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School of Education
3-21-2018
Leading in the middle
Pamela L. Eddy
College of William and Mary, pamela.eddy@wm.edu
Marilyn J. Amey
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Core Concepts in Higher Education
Series Editors: Edward P. St. John and Marybeth Gasman
1he History of U.S. Higher Education: Methods for Understanding the Past
Edited by Marybeth Gasman
Understanding Community Colleges
Edited by John S. Levin and Susan T. Kater
Public Policy and Higher Education: Reframing Strategies for Preparation, Access, and
College Success
Edited by Edward P. St. John, Nathan Daun-Barnett, and Karen M.
Moronski-Chapman
Organizational Theory in Higher Education
Kathleen Manning
Diversity and Inclusion: Supporting Racially and Ethnically Underrepresented Students
in Higher Education
Rachelle Winkle-Wagner and Angela M. Locks
Fundraising and Institutional Advancement: Theory, Practice, and New Paradigms
By Noah D. Drezner and Frances Huehls
Student Development Theory in Higher Education: A Social Psychological Approach
By Terrell L. Strayhorn
Law and Social Justice in Higher Education
By Crystal Renee Chambers
Qualitative Inquiry in Higher Education Organization and Policy Research
By Penny Pasque and Vicente Lechuga
American Higher Education: Issues and Institutions
By John R. Thelin
Understanding Community
Colleges
Second Edition
Edited by
John S. Levin and Susan T. Kater
I� ���J!;"���p
NEW YORK AND LONDON
Second edition published 2018
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OXl 4 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2018 Taylor & Francis
The right of the John S. Levin and Susan T. Kater to be identified as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual
chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means,
now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,
or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in
writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2013
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Levin, John S., author. I Kater, Susan, author.
Title: Understanding community colleges/ edited by John S. Levin &
Susan T. Kater.
Description: Second edition. I New York : Routledge, 2018. I
Series: Core Concepts in Higher Education
Identifiers: LCCN 2017050395 I ISBN 9781138288126 (Hardback) I
ISBN 9781138288133 (Paperback) I ISBN 9781315268071 (eBook) I
ISBN 9781315268071 (Master) I ISBN 9781351974981 (Web PDF) I
ISBN 9781351974974 (ePub) I ISBN 9781351974967 (Mobi-Pocket/
Kindle)
Subjects: LCSH: Community colleges-United States. I Community
college students-United States-Case studies.
Classification: LCC LB2328.15.U6 U64 2018 j DDC 378.1/5430973-dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017050395
ISBN: 978-1-138-28812-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-28813-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-26807-1 (ebk)
Typeset in Minion
by Keystroke, Neville Lodge, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton
CONTENTS
vu
List of Illustrations
Series Editor Introduction
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1
lX
Xl
XXl
The Historical Origins of the Comprehensive Community
College Mission, 1901-1965
1
KEN MEIER
Chapter 2
Student Diversity in Community Colleges: Examining
Trends and Understanding the Equity Challenge
21
LINDSEY E. MALCOM-PIQUEUX
Chapter 3
Student Development Versus Consumerism: Student
Services on Campus
45
JOAN B. HIRT AND TARA E. FRANK
Chapter 4
Hispanic Community College Students: A Profile of
Theory and Research
65
AMAURY NORA, VINCENT D. CARALES, AND RIPSIME K. BLEDSOE
Chapter 5
International Student Enrollment in U.S. Community Colleges:
Joint Endeavors by Individuals and Institutions
YI LEAF ZHANG AND LINDA SERRA HAGEDORN
V
89
vi • Contents
Chapter 6
Adult Student Development: The Socio-Agentic Approach and
its Relationship to the Community College Context
109
VIRGINIA MONTERO-HERNANDEZ AND CHRISTINE CERVEN
Chapter 7
Teaching Academically Underprepared Students in
Community Colleges
135
DOLORES PERIN
Chapter 8
Career and Technical Education: Old Debates and
Persistent Challenges
159
DEBRA D. BRAGG
Chapter 9
Faculty and the Connection to the Institution
181
JOHN S. LEVIN
Chapter 10
Leading in the Middle
203
MARILYN J. AMEY AND PAMELA L. EDDY
Chapter 11
Redefining Shared Responsibility: Governance in
the 21st Century Community College
227
SUSAN T. KATER AND CARRIE B. KISKER
Chapter 12
State Fiscal Support for Community Colleges
247
JAMES C. PALMER AND RICHARD M. ROMANO
Chapter 13
The Future is Probabl[e]y: The Same but Different
265
JOHN S. LEVIN, SUSAN T. KATER,
AND ARIADNA I. L6PEZ DAMIAN
Notes on Contributors
283
Index
289
10
LEADING IN THE MIDDLE
MARILYN J. AMEY AND PAMELA L. EDDY
Writing on leadership is ubiquitous, but the bulk of the focus of the literature relies
on research with its roots in business cultures (Kouzes & Posner, 2017; Maxwell, 2013)
that is then adapted for higher education (Buller, 2014; Hendrickson, Lane, Harris,
& Dorman, 2013). Further adaptations are made in considering leadership in the
community college sector (Amey, VanDerLinden, & Brown, 2002; Boggs & McPhail,
2016; Eddy, 2010). A review of this literature highlights how narrow definitions
of leadership persist (Amey & Twombly, 1992; Eddy & VanDerLinden, 2006), and that
these definitions typically rely on thinking of norms based on historical singular
leaders with positional power (Fletcher, 2004). Thus, who we think can lead and how
they can lead builds from a long history of White males acting in authoritative ways
(Amey & Twombly, 1992; Eddy & Ward, 2017). In the context of a contemporary and
complex environment, the reliance by community colleges on such a narrow and small
population of the talent within this sector and perceived reliance on those in top-level
leadership is no longer tenable.
Furthermore, scant literature on mid-level leaders exists. There is acknowledgment
of the challenges facing administrators in the middle ranks (Levin, 2001, 2017), but this
work fails to explicate mid-level leadership or posit new theoretical constructs for
expanding leadership beyond the roles of presidents or chief academic officers. A skills
based focus on leadership development for department chairs (Gillet-Karam, 1999)
highlights preparation for moving up the career pipeline (Ebbers, Conover, & Samuels,
2010) by learning to lead (Davis, 2003) versus recognizing or valuing the roles of
middle leaders on their own merits. Another area of literature on mid-level leaders
centers on reasons individuals opt to not pursue top-positions (Garza Mitchell & Eddy,
2008; Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2017); here, again, the orientation is on the brass ring of
203
204 • Marilyn J. Amey and Pamela L. Eddy
senior leadership versus expanding recognition of the mid-level position. Arney's
(1999) research on leading in the middle instead tackled the notion of mid-level leader
identity in her narratives of two mid-level women administrators. She found that
gender expectations and limited role authority restricted how these individuals could
operate as authentic leaders, and noted how contributions of these women were not
recognized within their institutions. Likewise, Levin (2001, 2017) recounted behaviors
of mid-level administrators, but did not focus on how their leadership was perceived
on campus.
The mid-level administrator often serves as the stepping stone for senior leadership
positions (American Council on Education [ACE], 2012). Yet, we argue that conceiving
of leadership beyond position title and envisioning a broader band of inclusion
regarding leadership (Eddy, Garza Mitchell, & Amey, 2016) requires rethinking
leadership theories. Focusing on leaders in the middle is critical as these individuals
are responsible for operations and "importantly, it is mid-level leaders who opera
tionalize institutional strategic plans, who engage with students, and who ultimately
determine the effectiveness of top leadership" (Eddy et al., 2016, para. 2). For the pur
poses of this chapter, we define mid-level leaders as those in administrative positions
of department chair, director, associate/ assistant dean, dean, and senior faculty
members. It is also important to understand the community college context (Levin,
2001) and to recognize differences among community colleges (Hardy & Katsinas,
2007) as the roles of middle leaders differ due to institutional and regional needs, and
governance structures.
This chapter problematizes conceptions of leadership used in community colleges,
with particular attention on leading in the middle. First, a portrait of current leadership
thinking occurs. Next, we take a close look at what is means to lead at the mid-level. It
is necessary to first define what mid-level leadership is, how leading in the middle
differs from management, and how interrogating conceptions of mid-level leadership
puts pressure on existing organizational structures and norms. We offer that networked,
multidirectional leadership is required, and that this conceptualization of leadership
necessitates new approaches in both theory and practice.
LEADERSHIP PORTRAIT
Historically, leadership research focused on Great Man theories and revolved around
norms based on White men in particular (Heifetz, 1994). Early community college
presidents used their position of formal authority to help create new colleges and
systems (Twombly, 1995) within the cultural context of the region and in concert with
local community college involvement (Ratcliff, 1994). Once established, community
college leaders embraced management practices of the early decades of the 1900s that
placed decision-making firmly with top-level leaders. Over time, this form of top-down
leadership evolved and became more inclusive of faculty voices and somewhat more
Leading in the Middle • 205
diverse leaders (Townsend & Twombly, 2007). But the changing context of the higher
education environment requires different approaches to leadership (Amey, 2013).
Current demands for strategic approaches to environmental adaptation in community
colleges require leaders to employ a level of cultural competency that contributes to
organizational adaptation ( Cameron, 1984; Heifetz, 1994) and that engages stakeholders
in processes that create mutually beneficial outcomes (Roueche, Baker, & Rose, 2014).
This type of adaptive leadership provides leaders a platform for understanding the
complex problems that face community colleges and the type of second-order change
required to move institutions of higher education forward (Kezar, 2013).
Historical Conceptions of Leadership
A review of various leadership and management eras provides a starting point for
challenging old conceptions of leadership and developing new constructs of leadership,
in particular when thinking about leading in the middle. Eddy (2013) posited a range
of eras of leadership and management situated from the 1900s until the present (see
Table 10.1). The last era noted in this previous work emerged at the turn of the century.
We argue that transition into a new era is now occurring, and we have named leadership
in this era networked leadership. Importantly, we posit that this new era marries
leadership and management constructs into a more dynamic whole versus their
treatment as distinctive constructs in eras.
The era of multi-dimensional leadership and collaboration in management that
began around 2000 conceived of leading and management as two different constructs.
The early 21st century witnessed resource constrictions, multiple and competing
demands on community college leaders, and a move toward collaboration. Collaboration
in institutions utilizes concepts of shared leadership (Denis, Lamothe, & Langley, 2001)
that requires connections among various levels of leadership, and builds on relationships
among leaders, faculty, and staff (Wood & Gray, 1991). Yet, in both research and
practice, strong role expectations differentiated leaders and managers. Indeed, during
this period, Fugazzotto (2009) argued that middle-level managers were underutilized
TabJe 10.1
Leadership eras and management eras in community colleges
Era
1900s-1930s
Management
Leadership
Great Man Leadership-Charismatic
Bureaucratic operations
Independence-Hierarchical
Patriarchic
1960s-1970s
Maturation-Building Capacity, Human
Resources
Unionization-entrenchment of roles
1980s-1990s
Resource Constraints-Strategic Planning
Shared Governance
2000-2015
Leadership in Transition: Multidimensional
Leadership-Framing Change
Collaboration
2015-present
Networked Leadership
1940s-1950s
206 • Marilyn J. Amey and Pamela L. Eddy
in helping institutions develop strategies for improvements in part because they were
not embraced fully as leaders within their organizations.
We argue that a new era is upon us that began around 2015. This year of transition
marked a decided turn toward performance-based funding in community colleges
(Mullin, Baime, & Honeyman, 2015), which coincided with a downturn in community
college enrollments as the economy improved (Romano & Palmer, 2016). Consistent
with these changes was renewed attention to leadership transitions in the community
college sector (Boggs & McPhail, 2016; Eddy, Sydow, Alfred, & Garza Mitchell, 2015).
Several concurrent forces emerged around 2015 that required scholarly rethinking of
leadership in community colleges as the rules of competition changed and boundaries
between the college and community became more permeable (Eddy et al., 2015). This
transition sets the stage for critiquing historic concepts of leading and managing and
provides a platform to re-conceptualize leading in the middle.
Expanded Thinking about Leadership
Networked leadership, as we label this new era, provides a way to blur the lines between
leadership and management. 'i\.s community colleges move from organizations that
are loosely coupled with their communities to organizations that are tightly networked
with partners in an expansive service region, so too must leaders make the trans
formation to a network" (Eddy et al., 2015, p. 116). A cornerstone of the network is
relationships and partnerships (Eddy & Amey, 2014). Networked leaders intentionally
provide connections among individuals and organizations, including developing
effective communication channels and framing for others, which can create the
context required for innovation and change (Fairhurst, 2011; Wyner, 2014). "Networked
leaders must not only understand the importance of distributing power throughout
the organization, but they must also know how to digest and interpret information for
decision-making" (Eddy et al., 2015, p. 119). The networked leadership era begins
to signal alterations in the definitions of leadership based solely on leaders' location
at the top of the organizational chart (Bolden, Petrov, & Gosling, 2008}. Instead,
leadership is framed as those who are able to move the strategic mission of the college
forward regardless of position, power (Heimans & Timms, 2014), the leverage of
organizational learning (Kezar, 2013), and the flexibility afforded to those in the middle
(Pfeffer, 1977).
KEY FRAMES OF MID-LEVEL LEADERSHIP
Previous research on mid-level leadership focused on individuals' aspirations to move
to top-level positions (Ebbers et al., 2010; Garza Mitchell & Eddy, 2008}, on leaders'
morale (Rosser, 2004}, and leaders' experiences based on gender (Jo, 2008; Vongalis
Macrow, 2012} or race/ethnicity (Bichsel & McChesney, 2017; Perrakis, Campbell,
& Antonaros, 2009). To begin to construct leading in the middle in the current
Leading in the Middle • 207
environment and for the future, we consider several pertinent concepts. First, we review
how traditional leadership theories contributed to thinking of leadership by position,
and how historical distinctions between leadership and management (Bennis & Nanus,
1985) reinforced expectations based on organizational title. Second, we look into the
ways in which institutional roles influence leading in the middle. Next, we discuss the
role of organizational structure and hierarchy to explain how structure influences roles
( Giddens, 1984). Finally, we consider more the previous literature on mid-level
leadership and how this research informs new constructs of mid-level leadership.
Leading Versus Managin g
Those leading in the middle are sometimes difficult to identify, in that institutional size,
context, and organizational hierarchy complicate sorting based on title. We conceptualize
those leading in the middle (those we also call mid-level leaders) as those who occupy
positions outside of the top-level leadership cabinet, such as deans, department chairs,
division heads, and directors. Often, those in the middle have maintained traditional
managerial roles (Mintzberg, 1979), but, as we contemplate what it means to define
-leading in the middle, it is important to jettison some of these historical roles as they
can be limiting and ultimately self-fulfilling.
Those at senior levels have authority due to position, but power within an institution
goes beyond position. Moreover, newly promoted leaders often realize ambiguity
in the power they possess, and that ill-defined roles complicate how those in the
middle can lead (Stone & Coussons-Read, 2011). Institutional knowledge, robust and
broad relationships, ability to navigate conflict, strong framing skills (i.e., the ability to
communicate a particular meaning to others; Fairhurst, 2011), and understanding
information and data are not linked to position but contribute to an individual's social
capital and power, which are valuable aspects of leadership. Power emerges at various
points of relationship intersections and network hubs-often the exact location of the
work of most mid-level leaders as their work cuts across the institution. Unlike top
leaders who tend to have a spotlight on them that often limits what they can say and
do, mid-level leaders can embrace the power of being less encumbered and enjoy
greater latitude to enact change.
Historically, attempts to define leadership resulted in a host of meanings and
intentions. As an example, Bess and Dee (2008) provided a summary in their listing
of five different categories:"( 1) leadership as an influence process; (2) leaders as the
facilitation of the achievement of desired organizational outcomes; (3) leadership as
the fulfillment of group members' psychological needs; (4) leadership as a characteristic
of a person; and (5) leadership as an exchange process" (pp. 831-832). Views of leader
ship included a hierarchy of responsibilities, a scope of authority, and particular goals
for the position, and were juxtaposed with the roles of followers. Managers, instead,
typically have responsibilities that serve as a conduit within the organization but, often,
with a set of constraints that limit their perceived influence.
208 • Marilyn J. Amey and Pamela L. Eddy
Managerial roles within organizations differ from leadership roles and are occu
pied by individuals who are supervisors and who coordinate the work of staff and
professionals that report to them (Parsons, 1960). Building on these conceptions of
managers, Mintzberg (1979) outlined three different role functions for managers,
namely interpersonal roles, informational roles, and decisional roles. In considering
what it means to be a middle-level leader, it is therefore important to understand the
duality of roles and position from a Janusian perspective (Cameron, 1984). Those in
the middle are required to juggle the historical roles of leader and manager together,
to be both effective in their administrative responsibilities while also finding ways to
connect more fully to mission, vision, influence, and enhance connections with others
outside their jurisdiction. A move in this direction for middle leaders emerges in the
research on collaborative leadership (Lipman-Blumen, 1996).
Role and Structure
Another issue in conceptualizing leading in the middle arises from roles and structures
of postsecondary organizations. Early community college organizational structures
mirrored those of their public school counterparts, with the founding colleges relying
on organizational efficiencies (Morgan, 2006) and power more firmly rooted with the
president (Eells, 1931). Campus unionization in the 1960s and 1970s further shifted
roles and structures, differentiating management from labor, and creating some
ambiguity for mid-level leaders with responsibilities less clearly classified. Pointedly, of
the 43% of unionized campuses (Cohen, Brawer, & Kisker, 2014), five states represent
the bulk (60%) of unionized community college faculty (California, Illinois,Washington,
New York, and Michigan). An upsurge of shared governance occurred against this
backdrop of unionization, which complicated decision-making roles and did little to
invest real agency in faculty (Gilmour, 1991). The value of team-based leadership
(Bensimon & Neumann, 1993) began to acknowledge the leveraging of an expanded
conception of leadership within college settings.
Typically, the organization's structure and prescribed roles work to limit concep
tions of those in the middle as leaders. For example, a study of educational reform in
New Zealand highlights how the work of middle leaders in schools is dominated by
management tasks, with little or no time for traditional leadership roles of strategic
planning or addressing organizational issues (Fitzgerald, 2009). Furthermore, research
on mid-level management in Finland's universities of applied science revealed
adaptation of neoliberal ideals in which tight coupling of the organization's sub-systems
and between administrators and faculty reify top-down hierarchies versus expansions
of roles (Vuori, 2015). Individuals can "choose" to stay in the middle ranks where
managerial tasks shape their role in institutions based upon historical precedents
(Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2017) or individuals can become stuck in the middle
inadvertently, and become expert at the tasks deemed most important by those above
them in the hierarchy (Gonzalez-De Jesus, 2012). When scholars begin to understand
Leading in the Middle • 209
more about the role middle leaders provide and afford, new and expanded conceptions
that result can help recast barriers and support for those not found outside top-level
positions and who historically have been only seen as fulfilling managerial requirements.
Research highlights how those in the middle sometimes have little desire for
promotion (ACE, 2012; Garza Mitchell & Eddy, 2008; Ward & Wolf-Wendel, 2017).
Numerous reasons contribute to the lack of motivation of mid-level administrators
and faculty to seek upper-level positions. For example, Sandberg (2013) argued that
women often take themselves out of the running for upper-level positions in the busi
ness sector. This argument relies predominantly on the role of individual agency and
ignores the role of organizational structure (Giddens,1984). Indeed,masculine comm
unities of practice (Burkinsaw, 2015) create institutional environments that base group
norms on male behaviors, including in higher education organizations. Similarly,while
community colleges are heralded as inclusive learning environments for under
represented students, the same cultural and racial acceptance, opportunities, and
networks are not always present for White women and women of color who aspire to
senior administrative positions. They often lack the cultural capital to combat systemic
norms and the necessary support from more senior leaders to feel accepted in their
roles and to achieve succeed and survive (Amey, 1999; Townsend, 1995). Perrakis and
colleagues (2009) argued that "without a pipeline of racially and ethnically diverse
faculty who view the ranks as ascendable, the culture as supportive,community college
will be left without a pool of candidates to consider when hiring senior administrators"
(p. 10). A decade later,their forecast has remained accurate. Contributing to this climate
is also the lack of advancement opportunities in community colleges that often exist
given flatter organizational structures, especially for those who are place bound and
who often are women (VanDerLinden, 2004). Finally, perceptions of what top-level
positions require also influence how mid-level leaders think about career advancement.
For example, Ward and Wolf-Wendel (2017) found that community college women
faculty in their longitudinal study showed little desire to seek upper-level positions as
they viewed these positions as unattractive.
Roles operate on an individual level and are reinforced by ways in which individuals
interact with and respond to others within the institution. Organizational roles develop
as a result of a number of interactions among organizational members. Four main
functions are involved in the creation of roles: (1) role senders-those who create and/
or interpret roles; (2) sender expectations-originate with the role sender and are
transmitted to the individual in the received role about what is expected in the role;
(3) role receiver-those individuals receiving expectations from the role sender;
(4) role responder-how the person in the role acts based on role expectations and how
they receive this information (Bess & Dee, 2008). Historically, role senders were those
in positions of authority. Critically, supervisory experience can serve as gatekeepers
that prevent White women, people of color, and other non-traditional leaders from
moving up into executive ranks (Donohue-Mendoza, 2012; Valverde, 2003). Given the
210 • Marilyn J. Amey and Pamela L. Eddy
emergence of new conceptions of power within organizations (Heimans & Timms,
2014), roles of authority and positional power are shifting as the power of information
becomes ubiquitous for those with access to social media. Widespread access to social
media provides individuals with the ability to frame understanding for others and
to offer alternative interpretations of events. Yet, even with this expansion of access to
personal power, the complexity of projects often results in individuals taking on more
narrow roles and tasks within the larger oversight of project management, making it
less clear who has authority (Bess & Dee, 2008). The uncertainty of role responsibility
that arises when many individuals are involved in complex team projects often results
in role conflict for middle leaders, given incongruity of expectations on the part of role
senders and role receivers (middle leaders most often are in this latter role).
Notably, roles are formed and constrained by the structures of organizations. Because
organizational structure influences roles, it is important to understand how context
influences how roles are defined. One influence is in the ways mid-level leaders note
satisfaction with their work (Rosser, 2004). Individuals with high work satisfaction
have higher morale when their work contributions are valued and are less likely to leave
(Rosser, 2004). Unionized campuses typically have more prescriptive roles for faculty
members and administrators (Twombly & Townsend, 2008), underscoring the influence
of context on roles.
Matrix Versus Hierarchy
The push for networked leadership requires rethinking organizational hierarchies
(Eddy et al., 2015). Historically, organizational structures relied on rigid hierarchies,
with authority firmly vested at the top (Mintzberg, 1979). A matrix perspective instead
allows for conceiving of more complicated organizational interactions among
individuals (McPhail, 2016). A matrix structure has links to networked leadership in
that it focuses on the interactions of individuals and the context of the institution.
Thinking of leadership as a form of matrix involves emphasizing leadership as "a social
influence process through which emergent coordination (i.e., evolving social order)
and change (i.e. new values, attitudes, approaches, behaviors, ideologies, etc.) are con
structed and produced" (Uhl-Bien, 2006, p. 668), which shifts leading as embodied
in people in positions to leading embedded in relationships among actors. McPhail
(2016) argued that for community colleges to be successful, restructuring reporting
lines and responsibility areas is necessary, with power shared "along and among two or
more dimensions" (p. 58). She maintained that a matrix organization can provide more
agility in handling contemporary complex problems because vertical and horizontal
leadership occurs that cuts across functional areas. Thus, authority is divided by
function and by project and is not tied to position in the institution. While this
kind of organizational structure may increase role ambiguity among employees and
leaders (Schulz, 2013), we argue that middle leaders are particularly well suited for this
type of multidirectional leadership in a matrix organization given their connectivity
Leading in the Middle • 211
within the college-up and down the hierarchy and with external stakeholders across
functional units. These leaders contribute a central hub to the networks involved and
needed to meet institutional goals.
Investigating less structured forms of leadership, Bolden and colleagues (2008)
examined distributed leadership in higher education. They found various hybrid forms
of practice including a confluence of top-down and bottom-up influences that
co-existed. Navigating these hybrid forms of distributed leadership creates a more fluid
organizational environment that must also continue to inhabit existing organizational
structures. The level of social capital (Coleman, 1990) among individuals contributes
to the ease of operating in a more complex and dynamic organizational structure. As
individuals move through community colleges administrative pathways, "they may
,,
well be required to alternate between different types of role and forms of influence
(Bolden et al., 2008, p. 370). The extent of influence is tied to social capital.
Connections among individuals throughout the institution, identification of who or
what bridges these groups, and how social capital accrues at different levels all begin
to press for re-envisioning organizational structures. Academic organizations, including
community colleges, often try to resolve their problems and approach new initiatives
"either by focusing on key individuals or by restructuring, less often reflecting on the
forces that connect people and enable them to work together in pursuit of a common
,,
aim (Bolden et al., 2008, p. 372). Given the attention to relationships in leadership roles,
it is important for scholars to understand more about how middle leaders operate in a
matrix versus a hierarchy. An increased understanding of these types of interactions
can also aid practitioners in operationalizing a change in reporting structures that
moves away from organizational hierarchies.
Mid-level Leadership
Why is the mid-level leader important? Claims of a leadership crisis in higher education,
particularly in the community college sector, have been touted for over 15 years (Shults,
2001; Weisman & Vaughan, 2007). Aging top-level leaders (the average age for presi
dents is 61 years old) and the lack of succession planning are cause for concern for
boards and hiring committees (Long, Johnson, Faught, & Stret, 2013). When leadership
is viewed as a career pipeline, then mid-level is where cultivation of the next generation
of senior leaders emerges. The literature to-date on mid-level leaders focuses specifically
on this issue (Ebbers et al., 2010; Garza Mitchell & Eddy, 2008). However, it is also
important to view leading in the middle based on its own merits and contributions
,,
to the organization (Eddy et al., 2016). Mid-level leaders are those who "drive the bus
and take care of day-to-day operations that maintain the functioning of community
colleges. Often, those in mid-level positions offer stability to organizations as they stay
longer in their colleges compared to top-level leaders. Presidents have an average
tenure of only five to seven years (ACE, 2012). Importantly, it is mid-level leaders who
operationalize institutional strategic plans, who deal most directly with students, and
212 • Marilyn J. Amey and Pamela L. Eddy
ultimately determine how top leaders are evaluated. Organizational and scholarly
attention to mid-level leadership gives colleges an opportunity to leverage talent and
build capacity located in leaders outside of executive leadership.
Part of the reason for the lack of consideration of the mid-level leader is due to how
we define who is a leader. For example, historically, gender has played a role in mid
level positions as roles of associate deans, for example, were seen as sub-positions for
women who were viewed as subordinate and peacemaking in nature (Koerner &
Mindes, 1997). Another argument is that individuals in mid-level administration do
not see themselves as leaders because those in the top offices do not "look" like them,
and these models of exemplary leaders are what those in the middle think leadership
should look like (Amey & Twombly, 1992). Similarly, inherent biases about what a
leader should look or act like often preclude others from viewing those in mid-level
positions as leaders.
The critical role of middle leaders emerges when recognizing how these individuals
serve as boundary spanners and key sense makers within the organization (Fairhurst,
2011; Weick, 1995). Pullan and Scott (2009) offered an outline for turnaround leadership
in higher education. Critical in their analysis was the distinction between competence
and capability. They argued that "competence is more associated with management,
whereas capability is more associated with leadership" (p. 112). In thinking about
middle leaders, it is important to move past consideration of competencies (American
Association of Community Colleges, 2013) that have often become screening tools to
indicate readiness for advanced leadership positions, reinforcing ties between positional
title and leadership. Given the narrowing nature of organizational hierarchy, attention
to position only and top-level positions in particular ignores a range of talent within
the institution and limits the ability to build greater leader capacity throughout.
A move past singular competencies may recast the traditional curriculum vitae that
enumerates experiences based on titles to a skill-based overview that outlines what
individuals have accomplished regardless of title.
In creating an academic leadership capability framework based on their various
leadership studies, Pullan and Scott (2009) identified two areas of competencies (role
specific and generic) and three capabilities (personal, interpersonal, and cognitive).
They further articulated key areas in which turnaround leaders were masterful: listen
ing, linking, and leading, which are accomplished by modeling, teaching, and learning.
Obvious in this listing is the ability to capture and tap into leaders at various positions
throughout the organization versus referencing only those on top of the chart. This
historical tendency to think of leaders only as those at the top of the hierarchy and/or
holding certain positions also prohibits those in the middle from being viewed as
leaders-by themselves or by others. What happens instead if we think of the type of
leadership that is occurring in the middle ranks? How do models of leadership expand?
We offer some ideas about how to think differently about those in the middle and how
to leverage the power of these leaders to advance the mission of community colleges.
Leading in the Middle • 213
VISIONING LEADING IN THE MIDDLE
Multiple ideals and constructs for leadership can help how community colleges leverage
and build talent. Given the larger numbers of leaders in the middle of organizational
hierarchies, the position of mid-level leader offers more options for experimentation
of new constructs of leadership and institutional reporting structures. Similarly, people
often do not consider themselves leaders until they hear it from someone else or until
someone suggests that they have leadership potential (Eddy, 2009; Sluss, van Dick, &
Thompson, 2011). The question then becomes how to change people's own beliefs in
seeing themselves as leaders so they can take advantage of opportunities in their
current positions to embrace chances to lead.
In visioning leading in the middle, we offer several key building blocks for a
conceptual model that problematizes current, narrow conceptions of leadership. This
conceptual model of middle leadership provides opportunities for further scholarship
on the topic and for recasting existing leadership literature. First, we contextualize
middle leaders within a system of networked leadership. Second, we discuss ways to
conceptualize the role of middle leaders by using theories of role identity, socialization,
and power. Finally, we discuss how middle leaders use relational forms of interactions
and the contributions they make in the college setting.
Middle Leaders
As stated above, middle leaders are often wedged between senior administrators who
expect them to fall into line with organizational plans and directives and subordinates
who expect a collegial advocate and champion (Branson, Franken, & Penney, 2016).
We envision instead a critical role for middle leaders in contributing to the overall idea
of networked leadership, as those in the middle are connected widely to others within
the institution and outside of the college (see Figure 10.1) and able to move in and out
in ways that benefit those above them in the organization and those below. We posit
new ways of conceiving of middle leader roles.
Permeability of the role of middle leaders is highlighted in this model by a dashed
line representing the fluidity involved in the relationships among various groups. Staff
and faculty members may in fact step into middle leader roles depending on the
circumstances and context of the situation; they may also step away from these roles
when needs or personal aspirations change (e.g., matrix leadership). Even unionized
environments with contractual roles provide opportunities for faculty to step into
leadership, in particular as unions and faculty have long pushed for participatory forms
of governance (Richardson, 1972). The boundaries between traditional positions no
longer align strictly within a hierarchy and organizational sense of permanence, but
instead are flexible such that individuals may take on different responsibilities and
perspectives if needed. For example, Watson (2007) showcased how a community
college mid-level administrator played a pivotal role in establishing a partnership with
214 • Marilyn J. Amey and Pamela L. Eddy
External Stakeholders
Figure 10.1 Middle leaders
Source: adapted from Eddy (2013, p. 122)
an area K-12 school district. Despite this mid-level leader's lack of institutional power
or access to resources, he was "adept at making connections and use [d] his social capital
,
to convince others that the project [wa]s worthwhile , (Watson, 2007, p. 52). The
boundary-spanning components of middle leaders (Aldrich & Herker, 1977), such
as the administrator in the study above, emerge based on the relationships they
build and the social capital they accrue (Coleman, 1990). In this model of networked
leadership, top-positional leaders may lose some degree of control and power over
decision-making while mid-level leaders are in a better position to assume degrees of
decision making control and power.
The move to what we call networked leadership (Eddy et al., 2015) builds on matrices
of responsibilities and connections more than it relies on traditional organizational
structures and hierarchy (McPhail, 2016). Changing past organizational structures
is a difficult task for institutions and their leaders. A more likely alternative to over
hauling structure in order to move to networked leadership occurs when capabilities
more than competencies, collaboration among groups of leaders rather than reliance
on a single leader, multidirectional instead of unidirectional interactions, and new
conceptualizations of what leadership looks like are all part of the transition.
Scholars have highlighted small shifts towards networked leadership in calls for
team-based leadership (Bensimon & Neumann, 1993) and collaborative and distri
buted leadership (Hickman, 2010) that moved attention from individuals as leaders
Leading in the Middle • 215
to the power of groups. In these earlier constructs of leadership, the focus was on the
importance of functional leadership in teams (Zaccaro, Rittman, & Marks, 2002), and
team leaders were effective in whatever role the team required. "In this manner, it can
be seen how a common or traditional perspective on team leadership emphasizes the
contributions of an individual leader on group processes" (Day, Gronn, & Salas, 2004,
p. 858). Here, team leadership focuses more on the ways in which individuals contribute
to the group and its outputs, with attention to the leadership capabilities of the indi
vidual viewed as an input. Instead, Day and colleagues (2004) argued that leadership
could emerge as a result of the team and collective efforts versus as an input. In this
latter case, the interchange between individuals and the collective alters emphasis as
the group working together results in a different form of leading not evident or possible
at the individual level.
Organizational (collective) and individual learning (Amey, 2013) are required to
move towards networked leadership, and there needs to be time and opportunity for
both to occur to function effectively in this way. Although research on distributed and
networked leadership in higher education is at a nascent stage (Jones, Lefoe, Harvey &
Ryland, 2012), "Gronn (2000) described distributed leadership as a new architecture
for leadership in which activity bridges agency (the traits/behaviors of individual
leaders) and structure ( the systemic properties and role structure in concertive
action)" (as cited in Jones et al., p. 70). The interaction between individual agency and
organizational structure is at the heart of expanding notions of networked leadership.
Individuals are called upon to contribute a range of capabilities, and institutions are
challenged to remove barriers that allow for connecting across roles.
Scholars use multilevel approaches of leadership to understand both individual
influences and group-level contributions to the organization (Yammarino, Dionne, Uk
Chun, & Dansereau, 2005). Wang and Howell (2010) developed a rating scale of
transformational leadership practices that are individually focused and group focused.
They argued that "team leaders need to display different sets of behaviors to motivate
individual followers and teams as a whole" (p. 1140), and that working at different levels
requires different strategies. Central to this work is building trust among members of
the institution, which requires substantive and consistent interaction and time.
Commitment to this kind of multilevel leadership by community colleges, then,
requires change in the more traditional managerial and task-oriented roles of those in
the organizational middle.
Middle Leader Roles
As new images of leaders emerge, the role of middle leaders changes, specifically as tied
to role identity, social capital, and power. Nicholson (1984) posited that individual
development and organizational design contribute to how roles are perceived by
individuals; and, central to thinking about roles is the concept of role identity. Role
identity differs from role, as the latter is connected to a specific structural position
216 • Marilyn J. Amey and Pamela L. Eddy
whereas the former refers to how an individual makes sense of that role, which is connec
ted to cognitive schema and the social construction of behavior expectations (Sluss et
al., 2011). External influences on community colleges result in changes to organizational
roles and responsibilities (Levin, 2017). "Therefore, role identities within organizations,
although influenced by institutionalized pressures for conformity and legitimacy, are
under pressure by dynamic situational (both structural and relational) factors resulting
in equivalent volatility in role expectations, identity, and behavior" (Sluss et al., 2011,
p. 507). Thus, burdens of the environmental context of community colleges result in
changing expectations for those in the middle, and individuals face pressure to expand
their role identity. How individuals understand their role is influenced by role identity
salience: The more individuals embrace their role identity, the higher the salience.
Salience is influenced by the number of relationships tied to the role and the strength
or intensity of these ties (Sluss et al., 2011). Because individuals working in the middle
have high numbers of potential relationships in multiple directions, the potential exists
for high salience. What matters for middle leaders is "seeing" themselves as leaders and
key contributors in the college not just as information conduits or brokers for others
in more senior positions. Because middle leaders have multiple identities and roles,
which role is prioritized emerges based on salience. Thus, on the one hand, if a middle
leader identifies more with the management functions or skill-based competencies,
and these images are reinforced by relationships and organizational behaviors, then
traditional ideas of "manager" emerge versus "leader." On the other hand, if others,
especially top-level leaders, encourage role-making or role-taking behaviors, those in
the middle can begin to craft their role as leaders.
Relationships developed tied to salience and role identity lead to development of
social capital, which, as noted earlier (Coleman, 1990; Watson, 2007), is important to
leadership generally and middle leadership, specifically. Social capital emerges based
on "the aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of
a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance
or recognition" (Bourdieu, 1985, p. 248). In many ways, individuals acquire social capi
tal based on good will generated through interactions with others, much like a form of
an IOU in which an individual holds particular negotiating power with others based
on the level of good will they have performed. Leaders in the middle are primed to
interact with others, both internally and externally, and as a result often have high levels
of social capital based on their experiences, organizational knowledge, and work with
others over time (Watson, 2007). How individuals leverage their social capital can
contribute to a shift in thinking by others in the college and how top leaders view those
in the middle. Instead of a role perception as managers, those in the middle will be seen
as leaders who have significant roles in the new era of collaboration and network.
A shift in how power is viewed in organizations also contributes to the reach and
influence of middle leaders. Historically, power was often associated with position
in the organizational hierarchy (Morgan, 2006) and a finite supply of power controlled
Leading in the Middle • 217
tightly by leaders at the top. New thoughts understand power as more open and parti
cipatory, and created and used by many (Heimans & Timms, 2014). "New power taps
into individuals' capacity for growth and desire to participate in organizational strategic
actions-shaping decisions, developing policy, and charting a future direction-all
occurring without being told" (Eddy et al., 2015, p. 79). Conceptualizing power as
accessible by all within the institution provides a way for those in the middle to rethink
their leader role and gain confidence and capital.
Relational Roles and Networks
As part of thinking differently about those leading in the middle, how leaders are
identified needs to change. In the pivotal role as boundary spanners (Aldrich & Herker,
1977), middle leaders who engage with counterparts in other colleges and in the
community help bring back information into the institution and help translate
ideas to fit the community college context. This infusion of ideas occurs when campus
members attend conferences or training sessions and then learn how to implement the
new practice within the setting of their own college and meet their institution's needs.
In the era of networking, nimbleness and an adaptive nature to address the issues facing
community colleges build organizational flexibility (Heifetz, 1994; Heifetz, Grashow,
& Linsky, 2009), and middle leaders can leverage their relational abilities in this adaptive
process (Branson et al., 2016).
Presently, the ability to build relationships differs from in the past as the necessary
relationships required in higher education are broader, with new partners, and occur
across cultural borders (Eddy & Amey, 2014). Those in middle leadership ranks may
act as boundary spanners and connectors who provide key links both within the
institution and with external stakeholders. Similar to the mid-level administrator in
Watson's (2007) study, those working in the middle have a different range of connections
and relationships as they interact with others both up, down, and outside the organiz
ational hierarchy. This type of connection is important to bringing both information
and perspectives to decision-making. Attention to those leading in the middle focuses
primarily on individual efforts that draw on the ability of relationship building skills
(DeChurch, Hiller, Murase, Doty, & Salas, 2010). These individuals serve as critical
nodes of connection and in these roles help make meaning in often chaotic situations
(Levin, 2017). In these times of fiscal exigency, boundary spanners take on heightened
roles of importance. For example, department chairs have experienced broadening
responsibilities as community colleges flattened their middle management (Fattig,
2013). As Fattig found, individuals tapped often are those who fill leadership voids,
but these new leaders need leadership training and mentoring to support these
changing roles.
Networked leadership requires nurturing more cross-boundary connections
and relationships-both personally and institutionally (Amey, 1999; Watson, 2007).
Working across organizational sectors to build partnerships requires the ability of
218 • Marilyn J. Amey and Pamela L. Eddy
leaders to connect with others through outreach and relationships, and draws on levels
of social capital (Eddy & Amey, 2014). At the heart of roles for middle leaders is a
,,
constant "negotiation amidst networks of professional and power relations (Branson
et al., 2016, p. 129). In this environment, relationships draw on the social capital and
power of the individuals involved in negotiations within relationships. As power
within institutions becomes ubiquitous, those in the middle are in a unique location
to leverage power and to rely on trust and credibility, building relationships constructed
of influence and persuasion rather than organizational position.
Research by Branson and colleagues (2016) concluded that "the middle leader's role
in higher education must be reconceived as being fundamentally and unquestionability
,,
relational in its entirety (p. 142). Yet, those in the middle whose influence builds from
relational and networked roles exist within an organizational context and culture. For
example, when the Aspen Institute (2016) provided feedback to Halifax Community
College in rural North Carolina, the visiting site team advocated for the creation of a
cross-functional team to bridge academics and student affairs. The current organi
zational reporting structure creates barriers to more collaboration across functional
units. Increasingly, programs such as Completion by Design (www.completionbydesign.
org/) and Achieving the Dream (http://achievingthedream.org/) advocate for tighter
functional area connections and information sharing, drawing attention to the need
for mid-level leaders to accomplish goals of these initiatives. Faculty members and
mid-level leaders take on heightened roles as sharing information regarding students
becomes more central to mapping student progression within the community college.
The interplay between agency and structure (Giddens, 1984) requires ongoing learning
by middle leaders and organizational learning within the institution (Branson et al.,
2016; Kezar, 2013).
,,
Developing middle leaders begins with these individuals "seeing work assignments
as opportunities and taking advantage of them. Individual learning occurs within
larger communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991) and the opportunities to be
engaged with others whose perspectives and institutional responsibilities vary. Not
only do these assignments allow increased boundary spanning for the middle leader,
but they provide opportunity to increase knowledge, build networks and bridges for
individuals, units, and the colleges writ large. Recognizing these as more than just tasks
but as leadership capacity building experiences is a change in mindset for those working
in the middle with a conception of their work as only managerial in orientation. But,
nurtured, the promotion of greater leader capacity and networking for mid-level
administrators can occur (Reichard & Johnson, 2011).
When we move beyond hierarchical views of leadership, it becomes easier to see
leadership throughout the institution. Simple changes in language from "leader;' which
,,
may connote only a few in the college to "educator or "champion;' serve to change
perceptions and expand role identities symbolically. Focusing on relationships and
networks helps create a stronger sense of belongingness on campus (Strayhorn,2012).
Leading in the Middle • 219
Valuing the voice of middle leaders helps move institutions beyond simple tallying of
individual contributions to the college and instead enables thinking about collective
responsibilities (Branson et al., 2016). Both scholarly efforts to conceptualize mid-level
leadership (Amey, 1999; Eddy et al., 2016) and implementation of expanded recognition
of mid-level administrators as leaders need to occur.
CONCLUSIONS
The old structures and ways of operating at community colleges are no longer tenable
in these times of declining resources and changing student demographics. Colleges
can no longer afford to be all things to all people (Vaughan, 2004), and the increased
focus on completion, even if using ill-conceived metrics, has heightened public
attention on community colleges. Among many competing and critical issues facing
the colleges, the college completion movement requires attention to student progress
and attainment, and in instances such as this, attention turns to campus leadership
(Leslie & Fretwell, 1996). As highlighted in this chapter, in times of crisis, historically,
we turned to top-level leadership for action (Kotter, 2014; Roueche et al., 2014). While
crisis may seem a bit drastic, we argue that it is time to reconceive the role of middle
leaders and to change the organizational architecture of community colleges to take
advantage of all talent as a response to increased organizational complexity and
ongoing challenges.
Scant theorizing on middle leaders has occurred in community colleges (Branson
et al., 2016; Fletcher, 2004). Attention to team-based leadership began to acknowledge
that others beyond positional leaders could contribute to the mission of the college
(Bensimon & Neumann, 1993 ), but in these models, reliance on singular leaders pulling
the strings was evident (Day et al., 2004). The K-12 sector instead has placed more
effort on distributed and shared leadership over the past 20 years (Jones et al., 2012),
and it is now time for higher education to catch up. In an earlier work, Eddy (2010)
argued for multidimensional leadership, and we have advanced this concept into
networked leadership. This dynamic model builds on individual leader schema
and showcases how a range of attributes may contribute to effective leadership, and
highlights the need for institutional fit (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005).
This model assumes ongoing learning by leaders to allow for adjustments within
external environments even while the level of leadership is not defined. In more recent
work, Eddy et al. ( 2015) posited that networked leadership begins to move past thinking
of leadership as a singular effort, highlighting linkages both within institutions and
across sectors, building on partnerships (Amey & Eddy, 2014) and making use of
boundary spanners (Bess & Dee, 2008). "Networked leaders must not only understand
the importance of distributing power throughout the organization, but they must also
know how to digest and interpret information for decision making" (Eddy et al., 2015,
p. 119). Here, relationships become critical for the network.
220 • Marilyn J. Amey and Pamela L. Eddy
Fulfilling the promise of networked leadership, however, requires fundamental
change in most of the ways we think about leadership organizationally and structurally,
as well as individually and collectively. Changes to leadership development programs
and graduate programs provide one means to think differently about middle leaders
(Eddy & Garza Mitchell, in press). Linked to leadership development is a need to
contemplate succession planning, especially as the need to fill leadership positions
becomes increasingly critical as more positions are opening up relative to the past
(Bornstein, 2010). Because of pressures on community colleges facing a leadership
void, the time is ripe for reconfiguring the organizational structure to align with
networked leadership operating in a matrix organization (McPhail, 2016).
Increased agency for those leading in the middle begins to offer new ways to conceive
of their leadership identity as well (Sluss et al., 2011). Middle leaders need to move
beyond conceptions of managerial roles; they need to think and act instead like leaders.
These individuals become the interpreters of information, and help contribute to the
framing of the needs of the institution (Fairhurst, 2011 ). When the role of middle
leadership is conceptualized for its boundary-spanning capabilities and when
middle leaders are seen for the relational roles they provide the college, enhanced
outcomes will occur for the individual and the college.
Top-level leaders and boards of trustees must embrace the notion of sharing power
in the institution in order to achieve greater outcomes. Shared governance processes
are challenged in part by resource constraints and neoliberal policies (DiMaggio &
Powell, 1983; Gerber, 2014; Kater, 2017), but recent attention to the need for more
intra-institutional coordination, such as that advocated by programming by Completion
by Design (see www.completionbydesign.org/), brings increased attention to the value
of working together across institutional leadership levels. The push for performance
based funding (Mullin et al., 2015) puts a fine-point on the need to link leadership with
institutional outcomes. Increases in the leadership capacity of community colleges
provide these institutions with potential to recast their operations in ways to promote
better student outcomes, economic development for communities, and pathways to
universities. Middle leaders provide a critical linchpin in efforts to improve community
college operations.
QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION
1. How can institutional leaders change organizational structures in ways to
become more inclusive of middle leaders?
2. What theories of power and politics apply to middle leaders in community
colleges?
3. In what ways has unionization affected how we conceptualize middle-leader
roles?
4. How can individual agency contribute to expanded conceptions of leadership?
Leading in the Middle • 221
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