Visnuism in Khmer lands

South Asian Archaeology 2001, Volume II, Historical Archaeology and Art History, 2005

Hinduism of Khmer Empire According to Coedès Indian merchants were the founders of the states Srivijaya (7th to 13th cent.), Majapahit (1293 to 1500) and Khmer empire (802 to 1431), some assign the founding of the kingdoms to Southeast Asian rulers as founding them while importing Hindu pundits as advisers on rajadharma (ethics of kingship). The extent of Srivijaya Empire in 10th to 11th century CE, according to Chinese source and Srivijayan inscriptions. (Source: Gunawan Kartapranata, based on "Atlas Sejarah Indonesia dan Dunia" (Indonesian and World Historical Atlas) page 32, Drs. Achmad Jamil, Yulia Darmawaty, S.Pd, Sri Wachyuni, S.Pd, Mastara, Jakarta 2004).ima-water-festival-in.html https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/div-classtitlehistoire-ancienne-des-etats-hindouises-dandaposextreme-orient-by-coedesg-93-6-pp-iviii-1366-hanoi-1944div/300B5466D0AAF4D536E7FB7FA76614D4 Les Etats Hindouises D'Indochine et D'Indonesie.: Coedes, G. Add caption Front Cover See: http://tantriklaboratories.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Rigveda_Soma_not_a_herb_not_a_drink_but.pdf Rigveda Soma not a herb, not a drink but a metaphor for archaeometallurgical processes: Evidences from Ancient Far East: Bharhut, Bhuteshwar, Candi Sukuh, Candi Bukit Batu Pahat See: http://bharatkalyan97.blogspot.com/2014/11/karthika-purnima-water-festival-in.html Karthika Purnima water festival in Cambodia. Karthika Purnima Bail Yatra in Bharatam. The magnum opus of George Coedes, French epigraphist is Histoire ancienne des États hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient, Hanoi, Imprimerie d'Extrême-Orient, 1944 See: https://www.sites.google.com/site/indianoceancommunity1/hindu-kingdoms [quote] May, 2014, Process of Indianisation in Khmer Empire and their Impact It is noteworthy that the Khmers seemed to have willingly accepted Indianization. One likely explanation of the Khmer’s acceptance of Indianization was that the rulers found Hinduism a useful tool in governance that helps to increase their dominance over local groups as well as improve their contacts with other cultures. According to the Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, “Early Khmer leaders learned to justify their authority by placing it in a universal context of devotion that could fully absorb the religious aspirations and compel the loyalty of their followers.” Through cultural diffusion, borrowing and adaptation, Indianisation resulted in the Khmer Empire adopting Indian religious and political traditions and practices. The Khmers juxtaposed prehistoric animistic cultures with those of newly adopted Hinduism, the coexistence of which continues among villagers to this day. The development of a coherent model of political, social, religious integration resulting from political consolidations in Indian attracted the Southeast Asian rulers. What Indianisation brought to the Khmer Empire: The rich and complex Hindu religion, its mythology, cosmology and rituals – in particular Shiva and Vishnu The Sanskrit language, the vehicle of Hinduism. The source of many loan words in Khmer. The Hindu temple complex. A brick and stone architectural tradition, inspired by Gupta prototypes Sculptures and metal works representing gods, kings and Buddha Political practices associated with the Khmer court and the state Lifestyle and culture to the society In A Nutshell: Indianisation in Southeast Asia and its Process Historically, 'Indianization' was the term generally used for Indian cultural influence upon Southeast Asia. It refers to the spread of Indian culture to Southeast Asia. Southeast Asia adopted religious iconography, Sanskrit terminology, coinage, terms identifying leaders and the use of scripts (often mixed with local languages) from India. Earlier scholars had regarded the process of 'Indianization' as an Indian initiative with large-scale migrants establishing colonies in Southeast Asia. There were a few theories of Indianisation of Southeast Asia. Ultimately, some of these theories were debunked. Examples of such theories are: 1. The Theory of the Brahmin (priests) The Brahmin theory credits the Brahmins with the transmission of Indian culture. The Brahmins are individuals belonging to the Hindu priest, artists, teachers, technicians class. This theory was debunked due to the belief that the Brahmins are very elitist as they are at the top of the Indian caste system, where the society is divided into four major castes (varna): the priestly Brahmins, the Kshatriya warriors, the merchant Vaishyas, and the lowly, labouring Shudras. However, Southeast Asia did not adopt this system. 2. The Theory of the Kshatriyas The Kshatriyas theory presupposes that Indian cultural expansion was due to the seminal influence of the Indian warriors and conquerors, who migrated to Southeast Asia and conquered the land through war. However, insufficient evidence could be provided to support the hypothesis. 3. The Theory of the Vaisyas The vaisya theory postulates that Indian cultural penetration began with traders, who intermarried local women and impressed the indigenous population with their goods and culture. Trade had been the driving force for the traders to move to different places and hence spread the Indian culture around. However, the merchants of low origin and caste would not have the extensive knowledge to pass on extremely complex expertise as well as have the legitimacy to install the rulers of empires in Southeast Asia. Rather than being the result of a single factor, most likely the whole process of Indian cultural expansion was the outcome of endeavors of warriors, traders and priests along with the indigenous initiative. Most probably all four groups of people were involved in the process. The Indianisation process was not through colonisation, but rather through cultural diffusion (syncretism), cultural borrowing and adaptation. The arrival of a large number of Indians would have made significant social changes, but the people of Southeast Asia did not adopt the caste system, nor even the dietary habits of the Indians like curry powder or milk products. Politically, none of the supposed Southeast Asia 'colonies' showed any allegiance to India. Economically speaking, the states of Southeast Asia were not colonies as there was no scope of economic exploitation. India also did not enjoy a monopoly in the field of foreign trade. Investigations in the past thirty years indicate that 'Indian influences were selectively assimilated into pre-existing, well-developed cultural base'. One of the significant factors in the spread of Indian cultural influence in Southeast Asia is the geographical proximity between the two regions. The Indians were attracted by Southeast Asia’s great wealth and strong trade. In the spread of Indian culture, the sea played an important role. There was intensification of sea-borne commerce in the early centuries of Common Era. Along with traders, missionaries, priests, literati, adventurers and fortune seekers went to Southeast Asia. The Khmer, or Angkor Empire was a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom which dominated the Mekong River Valley and delta for more than 400 years, from 802 to 1432. The empire was founded by King Jayavarman II, and was based in what we now know was Cambodia. Prior to regional establishment, the area was under the influence of Indian culture for a number of centuries. Social The Arts Reamker, Cambodia's national epic, is a poem derived and adapted from the Ramayana, the famous Indian epic. Like the Ramayana, it is a philosophical allegory. It is not only confined to the realm of literature, but also extends to all Cambodian art forms, from sculpture to dance drama, painting and art. Picture The performing of a battle scene between Rama and Ravana in the Reamker. Picture Mural depicting a scene from the Reamker in Phnom Penh's Silver Pagoda Reamker Stone Sculptures Many sculptures were carved. Most of them being sculptures of religious and mythological creatures. The following are Phnom Dasculptures that are carved from single blocks of fine-grained sandstone. They depict both the Buddhist and Hindu divinities, supporting the presence of divine kingship in the Khmer Empire. Picture Metal Works A number of bronze statues have survived, though it is believed that most have been stolen or lost due to war or melted down. Zhou Daguan reported that gold and silver jewellery were common in Khmer society. Bronze objects found by archaeologists include hammocks, fans, parasols and litters. A fragment of the statue was found near the West Baray in Angkor/Yasodharapura, ce.1936 which is believed to be a bronze statue of the Hindu god Vishnu. Through this statue, we know that the Khmer society had knowledge and respect for Vishnu as well as Hinduism, and were greatly influenced by it. Picture Wayang Kulit - Shadow Puppetry It is a form of art used by traders and priests who came from India to spread Hinduism The Khmers adopted and preserved the art of shadow puppetry for religious purposes, as well as for education and reaffirmation of cultural beliefs. In Cambodia, shadow puppetry is performed during sacred temple ceremonies and private functions, as well as for the public in the villages This shows that shadow puppetry is part of the Khmers' customs and tradition

INAC, 2023

Both Java and Sumatra were subject to considerable cultural influence from the India during the first and second millennia of the Common Era. Both Hinduism and Buddhism, which share a common historical background and whose membership may even overlap at times, were widely propagated in the Maritime Southeast Asia. Hinduism has historically been a major religious and cultural influence in Java. In recent years, it has also been enjoying something of a resurgence, particularly in the eastern part of the island Hinduism, and the Sanskrit language through which it was transmitted, became highly prestigious in Java. Many Hindu temples were built, including Prambanan near Yogyakarta, which has been designated a World Heritage Site; and Hindu kingdoms flourished, of which the most important was Majapahit.

Banister Fletcher: World History of Architecture, 21st edition, edited by Fraser Murray, London: Bloomsbury Visual Arts, 2020

Eur ASEAA 14 Dublin, 2020

The Mahāyāna Buddhist goddess Prajñāpāramitā was widely patronized in East Java in the thirteenth century as evidenced by the number of surviving images. This paper addresses the stylistic similarities between two stone sculptures of Prajñāpāramitā, one originating from Caṇḍi Singosari in East Java, now in the Museum Nasional Indonesia in Jakarta, and the other from the Muarajambi temple complex in central Sumatra, now in the site museum. Prima facie these two images suggest a close political, religious and artistic connection between Singhasāri and Muarajambi. Both figures are dressed in a cloth carved in bas relief with intricate repeated roundels, characteristic of a brocaded luxury cloth imported from China, but the roundels contain dissimilar designs and their carving differs markedly. Unfortunately, the lack of surviving inscriptions or other records has rendered problematic any research into their relationship. Consequently, it is only the sculptures themselves which remain as the primary source attesting to any connection.

INAC, 2023

The builder of Angkor Wat was a king named Suryavarman II. A usurper, he came to power in his teenage years by killing his great uncle, Dharanindravarman I, while he was riding an elephant. An inscription says that Suryavarman killed the man "as Garuda [a mythical bird] on a mountain ledge would kill a serpent." Suryavarman's bloodlust would continue into his rule; he launched attacks into Vietnam in an effort to gain control over the territory. He also made peaceful diplomatic advances, reopening relations with China. He venerated the god Vishnu, a deity often depicted as a protector, and installed a statue of the god in Angkor Wat's central tower. This devotion can also be seen in one of the most remarkable reliefs at Angkor Wat, located in the southeast of the temple. The relief shows a chapter in the Hindu story of creation known as the "churning of the sea of milk." A relief describes how the devas (gods) and the asuras (demons) churned the ocean under the aegis of Vishnu, to produce the divine elixir of immortality. Scholars consider this relief to be one of the finest art pieces at Angkor Wat. Suryavarman's devotion to Vishnu is also shown in the posthumous name he was given, "Paramavishnuloka" which, according to researcher Hélène Legendre-De Koninck, means "he who is in the supreme abode of Vishnu." ("Angkor Wat: A Royal Temple," VDG, 2001). An eight armed Vishnu statue at Angkor Wat. Angkor Wat was built for King Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-50) in the early 12th century as his state temple and capital city. How many temples Angkor have?

Guest Editor, Marg, Vol. 67, no. 2, December 2015-March 2016.

Indo Nordic Author's Collectiive, 2022

Prambananlocated near Yogakarta,Indon=esia served as the royal temple of the Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the state's religious ceremonies and sacrifices being conducted there. At the height of the kingdom, scholars estimate that hundreds of brahmins with their disciples lived within the outer wall of the temple compound. The urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby, somewhere in the Prambanan Plain. The temple compound was expanded by successive Mataram kings, such as Daksa and Tulodong, with the addition of hundreds of perwara temples around the chief temple. A very popular Javanese legend is that of Rara Jonggrang, which is set in Prambanan and its neighboring temples. In the legend, a Javanese princess is turned to stone by her cruel husband. The princess is said to be beautiful image of the Hindu goddess Durga located within the north wing of Shiva's temple at Prambanan. Therefore the question arises. Was the temple a SHIVA temple, a TRIMURTHY temple( Brahma,Vishnu & Mahesh) of the temple of DURGA the Mahishasuramardini. The answer is all 3 Some historians contend that Prambanan's construction began under the orders of King Rakai Pikatan (r. 830-860 CE?) at some point between c. 840-850 CE. Rakai Pikatan oversaw the construction and design of the main temple complex, while other structures were built soon thereafter by later kings, including Rakai Kayuwangi (r. 850-898 CE), Balitung (r. 899-911 CE), Daksa (r. 910-919 CE), and Tulodong (r. 919-924 CE). At some point, locals diverted a nearby river to flow past the temple complex as well. Rakai Pikatan and his successors belonged to the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty, which was the rival of the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty for power in the “Medang” or Mataram kingdom in central Java. It is worth noting that the Sailendra dynasty oversaw the construction of the Buddhist temple of Borobudur. As Borobudur is located only 19 km (12 miles) from Prambanan, some scholars interpret Prambanan's genesis as a direct artistic, political, and religious response to that of Borobudur and in turn the competitive Sailendra dynasty. It is even said that Rakai Pikatan's wife, Princess Pramodhawardhani (fl. 820-860 CE), was the daughter of King Samaratungga (r. 812-833 CE) who may have overseen Borobudur's construction. (Despite all this, other Javanese historians see the “Sailendra” and “Sanjaya” dynasties as one and the same family, interpreting the religious patronage of Buddhism or Hinduism as the result of a ruler's personal belief.) According to ancient Khmer sources, King Jayavarman II (r. 802-835 CE), the founder of the Khmer Empire (802-1431 CE), spent much of his life in Java, and was appointed by Samaratungga as the governor of Indrapura, which later became the capital city of Champa around c. 875 CE. It is said that Jayavarman visited both Borobidur as well as Prambanan, which inspired him to build the city of Angkor Wat on a grand scale. This is quite possible as the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties exerted much political and cultural influence through their thalassocracies in what is present-day Java, Sumatra, Malaya, and southern Cambodia in the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries CE. Prambanan's abandonment mirrors that of nearby Borobudur. As the center of political power shifted from central to eastern Java under the reign of King Mpu Sindok (fl. 928 CE), Prambanan became less important politically and culturally to the ancient Javanese. The Sanjaya dynasty had successfully usurped power from the Sailendra dynasty, leaving the island of Java under their near complete suzerainty. Volcanic eruptions from Mount Merapi in the 10th century CE and countless earthquakes may have impacted Prambanan's appeal as a place of worship and pilgrimage as well among the Hindu faithful. Over time, Prambanan deteriorated and became surrounded by a dense jungle. The Dutch explorer C. A. Lons reported his “rediscovery” of Prambanan in 1733 CE to Dutch colonial officials, but the temple was never completely forgotten by the Javanese in their histories, myths, and legends. Restoration work began in 1885 CE, but accelerated in 1918 CE. These efforts were halted when Indonesia was invaded in 1941 CE by the Japanese during World War II. In 1953 CE, the Temple of Shiva was reconsecrated to Hindu believers, and Prambanan was restored once again following the 2006 CE Yogyakarta earthquake. Intermittent archaeological excavation and restoration continue in and around Prambanan today. 1.The temple dedicated to Siva stands the tallest measuring in at forty-seven meters. Within the temple dedicated to Siva there are five chambers, four of which are in each cardinal direction while the last is in the middle, accessed via the eastern chamber 2.Within the eastern chamber lies a statue of Siva in his four-armed form. In the southern chamber there is a statue of Agastya, a revered Vedic sage and avatar of Brahma. 3. In the western chamber is a statue of Siva’s elephant son, Ganesa. HOW WAS THE TEMPLE BUILT