Analysis of the Relationship between O 3 , NO and NO 2 in Tianjin, China

Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 Copyright © Taiwan Association for Aerosol Research ISSN: 1680-8584 print / 2071-1409 online doi: 10.4209/aaqr.2010.07.0055 Analysis of the Relationship between O3, NO and NO2 in Tianjin, China Suqin Han1,2, Hai Bian2, Yinchang Feng1*, Aixia Liu2, Xiangjin Li2, Fang Zeng1, Xiaoling Zhang3 1 College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China Tianjin Meteorological Administration, Tianjin, 300074, China 3 Beijing Meteorological Administration, Beijing, 100081, China 2 ABSTRACT The continuous measurement of nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and ozone (O3) was conducted in Tianjin from September 8 to October 15, 2006. The data were used to investigate the relationship between the O3 distribution and its association with ambient concentrations of NO, NO2 and NOx (NO and NO2). The measured concentrations of the pollutants in the study area varied as a function of time, while peaks in NO, NO2 and O3 all occurred in succession in the daytime. The diurnal cycle of ground-level ozone concentration showed a mid-day peak and lower nighttime concentrations. Furthermore, an inverse relationship was found between O3 NO, NO2 and NOx. In addition, a linear relationship between NO2 and NOx, as well as NO and NOx, and a polynomial relationship between O3 and NO2/NO was found. The variation in the level of oxidant (O3 and NO2) with NO2 was also obtained. It can be seen that OX concentration at a given location is made up of two parts: one independent and the other dependent on NO2 concentration. The independent part can be considered as a regional contribution and is about 20 ppb in Tianjin. An obvious difference in NO, NOx and O3 concentrations between weekdays and weekends was also found, but this difference did not appear in NO2. Lastly, the diurnal variation of O3 concentration under different meteorological conditions was demonstrated and analyzed. Keywords: Nitrogen oxides; Ozone; Oxidant; Regional contribution; Weekend effect. INTRODUCTION One of the main problems caused by air pollution in urban areas is photochemical oxidants. Among these, ozone (O3) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are particularly important because they are capable of causing adverse effects on human health (WHO, 2000). The formation of ground level ozone depends on the intensity of solar radiation, the absolute concentrations of NOx and VOCS (Volatile Organic Compounds) and the ratio of NOx to VOCS (Nevers, 2000). A large number of observations have shown that on clear days the concentration of ozone rises with increasing intensity of solar radiation and temperature. The weekend effect has been reported in some areas, both have tried to analyze the causes of weekend effect and find effective ozone control strategies (Qin, 2004; Atkinson-Palombo, 2006), However, this phenomenon is not well understood because relatively low concentrations of ozone precursors * Corresponding author. E-mail address: fengyc@nankai.edu.cn (NOx and VOC) at weekends has been reported in some areas of America (Qin et al., 2004) and Japan (Sakamoto et al., 2005). The concentration of photochemical oxidants can be decreased by controlling their precursors: nitrogen oxides NOx (NO and NO2) and VOCs (Peng et al., 2006; Geng et al., 2007). However, the efficiency of emission control also depends on the relationship between primary and secondary pollutants, as well as ambient meteorological conditions. Owing to the chemical coupling of O3 and NOx, the levels of O3 and NO2 are inextricably linked. Therefore, the response to reduction in the emission of NOx is remarkably non-linear (Porg, 1997) and any resultant reduction in the level of NO2 is invariably accompanied by an increase in the level of O3. In addition, changes in the local level of O3 and NO2 will lead to an increasing background level, It is therefore necessary to obtain a thorough understanding of the relationships among O3, NO and NO2 under various atmospheric conditions. As a result, different authors (Clapp et al., 2001; Mazzeo et al., 2005; Chou et al., 2006) have studied the relationships among ambient levels of O3, NO and NO2 to improve the understanding of the chemical coupling among them. Han et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 Tianjin, located in east-central China, with latitude of 39°N and longitude of 117°E, is one of the most developed cities in China. It has one of the largest population densities in the world, with more than 3.73 million residents living in an area of 330km2. The rate of economic development in the region is very rapid, with an annual growth in GDP of 14.5%. The total length of roads has been doubled since 1990 and built-up area has increased by 45%. Traffic has also rapidly increased and the number of cars has dramatically risen. In 2004, there were nearly 1.05 million registered cars, which is approximately 3 times to that of 1999. As a result, energy consumption has also rapidly increased, which may have lead to an increase in photochemical pollution. There have only been a few studies examining the atmospheric chemistry of this city. For example, Hai Bian (Bian et al., 2007; Han et al., 2009; Li et al., 2009; Gu et al., 2010) presented evidence that aerosol particles have a strong effect on the surface ozone concentration in Tianjin. However, O3 concentration and its precursors were not systemically measured and the relationship between O3 and its precursors was not analyzed. Such measurements are urgently needed in the Tianjin region. In our work, the ambient concentrations of O3, NO, NO2 and NOx were measured continuously in Tianjin from September 8 to October 15, 2006. For the first time in this city, data was used for the investigation of the variation of NO, NO2, NOx, and O3. The variation of oxidant OX (O3 and NO2) concentration with NO2 is also investigated, contributing to a better understanding of the atmospheric sources of OX in this area. The relationships among the O3, NO and NO2 concentrations were used to forecast the O3 concentration. Furthermore, the difference in concentrations between the weekdays and weekends, and O3 concentrations under different meteorological conditions were also discussed. METHOROLOGY Site Description The monitoring site was located in an open area with an elevation of about 3 m above sea level, and was located at 39°06′N, 117°10′L. Within a radius of about 1 km of the measured area, the land was flat with some low residential buildings as well as many commercial buildings that steadily increased in density to the west and south. Heiniucheng road runs E-W at a mean distance of approximately 100 m from the monitoring site. Youyinan road extends S-N about 100 m east of the site. The measuring instrument was installed on top of a building, Air samples were drawn through the pipes fixed on the wall that was about 2 m above the ground. The concentrations of O3, NOx, NO, NO2, ultraviolet irradiance (UV) and other meteorological factors (ambient air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and wind direction) were continuously measured for 38 days (from September 8 to October 15, 2006). Measurements and Instrumentation Ozone was measured using an EC9810B ozone analyzer 129 through UV-absorption method, while NOx, NO2 were measured with an EC9841B NO/NO2/NOx analyzer combines microprocessor control with gas phase chemiluminescence technology to provide accurate measurements of NO/NO2/NOx in the range of 0–20 ppm with a detection limit of < 0.4 ppb (Ran et al., 2009). NO was calculated with NOx and NO2 (NO = NOx – NO2). Quality control checks were performed every 3 days including inspection of the shelter and instruments as well as zero, precision and span checks. The filter was replaced once every 2 weeks and a calibration was made every month. The Standard samples of O3 and NOx were purchased from National Standard Substance Institute of China. The ozone concentration was recorded every minute, NOx and NO2 were recorded every 3 minutes. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hourly Variation of O3, NO, NO2 and NOx Concentrations The observed average diurnal variation of NO, NO2, NOx and O3 concentrations during this period are shown in Fig. 1. In general, the diurnal cycle of ozone concentration reaches a peak during the middle of the day and has lower nighttime concentrations. The ozone concentration slowly increases after the sun rises, reaching its maximum during the daytime, and then slowly decreases until the next morning. The diurnal cycle of NO, NO2 and NOx are shaped like double waves. The morning peak is higher in magnitude than the evening peak. The morning peak of NO2 appears 1–2 hours after the NO peak, and the O3 peak appears about 6 hours after the NO peak and 5 hours after NO2 peak. After the morning peak (7:00), NO diminishes until it reaches its lowest value at 13:00. Both the NO and NO2 decrease correlate with an increase in O3. During night time, surface emission of NO were limited inside the nocturnal planetary boundary layer (NPBL), NO reach its second highest value between 21:00 and 23:00. This pattern in the temporal variability of air pollutants can be found in cities worldwide (Sanchez et al., 2007). Sometimes the variations are affected by local air circulations or short-term meteorological effects (Pudasinee et al., 2006; Costabile et al., 2007), but the basic pattern always remains. Concentrations vary in different cities depending on background air pollution, specific emission conditions and general meteorological conditions. This variation is mainly due to photochemical formation and meteorological conditions. From 08:00 to 14:00–15:00, an increase in global solar radiation and the height of the mixing layer results in a decrease in NOx concentration and an increase in O3 (Ulke and Mazzeo, 1998). Simultaneous measurement of O3 and UV during the daytime (from 7:00 to 19:00, see Fig. 2) shows that the O3 concentration is highly correlated to UV irradiance (W/m2). The diurnal cycles of O3 and UV flux are similar, with the O3 maximum occurring at 14:00, which is about 1–2 hours after the UV flux maximum. Statistical analysis reveals that the correlation between O3 and UV is significant with a correlation coefficient (R) of 0.75. NO is a primary contaminant, whereas O3 and a large Han et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 130 80 NO 60 ppb 40 20 0 -20 80 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 4 8 12 16 20 24 4 8 12 16 20 24 4 8 12 16 20 24 NO2 60 ppb 40 20 0 -20 100 0 NOx 80 ppb 60 40 20 0 -20 100 0 O3 80 ppb 60 40 20 0 -20 0 hours Fig. 1. Daily variation of mean values of NO, NO2, NOx and O3 concentration (averaging time: 60 min). Fig. 2. The average O3 concentrations and UV irradiance during the observation period. percentage of NO2 are secondary contaminants, formed through a set of complex reactions. At 7:00, sunlight begins to induce a series of photochemical reactions. NO is converted to NO2 via a reaction with O3, and during daytime hours NO2 is converted back to NO as a result of photolysis, which leads to the regeneration of O3. Another factor that influences air-pollutant concentrations is the height of the mixing layer over the city. On a clear day, pollutants would be diluted when mixing layer rises during the daytime and be limited to inside the NPBL during the nighttime. The average NPBL height during this period in Tianjin was 132 m (Han et al., 2009), which is similar to that in Beijing (130 km from Tianjin) (Liu et al., 2002). Emitted pollutants such as NO are kept beneath this inversion, which may cause the hourly NOx concentration Han et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 131 NO2  h  NO  O (1) O  O2  O3  M (2) the rate of NO2 photolysis, and k1 is the rate coefficient for the reaction of NO with O3. The variation of the mean value of J2/k1 over time, obtained using observed measurements of NO, NO2 and O3 is shown in Fig. 3. The mean values of J2/k1 vary between 0.176 and 5.513 ppb and the maximum value occurred at 10:00. Coefficient k1 varies as a function of temperature (T). Seinfeld and Pandis (1998) proposed the following equation for k1. As expected, the variation of k1 is similar to the variation of the mean air temperature. O3  NO  NO2  O2 (3) (4) to increase during the night. Chemical Coupling of O3, NO and NO2 It is well established that the inter-conversion of O3, NO and NO2 under atmospheric conditions is generally dominated by the following reactions (Kenty et al., 2007): M (usually N2 or O2) represents a molecule that absorbs the excess vibrational energy and thereby stabilizes the O3 molecule formed. hv represents the energy of a photon (with a wavelength of < 424 nm) and O is an active monoatomic oxygen molecule. These equations form a cycle with no net chemistry i.e. the overall effect of reaction (2) is the reverse of reaction (1). These reactions therefore represent a closed system in which the NOx (NO and NO2) components and the OX (O3 and NO2) components relate separately. During daytime hours, NO, NO2 and O3 are typically equilibrated on a timescale of a few minutes. This is known as a photostationary state. NO, NO2 and O3 concentrations are related by the following equation: [NO][O3]/[NO] = J2/k1, where J2 is k1 (1 / ppm / min)  3.23  10 3 exp[ 1430 T ] Fig. 4 presents the variation in daytime O3 concentration as a function of the NO2/NO ratio (sample interval: 30 min). The level of O3 increases with an increase in [NO2]/[NO]. According to Fig. 4, O3 concentration increases rapidly at small values of [NO2]/[NO], this maybe implicated that when O3 was at low levels, the reactions of production of O3 was dominated reaction. When O3 concentration reached about 90 ppb, it tended to remain relatively stable. This shows that at higher levels, O3 concentration is close to reaching a photostationary state. We fit these data to the polynomial function of Ln[NO2]/[NO], which can be used to forecast the O3 concentration during the daytime: [O3] = 19.678 × Ln[NO2]/[NO] + 1.378 [NO][O3 ]/[NO2 ](ppb) 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 h Fig. 3. Daily variation of mean values of J1/k3 (ppb). 140 y = 19.768Ln(x) + 1.378 R2 = 0.7141 120 O3(ppb) 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 NO2/NO 140 160 180 Fig. 4. O3 concentration varies with the [NO2]/[NO] ration. 200 (5) Han et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 132 Fig. 5 shows the comparison between the average concentration of NO and O3, measured every 30 minutes. Three different time periods were used for comparison: the whole day, daytime-period (from 10:00am to 16:00pm) and nighttime period (from 18:00pm to 8:00am). The mean concentration of O3 diminishes with the rise of NO. The largest observed concentrations of NO and O3 are 22 and 117 ppb during daytime, and 79 and 74 ppb during nighttime, respectively. These values indicate that the highest mean concentration of O3 during daytime is greater than at night. While a higher mean concentration of NO at night than during daytime period. Diurnal Variation of [OX] If photochemical processes have an influence on OX levels in polluted areas, then a difference between the behavior of OX during daytime and nighttime would be expected. Fig. 6 shows the daily variation in the mean value of OX concentration (average sample interval: 30 min). Similar to the variation of O3, OX concentration (a) 140 120 O3(ppb) 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 50 60 70 80 NO(ppb) (b) 140 120 O3 (ppb) 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 (c) 10 20 30 40 NO(ppb) 70 80 80 70 O3(ppb) 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 20 40 NO(ppb) 60 80 Fig. 5. Variation of mean values of O3 with NO: (a) whole day; (b) daytime; (c) nighttime. Han et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 133 100 OX(ppb) 80 60 40 20 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 h Fig. 6. Daily variation of mean values of OX. shows a mid-day peak and lower nighttime concentrations. The OX concentration slowly raises after sunrise, reaches a maximum during the day, and then decreases until the next morning. This is due to photochemical O3 formation. Fig. 7 shows the daily variation of [NO2]/[OX]. Differences in the partitioning of NO2 and O3 may be related to the rate of chemical processes, or the time available for them to occur. For example, a smaller ratio of [NO2]/[OX] due to the higher concentration of O3 during the day. Variation of Daily Values of [NO2]/[OX] with [NOX] Based on the photostationary state relationship presented in section 3.2, it is possible to infer an expected variation in daytime average [NO2]/[OX] values with [NOx]. This variation is shown in Fig. 8 along with the fitted empirical expression. The data shows that a progressively greater proportion of OX is in the form of NO2 as the level of NOx increases. The high values of [NO2]/[OX] can be explained by an additional oxidation process changing NO to NO2. If the photochemical processes have an influence on OX levels at polluted areas, then a difference between the behavior of OX during daytime and nighttime hours might be expected (Mazzeo et al., 2005). The variation in the mean value of OX concentration (recorded every 30 min) against the level of NO2 is shown in Fig. 9. The OX increase with NO2 appears to have a linear relationship as shown in the figure. Furthermore, it can be seen that the OX at a given location has an NO2-independent contribution 1 NO2/OX 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 h NO2/OX Fig. 7. Daily variation of mean values of NO2/OX. 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 y = 0.2433Ln(x) - 0.4393 R2 = 0.5624 0 20 40 60 NOX (ppb) 80 100 120 Fig. 8. Variation of daytime mean values of NO2/OX with the level of NOx. Han et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 134 (a) 160 140 OX(ppb) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 NO2 (ppb) OX(ppb) (b) 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 OX(ppb) (c) 10 20 30 40 NO2 (ppb) 50 60 70 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 10 20 30 NO2(ppb) 40 50 60 Fig. 9. Variation of mean OX with NO2: (a) whole day; (b) nighttime; (c) daytime. and an NO2-dependant contribution. The independent contribution can be considered as a regional contribution. The NO2-dependent contribution can be considered as a local contribution and is correlated with the level of primary pollution. We can infer that the [NO2]-dependent local contribution to [OX] at night is about 50% lower than during the daytime. The regional contributions to [O3] during daytime and nighttime are similar, both at about 20 ppb according to the intercept of the relationship between [OX] and [NO2]. The Relationship among NO, NO2 and NOx Fig. 10 presents the variation of [NOx] with [NO] and [NO2] using the mean observed data (sample interval: 30 min). We fitted the data to a linear function, but the correlation was weak. However, different results were obtained when the observed data were divided into daytime and nighttime periods (Fig. 11 and Fig. 12). During the daytime, there was a good linear correlation between NOx and NO2, while at night there was a strong correlation between NOx and NO. The Difference between Weekdays and Weekends We divided the observation period into two parts: weekdays and weekends. The diurnal cycles of NO and NO2 during weekdays (NO-W and NO2-W) and weekends (NO-R and NO2-R) are shown in Fig. 13. Due to traffic intensity, the NO level was comparatively higher on weekdays than on weekends. In addition, the average diurnal variation on weekdays was greater for NO than for NO2. This is because NO2 has a longer lifetime than the more reactive NO. Han et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 (a) 160 y = 0.7178x + 31.594 R2 = 0.1041 140 NOx(ppb) 135 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 NO2 (ppb) (b) 100 y = 0.2229x + 29.554 R2 = 0.0665 NOx(ppb) 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 NO(ppb) Fig. 10. Mean values of NOx varies with (a) NO2 and (b) NO. (a) 120 NOX(ppb) 100 80 60 y = 1.1502x - 0.6387 R2 = 0.9547 40 20 0 0 (b) 20 40 60 NO2 (ppb) 80 100 120 NOx(ppb) 100 80 60 y = 2.7642x + 21.6 R2 = 0.4685 40 20 0 0 5 10 15 20 25 NO(ppb) Fig. 11. Mean values of NOx varies with (a) NO2 and (b) NO during daytime. Han et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 136 (a) 200 y = 1.2886x - 0.7994 R2 = 0.4262 NOx(ppb) 150 100 50 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 NO2 (ppb) (b) 200 NOX(ppb) 150 y = 1.1282x + 31.645 R2 = 0.7531 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 80 NO(ppb) 100 120 140 Fig. 12. Mean values of NOx varies with (a) NO2 and (b) NO during nighttime. 45 40 35 ppb 30 NO-W NO2-W NO-R NO2-R 25 20 15 10 5 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 h Fig. 13. Daily variation of mean values of NO, NO2 for weekdays and weekends. Fig. 14 presents the daily variation of the mean values of NOx, O3 and OX during weekdays and weekends. The average maximum value of O3 at weekends was higher than on weekdays, which was also true for OX. The pattern of temporal variability presented here can also be found in other cities (Mayer, 1999). The mechanism for the weekend effect is still not well understood. However, the California Air Resource Board has proposed some hypotheses to explain the weekend effect in California (Carb, 2003). These include (i) The sensitivity of ozone formation to VOC concentration, combined with a decrease in weekend NOx emissions, (ii) difference in timing of NOx emissions, (iii) carryover of ozone and precursor concentrations on Friday and Saturday nights, and (iv) increased weekend emissions. Moreover, Marr and Harley (Marr and Harley, 2002a, b) proposed a decrease in absorption of sunlight due to lower fine particle concentration during weekends, resulting in enhanced ozone formation. In our case, there was not apparent difference in meteorological conditions between weekdays and weekend, such as the average wind speeds were 1.1 and 1.3 m/s, the solar radiation were 8.0 and 7.9 w/m2 respectively. So the weekend effect can be explained to some extent using the following mechanism: low NO emissions during weekend mornings consume less O3, then, in the daytime, it can not be depleted further. Therefore, there is an accumulation of ozone. Han et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 137 120 100 NOX-W O3-W OX-W NOX-R O3-R OX-R ppb 80 60 40 20 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 h Fig. 14. Daily variation of mean values of NOx, O3 and OX for weekdays and weekends. O3 Concentration and Meteorological Conditions The O3 concentration in relation to wind direction is shown in Fig. 15, It can be observed that when wind blows from NE-N-NW sector the O3 concentration is lower than in the cases in which wind blows from SW-S-SE sector, the sea breeze have little influence on the O3 concentration. Despite the fact that the data are collected in autumn, we tried to investigate the influence of the intensity of solar radiation on variation of O3. We divided the O3 data into three groups. Fig. 16 shows the variation in daily concentration of O3 during sunny days (clear sky days), foggy days (fog usually disappears between 9:00 and 11:00) and cloudy days (accompanying light showers). On foggy days, the O3 concentration increased slowly in the morning and on rainy days the maximum value was about half that of clear days. vehicular emissions, and its conversion to NO2, had a major impact on the daily cycle of ozone levels. We also found a linear relationship between NO2 and NOx, as well as NO and NOx, and a polynomial relationship between O3 and NO2/NO, which could be useful in O3 forecasting and air pollution control strategies. The level of [OX] is influenced by NO2-independent and NO2-dependent contributions. The former is due to regional background O3 concentration, and the latter correlates to the local level of primary pollution. The regional background O3 concentration in Tianjin is about 20 ppb. 35 30 NW NE 20 CONCLUSIONS This article analyses the concentrations of NO, NO2, NOx and O3 measured in Tianjin over 38 complete days in autumn. The results indicate that the diurnal cycle of ozone concentration has a mid-day peak and lower nighttime concentrations. The ozone concentration slowly rises after the sun rises, reaching a maximum during the daytime and then decreases until the next morning. This is due to photochemical O3 formation. The shape and amplitude of ozone cycles is strongly influenced by meteorological conditions and prevailing levels of precursors (NOx). In the study area, the daily cycle of NO concentration arises from 25 15 10 5 0 W SW E SE Fig. 15. Rose of O3 concentration. Fig. 16. Daily variation of mean values of O3 under different meteorological condition. 138 Han et al., Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 11: 128–139, 2011 Our observations also reveal that production of O3 is significantly higher during weekends than weekdays (the weekend effect). The mechanisms for the weekend effect are still not well understood and needs further study. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are indebted to the Beijing Meteorological Administration and Institute of Atmospheric Physics and the Chinese Academy of Science, China, for providing the analyzers during the study period. This work was funded by the National Science and Technological Administration of China under Grant No. 2005DIB3J105and the Tianjin Municipal Science and Technological Administration under Grant No. 10JCYBJC05800. REFERENCES Atkinson-Palombo, C.M., Miller, J.A., and Balling, Jr. R.C. (2006) Quantifying the Ozone ‘‘Weekend Effect’’ at Various Locations in Phoenix, Arizona. Atmos. Environ. 40: 7644–7658. 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