Amerindians and have been detected in New World mummies dating to 6,000 y.b.p., predating the peopling of Polynesia. Moreover, as Weiss seems to be asserting (op. cit. 1997), alternative, all inclusive models need to be addressed when traditional one dimensional models are unable to support a specific paradigm being tested. This has been called for, not only for the peopling of the Americas, but also, in the modern peopling of the Old World (Templeton 1993; Harpending 1994). As Emoke Szathmary (1993b) points out in the closing lines of her Invited Editorial regarding New World mtDNA data: "Alternative models now need to be examined, and alternatives already exist. Perhaps these should be considered 'in an explicit and preferably numerical manner' (Madison 1991, pg. 362)(pg. 797)." Szathmary (1993b pg. 794) summarizes the core anthropological issues and the theories being put to test in the Americas as "(a), contrasting models of occupation and (b), timing of human entry into the Americas." As she points out, "It is clear that uncritical use of hypotheses under dispute can be unwise" (ibid. 1993b, pg. 795). Further caution needs to be applied in testing mtDNA results based primarily against the three wave hypothesis in that; "If Greenberg and his supporters (e.g. see Ruhlen, in press) have lumped languages into "Amerind" inappropriately, then use of this linguistic category for testing of genetic hypotheses could produce spurious outcomes (ibid. 1993b pg. 795)." Archaeological Consequences and Genetic Correlates The shift in archaeological interpretations that has followed the verification of pre-Clovis human habitation has brought with it discussions of post-Glacial movements of once glacially isolated Amerindian populations north, into deglaciated North America (Hicks 1998; Dixon 1993). Further analysis could identify these mid-Pleistocene New World habitations as prime examples of what Binford (L.R. Binford 1983) refers to as "Black Swans" since they defy (archaeologically speaking), the standard criterion based on Old World discoveries. A scientific conundrum exists in that, for one reason or another, many archaeologists have been reluctant in accepting "earlier than Clovis" habitations (Lynch 1991; Dencauze 1984; Martin 1987). This has changed with the publication of Dillehay's second volume on Monte Verde (Dillehay 1997). Anthropological inference must accompany the shift in archaeological assertions accompanying the abandonment of the “Clovis First” hypothesis. The Russian Steppe and Northeast Asian Late Paleolithic predates the earliest Aurignacian of Europe demarcating the dawn of Upper Paleolithic Cro-Magnon habitations. Surprisingly, the same archaeological correlation’s assigned with the demic diffusion of an evolving Upper Paleolithic Industry in the Old World are missing from evidence distinguishing the earliest archaeological record of New World "pre-Clovis" Amerindians (Dillehay 1989; Adovasio and Carlisle 1986; Guidon and Delibrias 1986, Fagan 1997). The difficulties archaeologists have in applying the same criteria used in defining contemporary Pleistocene habitations of the Old World to the New have influenced attempts to bring meaning and/or widespread academic acceptance to what is indeed a limited archaeological production in mid-Pleistocene America (Owen 1984; Dincauze 1984; Jelinek 1992). This paper's intention, is to re-evaluate the significance of such a presence and to reconsider the possibilities of Amerindian movements into northeast Asia at the end of the last Ice Age (i. e. Boas 1905; 1910). The Meeting of Two Worlds The earliest presence of blade tools in Northeast Alaska has been attributed to the "Nenana Culture" linking them with the earlier "Dyuktai Cultural Traditions" of Northeast Asia (Mochanov 1980; Goebel, Powers, and Bigelow 1991; Hoffecker, Powers, and Goebel 1993; Reanier 1995). Siberian stone age technologies and Hunting Cultures have long been hypothesized to be antecedent (> 12,000) to later Paleoindian Traditions. The diffusion of these Old World industries -- south -- into pre-Clovis Amerindian populations will be considered here, against the backdrop of a subsequent movement of "Paleoindians Traditions" northward beginning 11,200 y.b.p. (Dixon 1993). Indications are that later "Paleoindian Traditions" with their diagnostic "fluting" may have been refined by Amerindians after the diffusion of earlier Upper Paleolithic-like industries found in Northeast Asia. The fluted "Paleoindian Traditions" are believed to be in situ developments emanating from Eastern and Mid-Continental North America (Stanford 1982; Bryan 1991). A demic diffusion of "Paleoindian Traditions" north, following deglaciation and contact between New and Old World people, will be reconsidered since: "'It is not at all improbable that [fluted points] were invented in America and reached the Arctic with the hunters who followed game northward with the retreat of the Glaciers (Krieger 1964).” Wormington held a similar opinion; “the fluted specimens found in the extreme north may represent the spread of a trait through diffusion or by a later northward movement of people who employed this technique. In this case they would be more recent than those found farther south (Wormington 1957, pg. 210)(Reanier 1995 pp. 35-36)." Again, Paleoindian movement north is best accomplished by accepting that there existed mid-Pleistocene Amerindians isolated primarily by glacial barriers (Mandrick 1992). It is thought that pre-existing Amerindian populations were primarily relying on simple bone and wood tool industries connected with a “pre-projectile point horizon” (Krieger 1958; Wormington 1957; Bonnichsen and Young 1980). This positional paper addresses genetic admixture between Siberians and Amerindians that may have occurred in northest Asia and later during the formation of maritime Circumpolar People in coastal environments of Eastern Beringia between 10,600 and 6,000 years ago. These rarely discussed alternative directions of migration -- complemented by accepting a pre-Clovis occupation of the Americas -- suggest that movements of Amerindians into the north followed the retreat of glacial barriers after the in situ development of "Paleoindian Traditions" in southeastern North America. Interior migrations can be traced to the Americas (north and east, out of unglaciated regions of North America), by boreally adaptive Athapaskans (Boas 1905; Dixon 1993) and in eastern North America by Algonquian speakers (Rogers 1985). These movements may have continued well into late-Holocene times (Ackerman 1982). Even more recent movements suggest acculturation during the Post-Paleoarctic interval in the Central Brooks Range (Schoenberg 1995). Other Data As Boas suggest’s, a separate “Eskimo wedge” divided Northeast Asian Amerindians from their parent stock in the Americas. Boas alternative should naturally follow today’s scientific extenuation of a presence of pre-Clovis people and with it, the testing of the possibility of regional expansions into deglaciated areas of the Northern Hemisphere by these first Americans. Stephen Ousley, in Human Biology (June 1995), identified numerous relationships shared between North Pacific groups, some stretching from Washington State in the Americas to the Island of Hokkaido in Japan. "Their common history is also expressed in Eskimo and Koryak mythology, belief, ritual, social structure, and funeral clothing (Arutiunov 1988b) (Ousley 1995 pg. 432)." Other affinities shared with Northeast Asians include; 1) GM haplotypes (Williams 1985); 2) archaeological signatures including the Anangula Blade Complex, which may be older in Alaska (Ackerman 1992; McCaryney 1984); Norton and Choris phased pottery (Ackerman 1992); "preparations and use of poisons (Heizer 1943)”; and socioeconomic organization where "Clans included speakers of different languages and dialects (Ousley pg. 433)." Ousley (1995) further suggests a non-coastal sphere of influence for the Na-Dene; "In contrast, the Haida, Tlingit, and Tsimshian showed greater interior influences and were the result of later population movements to the coast (pg. 433);" while, "Leer (1991) uncovered unique syntactic elements in Aleut that were borrowed from northern Northwest Coast languages (Eyak, Haida, Tlingit), including intense contacts between Aleuts and peoples on the northern Northwest Coast (Ousley pg. 434)." Finally, Ousley (1995) indicates that "Although the archaeological record of northeast Siberia is poorly known, archaeological, ethnographic, and linguistic data suggests that cultural exchanges across the north Pacific were extensive (pg. 435)." The evidence of continuing contact could link "Sea Mammal Hunting Cultures" to the formation of populations presently occupying Beringia, and earlier, to Amerindians that developed Paleoarctic Traditions 10,600 B.P. Also, coastal Athapaskans could be linked to interior Na-Dene speakers and they in turn, to the initial movement north and west of populations using Paleoindian Traditions emanating from mid-Continental North America, as suggested earlier. Amerindian migration beyond Beringia into Northeast Asia, as proposed by Boas, occurred before the formation of Sea Mammal Hunting Cultures. Examining Alternatives Earlier studies have centered on linking common affinities between given ancestral Northeast Asians and descendant populations of Amerinds (Greenberg et al. 1986; Laughlin 1980; and Schurr et al. 1990). The Wallace Group propose that all Native American mtDNAs can be traced back into Siberia, and, before that, Northeast Asia, to single 'founder' haplotypes for each haplogroup defining Amerindians today (Wallace et al. 1985; Schurr et al. 1990). These haplogroups are defined in Schurr et al. (1990) and Torroni et al. (1993a). The presence in Northeast Asia of proposed founding or nodal haplotypes for three-of-the four most common Amerindian haplogroups (A, C, and D) precludes any suggestion of admixture resulting from Amerindian migration(s) out the back door of the Americas during the Holocene. The Wallace groups interpretation of founding effects, as suggested in mtDNA analysis, seems consistent with earlier genetic, dental, and linguistic assessments (Zegura 1987, Turner 1987, Greenberg 1987). The main goal of this paper is to evaluate Boas’s untested model highlighting today’s view of pre-Clovis habitation and subsequent Amerindian gene flow contributing to the formation of Northeast Asian Populations. Shifting Paradigms The presence of proposed Amerindian "founding haplotypes" (rare Asian mtDNAs), in Siberian populations is presented by Torroni et al. (1993b) to "establish that all native American mtDNAs derived from four founding haplotypes" (1993a, pg. 584). There have, however, been many other studies that challenge this finding (Ward et al. 1991; Chakraborty and Weiss 1991; Horai et al. 1993; Bailliet et al. 1994; and others including Cann 1994). Amerindian admixture and a resulting reversal of gene flow provides an alternative explanation for the detection of A, C, and D lineages in Northeast Asians. This follows Boas's contention (the first phase of his "Eskimo wedge theory") suggesting an Amerindian source population for the easternmost Siberian populations as not a founding population for the first Americans as the Jesup expedition initial hypothesized. Table 1 identifies what have been termed "ancestral Asian mtDNAs" haplotypes (A, B, C, and D) that may simply link Northeast Asians with Amerindians. These “rare Asian” mtDNA haplotypes found in Northeast Asians (haplotypes AAM1, CAM43, and DAM88) and (for group B haplotypes associated with the Region V 9bp deletion), BAM13, found in association with most Polynesians, demonstrate affinities with Amerindian mtDNAs. If the presence in northeast Asia of these haplotypes are not evidence of 'founding lineages' for each Amerindian haplogroup (as I am suggesting), then an alternative explanation must be identified. This paper identifies such an alternative; that admixture between Northeast Asians and Amerindians accompanied the Holocene re-formation of Circumarctic Populations in Siberia, contrasting the disguise of affinities as “founding lineages” with evidence of Holocene “back migration.” It must be first assumed that southern Amerindian tribal groups are older than the formation of populations living in deglaciated North America (a paradigm central to this hypothesis). This requires that Amerindians were south of North America's Wisconsin Glacial expanse prior to deglaciation (a perspective endorsed by nearly every genetic and linguistic study of Amerindians). Ice Age solation resulted in "regional subdivision” in the Americas (due to the high mutation rate of mitochondrial DNA) as evidenced by the evolution of novel -- A, B, C, and D -- mtDNA sequences. Pre-Clovis habitation would have isolated the "differentiation of the distinctive Amerindian types ([as suggested from anthropometric data], see Ousley 1995 pg. 428)" accentuating the effects of the glacial barrier that seperated New and Old World People. This isolation is further distinguished by the contexts of two separate archaeological records that remained distinct until the end of the Last Glaciation (Hicks 1998). Many, including Shields et al. (1993), have concluded that Circumarctic People are younger than Amerindian populations to the south - while - we should remember here that the Circumarctic Populations are believed to be younger then the original Amerindian to the south. I quote Shields et al. (1993) here; Low sequence diversity, coupled with the broad geographic distances over which some Circumarctic populations (e.g., Alaskan Inupiaqs and West Greenland Eskimos) have become established, suggests that the establishment of these far-flung populations occurred during a relatively short period of time. By contrast, the mtDNAs of Bella Coola, Nuu-Chal-Nulth, and Yakima are broadly divergent, even though the present geographic distribution of these people is confined to a relatively small region. This suggests that these Amerind tribes are much older than the Circumarctic tribes and have undergone considerable localized genetic differentiation (Shields et al. 1993 pg. 558)." [while] "Moreover, lineages observed in distinct populations are intermingled among the branches of the tree, with no obvious clustering of lineages by the geographic location, or linguistic affiliation, of the tribe from which they were ascertained. For example, individual lineages of Chukchi, West Greenland Eskimos, Athapaskans, and Haida are scattered throughout the tree. This pattern is exactly what would be expected for populations which have recently undergone a demographic expansion and which are in the early stages of evolutionary divergence" (Shields et al. 1993, pg. 558; emphasis added). The consensus view surrounding Amerindian descendantcy theories -- through which most all subsequent data is analyzed -- starts with the initial hypothetical given that Amerindians can be traced to founding populations in Asia (Acosta 1676; Greenberg et al. 1986; and others). This scenario limits, without merit, the possibility that Amerindians may have contributed to the formation of Northeast Asians following deglaciation. That is, the consensus view contends -- perhaps through the sanctioning of archaeological conservatism by Clovis First proponents -- that the Eskimo and Athapaskans are, themselves, more recent descendants of the same Asian ancestors as the earliest Amerindians (Torroni et al. 1993a and 1993b; Greenberg et al. 1986). Accepting the existence of mid-Pleistocene Amerindian pre-Clovis occupations could lend support to Boas’s earlier hypotheses by linking mtDNAs with anthropometric, linguistic, archeological, and cultural affinities shared between Siberians and Native Americans (see Ousley 1995). This alternative proposes that; i) post Ice Age Amerindian migrations into deglaciated North America set the stage for later migrations into Beringia; ii) Amerindians contributed to the formation of the Inuit and Athapaskans and; iii) subsiquent admixture between Northern Amerindians (early Eskimo and Athapaskans) and Northeast Asians occurred in Siberia and, to a lesser extent, Mongolia and Tibet. This scenario offers a viable, and less complicated, explanation for the decreasing frequencies in northeast Asians of common Amerindian mtDNA lineages. The regionally distinct frequencies -- within the Americas -- of haplotypes A, B, C, and D might indicate that their radiation post-dates the original Amerindian mtDNA diversity. This analysis suggest’s that A, B, C, and D haplogroups represent an Amerindian example of Templeton's "regional subdivision" and an example of drift that, "could reflect the age since the last favorable mutation[s] arose in the population (1993 pg. 59-60)." Admixture between Northeast Asians and Amerindians would provide an alternative to the “three wave hypothesis” by identifying a Holocene (or more recent) origin for the Athapaskan and Eskimo/Aleut. Holocene “back-migration” provides a less complicated alternative when interpreting shared affinities and the direction of gene flow since Amerindians pre-date the formation of deglaciated North American Populations. Merriwether et al. 1995 suggest that it is unlikely for the more common Asian specific haplotypes to all have been lost in the founding Amerindian population(s) and as well, the later populations comprising the Eskimo/Aleut/Inuit and Athapaskans (see Table 1). "The current Native residents of Alaska and Siberia may be descendants of more recent migrations from the Siberian side of the Bering Strait (as suggested by Torroni et al., 1993b; and Shields et al., 1992, 1993), or from migrations back into the area from within the New World (pg. 424)." [while] "The fact that Native Americans all share variants of the same founding lineages indicates that they are likely to have come from the same source population, and that it is unlikely that multiple migrations from the same area would continuously choose the same four lineages from a subset of the lineages available in the parent population. Clearly, examination of contemporary Asian and Siberian populations indicate that these four lineages are not the only lineages present (Merriwether et al. 1995 pg. 427 emphasis added)" DISCUSSION The Eskimo, Athapaskans, and Amerindians appear to make-up one specific group -- with distinct mtDNA affinities -- while Old World human populations comprise another. Others have found unique comparison between the distribution patterns of the mtDNAs of Amerindians and Old World populations. These differences include evidence in Amerindians of "mutation drift equilibrium” (Chakraborty and Weiss 1991), and “extensive mtDNA diversity” on the “tribal level” (Ward et al. 1991), while cladistic divination of an Asian Origin seems at least “dramatic” (Wallace et al. 1985) and, “surprisingly”, evidenced by "a few Asians, if any" (Horai et al. 1993, pg. 23). Extensive independent Amerindian tribal diversity, equivalent to ~62% of all sub-Sahara Africa or ~81% of urban Japan, has been detected in the mtDNA of independent New World Tribal Peoples (the Vancouver Island Nu-Chal-Nulth were analyzed by Ward et al. (1991), a finding that supports an antiquity well outside the limits initially hypothesized. All of these findings are fundamentally inconsistent with what was expected in determining a recent origin for the modern humans of the New World, and/or with it, a "Clovis First" peopling of the Americas (Scheilds et al. 1993; Martin 1974; 1987; Haynes 1967). Pre-Clovis or Paleoarchaic mid-Pleistocene American habitations defy interprtations suggesting relationships to Old World Upper, Late, or even Middle Paleolithic-like industries (Adovasio and et al. 1980; Carter 1980; Dillehay 1989; Berger and Orr 1968; Mirambell 1978; Guidon 1986; MacNeish 1979; Krieger 1964; and others). What we have learned from the discovery of an irrefutable mid-Pleistocene human occupation at Monte Verde, dated at 13,565 + 250 BP is; that it is unreliable to contend that sophisticated lithic tool industries or refined hunting technologies should be used as a criterion for substantiating earlier-than-Clovis human occupations of the Americas (as suggested by Hoffecker et al. 1993; Lynch 1991). Perhaps the most important lesson to be gained from the verifiable evidence of early human occupation at Monte Verde, Chile, is that we should not wait for a majority of archaeologists to accept this and other occupations before determining, for ourselves, the anthropological significance the implications of a mid-Pleistocene Amerindian presence fosters. The testable hypothesis endorsed here identifies that Amerindians were in the Americas before the formation of populations now living in deglaciated areas of North America. The hypothesis contends that Amerindians contributed to the formation of North American Tribal groups, specifically, the Eskimo and Athapaskans, and that they, in turn, migrated beyond Beringia contributing to the formation of East Asian Circumarctic Peoples? Simply, there are alternative untested assessments, encompassing the scope of archaeological inference, in accepting a greater than "Clovis Only" modeling for the peopling of the Americas. The Nenana Culture and the Origins of New World Hunting Technologies European mtDNAs, initially assigned to post-Colombian admixture with Amerindians,have now been detected in pre-Columbian remains. These markers (identified as “other” Table 1) are found in nearly 100% of Europeans and 27% of the Siberians studied. The pre-Columbian presence of this 'European' mtDNA lineage brings into question possible contributions Europeans may have made to the formation of the Nenana Culture and a post-Glacial movement and admixture of Siberian People with northern pre-Clovis Native American populations. However, since the X haplotype of Forster does not correspond to X6 or X7, we propose to name it "X8," and we recommend using the letter "X" instead of the letter "E," to avoid confusion with the haplogroups "E," reported by Torroni et al. (1994) in Tibetans. It is worth mentioning here that we have found the X8 haplotype in 6 of 41 Sioux individuals studied (Bianchi and Bailiet. 1997 pg. 245). These markers X6, X7, and X8 may indicate another example of admixture, this between pre-existing Amerindians and Siberians following contact between New and Old World people, at the end of the Last Ice Age. They would pre-date, in Alaska, the Nenana Culture who show clear Paleolithic relationships with northeast Asian habitations before end of the last Ice Age. Given this scenario, it is possible that the first contact with pre-Clovis was initiated in unglaciated North America by Nenana Cultures who carried with them Upper Paleolithic-like technologies. This could explain why 12% of the markers found in once deglaciated northern Amerindian populations have Old World affinities. Amerindian Concepts (Sowing Seeds for Chacmool 1999) The Archaeological evidence presented here may have a valid correlation in the origins of the Sundance Ceremony and the subsequent movement of populations using "Fluted Technologies" from the mid-continental High Plains north. The "instructions" (the diffusion of Upper Paleolithic-like technologies and the ceremonies that went with them) were given to the Plains Indian Tribes through Sutai, "Horns Standing Up", following his return from the north. These "instructions" of how to perform the "Great Medicine Ceremony" are represented in this story to have been given to him in the north by the Creator, "Maheo" through his helper, "Great Roaring Thunder." "With issiwun [the sacred hat] you will control the animals---the buffalo, the antelope, the elk, the deer---who give themselves to the people for food. The Tsis-tsistas shall never be hungry again, but live in plenty (Josie Limply, as told to Richard Erdoes in, Erdoes and Ortiz pg. 36, 1984)." This myth depicts archaeological support for the existence of an Amerindian population that were not auspicious hunters (Krieger's 1964 pre-projectile point stage), while citing that the capacity to successfully hunt large game animals was gained from knowledge contained in the north (perhaps by the Nenana Culture and/or Upper Paleolithic relatives of Kennewick Man). Moreover, there exists linguistic support that would link the deglaciated inhabitants of the north, the Na-Dene, with the Northern Plains Sioux, corroborating the interpretations of Boas and Sapir (1916) with analysis of the mtDNA data described in this paper. "Jurgen Pinnow, while hesitant to strongly affirm Sino-Dene or Dene-Caucasian, has in fact supplied substantial evidence for the connection (Pinnow, 1976, pp. 98-105), and views Na-Dene as a transitional link between Sino-Tibetan and American families such as Siouan (personal communication 1993) (Bengston 1994, pg 211)." Linking origin myths with linguistic, genetic, anthropometric, and archaeological data may help in defining viable relationships' those demonstrated by traditional scientific assessments (Greenberg et al. 1986; and others). New hypotheses based on properly interpreting myth and traditional indigenous knowledge may find substance in defining alternatives to the conventional wisdom. Certainly, human migrations incorporating the possibilities of movements of Amerindians north following deglaciation have not been adequately tested and/or refuted. Finally, the difficulty or intransigence many archaeologists evince in accepting a pre-Terminal Glacial human habitation of the Americas should not limit the scope of hypothesis testing in concert with the development of "paradigm growth and theory building" (Binford 1983; 1991). ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I thank the Chacmool Conference Committee and it’s students for providing the forum for this work, Lewis R. 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Natural History. 7/87 Amerindian Affinities/Admixture A-D and “Other” Old World Population mtDNAs in %s Population A B C D E F G Other Han (Taiwan) 10. 35 5 5 0 5 0 40 Koreans 7.7 15.4 0 23.1 7.7 15.4 15.4 15.3 Malays 0 3.1 0 0 0 21.4 0 64.3 New Guineans 0 19.3 0 0.8 0 0.8 0 79.1 Tibetans 11.1 5.6 3.7 16.7 7.4 14.8 5.6 35.1 Vietnamese 0 14.3 0 0 0 32.2 0 53.5 Evenks (Eastern Siberian) 3.9 0 84.3 9.8 - - - 2 Eskimo (Eastern Siberian) 80 0 20 0 - - - 0 Gamble (Alaskan Eskimo) 61.7 3.5 0 26 - - - 2 Haida 92.1 7.9 0 0 - - - 0 Nuu-Chal-Nulth 40 6.7 13.3 26.7 - - - 13.3 Dogrig 90.9 0 2 0 - - - 7.1 Ojibwa 64.3 3.6 7.1 0 - - - 25 Apache 64 16 12 8 - - - 0 Amerinds (combined) Northern 39.1 19.1 20.9 8.7 - - - 12.2 Central 65.7 28.5 2.9 2.2 - - - 0.7 Southern 14.4 18.5 28.8 38.4 - - - 0.0 Table Percentages of Regional-Specific Amerindian Lineages; and "other" Old World Haplotypes suggesting Holocene and/or post-Colombian European admixture in Amerinds. Data compiled from Merriwether et al. 1995. Their Sources; Torroni et al. (1993a), Torroni et al. (1993b), Ward et al. (1993), Schurr et al. (1990), Horai et al. (1993), Merriwether et al. (1995) Torroni et al. 1994a), and Ballanger et al. (1992) Ballanger et al. (1992); Stoneking et al. (1990).