"Hinduism"

The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture Hinduism Contributors: Sundari Johansen Edited by: Janet Sturman Book Title: The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture Chapter Title: "Hinduism" Pub. Date: 2019 Access Date: November 25, 2019 Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc. City: Thousand Oaks, Print ISBN: 9781483317755 Online ISBN: 9781483317731 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483317731.n343 Print pages: 1082-1085 © 2019 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. This PDF has been generated from SAGE Knowledge. Please note that the pagination of the online version will vary from the pagination of the print book. SAGE © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. SAGE Reference Hinduism is one of the world’s oldest continuously practiced religions and includes a multitude of diverse beliefs and practices. More than a billion people are practicing Hindus, and while India is home to the majority of Hindus, millions of Hindus worship in thriving communities worldwide. Music has always been an important means of religious expression and practice in Hinduism. It is frequently used as a complementary form of worship that may be a necessary component of or ancillary to formal ritual, such as the rhythmic recitation of ancient texts known as the Vedas during the performance of elaborate Vedic ritual, or may be optional and either concurrent or subsequent to formal rituals, as in the singing of bhajan, a broad category of popular devotional music. Classical musicians trace the origin of their tradition to the Sama Veda, with popular devotional music originating in the medieval period. In the case of the bhakti (devotional) tradition, music is sometimes used in the place of formal ritual. Music also acts as a bridge between various groups within Hindu communities, providing a means of active participation for those who have been traditionally excluded from formal rituals. This entry examines the origins of sacred sound, the development of devotional music, and the current role of music in Hinduism. Origins of Sacred Sound The Indus Valley civilization (approximately 3500–1700 B.C.E.) was centered in the Indus River valley, located mainly in Pakistan, northwest India, and northeast Afghanistan, with settlements to the south in Gujarat and to the east in Haryana. Archaeological research of this civilization has yielded the earliest elements of what may be considered Hindu religious culture. Music was an important part of Indus Valley culture, but its role in religious life is unclear. Archaeological evidence of early music includes shell instruments and clay seals depicting stringed instruments. The Aryan civilization arose following the gradual decline of the Indus Valley civilization, systematizing and codifying what would evolve into modern Hinduism. The Aryans compiled the earliest scriptures, known as the Vedas, between approximately 1500 and 1000 B.C.E., and their form of worship was dominant from approximately 1500 B.C.E. to the Common Era. This literature includes the Rg Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda, as well as their commentaries, the Brahmanas and Aranyakas. These texts consist of poetic Sanskrit word formulas known as mantra, received by seers (rshis) via direct revelation. During the yajna or fire sacrifice, specialist priests chanted or sang these mantras while offering clarified butter and herbs into a ritually prepared fire. Highly structured, this worship was aniconic, with deities viewed as forces of nature and the cosmos. Sanskrit was and is understood as a divine language, and speech a deity (the goddess Vac) containing within its vibration the essence of divine and material reality as well as power over that reality. One of the most important foundational concepts in Hinduism is the power of mantra, which must be chanted with precision using traditional meters. Because of this, Vedic religion remained an oral tradition for at least 2,000 years. Figure 1 A Brahmin priest recites Sanskrit mantras during performance of a homa, a fire ritual based on the Vedic yajna. Page 2 of 9 The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture SAGE © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. SAGE Reference Source: Author. The earliest Upanishads were composed as commentaries on the Vedas and identified sacred speech not only with universal power but self-realization. The Chandogya Upanishad is part of the Chandogya Brahmana, a commentary on the Sama Veda. One of the earliest Upanishads, it discusses the meaning of the Vedic sacrifice (yajna), the identification of the individual soul (atman) with Infinite Being (Brahman), and the true meaning and awesome power of the Sama Vedic chants that accompany Vedic ritual. The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad, part of the Shatapatha Brahmana and attached to the Shukla (white) Yajur Veda, is another of the oldest Upanishads and discusses the esoteric meaning of mantra in general as well as specific mantras. According to this text, the world is created by the union of mind (manas) and speech (vac), and mantra possesses a transcendent quality known as shabdabrahman, the cosmic sound of infinite awareness, also known as nadabrahman. The Vedas, particularly the Sama Veda, and the pursuit of nadabrahman inspired the development of Indian classical music. The classical traditions are divided into two main traditions, each pursuing spiritual liberation through music practice known as Nada Vidya (knowledge of sound) or Nadopasana (method of sound). In South India, Carnatic music (Karnataka Sangitam) remains heavily influenced by Hindu philosophy. In North India, Hindustani music represents a fusion of Hindu and Muslim music, heavily influenced by Persian (particularly Sufi) music throughout the Mughal period (16th–19th centuries). The idea of speech as power and a means for attaining self-knowledge proliferates further in the Mahabharata and Ramayana; the Puranas, mythological stories of various important deities, demons, saints, and mythohistorical figures; and the Tantras, texts involving various heterodox mystical traditions. The six major philosophical schools of Indian philosophy—Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa, and Vedanta—each had varying ideas on the nature of reality, liberation, and deity and each had their influence on the development of Hinduism as a whole. The Advaita (non-dual) Vedanta school eventually became the foundation of popular modern Hinduism, embracing the Upanishadic ideal of the unity of atman and Brahman, while engaging the masses with popular devotional practices. Page 3 of 9 The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture SAGE © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. SAGE Reference Access to the power of sacred speech is traditionally restricted by varna (class or caste) and gender. According to the Vedas, humanity was divided into four varnas. Varna was determined by birth—one inherited the varna and occupation of one’s father. The higher one’s varna, the greater one’s inherent purity, and one outside the varna system—such as members of indigenous tribes or certain communities that performed the most polluting work—was known as a hinavarna or the more derogatory chandala (untouchable or outcaste; Dalit, referring to oppression, is now the accepted term for this group). Of the four varnas, Brahmins were the highest and given the duty of learning and practicing sacred speech as priests. After Brahmins were Kshatriyas, who were warriors and rulers, and Vaishyas, the merchant class, and both were granted access to initiation into Vedic learning and mantras, though to a lesser extent than Brahmins. The lowest varna, Shudras, were traditionally servants and forbidden from learning and practicing these rituals and their associated mantras, as were all women and Dalits. Even today, in orthodox communities neither women, Shudras, nor Dalits are allowed to learn or utter certain mantras, and some orthodox temples do not allow Dalits or foreigners (who also have no caste) to enter. The spiritual liberation granted by mastery of sacred speech was controlled by strict enforcement of the varna system and dissatisfaction with this status quo spawned various reform movements. The bhakti (devotional) movement of the medieval period in particular had a significant impact on Hinduism as a whole as well as the classical music tradition. This movement revolutionized devotional music and Hindu worship and democratized access to liberation. Development of Popular Devotional Music The Bhagavad Gita (Song of God), composed in the 2nd century C.E. as part of the epic Mahabharata, was the first to suggest that liberation was accessible to all. Focused on the worship of Krishna, a human incarnation (avatara) of the god Vishnu, the Bhagavad Gita prescribed various forms of yoga, disciplined practice with the goal of divine union. The result was a more personal form of worship, influenced by the non-Aryan, indigenous communities encountered by Aryan culture during its expansion across India. In the early medieval period, the relationship between devotee and deity was emphasized, with deities taking on more human characteristics. By the late medieval period, the bhakti movement had spread across India. Song was a major force in this movement, composed by poet-saints not in Sanskrit but in vernacular languages. These men and women came from a variety of backgrounds, with a variety of approaches to philosophy and practice, but all were characterized by total, immersive devotion to their chosen deity. The shift of worship away from elite ritual language to local dialects enabled widespread adoption and adaptation of devotional Hinduism throughout India. The Alvars (6th–10th centuries C.E.), 12 poet-saints of Tamil Nadu in South India, composed devotional music in the Tamil language. Their poetry, which emphasized love and devotion, recounting tales of various incarnations of Vishnu, played a significant role in popularizing devotional worship, and is used along with Sanskrit texts in temples throughout South India even today. The Nayanmars (or Nayanars, 6th–8th centuries C.E.), also of Tamil Nadu, were a group of 63 poet-saints devoted to Shiva whose Tamil songs remain immensely popular and, like the songs of the Alvars, are used in both temple and popular devotional contexts. Many of the most well-known leaders in the bhakti movement were Vaishnava, devoted to Krishna and other forms of Vishnu. Major figures included Ramanuja (1077–1157 C.E.), Chaitanya (1486–1533 C.E.), Vallabha (1475–1531 C.E.), and Shankardeva (1449–1568 C.E.), and the movement inspired beloved poet-saints such as Mirabai (1450–1547 C.E.), Tulsidas (1532–1623 C.E.), Tukaram (1608–1649 C.E.), and Kabir (c. 1400 C.E.). The Shaiva poets, devoted to Shiva, included Akka Mahadevi (c. 12th century C.E.), Lalla or Lalleshvari (c. 14th century C.E.), and Basava (1106–1167 C.E.). One of the greatest poet-saints of the ShakPage 4 of 9 The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture SAGE © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. SAGE Reference ta movement, devoted to the various forms of Shakti or Mahadevi (the Great Goddess), was Ramprasad Sen (1718–1780 C.E.) of Bengal, who wrote passionate songs to the goddess Kali. Bhakti reformers often eschewed formal Vedic rituals and orthodox temple worship, promoting simple devotional music instead. The vigorous focus on personal relationship with the deity emphasized by the growing bhakti movement fueled development of Hindu mythology, collected in the Puranas. The devotional movement had a strong influence on folk, mystical, and classical traditions, each of which engaged with music to transform consciousness and express esoteric and philosophical concepts. Women’s devotional music is a significant part of village life across India, with songs naming, praising, and telling stories of important local deities, and identifying them with pan-Indian deities. The Bauls, found throughout India but primarily in Bengal, have blended elements of Tantra, bhakti, yoga, and anti-orthodox philosophy with a strong mystical musical tradition since the 7th century C.E. In the classical music, by the 9th century Carnatic music routinely employed songs of the Nayanars and Alvars, and by the 15th century Hindustani music had shifted away from purely classical poetry and language toward more vernacular and devotional forms. Popular music was gradually incorporated into temple rituals and used alongside Sanskrit mantras in order to respond to a growing public desire for participation and devotional expression. Iconography developed to portray gods in human form, and darshan, the act of looking into the eyes of the deity and being seen by the deity in return, became a primary act for devotees. Brahmins developed rituals to merge Vedic mantra and ritual practices with local mystical and devotional traditions into an orthodox style of worship that bridged Vedic ritual with modern devotionalism. By and large, social codes of conduct, participation in temple ritual, and interaction were retained, governed strictly by varna and gender. Many temples employed professional musicians of lower varnas for both instrumental and vocal music, and both men and women engaged in devotional music and dance. Many of these traditions continue in some form today, and modern orthodox Hinduism utilizes Sanskrit ritual but remains largely devotional in focus. Figure 2 A Brahmin priest leads men and women in recitation of mantra and singing of bhajans during worship of the Shiva Lingam. Page 5 of 9 The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture SAGE © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. SAGE Reference Source: Author. Music in Modern Hinduism Modern Hinduism includes a variety of worship styles that incorporate diverse musical forms. Chanted mantra and devotional songs accompany nearly every form of Hindu worship, and devotional music has been influenced by and draws upon a variety of Indian musical traditions, ranging from classical to tribal. Religious events influenced by tribal practices, such as spirit possession, fire walking and other physical feats, and ritual dance and theater, often require accompaniment by specific songs as well as rhythmic percussion, including various types of drums, cymbals, and bells, and the musicians performing this music typically belong to specific varnas and communities ancestrally associated with a particular temple or community. Women’s music—composed and sung almost exclusively by women, referred to as geet or naam geet—may also accompany a variety of rituals. Itinerant musicians may be found at many temples, playing music in exchange for donations. More formal temple worship may be accompanied by popular devotional music in a variety of styles, from folk to classical, either live or prerecorded and played on loudspeakers. Filmi (Hindi film music) has always featured devotional songs to Hindu deities, routinely draws on the work of the poet-saints as well as popular temple standards, and itself has influenced the style of devotional music. Film industries in other languages such as Tamil and Bengali have had similar influences. Devotional music has also become a political tool for both right-wing Hindu nationalists and religious progressives. Figure 3 Women sing naam (religious songs) during the Debadhanni, a festival Page 6 of 9 The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture SAGE © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. SAGE Reference of ecstatic dance and ritual possession, at the Kamakhya temple complex in Assam, Northeast India. Page 7 of 9 The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture SAGE © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. Page 8 of 9 SAGE Reference The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture SAGE © 2019 by SAGE Publications, Inc. SAGE Reference Source: Author. Hindu devotional music may take on any number of forms. Bhajans are often based on religious poetry, organized into verses with a common refrain, and may be sung by either one or several performers, sung a capella or with instrumentation, simple or complex in arrangement, and influenced by various musical styles. Kirtan is a form of bhajan sung responsively. A song leader sings a line that is repeated by respondents. Arati is a kind of bhajan performed collectively during the arati portion of puja (formal worship), during which a lamp is waved in front of the deity. Hinduism has spread throughout the world along with members of the Hindu community. Hinduism has always been remarkably adaptable and has undergone extensive transcultural transformations. While core beliefs remain the same, many aspects of religious expression, practice, and belief can vary widely from place to place both inside and outside India. Examples include the incorporation of Newar traditional music in the Buddhism-influenced Hinduism of Nepal, the use of gong (or gamelan) music in Balinese Hinduism, the influence of Hinduism and Indian culture on popular music in the Caribbean, and a growing profusion of Hindu devotional music in America, in various genres such as New Age, Pop, Rock, Rap, and Hip-hop. As Hinduism continues to grow and spread across the globe, new forms of the religion, as well as new forms of popular Hindu devotional music, will undoubtedly continue to emerge. See also India: History, Culture, and Geography of Music; Liturgical Music; Religion, Music in; South Asia Further Readings Allen, , M. H. (1998). Tales tunes tell: Deepening the dialogue between “classical” and “non-classical” in the Music of India. Yearbook for Traditional Music, 30, 22–52. Beck, , G. L. (1993). Sonic theology: Hinduism and sacred sound. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press. Goswami, , S. , & Thielemann, , S. (2005). Music and fine arts in the devotional traditions of India: Worship through beauty. Delhi, India: APH. Hawley, , J. S. (2005). Three bhakti voices: Mirabai, surdas, and kabir in their times and ours. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Hawley, , J. S. , & Narayanan, , V. (2006). The life of Hinduism. Berkeley: University of California Press. McDermott, , R. F. (2001). Mother of my heart, daughter of my dreams: Kali and Uma in the devotional poetry of Bengal. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Schultz & , A. (2013). Singing a Hindu Nation: Marathi devotional performance and nationalism. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Sundari Johansen • • • • Hinduism music Veda rituals http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483317731.n343 10.4135/9781483317731.n343 Page 9 of 9 The SAGE International Encyclopedia of Music and Culture